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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

PERCEIVED SCHOLASTIC COMPETENCE, SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE,
AND CLOSE FRIENDSHIPS AMONG FEMALE
ATHLETES AND NONATHLETES

presented by

Michelle L. Richter

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

 

 

Master of Science degree in Nursing

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DATE DUE DATE DUE BATE DUE

 

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1/98 Mass-p.14

 

PERCEIVED SCHOLASTIC COMPETENCE, SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE,
AND CLOSE FRIENDSHIPS AMONG FEMALE
ATHLETES AND NONATHLETES

BY
Michelle L. Richter

A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN NURSING

College of Nursing

1998

ABSTRACT
PERCEIVED SCHOLASTIC COMPETENCE, SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE,

AND CLOSE FRIENDSHIPS AMONG FEMALE
ATHLETES AND NONATHLETES

BY
Michelle L. Richter

This study examined the perception of scholastic
competence, social acceptance, and close friendships among
athletes and nonathletes.

The study population consisted of 65 females from a
rural midwestern middle school. Analysis was done to
compare perceived scholastic competence (PSC), perceived
social acceptance (PSA), and perceived close friendships
(PCF) between athletes and nonathletes.

The results of this study revealed positive
correlations among PSA, PSC, and PCF. No significant
difference was found between athletes and nonathletes in

relation to PCF, PSA, and PCP.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This thesis would not have been possible without the
data previously collected by Diana Hayes. I wish to extend
my sincerest appreciation to Diana, for her words of
encouragement and her willingness to share this information
for my own research.

I would also like to thank Marty Ewing and Patty Peek
for their support and guidance in completing this project.

Lastly, I am truly grateful to Linda Spence for keeping
me on track during this entire research process and for

believing that I would eventually complete this thesis.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PROBLEM STATEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONCEPTUAL DEFINITIONS OF THE VARIABLES . . . . .
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . .

Scholastic Competence

Social Acceptance . .
Close Friendships . .

HYPOTHESES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O 0

METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Field Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data Collection Procedures and Recording .
Protection of Human Subjects . . . . . . .
Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . .
Operational Definitions of the Variables .

on

Procedures for Scoring and Data Summarizati
Data Analysis and Statistical Procedures .

RESULTS 0 O O O O O O 0

Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reliabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PSA, PSC, and PCP . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Interpretation of Findings . . . . . . . . .

DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . .
Implications for Advanced Practice Nurses
Implications for Nursing Education . . . .
Implications for Future Research . . . . .

iv

0 O O O O

Page

vii

12
12
18
23

26
26
27
27
28
29
3O
32
32

33
33
35
35
41

42
42
44
50
51

TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.)

CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
LIST or REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

APPENDICES
Appendix A: Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents
(Harter, 1986) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Appendix B: UCRIHS Approval Letter . . . . . . . . . 65

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

LIST OF TABLES

Frequency and Percentage of Grade Level and

Sport Participation Among Subjects .

Frequency and Percentage of Age Distribution

Among Subjects

Mean Grade and Age of Subjects .

Reliabilities for PSA, PSC, and PCP

Frequency, Mean and Standard Deviation of PSA,

PSC, and PCP in Relation to Sport

Participation

Frequency, Mean and Standard Deviation of PSA,
PSC, and PCP in Relation to Grade Level .

Summary of T-test for Sport Participation and

PSA, PSC, and PCP .

Summary of Analysis of Variance Significance
of Sport Participation and Grade Level on
and PCP .

PSA, PSC,

Pearson's r Correlation Coefficient of PSA,

PCP, and PCP

vi

34

34

36

36

36

38

39

4O

4O

Figure 1: Competence Motivation Model (Harter,

Figure 2: Competence Motivation Model with Study

LI ST OF FIGURES

1978' p. 38) O O O O O O O O C O O O O O O 0

Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

vii

INTRODUCTION

Although the number of females involved in organized
sports has increased in recent years, the actual number of
male athletes clearly exceeds that of females (Corbin,
1984). In general, physical activity attracts the
participation of males in greater numbers than females
(Paxton, Wertheim, Gibbons, Szmukler, Hillier, & Petrovich,
1991). The smaller percentage of female sport participants
provides some explanation for the lack of research that
exists today involving young, female athletes. With the
many psychological and physiological benefits gained from
physical activity, it is important to understand how such
activity impacts individuals of different gender and age.
Health care providers, including physicians, nurses, nurse
practitioners, physician assistants, psychologists, physical
therapists and social scientists are interested in the
psychological and physiological benefits correlated with
participation in sports and physical activity (Biddle &
Armstrong, 1992; Heaps, 1978; Koniak-Griffin, 1994).

Peer acceptance and relationships are important to the
child making the transition to adolescence. At this age,
individuals are seeking to develop an identity separate from

that of their family (Turner & Helms, 1995). As children

1

2
become adolescents, they seek out peers and activities that
help them identify who and what they are. Often, these
young teenagers find fun, friendship, challenge, and social
acceptance by joining clubs, groups, and teams. Young males
frequently claim that being an athlete impacts their peer
relationships and makes them more socially acceptable (Chase
& Dummer, 1992; Williams & White, 1983). More opportunities
exist today for young females to become involved in
organized sports. As a member of an athletic team, young
girls interact with peers who share a common interest.
Further, research suggests that children believe that
participation on an athletic team provides an opportunity to
make new friends (Weiss & Duncan, 1996; Weiss, Smith, &
Theeboom, 1992).

As children and teenagers become more active in
organized sports, researchers have acknowledged a general
concern that the commitment to a sport may negatively impact
the future academic commitment of the participants (Goldberg
& Chandler, 1989; Kleiber & Malik, 1989; Snyder, 1985).
Although this concern is a logical one, research involving
athletes and their academic success demonstrates that
participation in school sports can positively influence the
academic success of the athlete (Snyder, 1985).

Of importance however, is understanding the motivation
behind an adolescent's decision to attempt to master a
particular skill. Harter's (1978) theory of competence

motivation provides a thorough explanation of the success

3
and failure associated with mastery attempts. An
individual's perception of competence in a given skill
domain affects their mastery attempts in achievement domains
such as academics, sports, and social interactions (Harter,
1978). To examine adolescents' perceived competence in
these various domains, Harter (1986) developed the Self-
Perception Profile for Adolescents (SPPA). Understanding
the perceived competence of an adolescent in these domains
will provide teachers, coaches, health care providers, and
others with an awareness of particular areas of an
adolescent's life that may need special attention and
support.

Regular physical activity provides individuals with the
opportunity for better health, such as lower levels of
stress and a decline in the risk for cardiovascular disease
(Koniak-Griffin, 1994). In addition, physical activity can
lower depression, improve mood and emotional well-being,
strengthen friendships, improve body image, and promote
better self-expression (Heaps, 1978; Kavussanu & McAuley,
1995; Koniak-Griffin, 1994; Volden, Langemo, Adamson, 8
Oechsle, 1990). Friendships, body image and self-expression
are all important factors that influence the overall self-
esteem of young, adolescent girls (Damon, 1983; Harter &
Jackson, 1993). At this very volatile age, health care
providers continually seek ways to help these young clients
feel good about themselves during this time of role

confusion. More research is needed to help understand the

4
role of physical activity in the development of physical,
social, psychological, and academic well-being of young
female athletes.
Problem Statement

Unfortunately, only minimal research exists involving
participation in athletics and the junior high school
population. Even less has been done in regards to females.
Adolescence is a critical time as these young individuals
are seeking to define their own, unique identity and nestle
themselves into a comfortable, accepting peer group (Rice,
1995). Of interest among this age group is the role that
athletics play and how participation in organized sports may
influence the lives of young individuals as they search for
their own identity within society. Because young females in
particular are more likely than males to experience
emotional disturbances, and are less likely to be physically
active, it would be interesting to examine how participation
in organized sports affects this particular population. The
purpose of this study is to determine if a significant
difference exists between athletic and nonathletic girls in
regards to their perceived scholastic competence, social
acceptance, and close friendships.

Conceptual Definitions of the Variables

Sghglastig_ggmpe§enge‘ The level of academic
performance as perceived by an individual. May involve
performance on assignments, tests, and report cards (Harter

& Jackson, 1993).

5

Sggia1_agggptancg‘ Acceptance by peers as perceived by
an individual (Vernberg, 1989). Peer approval can be based
on different types of behavior including social skills,
personality, style of dress, or membership in a popular
group (Rice, 1995; Turner & Helms, 1995). .

