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Women in Television Production

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The Continuous Struggle

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WOMEN IN TELEVISION PRODUCTION
IN SOUTH CENTRAL MICHIGAN:
THE CONTINUOUS STRUGGLE

By

Traci Runata Robinson

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulﬁllment of the requirements
for the degree of

Master of Arts

Department of Com Arts and Sciences

1 997

ABSTRACT
WOMEN IN TELEVISION PRODUCTION
IN SOUTH CENTRAL MICHIGAN:
THE CONTINUOUS STRUGGLE
By

Traci Runata Robinson

Women who work behind the scenes in television production are severely
underrepresented in the television industry. The faces of women in front of the camera
have grown signiﬁcantly over the years. However, the number of women who work in
key positions behind the camera, such as director or producer, has not changed much over
the past twenty years. Women are almost nonexistent behind the scenes in the production
world.

Questionnaires were mailed to thirty-one women who work behind the scenes in
the Mid-Michigan area. On-camera interviews were held with two women who work at
the commercial cable channel WXON-TV and the Government Access Channel in
Detroit, Michigan. The data showed that there are a lot of positive aspects when working
in the production ﬁeld, such as women received the same responsibilities and beneﬁts as
men. However, many are faced with sex and race discrimination that often hinders them

from advancing to key positions.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to extend my warm and sincere thanks to Lisa Whitting for listening to my
problems and for encouraging me to keep going. To my thesis advisor Dr. Mody, I know
I drove you crazy but I appreciate your patience and kindness. Bob, thanks for making
me improve my mistakes even when I didn’t want to. To my family, I don’t know what I
would have done without my mother and my brother, thanks for keeping me focused all
of these years. Roy, you are my rock and I love you for putting up with me during my
stressful moments. Teni, Shanell and Nicole, words could not express my gratitude. You
three have given a new meaning to the word “friendship” and I appreciate your

encouragement and support.

Traci Runata Robinson

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Research Objective

Organization of Study

Introduction

Portrayal of Women on TV

Jobs for Women

Behind the Scenes Employment

African Americans and the Race to the top
News Representation

Salaries

Correlation of Women Employees Behind the Scenes to Women
Portrayals

Women of the Future

Fewer Jobs for Women: Reasons

Lack of Technical Preparation

Lack of Incentives

Research Method: Video Documentary
Conclusion

Appendix A

Appendix B

List of References

11

12

13

13

16

18

19

19

21

27

30

31

34

WOMEN IN TELEVISION PRODUCTION
IN SOUTH CENTRAL MICHIGAN:
THE CONTINUOUS STRUGGLE

RESEARCH OBJECTIVE

The main purpose of this thesis is to document the challenges faced by the small
number of women who work behind the scenes in television in the mid-Michigan area.

This study examined women, in general, and African American women particular.

ORGANIZATION OF STUDY

This thesis is divided into the following sections: Introduction, Portrayal of
Women in Television, Jobs for Women, Fewer Jobs for African American Women:

Reasons, Research Method: Video Documentary, and Conclusion.

INTRODUCTION

When a person watches the credits at the end of a television program, the majority
of the names that appear next to key positions such as director or producer, are male.
According to Coyle (1988), the television industry is characterized by male (patriarchal)
dominance. The patriarchal dominance Coyle described is deﬁned by Webster's
dictionary as follows- patriarch: a man revered as father or founder (as of a tribe).
Dominance is deﬁned as authority or control.

2

Society has assigned men and women conﬁning gender roles that have developed
ideologies as rationalizations. These gender ideologies are the basis of sex stereotypes.
We live in a culture built on a particular set of gender assumptions and structured to
amplify if not produce gender asymmetries and inequalities; we come to view these
differences as part of the natural world (Creedon, 1988).

"Support" jobs such as secretary, nurse, teacher, or domestic worker were
assigned to women when they initially entered the paid work force. Women were not
supposed to become doctors, lawyers or managers. This territory was preserved primarily
for men. Women were usually told to stay at home and let the man obtain the education
needed to take care of the household since he was considered the "breadwinner" of the
family. These were gender-based occupational stereotypes.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony started the woman's suffrage
movement in the United States. During 1910, women went to work on the assembly lines
of wartime factories due to the men called to the war effort. Although many men were
unimpressed by suffrage arguments, the sight of women doing "men's wor " in the heat,
noise, and danger of war, affected public opinion in the United States (Butler, 1980).
Woman's suffrage was not actually won to the ﬁrst world war. In 1994, the number of
women graduating with bachelor degrees from professional schools was substantial, for
example, 60% of those receiving law degrees were women, 60% of the business majors
were women, 35% of those receiving communication degrees and 50% of those receiving

visual and performing arts majors were women (Almanac of Higher Education, 1995).

PORTRAYAL OF WOMEN ON TV

A group is said to be stereotyped whenever it is depicted or portrayed in such a
way that all its members appear to have the same set of characteristics (Liebert &
Sprakin, 1988).

