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THE EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON BODY AWARENESS AND MOOD

BY

Rika Kawano

A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
. Michigan State University
1n partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of PEES

1997

ABSTRACT

THE EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON BODY AWARENESS AND MOOD

by

Rika Kawano

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of
exercise on awareness of body and mood states. The strenuousness
of exercise was examined to determine whether nonstrenuous
exercise programs improve mood states and body awareness as much
as do traditional strenuous exercise programs.

Mood variables were identified as trait anxiety, tension,
depression, anger, vigor, fatigue, and confusion. Body
awareness variables were measured by the self-awareness
questionnaire as well as by the physical emotional management
questionnaire, both of which were designed for this study. The
body awareness components included posture, breathing patterns,
hand gestures, and facial movements. These components were
based on three approaches: the relationship between specific
motor behaviors and internal states identified by Ekman (1969) ,
physiological intervention strategies for athletes (Loehr,
1990), and the effects of Eastern exercises, such as yoga and
t'ai chi (Patel, 1991) . Five different exercise programs (yoga,
stretching, t'ai chi, aerobics, and NIA) were used.

The data analysis used was the within subjects methodology
as reviewed in Hunter and Schmidt (1990). The mean changes in
mood for the five programs studied were compared to meta-

analysis findings.for strenuous programs.

In regard to mood components, the findings from this study
for the strenuous programs were largely consistent with the
average meta—analysis results across many studies . For all mood
variables, t'ai chi produced improvements that were very close
to those produced by strenuous programs. Yoga and stretching
were just as effective as the other programs for expression and
worked better than the other programs for anxiety and general
mood. Thus nontraditional exercise programs are just as
successful as strenuous exercise and may even work better.

In regard to body awareness components, the critical
finding was that for the strenuous programs, there was
considerable improvement in mood.but no increase in any of the
three measures of awareness . Thus the strenuous program results
show that there can be improvement in mood without improvement
of awareness. For t'ai chi, yoga, and stretching there were
large increases in awareness on all three awareness dimensions.
For the nonstrenuous programs, the increase in awareness was
considerably larger than the improvement in mood.

The results of this study support the theory that Eastern
exercises increase the awareness of body and mood states because
the participants can.learn.how'to use various physical tactics
to become conscious of mood states and kinesthetic movements.
By learning these tactics, by becoming aware, and by increasing
experience and practice, people can improve mood states and
become more conscious of both body and mind for the mental

health.

Copyright by
Rika Kawano
1997

Upon receiving the protection of the Guardian of Heaven and
Earth, and under the mercy of our Founder Shinnyo Kyoshu—sama
and Spiritual Originator Shojuin—sama, with their powers of
Saisho and Shoju, together with Kyodoin-sama and Shindoin-
sama's divine power, andtxonmrparents for their supports, here

I would like to humbly express my heartfelt gratitude and
dedicate this dissertation.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I gratefully acknowledge all the support and insightful
assistance that my committee members gave to me in the course
this study.

I owe thanks to Dr. Lynette Overby, who provided guidance
and assistance throughout this study and program; to Dr. John
Hunter, who provided considerable mentoring and assistance in
measurements; to Dr. Marsha Ewing, who gave me continual
encouragement and assistance during the program, and to Dr.
Linda Forrest, whose kindness and helpful guidance sustained me
in my work.

I also appreciate the cooperation of the participants in
this study. This research would not have been possible without
the members of the exercise programs, who were kind enough to
cooperate to the me.

In addition, I would like to express my deep appreciation
to all my professors for their professional thoughts and advice
throughout the program, to the friends who supported me, to the
colleagues who studied with me and to all those who supported
me from various perspectives, not only throughout the

dissertation process but also during entire program.

vi

TABLE OF CONNTENS

LIST OF TABLES ........................................... ix
LIST OF FIGURES .......................................... Xi
CHAPTER 1 ................................................ 1
INTRODUCTION ............................................. 1
Statement of the Problem .............................. S
Hypotheses ............................................ 7
Delimitation .......................................... 9
Definitions ........................................... 9
Basic Assumption ...................................... 12
Limitations ........................................... 13
CHAPTER 2 ................................................ 14
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ................................. 14
Internal awareness .................................... 15
The Effects of exercise ............................... 22
Awareness and self-control ............................ 33
Summary ............................................... 34
CHAPTER 3 ................................................ 37
METHOD ................................................... 37
Subjects .............................................. 37
Design ................................................ 38
General format in exercise program .................... 40
Instrumentation ....................................... 44
Procedure ............................................. 49
CHAPTER 4 ................................................ 51
MEASUREMENT RESULTS ...................................... 51
Psychometric analysis ................................. 51
The physical emotional management (PEM) questionnaire. 55
Factor structure of the PEM ........................... 57
Development of Self-awareness (SA) questionnaire ...... 59
The structure of the items measuring
awareness of mood ..................................... 62
The structure of the items measuring
awareness of tactics .................................. 64
Measuring mood - POMS inventory ....................... 67

vii

CHAPTER 5 ................................................ 70

RESULTS: TREATMENT EFFECTS ............................... 70
Improvement as a function of initial level ............ 74
The five exercise programs considered separately ...... 78
Further analysis of change ............................ 81

CHAPTER 6 ................................................ 86

DISCUSSION ............................................... 86
New scales to measure awareness ....................... 86
Improvement in mood ................................... 89
Improvement as a function of initial level ............ 93
Body awareness ........................................ 94

LIST OF REFERENCES ....................................... 98

APPENDICES
A. Consent form ...................................... 104
B. The Profile of Mood States (POMS) ................. 105
C. The Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory

(STAI) ............................................ 106
D. The physical emotional management (PEM)

questionnaire ..................................... 107
E. Self-awareness (SA) questionnaire ................. 108
F. 22 Correlations ................................... 112
G. Reliability analysis of the physical emotional

management questionnaire .......................... 114
H. Factor analysis of the physical emotional

management questionnaire .......................... 135
I. Reliability Analysis of Self-awareness

questionnaire ..................................... 137
J. Factor analysis of Self-awareness questionnaire... 155
K. Mean change in standard scores, Self impact

correlation, and Standard score standard deviation

of gain — NIA ..................................... 158
L. Mean change in standard scores, Self impact

correlation, and Standard score standard deviation

of gain —- aerobics ............................... 164
M. Mean change in standard scores, Self impact

correlation, and Standard score standard deviation

of gain -— stretching ............................. 171
N. Mean change in standard scores, Self impact

correlation, and Standard score standard deviation

of gain -— yoga ................................... 178
0. Mean change in standard scores, Self impact

correlation, and Standard score standard deviation

of gain w—tfai chi ................................ 185

viii

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE
1. Goal and Items of Physical Emotional Behavioral

Management Questionnaire (PEM) ...................... 56
2. Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the PEM items ....... 58
3. The items measuring awareness of mood ............... 60
4. Items that measure awareness of tactics related

to emotion .......................................... 61
5. Miscellaneous additional awareness items ............ 62
6. Confirmatory factor analysis of the items

measuring awareness of mood ......................... 63
7. Confirmatory factor analysis of the items measuring

awareness of tactics (pretest data) ................. 65
8. The correlations between the construct for

nervousness and the constructs measuring awareness of

tactics ............................................. 66
9. Correlations between the POMS subscales with

commonalties in the diagonal ........................ 68
10.Key results for the pooled exercise groups;

mean gain, standard deviation of gain; and the

self-impact correlation between change and

initial level ....................................... 73
11.Mean improvement as a function of initial

level for the whole sample .......................... 77
12.Mean change in standard scores for each exercise

program ............................................. 78
13.The standard deviation of gain for each exercise

group ............................................... 80
l4.Self Impact correlation ............................. 81

ix

15.

16

17

18

The mean changes on the mood and awareness of
sub-groups ..........................................

.The strenuous of activity on mood and awareness .....

.The mean change, standard deviation, &

self-impact correlation for each dependent variable
for each of the combined groups formed on the
basis of strenuousness ..............................

.Meta-analysis on the effect of strenuous exercise

on mood using d as the measure of effect size .......

82

83

85

9O

LIST OF FIGURE

Figure PAGE

1. Psychological intervention strategies .............. 17

xi

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of
exercise on mood and body awareness. The body awareness
components included posture, breathing patterns, hand gestures,
and facial movements. The moods included anxiety, tension,
depression, anger, fatigue, confusion, and vigor. Because
there were no standardized tests of the body awareness components ,
two new scales were designed and utilized.

The first goal was to develop the scales to measure
awareness. Because specific motor behaviors are considered a
reflection of the internal states of the individual (Ekman, 1982;
Ellgring, 1989; Troishi, Chiaie, Russo, Russo, Mosco, and Pasini,
1996) , awareness of emotion-related body states was used in this
study. The scales were used to determine whether awareness of

internal states and body movements could be increased by specific
exercise programs (stretching, aerobics, yoga, t’ai chi, and NIA,

which are discussed in detail in Chapter two) thereby enhancing
the ability to cope with stress and increasing healthy emotions.
The second goal was to examine the five different exercise
groups to determine whether non-strenuous exercise programs
would improve mood states (anxiety, tension, depression, anger,

vigor, fatigue, and confusion) and body awareness to the same

degree as traditional strenuous exercise programs. The effect

on these variables would result from the intensity of the
participanté’physical movements and the purpose of their

activities.

The third goal was to examine how the initial individuals’

mood levels and body awareness levels would affect their
improvement on their outcome variables.

Five different exercise programs were used in this study,
and each program ran for five weeks . Four different instruments
were used in pretest and posttest conditions. The two categories
of dependent variables were mood and body awareness. Mood
variables were identified as trait anxiety, measured by
subscales of the Spielberger's State—Trait Anxiety Inventory
(see Appendix B) ; and tension, depression, anger, vigor, fatigue,
and confusion, measured by the Profile of Mood States. (See
Appendix C.) The body awareness variables were measured by the
self-awareness questionnaire (see Appendix D), and by the
physical emotional.management questionnaire. (See.Appendix]3.)

In sports and exercise psychology research, there have
been a series of studies that examine the effects of exercise
on emotion (Kubitz & Landers, 1993; Raglin & Morgan, 1987; Morgan
& Goldston, 1987; Folkins & Sime, 1981) . This research focuses
on how much exercise reduces disturbance mood levels . There are ,
however, few studies that examine the awareness of internal
states or kinesthetic sense from body movements and controlling
disturbing emotions as a result of participating in physical

exercise. The idea of awareness of internal states and

controlling emotions came from Eastern exercises such as yoga
and t'ai chi (Grade, 1972; Patel, 1991), research.on.nonverbal
expression (Ekman, 1969; Knapp, 1972), emotional management

research (Loehr, 1990), and behavioral research (Bem, 1972).

It is important to know how an athlete show his motivation,
confidence, or ability to the opponents, peers, and coach, in
a competitive sports situation” According to Loehr (1990),
behavioral management is an important tactic in competitive
sports because athletes have to deal with negative emotions . He
teaches the practical management of behavior in order to overcome
negative emotions. His professional and nonprofessional
clients learn to manage the physical manifestations of their
behavior, such as their breathing patterns, heart rate, eye
contact, and posture. .As a result, the athletes are better
prepared to compete in a given competitive situation. Although
Loehr ' s model lacks discussion of the athletes' awareness of what
they actually feel and how they behave, his model is worth
studying. Being aware of these physical manifestations of
behavior is the important first step in athletes' learning to
manage their negative emotions.

To examine awareness of internal states and the subsequent
behavioral management based on this research, the "self-
perception theory" as discussed in Bem (1972) was used. The main
argument of self—perception theory is that people are unaware
of their inner states until someone points out their behavior
(Laird & Bresler, 1992). That is, if the internal cues that

signal an inner state are weak, ambiguous, or uninterpretable,

people must rely on their own behavior as a guide to interpreting
their inner state.

People may be unaware of their kinesthetic feedback
(sensory cues) or even of their behavior, according to the theory
of self—perception (Bem, 1972) . Self-perception is especially
useful in investigating any relationship between emotion,
self-awareness, and body movements which generate complex
perceptual experiences. Is training effective in making one
aware of internal states? And does knowing one ' s internal states
enable one to change emotions in a given situation?

Among various physical activities, some exercises, such
as yoga, and t'ai chi, emphasize stress management. Such
meditative activities are growing in popularity, even though
they do not focus on the benefits of popular fitness exercise,
which involves fast movement and energy expenditure . Both yoga
and t'ai chi involve slower, quieter, more controlled motor
activities and also require more flexibility and greater
concentration than do popular energy- expending forms of
exercise. For example, yoga and t'ai chi exercises focus on the
inner sensations of the body, which may have less impact on the
emotions than energy-expending exercises.

Both yoga and t ' ai chi exercises were developed in Eastern
cultures, where it is believed that exercising and controlling
the body may result in controlling emotions. Therefore,
practitioners of yoga and t'ai chi, for example, expect their
physical disciplines to lead them to a balanced, calm, and

healthier concept of the inner self. Breathing is considered

an important factor in reaching this goal. Regulation of the
respiratory system, body position, posture, and all motor
movements are considered important factors that bring an
adjustment of mind to the practitioner as well. The regulation
of behavior and the psychological effects of such regulation have
been studied by researchers examing nonverbal behavior, such as
postures and expression of moods (Bushman, 1990; Levy, 1988;
Overby, 1990; Rachman, 1980), or gaze and.moods (Knapp, 1972).
Although these meditative exercises have been examined for their
psychological and physiological benefits, the issues of
awareness and control have not been studied. These meditative
exercises suggest that there might be an awareness component that
the practitioner must develop in order to know what he feels,
thinks, and does.

The present study was formulated from these speculations
about the effects of meditative exercises, and from research on
nonverbal expression, emotional management research, and

behavioral research.

