THESIS MIC CHI GAN STATE UIVN IIIIIIIIZIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 301581 1528 II LIBRARY Michigan State Universlty This is to certify that the thesis entitled The Effects of Support Activation Behavior, Controllability of the Event, and Gender on Support Provision Behaviors presented by Alison Ward has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for M. A . degree I in PSYChOlOEV flan/4M Major professor Date “WY/’7 0-7639 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution PLACE II RETURN BOX to remove We checkout from your record. TO AVOID F INES return on or More dete due. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE I I —___,_~ .ii 7 i a _____ _._____W7, _, THE EFFECTS OF SUPPORT SEEKING BEHAVIOR, CONTROLLABILITY OF THE EVENT, AND GENDER ON SUPPORT PROVISION BEHAVIORS By Alison Ward A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Psychology 1997 ABSTRACT THE EFFECTS OF SUPPORT SEEKING BEHAVIOR, CONTROLLABILITY OF THE EVENT, AND GENDER AND SUPPORT PROVISION BEHAVIORS By Alison Ward Using components of the Sensitive Interaction Systems Theory (Barbee & Cunningham, 1995), this study examined how certain behavioral, contextual and personal variables influence the type of support provided. Three hundred forty-three undergraduate students read and responded to scenarios that varied in support activation behavior, controllability of the event, and gender of the support seeker. A factor analysis revealed three types of support behaviors: Approach, Dismiss, and Escape. Results indicated that Approach behaviors were endorsed more ofien than Dismiss and Escape behaviors regardless of how support was sought or how controllable was the event. Female support providers used more Approach behaviors than males whereas male support providers more frequently endorsed Dismiss and Escape behaviors than females. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to thank Bob Caldwell for his patience and guidance, Anne Bogat for her insight, and John Hurley who kept me grounded throughout this process. Thank you to Abby Gleason and John Chibnall who were able to bring statistics down to my level and make it fun in the process. To my family and friends, I thank you for your never ending support without which I could not have persevered. And to John, thank you for your generosity, encouragement, and love. I Finally, thank you all for your continual belief in my abilities. That belief has enabled me to accomplish far more than what I could have without it. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................ vi LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................... vii INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ l Seeking Support ................................................................................................ 2 Providing Support ............................................................................................. 4 Controllability of the Event .............................................................................. 8 Gender Difl‘erences ........................................................................................... l3 Rationale for Study ........................................................................................... l7 Hypotheses ........................................ 19 METHOD ........................................................................................................... ‘ .......... 22 Participants ........................................................................................................ 22 Materials ................................................................ 22 Procedures ......................................................................................................... 24 RESULTS ..................................................................................................................... 26 Pilot Study ......................................................................................................... 26 Present Study .................................................................................................... 26 Principal Axis Factor Analysis ............................................................. 26 Revised Hypotheses .............................................................................. 28 Manipulation Check .............................................................................. 29 Results for Revised Hypotheses ............................................................ 30 DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................... 34 Major Findings .................................................................................................. 34 Principal Axis Factor Analysis ............................................................. 34 Revised Hypotheses .............................................................................. 37 Methodological Limitations .............................................................................. 41 Implications and Future Directions ................................................................... 43 APPENDICES Appendix A: Scenarios ................................................................................ 46 Appendix B: Questionnaires ........................................................................ 78 Appendix C: Demographic Information ...................................................... 102 IV Appendix D: Description of Packets ........................................................... 103 Appendix E: Consent Form ......................................................................... 105 Appendix F : Debriefing Form ..................................................................... 106 REFERENCES ............................................................. - ................................................ 129 Table 1: Table 2: Table 3: Table 4: Table 5: Table 6: Table 7: Table 8: Table 9: Table 10: Table 11: Table 12: Table 13: Table 14: Table 15: LIST OF TABLES Psychometric Properties of the Solve Scale (Pilot Study) .......................... 107 Psychometric Properties of the Solace Scale (Pilot Study) ........................ 108 Psychometric Properties of the Dismiss Scale (Pilot Study) ...................... 109 Psychometric Properties of the Escape Scale (Pilot Study) ........................ 110 Principal Axis Factor Analysis ................................................................... l 11 Psychometric Properties of the Approach Scale ......................................... 115 Psychometric Properties of the Dismiss Scale ............................................ 117 Psychometric Properties of the Escape Scale ............................................. 118 Means of Approach, Dismiss, and Escape as a Function of Support Activation Behavior ...................................................................... 119 Psychometric Properties of the Approach Scale Used for Controllable Events ..................................................................................... 120 Psychometric Properties of the Dismiss Scale Used for I Controllable Events ..................................................................................... 121 Psychometric Properties of the Escape Scale Use for Controllable Events ..................................................................................... 122 Psychometric Properties of the Approach Scale Used for Uncontrollable Events ................................................................................. 123 Psychometric Properties of the Dismiss Scale Used for Uncontrollable Events ................................................................................. 125 Psychometric Properties of the Escape Scale Use for Uncontrollable Events ................................................................................. 126 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Support Activation Behaviors ..................................................................... 127 Figure 2: Interactive Coping Behaviors ..................................................................... 128 vii INTRODUCTION Research has shown that stress can be detrimental to our physical and psychological well-being. Increased levels of stress result in high blood pressure (Schnall et al., 1990), coronary heart disease (Cottington & House, 1987), anxiety (Rawson, Bloomer, & Kendall, 1994), and depression (McGonagle & Kessler, 1990). According to Lazarus and F olkman’s cognitive appraisal model (1984), stress results from an individual’s evaluation of an event which the individual perceives as personally relevant and exceedingly demanding or threatening. Additionally, the individual is unable to cope or respond to the event effectively, therefore, leaving the individual overwhelmed. This event, or stressor, may be a crisis, a life transition (Cobb, 1976), or any daily hassle (Sarafmo, 1994). In recent years, there has been an abundance of research on the effects of social support on stress. Social support from formal and informal social networks has been shown to be beneficial in reducing stress and enhancing levels of psychological well- being. In general, social support allows an individual to have a sense of security, affiliation, approval, and affection which moderates the impact of stress (House, 1987). Social support has been helpfirl in reducing the anxiety, depression, and hostility experienced by individuals with AIDS-related conditions (Grummon, Rigby, Orr, Procidano, & Reznikoff, 1994; Hays, Turner, & Coates, 1992; Kurdek & Siesky, 1990), 1 2 the distress, anxiety, and depression experienced by African American adolescent mothers (Thompson & Peebles-Wilkins, 1992), the stress-related physical symptoms and illnesses of recently widowed individuals (Pennebaker & O’Heeron, 1984), and enhancing the self-esteem of mothers following marital separation (Buehler & Legg, 1993). Seeking Sumrt Although there has been much research that demonstrates the benefits of support, there is limited research on how individuals seek support from others. The available research in this area, though, suggests that support can either be unsolicited or solicited. In regard to unsolicited support, Leatham and Duck (1990) propose that both support seeking as well as support giving can result from the routine, daily communications between friends. They suggest that interpersonal relationships can be supportive regardless of the presence of a stressor, the request for support, or the provision of support. In most situations, however, support seems to be solicited, either directly or indirectly, verbally or nonverbally. For example, Malo (1994) examined the request for help strategies of long-term single mothers. Malo found that half of the requests were expressed directly while the other half were requests expressed indirectly, such as complaining about a problem. The effectiveness of support-seeking strategies has been examined as well. In a study conducted on individuals in wheelchairs soliciting help from strangers, F ehr, Dybsky, Wacker, Kerr, and Kerr (1979) compared four different methods of obtaining 3 help: (a) making eye contact with a stranger and then asking for help; (b) approaching a stranger without prior eye contact; (c) struggling to execute a task while looking around for prospective helpers; and (d) concentrating on or struggling with a task without visually searching for help. The results showed that the more effective strategies for obtaining help were to ask for it directly (a and b). In these situations help was given 100% of the time. In the struggling situations (c & d), however, looking around with the possibility of making eye contact, was a better way of obtaining help than not looking around. The results indicate that even though it was most effective to ask for help directly, indirect, nonverbal requests enabled potential helpers to recognize the need for help as well. Similar results were found by Jordon and Roloff (1990) who examined the effectiveness of direct and indirect verbal requests for help as well as the level of intimacy (friend vs. stranger) on compliance with the request for help. Overall, the more direct the request and the more intimate the relationship, the more likely it was that help would be given. Barbee and her colleagues have developed support seeking behavior typologies as part of their Sensitive Interaction Systems Theory (SIST; Barbee, 1990; Barbee & Cunningham, 1995; Barbee, Cunningham, Druen, & Shaffer, in press; Barbee et al., 1993; Barbee, Gulley, & Cunningham, 1990; Derlega, Barbee, & Winstead, 1994). The research on this model focuses on the support communications in close relationships. The support activation typologies include direct and indirect behaviors as well as verbal and nonverbal behaviors. According to Barbee et al. (1995), when support is solicited 4 directly, the individual is able to convey his or her emotional state as well as the need for some type of help. Examples of direct, verbal support activation behaviors would include asking for help or telling the support provider about the problem. Examples of direct, nonverbal requests would include crying, pouting, or putting one's head on the other's shoulder. Indirect support activation behaviors are more subtle. An indirect verbal strategy may be complaining about a situation or hinting that a problem exists. Indirect, nonverbal support activation behaviors can be sighing, sulking, or fidgeting. Barbee et a1. (1995) suggest that the individual using indirect behaviors may do so as a way to protect the individual’s self-esteem, to test the interest and compassion of the potential support provider, or the behaviors may even indicate that the individual is unaware how much in need of help he or she is. (See Figure 1 for Support Activation Behaviors model.) Providing Supmrt In addition to the support activation typologies, the SIST model also includes typologies for support provision behaviors known as Interactive Coping Behaviors. These typologies incorporate the positive behaviors associated with social support and individual coping as well as the negative or unhelpful behaviors that individuals may use when trying to help friends (Barbee et al., in press). The interactive coping behaviors are based on the coping typologies proposed by F olkman and Lazarus (1985) and the coping typologies proposed by Roth and Cohen (1986). Folkman and Lazarus (1985) contend that there are two general strategies for coping with stress: problem-focused coping and emotion-focused caping. In problem-focused coping, individuals try to manage the 5 problem that is causing the distress whereas in emotion-focused coping, individuals try to regulate or minimize the distress and other emotions resulting from the stressor. In Roth and Cohen’s (1986) analysis of coping, it is proposed that the support provider may either approach (address or deal with) or avoid the friend’s emotions or problems. The interactive coping behaviors fall on a two-dimensional circumplex: problem-focused vs. emotion-focused behaviors crossed with approach vs. avoidance behaviors. The resulting four typologies of support are Solve, Solace, Dismiss, and Escape. (See Figure 2 for Interactive Coping Behaviors model.) Solve behaviors are approach, problem-focused behaviors used to help manage problems (Barbee et al., in press). Examples would include gathering more information from the support seeker, giving suggestions as to how to handle the problem, or loaning money (Barbee & Cunningham, 1995). Solace behaviors are approach, emotion-focused behaviors and are used to instill a positive feeling in the support seeker; that is, they provide a sense of being cared for and esteemed (Barbee et al., in press). Examples would include giving the support seeker a hug, complimenting the ability of the support seeker, or asking how the support seeker is feeling (Barbee & Cunningham, 1995). Dismiss and Escape behaviors are useful in avoiding the problem or emotion of the support seeker. Behaviors associated with the Dismiss typology are problem-focused, avoidance behaviors. They are used to diminish the importance of the problem (Barbee et al., in press). Such behaviors would include the support provider telling the support seeker about the individual’s own problems, or saying, "There's nothing you can do," or "Look on the bright side" (Barbee & Cunningham, 1995). Escape behaviors are emotion- 6 focused, avoidance behaviors which discourage the display of emotion from the support seeker by trying to distract the friend (Barbee et al., in press). Acting distracted, withdrawing physically, making fun of the support seeker's emotional reactions, or encouraging the support seeker to suppress the individual’s emotions (i.e., "Stop crying") would be examples of Escape behaviors (Barbee & Cunningham, 1995). As previously discussed, what makes the interactive coping behavior typologies unique is that they are designed to reflect both the positive and negative types of help that may be provided. The positive support behaviors are reflected in the Solve and Solace typologies. These typologies are congruent with the social support typologies discussed in the social science literature. In most social support research, social support is not measured as a unidirnensional construct but rather it is commonly categorized into three components. These are emotional, instrumental, and informational support (Gjerdingen et al., 1991; Hays et al., 1992). Emotional support is provided through expressions of caring, empathy, and concern. The individual is provided with a sense of comfort, reassurance, and belonging. Support offered in the form of direct assistance such as transportation or lending money is identified as instrumental support while advice, directions, and referrals are identified as forms of informational support (Cutrona, Suhr, & MacFarlane, 1990; Sarafmo, 1994). According to the SIST model, Solve behaviors reflect the types of support associated with informational and instrumental support whereas Solace behaviors reflect the caring and concern associated with emotional support. 