Television works with the stereotypes articulated in the Introduction. During the
50s, television tended to portray the "all-American family" as one in which, typically, the
father worked in an ofﬁce, while the mother supervised the running of the family's
suburban home. June Cleaver, the wife on "Leave It to Beaver,” is a perfect example of
this. The increasing trend of popular television shows during the late 505 and 60s
reiterated the norm that a woman's place was in the home and not at work. Many authors
wonder if there is an apparent simple link between imagery and participation of women in
the media. Gallagher (1981) states that women often ﬁnd their identity from images
constructed in the media and those images generally contribute to and reﬂect their
subordination in society.

During the 70s, the stereotype basically stayed the same. Carol Brady re-
emphasized the importance of staying at home with the children on the ever popular
program, "The Brady Bunch." Television in the early 80$ began to portray a different
aspect of the female stereotype. Women began to appear more sexual and tougher.
Programs such as the "Dukes of Hazzard or Wonder Woman," showed women wearing
tight clothing that showed off their legs. This was a huge step from the Carol Brady and
June Cleaver days. While women were told by the images presented by the media that
it was only appropriate for a woman to allow the man of the house to take care of them,

they were also told that the only way a woman would be accepted in society was through

tight clothes and a tough attitude. This type of subordination limited their self-esteem
about their place in life. According to Muir (1987), children were shown a one-sided
(basically male) view of the part that women played in our society. Women themselves
were presented with models which were far from reality, making individuals feel isolated
and aberrant when they did not conform to these stereotypes, which inhibited, rather than
stimulated their belief in their actual strength and capabilities.

The “sex object” stereotype continued to increase as the years passed. In the late
803, the hit program “The Golden Girls,” presented a unique portrayal of women. This
show was about four older single women. First, Blanche, a main character on the show,
was so sex-crazed that she had a hard time keeping up with the men she slept with.
Although Blanche was a senior citizen by age, she often wore tight clothing to make her
appear younger than what she was. Second, Rose was the naive blond of the group. She
never caught on to the fact that men often used her. Dorothy, on the other hand, could
not catch a man because she was tall, outspoken and dominating. Lastly, there was
Sophia, the oldest of the group and Dorothy's mother. Even at her old age, she still had a
strong sex drive and she was not ashamed to talk about it.

In the 908, another example of a program that presented women in a demeaning
manner is the ever popular show, “Baywatch.” This Show displays a large number of
well-endowed women portraying lifeguards in revealing swim wear. The only positive
aspect of "Baywatch" is that women were working alongside men, but at what cost? The
presentation of women on television takes from the gender ideologies created by society
and ampliﬁes the stereotype to attract larger audiences.

On the other hand, there was a lot of positive progression involving women
representation. Shows such as “NYPD Blue,” “Star Trek Voyager,” “X-Files,” and “ER”
present positive portrayals of women. In these programs, women are detectives, captains
of a ship, special agents, and doctors. This is a signiﬁcant step, however, the negative

5

portrayals still exist which undoubtedly effects the way women are perceived in society.

The negative portrayals of Blacks on television has unfortunately been one-sided.
During the 605, the few Blacks that did appear on television were depicted derogatorily as
“coons”, “mulattos”, “bucks” or “mammies”. Newcomb and Alley (1983) state that
Black women are the only group in this society declared "ugly" and "unfeminine" $1339.21
due to the stereotypes of the mammies of the sixties. A majority of Americans are not
watching these types of programs, then they are viewing shows that may only have a
small or zero percentage of Black actresses gracing their screens. For example, it is rare
that one would see a Black actress on hit broadcast TV shows "Frazier" or "Friends."

Not only are Black women forced to ﬁght even harder than White women, due to
sex and racial prejudices, but they also have to break down the forces of stereotypes of
appearance. Wilson and Gutierrez (1981) maintain that media-industry employment data
clearly reveal that minorities have virtually no influence in determining how they are
represented. Resulting media images are, therefore, fashioned through eyes of non-
minority creators and decision making.

Some negative stereotyping of African Americans continued into the 90s as
millions of Americans watched shows such as "Dangerous Minds," where most of the
women or young adults presented are from a minority background. These adolescents in
the show come from poverty-stricken homes or gang related communities. The teacher of
this class is a white female, who is there to save these children from the war on the
streets.

The development of middle-class audiences of women and African Americans in
the 19908, and the expansion of cable channels have led to separate TV channels for these

market segments (e. g. Lifetime and BET).

JOBS FOR WOMEN

Since men usually occupy higher key positions in the television industry, their
actions and decisions naturally reﬂect male norms and priorities. The industry is
designed and structured around their interests due to the fact that men have the power to
deﬁne the organization. Men participate knowingly or unknowingly in a system of
privilege. In this organization, work hierarchies are the place where gender identities are
lived out daily. It is apparent that such a male hierarchy as television is maintained
despite formal equality because masculinity itself remains an essential qualiﬁcation and
quality required for the occupancy of many key positions within the occupational
structure and hierarchy (Coyle, 1988). When the male gender produces a story, that story
is usually structured towards the male point of view. This is not only unfair to the women
who are unable to break through the barriers of the “glass ceiling” but it is also unfair to
society and children who are unable to view many programs on television from a female's
point of view.