Statement of the Problems

The contribution of exercise programs to healthier
psychological outcomes has been a source of much popular
investigation (Fillingim & Blumenthal, 1993; Kubitz & Landers,
1993; Raglin & Morgan, 1987; Morgan & Goldston, 1987; Folkins
& Sime, 1981). The present study, however, investigates the
effects of exercise on awareness of internal states and the

kinesthetic sense of body action which is considered to be a

reflection of internal states.

The signals from a specific mood as well as the
individual's body language were considered to be the tools for
identifying emotions at a given time and for modifying specific
behaviors. The question asked in this study is whether a
person's awareness of his specific moods and the body language
derived from these moods are increased by meditative exercise
programs, such as yoga, t'ai chi, and stretching. In addition,
this study attempts to determine how well people think they can
control their emotions by using specific tactics that were
emphasized in the exercise programs and that the students might
have learned. It also examines mood states and whether moods
can be improved by various modes of exercise. The exercise
programs used in this study differed in their intensity of
activity.

Two assessments were created: a self-awareness
questionnaireandtaphysicalemotionalmanagementquestionnaire.
The Profile of Mood States (POMS) developed by McNair, Lorr, and
Droppleman (1992) and Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety
Inventory (STAI) developed by Spielberger (1983), which have
been used as tools for looking at the direct relationship of
exercise to emotion, were used to measure the healthier outcomes
made possible by participation in exercise.

Therefore, this research was designed to investigate 1)
the effects of exercise on the awareness of internal states,
which can be observed by behavioral cues such as posture,

breathing patterns, and other physical expressions; and 2) the

effects of exercise on the ability to manage negative emotion.
Students in five different exercise groups —— 1) Anderson's
(Anderson, 1980) stretching; 2) yoga, 3) tai chi, 4) aerobics,

5) and NIA —- participated in this research.

Exploratory hypotheses

Several hypotheses were formulated in an exploratory

manner based on a literature review of research in this area:

1. It was predicted that over a five week period, each exercise
program would reduce the subjects' trait anxiety.
Spielberger's STAI (see Appendix B) was used to measure trait

anxiety.

2 . It was predicted that over a five—week period, each exercise
program (stretching, aerobics, yoga, t'ai chi, and NIA) would
improve the subjects' mood state. More specifically, it was
also predicted that: (1) a subscale score of tension—anxiety
would decrease over the five weeks; (2) a sub-scale score of
depression-dejection would decrease over the five weeks; (3)
a sub-scale score of anger-hostility would decrease over the
five weeks; (4) a subscale score of fatigue-inertia would
decrease over the five weeks; (5) a subscale score of
confusion-bewilderment would decrease over the five weeks;
(6) a subscale score of vigor would increase over the five
weeks; and (7) a total disturbance score —- which was obtained

by adding the anger, fatigue, confusion, tension, and

depression scores -- would decrease over the five weeks. The

POMS (see Appendix C) was used to measure mood.

It was predicted that over a five—week period, the exercise
programs (stretching, yoga, and t'ai chi) would enhance
subjects' awareness of their moods in comparison to the
awareness of their moods before the start of the program..
A questionnaire was designed to assess this self-awareness.

(See Appendix D.)

It was predicted that over a five—week.period, the exercise
programs (stretching, yoga, and t'ai chi) would enhance the
subjects' body awareness with tactics such as verbal

expressions, physical control , posture, breathing patterns,
hand gestures , or facial movements in comparison to their body
awareness before the start of the program. A questionnaire
was designed to assess this physical and emotional management.

(See Appendix E.)

It was predicted that among the five different exercise groups ,
similar effects on the dependent variables (mood, anxiety,
awareness , and copying efficacy) would result from similarity
in the intensity of physical movements and the purpose of the
activities. That is, aerobics and NIA would produce similar
results for dependent variables, and t'ai chi, yoga, and
stretching would produce similar results for dependent

variables.

6 . Finally, it was predicted that individuals' initial level of
the dependent variables (mood, anxiety, awareness, and coping
efficacy) would affect the degree of their improvement on

these dependent variables.

Delimitations

Because research participants did not have clinical
mental diseases, results from this research cannot be
generalized to patients with such diseases. Instead, this
research utilized a behavioral and cognitive assessment in
typical situations. The questionnaires used in this research
must be revised before they are used in other situations, such
as clinical settings. Measurement of awareness of internal
states and the subsequent subjects' behavior was limited to the

items on the questionnaire.

Definitions
The following operational definitions apply to this
experiment:

Emotion -- Any of the strong feelings of the human spirit: love,
hatred, and grief; an excited state of feelings (Longman
Dictionary, 1St ed.). Emotional phenomena are
noninstrumental behaviors and non-instrumental features
of behavior, physiological changes, and evaluative,
subject-related experiences, as evoked by external or
mental events, and primarily by the significance of such

events. An emotion is either an occurrence of phenomena

10

of these three kinds or the inner determinant of such

phenomena (Frijda, 1986).

Mood -- Mood is generally defined as a state of feelings at a
particular time or affective arousal of varying, but not
permanent, duration (Longnan Dictionary, 1St ed.) . Moods
are typically viewed as milder than emotions, which are
considered.more intense and.of shorter duration. Moods
are often thought of as dispositions to respond in certain
emotional ways and to experience certain feelings

(Campbell, Gorman, & Muncer, 1990, p.43).

Stretching -— Stretching is defined literally as reaching out
or extending to something (Longman Dictionary, 18t ed.) .
When the stretching is used as an exercise, it is commonly
used before and after the workout. It is not stressful,
but peaceful, relaxing and.noncompetitive, and helps to
maintain flexibility and prevent common injuries such as
shin splints or Achilles tendonitis from running, and
sore shoulders or elbows from tennis. In addition,
stretching regulates and relaxes muscle tension, thereby
allowing people to be more aware of their muscles

(Anderson, 1980).

T'ai chi —- A unique Chinese soft-intrinsic exercise which dates
back to 1000 A.D. and is extremely popular in China as

well as in some other Asian countries. As an exercise

11

that demands no physical strength to begin with and that
involves techniques adjusted to, and developing with,
individual capacities, it is practical for any physiology.
Consisting of slow movement, with its organic and

intrinsic harmony, t ' ai chi is believed to train both body

and mind (Delza, 1974).

Yoga -- A Hindu system of exercises designed to free the self
from the body (Longman Dictionary, 1St ed.). More
precisely, yoga consists of a series of postures and
breathing that are believed to help the balance of body
and.mind. The goal of yoga is self-realization (Smith,

1982).

NIA (Neuromuscular Integrative Action ) — - This exercise has been
designed to help people approach everything with purpose
and passion. The choreography of this exercise
encourages a new way of moving that allows for more
creativity and individual expression. The movements are
creative, barefoot, non—impact, and aerobic, blending
principles and concepts from t ' ai chi , taekwondo, aikido,
jazz, Duncan and modern dance, ballet, yoga, the
Feldenkrais technique and the Alexander technique. NIA
offers an experience that embraces individual creativity,
self-inquiry and free expression, making it possible for
one to stay fit, reap holistic benefits, and bring a sense

of well-being that filters into every aspect of the

12

practitioner's life.

Aerobics —- Aerobics refers to a variety of exercises that

stimulate heart and lung activity long enough to produce
beneficial changes in the body. Running, swimming,
cycling, and jogging are typical aerobic exercises . The
main objective of an aerobic exercise program is to
increase the maximum amount of oxygen that the body can
process within.a'given time. It depends upon efficient
lungs, a powerful heart, and a good vascular system
(Cooper, 1970). For this study, an aerobics floor

exercise with music was chosen.

Body movement therapy (also known as body therapy) — - The general

aim of this exercise is self—body awareness, so that each
person becomes aware of his or her body's functioning with
the aim of improving balance, walking, or any other body

function (Costonis, 1978).

Basic Assumptions

1 .

Subjects had to have a motivation to participate in this
research and be willing to identify awareness of their
internal states and their subsequent behavior.

Subjects in this research study had to understand the purpose
and objects of the questionnaires and be willing to describe

their behavior and emotional experiences.

13

Limitations

1. The amount of practice time the participants had in addition
to the practice for this study was not controlled for any

exercise group.

2 . All the participants from aerobics and some participants from
the t'ai chi classes were taking these classes to earn
required one credit. Therefore, their motivation and the
work they had to do were different from that of the
participants who did not need this exercise class to earn a

credit.

3. The sample size in yoga (N = 8) ,t'ai chi (N = 19) , stretching
(N = 5) , and NIA (N = 8) in this study limited the statistical

power of the analyses and increased sampling error.

Chapter 2

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

The review of pertinent literature in this chapter was
focused mainly on awareness of the internal states and the
subsequent behavior that might be influenced by participating
in exercise. The exercises discussed in this chapter were
alternative and meditative. Their main.purpose is to increase
psychological.well-being'rathertflun1tt>provide cardiovascular
benefits or to build muscles. The skills people can use to manage
or overcome stressful emotion through meditative exercise were
also discussed.

The research concept stems from the concept in Eastern
philosophy of "oneness of body and mind." The traditional
exercises that were developed in Eastern cultures were different
from those developed in Western culture. Unlike cardiovascular
training, which emphasizes running, jumping, or pumping muscles
to increase physiological and psychological health, exercises
such as yoga and tai chi, for example, concentrate on remaining
calm and listening to the body and the emotions. Few studies
analyze the effects of meditative exercise, which focuses on
awareness of the internal state and develops the skills necessary

for managing negative emotion.

l4

15

This chapter is comprised of four sections: (1) internal
awareness, which was divided into two subsections (sports and
observed emotional expressions, emotion and nonverbal
behavior); (2) the effect of exercise, which was divided into
four subsections (exercises emphasizing awareness of internal
states, cardiovascular exercises, meta—analysis<oftfluaeffects
of exercise on emotion, alternative exercise, particularly,
yoga, and tai chi); (3) awareness and self—control; and (4) a

summary section.

Internal awareness

Sports and observed emotional expressions. Various
emotional expressions can be seen in sports arenas. It is
interesting to watch the expressions of mood or emotion of the
athletes in any sport, whether professional or amateur. It is
also easier for us to understand the situation of individual
athletes or teams if they express their thoughts and emotions.
A TV commentator can often tell us what an athlete might be
thinking in a given situation. If a tennis player sits in a chair
with his head down, hands covering the head, and his back is
rounded during a losing set, what might another person perceive
as the player's attitude? One might perceive that the player
is trying to concentrate on the next set, or that he is depressed
because of performing poorly: But the player's emotional
expression or cognitive processes may not be known for certain
until someone interviews him later. It seems, however, that some

messages are transmitted through behavior toward others.

16

It is interesting to ask whether or not it is wrong for
athletes to show emotion during a game. The answer will vary
depending on the kind of sport and the situation. The opponent
may feel an advantage when a player's posture is perceived as
indicating depression —— for example, walking slowly with.head
down, or a curved back after missing an important point in a game .
In any case, the athlete's nonverbal expressions are considered
to be reflective of his mental state, and they sometimes

communicate to others, who are then able to understand his
thoughts and feelings.

This question has not received aggreat deal of attention
in sports psychology research, but managing the athlete's
behavior in.a«competitive setting has recently been introduced
as a research topic. Loehr (1990) has introduced tennis-
specific training models based on his experience as a sports
psychologist. Through his training, tennis players learn how
to control their behavior in a tennis match.

In his model (see Figure 1) there are instructions about
physiological strategies that deal with the way'a player walks
on the court , his posture, eye control , breath control , awareness
of heart rate, and relaxation-activation strategies during and
between points in the on-court situation” Although these
interventions seem to have been carefully designed and appear
to be very effective, research evidence has not been reported

on such strategies.

l7

 

 

rDuring Points ] [Tavern Points]

 

i Sent; i ; Ehvncal i m m

Perlormance Cues Breath Control 4 Stages 4 Stages
Early Relaxation! 1. Positive Eyes
Aggressive Activation Physical Breathing
Watch the Ball Awareness (HR) Response Pace
2. Relaxation Posture
Response Racquet
3. Preparation Bioleedback (HR)
Response
4. Ritual
Response

Periodization Periodization
Goal Setting Shadow Tennis
Visualization with both video
Training a HR leedback
Stress Mgmt Diet
Training. e.g.. Sleep
meditation.
attitude control
Counseling
Music Videos
Training Video
-Parent
-Stress

Figure 1 - Psychological intervention strategies by Loehr (1990)

18

Another example of research related to intervention
strategies is that of Burwash and Tullius (1989) , who discussed
the importance of controlling emotion. These researchers gave
athletes instructions about how to play a match by controlling
emotions, building self—confidence, and concentrating. They
also pointed out the importance of controlling body language as
a significant strategy. In their method, walking with
confidence and keeping the head up were considered to be
important. They warn athletes never to blurt out such negative
statements as "Boy, I am choking!"

As examples, they discussed professional players, such
as Bjorn Borg, Jimmy Connors, and Andre Agassi, who knew how to
use body language as a psychological weapon to boost their morale
and intimidate their opponents. It was said that Bjorn Borg
would have never allowed his emotions to show, even though his
body was trembling and he could hardly hold his racket. Jimmy
Connors often bounced up and down, and he was usually the first
one out of his chair at the changeover. The authors also
mentioned that Andre Agassi has such effective body language that
people cannot tell if he is winning or losing.

Based on their observations, they concluded that if
athletes control their emotions on the surface, they can control
them underneath. No matter what the score, athletes should try
to give the impression that all is right with the game and with
the world. If athletes can do this, they can fool not only the
opponent, but himself as well. It is not easy for athletes to

try to prevent others from knowing how they feel. It is necessary

19

to get extra training to be aware of emotions and to handle them
so that they do not run wild.

It is important that athletes be careful about their
behavior in competitive situations and they need some training
to manage their behavior. Questions could be raised, however,
about how they can be aware of emotions as well as their body
expressions, which might be conscious or unconscious, in a given
situation. Based on the observations of these researchers, it
would seem that body language and emotional control in sports
are worth studying, yet studies of this subject are rare.