7 Barbee and her colleagues (Barbee et al., 1993; Barbee & Cunningham, 1995) hypothesize that if the dynamics were simple and symmetrical, Ask behaviors would elicit Solve behaviors, Cry/Pout behaviors would elicit Solace behaviors, Hint/Complain behaviors would elicit Dismiss behaviors, and Sigh/Sulk/Fidget behaviors would elicit Escape behaviors. There has been little research conducted to determine if specific types of support activation behaviors elicit specific interactive coping behaviors. There was one study, however, in which these relationships were examined (Gully, 1993; as cited in Barbee & Cunningham, 1995). The results from this study showed that both direct and indirect support activation behaviors elicited more Approach behaviors than Avoidance behaviors. Notably, direct requests for support elicited Approach behaviors more than indirect requests for support. Although Barbee and her colleagues have hypothesized what the effects would be if the relationships between the support activation behaviors and interactive coping behaviors were simple and symmetrical, they caution against examining such relationships (Barbee & Cunningham, 1995). They reason that the social support process is complex; for example, factors such as mood, controllability, and personal characteristics could affect this process. It should not be discounted, though, that the specific behaviors used by the support seeker could influence the social support process as well. In any interaction, the behaviors we use to communicate what has happened as well as how we are feeling and drinking influences how we are responded to by the other individual. Surely the manner in which an individual presents himself/herself and the problem can have just as much impact as mood or gender would on the social support 8 process. For example, if the support seeker was direct in presenting his/her problem and the type of support he/she needed, the support provider may respond accordingly; that is, the support seeker may be more direct and use more problem-solving approaches in order to help the support seeker. Conversely, if the support seeker complained about his/her problem for the most part, the support provider may become annoyed with the support seeker’s situation or may not recognize the severity of the situation. As a result, the support provider may engage in less helpful behaviors which minimize the importance that the problem may have for the support seeker. Based on the above argument, therefore, it would seem that the specific support activation behaviors could influence the types and the amount of interactive coping behaviors used. Consequently, it is important that the simple relationships between the four support activation behaviors and the four interactive coping behaviors be examined. By investigating these relationships, it could be determined if specific types of support activation behaviors influence the different types of interactive coping behaviors. Controllability of the Event Although emotional, informational, and instrumental support may be helpful when coping with stress, one of these types of social support may be more effective than another type of support depending on the context of the stressful event. This is known as the “specificity model” of social support (Schumaker & Brownwell, 1984; as cited in Jacobson, 1986) or the “optimal match model” (Cutrona, 1990; Cutrona & Russell, 1990). According to the optimal match model, the characteristics of the stressful event are matched with the specific forms of support that are most effective in that context 9 (Cutrona et al., 1990). In other words, there are particular dimensions to stressful events that need tobe considered when looking for an optimal match of support. One of these dimensions is the controllability of the event (Cutrona, 1990; Cutrona et al., 1990). Controllable events are described as those in which the individual is able to achieve a desired goal, able to prevent the undesirable event from occurring, or able to diminish the severity of the consequences of the event (Cutrona et al., 1990). Therefore, uncontrollable events can be viewed as being the opposite; that is, the individual is unable to achieve a desired goal, is unable to prevent the undesirable event from occurring, and unable to diminish the severity of the consequences of the event. Using F olkman et al.’s (1985) problem- vs. emotion-focused coping processes, Cutrona (1990) and Cutrona et al. (1990) proposed that when confronted with a controllable event, more problem-focused coping behaviors would be used to prevent or alter the situation whereas when confronted with an uncontrollable event, more emotion- focused behaviors would be used to diminish the severity or the intensity of the negative emotional reactions to the event. In terms of social support, Cutrona (1990) and Cutrona et a1. (1990) proposed that instrumental support (which according to the authors includes informational support) was most effective when handling controllable stressful events whereas emotional support) would be most effective when handling uncontrollable events. Cutrona et al.’s (1990) review of the empirical literature relative to social support showed that, in most cases, specific types of social support were identified as being most effective depending on the controllability of the event; that is, when the event was 10 controllable, instrumental support was most effective and when the event was uncontrollable, emotional support was most effective. They did find, however, that even though specific types of support were most effective, other social support components were helpful as well. Despite these findings, however, Cutrona and Suhr (1992) found limited support for the optimal match model in their own research using married parmers. Instead, the results showed that only the effectiveness of instrumental support was evaluated differently in controllable and uncontrollable events; that is, it was more effective for controllable events. In addition to examining the effectiveness of the support, Cutrona and Suhr (1992) examined how the controllability of the event affected the type of support provided. Their results showed that instrumental support was more frequently provided when the event was controllable. The SIST model also incorporates the contextual variable of controllability. Rather than measuring the effectiveness of the support provided, though, Barbee and her colleagues have focused more on what type of support will be provided as determined by the controllability of the event. Specifically, they propose that depending on the controllability of the event, certain attributions of the legitimacy of the support seeker’s mood will be made. These attributions will in turn affect the emotional reactions of the support provider and therefore influence the type of support provided (Barbee, 1990; Barbee & Cunningham, 1995; Barbee et al., in press). This concept is based on Weiner’s (1980; as cited in Barbee & Cunningham, 1995; Barbee et al., in press) attribution- emotion-action theory. Weiner’s own research (1980), for example, found that articipants would anticipate feeling more sympathy and pity and would be more willing to help a 11 stranger in need if they attributed the stranger’s circumstances as being uncontrollable whereas if they attributed the stranger’s circumstances as being controllable, participants expected that they would be more angry and less likely to help the stranger. Barbee and her colleagues (Barbee, 1990; Barbee et al. in press) have obtained similar results to Weiner’s in studies using participants in close relationships. In Barbee’s (1990) review of her own research examining attributions of controllability, she found that participants used more Dismiss and Escape behaviors when the event was controllable and used more Support (now known as Solace) and Solve behaviors when the event was uncontrollable. Additionally, Barbee and her colleagues (Barbee et al., in press) examined the effects of attributions of controllability as well as feelings of empathy and annoyance on interactive coping behaviors. Overall, they foundthat when the event was controllable, the participants viewed the support seeker as being more at fault, felt more annoyed with the support seeker, and employed more avoidance behaviors of Dismiss and Escape. Conversely, the results indicated that when the event was controllable, the participants viewed the support seeker as being less at fault, felt more empathy toward the support seeker, and employed more approach behaviors of Solve and Solace. The inconsistencies, however, between the results of research conducted by Barbee and” her colleagues and the results of Cutrona and Suhr indicated that further exploration of the effects of the controllability of the event on the type of support provided was needed. Although it was expected that the results of this study would 12 replicate the results found by Barbee and her colleagues, the results of the Cutrona and Suhr (1992) study could not be disregarded and warranted investigation. Notably, Cutrona and Suhr did not take into account the less beneficial types of help that may be provided in the social support process when conducting their research. Rather, they examined the more beneficial types of social support which resemble Solve and Solace. Therefore, it is difficult to determine if they would have found similar results to Barbee and her colleagues. What Cutrona and Suhr’s results do suggest, however, is that support providers differ in the type of beneficial support that they provide given the controllability of the event; specifically, that support providers are more inclined to use Solve behaviors when the event is controllable. And yet, it would seem that there is the potential that the support provider may respond differently if the event was uncontrollable; that is, that the individual would provide more Solace behaviors than Solve behaviors in such situations. To illustrate, if an individual is in distress, feeling helpless, etc. the support provider would more likely respond to the emotional reactions of the support seeker thus offering Solace support more than Solve support. Conversely, if the event were controllable, the support seeker would be less distressed and the support provider would be more focused on the problem rather than the emotional well-being of the support seeker. Therefore, the support provider would offer more Solve support than Solace support. In conclusion, based on the above findings and discussion, in this study it was expected that a support provider would endorse more Dismiss and Escape behaviors when the event was controllable and endorse more Solve and Solace behaviors when the 13 event was uncontrollable. It was also expected, however, that there would be a difference in the amount of Solve and Solace behaviors endorsed depending on the controllability of the situation; that is, Solve behaviors would be endorsed more than Solace behaviors if the event was controllable and Solace behaviors would be endorsed more than Solve behaviors when the event was uncontrollable. Gender Diflerences In addition to the contextual determinants of social support, gender also affects how support may be sought and provided. To understand the role of gender, it is important to review literature relative to gender differences in social behavior. In this society, men are stereotypically depicted as dominant, competitive, emotionally controlled, and task-oriented (Eagly & Wood, 1991; O’Neil, 1981; Shaffer, Pegalis, & Cornell, 1992). Females, on the other hand, are stereotypically depicted as emotionally expressive, emotionally sensitive, socially skilled, outgoing, and relationship-oriented (Eagly & Wood, 1991; Ptacek, Smith, & Zanas, 1992; Sarason, Sarason, Hacker & Basham, 1984; Shaffer et al., 1992). These gender differences in socialization may influence how males and females cope with stress. For example, Ptacek et al. (1992) argue that men are socialized to handle stress instrurnentally; that is, men are socialized to use more problem-focused coping strategies. Women, however, are socialized to use more emotion-focused coping skills. Indeed, research has shown that men do use more problem-focused behaviors than women and that women use more emotion-focused behaviors than men (Ptacek, 1994; Ptacek et'al., 1992; Vingerhoets & Van Heck, 1990). 14 Congruent with research on gender differences in coping styles, similar results have been found regarding the type of support that males and females seek. Ashton and Fuehrer (1993) found that males were significantly more likely to seek instrumental support than emotional support, and women were more likely to seek emotional support than instrumental support. These findings would support previous findings which suggest that males are problem-focused and women are emotion-focused and, accordingly, would seek out that type of support. In addition, how men and women act socially and cope with their own problems may also influence how men and women react to or support others in need of help. For example, in Eagly and Crowley’s (1986) meta-analysis on gender and helping behaviors, males were shown to provide more instrumental support and women were shown to provide more emotional support. Belansky and Boggiano (1994) found further support for Eagly et al.’s (1986) findings on females. In their study, which examined the relationship between gender and the mode of support, they found that women were more likely to use nurturing behaviors than were men. Therefore, the type of support sought by males and females is similar to the type of support that they are most likely to provide. Notably, gender differences in support provision behaviors have been examined (Gully, ' 1993; as cited in Barbee, 1995) but no significant differences were found in the type of interactive coping behavior used by males and females. In consideration of the extensive research on gender differences in social behavior, coping behaviors, and the provision of support, however, it was believed that the effects of gender on interactive coping behaviors warranted further investigation. Based on the findings discussed above, it was 15 hypothesized that males would endorse Solve behaviors more than any other interactive coping behavior and females would endorse Solace behaviors more than any other interactive coping behavior. As suggested earlier, the behavior of males and females, particularly their coping strategies, may be a result of socialization. The socialization process affects not only how men and women are expected to act when coping with stressful situations but how others may react to them. To act differently than expected would be inappropriate and may invoke negative reactions from not only the stressed individual but also from others. For example, if a man shared his feelings or emotions he may be considered feminine (O’Neil, 1981), vulnerable and weak (Lewis, 1978), or maladjusted (Derlega & Chaikin, 1976). Hammen and Peters (1977) found support for this viewpoint. In their study examining the reactions to male and female depression, the results indicated that males were evaluated more negatively and were considered more impaired than females who exhibited the same depressive behavior. If men are perceived as being weak or maladjusted, they may be wary of seeking support from both informal and formal social networks. This view is supported by Good, Dell, and Mintz’s (1989) study. Using a sample of college men, the researchers found that traditional attitudes toward the male role in society, concern about showing affection toward other men, and concern about expressing emotions were related to negative attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help. As a result, when dealing with a stressor, either their own or specifically another male’s, men may try to minimize the emotional reactions to it (Barbee etal., 1993). As indicated earlier men may use l6 problem-focused behaviors, however, they may use other types of behaviors to avoid the emotion. These behaviors would include Escape behaviors. Therefore, in the present study, it was hypothesized that in the'Cry/Pout and Sigh/Sulk/Fidget conditions, more Escape behaviors would be endorsed when the support seeker was male than if the support seeker was female. Additionally, it was expected that this effect would increase if the support provider was male; that is, male support providers would endorse Escape behaviors more than females support providers when the support seeker was male. Unlike men who are discouraged from showing emotion, women are expected to be emotionally expressive. In fact, women may be encouraged to disclose more about themselves. In a meta-analyses on gender differences in self-disclosure conducted by Dindia and Allen (1992), they found that women disclose more to others thanmen do. Similarly, Johnson (1988) found that women are more likely than men to accept the stigma of seeking professional psychological help, more willing to recognize a personal need for help, and more open to discussing problems with others. These results are similar to the results found by Ptacek (1994), Ptacek et al. (1992), and Vingerhoets et al. (1990). Their results indicate that women are more emotionally expressive and more likely to seek social support. Further, Stokes and Wilson (1984) found that females are more likely to receive emotional support than any other type of support. As a result, in the present study, it was expected that more Solace behaviors would be endorsed if the support seeker was female. Additionally, it was expected that this effect would increase if the support provider was female; that is, females would be expected to endorse more Solace behaviors than male support providers when the the support seeker was female. 