The number of women in front of the TV camera has increased but the
representation of women found behind the camera remains relatively small. Due to the
large audiences and long hours TV is on in the average home, television has an enormous
impact on American life. Thus, employment practices of the broadcasting industry have
an importance greater than that suggested by the number of its employees. The
enforcement of equal opportunity in employment in broadcasting could therefore
contribute signiﬁcantly toward reducing and ending discrimination in other industries
(US. Commission on Civil Rights, 1977).

The Equal Employment Opportunity Act (1972) made it possible for women to

enter the workforce. The intent of the law is clear: employees are not to discriminate on
the basis of sex. However, the Bureau of Labor Statistics show equally qualiﬁed women
in the work force are paid 71 cents for every dollar a comparable male earned (Jet, 1997).

Affirmative action was the next step after the introduction of the EEO (Equal
Employment Opportunity Act). The process of afﬁrmative action (discrimination in
favor of a historically disadvantaged group) could be viewed as a shameful and
unnecessary act in a country where “all men are created equal”. The only problem with
afﬁrmative action is that it does not introduce a way of changing attitudes: what it does
not provide is a strategy for effective intervention which will change this situation; there
is no blueprint for ensuring equality of opportunity and similarig of outcome; there is no
model for organizational change of this kind (Coyle, 1988).

Behind the scenes emplovm_e_n_t_; If there was ever any doubt that sexism was rampant in
American society, off-camera developments in television broadcasting have dispelled it
(Straincharnps, 1974). Women have had a hard time entering the television industry,
although it is unclear whether this is due to lack of trained women. Women are hired as
clericals, they were not seen as producers or directors.

The brave few who do pursue technical and managerial grades both jeopardize
their feminine status and never quite come to (masculine) par. In a man's world, they are
in a sense segregated from their male colleagues by their gender. A female's world does
not exist once one enters into the production world. This process may be a greater hurdle
than formal entry requirements; it involves leaving behind all popular notions of
femininity (Coyle, 1988). Therefore, women are not allowed to act as women in order to
be viewed as an equal counterpart. Regardless if a women are able to get their foot in the
door behind the scenes of television, they still ﬁnds many obstacles placed in the way for

8

them to achieve higher positions. According to Larissa Grunig, women...often encounter
a “glass ceiling” that limits the likelihood of their advancement (Creedon, 1989). This
“glass ceiling” is what hinders women from making independent decisions or advancing
to key positions where one would have the power to make those decisions. Most of the
power behind the camera lies in the hands of the director, producer, or management. The
director is responsible for making sure that all cooperate to create the sound and images
which will produce the desired effect. The producer usually has the overall responsibility
for a production and often has the ﬁnal say in all decision-making regarding the program
(Muir, 1987). The management consists of the general manager or those who work in
the ofﬁce of the station. These people usually make the decision as to who gets hired.

In the 19708, the management of the major networks (ABC, NBC, CBS), who
generate signiﬁcant proﬁts, employed very few women in signiﬁcant jobs behind the
scenes. In 1973, there were some 600 people working for ABC. One hundred and ﬁfty
were women. Most of those were secretaries. Five females were associate producers; six
females were full producers; and there were ﬁve female production associates. NBC did
not have any women working as camera operators, engineers, technical directors, unit
managers, or in top management. There were female associate producers because NBC
has benefited from women working harder and longer for less pay than men on the job.
CBS had approximately twenty-ﬁve network producers, three were women; of the thirty
associate producers, fewer than ten were women (Strainchamps, 1974).

With the Enactment of the Equal Employment Opportunity Act, it would appear
that women began to progress somewhat in the employment world of television. In the
late 1970s, the US. Civil Rights Commission (p.11-113) reported women represented
roughly 49% of producers in eight major television stations in the United States, 11% of

directors, 2% in the category of editors, approximately 39% of writers, 23% of promotion

and graphic artists, and 7% of ﬂoor manager positions. See Figure A-l that shows the

signiﬁcant strides that appear to have been made by the television industry in 1977.

However, a survey of eight stations conducted by the US Commission on Civil
Rights found misrepresentation of the actual status of women employees. One station
classiﬁed a wide range of jobs held by women in the ofﬁcial and manager category, many
of were actually clerical in nature. Their titles included: supervisor of word processing,
news administrator, supervisor of broadcast log, administration (in charge of scheduling
union personnel), sales service administrator (in charge of computer printouts),
administrator of budgeting and bookkeeping, and manager of sales trafﬁc. None of these
job titles appear to ﬁt FCC's deﬁnition for ofﬁcial and manager positions (US
Commission on Civil Rights, 1977). The casual observer may have been under the
impression that women held an upper level positions, but in actuality, the position that
they held were merely false titles to adhere to the FCC law. It appeared that such

” u

managerial titles as “supervisor, administrator,” and “manager,” were used to justify the
inclusion of these positions under the ofﬁcial and manager category, but they more aptly
denoted clerical positions (US Commission on Civil Rights, 1977).

In the late 805, the number of women who worked behind the scenes did not
change signiﬁcantly. The “Golden Girls” had predominantly male producers, directors,
and writers working on their sets. The surprising aspect of the “Golden Girls” was that
this particular show starred four women. Although this situation seemed to show
numbers of women on the screen were improving, the actual portrayal of these women
conformed to the ideologies of men. The “Golden Girls” had 11% women producers, 0%
women directors and 16% women writers. In the 908, the program “Baywatch,” shows
many women on the screen but they are portrayed on the beach in revealing swim wear;

the show has 0% women producers, 0% women directors and only 18% women writers

10

(Steenland, 1990).