Close_fziendship1 A relationship, as perceived by the
individual, made up of the smallest peer group whose members
share similar personalities, values, interests, and
activities (Dacey & Travers, 1996; Turner & Helms, 1995).

Middle_sghggl_§tndentsL Those students currently
enrolled in sixth, seventh, or eighth grade (Harter, Marold,
Whitesell & Cobbs, 1996).

Athletes; Individuals who are members of at least one
organized sports team where scheduled practices and
competition are important features (Duda & Nicholls, 1989).

nonathletes; Those individuals who do not participate
in organized sports (Andre & Holland, 1995).

Theoretical Framework

Individuals are unique beings whose actions are
influenced by many different factors (Dacey & Travers,
1996). Competence motivation is a concept that provides an
explanation for the motivation behind an individual's
decision to act in a particular way (Harter, 1978).
Harter's (1978) model of competence motivation provides an
appropriate framework for the variables in this study.

The general framework for competence motivation begins

with an individual's attempt to master a skill in one of

6
three domains: cognitive, social, and/or physical (Harter,
1978). In applying the variables of the present study to
the competence motivation framework then, the young female
subjects are seeking to achieve scholastic success, social
acceptance, and close friendships.

Harter's (1978) model of competence motivation, as
depicted in Figure 1, addresses both the success and failure
outcomes of mastery attempts. The outer loops of the
diagram identify with more external influences, such as the
individual's socialization history, reward incentives, and
cultural/environmental reinforcement. Consequently then,
the inner loops illustrate the impact of internal factors,
such as the perceived challenge of the task and the pleasure
or anxiety that the task produces.

Although the diagram in Figure 1 depicts a rather
simple path to either success or failure, undoubtedly the
actual process is somewhat more complex (Harter, 1978).
Further, it is unlikely that an individual's mastery
attempts will follow one path (success) or the other
(negative). Harter (1978) suggests in other words, that
although an individual may perceive him/herself as
successful at a particular skill, it is probable that this
individual experienced some degree of failure during his/her
attempts to succeed. The present study's population for
example, may perceive themselves as scholastically
competent, but have received a less than satisfactory grade

at some time in the past. Similarly, the middle school

 

 

 

Competence motivation

 

 

// \\ .

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

INCREASES DBCREASES

Intrinsic pleasure Anxiety in mastery
Perceived competence 7 Optimal challenge A Failure 1, 1’3?”in 13* °_f competence
Internal perception <— Sucess l—r External perception of control 7
of control +

V
Intemalization of Mastery attempts: i Dependence on external
(a) self-reward system Cognitive (a) approval
‘ (b) masfl goals Social (b) goals
Physical

 

 

 

/\ /

 

Positive reinforcement or approval for
independent mastery attempts
Modeling of approval

Lack of reinforcement for dependence

Lack of Reinforcement and/or

Disapproval for independent mastery attempts
Modeling of disapproval

Reinforcement for dependency on Adults

 

 

 

ATHLETES

 

NON-ATHLETES

Figure 1. Competence Motivation Model (Harter, 1978, p.38)

8
student who sees herself as socially accepted has probably
faced more than one insult from a peer during her childhood.

As illustrated in Figure 1, Harter's (1978) competence
motivation framework suggests that several factors impact
the motivation behind an individual's mastery attempts.
Factors that reinforce one's mastery attempts include verbal
approval, cultural acceptance of the skill being attempted,
and support for independent actions and actual attempts. On
the contrary, social disapproval for one's actions or
mastery attempts, along with the reinforcement for
dependency on adults, leads youth more towards failure and
inhibits motivation. In terms of the population in the
present study, positive reinforcement for close friendship
might be an invitation to a friend's house. Verbal support
from a teammate for a young girl's effort in a basketball
game, despite having not scored a single point, provides
positive reinforcement for the individual's actual attempt.
Support for actual mastery attempts enhance an individual's
ability to internalize goals and develop self-reward systems
(Harter, 1978).

Social reinforcement and approval encourages
individuals to develop their own goals and self-rewards
(Harter, 1978). Harter (1978) describes this process as
internalization and suggests that as individuals become more
internally focused, their need for external approval
diminishes. Further, these individuals then, are likely to

feel a greater sense of control which enhances their

9
perception of competence in a given area (Harter, 1978).
Negative reinforcement and frequent disapproval of one's
mastery attempts however, promote a dependency on external
approval and rewards (Harter, 1978).

As illustrated in Figure 1, the actual degree of
challenge that exists in relation to a mastery attempt must
be considered before assuming that an individual will
experience a pleasurable or successful outcome (Harter,
1978). Boredom, in other words, negatively impacts the
motivation behind mastery attempts (Duda & Nicholls, 1992).
Within the present study, the motivation a young girl has
towards her academic career may decline should she find her
school assignments too easy and unchallenging.

The variables of this study are easily applied to
Harter's (1978) theory of competence motivation. The
diagram in Figure 2 provides a thorough illustration of this
study's variables within the competence motivation
framework.

In examining the mastery attempts for the present
study, social acceptance and close friendships in
particular, require some degree of social interaction.
Organized sports is one activity, often available to
adolescents, that provides a social environment where
friendships are formed and strengthened (Weiss et al.,
1996). Young females who participate in organized sports,
such as the population in the present study, may experience

a greater degree of success and pleasure from their mastery

10

 

Motivation to continue/begin

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

INCREASES DECREASES

Pleasure Anxiety, isolation,

High self-esteem low self-esteem
High perceived , a
competence in academ— Companionship Lack of friends Low perceived competence in
ics, socializing with {— Popularity Not accepted + academics, peer interaction
peers r r l by peer group Control of situation based on
Internal control of Poor academic external factors
mahng friends, getting grades
good grades T

, Satisfied vvith self for 7 Mastery attempts: i Need for outside approval
efiort/performance Social acceptance Awards, traphies
Goals based on self set Close friendships Compare self to others
standards Scholastic
Support from peers Poor support from peers
Cultural acceptance 0f mastery attempts Encouraged to seek assistance from others
Encourage] approval for 630“ Disapproval for unsuccessful mastery attempts
ATHLETES NON -ATHLETES

Figure 2. Competence Motivation Model with Study Variables.

11
attempts, as opposed to their peers who do not experience
the social interaction that comes with athletic
participation.

Further, a fair amount of literature identifies one's
peer group as being highly influential during the adolescent
years (Damon, 1983; Erikson, 1982; Rice, 1995). Harter
(1978) also points out the importance of peers during

adolescence and describes the peer group as ...a dispenser
of reinforcements, a determiner of mastery goals, and an
influence on one's self-esteem (p. 54).”

Lastly, it is important to keep in mind that mastery
attempts are likely to be more successful when they are
accepted by society. Competence, in domains valued by peers
of similar age, is believed to improve peer acceptance
(Weiss 8 Duncan, 1992). Female participation in organized
sports has increased over the past several years and
research indicates that such participation is gaining
acceptance throughout society (Corbin, 1984; Greendorfer,
1992). Female athletes like those in the present study
therefore, are not only participating in an activity that
has gained cultural approval, but one that offers a
challenging environment with opportunities to socially
interact with peers, set and achieve goals, improve athletic

skills, and most importantly to experience pleasure and

enjoyment.

12
Review of Literature
Scholastic_£omnstence

As a participant in organized sports, one must find
time and energy to put towards developing and maintaining
athletic skill in both practice and game situations.
Specifically, when the individual participating in a
particular sport is also a student, the individual is faced
with a dual role, where both roles require some degree of
commitment in order to be successful (Goldberg & Chandler,
1989). Research findings that describe the relationship
between athletic and academic performance remain
inconsistent.

As a student involved in organized sports, one is
forced to take on the dual roles of student and athlete
(Goldberg & Chandler, 1989). A general concern is the
potential decline in the commitment to school work and
studying from the student athlete (Kleiber & Malik, 1989;
Snyder, 1985). As more students begin to participate in
school sports, it is important to look closely at how their
time, energy, and role loyalty are divided.

To validate the concern that the academic career of the
student athlete suffers, Snyder (1985) offers several
explanations. These explanations include: the moderate
amount of time and energy required to develop athletic skill
leaves less time to commit to school work; the idea that
academic eligibility requirements may lead to preferential

treatment of the athlete with falsely earned grades; and a

13
lack of enrollment in more difficult courses, such as
college prep classes. Lastly, Snyder (1985) contends that
athletes may have unrealistic views of their athletic skill
and have an unrealistic belief of a professional athletic
career. Although careers as professional athletes have
mainly been limited to males, the development of
professional women's teams, such as the Ladies Professional
Golf Association (LPGA), the Women's National Basketball
Association (WNBA), the American Basketball League (ABL),
and the debut of a women's professional softball league, and
the Women's Elite Soccer League have given females a reason
to strive for careers as professional athletes (Green,
1997).