17 Rationale for Study The SIST model (Barbee, 1990; Barbee & Cunningham, 1995; Barbee, Cunningham, Druen, & Shaffer, in press; Barbee et al., 1993; Barbee, Gulley, & Cunningham, 1990; Derlega, Barbee, & Winstead, 1994) outlines several variables which influence the social support process. These variables include emotional, contextual, and personal variables. This study was designed to examine these aspects of the SIST model. Specifically, it examined how support seeking behaviors, the controllability of the event, and gender affected the manner in which individuals responded to or supported their friends. The purpose of this study was two-fold. It provided an opportunity to replicate the findings of previous studies using components of the SIST model as well as to examine other relationships among the variables. It was proposed that the manner in which an individual seeks help or presents his/her problem could influence what type of support would be provided. What research has been conducted in this area (Gully, 1993; as cited in Barbee & Cunningham, 1995) has shown that both direct and indirect support activation behaviors elicit more Approach than Avoidance behaviors. This study provided an opportunity to replicate these findings. It also provided, however, an opportunity to determine if the amount of each interactive coping behavior used differed according to the manner in which support was sought; that is, did each support activation behavior elicit one type of interactive coping behavior more than another type of interactive coping behavior. Controllability of the event was another variable examined in this study. The basic motivation to study this variable was to replicate previous findings of Barbee and 18 her colleagues (Barbee, 1990; Barbee et al., in press). To review, they found that controllable events elicited more Dismiss and Escape behaviors while uncontrollable events elicited more Solve and Solace behaviors. The effects of controllability were also being considered in this study, however, in order to clarify if the amount of Solve and Solace behaviors used differed depending on the controllability of the event. Although limited support had been found for this hypothesis (Cutrona & Suhr, 1992), it was argued that indeed there would be a difference. It was believed that support providers would more likely respond to the emotional reactions of the support seeker whose problem is uncontrollable by using Solace behaviors. Conversely, it was believed that support providers would be more concerned with how to manage the problem if it were controllable, therefore using Solve behaviors. Previous research in social behaviors and coping strategies indicates that gender differences exist, but support for these differences have not been found when examining the influence of gender on interactive coping behaviors. It was argued, though, that this area warranted further investigation because much of the previous research shows that men and women do indeed cope differently with stress and provide different types of support. Additionally, this study provided an opportunity to explore the interaction among support activation behaviors, gender of the support seeker, and gender of the support provider. For example, research on coping and gender differences in social behaviors have shown that the manner in which a male seeks support and the fact that he is even seeking support may influence how the support provider responds to him. Additionally, the research indicates that male and female support providers may respond l9 differently to male and female support seekers. Gulley (1993; as cited in Barbee and Cunningham, 1995) found that gender did not predict the type of behaviors used., Again, because the literature on gender differences in coping behaviors does show that gender does affect how males and females interpret and respond to stressful situations, these interactions warrant further exploration. Therefore, this study provided an opportunity explore these interactions using the support seeking and support provision components of the SIST model. In conclusion, by incorporating behavioral, contextual, and personal determinants of support, this study provided an opportunity to delineate further what factors facilitate or hinder the ability of an individual to either receive or provide support. Based on the research on support activation behaviors, controllability of the event, and gender the following hypotheses were proposed: Hymtheses Ia. In the Ask condition, Solve behaviors would be endorsed more than any other interactive coping behavior. Ib. In the Cry/Pout condition, Solace behaviors would be endorsed more than any other interactive coping behavior. Ic. In the Hint/Complain condition, Dismiss behaviors would be endorsed more than any other interactive coping behavior. Id. In the Sigh/Sulk/Fidget condition, Escape behaviors would be endorsed more than any other interactive coping behavior. wt W; 20 Ila. If the event was controllable, Dismiss and Escape behaviors would be endorsed more than Solve and Solace behaviors. IIb. If the event was controllable Solve behaviors would be endorsed more than Solace behaviors. IIc. If the event was uncontrollable, Solve and Solace behaviors would be endorsed more than Dismiss and Escape behaviors. IId. If the event was uncontrollable, Solace behaviors would be endorsed more than Solve behaviors. IIIa. Males would endorse more Solve behaviors than any other interactive coping behavior. IIIb. Females would endorse more Solace behaviors than any other interactive coping behavior. IVa. In the Cry/Pout condition, Escape behaviors would be endorsed more when the support seeker was male than if the support seeker was female. Additionally, male support providers would endorse more Escape behaviors when the support seeker was male than if the support seeker was female. M. In the Sigh/Sulk/Fidget condition, Escape behaviors would be endorsed more when the support seeker was male than if the support seeker was female. Additionally, male support providers would endorse more Escape behaviors when the support seeker was male than if the support seeker was female. V. When the support seeker was female, Solace behaviors would be endorsed more than any'other interactive coping behavior. Additionally, female support providers would 21 endorse more Solace behaviors when the support seeker was female than if the support seeker was male. METHOD Partici ants Participants were 343 undergraduate students (178 women and 165 men, mean age 19 years) enrolled in psychology courses. Their participation in this study was voluntary and they received extra course credit for their participation. Materials A scenario format was used to explore the effects of support activation behaviors, controllability of the event, and gender of the support seeker and support provider on interactive coping behaviors due to its efficiency. First, data could be collected from a large number of participants in a relatively short period of time. Second, because there were many variables being examined, it was easier to manipulate the variables using this format. I developed a total of 32 scenarios for this study. These scenarios varied according to the controllability of the event, the support activation behavior, and gender of the friend. For both the controllable and uncontrollable event condition, two scenarios were developed for each condition. The first describes a friend who has been reminded by his or her professor that there will be an exam in the next class session. The second 22 23 describes a friend who has an overdrawn checking account and is subsequently unable to pay for a recently acquired used car. The third scenario describes a friend whose partner has just broken up with him or her. The fourth scenario describes a friend who was involved in a car accident in which he or she was not at fault. For each event, a scenario was developed incorporating each one of the support activation behaviors. For example, for the Exam event, a scenario was developed in which Ask behaviors were incorporated, a scenario was developed in which Cry/Pout behaviors were incorporated, a scenario was developed in which Hint/Complain behaviors were incorporated, and finally, a scenario was developed in which Sigh/Sulk/Fidget behaviors were incorporated. The support activation behaviors for each scenario were based on the Support Activation Behavior Coding System developed by Gulley (1993; as cited in Barbee & Cunningham, 1995). Finally, for each scenario the sex of the target was varied. Therefore for each event and thus each support activation behavior, a scenario was developed so that it depicted a male fiiend with the problem and a female friend with the same problem. (See Appendix A for scenarios.) For each event, a corresponding-sixteen item questionnaire was developed. Within each questionnaire the four interactive coping behavior typologies were measured by four items each. . Participants were asked to indicate how they would respond to their friend. The interactive coping behavior ratings ranged from 1 (unlikely) to 7 (likely). Scores were computed by summing and averaging across the items measuring that behavior. Several of the items were tailored to the specific event presented in the scenario while the remaining items were the same across all four events. The items were 24 developed based on the Interactive Coping Behavior Coding System, Revised (Barbee & Cunningham, 1995). Because the scenarios varied on target sex, for each questionnaire, one was developed for scenarios describing a male fiiend and one was developed for scenarios describing a female fiiend so that the pronouns used in the items reflected the sex of the fiiend presented in the scenario. Additionally, in order to determine if participants perceived a difference in the amount of help their friend needed, given the event’s controllability, a question was included in the questionnaire asking participants to indicate how likely it was that the fiiend needed help. Furthermore, in order to detemrine if participants perceived a difference between the two controllable events and the two uncontrollable events, a manipulation check was added. Participants were asked to indicate what amount of control their friend had over the occurrence of the event. (See Appendix B for questionnaires.) Finally, demographic information was also collected from each participant (See Appendix C). Procedures The 32 scenarios, along with their corresponding questionnaires, were divided into eight groups of four scenarios. A total of 44 packets were prepared for each group, so that each participant was exposed to each type of event, each type of support activation behavior, and both types of target sex (See Appendix D for a description of packets). The order in which the scenarios were presented within each packet was counterbalanced. Although assignment to the variations was random, precautions were taken so that an equal number of male and female participants would receive the same type of packet of scenarios. 25 Participants were tested in groups of three to forty participants. They were required to read and sign a consent form before participating in the experiment (See Appendix B). Each was given a packet containing the demographic questions and four scenarios with their corresponding questionnaires. For each scenario, participants were asked to read and vividly imagine the transaction presented in the scenario happening between them and a friend. So that the same friend was thought of in each instance, participants were instructed to write the name of the of the friend whenever they saw “_” in each scenario. Typically, it took up to twenty minutes to complete the experiment. Debriefmg information, including a debriefing form (see Appendix F), was provided upon completion. ‘9. Fr, 1.”? If"? RESULTS Pilot Study Initially, a pilot study was conducted in order to determine the validity and reliability of the items that were developed to measure each of the four interactive coping behaviors or scales of Solve, Solace, Dismiss, and Escape. Due to a small sample size (N44), an exploratory factor analysis could not be completed. Therefore, only reliability analyses were conducted on each of the four scales to determine if they were internally consistent. Items which had low corrected item-total correlations were either dropped from the scales or the wording was modified so that the purpose of the behavioral response was clear and congruent with the interactive coping behavior that it represented. For example, the original Solace item, “Give _ a bug” was changed to “Give __ a hug in order to make him/her feel better.” Tables 14 provide corrected item-total correlations, means, and standard deviations of each scale. Present Study Princi Axis Factor Anal sis All 64 items were submitted to a principal axis factor analysis. Because the interactive coping behaviors of the SIST model are theoretically related a correlation among the factors was expected. Therefore, an oblique rotation was used. 26 27 Initially, a four-factor solution was used to determine if the four interactive coping behaviors did indeed fall into four factors. The results indicated that they did not. Solve and Solace items generally loaded on the first factor whereas items measuring Dismiss and Escape generally loaded on the second and third factors. The fourth factor contained two Solace items. A two-factor solution was then used in order to determine if the items loaded onto two factors. To review, all four interactive coping behaviors were partly based on Roth and Cohen’s (1986) model of coping behaviors. Both Solve and Solace represent a style of coping in which the support provider engages in behaviors that the support provider is “approaching” the problem or the emotions of the support seeker. Conversely, Dismiss and Escape represent behaviors utilized by support providers who are trying to avoid the problems or emotions of the support seeker. Therefore, a principal axis factor analysis using a two-factor solution was conducted in order to determine if the items loaded onto two factors which resembled Approach and Avoidance. Similar to the previous factor analysis, most Solve and Solace items loaded onto the first factor. Additionally, most Dismiss and Escape items loaded onto the second factor. The factor loadings of the items in the second factor suggested, however, that there could be a total of three factors rather than two. As a result, another principal axis factor analysis was conducted using a three- factor solution. The results showed that items measuring Solve and Solace generally loaded onto the first factor, items measuring Dismiss generally loaded onto the second factor, and items measuring Escape generally loaded onto the third factor. Items which 28 either loaded highly on more than one factor or below .30 for the highest factor loading were dropped as were items that theoretically did not belong with a factor. Table 5 provides the factor loadings. Lastly, because Solve and Solace items generally loaded onto the same factor, this factor was renamed “Approach.” As reviewed earlier, Solve and Solace both represent the construct of Approach. Reliability analyses were conducted on each of the scales in order to determine if they were internally consistent. The reliabilities for the three scales ranged from .87 to .90. Tables 6 through 8 provide the means, standard deviations, and corrected item-total correlations of each of the scales. Revised Hymtheses The results of the principal axis factor analysis showed, contrary to expectations, that there were three factors rather than four factors. Because of this, the hypotheses that were originally developed for this study were either revised or not examined because they required being able to measure specifically Solve and/or Solace. The following hypotheses were substituted: Ia. Direct forms of support activation would elicit Approach behaviors more than Dismiss and Escape behaviors; that is, in the Ask and Cry/Pout conditions, respectively, Approach behaviors would be endorsed more than Dismiss and Escape behaviors. Ib. In the Hint/Complain condition, Dismiss behaviors would be endorsed more than Approach and Escape behaviors. Ic. In the Sigh/Sulk/Fidget condition, Escape behaviors would be endorsed more than Approach and Dismiss behaviors. it 311i it Illli In: 29 Ila. If the event was controllable, Dismiss and Escape behaviors would be endorsed more than Approach behaviors. IIb. If the event was uncontrollable, Approach behaviors would be endorsed more than Dismiss and Escape behaviors. III. Do male and female support providers differ in the amount of Approach, Dismiss, and Escape behaviors endorsed? IVa. In the Cry/Pout condition, Escape behaviors would be endorsed more when the support seeker was male than if the support seeker was female. Additionally, male support providers would endorse more Escape behaviors when the support seeker was male than if the support seeker was female. M. In the Sigh/Sulk/Fidget condition, Escape behaviors would be endorsed more when the support seeker was male than if the support seeker was female. Additionally, male support providers would endorse more Escape behaviors when the support seeker was male than if the support seeker was female. Manipulation Check In order to determine if there was a perceived difference between the controllable and the uncontrollable events, a paired samples t-test was conducted comparing the combined mean scores from the manipulation check question of the controllable events with the combined mean scores from the manipulation check question of the uncontrollable events. As expected, participants perceived their friends as having significantly more control over controllable events CM = 10.18, 82 = 2.83) than the uncontrollable events (M = 5.22, SD = 2.59), t (341) = 22.07, p < .001. These results 30 indicate that the manipulations produced the desired effect; that is, the scenarios which were developed to reflect uncontrollable and controllable events, respectively, were perceived as different in controllability. Additionally, the participants perceived their friends as needing significantly more help in the uncontrollable events (M = 10.53, E = 2.57) than in the controllable events (M = 9.67, a = 2.67), t (342) = -3.76, p < .001. Results for the Revised Hymtheses la. Support was found for the first hypothesis which proposed that direct forms of support activation would elicit Approach behaviors more than Dismiss and Escape behaviors. Specifically, paired samples t-tests revealed that in the Ask condition, Approach behaviors were endorsed significantly more than either Dismiss behaviors, t (342) = 54.26, p_ <.001 or Escape behaviors, r (342) = 20.48, p <.001 and in the Cry/Pout condition, Approach behaviors were used significantly more than Dismiss behaviors, t (342) = 51.89, p <.001 and Escape behaviors, t (342) = 22.78, p_ <.001. Ib. Paired samples t—tests revealed that, contrary to predictions, Dismiss behaviors were not endorsed more than Approach and Escape in the Hint/Complain condition. Instead, Approach behaviors were endorsed significantly more than both Dismiss behaviors, t (342) = 21.54, p < .001, and Escape behaviors, t (342) = 14.68, p_ < .001. 1c. Again, contrary to predictions, Sigh/Sulk/Fidget behaviors did not elicit Escape behaviors more than Approach and Dismiss behaviors. Instead, paired samples t-tests revealed that Approach behaviors were endorsed significantly more than Dismiss behaviors, t (342) = 49.84, p < .001, and Escape behaviors, t (342) = 21.95, p < .001. 