Inspite of a predominately male crew a few programs such as “N YPD Blue,” “Star
Trek Voyager,” “The X-Files,” and “ER” actually portray women in a positive manner.
Unfortunately, other programs have not followed. This means that society itself is
changing, however, more is needed especially behind the scenes of television in order for
the deterioration of negative stereotypes which still hinder women in the present day.
In entertainment series on the major networks (ABC, CBS, NBC and FOX), women made
up 15% producers, only 9% directors, and 25% writers. The new network FOX had the
highest percentage of women producers, writers and directors - 26% producers, 33%
writers and 12% directors. FOX has managed to surpass its competition where women
employment was concerned. CBS ranked second with 20% producers, 29% writers and
11% directors; NBC ranked third with 16% producers, 22% writers and 8% directors;
ABC ranked last with 8% producers, 22% writers and 8% directors (Steenland, 1990).
Figures B-l, B-2, and 8-3 in Appendix B show women employment behind the scenes in
the spring 1990 season.

African Americans And The Race To The Top: Wage differences and promotions are
often attributed to employee' education, age, IQ skills and abilities and job experience.
However, economists admit that these factors alone do not explain more than 50 percent
of wage differences in the country's population. Black women are still underrepresented
in the television industry. Statistics released by the FCC showed that in 1982, minorities
only held about 17% of all jobs in broadcast television. Although the number of minority
“ofﬁcials and managers” were 9%, it was in the category of low authority positions
(Wilson and Gutierrez, 1985).

11

News Represengtation: Societal gender-based employment patterns are reflected in
television news. Not only is it hard to ﬁnd a woman anchor (only 21% in 1994) on a
national network but it is even more difﬁcult to ﬁnd any women behind the camera in
news. A survey conducted by Pinnacle Communications in 1992 showed that only 18%
of news directors were women; 45% of station promotion jobs are headed by women. In
the managerial department, women occupy only 26% of the top ﬁve management
positions. Women are not only underrepresented behind the scenes of the newsroom but
many women felt that they see disadvantages for them in areas of salary (91%),
promotions (83%) and power (87%) (Media Report to Women, 1992). Obviously, this is
a huge leap for women since the 19605 but it is not enough to provide an equal balance in
the credits where the names of the males and females who worked hard on the production
are placed. However, a survey released by Vernon Stone, professor at the University of
Missouri School of Journalism, found that women had made a signiﬁcant increase since
1992. Stone found that 21% of the news directors in 1994 were women, compared to
16% in 1990 to 8.5% in 1993. The survey also found women increasing their share of the
news work force from 34% in 1990 to 35% in 1993 and 36% in 1994 (Media Report to
Women, 1995).

On the contrary, minorities found it even harder to survive or even exist in the
news room. The minority share of news directors dropped from 10% in 1990 to 8.5% in
1993 and 8% in 1994 (Media Report to Women, 1995). Obviously, according to the
statistics presented, women, in general, have a hard time beating the odds in news. But
Black women have two prejudices against them - the fact that they are women and, that
they are of color. This not only forces them to face the barriers of sex discrimination but

Black women also have to overcome the obstacles of racial discrimination.

12

Sal_ar_i_e_s; Most women employed in television are less well-paid than men (Coyle,
1988). Unfortunately, this is a national reality in all occupations. In 1981, the Census
Bureau released ﬁgures showing that full-time male workers received a median annual
salary of $21, 881. The equivalent ﬁgure was $13, 915, about 59% of what men earned.
The main reason for this situation is that 80% of all women hold down so-called “pink
collar” jobs where the pay has traditionally been low; women constitute 98.3%
receptionists and other low entry status jobs (Gager 1983). Unfortunately, even if women
are equally educated, they still find discrimination.

The American Public Television Association did a study of salaries for public
television in the United States in 1972. This study showed that female managers earned
about $12,000 and male managers earned about $21,000; female directors earned about
$10,000 and male directors earned about $11,000. The study also indicated that when all
positions are included, we ﬁnd that women have an average salary of $7690 and men

have an average salary of $10,970 (Butler, 1980).

 

Correlation of Women Employees Behind the Scenes to Women's Portrayals: Many

wonder if there is a link between the underrepresentation of women employees in key
positions behind the camera, and the stereotype portrayals of women found in front of the
camera. Although the “link may be to weak to measure,” (Steenland, p. 63),
commonsense indicates the relationship might explain why the trend of stereotyping
women in particular roles has continued throughout the years. Women who have had the
opportunity to act in numerous programs alongside male colleagues suggest progress
since the women's movement. However, the fact that women continue to be found in
demeaning roles says that women still have a long way to go toward the goal of equality
for women.

13

A study of sixty-five prime-time series during the 1995-96 years found that when
women are in positions behind the scenes, female characters become more powerful in
their use of language. When shows employed women behind the scenes, female
characters spoke more often, and introduced topics of conversation and had the last word
more frequently. Female characters also interrupted others signiﬁcantly more often when
shows employed women executive producers or writers (“Making a Difference in Prime
Time,” 1996). They create female characters who speak their minds and talk back to
others.