In his analysis of academic and athletic roles, Snyder
(1985) points out that the majority of studies involving
high school students reveal that athletes, when compared to
nonathletes, perform at the same or higher level in the
academic arena. Arguments supporting the academic
performance of student athletes include: an increased
interest in school spirit from their participation in a
school sport increases the spirit on the academic side as
well; successful athletic experiences increase self worth
which spreads to academic success; participation on a sports
team means hard work, commitment, and success, which can be
carried over into the academic arena (Snyder, 1985).
Further, there may be an eligibility requirement to be met

in order to continue sport participation which can be a

14
motivational factor in itself, as well as, the personal
interest and support from teachers, parents, coaches, and
teammates (Snyder, 1985).

Culture, gender, age and the socialization background
of an individual all influence how he/she perceives his/her
role as student and athlete (Chase & Dummer, 1992; Corbin,
1984; Dacey & Travers, 1996; Kane, 1988; Randall, 1990;
Volden et al., 1990; Williams & White, 1983). As a child
grows and develops, he/she is socialized into his/her role
from the influence of parents, teachers, and other adults,
as well as peers.

Behaviorist theories suggest that the process of
learning occurs from conditioning (Rice, 1995). Skinner and
his study of behavior illustrates that one's behavior is
based on the previously experienced rewards or punishments
for such actions (Turner & Helms, 1995). This may explain
then, the impact that both, verbal and nonverbal feedback
from parents, teachers, and peers have on an individual's
behavior (Rice, 1995). In other words, the perceived
reaction from others can influence a child's motivation and
interest in sports.

A fair amount of literature exists, that documents the
differences between males and females in the area of
athletics (Andre & Holland, 1995; Chase & Dummer, 1992;
Williams & White, 1983). Males are socialized differently
than females as illustrated by studies which report that

boys express a greater desire to be remembered as a super

15
athlete in high school, than do girls (Chase 8 Dummer, 1992;
Goldberg & Chandler, 1989; Kane, 1988; Williams & White,
1983).

Even at birth, males and females are often socialized
differently. As described by behaviorist theories, the
consequences of a child's actions, such as rewards or
punishments, influence the future behavior of the child
(Rice, 1995). Humanist, Carl Rogers, offers further insight
on development and socialization. Rogers suggests that
individuals are “victims of a conditional positive regard"
(Rice, 1995, p. 42), where one receives praise and approval
only when he/she has conformed to the parental and social
standards that surround them. Such developmental theories
help to explain how and why children develop different views
and perspectives, in terms of what their role is, and what
is considered masculine and feminine. In the academic
arena, for example, it has been suggested that mathematics
is a subject more masculine in nature (Randall, 1990). This
belief again brings up the issue of socialization, in that
it is often assumed by parents, teachers, and students
themselves, that boys will perform well in mathematics
(Randall, 1990).

In the past, and probably even still today, the world
of sports emphasizes a masculine as opposed to feminine
interest (Randall, 1990). With this in mind, Randall (1990)
proposed a relationship between the desire of young girls to

participate in sports, demonstrating “masculine interest”,

16
and their mathematics ability (a suggested subject of
masculine nature). Final results involving girls in fourth,
fifth, and sixth grades supported the hypothesis that self-
perception of athletic ability was correlated with
mathematics achievement (Randall, 1990).

In support of individuals involved in both student and
athlete roles, the energy expansion theory, proposes that
more energy is produced when individuals commit themselves
to numerous physical and social activities (Snyder, 1985).
Physical fitness experts defend such a theory in reports
that state exercise is energizing (Fromm & Trustem, 1989)
and may improve the quality of life (Volden et al., 1990).
Physical activity is also hailed to be a way of improving
self-esteem among children and adolescents (Vealey, 1992).
This is important since high levels of self-esteem are
associated with hard work towards achieving goals (Burton,
1992). Goals in this respect, therefore, may include those
involving educational success.

In understanding commitment to Sports and/or education,
it is essential to consider both the intrinsic and extrinsic
factors that are involved. The motivation to participate in
organized sports may be purely intrinsic and done simply for
the enjoyment and challenge of the sport (Biddle &
Armstrong, 1992). Intrinsic factors may also play a role in
the decision to commit oneself to both school and athletics.
In other words, the commitment to both school and sports may

produce a greater sense of accomplishment and personal well-

17
being versus focusing on only one role or the other (Snyder,
1935).

Extrinsic factors may also influence one's desire to
take on both the role of student and athlete. That is, the
rewards reaped from success in this dual role may further
the motivation behind its success (Snyder, 1985). Rewards
from success in both academics and athletics, such as
trophies, companionship, enhanced self-esteem, and social
acceptance all represent some type of achievement.

Lastly, perhaps no longer do individuals desire to be
only an athletic success, the ‘jock', or an academic
success, the “brain“, but instead, as illustrated by
Goldberg and Chandler (1989), today, adolescents want to be
seen as the “all-American athlete”, with both academic and
athletic achievement in hand.

Although a fair amount of literature exists in support
of adolescents who take on the dual roles of athlete and
student, the majority of this literature involves males as
opposed to females. In recent years however, interest in
organized sports has increased among the female population
(Corbin, 1984; Goldberg & Chandler, 1989). In examining the
impact of athletics on one's academic career, it is
important not only to focus on male athletes, but to
investigate this impact on the growing number of female
athletes as well. This study will examine how young female
athletes and nonathletes perceive their scholastic

competence.

18
Was:

As children make the transition to adolescence, they
begin to see themselves as part of a broader social context
(Lidz, 1976). Seeking to distinguish their own identity,
where they are comfortable within society, adolescent
behavior and actions stem from attempts at finding social
acceptance (Erikson, 1982). Acceptance from peers is very
important to the emotional state of the adolescent (Chase 8
Dummer, 1992) .

Young teenagers have reported that being rejected by
peers makes them feel depressed and diminishes their sense
of self-worth (Harter 8 Jackson, 1993; McCoy, 1994).
Further, young females in particular, tend to have a higher
risk of developing emotional disturbances related to self-
esteem, such as depression, than their male counterparts
(McCoy, 1994; Pine, Cohen 8 Brook, 1996, Steptoe 8 Butler,
1996). Vernberg (1990) examined the perception of
acceptance among adolescents based on their past and present
experience with peers, and found that a decline in this
perception corresponds with rejection by peers. Further,
the junior high years present changes associated with
puberty and school transitions, resulting in physical,
emotional and social changes (Butcher, 1986). Positive
impact on social adjustment has been associated with
physical fitness (Heaps, 1978).

Social acceptance is important at all ages, but

specifically at the volatile age of adolescence (Turner 8

19
Helms, 1995). Research by Williams and White (1983),
illustrated that junior high school girls cited that being
most popular was the way they would want to be remembered.
Further, Eccles, Flanagan, Miller, Reuman, and Yee (1989)
found that junior high school students rated the importance
of social activities the highest in grade six with a slow
decline toward grade eight. Social skills, however, still
ranked most important at all ages when compared to math,
English, and sports (Eccles et al., 1989). This supports
the notion that social comparison and evaluation play a
significant part in the life of the adolescent.

During adolescence, the shift from childhood to
adulthood is influenced by the individual's cultural
experiences, social roles, and interactions with peers
(Block 8 Robins, 1993). In particular, when looking at
female involvement in sports one must examine how the
athletic system is perceived within the status system of the
school and/or how popular it is among peers (Butcher, 1986).

According to Goldberg and Chandler (1989), however, the
role of athletics is becoming more important to females than
has been previously shown. In assessing criteria for
adolescent acceptance and popularity, the results of the
study by Goldberg and Chandler (1989) were inconsistent with
those previously done by Williams and White (1983), Butcher
(1986), and Kane (1988). In comparing how females and males
would like to be remembered in high school, both female and

males cited being outstanding students as most important

20
(versus leader in activities, most popular, and outstanding
athlete), followed immediately by outstanding athlete for
males, while the second choice for females, though to a
lesser extent, was outstanding athlete as well (Goldberg 8
Chandler, 1989). The results of Goldberg and Chandler's
(1989) study lends support to the idea that more females are
interested in athletics today, than in the past.