31 Table 9 contains the means and standard deviations of Approach, Dismiss, and Escape across all four conditions. Because only specific items were used to measure Approach, Dismiss, and Escape within both the controllable and uncontrollable events, reliability analyses were conducted on these modified scales to determine if they were internally consistent. The reliabilities for the modified scales for the controllable events ranged from .75 to .81. Tables 10 through 12 provide the means, standard deviations, and corrected item-total correlations of each of the scales. The reliabilities for the modified scales for the uncontrollable events ranged from .78 to .86. Tables 13 through 15 provide the means, standard deviations, and corrected item-total correlations of each of the scales. IIa. It was predicted that more Dismiss and Escape behaviors would be endorsed for controllable events. Support for this prediction, however, was not found. Instead, Approach behaviors (M = 5.52, SD = .82) were endorsed significantly more than Dismiss behaviors (M = 1.74, SD = .84), t (342) = 54.16, p_ <.001 and Escape behaviors (M = 3.55, s1; = 1.60), .t. (342) = 21.55, p <.001. IIb. It was predicted that if the event was uncontrollable more Approach behaviors would be used. The results of the paired samples _t_-tests provided support for this hypothesis. Approach behaviors (M = 5.85, S_D = .84) were endorsed significantly more than Dismiss behaviors (M = 1.76, SD = .88), t (342) = 56.39, p < .001 and Escape behaviors (M = 3.58, S_D 1.58), t (342) = 23.87, p < .001. 32 Post-hoe analyses revealed that Approach behaviors were endorsed significantly more when the event was uncontrollable (M = 5.85, SD = .84) than when it was controllable (M = 5.52, M), = .82), t (342) = 10.78, p < .001. III. Independent samples t-tests revealed significant gender differences in the amount of Approach, Dismiss, Escape behaviors male and female support providers endorsed. Specifically, female support providers provided significantly more Approach support (M = 6.11, E = .58) than males (M = 5.28, _S_l_)_ = .74), t (310) = 11.47, p <.001. Male support providers, however, provided significantly more Dismiss behaviors (M = 1.95, S_D = .85) than females (M = 1.57, _S_D = .69), t (315) = 4.61, p_ <.001, and significantly more Escape behaviors (M = 3.83, S_D = 1.50) than female support providers (M = 3.32, S_D = 1.45), t (341) = 3.24, p <.001. IVa. A 2 x 2 analysis of variance was performed on Escape behaviors within the Cry/Pout condition using the gender of the support provider and the gender of the support seeker. Contrary to predictions, no significant differences were found between the amount of Escape behaviors endorsed when the support seeker was male than if the support seeker was female, E (1, 339) = 0.13, p < .72. A significant difference was found, however, between the amount of Escape behaviors provided by the males and the females, E (1, 339) = 4.47, p < .04. Males endorsed more Escape behaviors (M = 3.60, E = 1.86) than females (M = 3.18, S_D = 1.76), t (341) = 2.13, p_ <.03. Contrary to predictions, there was no significant interaction effect of the gender of the support provider and the gender of the support seeker on Escape behaviors within the Cry/Pout condition, E (3, 339) = 2.39, p < .40. 33 IVb. A 2 x 2 analysis of variance was performed on Escape behaviors within the Sigh/Sulk/Fidget condition using the gender of the support provider and the gender of the support seeker. Contrary to predictions, no significant differences were found between the amount of Escape behaviors endorsed when the support seeker was male than if the support seeker was female, E (1, 339) = 0.48, p < .49. A significant difference was found, however, between the amount of Escape behaviors provided by male and female support providers, _E (1, 339) = 4.24, p < .04. Males engaged in more Escape behaviors (M = 3.55, SD = 1.71) than females (M = 3.16, SD = 1.72), t (341) = 2.08, p_ <.04. Contrary to predictions, there was no significant interaction effect of the gender of the support provider and the gender of the support seeker on Escape behaviors within the Sigh/Sulk/Fidget condition, E (3, 339) = .003, p < .96. DISCUSSION The purpose of this study was to examine how support seeking behaviors, the controllability of the event, and gender affect the manner in which individuals respond to or support a close friend. Major Findings Principal Axis Factor Analysis The results of the principal axis factor analysis showed that instead of there being the four expected factors of Solve, Solace, Dismiss, and Escape, there were only three. Solve and Solace loaded onto the first factor and were renamed Approach. The second and third factors were Dismiss and Escape. These findings suggest that although we can theoretically differentiate among the four interactive coping behaviors, we may not be as cognizant of the discrete differences among these types of behaviors when we are trying to help or support our friends. Of course, this hypothesis seems to apply only to the Approach behaviors of Solve and Solace and not to the Avoidance behaviors of Dismiss and Escape. One conclusion is that when we are using beneficial or productive forms of support it does not matter what type of support is provided. Instead, the importance seems to be placed on helping out the fiiend no matter what it takes. Similarly, it could be have been that the support providers were endorsing behaviors that they perceived as being the most helpful and did 34 35 not differentiate between what would help the support seeker manage the problem versus how to alleviate the support seeker’s emotional reactions to the problem. And yet, results of research conducted on social support behaviors indicate that the two constructs of Solve and Solace do exist; that is, individuals do provide these two distinct types of supports. Therefore, it is argued that the one factor of Approach was an artifact of the methodology. In reviewing the items created to measure the Dismiss and Escape constructs, it seemed that the wording of these items was remarkably negative when compared to the items created to measure Solve and Solace. For example, one Dismiss item read “Suggest that the topic be changed in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem.” Participants may not have highly endorsed such items because they may not perceive this behavior as being socially acceptable; that is, “avoiding” a friend’s problem is not what we think we would be doing if we changed the topic. Instead, we might change the topic because a friend appears to not want to talk about his/her problem anymore or because we think that a friend would be better off not talking about the problem because it is so distressing; Indeed, “avoiding” a friend’s problem infers that the support seeker does not want to have to help a friend. Not wanting to help a friend could be viewed as selfish, which is in many ways socially unacceptable. Due to the negative connotation of the Dismiss and Escape items, participants may have been more inclined to highly endorse the socially acceptable Solve and Solace because they were less likely to highly endorse the Dismiss and Escape items. Similarly, although Dismiss and Escape behaviors are perceived as less helpful according to the SIST model, they are not necessarily offensive or harmful behaviors, as 36 the above example might suggest. There are certain Dismiss and Escape phrases that we commonly use that are more neutral in tone and socially acceptable such as “Look on the bright side” or “There’s no need to cry.” Indeed, we may recognize our use of such phrases in our daily communications. Consequently, if such items were included in the questionnaires, participants may have been more inclined to endorse such items. It should be noted, though, that Barbee and Cunningham (1995) cautioned against the use of factor analysis as well as drawing conclusions from results of studies using factor analysis for a few reasons. One reason is that there is the potential that the interactive coping behaviors are being measured by a limited number of items. Another reason is that there is the potential for having either undersocialized participants or oversocialized participants which would in turn affect the types of interactive coping behaviors that they would use. F urtherrnore, they argue that, although the interactive coping dimensions of Approach vs. Avoidance serve as useful “summary categories” (p. 388), each interactive coping behavior “has unique meaning as a communication act within the context of social relationships, and (should) be studied independently” (p. 388). Unfortunately, several problems arise when factor analysis is not used. First, although the items developed to measure a construct may be theoretically or conceptually based, they may not necessarily be valid and reliable measures. A second problem is that although one may believe that they have measured a single construct, the factor analysis may identify two constructs. This is similar to the problem that occurred in the present study. Although it was expected that Solve and Solace would be theoretically and 37 statistically separate constructs, the results of the factor analysis revealed otherwise; that is, that they could not be isolated by this psychometric approach. Lastly, it is important to develop scales which can be used in other studies with different samples. As researchers, we want to be able to generalize the conclusions that we have made regarding the impact of our independent variable on the dependent variable. By having reliable and valid measures of the dependent variable we are better able to make such generalizations (J. Chibnall, personal communication, January 24, 1997). Therefore, because new scales were being developed for this study, a factor analysis was conducted to identify reliable and valid measures. Revised Hypotheses As a result of the factor analysis, the original hypotheses were either revised or discarded because they specifically required the examination of the differences between Solve and/or Solace with the other interactive coping behaviors. Therefore, the following is a discussion of the hypotheses that were examined. It was hypothesized that direct forms of support activation, Ask and Cry/Pout, would elicit Approach behaviors more than Dismiss and Escape behaviors. This hypothesis was supported. The indirect forms of support activation, Hint/Complain and Sigh/Sulk/Fidget, however, also elicited Approach behaviors more than Dismiss and Escape behaviors. Although these last two findings were not hypothesized, the findings do support Gully’s (1993; as cited in Barbee and Cunningham, 1995) results; that is, both direct and indirect forms of support activation behaviors elicit Approach behaviors more than the Avoidant behaviors of Dismiss and Escape. These findings suggest that the 38 manner in which an individual seeks support does not necessarily affect the type of support that she/he receives. Instead, it appears that support providers are more likely to use positive and constructive forms of help regardless of what the form a fiiend uses to present his/her problem or seek support. These findings are also similar to F ehr et al.’s (1979) study which found that help is provided whether it is sought directly or indirectly (although direct forms of support seeking behaviors were most effective at eliciting help from others). The context of the problem for which support was sought was also examined. It was hypothesized that the controllability of the problem would influence the type of support provided to a friend. If the problem was controllable, it was hypothesized that more Dismiss and Escape behaviors would be endorsed than Approach behaviors. According to the results, Dismiss and Escape behaviors were endorsed less often than Approach behaviors. Similar results were found when the problem was uncontrollable; that is, Approach behaviors were endorsed more than Dismiss and Escape behaviors. Although, these results provide support for the hypothesis regarding uncontrollable problems, they do not support the hypothesis for controllable problems. These findings provide partial support for the findings of Barbee (1990) and Barbee et al.’s (in press) review of research examining how the controllability of the problem influences the attributions made by the support provider which subsequently affects the type of support provided. The results of their investigations suggested that Dismiss and Escape behaviors were used more than Approach behaviors when the problem was controllable, and Approach behaviors were used more than Dismiss and 39 Escape behaviors when the problem was uncontrollable. Although support was found regarding the types of support provided when the problem was uncontrollable, support was not found for the types of support provided when the problem was controllable. Instead, the results of this study indicate that it did not matter if the problem was controllable or uncontrollable; that is, overall, support providers were more likely to endorse Approach behaviors than Dismiss and Escape behaviors. Conceivably, support providers wanted to help manage their friends’ problems and decrease their friends’ emotional reactions to the problem rather than minimize the importance of their friends’ problem or discourage any display of emotional reactions by their friends. When the amount of Approach behaviors used when the event was controllable was compared to the amount used when the event was uncontrollable, however, a difference was found. More Approach behaviors were endorsed when the event was uncontrollable. This result suggests that support providers are likely to provide more support when the event is uncontrollable than when the event is controllable. Because the event is perceived as uncontrollable, the support provider may be more inclined to respond to their friend by engaging in more behaviors (or providing more support) which will help their friend manage the problem or minimize their friend’s emotional reaction to the problem. Statistical analyses were also conducted to identify differences in the types of interactive coping behaviors used by males and females. Although female support providers were more likely to endorse Approach behaviors than males, males endorsed more Dismiss and Escape behaviors. Additional support for the differences in the amount 40 of Escape behaviors endorsed by male and female support providers was found in results for the conditions where feelings of sadness or distress were exhibited; that is, male support providers endorsed more Escape behaviors than females. Male and female support providers, however, did not differ in the amount of Escape behaviors they endorsed when the support seeker was male. Furthermore, there was no statistically significant support for the hypothesis that males and females differed in the amount of Escape behaviors they received in these conditions. These results indicate that female support providers engaged in behaviors that are associated with the more productive forms of support while male support providers engaged in behaviors which could potentially be less constructive forms of support. These results provide partial support for previous research conducted on gender differences in social behaviors. As discussed in the literature review, females are stereotypically depicted as more socially skilled and emotionally sensitive (Eagly & Wood, 1991; Ptacek et al., 1992; Sarason et al., 1984; Shaffer et al., 1992). Therefore, women are more likely than men to engage in Approach behaviors. They may be more comfortable asking a friend how he/she is feeling or be more comfortable giving a friend a hug than men would. Men are stereotypically depicted as being emotionally controlled (Eagly & Wood, 1991; O’Neil, 1981; Shaffer et al., 1992). Therefore, they are more likely to engage in Dismiss and Escape behaviors. For example, men may be more comfortable in providing support to their friend in other ways such as suggesting that they go to a bar or to a party together. 41 Overall, the results of this study provide partial support for the SIST model. According to the model there are four interactive coping behaviors. The results of the principal factor analysis revealed that although Dismiss and Escape existed, however, Solve and Solace did not. Additionally, although it was expected that the individual Approach and Avoidance behaviors would differentially affect the type of support provided, they did not. Instead, only gender and the controllability of the event affected the social support process. Methodological Limitations There are many methodological problems that may limit the generalizability of this study in determining the effects of support seeking behaviors, controllability of the problem, and gender on support provision behaviors. First, because the factor'analysis revealed that were only three factors, many of the hypotheses that were originally proposed were not able to be examined. Consequently, the effects of such variables as the support activation behaviors on each of the interactive coping behaviors, the controllability of the event on the provision of Solve and Solace support, and finally, the gender differences on the provision and receipt of Solve and Solace support could not be determined Additionally, because many variables were being examined in this study, a scenario format was chosen as it is more efficient and less intrusive than observing real- life interactions. Even though there were benefits to using a scenario format, there were limitations. First, although the scenarios were developed to reflect uncontrollable events and controllable events, respectively, and were found to differ in their perceived 42 controllability, participants may not have perceived the controllable event as being solely under the control of the friend, for example. Participants may have attributed the cause of the problem to individuals other than the friend, therefore reducing the perceived controllability of the event. Also, the results are based on self-reports. As previously discussed, male and female support providers differed in the amount of Approach, Dismiss, and Escape behaviors that they endorsed. Female participants may have been more inclined to endorse items that described behaviors that were more helpful or effective rather than endorse items that are less helpful. Conversely, male participants may have been more likely to admit to using behaviors that are less helpful. Similarly, social desirability may have affected the results of this study; that is, participants’ may have highly endorsed items that would reflect most favorably on them. To review, Approach behaviors are viewed as being the most helpful or supportive types of responses; that is, they are socially acceptable ways of helping. Therefore, the participants may have been more likely to highly endorse these items, overall, and less likely to highly endorse Dismiss and Escape items items because the Approach items described behaviors which were more positive and socially acceptable. Furthermore, the participants’ responses were based on how they believed they would respond to their