Other authors seem to concur with the fact that women who work behind the
scenes do contribute to the portrayal of women who work in front of the camera. Without
women present in key positions, there would not be anyone to help change the output so it
reﬂects more adequately women's interests and points of view. According to Coyle
(1988), the absence of women in technical and production jobs, effectively excludes
women both from making a visible contribution to the industry's product and from its
decision making process.

Gallagher (1981) listed several assumptions regarding women's employment.
First, there is a concern for women's employment in the mass media industries in the
development of job opportunities for women at all levels and in the removal of obstacles
to their equal participation in every ﬁeld of work. Second, women's employment rests on
an assumption that there is a link between media output and the producers of that output:
since the presence of women - particularly in creative positions - in media organization is
severely imbalanced in relation to that of men, the assumption is that the images of
women disseminated by mass media reﬂect and express male concepts and
interpretations. The implication of this assumption is that by opening up the media to
women workers on a larger scale, the images which have given cause for concern will
gradually change for the better.

14

While the imbalance seems to favor whites and males in many parts of the
country, in some areas, at least, minorities seem to be making comparatively greater
progress than elsewhere. Between 1960 and 1968, the proportion of white women
engaged in white collar work remained at 68 percent, while the proportion of Negro
women increased from 21 percent to 34 percent. Most of this took place in clerical jobs
(Pluski, 1971 p.82).

Black women said they had never been in work situations where they felt fully
accepted. They were isolated either as women or as Blacks (Butler, 1988).

Many white males who have legitimately earned their place in an organization harbor
resentment as a result of the preferential treatment afforded the "protected" class of
employees--non-whites and women. This resentment was apparent during the 19703. In
1977, the Commission on Civil Rights published its ﬁndings on minority and female
employment in television. During this period, the term "two-fer" became part of the
lexicon of American broadcasting. A "two-fer" was any woman employed in
brOadcasting who happened also to be a member of an ethnic minority group. Broadcast
executives were able to list such women in their hiring statistics twice, once under the sex
category and again under the ethnic category - a "two-for-one" employee. The tabulated
result padded the actual afﬁrmative action employment total. The use of "two—fers" and
other manipulative measures created some unusual employment data reported on
American broadcasters. In an attempt to make the hiring and placement of minorities in
upper-level job categories seem more equitable, the industry reported an astonishing 45 %
increase in ethnic managers between 1971 and 1975. This was done for fear of being
labeled "racist" or "sexist," honest concerns of such employees has often been suppressed.
The resentment is understandable; the circumstances that foster it exist (Wilson and

Gutierrez, 1985).

15

Women have made signiﬁcant progress over the past few decades. The faces of
women in front of the camera has grown signiﬁcantly over the years in a negative and
positive manner. However, the story or plot may still be structured towards a male's point
of view due to underrepresentation of women found behind the camera. Women and
women of color still have a long journey ahead in order to receive equal pay and equality
in promotions. Perhaps the most signiﬁcant development since the 19705 has been the
shift in public attitudes in support of equal pay for equal work. Four out of ﬁve working

Americans now support the idea of equal pay for jobs of equal value (Wright, 1988).

Women of the Future: Many women have begun to establish their own production
companies where they can make the executive decisions as to who gets hired or what type
of programs are produced. Women producers such as Marcy Carsey, Diane English and
Linda Bloodworth-Thomason have been able to break through the ranks of discrimination
to create successful shows such as “Cagney and Lacy” or “Designing Women.” They are
able to make the type of money men earn and they are also able to have complete control
over their shows.

The number of women in the cable industry has grown tremendously over the
years. The percentage of women holding positions as ofﬁcials and mangers grew from
21.5 percent in 1978 to 26.2 percent inl982. In 1994, the number increased to 34.4
percent of all top-level executives (Jobs in Cable, 1995). Two women highly visible
among cable executives are Kay Koplovitz, president of USA Network program service,
and Carolyn Chambers, president of Chambers Cable Communications, Inc., a string of
western cable systems. Koplovitz is one of many female programming executives with a
six-ﬁgure salary; Chambers, a former CPA who recently sold her stock in a large cable
company, is now a multimillionaire (Jobs in Cable, 1995).

16

African American women have made a small difference in society by producing
very successful Black shows that are still on the air today. Susan DePasse, president of
Motown productions, can today be seen on the set of “Sister Sister,” a show centering
around two African American twins. Yvette Lee-Bowser and Winifred Hervey joined
the cast of DePasse. Bowser happens to be the executive producer of “Living Single,” a
show featuring four African American women. This show happens to be the number one
show today among African Americans. The program is currently in its seventh season on
FOX. Hervey has won awards for her work on programs such as “Benson” and “The
Steve Hervey Show” (ﬁlm, 1995). Hervey is currently the executive producer of “In
the House,” a show featuring an African American cast, can be seen regularly on UPN 50.
DePasse has won several Emmys for her work as executive producer on shows such as
“Motown 25: Yesterday, Today, Forever” and “Motown Returns to the Apollo” (Hill,
Raglin and Johnson, 1990).