To gain a further understanding of the relationship
between social status and sports, it is important to
consider differences that may exist between athletes and
nonathletes. According to a 1986 study (Butcher),
perceptions of sports as socially acceptable and popular
among peers differs between athletes and nonathletes.
Butcher (1986) reported that female participants in
interschool sports rated being good at sports and getting
good grades as more important than good looks, in terms of
popularity among peers. As frequently pointed out in the
literature, athletic team membership and being a student
requires much time, energy, and organization (Butcher, 1986;
Snyder, 1985). Butcher (1986) suggests that the extra
effort and participation put forth by athletes contributes
to their popularity, instead of such external factors as
good looks.

On the other hand, the literature expressing the lack
of popularity ratings associated with females and sports
offers some possible explanations. These explanations

suggest that the history of females and sports in general,

21
and the overall socialization of young females may have the
greatest impact on their infrequent choice of sports as a
social status determinant (Kane, 1988; Williams 8 White,
1983).

At the conclusion of her study of appropriate versus
inappropriate sports for females, Kane (1988) implies that
strong, traditional perceptions of “appropriate feminine
behavior” surround the social acceptability of female
athletes. Further, Kane (1988) identifies that certain
sports, considered sex appropriate, are viewed as more
feminine or “lady like”, and participation in such sports
results in higher status rankings from both male and female
peers. These results add to the debate surrounding the
social acceptability of sports for females (Kane, 1988).

Evidence from other sources indicates that conditions
today are promising for women in sports, and that attitudes
toward female athletes will continue to see positive changes
(Green, 1997).- Further, Chase and Dummer (1992) suggest
that female involvement in sports will be more socially
accepted as more females, affected by Title IX, become
parents. The traditional views that females do not belong
in sports may fade and more socially acceptable views of
female athletes will be embraced as more girls are
encouraged to participate in sports (Chase 8 Dummer, 1992).

Previous research suggests that negative associations
between females and sports often lie within their upbringing

(Corbin, 1984; Kane, 1988; Randall, 1990), geographic

22
location, and socioeconomic background (Goldberg 8 Chandler,
1989; Williams 8 White, 1983). As more females participate
in sports, and the attitude towards females in sports
becomes less negative, the social acceptability of female
athletes broadens, and girls are given the opportunity to
experience the benefits from participation in organized
sports. The desire here, is not to have social
acceptability measured only by actual participation in
athletics, but instead, to make female athletes socially
accepted. Everyone, therefore, regardless of gender, should
be provided with equal opportunities to comfortably
participate in sports, if they so desire.

The benefits of sports participation can be seen in
both the physical and psychological well-being of the
individual (Heaps, 1978; Kavussanu 8 McAuley, 1995; Koniak-
Griffin, 1994). As research indicates, more young girls are
showing a greater interest in sports today, than in the past
(Corbin, 1984; Goldberg 8 Chandler, 1989). Adolescence,
often considered to be an unsettled age, is a period when
individuals are most likely to be influenced by their social
surroundings (Rice, 1995). It is helpful therefore, to
teachers, counselors, healthcare providers and social
scientists alike, to better understand what types of social
activities, such as organized sports, influence a student's
perception of their acceptance among peers. This study will
examine how female athletes and nonathletes differ in terms

of their perceived social acceptance.

23
Wanna

The value of friendship and the role of peers gain
importance as individuals make the transition from childhood
to adolescence (Damon, 1983; Lidz, 1976; Rice, 1995). As
Erikson (1982) pointed out, it is during this transition
when young people look to peers, not only for companionship,
but to help them define and develop their own identity.

With peers, individuals engage in companionships that offer
common interests, recognition, and acceptance (Turner 8
Helms, 1995) .

As children move towards adolescence, interest in their
surrounding social environment expands (Erikson, 1982;
Turner 8 Helms, 1995). Peers are no longer just school time
buddies or playmates, but instead, participate in more
elaborate aspects of friendship, where roles are now based
on trust, loyalty, and intimacy (Damon, 1983). The overall
value of friendship increases as children approach
adolescence (Rice, 1995). Friendship is an important piece
in the ever-changing life span, particularly during the
early adolescent years. Researchers examining the
relationships that exist during adolescence have reported
several, common and reciprocal notions among friends. These
include loyalty, intimacy, support, trust, and commitment
(Dacy 8 Travers, 1996; Damon, 1983; Lidz, 1976; Turner 8
Helms, 1995). '

Friendships provide social support and companionship.

Strong social support has been linked to a decreased

24
mortality level and overall improved health (Muhlenkamp 8
Sayles, 1986). Further suggestions are made relating social
relationships with the ability to change the body's
chemistry, resulting in better protection from illness and
disease (Foley 8 Nechas, 1993). Muhlenkamp and Sayles,
(1986) demonstrated that a positive correlation exists
between social support and self-care practices in their
study examining the relationship between self-esteem, social
support, and positive health practices.

Friendship is a unique bond between individuals and it
is experienced by both males and females, from different
racial groups, ages, and religions. Each experience is
different from another and varies on the degree of
closeness. Females in particular, are more often involved
in close relationships and seek out social support more
frequently than males (Biddle 8 Armstrong, 1992; Foley 8
Nechas, 1993). Expanding their social relations, then, is
something to be considered when looking at females and their
participation in group activities, such as sports (Biddle 8
Armstrong, 1992).

As a member of an athletic team, young girls encounter
peers with similar interests. Time spent together as
teammates at practice, during games, and traveling sets the
stage for friendship. As members of the same team,
individuals share a common goal of success for the team.
This interactive team environment has the potential to

promote the giving and receiving of mental, emotional and

25

physical support, as well as the experience of camaraderie

and sharing.

Much research exists describing the positive impact of
close friendships among adolescent females (Foley 8 Nechas,
1993; Muhlenkamp 8 Sayles, 1986). Seldom however, does this
research describe activities, such as athletics, that may
influence the development of such relationships. The need
for close friendships increases among the adolescent years
(Rice, 1995), and more females than males seek out social
support (Biddle 8 Armstrong, 1992; Foley 8 Nechas, 1993). A
better understanding therefore, of how and where such
relationships are formed, will be helpful to young
individuals seeking friendship. This study will examine how
participation in organized sports impacts the perception of
close friendships among adolescent girls.

Hypotheses

The investigator proposes the following hypotheses in
regards to the data obtained from a population of young
females residing in a rural midwestern setting.

1. Middle school female athletes will score significantly
higher on perceived scholastic competence, perceived
social acceptance, and perceived close friendships than
nonathletes.

2. Perceived scholastic competence and perceived close
friendships are positively correlated with perCeived

social acceptance.

26
Methods

A nonexperimental, descriptive approach was utilized to
examine perceived scholastic competence, perceived social
acceptance, and perceived close friendships among female
athletes and nonathletes from a population of junior high
school students. This study used secondary analysis from
data previously collected for use in a similar,
nonexperimental study. The primary study examined the
relationship of global self-worth, perceived physical
competence, and perceived physical appearance among athletic
and nonathletic girls (Hayes, 1995). The present study
then, involves secondary analysis of the data collected from
a rural midwestern setting (Hayes, 1995).
Somme

The physical education class within a rural midwestern
middle school was the setting in which potential female
subjects were asked to participate in the study after being
given a thorough explanation of how and why the research was
being conducted. Data collection took place during the 1994
fall semester. The sample consisted of sixty-five Caucasian
females from several different socioeconomic groups.
Subjects were asked to identify themselves as either
athletic or nonathletic ((non)participation in at least one
organized sport). The sixty-five participants in the study
were then separated into one of two groups based on this

identifying factor.

27

W

The investigator of the original study met with the
physical education classes to introduce the study, which
consisted of a one time only questionnaire process, and to
review the consent forms with potential subjects. A short
period of time was allowed to obtain parental consent for
those students agreeing to participate in the study. On the
day the actual questionnaire was administered, those
students who agreed to participate in the study and had
obtained the proper consent forms remained in class. Those
students not desiring to be included in the study then left
the classroom until after the questionnaire was completed.
Following the introduction of the investigator, an identical
monologue was read by the investigator to each physical
education class (Hayes, 1995).
WWW

Individuals who agreed to participate in the study and
returned the appropriate consent forms made up the actual
sample. It was again stated that participants could drop
out of the study at any time. The one time questionnaire
presented to subjects consisted of the Self-Perception
Profile for Adolescents entitled “What I Am Like" (Harter,
1986), as well as a short demographic section (Appendix A).