Emotion and nonverbal behavior. A series of experimental
studies have shown that nonverbal behaviors in social situations
are related to the emotional state of the person exhibiting the
behavior (Ekman, 1982; Grant, 1969; Troishi et al., 1996).

For example, Troishi et al. (1996) used normal subjects to
examine the relationship between nonverbal behavior and
emotional states by using structured clinical interviews.
Behavior was judged based on behavioral categories and
definitions of behavioral patterns. For example, looking away
from the interviewer, closing the eyes, or drawing the chin in
toward the chest indicated the impulse to "fight." Using the
fingernails to scratch part of the body, twisting and fiddling
finger movements, twisting a wedding ring or handkerchief,
biting the lips or drawing them into the mouth and holding them
between the teeth indicated "conflict. " The researchers found
that when the subjects had difficulty answering a question, they

had poor nonverbal expressions. At the same time, these subjects

20

showed a high frequency of self-directed behavior patterns,
which were ethnological indicators of tension and anxiety.

In the study of nonverbal expression, gestures, body
movements, and postures were perceived as aids in defining
internal states. It has been shown that emotion could be
transmitted.by a performer, and the emotional meaning could be
communicated accurately. According to Hewes' (1957) research,
postural choices were largely determined by cultural influences .

Hewes claims that the study of body movement in the United
Sates has primarily focused on attitudes, status, affective
states or moods, approval seeking, quasi-courtship behavior,
inclusiveness, leakage or deception, warmth, and interaction
"markers" (cited in Knapp, 1972, p.97). In the attempt to
understand human communication, it has been popular to study
specific body parts, such.as the face and.eyes, as well as hand
signals, touching, posture, space, etc.

In regard to posture and position, Mehrabian (1972, p.30)
stated that there were two dimensional schemes that characterize
posture and position cues in the communication of liking and
status relations. The first dimension included immediacy,
touching, closer position, forward leaning, eye contact, and
more direct body orientation. The second dimension,
relaxation, included those cues that indicate an asymmetrical
rather than a symmetrical position of the posture and of the
limbs. A person assumes a more immediate position with someone
he likes, and.greater liking is inferred.when the other person

is more immediate toward oneself. Higher-status members in a

21

social situation are more relaxed than were lower—status
members. Relaxation was also related to liking. We tend to be
moderately relaxed with those we like and to assume very relaxed
postures with those we dislike or do not respect.

Wallbott's study (as cited in Ellgring, 1989, p.129)
described specific movement characteristics of schizophrenia
and depression. He characterized the gestures of depressed
patients as follows: (1) by spatio-temporal aspects (speed,
acceleration), which tend to be slow, tired, oppressed, and
dragging; (2) by energy and.power aspects (intensity, tension,
etc.) , which tend to be powerless, faint, limp, without tension,
and ponderous; (3) by categorical aspects (frequency and
movement), which tend to be scarce with little or decreased
activity; (4) by spatial aspects (extension of movements, usage
of space) , which tend to be narrow, with little radius; and (5)
by Gestalt aspects (behavioral flow, qualitative features),
which tend to be soft, rounded, disharmonic, unelastic,
monotonous, and without expression.

The overall research on nonverbal communication conducted
by Ekman (1992) suggests that behavioral patterns that they label
as self-adaptors "leak more;" that is to say, they give more
veridical information about the subject ' s emotional states than
does facial expression, which.was subject toigreater conscious
deception or unconscious masking. The occurrence of frequent
self-manipulation by the subjects during the experiments
indicated that they experienced increased emotional arousal that

was not manifested through facial expression.

22

The Effects of exercise

Exercisesppromoting awareness of internal states and
mind-body balance. Why do people exercise? There are many
possible answers tO‘thisiquestion. Different purposes, times,
fashions, interests, tastes, ages, abilities, and degree of
availability, are among the reasons that determine the
individual's choice of exercise. Age and sex are factors that
seem to influence the importance assigned.to the psychological
outcomes of exercise. For example, older adults tend.to place
greater'importancecuipsychological.benefits (Heitmann, 1986),
while for children this outcome is among the lowest of values
(Passer, 1982). Women seem to appreciate the potential
psychological benefits more than men do (Biddle and Bailey,
1985).

Cardiovascular exercise. Among the various exercises,
aerobics training has been very popular in the field of fitness
in the decades since Cooper (1970) introduced it to the public.
The main object of an aerobic exercise program is to increase
the maximum amount of oxygen that the body can process within
a given time (aerobic capacity). Aerobic training offers an
ample choice of different forms of exercise, including many
popular sports . They have one thing in common: because they make
one work hard, they demand plenty of oxygen (Cooper, 1970).

There is a large body of research attempting to identify
the benefits of cardiovascular training for physiological as
well as psychological well—being (Fillingim and Blumenthal,

1993; Kubitz and Landers, 1993; Raglin.anleorgan, 1987; Morgan

23

and.Goldston, 1987). For example, aerobic training enhances a
variety of physical and psychological adaptations, including
alterations in affects, such as depression, anxiety, and fatigue
(Fillingim and Blumenthal, 1993; Blumenthal, et al., 1989); it
is also increased maximal oxygen uptake and anaerobic threshold
(Blumenthal et al., 1989) and.decreased.blood.pressure (Raglin
and Morgan, 1987).

Research comparing the moods of runners to those of
aerobic dancers, weight lifters, and nonexercising controls
indicates that aerobic exercise had especially positive
psychological effects (Berger, 1983; Dyer and Crough, 1988).

Morgan and Goldston (1987) found that physical activity
could play a role in the primary and secondary prevention of
emotional disorders such as anxiety, depression, and in the
reduction of stress. According to his summary, physical fitness
was positively associated.with mental health and.well-being in
general; and it is associated with the reduction of stress (i .e . ,
state anxiety). If the level was mild to moderate, fitness
reduces depression and anxietyu Long—term exercise was
associated with reduction of some traits, such as trait anxiety
or trait neuroticism; appropriate exercise decreased stress
indices, neuromuscular tension, resting heart rate, and some
stress hormones. Folkins and Sime (1981) also summarized the
mental health benefits of exercise from the psychological
perspective. They interpreted exercise as a form of meditation

that could trigger an altered state of consciousness and that

24

provided a distraction or diversion from anxiety-producing
stimuli.

Meta—analysis of the effects of exercise on emotion” A
meta-analysis found several effects of exercise on depression:
(1) both intense and habitual but less intense exercise decreased
depression level, and the antidepressant effect continued
through follow—up measures; (2) all subject groups, that is, all
age groups, both males and females, in all categories of health
status decreased depression; (3) all modes of exercise were
effective antidepressants, including anaerobic exercise; (4)
the longer the exercise program and the greater the total number
of exercise sessions, the greater the decrease in depression;
(5) exercise was a better antidepressant than relaxation and
other enjoyable activities; (6) exercise was as effective as
psychotherapy; and (7) exercise plqupsychothera y were better
than exercise alone in reducing depression (North, McCullagh,
and Tran, 1990).

Although the meta—analysis on depression showed that
exercise decreased depression, the effects of exercise on
anxiety were minimal (Schlicht, 1994, 1995). This finding was
also supported by an another meta-analysis in coronary patients
(Kugler, Seelbach, and Kruskemper, 1994).

The importance of the interaction of body and mind can
be observed from the various studies of exercises, especially

meditative exercises. In the next section, exercises that use
the holistic approach —- the interaction between mind and.hody

-- are discussed. Exercise was considered as a method of

25

behavioral regulation, and.the emotional change after exercise
was seen to be significant evidence of the body’s effect on the

control of emotion and mood.

Alternative exercise. Despite the popularity and
significant positive effects of aerobics training, it seems that
the focus has been shifted from aerobics to more holistic
exercise. According to Newsweek (Marin, Miller, and Biddle,
1995), "At health clubs around the country, breathing and
stretching are replacing jumping and pumping. The number of
Americans doing traditional aerobics dropped from 28 million in
1992 to 23 million in 1995. Meanwhile, 6 million Americans are
doing yoga, more than are doing cross-country skiing or
skateboarding. Hard-core freaks are addicting themselves to
all manner of hybrid mind/body activities, yogarobics, Trance
Dance, Pilates. In big cities such as New York and Chicago,
people are going inward as opposed to just exploding energy
outward. Therefore, people in fitness clubs demand more
"conscious exercise."

Why have people been engaging in meditative exercise to
experience internal effects? Yoga and t'ai chi, as examples of
meditative exercises, will now be discussed, with a focus on
their structure and effects.

nga. .Actress Ali MacGraw's "Yoga Mind & Body" video
ranks high on Billboard's fitness charts. People think of this
video as providing a "meditative workout" (Marin et al. , 1995) .
This is one example of why meditative exercises such as yoga has

been popular in recent years . Public attention seems to be drawn

26

to yoga as a means of preventing health problems and managing
stress through therapeutic meditation.

It is said that yoga practice leads to greater harmony
of body and.mind and.moves practitioners toward a higher state
of consciousness (Smith, 1982). What do people say about the
effects of yoga? Yoga practice involves various breathing
exercises, of which simple abdominal breathing is only the first ,
and over 200 physical postures to exercise every muscle in the
body. These postures are the key to tuning up all organs in the
body and insuring their healthy functioning (Satchidanananda,
1970).

The postures include stretching the various parts of the
body, backward.arching, twisting, and.loosening actions, which
seem to help to elongate the spine, and to release bodily and
emotional stress. As the practice progresses, practitioners
learn to achieve good body alignment, flexibility,
concentration, and awareness (Smith, 1982) . Relaxation of body
and emotion leads to reflecting on their thoughts or emotions.
Unfortunately, few studies have investigated the mechanism of
achieving "harmony'between.mind.and body." More investigation
is needed to explore this relationship.

In spite of the lack of investigation of " the relationship
of mind and body, " according to Yellin (1983) , yoga has already
been adopted by many members of the American health profession
as a means of controlling weight and treating insomnia,

headaches, and heart conditions.

27

Goyeche et al.(1992) reviewed the medical benefits of
addressing the "somatopsychic imbalance" in asthma. Their
general picture of this imbalance stresses certain factors that
have been neglected in orthodox and even psychosomatically
oriented medicine. In addition, the psychological status of
suppressed emotion, anxiety, depression, and hyperself-
consciousness was seen to be accompanied by generalized and
localized muscle tension, including that of the voluntary
respiratory musculature. .As a means of preventing such
conditions, yoga was used for asthma patients. Learning the
various body postures had positive effects on the correction of
distorted posture; and yoga breathing changed the faulty
breathing habits of patients, increased the amount of breathing
and alveolar ventilation, lowered the rate of breathing, and
distributed oxygen throughout the body. 'Yoga practitioners
learned to use the entire lung, especially its lower portion,
and to achieve complete expiration, reduction.of residual air,
free and copious diffusion of gases, and recovery of lung
elasticity; Therefore, the authors concluded that yoga was
relevant to psychosomatic disorders. They did not find that
psychosomatic disease-specific body postures in yoga, but the
approach taught the patients a new lifestyle, way of thinking,
and way of being in the world.

In psychiatric therapy for hypertension, according to
Patel (1993) , many patients' symptoms appeared to originate from

psychological, social, and.spiritual malaise, yet they did.not

28

feel that their symptoms warranted their seeing a psychiatrist .
Other symptoms seemed actually to be caused by modern medicine.

Patel reported a case study of a middle-aged hypertensive
woman whose blood pressure had remained uncontrolled by the
strongest antihypertensive drugs. However, after ten - fifteen
minutes of diaphragmatic yoga breathing exercises and deep
muscle relaxation in a consultation session, her blood pressure
fell from 200/120 to 140/90 mm Hg in only a few days. Within
these weeks her blood.pressure had reached 120/80 mm Hg,‘which
would rise to about 140/90, but quickly fall down again to 120/80
mm Hg.

The psychological effects of the various body postures
of yoga that help to release suppressed emotion have also been
reported” When the "lion" posture was first introduced to the
patients, they executed the posture in a rather mild "pussy cat"
manner. As the practice progressed, the suppressed or stressful
feelings of the patients seemed to be released, and angry
feelings and behavior associated with the lion posture were often
observed on the ward (Goyeche, 1992).

Breathing is more than just the gaseous exchange that
takes place between inspired air and blood circulating in the
lungs . Emotional states are reflected in the pattern of breath,
so that practicing breathing patterns influences both the body
and the mind. For example, an anxious person tends to breathe
rapidly and often, using only the upper part of the chest.' A
depressed person tends to sigh. A person who is hysterical tends

to overbreathe (Patel, 1991).

29

Several researchers reported other psychological
effects . Participating in yoga practice reduced anxiety (Bali,
1976) and depression (Wadded, 1984), and increase the
participant's sense of‘well-being (Peters, Benson, and.Peters,
1977).

In school settings , yoga training has been shown to produce
long—term positive effects. Some educators have used the
exercises and principles of yoga as a means of helping young
children achieve a relaxed state in which the mind and body were
centered or balanced in a holistically integrated fashion
(Yellin, 1983). In.order to achieve psychological well-being,
yoga may be alternated with energy-expending exercises, even
though yoga masters usually spend years learning the correct
postures.

Research in yoga practice has focused on its physiological
effects as well as the psychological effects, but yoga
instructors emphasize the awareness of emotion and the
relationship of mind and body; Research demonstrating these
effects, however, has not proven to be empirically valid.

T'ai Chi . As an another example of meditative exercises,
a popular Chinese exercise, t'ai chi chuan (usually called t'ai
chi) , has now become popular among Western countries. T'ai chi
is performed by Chinese people of all ages.

It involves dance-like, graceful movements consisting of
specific patterns and sequencing; T'ai chi represents the yin

and the yang, which broadly symbolize a passive mode and an active

30

mode, respectivelyu These characteristics canlxareadily seen
in the physical performance of t'ai chi.