Women writers have also increased over the past twenty years. They hold
executive positions on sitcoms and dramas alike, where they develop characters and
shape the season’s story line. A number of women are successful writers for action
shows (Steenland, 1990).

The trend begins to take affect when one realizes that, of all the media together
(commercial and public television, radio, magazines, newspapers, ﬁlms and books), men
hold almost 80% of the desirable positions (Butler, 1988).

The slowly increasing number of women in mass communication careers is a
signiﬁcant change, presumably with potential for bringing about some changes in the

dominant value system (Gallagher, 1988).

17

FEWER JOBS FOR WOMEN:
REASONS

The notion of a melting pot in the US. assumes all groups will melt into one
common identity. In Canada, the state supports the concept of a "tossed salad" where
different groups are encouraged to retain and celebrate their unique appearances and
identity. Assimilation in the melting pot can make for superﬁcial harmony. Effective
management in organizations today and in the future will require a departure from
traditional management methods that could succeed when organizations were more
homogenous. With the inﬂux of new workers bringing in their different values, beliefs,
and cultural orientations, the "culture" of the organizations, particularly television, itself
is bound to change (The University of Virginia Newsletter, 1990).

Lack of self-esteem becomes a factor and this may explain why many African
Americans do not posses the conﬁdence needed to survive in a medium that does not
represent them fully in front of the camera nor behind it. According to Berry and
Mitchell-Keman (1978), self-esteem is derived from two main sources: the self and
other's perception of one’s self...the values and standards are learned from others and
one's self—esteem is dependent on their judgment. Without self-esteem, one cannot
survive in a harsh and sometimes brutal world.

There are several reasons why women are still plagued by sex discrimination,
despite all the legislation to the contrary. These range from sex discrimination in hiring
and promotion into middle and top management positions to sex discrimination in the
development of lower-level women managers, which leaves them unprepared to gain the
experience or training to advance to higher positions; or less interest among women to
succeed in management careers (Powell, 1988 p.82).

18

Some authors believe that the reasons for the underrepresentation of women of
color deals with the economic status, political power, body of knowledge and the
women's movement, which did not address the problems of minorities (Butler, 1988). If
employers had better understanding of different cultures, than it would not be difﬁcult to
accept people of color as individuals. Unfortunately, the mass media may have
deliberately or unintentionally contributed to the political and economic forces in

America that have perpetuated Black women's low status.

Lack of Technical HeDLNon: A major problem which could contribute to the
prevailing situation is that women have been ill prepared for some of the technical
changes that are taking place. Many women who have acquired little more than the
traditional skills which they were stereotyped into accepting in the past, have thus failed
to train themselves in some of the skills that are currently becoming more and more
necessary for those desirous of advancing in their careers. Women also need to have as
much experience in television production, especially in the new technologies that change
the way television programs are developed. Women are rarely being given the training
and education which is necessary to enhance career opportunity and so women become

increasingly restricted to unskilled clerical and secretarial work (Diamond, 1987).

Lack of Incentives: Yet another reason why women are not allowed to advance into key
positions is the lack if incentives for companies to promote women into those higher
ranks. This tendency is especially present, where women are relatively more expensive
due to maternity issues than men.

The reason behind the difference in salaries and promotions between men and
women lies in the apparent fact that women lack political and economic power (Gager,

19

1974). In a world where women's access to political, economic and cultural systems is
limited, this is what tends to exclude them from active participation (Gager, 1974).
Without the ammunition of political power, it is hard to win a battle. Men's strength lies
in the way in which an ideology of gender, of expectations of masculinity and femininity,
is lived out in the collective practice of an organization (Coyle, 1988).

Butler (1980) believes the reasons also lie in the attitude of management that
women need less money than men. Married women who are bringing in a second income
for the family are placed at disadvantage both by management's attitude and by their own

training not to be pushy in demanding fair pay.

20

RESEARCH METHOD: VIDEO DOCUMENTARY

Research indicated thirty-three women are employed behind the scenes at WLNS-
TV, WKBD-TV, WXON—TV, WWI-TV, WDIV-TV, Time Warner Cable, Comcast
Cable, and Detroit Government Television in South-Central Michigan. Preliminary
mailed questionnaires elicited the following responses from ﬁve women who work
behind the scenes in television in South-Central Michigan. The ﬁve women worked at

WXON-TV, Comcast Cable, UPN 50 and the Government Access Channel in Detroit.

How long have you held your current position?
Two women had held their position for three years. One woman had been in her position
for over ten years. The other two women had been in their occupations for seven years

and six months.

What decisions do you make independently in your present job?
Most women made a majority of the decisions regarding the way their programs were

structured. However, the ﬁnal decisions were made by their supervisors.

How would you rate your satisfaction on this job: Very Satisﬁed, Satisfied,
Unsatisﬁed?

The majority of women were satisﬁed with their jobs.

What are some of the beneﬁts of your job?
Access to people and places without anyone looking over their shoulders was mentioned.

Flexibility and variety of jobs were also mentioned as beneﬁts.

21

What is the average salary range for someone in your occupation with your
experience?

Producer (Cable) - $25,000

Producer (Commercial TV) - $35,000

Editor - $25.00 an hour

Director of Public Affairs - $40,000

Do you think you are given the same responsibilities as men in this job?