All participants were asked to complete the demographic
section before beginning the questionnaire. The four
demographic questions asked the participants to identify

their date of birth, circle their current grade level,

28
circle those sports previously and/or currently
participating in during junior high, and circle “yes” or “no“
in terms of whether or not they intended to continue
involvement in competitive sports.

To ensure that the participants had a clear
understanding of how to respond to the questionnaire, an
example was provided. The example question was similar to
those found on the actual questionnaire and was reviewed by
the investigator using both verbal instruction and a visual
aid.

2 l l' E H 5 l' l

After a thorough explanation of the study was provided,
potential subjects were required to provide the investigator
with their own written consent, as well as a written consent
from their parent or guardian. Names and personal
characteristics of the actual subjects in the study remained
confidential and anonymous. Again, subjects were reminded
that they could withdraw from the study at anytime without
penalty.

All necessary consents to carry out the primary study
were obtained by the study's original investigator (Hayes,
1995). Approval was received from Michigan State
University's Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects,
the school district, the middle school principal, as well as
the written consents from the subjects and their parents or

guardians.

29

For the purpose of the present study, a computer disk
containing data collected during the original study with no
identifying information was received. All participants
remained anonymous and were identified only by the
prerecorded number on their questionnaire (Hayes, 1995).

Approval was also obtained by the investigator of the
present study from the Michigan State University Committee
on Research Involving Human Subjects (Appendix B).
Instrumentation

Data collected for use in the original study was
obtained using the Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents
(SPPA), developed by Harter (1986). Originally designed for
children, the SPPA is widely used to assess self-worth and
perceived competence in various areas. To facilitate the
use of the original children's scale among the adolescent
population, some of the language of the instrument was
modified and additional items were included (Harter, 1986).
The SPPA is comprised of the following nine subscales:
1. Scholastic Competence
2. Social Acceptance
3. Athletic Competence
4. Physical Appearance
5. Job Competence
6. Romantic Appeal
7. Conduct/Morality
8. Close Friendship
9. Global Self-Worth (Harter, 1986, p.1).

Individual perception of competence based on specific
skill domains can be examined using one or more of the

subscales from Harter's (1986) SPPA. Each subscale is

comprised of approximately five items with possible

30
responses to each item ranging from one to four. Scholastic
Competence, Social Acceptance, and Close Friendships are the
three subscales to be used in this study.

Although several studies have been done to evaluate the
reliability of the SPPA, a 1986 (Harter) study examining
boys and girls in grades five through twelve, was used to
provide the means and reliabilities for the three selected
subscales in this study. Using Cronbach's alpha, Harter
(1986) calculated reliabilities for each subscale on the
SPPA. The reliabilities for the subscales involved in this

study are as follows (Harter, 1986):

Scholastic Social Close
Competence Acceptance Friendship
Grade
Seven .91 .86 .79
Eight .93 .94 .80
Females .90 .89 .82
Males .92 .88 .73

: Ii 1 E E' 'l' E I] M . l]

Berceixed_Scholastis_Comneten291 The subscale PSC is
based on items 1, 10, 19, 28, and 37 of Harter's (1986)

Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents (SPPA). PSC
examines an individual's perception of their academic
abilities. The means developed for this particular subscale
come from a previous study by Harter (1986) involving
individuals in grades five through twelve. Specifically

looking at females, the PSC means are as follows; grade six:

31

3.17, grade seven: 2.86, grade eight: 3.01. As an average
of these scores, a mean of 3.01 will serve as the mean for
the purpose of the present study. A score > 3.01,
therefore, identifies that the subject perceives herself as
academically competent. .

2ezgeiged_§gcia1_Agggptangg; The subscale PSA is based
on items 2, 11, 20, 29, and 38 of Harter's (1986) SPPA.
Items that comprise the social acceptance subscale reflect
the individual's perception of their popularity among peers.
Based on a previous study involving female middle school
students, Harter identified the means for this subscale as
3.05 for grade six, 2.90 for grade seven, and 2.85 for grade
eight. The average of these three means, 2.93, will be the
subscale mean used to analyze the data in this study. A
score > 2.93, then, indicates that the subject feels
socially accepted by her peers.

2ezceiyed_§1g§e_£riendship, The subscale PCF is based
on items 8, 17, 26, 35, and 44 of Harter's (1986) SPPA. The
items that comprise the subscale PCF reflect the
individual's perception of their ability to engage in close
relationships. Means for this subscale were derived from a
1986 (Harter) study of adolescents. The mean scores for
seventh and eighth grade females were 3.51 and 3.22
respectively. Although a mean score for sixth grade females
was not included, the average of the means for grades seven
and eight will be used as the subscale mean for the purpose

of the present study. Thus, a score > 3.37 suggests that

32
the young female perceives herself as being involved in at
least one close friendship.

Athletes; Based on responses to the original survey,
those students who claim to be a member of at least one
competitive sports team (i.e. basketball, gymnastics,
competitive skiing, soccer, track) are considered to be an
athlete for the purpose of this study.

NonathlgtgsL Based on responses to the original
survey, those students who indicate that they are not a
member of a competitive sports team are considered to be a
nonathlete for the purpose of this study.

Middle_§chggl_fitndents; For the purpose of this study,
middle school students will refer to those individuals who
are enrolled in grade six, seven or eight.

Again, there are four possible responses to all of the
questions that comprise the SPPA. Using Harter's (1986)
instructions for administering and scoring the instrument,
all responses are given a score of one, two, three, or four.
A score of four on an item indicates that the individual
perceives herself as competent in that particular domain.
On the other hand, a score of one on an item implies that
the individual does not perceive herself as competent in
that specific area.

I l E J . i 5! l' l' J E i
To investigate and analyze the data obtained from the

female subjects of this study, several statistical tests

33
were conducted. Responses to the SPPA were examined using
frequency and descriptive statistics to develop means and
standard deviations. The t-test procedure was then
utilized to compare the scores of the athletes to those of
the nonathletes on each of the three subscales. To examine
correlations between PSA, PSC, and PCP, Pearson's r
Correlation Coefficient was applied.
Results

The results of this study begin by providing a
descriptive look at the study's population. Explanation is
then provided for the statistical procedures used in
analyzing the hypotheses. Although not the original intent
of the study, the large discrepancy between the number of
athletes versus nonathletes led the investigator to
further analysis in regards to grade level. Thus, the
results include a look at the significance of grade level
and PSA, PSC, and PCF. Lastly, the significance of the
relationship between PSA, PSC, and PCF is discussed.
13.911129131211195

The population for this study was comprised of 65
females from a rural, midwestern middle school. From this
sample, 53 (81.5%) participated in competitive sports as
opposed to 12 (18.5%) who did not. The distribution of
sport participation and grade level among subjects is
described in Table 1.

Table 2 illustrates the age range and frequency of the

sample. Ages of the subjects ranged from 11 to 14 years,

34
Table 1.

FrssnsnsY_and_Percentass_of.§rade_Le!el_and_snort
2 Ii 1 l' E 5 1' I EH=551

 

 

 

Variable # of Subjects Percentage
Grade 6

Athletes 14 10.8

Nonathletes 7 21.5

Total 21 32.3
Grade 7

Athletes 16 24.6

Nonathletes 3 4.6

Total 19 29.2
Grade 8

Athletes 23 35.4

Nonathletes 2 3.1

Total 25 38.5
Total

Athletes 53 81.5

Nonathletes 12 18.5

Total 65 100
Table 2.

O O I
“O‘OI‘I 9'. .‘ ‘0 O...- . 4!- . ° .0 4"...

 

 

Lusfiil

Age # of Subjects Percentage
11 years 10 15.4

12 years 26 40

13 years 22 33.8

14 years 7 10.8

Total 65 100

 

35
with a mean age for all subjects of 12.4 years. Study
participants were included from the sixth, seventh, and
eighth grade levels with a mean grade of 7.06 for all
subjects. In looking specifically at the group labeled
athletes, the mean grade was 7.17, with a mean age of 12.5
years. Among the 12 nonathletes, the mean grade was 6.6 and
the mean age was 12.0 years. Table 3 displays the mean age
and grade of all subjects.

Reliabilities based on the data under investigation in
this study were obtained using Cronbach's alpha. The
reliabilities for the subscale used for this study are
illustrated in Table 4.
2$A1_Efifii_and_292

The means and standard deviations for the variables of
this study are displayed in Table 5. Responses to items
comprising the PSA category were obtained from 63 subjects.
The sample mean for PSA was 2.91, with the mean for athletes
only slightly higher at 2.98, and the mean for nonathletes
lower at 2.62. A previous study by Harter (1986),
established a PSA mean of 2.93, which is surpassed only by
the athletic subjects.