The movements of t'ai chi are fluent and consummately
precise because specificity of joint angles and body position
is of critical importance in accurately and correctly performing
each form” The forms depend on body balance, posture, precise
respiration, and muscle contraction. Blance is interlocking
and the movements flow and melt together. The movements of many
forms represent characteristic animal motions colorfully
described: "White crane spreads wings," "golden rooster stands
on the edge," and "snake crouches down." Other movements
depicting imaginative human movements are "carry the tiger to
the mountain," "ride the tiger," and "both hands wave like
clouds" (Delza, 1974).

Because of the benefits of t ' ai chi, Western researchers
have begun to investigate its effects. Research regarding t'ai
chi has been done on both its physical and its psychological
effects. Physiological research indicates that t'ai chi
practitioners had significantly greater oxygen uptake (VOQ,
oxygen (02), and work rate than nonpractitioners at similar
training intensities (Lai, Wong, Chong, and Lien, 1993).
Practitioners were also found to have lower ventilatory and
similar cardiovascular responses (Brown et al., 1995).

It has been found that t'ai chi exercise significantly
decreases chronic psychological stress, such as tension, anger,

depression, confusion, fatigue and state anxiety caused by

31

mental stressors (Brown, Wang, Ebbeling, Fortlage, Puleo,
Benson, and Rippe, 1995; Jim, 1989, 1992).

In Brown's study, t'ai chi was used as a mind—and-body
exercise for 45 minutes, 3 times per week for 16 weeks. The total
number of subjects. was 18 (7 women and 11 men) , and the mean age
was 54.8 for men, and 50.6 for women” A comparison of gender
differences in regard to the effects of t'ai chi practice
indicated that women benefited from t'ai chi more than did men.
The researcher comments that the effects of t'ai chi depend on
gender, personality, and ability to perform the exercise.

The slow movements in t ' ai chi training seem to help people
to realize how they are unbalanced and help to become centered
as they reestablish balance in the body. Lee (1989) suggests
that t'ai chi can lead to learning increased postural control.
Postural control and balance have been defined as the ability
to maintain equilibrium and return the center of body mass to
the current or anticipated base of support. Current studies
demonstrate that the kinesthetic sense, lateral stability and
balance, and knee extension strength are improved by the slow,
guided, and precise movements in the practice of t'ai chi
(Jacobean, Ho-Change, Cashed, and Guerrero, 1997).

Because slow movements are easier for elderly people,
t'ai chi seems to benefit them. .An elderly group (ranging in
age from 66 to 86 years) who participated in t'ai chi for one
year, had significantly better postural control than their
sedentary counterparts in balance tests (Tse and Bailey, 1992) .

Other studies show that t'ai chi practice reduces the risk of

32

falling among elderly person after fifteen weeks of practice
sessions (Wolf, Kutner, Green, and. McNeely, 1993), and that
displacement of pressure was decreased among elderly
participants (Judge, Underwood, and Winsemius, 1993).

The reason that t ' ai chi has potential value for improving
balance and postural control and increasing awareness is that
in the flow of t'ai chi movements, the participants develop a
sense of awareness, and a sense of their total being, both mind
and.hody (Delza, 1974). Precise joint angles and positioning,
steady posture and balance, and hip, knee, and ankle strength
for low, sweeping movements are demonstrated by the nature of
the activity; The mind must be concentrated on the body parts
as the body moves, so that the body and the mind move together
in t ' ai chi exercise . In training to acquire a sense of awareness
and a sense of the total being, a sense of balance in the movements
comes first. Tse (1992) explains why t'ai chi has potential
value for promotion of awareness: 1) the movements are circular,
slow, continuous, even smooth, and this facilitates a sensory
awareness of the speed, force, trajectory, and execution of
movement; 2) the movements are well controlled: all unnecessary
exertion is avoided, and as a result, muscle coordination rather
than rigid coordination can be promoted; 3) the body is
constantly shifted from one foot to the other, which facilitates
improvement of dynamic standing balance; 4) the different parts
of the body take turns in playing the role of stabilizer and mover,
and the relationship between postural stabilization and the

moving parts of the body is enhanced.

33

Breathing is not considered as a separate skill in t'ai
chi, because breathing follows the movements. A continuous
circular breathing pattern is used to produce a better movement
flow (Delza, 1974) . As one experiences t'ai chi, one can easily
observe this breathing pattern. The practitioner naturally
learns how to control breathing without forcing on it in a
movement, just as people attending a classic concert are likely
to control their breathing and posture as the musicians play.
They do not want to make a noise that would disturb others in
the concert hall.

It is difficult to conceptualize how the body and
breathing are managed during t'ai chi. T'ai chi may be one of
many ways to rediscipline the body to release the tension within.
Yoga and t ' ai chi are similar in that they both focus on detailed
internal body sensation, thereby increasing personal body
awareness in the process of training; More research is needed

on this process.

Awareness and self-control

Awareness of physiological and.psychological states has
been the subject of psychosomatic research” Awareness was
developed as a means to modify emotions or at least recognize
the emotions that the individual needs help in controlling. For
instance, through awareness one can learn to control blood
pressure (Fahrenberg, Franck, Baas, and Jost, 1995) , affects and
affect consciousness (Monsen.and.Eilertsen, 1995), and.ohronic

muscular tension (Konno, 1993).

34

Generally speaking, without conscious attention it is not
easy for us to recognize what we feel and how feeling affects
our behavior at any given time. From a therapeutic perspective,
the goal of knowing ourselves can be reached by psychoanalysis,
counseling, transactional analysis, etc. These methods can
tell us the patterns of our behavior or cognitive processes in
a specific situation. If we are able to control our
verbalization and behavior at a specific time in a specific
situation, and with specific people, we can avoid conflicts and
stress. Self-control will not work perfectly at all times
because we are not computers that can execute verbal and physical
commands precisely. Sometimes we have to face difficult
situations in daily life, and we must struggle to keep calm or
to suppress emotion.

In reviewing literature on self—control and behavior
modification (Meichenbaum, 1977; Patterson, 1982) , it was found
that most therapeutic methods are based on manipulating the
cognition of the subjects. By examining the body movement or
actions of a person, we can see more directly the cause of
emotional change in subjects. Yoga and t'ai chi emphasize
training the body as a tool for controlling movements, and

perceiving emotions through the body.

Summary

In summary, despite the similar research findings of the
various studies or meta-analysis of the psychological effects

of exercise, it seems that there might be different effects from

35

alternative exercises that should be explored. Because each
exercise has its own goals and conceptual basis, the general term
"exercise" is not appropriate.

In the present study I did not intend to make a comparative
study of conventional cardiovascular exercise , such as aerobics ,
and meditative exercises, such as t'ai chi and yoga, in order
to find out which would be superior for recognizing or
controlling a particular emotion. Instead, this is an
exploratory study in which "awareness" of emotions and "coping"
with them were considered.as important factors to be explored.

Meditative exercises are low-impact and require slow
motion and intentional movements using various body parts . They
have become popular as stress management techniques and are
different from conventional, more energetic exercises. People
participating in meditative disciplines seem to naturally
establish "awareness" and "coping" skills that are useful for
stress management. Physical related.tacticssmnfl1as breathing
control and.paying attention to the body's posture and.halance
seem to be the key goals to be accomplished.

"Awareness" in the present study was focused on behavioral
patterns that were considered to be reflections of emotions.
The overall research on nonverbal communication suggests that
behavioral patterns "leak more," that is reveals more, than do
personal expressions about the subject's emotional states.

In sports arenas, this "leaking" is obvious and readily
observedt How can we become aware of our emotions, both

conscious or unconscious and the way our bodies express them?

36

Training can help us toward this goal. The tactics taught in
meditative exercises and understanding the meaning of nonverbal
expressions in a given situation can provide us with "awareness"

and " coping " skills.

Chapter 3

METHOD

Subjects

A total number of eighty-three exercisers, who
participated in both pre-test and post-test conditions, were
engaged.in the various activities as follows: t'ai chi Ufl==19;
mean age = 31.7, _D = 16.4; male = 6, female = 14); yoga (N =
8, mean age = 37.0, SD = 11.6; male = 2, female = 6); NIA (N =

= 13.5; male = 0, female = 8); aerobics

'0)
U

8; mean age = 40.4,

(N = 43; mean age = 19.9, SD = 1.7; male = 1, female = 41), and

 

stretching (N = 5; mean age = 34.2, SD = 4.0; male = 0, female
= 5). The total subjects' age ranged between 18 and 70 (SD =
12.4).

The participants in the stretching exercise consisted of
five females from the Cherry Lane Community Center at Michigan
State University, in East Lansing, Michigan” 'The participants
in t'ai chi were from either a physical activity class in
Michigan State University or the East Lansing Recreation Center.
The participants in yoga were from.the East Lansing Recreation
Center. The participants in NIA program were from Lansing
Community College, Lansing, Michigan. The participants in
aerobics were from1a.physical activity class at Michigan State

University. Each subject in each activity met twice a week for

37

38

five weeks beginning in January, 1997. These subjects
participated in pre-test and post—test assessments. All
participants signed a consent form which indicated their

willingness to participate in this study (see Appendix A).

Design

The study employed a pre- and post- comparison to see the
improvements on the eleven dependent variables (the trait
anxiety sub-scale of Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety
Inventory; six mood sub-scales (anger, tension, depression,
fatigue, confusion, and vigor, and two types of total mood
disturbance score of the Profile of Mood States; one scale of
a physical emotional management questionnaire, and two scales
of the self-awareness questionnaire). I will discuss each of
these variables later in the chapter.

Due to the small number of subjects in each exercise group,
the significant test was not performed; instead, the lists of
mean changes in standard scores (d) , the self-impact correlation
(ir), and the standard score of standard deviation.of gain (s)
was measured in order to report the results for testing the
hypotheses on the trait-anxiety and mood changes.

The mean effect size (d) was expressed in standard scores
using Time 1 standard deviation or using the within group
standard deviation as the basis for the standard score. In a
meta—analysis, by reporting conventions, most studies are
forced to use the within group standard deviation for the

standard score measure. If the effect size statistic for a

39

within subjects study is to be comparable to the effect size
statistic for independent group studies, the within group
standard deviation must be used even though the Time 1 standard
deviation is known. The standardized mean gain score was
computed as follows: d = Mean gain / within group standard
deviation of the raw scores in a study (Hunter, 1995).

In most social science studies, the unit of measurement
for the dependent variable varies from one study to next. In
order to get a statistic with the same meaning across studies,

the standard score of standard deviations(s) were computed:

s = the standard score standard deviation of gain scores

= the standard deviation of true gain scores / within group

standard deviation
The effects of error of measurement were corrected in the process
of the analyses. The sample size of each exercise group was
smaller, thus all were subjected to the sampling error.

The self—impact correlation (ir) was also reported which
was measured by the correlation between the initial level and
the effect size. If there is an interaction, then a key question
is the extent to which differences in the effect size can be
explained by differences in the initial level. This is measured
by the correlation between the initial level and the effect size
-- the "self-impadt correlationu" If gain.was correlated.with
some other variable, that correlation was considered as a simple

impact correlation (Hunter, 1982).

40

General format in exercise program

For each exercise group, the class was coordinated in such
a way that an instructor demonstrated the exercise or movements
in front of the class, and at the same time the students followed
the sequences of exercise or movements with the instructor. The
components of movements in aerobics and NIA were different from
each other in intensity. Aerobics exercise consisted of
stronger, speedy impact, more jumping, and more pressure on the
various muscle groups than did in the NIA” On the other hand,
NIA demanded less impact on the joints of the body, so that it
seemed less stressful and slower, and more movements were
introduced from various different types of exercises. ‘Various
high impact and rhythmic music was used both in aerobics and NIA
in order to pump up the emotion of the students in the class.

In contrast to the energetic exercise such as aerobics and
NIA, yoga, t ' ai chi, and stretching groups were designed to focus
more on internal feeling, flexibility and.halance of the body,
and relaxation from the various sources of the stress. Among
these meditative eXercise groups, music was used only in the yoga
class during the class periods. And , in contrast to the aerobics
and NIA class, the music aimed at getting a relaxed state of mind
during the class period.

In the aerobics, NIA, yoga, and t'ai chi classes,
preliminary stretching of the muscles to be used in the class
periods was not included during the class. Instead, especially
in the aerobics class, reducing the repetition and.the speedlof

the movements was used to calm down the students. In NIA and

41

yoga classes, relaxing meditative breathing or imagery were
sometimes used at the end of the class. Special breathing was
not used in the aerobics, NIA, stretching, and t'ai chi. Only
in the yoga class was deep breathing emphasized.

nga, The participants in yoga met once a week for a 90
minute program” The format of the class consisted of a female
instructor leading the various yoga postures in front of the
class, then the students following each posture one by one. The
instructor checked the students' postures to see whether they
were doing them correctly. In addition, breathing was
emphasized during the class, and in the relaxation period. The
instructor explained to the students that deep breathing through
various body postures increased the healthy circulation of blood
and air throughout the body; circulation improved, and a
concurrent relaxed state of mind was achieved in which the mind
and body were centered or holistically integrated. In the
classroom the students brought their own soft mat on which they
performed yoga. Eastern music was used during the class. The
last ten minutes of the class were used for relaxation in which
the instructor told how the body and mind relaxed” During the
relaxation periods, the students sat as they liked with closed
eyes in order to concentrate on their thoughts or feelings.

Aerobics. In the aerobics exercise class, a female
instructor led a typical aerobics training period, which
included bouncing the body and the legs, bending the lower arms
and legs, and raising legs to the rock music used throughout the

class period. Subjects in the aerobics class met twice a week

42

for 50 minutes. Stretching at the beginning of class or
relaxation at the end were not included during the class.
Instead reducing the repetition and.the speed.of the movements
was used.