Most women felt that they were given the same responsibilities as men.

Do you think you are expected to do more than a man in this job?

Most felt that they were not expected to do more than men in the same job.

Do you think you are more motivated than men in this job?

The majority of women did not feel as if they were more motivated than men.

Do you think women in general have to work harder than men who have the same
job?
Most women said that women, in general, have to work harder than men in order to prove

themselves.

Do you work longer hours than men on the same job?

Men and women basically work the same hours in production.

22

What are the problems you face in this present job?
Women felt men had the upper-hand. Men basically controlled their future in terms of

raises or instructions or requiring them to do something that is not in their job description.

How much of this is because you are a woman?

Everything

How many previous jobs in production have you had?

The average was between ﬁve and seven jobs.

And what were they?

Most previous experience was producing local shows.

What kinds of problems have you faced in your previous jobs?

One woman felt discriminated against because she was African American and a woman.

The other women experienced wage discrimination and lack of help with the work load.

What factors helped you get where you are in your career today?

Most women perceived they had to work harder to get to their present job status.

What is your highest level of education?

Mostly some college education

Please tell us what specialized education you have in TV production.
Two women attended Specs Howard Broadcast School. The other women had

23

experience from college courses and internships.

What needs to be done to improve the quality and the number of women choosing
TV production as a career today?
One woman said more female production companies. The other women said more

experience in production from schools or more women willing to go out and teach.

How has the portrayal of women on TV shows changed in general?
The women surveyed felt that women are deﬁnitely more independent and stronger on

television. There has been a signiﬁcant change since the 19505.

How has the portrayal of women on TV shows produced at your station changed?

More women are taking positions of power on the shows produced at their stations.

If you think there have been changes, why do you think this change occurred?

Women are being more respected and are generally being accepted in the work force.

According to this study, women have made some progress in areas of decision
making, beneﬁts, salaries, responsibilities, and the hours worked on the job in
comparison to men. However, this study dealt with a small number of women. There is
still a lot of work to be done because the women who participated in the study felt that
men had the upper-hand and men basically controlled their future as far as raises and
promotions were concerned. Most of the women had dealt with some type of
discrimination whether it was sex or race related. The most interesting aspect of the
study dealt with the fact that most of women did not attend an accredited university. This
could be the reason why women have a hard time entering the television industry.

24

Education and training are essential aspects for women who want to enter the world of

television production.

On screen interviews were held with two women. One is the director of public affairs and
the other is a producer, both at cable television stations. The interviews focused on the

following questions:

1. What is your present job?
How long have you held your current position?

What decisions do you make independently in your present job?

99’!"

How would you rate your satisfaction on this job: Very Satisﬁed, Satisﬁed,

Unsatisﬁed?

5. What are some of the beneﬁts of your job?

6. What is the average salary range of someone in your occupation with your
experience?

7. Do you think you are given the same responsibilities as men in this job?

8. Do you think you are expected to do more than a man in this job?

9. Do you think you are more motivated than men in this job?

10. Do you think women in general have to work harder than men who have the same
job?

11. Do you work longer hours than men on the same job?

12. a. What are the problems you face in this present job?

b. How much of this is because you are a woman

25

13. a. How many previous jobs in production have you had?
b. And what were they?

14. What kinds of problems have you faced in your previous jobs?

15. What factors helped you get where you are in your career today?

16. What is your highest level of education?

17. Please tell us what specialized education you have in TV production?

18. What needs to be done to improve the qualities and the number of women choosing
TV production as a career today?

19. a. How has the portrayal of women on TV shows in general changed?
b. How has the portrayal of women on TV shows produced at your station changed?

20. If you think there have been changes, why do you think this change occurred?

26

CONCLUSION

During recent decades, much has been achieved for women's rights in the work
place and in society as a whole. Due to legislation and federal laws, women have been
able to achieve greater representation in television production than their fore mother's of
the women’s movement. The problem, however, is not simply to open up media
employment to women, but at the same time to work towards changing cultural value
systems which at present not only accord women lower status but also frequently leave
them unaware of the fact (Gallagher, 1988).

On screen portrayals of women has changed over the years. Some negative
stereotyping has continued since the 605 but there has been a positive change with shows
such as “ER” or “NYPD Blue.” Unfortunately, the negative stereotypes have impeded
women in gaining equality because of the gender ideologies created by the patriarchal
dominance. However, society is deﬁnitely changing for the better when women are
presented in occupations such as doctors, lawyers and detectives.

The jobs behind the camera still indicate that women are underrepresented in that
field. Data from the spring 1990 season indicates that women make up ﬁfteen percent of
producers, nine percent of directors and twenty-ﬁve percent of writers in the major
networks. The reason why there is a small number of women who work behind the
scenes could be related to sex discrimination in society. Until this problem is combated,
women will have a hard time being accepted as equal counterparts. It is important to have
an adequate representation of women behind the camera in order to provide society a

balance of programs that reﬂect a male and female's point of view.

27

The literature review also indicates lack of incentives for men and corporations to
hire women. There are more women writers than producers and directors. This could be
because fewer women are trained for these jobs. This could also be due to the fewer
women who apply for these stressful project management time-pressure jobs. But it
could also be because men do not think women are tough enough to handle the high-
stress jobs of production and direction.