The PSC variable for this study consisted of responses
from 63 subjects with a mean score of 2.95 for total sample.
This mean score of 2.95 is slightly lower than the mean

developed by Harter (1986) of 3.01. The PSC means for both

36

Table 3.
W1

 

 

Variable # of Mean SD Mean Age SD
Subjects Grade

Athletes 53 7.17 .68 12.5 .85

Non-athletes 12 6.6 .79 12.0 .95

Total 65 7.06 .85 12.4 .88

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 5.

O‘cl’o v‘-O-O° '00-." . 0.0“; ’ -0°

 

 

Variable # of Subjects Mean SD
PSA
Athletes 51 2.98 .60
Nonathletes 12 2.62 .40
Total 63 2.91 .76
PSC
Athletes 51 3.0 .74
Nonathletes 12 2.73 .81
Total 63 2.95 .76
PCF
Athletes 53 3.34 .70
Nonathletes 12 3.23 - .50

Total 65 3.32 .67

 

37
athletes at 3.0, and nonathletes at 2.73, fail to exceed
Harter's (1986) established mean.

All 65 subjects responded to questions about PCF. The
mean PCF score for the 53 athletes was 3.34, followed by a
mean score of 3.23 for the 12 nonathletes. The derived PCF
mean from a previous study by Harter (1986) for this age
group is 3.37. Thus, all PCF means for this population,
including the total sample mean of 3.32, are lower than that
developed by Harter (1986).

Means scores for PSA, PSC, and PCF were also
established in regards to grade level and are illustrated in
Table 6. Once again, using the means developed by Harter
(1986), only the subjects in grade seven, with a mean PSA
score of 3.02, scored higher than the established PSA mean
of 2.93. PSA means for the sixth and eighth grade subjects“
were 2.89 and 2.84 respectively, while the PSA mean for the
total sample was 2.91.

In looking at the responses to PSC, a mean score of
3.03 from subjects in grade eight was slightly higher than
the established PSC mean of 3.01 (Harter, 1986). The mean
score for subjects in grade six was equal to the established
mean, while the seventh grade population showed a lower mean
PSC score of 2.80.

Harter's (1986) established mean score for PCF at 3.37
is surpassed again, only by those subjects in grade seven,
whose mean PCF score was 3.46. Both the sixth grade mean of

3.17, and the eighth grade mean of 3.34 are lower than the

Table 6.

 

 

3:01‘0 -—. - - ,- 0-
Wm
variable # of Subjects Mean SD
PSA
Grade 6 21 2.89 .58
Grade 7 18 3.02 .54
Grade 8 24 2.84 .64
Total 63 2.91 .76
PSC
Grade 6 20 3.01 .70
Grade 7 19 2.80 .87
Grade 8 24 3.03 .72
Total 63 2.95 .76
PCF
Grade 6 21 3.17 .60
Grade 7 19 3.46 .72
Grade 8 25 3.34 .67
Total 65 3.32 .67

 

established mean of 3.37 (Harter, 1986), as is

for the total sample at 3.32.

the PCF mean

T-test for equal groups was utilized to examine the

significance of mean differences between the sample

population and PSA, PSC, and PCF.

The results of the t-

test, as seen in Table 7, identified no significant

differences in PSA, PSC, and PCF among those subjects

involved in competitive sports.

Although the hypothesis is

thus rejected, it is interesting to note that PSA is near

significance at .055.

39

 

 

Table 7.

fiuulrr.‘ o - ‘ o o. o o. .0 .0
ESE

Variable t value DF 2-tail sig
PSA 1.95 61 .055

PSC 1.12 61 .269

PCF .50 63 .622

p$.05

 

The Simple Factorial Analysis of Variance procedure was
used to examine the means of sport participation and grade
level in relation to PSA, PSC, and PCF. This test examined
the impact of sport participation and grade level, both
together and as separate variables. As presented in Table
8, the results indicate that grade level and sport
participation do not significantly impact PSA, PSC, or PCF.

Lastly, to examine the relationship between PSA, PSC,
and PCF, Pearson's r correlation coefficient was
implemented. The results of this computation, as
illustrated in Table 9, identify PSA as having a significant
positive correlation to PCF (r=.39, p5.05). Further, a
smaller but significant positive relationship was also found
between PSC and PCF (r=.23, ps.05). These results,
therefore, support the hypothesis that PSA is positively

correlated with PSC and PCF.

40
Table 8.

. . .
gnmggrY_ofTAnalxg1g_oE_ygr1ag99.5???iféggnse_gfififiort

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variable Source of Sum of DF Sig of F
Variation Squares

PSA Main Effects 1.75 3 .163
Sport Partic. 1.26 1 .056
Grade .49 2 .478
2Way Interact .79 2 .309

PSC Main Effects 1.47 3 .450
Sport Partic. .71 1 .259
Grade .75 2 .506
2Way Interact 2.97 2 .075

PCF Main effects .88 3 .588
Sport Partic. .11 1 .624
Grade .77 2 .433
2Way Interact .72 2 .460

Table 9.

- ‘0'. o - o. 0‘ ‘g o ' ; ' .0
Correlations: PSA PSC PCF
PSA 1.00 .64 .39

(63) (61) (63)
PSC .64** 1.00 .23

(61) (62) (63)
PCF .39** .23* 1.00

(63) (63) (65)
p5 * .01 ** .001 (Cases)

41

Although only one of the hypotheses under investigation
was supported, the results of this study do provide findings
that are of interest for this particular age group. The
supported hypothesis that PSA relates positively with PSC
and PCF is consistent with other literature identifying
perceived peer approval as important to the emotional well-
being of the female adolescent population (Chase 8 Dummer,
1992; Erikson, 1982). Further, previous claims that
academic success is hindered by athletic participation
(Kleiber 8 Malik, 1989; Snyder, 1985) is challenged by the
results of this study, which found that athletes
consistently score higher than nonathletes in all three
subscales, including PSC. In other words, athletes have a
higher perception of themselves in terms of social
acceptance, scholastic competence, and close friendships
versus nonathletes.

Although the findings of the t-tests suggested no
significant differences in PSC and PCF in relation to
participation in competitive sports, PSA does approach
significance much more closely than do PSC and PCF.

Tests to examine the relationship of grade level on
PSA, PSC, and PCF revealed no significant correlations nor
differences among the three grades. Mean scores for
subjects in grade seven surpassed Harter's (1986)
established means in both the PSA and PCF subscales,

however, suggesting that among middle school students, those

42
in grade seven are more socially confident. Lastly, the
findings of the ANOVA procedure indicated no significant
impact on PSA, PSC, or PCF when grade level and sport
participation were looked at, both independently and
collectively.

The positive relationship with participation in
competitive sports and PSA supports previous views that the
role of athletics is becoming more important to females and
their perception of peer acceptance (Butcher, 1986; Goldberg
8 Chandler, 1989). Although there is a considerable
difference between the number of athlete subjects versus the
nonathlete subjects, it is Of interest to note that the
majority of the sample were involved in some type of
competitive sport.

Discussion
1' 'l I'

As is common to most research, some limitations did
unfold as the study was being carried out. First, it is
important to remember that a convenience sample was used,
and therefore the extent to which these findings can be
generalized remains very limited. The overall sample size
is small and it is likely that the results are further
biased by the unequal representation of athletes versus
nonathletes (53 athlete participants versus 12 nonathlete
participants). The strictly rural setting suggests that the
findings are applicable only to similar settings while the

sample population, consisting exclusively of females,

43
eliminates the ability to apply this study to middle school
students in general. Although demographic factors such as
race, economic status, location, and family make-up were not
examined for this study, the probability that such factors
could influence the results must be considered.

Further, a participant was considered an athlete only
on the basis of her participation in at least one
competitive team sport. Unfortunately, activities that a
nonathlete might engage in on her own were not considered in
this study. Activities such as aerobics, jogging, or weight
lifting may not involve being a member of a competitive
team, however all require some athletic ability. Therefore
an “athlete“ may have been labeled a “nonathlete“ in this
study, since activities other than competitive sports were
not considered. Furthermore, only twelve subjects were
considered nonathletes as opposed to the fifty-three
subjects labeled athletes. Although the focus of this study
was to examine the effect of sport participation on a young
girl's PSC, PSA, and PCF, it is important to note that nine
of the twelve nonathletes regularly engaged in other
activities. Lastly, since all qualified subjects did not
participate in the study, the responses of the willing
subjects must be considered as possibly biased.