NI_, In NIA exercise, the students met twice a‘week for
sixty minutes. Since this exercise was designed to be non—
impact, aerobically-grounded movement, blending principles and
concepts from t'ai chi, tae—kwon—do, aikido, jazz dance, Duncan
and modern dance, ballet, yoga, and.the Feldenkrais technique,
it worked a wide range of motion without great intensity. The
students followed the movements of the female instructor
throughout the class . There were fewer arm movements than there
were in aerobics, but more intensity; movements were broader and
wider than in aerobics movements, which used the whole body. An
eclectic blend of music was used during the class. The
visualizations given by the instructor were meant to free the
body from physical tension and emotional restrictions, and
therefore, NIA has an impact on emotional as well as physical
health. Stretching at the beginning, and relaxation meditative
breathing exercises at the end were sometimes used in the class.

T'ai chi. The t'ai chi group met twice a week for 50
minutes. In the t'ai chi class, in general, an instructor
demonstrated an entire sequence of movements at the beginning
of the class. The instructor then explained the meaning of the
movements step by step. The students was then instructed to
follow a certain segment of the movements because the length of

the sequence was usually long. After the whole sequence was

43

explained and understood by the students, the whole sequence of
movements was practiced during the class. The same style of
movements were used during the five weeks. Students were
instructed to use their normal breathing: Difficulties lay in
the slow movements, controlling the body's balance, and
remembering the sequence of movements using the whole body.
Music was not used in this class. Stretching at the beginning

and end of class was done individually in a relatively short

time.
Stretching. The stretching group met twice a week for
40 minutes. Stretching exercises were presented by a female

instructory consisting of contraction and.relaxation.training
on various parts of the body such as the neck, shoulders, arms,
and legs. The class aimed to increase flexibility, create a
relaxed feeling, and.increase strengttiby using sit—ups for the
upper or lower abdominal muscles. This stretching format was
based on the stretching technique by Anderson (1980) . The static
contractions technique was used, performed by slowly moving the
limb to the point of discomfort, holding the position for eight
to ten seconds, and then relaxing. It involves working

systematically around the body, contracting, holding the

contraction, then relaxing the major muscle groups.

44

W

The Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI)
was chosen to assess trait anxiety, referring to the relatively
stable individual differences in anxiety proneness during the
test periods, which may also reflect individual differences in
the frequency and intensity with which anxiety states have
manifested themselves in the past. The Profile of Mood States
(POMS) was chosen to assess the change in mood during the weeks.
The self—awareness (SA) inventory was designed to assess the
awareness of movement-related body states and the emotion-
related body states. The physical-emotion management
questionnaire (PEM) was designed to assess how well people
thought they could control their emotional state by using
various external or "body" responses. Both the physical-
emotion management questionnaire and the self-awareness
inventory were designed by the experimenter. Psychometric
properties of each instrument are presented in Chapter 4.

Profile of Mood States. Initially, all research
participants completed the Profile of Mood States (POMS)(see
Appendix B). This instrument was used for measurement of
kinesthetic awareness. The Profile of Mood States (POMS) is a
65-item self—report inventory which measures the following
identifiable affective or mood states: tension, depression,
anger, vigor, fatigue, confusion.

The POMS utilizes a 5-point Likert-type scale,
representing the refinement of a total of 100 different

adjective points by means of repeated factor analysis, and

45

consisting of six sub-classes ranging from 7 to 15 items each.
The minimum and maximum scores for each sub-scales are as
follows: tension (0/36) , depression (0/60) , anger (0/48) , vigor
(0/32), fatigue (0/28), confusion (0/28). The instructions
necessary to yield reliable and valid responses are simple. The

wording used on the usual form of the POMS is:

Below is a list of words that describe feelings people have.
Please read each one carefully. Then fill in ONE space under
the answer to the right which best describes HOW YOU HAVE BEEN
FEELING DURING THE PAST WEEKS INCLUDING TODAY . The numbers refer
to following descriptive phrases.

0 = Not at all
1 = A little

2 = Moderately
3 = Quite a bit
4 = Extremely

Numerous psychometric evaluations have shown the POMS to have
high factorial, concurrent, and predictive validity (McNair,
Lorr, & Droppleman, 1992). The POMS was administered once in
the first week of the class for a baseline measure to compare
possible differences after the five week period.

The Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory.
Spielberger's STAI (Spielberger, 1983) has been used
extensively in research and clinical practice (see Appendix C) .
It is comprised of separate self—report scales for measuring
state and trait anxiety. The State Anxiety scale consists of
twenty statements that evaluate how respondents feel now in an
anxiety situation. (klthe other'hand, the Trait-Anxiety scale

consists of twenty statements that assess relatively stable

46

individual differences or the tendency to perceive a stressful
situation as dangerous or threatening. In this research a Trait
Anxiety scale was used to measure the anxiety level of subjects
during the period of five weeks.

Trait anxiety refers to relatively stable individual
differences in anxiety—proneness, that is, to the differences
between people in the tendency to perceive stressful situations
as dangerous or threatening and respond to such situations with
elevations in the intensity of their state anxiety reactions.
Trait anxiety may also reflect individual differences in the
frequency and intensity with which anxiety states have been
manifested in the past, and in the probability that state-
Anxiety will be experienced in the future (Spielberger, 1983).
The wording used on the usual form of the State Trait Anxiety

Inventory were:

A number of statements which people have used to describe
themselves are given below. Read each statement and then blacken
in the appropriate circle to the right of the statement to
indicate how you generally feel. There are no right or wrong
answers. Do not spend too much time on any one statement but
give the answer which seems to describe how you generally feel.

Almost Never
Sometimes
Often

Almost Always

iwal-J
llllll

Each item in the trait anxiety scale of STAI item was given a
weighted score of 1 to 4. A rating of 4 indicated the presence
of a high level of anxiety for eleven trait anxiety items (e.g. ,

I feel frightened; I feel upset). A.high rating indicated the

 

47

absence of anxiety for the remaining nine trait anxiety items
(e.g., I feel calm; I feel relaxed). The scoring weights for
the anxiety-present items were the same as the blackened numbers
on the test form. The scoring weights for anxiety-absent items
are reversed; that is, responses marked 1, 2, 3, or 4 were scored
4, 3, 2, or 1, respectively. The anxiety absent items for which
the scoring weights were reversed on the trait-anxiety scales
were: 21, 23, 26, 27, 30, 33, 34, 36, and 39. Trait anxiety was
considered to be a relatively stable characteristic.

Individuals who scored high on this scale tend to report
elevated anxiety in a variety of situations. The trait anxiety
portion of the STAI was administered once in the first week of
the class for a baseline measure to compare possible differences
after the five week period.

Self-awareness Questionnaire. A questionnaire for
self-awareness (see Appendix E) was designed to assess internal
awareness of the movement-related body state and emotion-
related body state. Assessments of movement-related body states
were posed as questions, such as: how much attention do you pay
to your posture, gestures, breathing, and facial expression in
a given situation? Assessments of emotion-related body states
were posed as questions, such as: how much are you aware of your
mood or feeling in a given situation? The scale of an SA item
was given a weighted score of 1 to 5 (i.e. , not at all; slightly;
somewhat; very; and always). A rating of five indicated the
presence of a high level of awareness for each goal. The

self—awareness questionnaire was administered once in the first

 

 

«“4

p)

(1)

AA!

 

48

week of the class for a baseline measure to compare possible
differences after the five week period.

Physical. emotional. behavioral management
questionnaire. A questionnaire (see Appendix D) was designed
and used to assess how well people think they can control their
emotional states using various external or body controls. 'The
assessment consisted of five tactics under four goals, the
tactics being used to achieve those goals. The five tactics
were: (1) using verbal expression; (2) using body control; (3)
controlling breathing; (4) using facial expression; and (5)
using hand (arm) gestures. The four goals were: (1) the ability
to restrain anger; (2) the ability to suppress anxiety or
nervousness; (3) the ability to change mood (i e., calm)
positively; and (4) the ability to relax muscles. The scale of
PEM items was given a weighted score of 1 to 5 (i.e. , not at all;
slightly; somewhat; very; and always). A rating of five
indicated the presence of a high level of control for each
tactic. The physical, emotional, behavioral management
questionnaire was administered once in the first week of the
class for a baseline measure to compare possible differences
after the five week period.

Personal information. The following personal
information (see Appendix E) was asked of each subject: (I) age,
sex, weight, height, ethnic group, and occupation; (II)
attitudes toward exercise; (III) patterns of attitudes and
behavior in daily life; (IV) awareness of emotion. Each question

was open-ended, so that the participants could answer each

49

question in detail. The questionnaire was administered once in
the first week of the class for a baseline measure to compare

possible differences during the five week period.

Procedure

Explanation of experiment. The participants were
enrolled in physical exercise classes at a local and university.
Prior to the research, telephone contact with the instructors
(yoga, t'ai chi, aerobics, and NIA) of the exercise groups was
arranged to discuss the nature and the purpose of the study.
Permission was obtained from the instructors to allow the
students to volunteer as subjects. During the first week of the
new semester, the experimenter contacted the students during
class to inform them of their rights as subjects and to ask them
to consider participating in this study. A consent form was
signed by all students who indicated a willingness to
participate in this study. (see.Appendix:A) The experimenter
distributed a packet of questionnaires, which contained the
Spielberger's Trait anxiety inventory, the POMS, the self-
awareness questionnaire, the physical emotional behavioral
management questionnaire, and the personal information lists,
which were then introduced to the subjects. Subjects were told
that the purpose of this study was to understand how students
perceive emotions from participating in an exercise program.
Subjects were asked to read the instructions and to provide the
appropriate answer for each questionnaire. It was emphasized

that there were no right or wrong answers. After five weeks,

50

the experimenter distributed the same packet of questionnaires
to the same subjects who answered the first questionnaire. The
data, therefore, were gathered in two different times by five
different exercise groups: (1) stretching; (2) t'ai chi; (3)

yoga; (4) NIA; and (5) aerobics.

Chapter 4

MEASUREMENT RESULTS

Psychometric analysis

There are two categories of measurement for this study.
Mood and emotional variables were assessed using established
measures; the Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory
(STAI) and the Profile of Mood States (POMS) . However awareness
was measured using new scales specially developed for this
study. This chapter presents the findings for these scales.

New scales for awareness were developed because no
alternative measures could be found. Thus findings to show
congruent validity are impossible. Furthermore, since there is
no literature in this area, the potential problems with
construct validity have not been identified. Thus it is not
possible to fully test construct validity for the new scales.
That is, all consideration of construct validity for these
scales is currently dependent on the reader's interpretation of
item content. The content will be carefully spelled out for this
reason.

The primary methodology is that of generalizability
theory. If items are thought to measure the same thing, then
you can test that belief by looking at the extent to which the

items correlate with each other. It is critical to this

51

 

52

examination to control for random error of measurement . Random
error of measurement causes as imperfect correlation between
observed measurements even if two instruments measure exactly
the same construct.

In order to eliminate the effects of random error of
measurement, construct correlations were determined using
confirmatory factor analysis. Some readers expressed concern
because the analysis used traditional least squares methods for
the confirmatory factor analysis instead of using program
LISREL. In part, this is just a matter of using a different
computer program to do the computations. If the predicted
measurement model is correct, then there are only trivial
differences between methods. However it is well known that if
the predicted model has errors, those errors are much easier to
detect and identify if least squares methods are used” LISREL
has two problems in this regard. First, LISREL uses "full
information" estimation which spreads errors across terms. If
there are no errors, this is a moot problem. But since the
awareness variables are completely new measurements, there is
no guarantee that the predicted measurement model will work.
Indeed some bad items were found and it would have been difficult
to find them using LISREL. Second, the LISREL output is very
abstract and it is hard to determine the substantive nature of
errors from the LISREL output.

It should also be noted that the basic measurement model
for this study is a hierarchical model. Consider awareness of

mood. There are various aspects of mood such as anger,

53

nervousness, or shame. It makes sense to talk about a higher
order "awareness of mood" construct only if the primary aspects
are highly correlated with each other. Thus the first step in
the analysis of awareness of mood items is to compute a primary
factor analysis to look at the correlations between the specific
mood variables. In this primary factor analysis, confirmatory
factor methods eliminate the attenuating effect of random error
of measurement.

There is a question for such an analysis that is subject
to judgment, but which sounds like it calls for an objective
analysis. That question is: How high must the correlations be
before you accept the results as showing that the higher order
factor dominates the overall measurement? Some readers expect
to have a magic number such as a significance test to answer this
question. However this is logically impossible. As long as the
correlations are lower than 1.00, the specific mood aspects
measure specific factors as well as the higher order factor. If
all the specific factors are trivial, then the level of
correlation between aspects could be quite low and still pose
no potential problem for construct validity. On the other hand,
if any specific factor is related to other variables in the
research, then there could be a problem with construct validity
no matter how high the average level of correlation might be.

Note that the lack of a magic number is not due to a lack
of psychometric knowledge or theory. The lack of a magic number
is because the concept of a magic number is illogical. This is

true of most magic‘numbers (such as significance tests) , but so

54

far no one has yet invented an arbitrary social convention to
create a spurious magic number in this domain. All
psychometricians agree that spurious magic numbers should be
avoided.

The dominant concern for completely new measurement is
this: Is there a specific item type that seems very different
from the others? That item type would be suspect. These are
the bad items identified in the analysis presented.

The second question that can be answered quantitatively
is whether the specific factors are large or small. This can
be done by subtraction. If the average level of correlation
between primary factors is r, then the average size of the
specific factors is 1—r in variance terms. For example, if the
average level of correlation between primary factors is .70,
then the specific factors account for only 30% of the variance
in the primary factors. That is, the higher order factor
accounts for 70% of the variance in the primary factors.

The fundamental problenlwith completely new'measurement
is that the size of a factor is not the same as the conceptual
importance of a factor. Just because a specific factor accounts
for only 20% of the variance, that does not rule out the
possibility that the information in the specific factor might
be more important than the information in the higher order
factor. This poses a fundamental constraint on the measurement
in the present study. Because there is no literature on the
measurement of body awareness, there is as yet no substantive

basis for determining the importance of the specific factors.