friends. This point brings up a second methodological problem in that the responses were based on hypothetical scenarios rather than real-life interactions. Consequently, we are unable to examine the actual behavioral responses made to friends seeking support. Although the responses made by participants in this study suggest that 43 they believe that they would respond in a supportive manner or would not respond in a seemingly less supportive manner, the likelihood of the participants engaging in these same behaviors may be different in real-life interactions. Notably, other variables which could have affected the results of this study were not examined. One such variable would be personality. For example, dominant and submissive individuals may engage in different types of support seeking and support provision behaviors which could ultimately affect the social support process. A dominant support provider may take care of the support seeker the way he/she believes he/she should, without taking into account the needs of the support seeker. Conversely, a submissive support seeker may have difficulty asking for the type of support he/she needs, and therefore, may not believe that he/she has been supported. Lastly, although steps were taken to ensure that the degree of the friendship between the support provider and the support seeker was equivalent for all of the participants, the intimacy of these friendships may have differed for the participants. For example, a best friend could be a partner that we have daily interaction with or could be a childhood friend that we speak to over the telephone once a month. Consequently, the type of support that we provide to these types of friends may differ. Implications and Future Directions Despite the methodological limitations, the results of this study have some implications for understanding the determinants of supportive behaviors in close relationships. It was propOSCd that the manner in which a friend sought support or presented his/her problem would differently affect the type of support his/she would 44 receive, however, this proposal was not supported. Instead, Approach behaviors were endorsed more than Dismiss and Escape in all cases. Therefore, individuals are more likely to provide useful and constructive forms of support which help manage the fiiend’s problem as well as address the emotional reactions of the friend to the problem. This does not negate the fact, though, that individuals do behave in ways which are not as helpful when engaged in the social support process; it is just that they are less likely to do so. Another implication of this study is that regardless of how much control the friend had over the occurrence or consequences of the problem, support providers were more likely to engage in Approach behaviors than they were likely to engage in Dismiss and Escape behaviors. Again, when an individual is placed in the role of support provider, his/her natural inclination is to help the friend by engaging in behaviors which will be more useful than not useful. This effect increased when the event is uncontrollable; that is, support providers were able to recognize that their friend would need more help if their friend was dealing with a problem that the friend had little control over. Gender also played a role in the type of support provided. According to the results, female support providers were more likely than male support providers to engage in behaviors which are perceived as being supportive while male support providers are more likely than female support providers to engage in behaviors which, according to the SIST model, are less supportive. It would seem that male and female support providers engage in behaviors which they believe will be most helpful or behaviors which they feel comfortable engaging in. Although the SIST model argues that Approach behaviors are 45 more beneficial than Dismiss and Escape behaviors, one should not discount the fact that a friend may not necessarily want to be hugged or may not want suggestions as to how the problem can be managed. Indeed, maybe the friend does not want to deal with his/her problem and would rather talk about something else or go out for the evening. Given this, perhaps our decision to seek out support from a male or female friend could be determined by what type of support we believe that we need at that time. Although the results of this study provide some insight as to what could facilitate or hinder the social support process, it would be useful to know if the type or amount of support provided would change in a real-life interaction. As discussed earlier, because the participants responded to scenarios, the microdynamics in support communication was lost. Additionally, given the methodology chosen for this study the effectiveness of the support provided could not be determined. Therefore, this area warrants further investigation using real-life interactions and a method in which the reactions to the support seeker’s behavior by the support provider could be measured. Further investigations could also allow for the measurement of the effectiveness of the support. Having this information will help psychologists gain a further understanding of the microdynamics of support communication which in turn could be useful in educating individuals in how to obtain the support that they need from their friends. APPENDICES 46 APPENDIX A marries. Event A: Exam (Controllable event) Behavior: Ask Gender: Male In the following scenario, please write your best male friend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occurring between you and your friend. Afterward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. It’s a Tuesday evening and comes over to visit you. says to you, “I have this problem. Maybe you’ll know what I should do.” He tells you how earlier that day his professor reminded his class that they have an exam on Thursday. tells you that he had completely forgotten about the exam. Additionally, the exam is in a class that he is taking for his major. didn’t do well on the last exam because he had hardly studied for it. tells you how worried he is and doesn’t know what to do. 47 Event A: Exam (Controllable event) Behavior: Ask Gender: Female In the following scenario, please write your best female friend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occurring between you and your friend. Afterward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. It’s a Tuesday evening and comes over to visit you. says to you, “I have this problem. Maybe you’ll know what I should do.” She tells you how earlier that day her professor reminded her class that they have an exam on Thursday. tells you that she had completely forgotten about the exam. Additionally, the exam is in a class that she is taking for her major. didn’t do well on the last exam because she had hardly studied for it. tells you how wonied she is and doesn’t know what to do. 48 Event A: Exam (Controllable event) Behavior: Cry/Pout Gender: Male In the following scenario, please write your best male friend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occurring between you and your fiiend. Afterward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. It’s a Tuesday evening and comes over to visit you. tells you how earlier that day his professor reminded his class that they have an exam on Thursday. tells you that he had completely forgotten about the exam. Additionally the exam is in a class that he is taking for his major. didn’t do well on the last exam because he had hardly studied for it. Shaking his head in despair, exclaims, “How could I' have forgotten?!” He leans toward you, puts his hands over his eyes, and begins to cry. 49 Event A: Exam (Controllable event) Behavior: Cry/Pout Gender: Female In the following scenario, please write your best female friend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occurring between you and your fiiend. Afterward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. It’s a Tuesday evening and comes over to visit you. tells you how earlier that day her professor reminded her class that they have an exam on Thursday. tells you that she had completely forgotten about the exam. Additionally the exam is in a class that she is taking for her major. didn’t do well on the last exam because she had hardly studied for it. Shaking her head in despair, exclaims, “How could ‘I have forgotten?!” She leans toward you, puts her hands over her eyes, and begins to cry. 50 Event A: Exam (Controllable event) Behavior: Hint/Complain Gender: Male In the following scenario, please write your best male friend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occurring between you and your fiiend. Afterward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. It’s a Tuesday evening and comes over to visit you. tells you how earlier that day his professor reminded his class that they have an exam on Thursday. tells you that he had completely forgotten about the exam. Additionally the exam is in a class that he is taking for his major. didn’t do well on the last exam because he had hardly studied for it. “Can you believe that,” he asks. “The professor should have told us last week, don’t you think? Now I have to deal with this on top of everything else. Oh well, it’s no big deal, I guess.” laughs and says, “It figures that this would happen to me.” 51 Event A: Exam (Controllable event) Behavior: Hint/Complain Gender: Female In the following scenario, please write your best female friend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occurring between you and your friend. Afterward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. It’s a Tuesday evening and comes over to visit you. tells you how earlier that day her professor reminded her class that they have an exam on Thursday. tells you that she had completely forgotten about the exam. Additionally the exam is in a class that she is taking for her major. didn’t do well on the last exam because she had hardly studied for it. “Can you believe that,” she asks. “The professor should have told us last week, don’t you think? Now I have to deal with this on top of everything else. Oh well, it’s no big deal, I guess.” laughs and says, “It figures that this would happen to me.” 52 Event A: Exam (Controllable event) Behavior: Sigh/Sulk/Fidget Gender: Male In the following scenario, please write your best male friend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occurring between you and your friend. Afterward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. It’s a Tuesday evening and comes over to visit you. He seems unusually quiet and preoccupied as he stares out of the window. You ask if something is wrong. “Nothing, really,” replies. He then lets out a big sigh and begins to tell you how earlier that day his professor reminded his class that they have an exam on Thursday. tells you that he had completely forgotten about the exam. Additionally the exam is in a class that he is taking for his major. ' didn’t do well on the last exam because he had hardly studied for it. then stands up and begins to pace around the room. 53 Event A: Exam (Controllable event) Behavior: Sigh/Sulk/Fidget Gender: Female In the following scenario, please write your best female friend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occurring between you and your friend. Afterward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. It’s a Tuesday evening and comes over to visit you. She seems unusually quiet and preoccupied as she stares out of the window. You ask if something is wrong. “Nothing, really,” replies. She then lets out a big sigh and begins to tell you how earlier that day her professor reminded her class that they have an exam on Thursday. tells you that she had completely forgotten about the exam. Additionally the exam is in a class that she is taking for her major. ’ didn’t do well on the last exam because she had hardly studied for it. then stands up and begins to pace around the room. 54 Event B: Overdrawn Account (Controllable event) Behavior: Ask Gender: Male In the following scenario, please write your best male friend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occurring between you and your friend. Afterward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. comes over to visit you. He says to you, “I have this problem. Maybe you’ll know what I should do.” He tells you that the check he had written to buy his used car had bounced and that the original owners were demanding their money by the next day. It turns out that had miscalculated how much money he had in his checking account when he decided to buy the car. Now it looks as if may lose the car. tells you how worried he is and doesn’t know what to do. 55 Event B: Overdrawn Account (Controllable event) Behavior: Ask Gender: Female In the following scenario, please write your best female friend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occurring between you and your friend. Afterward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. comes over to visit you. She says to you, “I have this problem. Maybe you’ll know what I should do.” She tells you that the check she had written to buy her used car had bounced and that the original owners were demanding their money by the next day. It turns out that had miscalculated how much money she had in her checking account when she decided to buy the car. Now it looks as if may lose the car. tells you how she’s worried and doesn’t know what to do. 56 Event B: Overdrawn Account (Controllable event) Behavior: Cry/Pout Gender: Male In the following scenario, please write your best male friend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occuning between you and your friend. Afterward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. comes over to visit you. He tells you that the check he had written to buy his used car had bounced and that the original owners were demanding their money by the next day. It turns out that had miscalculated how much money he had in his checking account when he decided to buy the car. Now it looks as if may lose the car. Shaking his head in despair, exclaims, “How could I have been so stupid?!” He leans toward you, puts his‘hands over his eyes and begins to cry. 57 Event B: Overdrawn Account (Controllable event) Behavior: Cry/Pout Gender: Female In the following scenario, please write your best female friend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occuning between you and your friend. Afterward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. comes over to visit you. She tells you that the check she had written to buy her used car had bounced and that the original owners were demanding their money by the next day. It turns out that had miscalculated how much money she had in her checking account when she decided to buy the car. Now it looks as if may lose the car. Shaking her head in despair, exclaims, “How could I have been so stupid?!” She leans toward you, puts her hands over her eyes and begins to cry. 58 Event B: Overdrawn Account (Controllable event) Behavior: Hint/Complain Gender: Male In the following scenario, please write your best male fiiend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occurring between you and your friend. Afterward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. comes over to visit you. He tells you that the check he had written to buy his used car had bounced and that the original owners were asking for the money by the next day. It turns out that had miscalculated how much money he had in his checking account when he decided to buy the car. Now it looks as if may lose the car. “Can you believe that,” he questions. “It’s not as if they need the money. They seem well off enough! Now I have to deal with this on top of everything else. Oh well, it’s not a big deal I guess.” laughs and says, “It figures that this would happen to me.” 59 Event B: Overdrawn Account (Controllable event) Behavior: Hint/Complain Gender: Female In the following scenario, please write your best female friend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occurring between you and your friend. Afterward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. comes over to visit you. She tells you that the check she had written to buy her used car had bounced and that the original owners were asking for the money by the next day. It turns out that had miscalculated how much money she had in her checking account when she decided to buy the car. Now it looks as if may lose the car. “Can you believe that,” she questions. “It’s not as if they need the money. They seem well off enough! Now I have to deal with this on top of everything else. Oh well, it’s not a big deal I guess.” laughs and says, “It figures that this would happen to me.” 60 Event B: Overdrawn Account (Controllable event) Behavior: Sigh/Sulk/Fidget Gender: Male In the following scenario, please write your best male friend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occurring between you and your fiiend. Afterward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. comes over to visit you. He seems unusually quiet and preoccupied as he stares out of the window. You ask if something is wrong. “Nothing, really,” replies. He then lets out a big sigh and begins to tell you that the check he had written to buy his used car had bounced and that the original owners were demanding their money by the next day. It turns out that had miscalculated how much money he had in his checking account when he decided to buy the car. Now it looks as if may lose the car. then stands up and begins to pace around the room. 61 Event B: Overdrawn Account (Controllable event) Behavior: Sigh/Sulk/Fidget Gender: Female In the following scenario, please write your best female fiiend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occurring between you and your friend. Afterward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. Your friend comes over to visit you. She seems unusually quiet and preoccupied as she stares out of the window. You ask if something is wrong. “Nothing, really,” replies. She then lets out a big sigh and begins to tell you that the check she had written to buy her used car had bounced and that the original owners were demanding their money by the next day. It turns out that had miscalculated how much money she had in her checking account when she decided to buy the car. Now it looks as if may lose the car. then stands up and begins to pace around the room. 62 Event C: Relationship break-up (U ncontrollable event) Behavior: Ask Gender: Male In the following scenario, please write your best male fiiend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occurring