Reliabilities for this study were obtained using
Cronbach's alpha. Although the reliabilities of both PSC
and PCF were within an acceptable range, the PSA result of

0.63 does present some concern. Harter's (1986) use of an

44
urban setting to establish reliabilities for the SPPA may
account for the discrepancy in the PSA values, as this study
was based on a rural population.

Other limitations of the study were found among the
sixth grade participants. At the time of the original
questionnaire, participants in grade six had been exposed to
only a small number of competitive sports, and therefore had
a limited opportunity to participate in athletics. Further,
it was noted by the original investigator (Hayes, 1995) that
the seventh and eighth grade subjects were able to complete
the questionnaire in under twenty minutes, while the sixth
grade subjects required more time. Lastly, two of the sixth
grade participants gave more than one response to each
question which made their results ineligible for the study.
WWW

Although the study's findings cannot be generalized to
the entire population of female middle school students, the
results do provide insight for advanced practice nurses
(APNs) in rural, ambulatory settings. APNs in primary care
whose clients include adolescent females can use the
findings of this study to enhance the ongoing relationship
between these clients and themselves. Research suggesting
that a regular source of primary care is often inaccessible
to rural residents further demonstrates the importance of
the APN's role in such settings (Hayward, Bernard, Freeman,
8 Corey, 1991). The APN fills a position in primary care

that encompasses several distinct roles, all of which impact

45
health promotion, maintenance, and disease prevention of
adolescent females.

The various roles of the APN encompass a broad domain.
As an assessor, the APN continually gathers both subjective
and objective information pertaining to the client to help
identify patient, family, and community needs. Assessment
not only involves physical evaluation, but encompasses
emotional, spiritual, and psychological aspects as well. A
great deal of literature suggests friendships and social
acceptance are important to adolescent females and perceived
failure in these areas increases the potential for low self-
esteem and depression (Pipher, 1996). As this study
suggests, participation in competitive sports provides an
opportunity for young girls to interact with peers and
develop friendships. Should the APN encounter a young
female in practice who lacks peer relationships, the APN can
then encourage athletic participation where there is ample
opportunity for social interaction.

A thorough assessment of the middle school student's
coping skills, motivation to achieve goals, social network,
and support group is essential in determining the needs of
the young client within her rural environment. Further, the
APN must also assess how the school and community provide
opportunities for females to strengthen their social support
and peer relationships. Because community resources are

often limited in rural settings, it is important for the APN

46

to be aware of what extracurricular activities, such as
organized sports, are available to a particular population.

Thorough assessment also involves evaluating the
knowledge of the client, family, school educators, and
community in terms of understanding what factors influence
the success or failure of an individual's mastery attempts.
The APN can be a key figure in determining where knowledge
deficits exist in a rural community, and how they can be
corrected and refined to better serve a specific population.

The role of educator is another important piece to the
APN's practice in primary care. It is essential for the APN
to educate clients, families, communities, and other health
care professionals about promoting healthy lifestyles.
Because exercise has been shown to lower stress levels and
decrease the risk for cardiovascular disease (Koniak-
Griffin, 1994), and the results of this study indicate that
athletic participants perceived themselves as being more
socially accepted than nonathletes, the APN can confidently
promote involvement in physical activity for adolescent
girls. Educating these young girls, their families, peers,
and communities about the benefits of physical activity is
crucial to health prevention, promotion and maintenance.
APNs play an important role in helping their community
understand the importance of providing young girls with the
opportunity to participate in organized activities that
promote peer interaction and physical well-being, such as

competitive sports. School systems faced with limited

47

funding often look to eliminate nonacademic classes and
activities in an effort to save money. The role of the APN
in such situations is again that of educator. The APN must
educate the community on the importance of extracurricular
activities such as competitive sports, as this study
suggests that athletes perceive themselves more socially
accepted, more scholastically competent and involved in more
close friendships than nonathletes. Further, the APN may be
the key figure in assisting rural communities on how to
fund, organize, and implement such healthy activities.

Athletic participation, however, does not come without
risks. The goal, then, is to minimize these risks, and the
APN does this by educating the participants, coaches, and
parents about appropriate physical exams, injury prevention,
safety equipment, and healthy attitudes toward competition.

Furthermore, the APN must educate other health care
providers, teachers, families, and students how to
communicate approval for an individual's mastery attempts.
As indicated by Harter's (1978) competence motivation model,
such positive feedback is a significant factor for the
motivation behind an individual's mastery attempts,
perception of competence, successful outcomes, and genuine
self-satisfaction. Given the population of middle school
females, the APN must educate the public about the
importance of peers, social acceptance, and the need for
self-confidence among this age group. It is essential

therefore, that the APN not only instruct the community on

48
how to be positive role models, but also on appropriate ways
to demonstrate approval for the mastery attempts of a given
population.

Middle school females are often overwhelmed with
changes in their bodies, schools, friends, and environment
(Pipher, 1996). By developing a trusting relationship with
the young female client, the APN can counsel her about
setting personal goals, developing self-confidence, and
achieving success. Once trusting relationships are
established between the APN and the adolescent female
client, the APN fills the role of planner and assists the
client in devising strategies to achieve self-set goals that
promote intrinsic pleasure and well-being. As this study
describes, APNs may encounter females with low self-esteem
who are eager to be socially accepted or part of a close
friendship. The APN can suggest sport involvement as part
of a client's plan to be successful and maintain the
motivation to achieve self determined goals, such as social
acceptance and academic success.

The APN then evaluates the outcomes based on the
client's care plan. For example, does the client display
self-confidence, does she experience intrinsic pleasure from
her mastery attempts, and are her actions and behaviors
health promoting? On the other hand does the client
correlate success with extrinsic rewards, feel that the
outcomes of her mastery attempts are essentially out of her

control, and has she been unsuccessful in meeting her goals?

49
As evaluator, the APN encourages the adolescent female to
assess her motivation behind specific mastery attempts,
examine the outcomes of her actions, reevaluate her goals,
and make further adjustments in her behavior and environment
where appropriate.

Involving other health care disciplines is often
necessary to maintain both physical and emotional well-
being. The APN, then, is considered a collaborator, as she
works with other disciplines to bring about the best
outcomes for the client. When the APN collaborates with
other disciplines, she provides her community with access to
comprehensive, quality care that is often lacking in rural
settings (McEwen, 1994). As expressed by the literature,
populations similar to the one in this study demonstrate a
strong desire to be socially accepted (Williams 8 White,
1983). During the volatile junior high years depression and
eating disorders are not uncommon among female adolescents
(Pipher, 1996). The APN must keep this in mind as he/she
assesses young female clients. Should signs or symptoms of
such illnesses arise, the APN might consider collaborating
with other disciplines such as psychologists, psychiatrists,
and nutritionists to better direct the troubled teenager
toward a healthy lifestyle. Collaboration by the APN,
however, is not limited to other health care providers. In
other words, the APN should also collaborate with a client's
teachers and family to evaluate her particular needs and to

ensure that the client's environment is providing her with

50
the best opportunity for success. For example, since
involvement in regular physical activity has been shown to
decrease depression and anxiety, and increase perceived
well-being and social adjustment (Heaps, 1978; Koniak-
Griffin, 1994), the APN can suggest to teachers and parents
that participation in competitive sports may be helpful in
maintaining a well-adjusted emotional state.

APNs in primary care therefore, play a critical role in
health maintenance, promotion, and prevention. Their
actions involving assessment, education, and counseling
incorporate all aspects of a client's environment and
enhance overall competence motivation.

I 1’ l' E H . El l'

To better serve the adolescent female population, it is
critical to understand the physical and emotional needs of
these young girls. This study provides some insight in
terms of how such individuals perceive themselves.

As documented in previous literature, children who are
making the transition to adolescence typically experience
changes in their physical and emotional states, as well as
changes amid relationships with parents and friends (Chase 8
Dummer, 1992). Further research indicates that during this
volatile age, females, in particular, are at risk for
developing emotional problems related to self-esteem, such
as depression (McCoy, 1994; Pine, Cohen 8 Brock, 1996;

Steptoe 8 Butler, 1996). It is important therefore, to

51

educate nurses who encounter the adolescent population about
the emotional and physical needs of such individuals.