55

By looking at the common elements across specific aspects, we
can hope to interpret the higher order factor. However at
present, there is no way of knowing exactly what information is

lost by using only the higher order factor.

The physical emotional management (PEM) questionnaire

This chapter presents the psychometric analysis of each
instrument used in this study. The physical emotional
management (PEM) assessment was created for the purpose of
measuring how well people think they can control their negative
emotions by using various tactics.

Four goals were defined by the most common emotional
problems: anger, anxiety, mood, and.tensitnL Five tactiCS‘were
identified for dealing with emotional problems. Each tactic can
be used to try to control any given emotion. Thus each tactic
can be used to attain any of the four goals. Goal 1 was "to
restrain anger," Goal 2 was "to suppress anxiety," Goal 3 was
"to change mood," and Goal 4 was "to relax muscle tension."
Tactic 1 was "using. verbal expressions, " Tactic 2 was "using body
control," Tactic 3 was "controlling breathing," Tactic 4 was
"using facial expression," and Tactic 5 was "using hand (arm)
gestures. " Each item is defined by a combination of one of the
4 goals with one of the 5 tactics. An item is constructed by
asking the person whether they use a given tactic to attain a
given goal. Since there are 4 goals and 5 tactics, there are

20 combinations and hence 20 items. Table 1 on p. 67 shows how

56

the 20 items were constructed from the four goals and five

tactics.

Table 1. Goal and Items of Physical Emotional Behavioral
Management Questionnaire(PEM).

 

Goal 1. to restrain anger whenever necessary
Items(1-5)

by using verbal expressions

by using body control

by controlling breathing

by using facial expression

by using hand (arm) gestures

U'lthuNH

Goal 2. to suppress anxiety or nervousness
Items(6—10)

6 by using verbal expressions

7 by using body control

8 by controlling breathing

9 by using facial expression

10 by using hand (arm) gestures

Goal 3. to change mood (i.e., calm) positively
Items(11—15) '

11 by using verbal expressions

12 by using body control

13 by controlling breathing

14 by using facial expression

15 by using hand (arm) gestures

Goal 4. ability to relax muscle tension
Items(16-20)

16 by using verbal expressions

17 by using body control

18 by controlling breathing

19 by using facial expression

20 by using hand(arm)gestures

Scale: 1: not at all, 2: slightly, 3: somewhat, 4=very, 5=a1ways

 

The items in Table 1 are organized by goal, but they could just

as easily have been organized by tactic . That is, the items could

57

have been organized as five sets — one for each tactics - with

four items in each set, one for each goal.

Factor structure of the PEM

The PEM items can be considered in any of three ways.
First, the items could be clustered by goal: there would then
be 4 such clusters with 5 items in each cluster. Second, the
items could be clustered by tactic: there would then be 5 such
clusters with 4 items in each clusteru Third, the items could
be considered as a two-way dimensional set and examined using
a multitrait, multimethod analysis.

A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was run for the four
goal clusters; and it showed considerable differentiation
between.goals. Itconfirmatory factor analysis was run for the
five tactics clusters; but it showed virtually no
differentiation between tactics. Since differences between
tactics do NOT cause any differences between responses, a
multitrait analysis would be moot. Table 2 shows the results
of the CFA analysis for goals and for tactics. Since this is
a longitudinal study, each CFA can be done twice: once for the
pretest data and again for the posttest data, So'Table 2 shows
four CFA's: pre and post for goals and pre and post for tactics.

Consider first the findings for tactics. Four of the
tactics (i.e., tactics 1, 2, 4, 5) are all correlated with each
other with correlations in the 90's; an average of .97 for both

the pretest data and the posttest data.

58

Table 2.
Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the PEM Items.

(1) CONFIRMATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS BY GOALS (4 goals):

Factor correlations Factor correlations
PRETEST DATA POSTTEST DATA
G1 G2 G3 G4 G1 G2 G3 G4
G1 1.00 . 87 .64 .71 G1 1.00 .63 .73 .49
G2 .87 1.00 .85 .73 G2 .63 1.00 .67 .59
G3 .64 .85 1.00 .82 G3 .73 .67 1.00 .78
G4 .71 .73 .82 1.00 G4 .49 .59 .78 1.00

(2) CONFIRMATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS BY TACTICS (5 tactiCS):

Factor correlations Factor correlations
PRETEST DATA POSTETST DATA
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
T1 1.00 .97 .82 .96 .98 T1 1.00 .97 .79 1.07 1.00
T2 .97 1.00 .84 .90 .94 T2 .97 1.00 .86 .79 .89
T3 .82 .84 1.00 .78 .75 T3 .79 .86 1.00 .66 .55
T4 .96 .90 .78 1.00 1.00 T4 1.07 .79 .66 1.00 .97
T5 .98 .94 .75 1.00 1.00 T5 1.00 .89 .55 .97 1.00

 

Note. 4 goals: G1 = to restrain anger whenever necessary; G2
= to suppress anxiety or nervousness; G3 = to change mood (i .e. ,
become calm) positively; and G4 = to relax muscle tension.

5 tactics: T1 = by‘using verbal expressions; T2 = by using body
control; T3 = by controlling breathing; T4 = by using facial
expression; and T5 = by using hand (arm) gestures.

Thus respondents did NOT report any differential use of
these tactics. The exceptional tactic is Tactic 3; "controlled
breathing." This tactic correlated only .80 with the other
tactics in the pretest data and correlated only .72 in the
posttest data. It seems likely that this tactic has been
effected by cultural references to yoga (pretest) and even more
by the specific training given in the yoga exercise program (one

of the five programs studied here). Differentiation between

59

tactics is so minor that it was ignored in all subsequent
analysis.

Consider the CFA for goals. The correlations between the
four goal clusters are high, but still a good difference from
1 . 00 . The average correlation is . 77 for the pretest data and . 65
for the posttest data. Thus there is enough differentiation
between goals that this difference should be considered in
future research. Some analyses were carried out for separate
goals in this study, but no differences were noted. Since the
potential differences between goals never materialized in
differences in findings, all further results will be reported
only for the total score for PEM; i.e. the sum across all 20
items. The reliability of the total score was .89 on the pretest

and .82 on the posttest.

Development of Self-awareness (SA) questionnaire

One hypothesis for the effect of exercise on mood is the
awareness hypothesis . Exercise makes you more aware of your body
and that awareness has a positive effect on your mood. To test
this hypothesis, 37 items were written to measure awareness.
These items can be gathered in several clusters.

First, there were 9 items that assessed awareness of mood.
Three key words were used for mood: "mood, " "body feeling, " and
"emotion." For each mood aspect, inquiry was made about three
contexts: general or non-specific, before exercise, and after

exercise. Given 3 aspects of mood and 3 contexts, there are 9

60

items formed by the combinations.

These items are shown in Table
3 .

Table 3. The Items Measuring Awareness of Mood.

 

Block 1: Items 1—3
How much are you:

1 aware of your mood
2 aware of body feeling
3 aware of your emotion
Block 2: Items 4-6
Before exercise, how much are you
4 aware of your mood
5 aware of body feeling
6 aware of emotion
Block 3: Items 7-9
After exercise, how much are you
7 aware of your mood
5; aware of body feeling

aware of emotion

Second, there are items which measure the extent of

awareness of tactics used to control mood. Four tactics were
considered: posture, hand and arm gestures, breathing pattern,

and facial expression. Subjects were directed to five contexts

Where they might be aware of these tactics: walking, sitting,

Standing, thinking, and speaking. Given 4 tactics and 5

Contexts, there are 20 items defined by the combinations. These

20 items are shown in Table 4.

61

Table 4.
Items that Measure Awareness of Tactics Related to Emotion.

Block 5: Items 12-16
How much attention do you pay to your posture,
12 when you walk
13 when you sit
14 when you stand
15 when you think(ponder)
16 when you speak

Block 6: Items 17-21
How much attention do you pay to your arm (hand)gestures
(movements) ,

17 when you walk

18 when you sit

19 when you stand

20 when you think (ponder)

21 when you speak

Block 7: Items 22-26
HOW much attention do you pay to your breathing pattern,
22 when you walk
23 when you sit
24 when you stand
25 when you think (ponder)
26 when you speak

ElOCk 8: Items 27-31
Ow much attention do you pay to your facial expression,
27 when you walk
28 when you sit
29 when you stand
30 when you think (ponder)
31 when you speak

Finally, there were 8 items written without a clear
Content structure. These items are shown in Table 5. After
faCtor analysis, the items in Blocks 4 and 9 were dropped from

ful‘ther consideration .

62

Table 5. Miscellaneous Additional Awareness Items.

 

Block 4: Items 10—11

How much are your muscles relaxed
10 are your shoulders relaxed
11 is your neck relaxed

Block 9: Items 32—33

How much attention do you pay to your level of nervousness
32 when you are in the middle of a situation
33 when you recall the situation

Block 10: Items 34—37
How do you perceive your level of nervousness?
34 by perceiving your posture
35 by perceiving tightness in your face
36 by perceiving your breathing pattern
37 by perceiving the sweat

 

The structure of the items measuring awareness of mood

All 37 items were subjected to exploratory factor
analysis. This analysis showed a clear distinction between the
items measuring awareness of mood (Table 3) and the items
measuring awareness of tactics (Table 4). Follow up
confirmatory factor analysis also showed this distinction. This
section presents the key results for the analysis of the items
measuring awareness of mood. The next section will consider the
items measuring awareness of tactics. The 9 items measuring
awareness of mood.can.be classified in two ways: by'mood.aspect
or by context . Confirmatory factor analysis was done using both
ways of classifying the items. That is, in one analysis, there

are three clusters of items clustered by mood aspect:

63

(a) For "mood" —- Items 1, 4, 7
(b) For "body feeling" -— Items 2, 5, 8
(c) For "emotion" -- Items 3, 6, 9

In the other analysis, there are three clusters of items

clustered by context:

(a) General ("How much ...") -- Items 1, 2, 3
(b) Before exercise -— Items 4, 5, 6
(c) After exercise —— Items 7, 8, 9

The results for the two confirmatory factor analyses on the

pretest data are shown in Table 6.

Table 6. Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Items Measuring
Awareness of Mood (pretest data).

 

Clustered by mood Clustered by context
K1 K2 K3 C1 C2 C3

K1 1.00 .85 .93 Cl 1.00 .86 .78

K2 .85 1.00 .89 C2 .86 1.00 .75

K3 .93 .89 1.00 C3 .78 .75 1.00

 

Note. 3 key words: K1 = mood; K2 = body feeling; and K3 = emotion.
3 contexts: C1 = in general; C2 = before exercise; and C3 = after
exercise.

The results for the posttest data are similar. The
average correlation between mood constructs is .89; so there is
little differentiation in awareness between different mood
foci . The average correlation between context constructs is . 80;
so there is little differentiation in awareness between
different contexts. As a result, all 9 items were combined into
one scale measuring awareness of mood. The reliability of this

scale was .90 for the pretest and .92 for the posttest.

64

The structure of the items measuring awareness of tactics
This section presents the key results for the analysis
of the items measuring awareness of tactics (Table 4). The 20
items measuring awareness of tactics can be classified in two
ways: by tactic or by context. Confirmatory factor analysis was
done using both ways of classifying the items. 'That is, in one

analysis, there are four clusters of items clustered by tactics:

(a) For posture -- Items 12, 13, 14, 15, 16
(b) For gestures -- Items 17, 18, 19, 20, 21
(c) For breathing-- Items 22, 23, 24, 25, 26
(d) For facial -- Items 27, 28, 29, 30, 31

In the other analysis, there are five clusters of items clustered

by context:

(a) Walking -— Items 12, 17, 22, 27
(b) Sitting -- Items 13, 18, 23, 28
(c) Standing -- Items 14, 19, 24, 29
(d) Thinking -— Items 15, 20, 25, 30
(e) Speaking —- Items 16, 21, 26, 31

The results for the two confirmatory factor analyses on
the pretest data are shown in Table 6. The results for the
posttest data are similar. The average correlation between
tactics constructs is .52. Although the tactics are highly
correlated with each other, there is considerable
differentiation in the awareness of different tactics. The
average correlation between context constructs is . 92; so there
would appear to be little differentiation between different
contexts. However this overall average is somewhat misleading.
Three contexts show no differentiation at all: walking, sitting,

and standing. However thinking and speaking are different from

65

the others and different from each other to some extent. If the
first three are combined, then the correlation between those
three with thinking is .79, and with speaking is .85. The
correlation between thinking and speaking is .71.

A second order factor model (Table 7) shows that the
factor defined by walking, sitting, and standing IS the general

factor.

Table 7.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Items Measuring Awareness
of Tactics (pretest data).

Clustered by tactics Clustered by context
T1 T2 T3 T4 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5
T1 1.00 .66 .42 .46 Cl 1.00 1.13 1.24 .76 .84
T2 .66 1.00 ..55 .68 C2 1.13 1.00 1.22 .79 .81
T3 .42 .55 1.00 .37 C3 1.24 1.22 1.00 .81 .91
T4 .46 .68 .37 1.00 C4 .76 .79 .81 1.00 .71
C5 .84 .81 .91 .71 1.00

 

Note. 4 tactics: T1 = postures; T2 = gestures; T3 = breathing;
and T4 = facial expression.

5 contexts: C1 = walking; C2= sitting; C3 = standing; C4 =
thinking; and C5 = speaking.

Thinking and speaking each have specific factors which are not
related to each other. Some analysis was done to see if other
variables might show some difference in correlation pattern for
these clusters but no such differences were found in this study.
So the 20 items were combined into one scale measuring awareness

of tactics.

66

The 8 miscellaneous items (Table 5) were related to all
of the other awareness items. The items in Blocks 4 and 9 showed
no consistent patterns and were dropped from all subsequent

analyses (i.e., items 10,11,32,33 were dropped).