One of the main reasons why there is a limited number of African American
women found behind the scenes is because they have to ﬁght two prejudices against
them. The fact that they are of color and the fact that they are part of a subordinate
gender group. Another important reason is due to the lack of conﬁdence possessed by
that particular group towards a medium that does not respect them fully in front of the
camera. This lack of conﬁdence is derived from the years of derogatory stereotypes
developed from the presentation of “mammies” and the “mulattos.”

According to the questionnaires mailed in South-Central Michigan, the ﬁve
women indicated that they made most of the decisions regarding the structure of their
work. The ﬁnal decision may be made by their supervisors but this is usually how the
system operates in TV and most occupations. The women also stated that they are given
the same responsibilities as men. The most beneﬁcial aspect of their jobs was that they
had access to people and places without anyone looking over their shoulders to make sure
the job was being completed. Another positive aspect of women’s work behind the
scenes in mid-michigan dealt with the fact that they basically worked the same hours as
men. At their particular stations, more women are getting positions of power on shows.
The reason for this change is that women are being more respected and accepted in the
work force.

28

The limited responses to the mailed questionnaire showed there are a lot of
positive aspects in women’s work situations in the TV production ﬁeld. However, there
were negative aspects too. The women stated that their male supervisors had the upper-
hand and that men basically controlled their future in terms of raises and promotions.
The most important aspect stated by all of the women was that women, in general, had to
work harder to advance in their careers. Many of the women have faced problems with
maternity leave, lack of help with the work load and discrimination based on sex and
race.

In comparing the women who work in South-Central Michigan to the small
number of women on a national level, it is apparent that more women are needed in the
key positions, such as director or producer, to continue the struggle towards equality.
Since most of women in the study did not attend a four year university, they stressed the
importance of education. Another solution calls for more female production companies
in order to create the type of environment that women can comfortably work in. TV
employment reﬂects the gender and racial imbalance at the societal level. Without the
knowledge by male employers that the task towards equality is still incomplete, women,
in general and those belonging to minority communities, cannot expect to have equal

access to creative and executive level positions.

29

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

FIGURE A-l

Women's employment behind the scenes in TV at eight
major television stations in 1977.

 

E 1877 eteﬂetiee ofwomen employment of eight major television stations In the
i United State

 

 

 

 

Source: U.S. Civil Rights Commission, 1977.

30

 

 

APPENDIX B

FIGURE B-1

Women's employment behind the scenes in TV at the major
networks in the spring prime time entertainment programs:
TV producers.

—
NETWORKS RANKED av PERCENTAGE or WOMEN PRODUCERS

30

 

259$

 

 

PERCENTAGE

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Source: Steenland, 1990.

31

FIGURE B-Z

Women's employment behind the scenes in TV at the major
networks in the spring 1990 prime time entertainment programs:
TV directors.

 

NETWORKS RANKEO av PERCENTAGE OF WOMEN DIREcmRS
14

 

1’0 ,

 

 

PERCENTAGE

 

 

 

 

Source: Steenland, 1990

32

FIGURE 3—3

Women's employment behind the scenes in TV at the major
networks in the spring 1990 prime time entertainment programs:
TV writers.

—
NETWORKS RANKEO av PERCENTAGE OF WOMEN WRIIERs

35

 

299%

   
 

22% 22%

     

RCENTAGE

Pi

 

 

 

 

Source: Steenland, 1990

33

LIST OF REFERENCES

LIST OF REFERENCES

19905 Bring Mixed Results For Women, Minorities in Broadcasting. (1991). Media
Rewrt to Women. 1_9_ (1).

Amato, M. (1995) . Jobs in Cable. & pp.73-74.
Butler, M. (1980). Women and the Mass Media. New York: Human Sciences Press.

Coyle, P., & Skinner, J. (Eds). (1988). Women and Work. New York: University
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Creedon, P. (1989). Women In Mass Communication: Challenging Gender Values.
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Creedon, P. (1993). Women In Mass Communication: Challenging Gender Values.
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Diamond, E. (1987). Theories of Career Development and the Reality of Women at
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Ebony. October 1995, pp.65.
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Gallagher, M. (1981). Une ual Itunities: The Ca_se of Women and the Media.
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Gallagher, M. (1995). An Unﬁnished Stog: Gender Patterns in Media Employment.
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Hill, G., Raglin, L., & Johnson, F. (1990). Black Women in Televison: An Illustrated
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Libert, R., & Spraﬂdn, J. (1988). The Eprlv Window. New York: Pergamon Press.

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34

Newcomb, H. & Alley, R. (1983). The Producer’s Medium. New York: Oxford
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News Item. (May 1997). g. 9_1 (25), 4.

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Pluski, H. (editor) (1971). Reference Libra_ry of Black America. New York: Belweather
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Powell, G. (1988). Women and Men in Management. Newberry Park, CA: Sage
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Steenland, S. (1990). What’s Wrong With This Picture. Washington, DC: National
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Strainchamps, E. (1974). Room With No View: A Woman’s Guide To the Man’s World
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35

   

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