Residents of rural communities are frequently found to
have limited access to primary care centers (Hayward et al.,
1991). It is likely then, that young females from rural
communities, like those in this study, may lack the
appropriate knowledge for maintaining their health and well-
being. Educating nurses about the barriers to ambulatory
care faced by rural residents provides them, as health care
providers, with a better understanding of where their
services will be welcomed, appreciated and most importantly
invaluable.
I 1. l' E E l E 1

To establish greater generalizability, it is essential
that future research focus on larger sample sizes from a
broad range of settings and backgrounds. As this study was
limited to a small rural midwestern area, it would be
interesting to compare results of similar studies conducted
in different settings. Further, although the intent of this
study was to focus specifically on young females, it would
be helpful to health care providers, educators, and physical
education teachers to gain a further understanding of how
athletics may/may not impact the lives of junior high school
males as well.

Demographic factors such as race, religion, age, sex,
community setting, and family make-up are likely to have

some degree of impact on the relationships of PSC, PSA, and

52
PCF among athletes and nonathletes. A closer examination
into how demographic factors affect an individual's decision
to participate in sports may help provide a better
understanding of why some individuals are athletes while
others are not.

Furthermore, long term or longitudinal research is
appropriate to examine the impact of sports on individuals
over time. Lastly, although the focus of this study was to
examine the impact of athletics on PSC, PSA, and PCF, it is
necessary that future research consider the effects of other
extracurricular activities that students participate in on a
regular basis. For example, there exists several
competitive team activities that are not considered
athletic, such as debate team, quiz bowl, and Odyssey of the
mind. Although the focus of such teams is not athletic
skill, the group still provides a team atmosphere and
competitive camaraderie.

Conclusion

The findings of this study support participation in
athletics by young females for the social, scholastic and
physical benefits. Opportunities for sport participation
should be made available to all females with approval for

mastery attempts clearly communicated.

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57

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between physical competence and peer acceptance in the
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WW 177- -191-

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“That's what friends are fom'”: children' s and teenagers'
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Adolescencehlfifio) . 381-389-

APPENDIX A

Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents, (Harter, 1986)

58

WHAT I AM LIKE

Birthdate
lionth Day Year

Circle the grade you are now in 6 7 8

ClRCLE the activities that you participate In new or have participated in
while In middle school;

art -gymnastics competition
band skating (racing team)
basketball skiing (racing team)
bowling soccer

cheerieading swimming (racing team)
cross country track

choir volleyball

dance clubs:

 

figure sit ating com petition

if you did participate in any of these activities. do you plan to
continue? circle: yes no

al

59

What I Am Like

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Name am
*4? . m my Group.—
SAMPLESENTENCE
Badly Bond Sou-tot Body
“line The “live Tina
hula tall. for”. form
Sometaenagersiiia Olliertaaiagaiswouldtathar ‘—‘
mgotonpviaah BUT 900mm
Maparot'lm
. Somemenagaraiaei ammonium
g mmeyarejust BUT mwmiimayam
- asmdaaothets assnart.
thekage
WWW Fermi-emanate ‘7‘”
itiwdbmab BUT prettyaaay
Sonleieemgando Otiurhamguadon’tiaei
verywelatali BUT timtneyatevarygoodwhen
kmdsotapons heart-anemia. ._r
nothappywiththe BUT manytheyiook. '
waytheylook ‘
Son'ieteenagersieeithatti'ley Othernehageraiaalihatthey
areraadyiodomllata BUT arenotquitereadynhandie
part-timeiob apart-titheioo. ._r
Somemenagatsieeithatitthey Ommwryfltatwlien
areronmioaliyintereatedin BUT theyiikesomeoneiomanticaily.
someonematpersonwiiliike thatpersonwon'tiilnmem

10.

11.

12.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

themback

Someteenagersusuaiiydo
therightlhihg

Someteenagersare
abietomakereaiiy
closetriends

Someteanagersareohen
disappointedwithmem-
selves

Someieemgersarepretty
siowiniinishingmeir
schoolwork

Someteanageishavealot
oiiriends '

Someteenagersthinkmey
ooulddoweiiatjustaboutany
newathleticactivity

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

14.

15.

24.

iii

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

60

Sammdovarywel
attheirm

Somataanagenarevery
hardtoike

Someteanageisbeithat
theyarabetterttnnothets
theirageatepons

Sonnnenagerswishtheir
pimicalappearanoewas
different

Someteenagersareptoudoi
thewktheydoonjobsthey
96min!

Someteenagemiaeimatpaopie
Magawilberomamicaly
anraetedlothem

Sonlamnagmareiawaily
mmmwflnyam

Sammgersdon‘treafly
havaacioaeinendtosham
W with

i-

Sometemageisarehappy
Wmdthem

Sonletamagelshaveu'ouble
Wuhammhsdtool

BUT

BUT

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BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

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BUT

Othertamagusahnostaiways
canligueomthemm.

Jilll

iii
83

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ill

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

41.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sammfindithard
bmaketriendstheyoan
nelytruat

Sanetaenagetsiiiothe
idndotpereontheyare

Sanenenagetsieelthat
MMMW

Someteenagersfeelthatthey
areaoeiaiiympud

Someteenagersdonotieel'
thattheyareveryathletic

Somenenagersrealiyiike
theirioois

Sometaenagersteei'matit's
nanyimponammdothebest
memm

Someteenagersuwailydon't
getasiedoutbypeopiethey
wouidiiketodate

Sometaenagersmuailyact
tinwaytheyknowmeyare
supposed»

Someieanagetadon'thave
amuletiscioaeanough
nsharerealiypetaonai
thoughswith

61

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

BUT

Othertaenagarsiaeimatthey
arevaryathietic.

Othertoenagerswiahihey
iookeddii‘btarl.

memento-line:
gettingthajobdonaiawhat
reaiiyoounts.

Otimtaanagetsdogataakad
:ngpaopianuymflym

Otherieenagemoitendon't
actthewaytheyare
supposedto.

Otharteenagemdohavea
cloeeiriendmattheyeansiwa
personalthoughtsand

iii
I it;

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

lil

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TLI

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

APPENDIX B

UCRIHS Approval Letter

62

MICHIGAN STATE

 

IJ N l V

E R S I T Y

February 12. 1998

to: Linda S ence_
A230 L1 e Sc1ences

RE:

REVISION REQUESTED: N/A
CATEGORY: 1
APPROVAL DATE: 02/1

93-079

IRBQ:
TITLE: A LOOK AT SCHOLASTIC COMPETENCE. SOCIAL

ACCEPTANCE AND CLOSE FRIENDSHIPS AMONG FEMAL
ATHLETES AND NON-ATHLETES

The University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects'(UCRIHS)

review of this project is complete.. I am pleased to adv1se that the

rights and welfare of the humen eubjects appear to be adequately
rotected and methods to obtain informed consent are apprOpriaEe.

herefore.
above.

Rammuun

REVISIONS:

 

GRADUATE
STUDES

University Committee on
Banana

mmunfinhutm

IUGMflfl

McmanSmeUMMnh
236 ministration aulldno
Ennmumgucmwn
AINJOE

51735532180
FAX' 517/432-1171

Imuswamunmnw
Cfdamm'
fwwmannm

460de
m~mym

   
   
 

the UCRIHS approved this project and any revisions listed

UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year. beginning with
the approval date a above. Investigators planning to
continue a project be nd one year must use the green renewal
form (enclosed with t e original agproval letter or when a_
project is renewed) to seek u date certification. There_1s a
maximum of four such expedite renewals possible. Investigators
wishing to continue a prOJect beyond that time need to submit it
again or complete rev1ew.

UCRIHS must review any changes in rocedures involving human
subjects. rior to initiation of t e change. If this is done at
the time o renewal, please use the green renewal_form. To
rev1se an approved protocol at anv other time during the year,
send your written request to the UCRIHS Chair, requesting rev1sed
approval and referenc1ng the prOject's IRE s and title.. Include
in your request a description of the change and any rev1sed
instruments. consent forms or advertisements that are applicable.

Should.either of the followin arise during the course of the
work, investigators must noti UCRIHS promptly: (1) problems
(unexpected Side effects. comp aints, etc.) involving human
subjects or l2)_changes in the research environment or new
information indicating greater risk to the human subjects than
ex1sted when the protocol was previously reviewed and approved.

If we can be of any future hel . lease do not hesitate to contact us
at: (517)355-2l80 or FAX (51714 2- 171.

Sincerely,

DEW:bed

‘li

avid E. Wright. Ph.D
UCRIHS Chai

I

cc: pfémlle Brewer-Richter

 

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