Table 8.

The Correlations between the Constructs for Nervousness (Block
10 in Table 5; Items 34-37) and the Constructs Measuring
Awareness of Tactics (see Table 7; pretest data).

 

T1 T2 T3 T4
T1 1.00 .66 .42 .46

T2 .66 1.00 .55 .68
T3 .42 .55 1.00 .37
T4 .46 .68 .37 1.00

B10 .36 .33 .33 .37

 

Note. 4 tactics: T1 = postures; T2 = gestures; T3 = breathing;
T4 = facial expression. Block 10: 1) by perceiving your posture;
2) by perceiving tightness in your face; 3) by perceiving your
breathing pattern; and 4) by perceiving the sweat.

The items in Block 10 ask a slightly different question
from the other items: "HOW’dO your perceive your nervousness?"
These items form a coherent cluster on both exploratory and
confirmatory factor analysis. While these items ask about
awareness, they also ask for interpretation. None the less, this
cluster of items correlates with the clusters asking about
awareness of tactics. The correlations for the pretest data are
shown in Table 8. While the tactics constructs correlate .52

with.each other, the nervousness construct correlates .35 with

67

them. In other analyses, the nervousness construct seemed to
be parallel with the tactics constructs.

Since nervousness was parallel to the other tactics
clusters, the nervousness items were added to the scale
measuring awareness of tactics. 'Thus the SA-TACTICS scale has
24 items; the 20 strictly tactics items and the 4 nervousness
items. The reliability of this scale was .92 for the pretest

and .93 for the posttest.

Measuring mood -— the POMS inventory

The POMS inventory is often scored for one overall score
measuring "mood." However the inventory was developed to
measure 6 different aspects of mood and it is by no means obvious
that exercise would have similar effects on all aspects. In
particular, one of the POMS subscales is for "vigor;" feelings
of energy and initiative. It would be plausible to predict that
exercise might directly improve feelings of vigor because of
improved muscle tone.

Table 9 presents the correlations between the POMS
subscales for the pretest data (the posttest data followed
exactly the same pattern). The diagonal entries are the
communalities for the scales as determined by a one factor model .
The correlations for Vigor have been reversed in sign because
Vigor is scored in the opposite direction from the other

subscales.

\Cg

)6 /}IE// 91:" P) ‘1 ~ )meldw

/ AID
\\l.. L 7 \k 0"”

it"

 

68

Table 9.
Correlations between the POMS Subscales with Communalities in

the Diagonal.

Ten Dep Anx Fat Con Vig

Tension .62 .61 .57 .45 .73 .26
Depression .61 .55 .54 .47 .64 .25
Anxieeynwpr .57 .54 .44 .40 .56 .22
Fatigue .45 .47 .40 .45 .50 .48
Confusion .73 .64 .56 .50 .70 .32
Vigor .26 .25 .22 .48 .32 .17

 

Five of the POMS scales are traditionally regarded as
indicators for neuroticism: anxiety, tension, confusion,
fatigue, and depression (though there is some controversy for
any given indicator; especially depression). These subscales
are all highly correlated with each other given the low
reliability for short scales (average r = .55). Vigor is both
logically and statistically in the opposite direction from the
neuroticism indicators.

The correlations in Table 9 are positive because they were
reversed to show how Vigor would correlate if scored in the same
direction as the neuroticism indicators (as is done in the POMS
total score). However, these correlations are much lower than
the correlations for the other POMS subscales. While the
neuroticism indicators correlate an average of .55 with each
other, the average correlation.between Vigor and the others is
only .31. Note that the communality for Vigor is only .17; which

is far below its reliability of .92.

69

In order to be compatible with other research reports,
the traditional POMS total score will be used. However, results
will also be reported for a POMS total with vigor excluded; i .e . ,
a sum across the traditional neuroticism indicators. In some
tables, results will also be reported for the separate POMS

scales. In all key tables, results for Vigor will be reported

separately.

Chapter 5

RESULTS: TREATMENT EFFECTS

This chapter presents the results showing the impact of
exercise on emotion and awareness. First, the dependent
variables are reviewed.and.listed. Second, the results for the
overall or pooled exercise sample are presented, The
methodology used is the within subjects methodology as reviewed
in Hunter and Schmidt (1990, pp. 339-404). Third, the results
are presented for the five exercise programs separately: The
exercise programs can be put in three clusters: strenuous
exercise (aerobics and NIA) , non-strenuous (yoga and stretching) ,
and t'ai chi which is intermediate between the strenuous and
non-strenuous programs. Extensive results are presented for
the three program categories.

Emotional response is measured by a variety. of dependent
variables. The STAI is called "trait anxiety" and is widely
accepted as an excellent measure of anxiety. However the items
actually cover a rather broad number of dimensions of both
positive and negative emotional functioning. .A better label
might be "neuroticism" or "emotional adjustment." As noted
above, the POMS can either be scored for a total score for "mood"
or as subscales measuring a variety of mood problems. The
subscale for Vigor is quite different from the others. Results

will be presented for the traditional POMS total score which

70

71

includes vigor, a modified POMS total with vigor excluded, and
for each POMS subscales separately.

Awareness is measured by three variables: PEM (the extent
to which respondents believe they can use various tactics to
control their emotions, SD-MOOD (the respondent's assessment of
the extent to which they are aware of their mood) , and SA-TACTICS
(the extent to which they think they are aware of using various
tactics for emotional control).

All together there are 12 dependent variables: 9 measures
of emotional outcome and.3 measures of awareness outcomes. In
order to compare results across dependent variables, it is
important to eliminate artificial differences due to the fact
that different dependent variables are measured in entirely
different units . This can be done by using standard score units .
The mean difference in standard score units is denoted "d" and
is usually attributed to Jacob Cohen, This is the most common
measure of effect size used in contemporary meta-analysis.

Most current researchers ignore individual differences
in the effect of treatments. This is poor practice, since there
are many cases where it is known that different people respond
in very different ways to the same treatment. This report will
follow the advice given by Hunter and Schmidt (1990) ; extensive
analysis of individual differences was performed and will be
reported, The standard deviation of change in standard score
units has been denoted "s" by Hunter and Schmidt (1990) and that
notation will be used here. When large individual differences

are found - as was the case here - the first hypothesis to be

72

tested is that there are differences in impact for people who
start at different levels. In particular, it would not be
surprising to find that people who start out with strong
emotional problems might profit more from.exercise than people
who feel good before they start. The self impact correlation
(denoted "ir" for "impact correlation") was computed for this
purpose.

Table 10 presents the results for the entire sample, i .e. ,
the sample pooled across the five exercise programs. The
statistic "d" is the mean change in standard score units. The
statistic "s" is the standard deviation of change in standard
score units. The statistic "ir" is the self—impact correlation:
the correlation between change and initial level. All results
have been corrected for distortion due to error of measurement.

Mean change. The results for mean change were complicated
by the variation in direction of scoring. Mood (POMS and the
sub-scales) and anxiety were measured so that a high score meant
higher levels. Improvement thus registered as a negative
change; for example, anxiety was reduced and mood problems were
reduced. The hypotheses for the POMS and STAI were confirmed
and consistent with.other findings in the exercise and emotion
research (Jin, 1992; Morgan & Goldston, 1987). For vigor and
the awareness variables (SA—mood, SA-tactics, and PEM), a high
score was good and improvement showed as a positive change . That
is, the statistic d was negative for the POMS and STAI showing
improvement: a reduction in anxiety and mood problems. The

statistic d was positive for the other variables showing an

 

73

increase in vigor, and all dimensions of awareness (SA—mood,
SA-tactics, and PEM) . As was hypothesized, vigor, PEM, and SA
(mood and tactics) improved in the post—test, so that the

hypotheses were confirmed.

Table 10 . Key Results for the Pooled Exercise Groups (Standard
Score Units) ; Mean Gain (d) , Standard Deviation of Gain (8) , and
the Self—Impact Correlation (ir) between Change and Initial
Level.

 

Variable d s i;
POMS-NV -.41 .44 -.58
STAI -.32 .42 -.53
Vigor .32 .91 -.56
PEM .29 1.17 -.69
SA-MOOD .18 1.15 -.53
SA-TACTICS .37 .98 -.44
POMS-ALL -.46 .43 -.67
Anger —.37 .94 -.58
Depression -.34 .72 —.64
Tension -.38 .75 -.69
Fatigue -.19 .73 —.50
Confusion -.23 .44 -.47
N 83 83 83

 

Note POMS-ALL was obtained.was obtained by sum of the scores
of anger, depression, tension, fatigue, and confusion, minus
vigor. POMS-NV was obtained by the sum of the scores of anger,
depression, tension, fatigue, and confusion.

 

Standard deviation gf change. The standard deviation of
change was high for all variables . Since this standard deviation
was corrected for attenuation due to error of measurement, the
variation measured by "s" signified real differences in how

individuals responded to the treatment. There was large

74

variation, as shown in Table 10. Some of this variation will
be explained in a later analysis. Some of the variation was
explained by differences among the treatment programs. Some of
the variation was due to difference in response by people at
different initial levels.

Self—impact correlation. The impact correlation (ir) is
the correlation between initial level and the size of the effect .
Consider mood awareness (SA-mood) , where the impact correlation
was -.53. This indicates that the higher the initial level of
awareness (SA-mood), the smaller the improvement on the
participant's score of his awareness variable . That is, a person
who started out with high awareness increased his score a little
while a person who started out with low awareness increased his
score much more.

Despite the reversal of scoring, the same rule applies
to the mood (POMS and sub-scales) and anxiety variables: all show
negative self—impact correlations. Thus, on all outcome
variables, the lower the person started, the higher the level
of improvement. If the person started already high, then

exercise produced little further improvement.

Improvement as a function of initial level

The self impact correlation is strongly negative for every
dependent variable. That is, for every dependent variable,
improvement is largest for those whoistart at the lowest level,
and improvement is smallest for those who start at the highest

level.

75

To show this, improvement can be compared for three groups
formed on the basis of initial level: the bottom third, the middle
third, and the top third, The means for these groups can be
computed using the regression of change onto initial level. In

standard score form, the regression of change onto initial level

is:
Y = Improvement for subgroup
X = Mean initial level for subgroup
M = Overall mean improvement
r = Correlation between improvement and initial level
SD = Standard deviation of change
Y = M + r SD

In the notation currently used in meta-analysis (as used in the

tables above), we have:

M = d
SD == 8
r = ir (the self impact correlation)

In standard scores, the means for the bottom, middle, and top
thirds are approximately the scores -1, 0, +1 respectively. So

in the notation of the table above

Bottom third: Y == d + ir x s x (-1) d - s x ir
Middle third: 'Y == d.+ ir x s x (0) = d
Top third : 'Y == d.+ ir x s x (+1) = d + s x ir

Note that for the middle subgroup, mean improvement is the same
as for the total group.

To show how this works, the computations are shown
explicitly for two examples, an awareness variable and an
emotional variable. For the awareness variables, scoring is in
the usual direction; a positive value for d is an improvement.
The three results for SA-tactics (or body awareness) are d=.37,

s=.98, ir=-.44.

76

Subgroup computations for SA-tactics:

Bottom third : Y = .37 - (.98)(—.44) = .80
Middle third : Y = .37 = .37
Top third : Y = .37 + (.98)(-.44) = -.06

That is, for body awareness, we have a large increase of .80
standard deviations for those who start the bottom third on body
awareness. The change for those who start in the middle third
on body awareness, we get the same average improvement as for
the whole sample: a moderate improvement of .37 standard
deviations . For those who start in the top third, there is little
improvement. Indeed the computation shows a small shift in the
opposite direction. But that small negative value is almost
certainly due to sampling error.

The computations for an emotional variable such as the
POMS or the STAI is complicated by the fact that the emotions
are scored high for higher levels of mood, Thus to score the
results so that "improvement" registers as a positive number,
we must reverse the sign of d. For the POMS total score, this
means reversing d = -.46 to M = +.46. Thus the improvement
results for the POMS total scores are : d =.46, s =.43, ir =-.67.

Subgroup computations for POMS total score:

Bottom third : Y = .46 - (.43)(-.67) = .75
Middle third : Y = .46 = .46
Top third : Y = .46 + (.43)(-.67) = .17

Thus for overall mood, there is very large mean improvement of . 75
standard deviation for those who start in the bottom third. For
those who start in the middle, the mean improvement is a more
moderate .46 standard deviations. For those who start in the

top third, the improvement is only .17 standard deviations; i . e . ,

77

only about one fifth as much as those who start in the bottom
third.

Table 11 presents mean improvement as a function of
initial level for all the dependent variables. Note that the
results for the negative emotions (all except vigor) are reversed
in sign so that a positive value represents improvement. With
this reversal, the results look similar for all dependent
variables; much larger improvement for those who start out low

than for those who start out high.

Table 11. Mean Improvement as a Function of Initial Level for
the Whole Sample; i . e . , the Sample Pooled Across Exercise Groups.

 

g ng Medium High Total
POMS-NV -.41 +.67 +.41 +.15 +.41
STAI -.32 +.64 +.32 +.10 +.32
Vigor .32 +.83 +.32 —.19 +.32
PEM .29 +1.10 +.29 -.52 +.29
SA-mood .18 +.81 +.17 -.47 +.18
SA-tactics .37 +.80 +.37 -.06 +.37
POMS—ALL -.46 +.75 +.46 +.17 +.46
Anger -.37 +.92 +.37 —.18 +.37
Depression —.34 +.80 +.34 -.12 +.34
Tension -.38 +.88 +.38 -.14 +.38
Fatigue -.19 +.56 +.19 -.18 +.19
Confusion -.23 +.44 +.23 -.02 +.23

 

Note. POMS-ALL was obtained.was obtained by sum of the scores
of anger, depression, tension, fatigue, and confusion, minus
vigor. POMS-NV was obtained by the sum of the scores of anger,
depression, tension, fatigue, and confusion.