between you and your friend. Afierward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. comes over to visit you. He says to you, “I have this problem. Maybe you’ll know what I should do.” He tells you that that his partner broke up with him that day. was told by his partner that he/she wasn’t in love with anymore and that he/she had been fooling around on for the past month or so. tells you how upset he is and doesn’t know what to do. 63 Event C: Relationship break-up (Uncontrollable event) Behavior: Ask Gender: Female In the following scenario, please write your best female friend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occurring between you and your friend. Afierward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. comes over to visit you. She says to you, “I have this problem. Maybe you’ll know what I should do.” She tells you that that her partner broke up with her that day. was told by her partner that he/she wasn’t in love with anymore and that he/she had been fooling around on for the past month or so. tells you how upset she is doesn’t know what to do. 64 Event C: Relationship break-up (U ncontrollable event) Behavior: Cry/Pout Gender: Male In the following scenario, please write your best male friend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occurring between you and your friend. Afterward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. comes over to visit you. He comes in crying. He sits down next to you and puts his head on your shoulder. He tells you that that his partner broke up with him that day. was told by his partner that he/she wasn’t in love with anymore and that he/she had been fooling around on for the past month or so. then drops his head and begins to sob. 65 Event C: Relationship break-up (Uncontrollable event) Behavior: Cry/Pout Gender: Female In the following scenario, please write your best female friend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occurring between you and your friend. Afterward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. comes over to visit you. She comes in crying. She sits down next to you and puts her head on your shoulder. She tells you that that her partner broke up with her that day. was told by her partner that he/she wasn’t in love with anymore and that he/she had been fooling around on for the past month or so. then drops her head and begins to sob. 66 Event C: Relationship break-up (Uncontrollable event) Behavior: Hint/Complain Gender: Male In the following scenario, please write your best male friend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occurring between you and your friend. Afterward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. comes over to visit you. He tells you that that his partner broke up with him that day. was told by his partner that he wasn’t in love with anymore and that he had been fooling around on for the past month or so. “Now I have to deal with this on top of everything else. Well, his/her loss, don’t you think? It’s no big deal, I guess. laughs and says, “It figures that this would happen to me.” 67 Event C: Relationship break-up (Uncontrollable event) Behavior: Hint/Complain Gender: Female In the following scenario, please write your best female friend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occurring between you and your friend. Afterward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. comes over to visit you. She tells you that that her partner broke up with her that day. was told by her partner that he/she wasn’t in love with anymore and that he/she had been fooling around on for the past month or so. “Now I have to deal with this on top of everything else. Well, his/her loss, don’t you think? It’s no big deal, I guess.” laughs and says, “It figures that this would happen to me.” - 68 Event C: Relationship break-up (Uncontrollable event) Behavior: Sigh/Sulk/Fidget Gender: Male In the following scenario, please write your best male friend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occuning between you and your friend. Afterward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. comes over to visit you. He seems unusually quiet and preoccupied as he stares out of the window. You ask if something is wrong. “Nothing, really,” replies. He then lets out a big sigh and begins to tell you that his partner broke up with him that day. was told by his partner that he/she wasn’t in love with him anymore and that he/ she had been fooling around on for the past month or so. then stands up and begins to pace around the room. 69 Event C: Relationship break-up (Uncontrollable event) Behavior: Sigh/Sulk/Fidget Gender: Female In the following scenario, please write your best female friend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occurring between you and your friend. Afterward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. comes over to visit you. She seems unusually quiet and preoccupied as she stares out of the window. You ask if something is wrong. “Nothing, really,” replies. She then lets out a big sigh and begins to tell you that her partner broke up with her that day. was told by her partner that he/she wasn’t in love with her anymore and that he/she had been fooling around on for the past month or so. then stands up and begins to pace around the room. 70 Event D: Accident (U ncontrollable event) Behavior: Ask Gender: Male In the following scenario, please write your best male friend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occurring between you and your friend. Afterward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. comes over to visit you. He says to you, “I have this problem. Maybe you’ll know what I should do.” tells you that he was in a car accident on Grand River. Someone had cut in front of him when switching into his lane and subsequently hit his car. reported that he had honked and would have swerved out of the way but if he had, he would have hit a cyclist. The front left hand side of ’5 car is pretty messed up. Additionally, the driver of the car that hit him doesn’t have insurance. tells you how upset he is and doesn’t know what to do. 71 Event D: Accident (Uncontrollable event) Behavior: Ask Gender: Female In the following scenario, please write your best female fiiend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occurring between you and your friend. Afterward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. comes over to visit you. She says to you, “I have this problem. Maybe you’ll know what I should do.” tells you that she was in a car accident on Grand River. Someone had cut in front of her when switching into her lane and subsequently hit her car. reported that she had honked and would have swerved out of the way but if hse had, she would have hit a cyclist. The front left hand side of ’5 car is pretty messed up. Additionally, the driver of the car that hit her doesn’t have insurance. tells you how upset she is and doesn’t know what to do. 72 Event D: Accident (U neontrollable event) Behavior: Cry/Pout Gender: Male In the following scenario, please write your best male friend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occurring between you and your friend. Afterward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. comes over to visit you. He comes in crying. He sits down next to you and puts his head on your shoulder. tells you that he was in a car accident on Grand River. Someone had cut in front of him when switching into his lane and subsequently hit his car. reported that he had honked and would have swerved out of the way but if he had, he would have hit a cyclist. The front left hand side of ’3 car is pretty messed up. Additionally, the driver of the car that hit him doesn’t have insurance. then drops his head and begins to sob. 73 Event D: Accident (Uncontrollable event) Behavior: Cry/Pout Gender: Female In the following scenario, please write your best female friend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occurring between you and your friend. Afterward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. comes over to visit you. She comes in crying. She sits down next to you and her head on your shoulder. tells you that she was in a car accident on Grand River. Someone had cut in front of her when switching into her lane and subsequently hit her car. reported that she had honked and would have swerved out of the way but if she had, she would have hit a cyclist. The front left hand side of ’5 car is pretty messed up. Additionally, the driver of the car that hit her doesn’t have insurance. then drops her head and begins to sob. 74 Event D: Accident (Uncontrollable event) Behavior: Hint/Complain Gender: Male In the following scenario, please write your best male friend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occurring between you and your friend. Afterward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. comes over to visit you. He tells you that he was in a car accident on Grand River. Someone had cut in front of him when switching into his lane and subsequently hit his car. reported that he had honked and tried to swerve out of the way but if he had, he would have hit a cyclist. The front left hand side of ’5 car is pretty messed up. Additionally, the driver of the car that hit him doesn’t have insurance. “Can you believe that,” he asks. “That driver should have looked before doing anything, don’t you think?! Now I have to deal with this on top of everything else. Oh well, it’s no big deal I guess.” laughs and says, “It figures that this would happen to me.” 75 Event D: Accident (Uncontrollable event) Behavior: Hint/Complain Gender: Female In the following scenario, please write your best female friend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occurring between you and your fiiend. Afterward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. comes over to visit you. She tells you that she was in a car accident on Grand River. Someone had cut in fi'ont of her when switching into her lane and subsequently hit her car. reported that she had honked and tried to swerve out of the way but if she had, she would have hit a cyclist. The front left hand side of ’5 car is pretty messed up. Additionally, the driver of the car that hit her doesn’t have insurance. “Can you believe that,” she asks. “That driver should have looked before doing anything, don’t you think?! Now I have to deal with this on top of everything else. Oh well, it’s no big deal I guess.” laughs and says, “It figures that this would happen to me.” 76 Event D: Accident (Uncontrollable event) Behavior: Sigh/Sulk/Fidget Gender: Male In the following scenario, please write your best male friend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occurring between you and your friend. Afterward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. comes over to visit you. He seems unusually quiet and preoccupied as he stares out of the window. You ask if something is wrong. “Nothing, really,” replies. He then lets out a big sigh and begins to tell you that he was in a car accident on Grand River. Someone had cut in front of him when switching into his lane and subsequently hit his car. reported that he had honked and tried to swerve out of the way but if he had, he would have hit a cyclist. The front left hand side of ’3 car is pretty messed up. Additionally, the driver of the car that hit him doesn’t have insurance. then stands up and begins to pace around the room. 77 Event D: Accident (U neontrollable event) Behavior: Sigh/Sulk/Fidget Gender: Female In the following scenario, please write your best female friend’s name or initials on the blank lines. Then, read the scenario and imagine the following transaction occurring between you and your friend. Afterward, please answer the questions on the following pages based on this scenario. comes over to visit you. She seems unusually quiet and preoccupied as she stares out of the window. You ask if something is wrong. “Nothing, really,” replies. She then lets out a big sigh and begins to tell you that she was in a car accident on Grand River. Someone had cut in front of her when switching into her lane and subsequently had hit her car. reported that she had honked and tried to swerve out of the way but if she had, she would have hit a cyclist. The front left hand side of ’5 car is pretty messed up. Additionally, the driver of the car that hit her doesn’t have insurance. then stands up and begins to pace around the room. 78 APPENDIX B Mic—mags Questions for Event A, Male A. How likely is it that needs your help? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely B. How likely is it that has control over what has happened? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely C. What is the likelihood that you would respond to . by doing the following: 1. Offer to help study. (Solve) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 2. Tell that you believe that he will do well on the exam. (Solace) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 3. Suggest that the topic be changed in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. (Dismiss) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 79 4. Suggest that watch a funny tv program or movie because that will cheer him up. (Escape) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 5. Remark on how anxious must feel about this situation. (Solace) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 6. Suggest that you talk about some of your problems in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. (Dismiss) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 7. Tell a joke. (Escape) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ‘ Unlikely Likely Very Likely 8. Tell what you would do if you had this problem. (Solve) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 9. Tell that if he had been more on top of things, this may not have happened. (Dismiss) l 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 10. Tell that he should just go out and have a good time. (Escape) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 80 11. Ask if he has any ideas of how he can handle this problem. (Solve) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 12. Give a hug in order to make him feel better. (Solace) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 13. Try to make light of ’s situation by pointing out the humor in it. (Escape) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 14. Point out to that he still has a couple of days in which to study for the exam. (Solve) l 2 3 4 5 6 7 ' Unlikely Likely Very Likely 15. Reassure that things will be okay. (Solace) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 16. Tell that things could be worse than they really are. (Dismiss) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 81 Questions for Event A, Female A. How likely is it that needs your help? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely B. How likely is it that has control over what has happened? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely C. What is the likelihood that you would respond to by doing the following: 1. Offer to help study. (Solve) l 2 3 4 5 6 7 - Unlikely Likely Very Likely 2. Tell that you believe that she will do well on the exam. (Solace) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 3. Suggest that the topic be changed in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. (Dismiss) l 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 82 4. Suggest that watch a funny tv program or movie because that will cheer her up. (Escape) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 5. Remark on how anxious must feel about this situation. (Solace) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 6. Suggest that you talk about some of your problems in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. (Dismiss) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 7. Tell a joke. (Escape) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ' Unlikely Likely Very Likely 8. Tell what you would do if you had this problem. (Solve) I 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 9. Tell that if she had been more on top of things, this may not have happened. (Dismiss) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 10. Tell that she should just go out and have a good time. (Escape) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 83 11. Ask if she has any ideas of how she can handle this problem. (Solve) l 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 12. Give a hug in order to make her feel better. (Solace) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 13. Try to make light of ’s situation by pointing out the humor in it. (Escape) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 14. Point out to that she still has a couple of days in which to study for the exam. (Solve) l 2 3 4 5 6 7 ' Unlikely Likely Very Likely 15. Reassure that things will be okay. (Solace) l 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 16. Tell that things could be worse than they really are. (Dismiss) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 84 Questions for Event B, Male A. How likely is it that needs your help? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely B. How likely is it that has control over what has happened? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely C. What is the likelihood that you would respond to by doing the following: - 1. Offer to lend some money. (Solve) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 2. Tell that you believe that he will be able to resolve everything. (Solace) l 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 3. Suggest that the topic be changed in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. (Dismiss) l 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 4. Suggest that watch a funny tv show or movie because that will cheer him up. (Escape) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 85 5. Remark on how anxious must feel about this situation. (Solace) l 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 6. Suggest that you talk about some of your problems in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. (Dismiss) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 7. Tell a joke. (Escape) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 8. Suggest to that he ask the original owners if he could pay for the car in installments. (Solve) l 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 9. Tell that if he had been more on top of things, this may not have happened. (Dismiss) l 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 10. Tell to just go out and have a good time. (Escape) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 11. Ask if he has any ideas of how he can handle this problem. (Solve) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 86 12. Give a hug in order to make him feel better. (Solace) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 13. Try to make light of your friend’s situation by pointing out the humor in it. (Escape) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 14. Suggest to that he ask his parents for a loan. (Solve) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 15. Reassure that things will be okay. (Solace) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 16. Tell that things could be worse than they really are. (Dismiss) 1 2 3 4 ‘ 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 87 Questions for Event B, Female A. How likely is it that needs your help? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely , Very Likely B. How likely is it that has control over what has happened? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely C. What is the likelihood that you would respond to by doing the following: 1. Offer to lend some money. (Solve) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 2. Tell that you believe that she will be able to resolve everything. (Solace) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 3. Suggest that the topic be changed in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. (Dismiss) l 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 4. Suggest that watch a funny tv show or movie because that will cheer her up. (Escape) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 88 5. Remark on how anxious must feel about this situation. (Solace) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 6. Suggest that you talk about some of your problems in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. (Dismiss) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 7. Tell a joke. (Escape) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 8. Suggest to that she ask the original owners if she could pay for the car in installments. (Solve) l 2 3 4 5 6 7 ‘ Unlikely Likely Very Likely 9. Tell that if she had been more on top of things, this may not have happened. (Dismiss) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 10. Tell to just go out and have a good time. (Escape) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 11. Ask if he has any ideas of how she can handle this problem. (Solve) l 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 89 12. Give a hug in order to make her feel better. (Solace) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 13. Try to make light of your friend’s situation by pointing out the humor in it. (Escape) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 14. Suggest to that she ask her parents for a loan. (Solve) l 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 15. Reassure that things will be okay. (Solace) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 16. Tell that things could be worse than they really are. (Dismiss) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 90 Questions for Event C, Male A. How likely is it that needs your help? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely B. How likely is it that has control over what has happened? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely C. What is the likelihood that you would respond to by doing the following: 1. Ask to tell you more about the breakup. (Solve) l 2 3 4 5 6 7 ~ Unlikely Likely Very Likely 2. Encourage to share with you how he is feeling about the breakup. (Solace) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 3. Suggest that the topic be changed in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. (Dismiss) l 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 91 4. Suggest that watch a funny tv program or movie because that will cheer him up. (Escape) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 5. Let know how bad you feel about his situation. (Solace) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 6. Suggest that you talk about some of your problems in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. (Dismiss) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 7. Tell a joke. (Escape) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 8. Ask if he has any ideas of how he can handle the problem. (Solve) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 9. Tell that maybe the break-up was a blessing in disguise. (Dismiss) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 10. Tell to just go out and have a good time. (Escape) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 92 11. Offer to hang out with that evening to keep him company. (Solve) l 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 12. Give a bug in order to make him feel better. (Solace) l 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 13. Try to make light of your friend’s situation by pointing out the humor in it. (Escape) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 14. Ask what you can do for him. (Solve) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely ' 15. Reassure that things will be okay. (Solace) l 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 16. Tell that things could be worse than they really are. (Dismiss) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 93 Questions for Event C, Female A. How likely is it that needs your help? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely B. How likely is it that has control over what has happened? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely C. What is the likelihood that you would respond to by doing the following: 1. Ask to tell you more about the breakup. (Solve) l 2 3 4 5 6 7 - Unlikely Likely Very Likely 2. Encourage to share with you how she is feeling about the breakup. (Solace) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 3. Suggest that the topic be changed in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. (Dismiss) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 94 4. Suggest that watch a funny tv program or movie because that will cheer her up. (Escape) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 5. Let know how bad you feel about her situation. (Solace) l 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 6. Suggest that you talk about some of your problems in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. (Dismiss) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 7. Tell a joke. (Escape) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 8. Ask if she has any ideas of how she can handle the problem. (Solve) l 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 9. Tell that maybe the break-up was a blessing in disguise. (Dismiss) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 10. Tell to just go out and have a good time. (Escape) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 95 11. Offer to hang out with that evening to keep her company. (Solve) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 12. Give a bug in order to make her feel better. (Solace) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 13. Try to make light of your friend’s situation by pointing out the humor in it. (Escape) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 14. Ask what you can do for her. (Solve) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 15. Reassure that things will be okay. (Solace) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 16. Tell that things could be worse than they really are. (Dismiss) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 96 Questions for Event D, Male A. How likely is it that needs your help? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely B. How likely is it that has control over what has happened? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely C. What is the likelihood that you would respond to by doing the following: 1. Ask to tell you more about the accident. (Solve) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 2. Encourage to share with you how he is feeling about the accident. (Solace) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 3. Suggest that the topic be changed in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. (Dismiss) l 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 97 4. Suggest that watch a funny tv program or movie in order to cheer him up. (Escape) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 5. Let know how bad you feel about his situation. (Solace) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 6. Suggest that you talk about your problems in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problems. (Dismiss) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 7. Tell a joke. (Escape) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 8. Ask I if he has any ideas of how he can handle this problem. (Solve) l 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 9. Tell you friend not to get upset until the situation really becomes a problem. (Dismiss) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 10. Tell to just go out and have a good time. (Escape) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 98 11. Make sure that has reported the accident to his insurance company. (Solve) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 12. Give a hug in order to make him feel better. (Solace) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 13. Try to make light of ’s situation by pointing out the humor in it. (Escape) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 14. Ask what you can do for him. (Solve) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely - 15. Reassure that things will be okay. (Solace) l 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 16. Tell that things could be worse than they really are. ‘ (Dismiss) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 99 Questions for Event D, Female A. How likely is it that needs your help? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely B. How likely is it that has control over what has happened? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely C. What is the likelihood that you would respond to by doing the following: 1. Ask to tell you more about the accident. (Solve) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 2. Encourage to share with you how she is feeling about the accident. (Solace) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 3. Suggest that the topic be changed in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. (Dismiss) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 100 4. Suggest that watch a funny tv program or movie in order to cheer her up. (Escape) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 5. Let know how bad you feel about her situation. (Solace) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 6. Suggest that you talk about your problems in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problems. (Dismiss) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely . Likely Very Likely 7. Tell a joke. (Escape) l 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 8. Ask if she has any ideas of how she can handle this problem. (Solve) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 9. Tell you friend not to get upset until the situation really becomes a problem. (Dismiss) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 10. Tell to just go out and have a good time. (Escape) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 101 11. Make sure that has reported the accident to her insurance company. (Solve) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 12. Give a hug in order to make her feel better. (Solace) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 13. Try to make light of ’s situation by pointing out the humor in it. (Escape) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 14. Ask what you can do for her. (Solve) l 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 15. Reassure that things will be okay. (Solace) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 16. Tell that things could be worse than they really are. (Dismiss) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Likely Very Likely 102 APPENDIX C Demographic Information Please answer the following questions: Age: Sex: 103 APPENDIX D Description of Packets Packet Type 1; Participants 1-44 (22 male participants, 22 female participants) Exam Ask Male fiiend Overdrawn Account Cry/Pout Female friend Relationship Break-up Hint/Complain Male friend Accident Sigh/Sulk/Fidget Female friend Packet Type II; Participants 45-88 (22 male participants, 22 female participants) Exam Ask Female friend Overdrawn Account Cry/Pout Male friend Relationship Break-up Hint/Complain Female friend Accident Sigh/Sulk/Fidget Male fiiend Packet Typ_e III; Participants 89-132 (22 male participants, 22 female participants) Exam Sigh/Sulk/Fidget Female friend Overdrawn Account Ask Male friend Relationship Break-up Cry/Pout Female friend Accident Hint/Complain Male friend Packet Type IV; Participants 133-176 (22 male participants, 22 female participants) Exam Sigh/Sulk/Fidget Male friend Overdrawn Account Ask Female friend Relationship Break-up Cry/Pout Male fiiend Accident Hint/Complain Female friend Packet Type V; Participants 177-220 (22 male participants, 22 female participants) Exam Hint/Complain Male friend Overdrawn Account Sigh/Sulk/Fidget Female friend Relationship Break-up Ask Male fiiend Accident Cry/Pout Female fiiend Packet Type VI; Participants 221-264 (22 male participants, 22 female participants) Exam Hint/Complain Female friend Overdrawn Account Sigh/Sulk/Fidget Male fiiend Relationship Break-up Ask Female friend Accident Cry/Pout Male friend 104 Packet Type VII; Participants 265-308 (22 male participants, 22 female participants) Exam Cry/Pout Female friend Overdrawn Account Hint/Complain Male friend Relationship Break-up Sigh/Sulk/Fidget Female fiiend Accident Ask Male friend Packet Type VIII; Participants 309-352 (22 male participants, 22 female participants) Exam Cry/Pout Male friend Overdrawn Account Hint/Complain Female friend Relationship Break-up Sigh/Sulk/Fidget Male friend Accident Ask Female friend 105 APPENDIX E Mann. I understand that the purpose of this study is to gather information relative to how individuals respond to their friends’ problems. Participating in this experiment requires that I read four different scenarios and answer a total of seventy-two questions relative to these scenarios. I understand that this experiment will take one hour to complete. I understand that my participation in this experiment is voluntary and that I may discontinue the experiment at any time without being penalized. I understand that my responses will be treated with strict confidentiality. I understand that I will remain anonymous in any report of the research findings. I understand that a debriefing form will be made available to me upon completion of this experiment. ‘ Your Signature Experimenter’s Signature Date Date Should you have any questions or concerns about this experiment, please contact: Alison Ward OR Robert A. Caldwell Psychology Research Building Psychology Research Building Michigan State University Michigan State University East Lansing, MI 48825 East Lansing, MI 48825 (517) 353-9615 (517) 353-4548 106 APPENDIX F Debriefing F orm I would first like to thank you for participating in my study. Secondly, I am asking that you please do not discuss this study with individuals who may participate in this study in the future. It is important that information relative to this study remain confidential otherwise it will greatly affect the outcome of my study. This study is based on research relative to social support, self-disclosure, and gender- typed social behaviors. Specifically, this study is designed to examine how individuals respond to their friends’ problems depending on who the friend is, what the problem is, and the manner in which the friend presents his/her problem. If you wish to learn more about these areas, I recommend the following articles: Barbee, A.P., Gulley, M.P., & Cunningham, MR. (1990). Support seeking in personal relationships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 7, 531-540. Cutrona, CE. (1990). Stress and social support: In search of optimal matching. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9, 3-14. Eagly, A.H. & Crowly, M. (1986). Gender and the helping behavior: A meta- analytic review of the social psychological literature. Psychological Bulletin, 100, 283- 308. If you should have questions relative to this study, please contact me, Alison Ward, or my advisor, Robert A. Caldwell, Ph.D. Alison Ward OR Robert A. Caldwell Psychology Research Building Psychology Research Building Michigan State University Michigan State University East Lansing, MI 48825 East Lansing, NH 48825 (517) 353-9615 (517) 353-4548 Once again, please make sure that you do not discuss this study with others who may be future participants. Thank you. Table 1: Psychometric Properties of the Solve Scale (Pilot Study) 107 Item Event Item Standard Corrected Mean Deviation Item Total Correlation Offer to help _ study. A 5. 32 l .49 .62 Tell _ what you would do if you had A 5,22 1,76 , 53 this problem. Ask _ if he/she has any ideas of A 5,45 1,66 ,60* what he/she can do. Tell _ to go speak to the professor. A 4,61 2,01 ,33** Offer to lend _ some money. B 5,45 1,87 ,39 Suggest that _ ask the original B 6,02 1 ,5 9 ,30’Ml owners if he/she could have more time to pay for the car. Ask if _ he/she has any ideas of B 5,81 1,48 ,54* what he/she could do. Tell _ to ask his/her parents for B 5,14 2,03 ,52* money. Ask _ to tell you more about the C 6,00 1,44 ,59 break-up. Ask __ if he/she has any ideas of C 4,68 1,58 ,54"' what he/she needs to do for himself/herself. Let _ know that he/she can call you C 6,68 0,88 ,33* * at any time. Ask _ what you can do for him/her. C 5,93 1,49 ,50 Ask _ to tell you more about the D 6,11 1,32 ,53 accident. ~ Ask _ if he/she has any ideas of D 5,61 1,42 ,60* what he/she needs to do for himself/herself. Suggest to _ that he/she get a D 4,54 1,98 ,34* * lawyer. Ask _ what you can do for him/her. D 5,89 1,43 ,43 Alpha = .85 Scale Mean = 88.68 Scale SD = 14.32 Note. Event A=Exam; Event B=Overdrawn Account; Event C=Relationship Break-Up; Event D=Accident *denotes items that were modified within the scale. ”denotes items that were dropped from the scale. 108 Table 2: Psychometric Properties of the Solace Scale (Pilot Study) Item Event Item Standard Corrected Mean Deviation Item-Total Correlation Tell _ that you believe that A 5,41 1.48 .52 he/she will do well on the exam. Let _ know how bad you feel A 4,36 1.77 .35** about his/her situation. Give _ a hug. A 4.55 2.33 .36"‘ Reassure _ that things will be A 5,66 2.33 .36* . okay. Tell _ that you believe that B 5,75 1.37 .61 he/she will be able to resolve everything. Let _ know how bad you feel B 5,32 1,60 .25" about his/her situation. Give _ a hug. B 4.73 2.52 .53" Reassure _ that things will be B 6,05 1.18 .67 okay. Encourage _ to share with you C 6,18 1.13 .56 how he/she is feeling about the break-up. Let _ know how bad you feel C 6,23 1.20 .52 about his/her situation. Give_ahug. C 6.23 1.58 .38* Reassure _ that things will be C 6,34 1,00 .56 okay. Encourage _ to share with you D 5,48 1,71 .52 how he/she is feeling about the accident. Let _ know how bad you feel 6,07 1,04 _47 about his/her situation. Give _ a hug. D 5.16 2.31 .58* Reassure _ that things will be D 6,31 0,93 .69 okay. Alpha = .85 Scale Mean = 89.81 Scale SD = 14.39 1193., Event A=Exam; Event B=Overdrawn Account; Event C=Relationship Break-Up; Event D=Accident . *denotes items that were modified within the scale. * *denotes items that were dropped from the scale. 109 Table 3: Psychometric Properties of the Dismiss Scale (Pilot Study) Item Event Item Standard Corrected Mean Deviation Item-Total Correlation Tell _ that if he/she had been more on top of A 4,27 1,78 57""!I things, this may not have happened. Tell _ to forget about it; that if he/she fails A 1,71 1,09 ,06" the course, that he/she can take it over. Tell _ that there’s nothing that he/she can A 2,] 1 1,67 ,07"”'I do about it. Tell _ that things could be worse than they A 4,50 1,82 , 52 really are. Tell _ that if he/she had been more on top of B 3,89 2,21 ,46" things, this may not have happened. Tell _ to forget about it; that if he/she has to B 4,00 2,07 ,36" return the car that he/she will be able to get another one at another time. Change the tOPiC- B 1.91 1.24 .38" - Tell _ that things could be worse than they B 4,52 1,87 , 56 really are. Tell _ that maybe the break-up was a C 5,05 1,90 , 50 blessing in disguise. Tell _ to forget about his/her partner; that C 4,09 2,25 ,3 9" he/she was no good anyway. Challge the topic- C 2.00 1.35 .18" Tell _ that things could be worse than they C 4,1 1 2,15 ,41 really are. Remind __ that at least he/she did not hit the D 5,36 1,74 ,25" cyclist. Tell _ to forget about the accident; that D 2,68 1,67 ,27" there’s nothing that he/she can do about it. ' Change thc topic- D 1.96 1 .31 .32* * Tell _ that things could be worse than they D 5,05 1,87 ,41 really are. Alpha = .77 Scale Mean = Scale SD = 13.48 57.21 151% Event A=Exam; Event B=Overdrawn Account; Event C=Relationship Break-Up; Event D=Accident *denotes items that were modified within the scale. "denotes items that were dropped from the scale. 110 Table 4: Psychometric Properties of the Escape Scale (Pilot Study) Item Event Item Standard Corrected Mean Deviation Item-Total Correlation Tell _ to just stop thinking A 2.27 1.37 .13 * "' about it. Tell a joke. A 3.59 2.05 .54 Tell _ that he/she should just A 1 .48 0.73 .42 go out and have a good time. Tcll_t01'ust stop worrying A 3.14 1.75 .24" about it. Tell _ to quit talking about it. B 1 ,80 1 .17 .28“ * Tell a joke. B 3.21 2.02 .58 Tell _ to just go out and have B 2,57 1,80 ,40 a good time. Tell _ to not worry about it. B 4,36 , 1.94 .20* Tell _ to quit talking about it. C 1,68 1,25 .3 8" Tell ajoke. C 3.57 2.21 .56 Tell _ to just go out and have C 4,50 1,92 ,45 a good time. Tell _ to not worry about it. C 4,93 1,76 ,24" Tell _ to quit talking about it. D 1,68 1,20 ,43* * Tell a joke. D 3.30 2.33 .49 Tell _ to just go out and have D 3,14 2,00 .55 a good time. Tell _ to not worry about it. D 4,41 1,97 ,34** Alpha = .79 Scale Mean = 49.61 Scale SD = 13.86 Note. Event A=Exam; Event B=Overdrawn Account; Event C=Relationship Break-Up; Event D=Accident *denotes items that were modified within the scale. Mdenotes items that were dropped from the scale. Table 5: Principal Axis Factor Analysis Item Event Construct Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Reassure _ that things will be okay. Reassure _ that things will be okay. Ask what you can do for him/her. Let _ know how bad you feel about his/her situation. Ask what you can do for him/her. Encourage _ to share with you how he/she is feeling about the breakup. Reassure _ that things will be okay. Reassure _ that things will be okay. Encourage _ to share with you how he/shc is feeling about the accident. Let _ know how bad you feel about his/her situation. Offer to hang out with _ that evening to keep him/her company. Ask _ if he/she has any ideas of how he/she can handle the problem. Give _ a bug in order to make him/her feel better. Point out to _ that he/she still has a couple of days in which to study for the exam. Make sure that _ has reported the accident to his/her insurance company. Suggest to _ that he/she ask his/her parents for a loan. U U 0 O Solace Solace Solve Solace Solve Solace Solace Solace Solace Solace Solve Solve Solace Solve Solve Solve .67 .65 .65 .64 .61 .61 .60 .59 .59 .54 .54 .50 .48 .47 .34 .30 .03 -.05 -.32 .01 -.15 -.16 -.08 -.16 -.O6 -.10 -.12 -.14 -.04 -.14 -.O7 .07 -.l3 -.19 -.06 -.03 -.03 519 -.16 .07 -.04 -.16 -.12 .07 -.14 -.09 -.12* Table 5 (cont’d.) 112 Item Event , Construct Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Offer to lend _ some money. Remark on how anxious _ must feel about this situation. Suggest that you talk about your problems in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problems. , Suggest that you talk about your problems in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problems. Suggest that you talk about your problems in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problems. Suggest that the topic be changed in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. Suggest that you talk about your problems in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problems. Suggest that the topic be changed in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. Suggest that the topic be changed in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. Tell _ that he/she should just go out and have a good time. Suggest that the topic be changed in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. B D A Solve Solace Dismiss Dismiss Dismiss Dismiss Dismiss Dismiss Dismiss Escape Dismiss .23 .17 -.15 -.12 -.12 -.20 -.O3 -.l3 -.14 -.27 -.09 -.14 .15 .72 .71 .68 .67 .66 .64 .62 .51 .50 -.09* -.11* -.31 -.22 -.23 -.21 -.24 -.21 -.24 -.26* -.26* Table 5 (cont’d.) Item Event Construct Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Suggest that _ watch a A Escape -.06 .49 -.30* funny tv program or movie because that will cheer him/her up. Tell _ that if he/she had A Dismiss .03 .32 -.23 * been more on top of things, this may not have happened. Remark on how anxious _ B Solace -.02 .28 -. 17* must feel about this situation. Remark on how anxious _ A Solace .14 .19 -.04* must feel about this situation. Tell a joke. D Escape .09 .16 -.76 Tell a joke. B Escape .09 .25 ~-.74 Tell a joke. C Escape . l 6 . 1 9 -.70 Try to make light of your B Escape . 1 3 .21 -.68 friend’s situation by pointing out the humor in it. Try to make light of your D Escape .05 . 15 -.67 friend’s situation by pointing out the humor in it. Tell a joke- A Escape .07 . 19 -.62 Tell _ to 11151 80 out and D Escape .06 .37 -.57* have a good time. T6“ _ 10.1115! 80 0m and C Escape . 17 .39 -.57* have a good time. Try to make light Of Your A Escape .08 .25 -.56 friend’s situation by pointing out the humor in it. Try to make light Of Your C Escape .08 .1 7 -.56 friend’s situation by pointing out the humor in it. 5118831 that _ “Web a D Escape .20 .30 -.53* funny tv program or movie in order to cheer him/her up. 114 Table 5 (cont’d). Item Event Construct Factorl Factor 2 Factor 3 Tell _ to just go out and B Escape -.O3 .49 -.50* have a good time. Suggest that_watcha C Escape .24 .28 -.49* funny tv program or movie in order to cheer him/her up. 5118865! that _ watch a B Escape .06 .3 5 -.48* funny tv program or movie in order to cheer him/her up. Ten__that things couldbc B Dismiss .35 .26. -.47* worse than they really are. Tell_that things couldbe c Dismiss .33 .20 -.45* worse than they really are. Tell _ that things could be worse than they really are. ‘ A Dismiss 3.38 .19 -.44* Tell_that things could be D Dismiss .33 .22 -.42* D worse than they really are. Tell your friend not to get upset until the situation really becomes a problem. Dismiss .20 . 19 -.29* Note. Event A=Exam; Event B=Overdrawn Account; Event C=Relationship Break-Up; Event D=Accident *denotes items that were dropped from the scale. 115 Table 6: Psychometric Properties of the Approach Scale Item Event Item Standard Corrected Mean Deviation Item-Total Correlation Offer to help _ study A 5.25 1.64 .38 Tell _ that you believe that A 4,98 1,75 ,31 he/she will do well on the ‘ exam. Tell _ what you would do if 5,80 1,39 ,39 you had this problem. Ask if he has any ideas of how 5,45 1,43 ,42 he/she can handle this problem. Give _ a hug in order to 4,48 2,41 ,50 make him/her feel better. Point out to _ that he/she still A 6,50 0,89 ,44 has a couple of days in which to study for the exam. Reassure __ that things will be A 6,07 1,20 , 57 okay. Tell _ that you believe that B 5,22 1,48 ,40 he/she will be able to resolve everything. Suggest to _ that he/she ask B 5 ,69 1,37 ,41 the original owners if he/she could pay for the car in installments. Ask if he/she has any ideas of B 5,92 1,20 ,44 how he/she can handle this problem. Give _ a hug in order to B 4,88 2,33 ,46 make him/her feel better. Reassure _ that things will be B 6,04 1,20 ,59 okay. Ask _ to tell you more about C 5,81 1,41 ,42 the breakup. Encourage _ to share with C 5,87 1,46 ,60 you how he is feeling about the breakup Let _ know how bad you feel C 5,72 1,52 ,51 about his/her situation. Ask __ ifhe/she has any ideas - C 5,16 1,57 ,43 of how he/she can handle the problem. 116 Table 6 (cont’d.) Item Event Item Standard Corrected Mean Deviation Item-Total Correlation Offer to hang out with _ that C 6,37 0,99 , 54 evening to keep him/her company. Give _ a hug in order to C 5,47 2,14 ,47 make him/her feel better. Ask _ what you can do for C 6,15 1,23 ,63 him/her. Reassure _ that things will be C 6,26 1,12 , 54 okay. Ask _ to tell you more about D 5,95 1,31 ,40 the accident. Encourage _ to share with D 5,34 1,72 ,58 you how he/she is feeling about the accident. Let _ know how bad you feel D 5,79 1,39 ,60 about his/her situation. Ask _ if he/she has any ideas D 5,85 1,22 .49 of how he/she can handle this problem. Make sure that _ has reported D 6,21 1,26 ,31 the accident to his/her insurance company. Give _ a hug in order to D 5,25 2,30 ,47 make him/her feel better. Ask___what youcando for D 6,17 1,17 ,59 him/her. Reassure _ that things will be D 6,1 1 1,29 .60 okay. Alpha = .90 Scale Mean = 159.73 Scale SD = 20.01 Note. Event A=Exam; Event B=Overdrawn Account; Event C=Relationship Break-Up; Event D=Accident 117 Table 7: Psychometric Properties of the Dismiss Scale Item Event Item Standard Corrected Mean Deviation Item-Total Correlation Suggest that the topic be A 1 ,78 1 ,1 3 ,60 changed in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. Suggest that you talk about A 1,81 1,1 1 ,66 some of your problems in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. Suggest that the topic be B 1 ,68 1 ,02 ,61 changed in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. Suggest that you talk about B 1,70 1,01 ,64 some of your problems in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. Suggest that the topic be C 1,83 1,22 ,60 changed in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. Suggest that you talk about C 1,87 1,21 ,64 some of your problems in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. Suggest that the topic be D 1,72 1,05 , 50 changed in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. Suggest that you talk about D 1,64 1,02 ,7 3 some of your problems in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. Alpha = .87 Scale Mean = 14.02 Scale SD = 6.33 Note. Event A=Exam; Event B=Overdrawn Account; Event C=Relationship Break-Up; Event D=Accident 118 Table 8: Psychometric Properties of the Escape Scale Item Event Item Standard Corrected Mean Deviation Item-Total Correlation Tell a joke. A 3.71 2.07 .68 Try to make light of _’s A 3 .46 1.92 .60 situation by pointing out the humor in it. Tell a joke. B 3.58 2.04 .72 Try to make light of your B 3.45 1.94 .65 friend’s situation by pointing out the humor in it. Tell a joke. C 3.81 2.09 .69 Try to make light ofyour c 3.11 1.96 .54 friend’s situation by pointing out the humor in it. Tell a joke. D 3 .74 2.10 .69 Try to make light of _’S D 3.65 1.99 .62 situation by pointing out the humor in it. Alpha = .88 Scale Mean = 28.51 Scale SD = 11.94 Note. Event A=Exam; Event B=Overdrawn Account; Event C=Relationship Break-Up; Event D=Accident ' Table 9: 119 Means of Approach, Dismiss, and Escape as a Function of S.A.B. SUPPORT ACTIVATION BEHAVIOR Ask Approach 5.73 (&=0.9 l ) Dismiss 1 .67 (§D=0.93) Escape 3.54 (MEI .80) Cry/Pout 5.78 (sp=o.92) 1.75 (SD=0.92) 3.38 (_sD=1.81) Hint/Complain 5.58 (S__D=0.98) 1.87 SD=0.96) 3.99 ($4.75) Sigh/Sulk/Fidget 5.66 (SD=0.98) 1.73 SD=0.93) 3.35 (SD=1.73) 120 Table 10: Psychometric Properties of the Approach Scale used for Controllable Events Item Event Item Standard Corrected Mean Deviation Item-Total Correlation Offer to help _ study Tell _ that you believe that he/she will do well on the exam. Tell _ what you would do if A 5,79 1,39 ,38 you had this problem. Ask if he has any ideas of how A 5,43 1,45 ,42 he/she can handle this problem. Give _ a hug in order to A 4,46 2,42 ,42 make him/her feel better. Point out to _ that he/she still A 6,51 0,89 ,44 has a couple of days in which to study for the exam. Reassure _ that things will be A 6,08 1,20 ,60 okay. Tell _ that you believe that B 5,22 1,48 ,38 he/she will be able to resolve everything. Suggest to _ that he/she ask B 5,68 1,37 ,39 the original owners if he/she could pay for the car in installments. Ask if he/she has any ideas of B 5,90 1,20 ,39 how he/she can handle this problem. Give _ a hug in order to B 4,89 2,33 ,31 make him/her feel better. Reassure _ that things will be B 6,04 1,19 ,57 okay. 5.24 1.65 .38 4.99 1.75 .34 >> Alpha = .75 Scale Mean = 66.25 Scale SD = 9.90 Note. Event A=Exam; Event B=Overdrawn Account 121 Table 11: Psychometric Properties of the Dismiss Scale used for Controllable Events Item Event Item Standard Corrected Mean Deviation Item-Total Correlation Suggest that the topic be changed in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem Suggest that you talk about some of your problems in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. Suggest that the topic be changed in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem Suggest that you talk about some of your problems in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. Alpha = .80 A 1.78 1.13 .61 A 1.81 1.11 .65 B 1.68 1.02 .57 B 1.70 1.01 .63 Scale Mean = 6.97 Scale SD = 3.38 Note. Event A=Exam; Event B=Overdrawn Account 122 Table 12: Psychometric Properties of the Escape Scale used for Controllable Events Item Event Item Standard Corrected Mean Deviation Item-Total Correlation Tell a joke. A 3 .71. 2.07 .63 Try to make light 0f _’5 A 3.46 1.92 .58 situation by pointing out the humor in it. . Tell a joke. B 3.58 2.04 .69 Try to make light of your B 3.45 1.94 .63 friend’s situation by pointing out the humor in it. Alpha = .81 Scale Mean = 14.20 Scale SD = 6.38 Note. Event A=Exam; Event B=Overdrawn Account 123 Table 13: Psychometric Properties of the Approach Scale used for Uncontrollable Events Item Event Item Standard Corrected Mean Deviation Item-Total Correlation Ask _ to tell you more about C 5,81 1,41 ,43 the breakup. Encourage _ to share with C 5,87 1,46 ,61 you how he is feeling about the breakup Let _ lmow how bad you feel C 5,72 1,51 ,51 about his/her situation. Ask _ if he/she has any ideas C 5,15 1,57 ,44 of how he/she can handle the problem. Offer to hang out with _ that C 6, 37 0,99 , 54 evening to keep him/her company. Give _ a bug in order to C 5,48 2,14 ,41 make him/her feel better. Ask _ what you can do for C 6,15 1,23 ,60 him/her. Reassure _ that things will be C 6,25 1,12 , 54 okay. Ask _ to tell you more about D 5,95 1,30 ,41 the accident. Encourage _ to share with D 5,35 1,72 ,59 you how he/she is feeling about the accident. Let _ know how bad you feel D 5,79 1,39 ,63 about his/her situation. Ask _ if he/she has any ideas D 5,86 1,22 ,48 of how he/she can handle this problem. . Make sure that _ has reported D 6,22 1,25 ,27 the accident to his/her insurance company. Give _ a hug in order to D 5,27 2,29 ,45 make him/her feel better. 124 Table 13 (cont’d.) Item Event Item Standard Corrected Mean Deviation Item-Total Correlation Ask_what you cando for D 6.18 1.17 .59 him/her. Reassure _ that things will be D 6,12 1,28 ,57 okay. Alpha = .86 Scale Mean = 93.53 Scale SD = 13.39 Note. Event C=Relationship Break-Up; Event D=Accident 125 Table 14: Psychometric Properties of the Dismiss Scale used for Uncontrollable Events Item Event Item Standard Corrected Mean Deviation Item-Total Correlation Suggest that the topic be C 1.83 1.22 .59 changed in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. Suggest that you talk about C 1,86 1,21 ,60 some of your problems in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. Suggest that the topic be D 1,71 1,05 ,51 changed in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. Suggest that you talk about D 1,64 1,02 ,68 some of your problems in order to avoid talking about your friend’s problem. Alpha = .78 Scale Mean = 7.04 Scale SD = 3.51 Note. Event C=Relationship Break-Up; Event D=Accident 126 Table 15: Psychometric Properties of the Escape Scale used for Uncontrollable Events Item Event Item Standard Corrected Mean Deviation Item-Total Correlation Tell a joke. C 3.81 2.09 .62 Try to make light of your C 3.1 1 1.96 .50 friend’s situation by pointing out the humor in it. Tell a joke. D 3 .74 2.10 .66 Try to make light 0f _’5 D 3 .65 1.99 .60 situation by pointing out the humor in it. Alpha = .79 Scale Mean = 14.31 Scale SD = 6.35 Note. Event C=Relationship Break-Up; Event D=Accident Direct Ask Cry/Pout Verbal Hint/Complain Sigh/Sulk/Fidget Indirect Figure 1 - Support Activation Behaviors Nonverbal Figure 2: 128 Approach Solve Solace Problem Dismiss Escape Avoidance Interactive Coping Behaviors Emotion LIST OF REFERNCES 129 LIST OF REFERENCES Barbee, AP. (1990). Interactive coping: The cheering-up process in close relationships. In S. Duck (Ed.), Personal relationships and social supmrt (pp. 46-65). London: Sage. 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