78

The five exercise programs considered separately

Results were also examined for each exercise program
separately; There were five different programs and too many
results to be put in one table. Table 12 presents the mean change
for each program. HOWEVER, the reader is warned to look at the
sample size for each subgroup. While there were 43 subjects in
the aerobics classes, 19 in t'ai chi, and the other three
programs had extremely small samples: N=8 for NIA

and yoga, N=5 for stretching. Sampling error can be very large

for such small samples.

Table 12. Mean Change in Standard Scores (d) for Each Exercise
Program.

 

Variable aerobics NIA t ' ai chi yoga stretch
POMS-NV -.33 —.30 -.33 -.53 -1.05
STAI -.20 —.51 -.24 —1.33 -.31
Vigor .26 —.01 .30 .81 .50
PEM —.23 -.23 .85 1.45 1.54
SA-MOOD .18 -.68 .33 1.23 1.60
SA-TACTICS -.09 -.58 .71 1.41 1.78
POMS-ALL -.35 -.27 -.40 -.63 -1.00
Anger -.30 -.06 -.33 -1.33:> -1.48'
Depression -.40 -.17 -.30 —.34 —.31
Tension -.34 -.45 -.26 -.46 -.70
Fatigue —.10 -.34 -.01 -.54 -.39
Confusion -.14 -.43 -.10 -.37 -.77
Sample size 43 8 19 8 5

 

Note. POMS-ALL was obtained was obtained by sum of the scores
of anger, depression, tension, fatigue, and confusion, minus
vigor. POMS-NV was obtained by the sum of the scores of anger,
depression, tension, fatigue, and confusion.

79

Meap_ghapge, Table 12 shows the mean change for each
exercise program separately. For the mood (POMS and the
sub-scales) and anxiety variables, the mean change was negative
in all groups. Thus all exercise programs produced an
improvement in.mood and a reduction in anxiety; This confirms
the hypothesis that exercise will improve mood and reduce anxiety.
However, the more strenuous programs (aerobics and NIA) produced
less improvement than did the non—strenuous programs (yoga and
stretching).

For all five exercise groups, values of d were positive
for vigor. This confirms the hypothesis that exercise will
increase vigor.

For the awareness variables (SA-mood, SA-tactics, and
PEM), there was a big difference among the programs. Three
programs (t'ai chi, yoga, and stretching) showed an increase in
the awareness variables. However the two strenuous programs
(aerobics and NIA) showed a negative value for d on all awareness
variables.

Standard deviation of change. Table 13 presents the
standard deviation of gain for all five exercise programs. The
reader is warned to examine this table with care because of the
small sample sizes for most groups and because the standard
deviation is especially subject to sampling error because of the
process of correcting for measurement error. The table shows
0's for several programs, but only for very small sample size

programs. All these zeroes are probably due to sampling error.

80

The level of sampling error is so large for the standard
deviations that no analysis of initial level was attempted for

the separate exercise programs.

Table 13.
The Standard Deviation of Gain (8) for Each Exercise Group.

 

variable .aerobics NIA. t'ai chi yoga stretch

POMS-NV .59 .66 .00 .10 1.05
STAI .50 .00 .00 .80 .00

Vigor .75 1.06 .81 .00 .00

PEM 1.08 .40 1.22 .50 1.60
SA-MOOD 1.30 .75 1.00 .00 .75

SA-TACTICS .93 .61 .77 .00 1.04
POMS-All .57 .88 .36 .21 .95

Anger .79 1.38 .50 1.16 .86

Depression .95 .35 .24 .19 .34

Tension .77 .99 .58 .25 1.16
Fatigue .65 .56 .90 .55 .30

Confusion .54 .00 .00 .00 1.17
Sample size 43 8 19 8 5

 

Note. POMS-ALL was obtained was obtained.by sum of the scores
of anger, depression, tension, fatigue, and confusion, minus
vigor. POMS—NV was obtained by the sum of the scores of anger,
depression, tension, fatigue, and confusion.

 

Self-impact correlation. The self-impact correlation
(ir) is the correlation between the initial level and the size
of the effect. Table 14 presents self-impact correlations of
each exercise group. Most of the correlations follow the same
pattern as was observed for the pooled analysis. That is, most
of the self impact correlations are negative . On the other hand,

there are a random smattering of apparently conflicting results .

81

Note that all of the contrary results are for very small samples.
It seems likely that all of the contrary results are due to
sampling error.

The sampling error in the self impact correlations is so
severe that no attempt was made to look at change as a function

of initial level for the separate exercise groups.

Table 14.
Self Impact Correlation (ir).

 

variable aerobics NIA. t'ai chi 'yoga stretch

POMS-NV -.51 -.78 .00 -1.00 -.94
STAI -.67 .00 .00 -.50 .00
Vigor —.34 -.54 -.54 .00 .00
PEM —.72 .25 -.60 —.20 —.75
SA-MOOD -.14 -.83 —.60 .00 -.59
SA-TACTICS -.26 -.94 -.37 .00 —.48
POMS-ALL -.51 -.80 .00 -l.00 -1.00
Anger -.61 -.71 .oo -.64 —.41
Depression -.78 .15 -.56 -.70 -.41
Tension -.69 -.89 -.36 -1.51 -.55
Fatigue —.40 -.53 -.43 -.30 -1.30
Confusion -.37 .00 .00 .00 —1.00
N 43 8 19 8 5

 

Note. POMS-ALL was obtained.was obtained by sum of the scores
of anger, depression, tension, fatigue, and confusion, minus
vigor. POMS-NV was obtained by the sum of the scores of anger,
depression, tension, fatigue, and confusion.

Further analysis Of mean change: strenuousness of exercise

The following pattern was noticed in the table of mean
change for the separate exercise programs. First, all of the

emotional variables showed about the same results. Second, all

82

of the awareness variables showed about the same results.
Therefore the table was simplified by averaging across the
emotional variables to form one overall mood result.

The table was similarly simplified by averaging across
the three awareness variables to form one overall "body
awareness" result. Results for the simplified table are shown

in Table 15.

Table 15.
The Mean Changes (d) on the Mood and Awareness of Sub-groups.

 

 

Variable aerobics NIA. t'ai chi yoga stretch Total
MOOD -.28 -.39 -.31 -.98 -.66 -.39
AWARENESS -.17 —.50 .64 1.36 1.64 .28
N 8 43 19 8 5 83
Rte. MOOD = (POMS-TDS + STAI) / 2; and

BODY AWARENESS = (PEM + SA-Mood + SA-TactiCS) / 3

When the table was simplified, it was clear that the
exercise program results suggest that the programs be grouped
on the basis of the strenuousness of the exercise in the program.
The NIA and aerobics programs are both very rigorous and they
both show the same pattern of results. Yoga and stretching are
much less rigorous and they show results that are similar to each
other and very different from the results for the two strenuous
programs. T'ai chi is less rigorous than NIA or aerobics but

much more strenuous than yoga or stretching. The results for

83

t'ai chi tend to be intermediate between the results for the two
strenuous programs and the two non-strenuous programs.

Three groups were thus defined by combining NIA and
aerobics and by combining yoga and stretching. T'ai chi is the
third group which is intermediate between the other two groups.

The three groups are:

Strenuous = aerobics + NIA
t'ai chi = t'ai chi
Non—strenuous = stretching + yoga

The simplified results for the three groups are shown in
Table 16. Table 16 presents the summary table of the effects
of the strenuous activities, t'ai chi, and the non-strenuous
activities on mood and awareness. The non-strenuous activities,
such as yoga and stretching, showed that awareness improved more
highly than in the strenuous activities, and t ' ai chi was between
the non—strenuous and strenuous activities. The non-strenuous

activities had higher effect on mood than the other two groups.

Table 16.
The strenuous of activity on mood and awareness.

 

 

Variable strenuous t'airflxi non—strenuous total
MOOD -.30 -.31 -.86 -.39
AWARENESS -.22 .64 1.45 .28
N 51 19 13 83

Note. MOOD = (POMS-TDS + STAI) / 2; BODY AWARENESS = (PEM +

 

SA-Mood + SA-Tactics) / 3

84

The simplified table shows that all five exerciseigroups
showed considerable improvement in mood, though the results are
stronger for the non-traditional exercise groups than for the
NIA and aerobics classes. On the other hand, the results for
the awareness variables are quite different for different groups .
The strenuous programs actually show'azreduction.in awareness.
The other programs all show an increase in awareness, with t'ai
chi showing only half the improvement found for yoga and
stretching.

Table 17 presents the key results for each of the three
combined groups; i.e. , mean change (d) , standard score standard
deviation of gain (s) , and self-impact correlation (ir) for three
strenuousness groups. The mean results are consistent with the
simplified table. The standard deviations and self impact
correlations are still quite erratic for the small groups; i .e. ,
t'ai chi and non-strenuous . The sampling error in these results
are so severe that no attempt was made to analyze the separate

programs for differences across initial levels.

85

Table 17.

The Mean Change, Standard.Deviation, & Self-Impact Correlation
for Each Dependent Variable for Each of the Combined Groups
Formed on the Basis of Strenuousness.

 

strenuous (N=51)

d .8. g
POMS-All -.4O .57 —.67
POMS-NV -.37 .55 -.61
STAI -.26 .45 -.66
Vigor .25 .98 -.52
PEM .12 1.04 -.71
SA-MOOD -.08 1.30 -.49
SA-TACTICS .04 .97 -.42
t'ai chi (N=19)

d a ir
POMS-All -.40 .00 .00
POMS-NV -.33 .00 .00
STAI -.24 .00 .00
Vigor .30 .81 -.55
PEM .85 1.22 -.60
SA-MOOD .33 1.00 -.60
SA-TACTICS .71 .77 -.37
non-strenuous (N=13)

d a if
POMS-All -.73 .00 .00
POMS-NV -.64 .00 .00
STAI -.71 .51 .17
Vigor .72 .21 —1.00
PEM 1.37 .98 -.48
SA-MOOD .88 .22 —.78
SA-TACTICS 1.39 .52 —.33

 

 

Note POMS-ALL was obtained was obtained by sum of the scores
of anger, depression, tension, fatigue, and confusion, minus
vigor. POMS-NV was obtained by the sum of the scores of anger,
depression, tension, fatigue, and confusion.

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION

There are two innovations in this study. One innovation
was to gather data on t'ai chi, yoga, and stretching to see if
they improve mood by as much as traditional strenuous exercise
programs. The other innovation was the creation of new
instruments to measure awareness of mood and to measure body
awareness. The discussion will address both innovations.

First, the mostly positive results for the new

measurements will be discussed. Second, the mean change in mood
for the five programs studied will be compared to meta—analysis
f indings for strenuous programs. Finally, the discussion will
Consider the process model that lead to the design of this study :
t he hypothesis that improvement in mood is produced by increased
body awareness. There will first be a section to summarize the

f indings on change in awareness followed by a discussion of the

1iS’pothesis itself.
km scales to measure awareness
Three new soales were developed; two measuring body
a"Warreness and one scale to measure awareness of mood. Body
awareness was measured by focusing on key motor behaviors:
pOsture, breathing patterns, hand gestures, and facial movements.

Subjects were asked whether they were aware of these behaviors

86

87
in various contexts (the SA-tactics scale) They were also asked

whether they believed that they could use such behaviors to
That is, two measures of

(the PEM scale).
Subjects were also

control their mood
body awareness were created for this study.

asked how much they are aware of their mood (the SA-mood scale) .

That is, three aspects of awareness were measured; two measures

of body awareness and a measure of awareness of mood.

The SA—mood scale. Awareness of mood was measured by 9

Three aspects of mood were presented to the subject:

items .
Subjects were asked how

" mood, " "body feeling, " and "emotion. "
much there were aware of each mood aspect in each of three
in general, before exercise, and after exercise.

(ZCHltextS:
Subscales formed by context showed little distinction between

Contexts (an average correlation of .80) . Subscales formed by

mood aspect also Showed little distinction (an average

The reliability for the 9 item scale was

Correlation of .89) .

high (.90 for the pretest and .92 for the posttest) .
The body control tactics that are

The SA-tactics scale .

believed to control mood were taken from Loehr's (1990)

int ervent ion study and from Ekman' s (1969) research on nonverbal
The tactics considered in this study were:

aspects of emotion.
N

us :Lng verbal expressions, " "using body control, " "controlling
b . . . . .

reathing," "u51ng fac1al express1on," and "us1ng hand (arm)

9e 3 tures . "
The SA—tactics scale was developed from items that ask

abQth awareness of each four tactics in each of five different

contexts . Because this scale was developed before the PEM scale,

88

the use of verbal expressions was not considered as a tactic in
developing these items. The scale would be improved if items
were added for this tactic.

While there is some evidence of differences between
contexts, these differences seem to be small. Thus it is
reasonable to form a subscale for each tactic by summing across
contexts. The resulting four tactics subscales are highly
correlated (an average correlation of .52. Furthermore, all
show parallel correlations with the other measures in this study.
Thus the four tactics subscales were summed to produce the
Overall SA—tactics awareness scale.

There were also 4 items measuring awareness of nervousness
that did not use the context structure of the other tactics

SUbscales. An improved scale would use nervousness items with

tl’le same form as the other tactics. The nervousness subscale

Wa 8 parallel to the other four subscales though it was less highly
Correlated with the others than they were with each other.

The resulting scale of 24 items has high reliability (. 92

for the pretest and .93 for the posttest) .

The PEM scale. The 20 items for the PEM scale were

 

deve loped to measure the extent to which subjects think they can

use various tactics to control their mood. Four mood goals were

L1 . .
Sed : restrain anger, suppress anx1ety, change mood, and relax

musczle tension. Five tactics were considered; the five tactics

from Loehr (1990): "using verbal expressions," "using body
control, " "controlling breathing, " "using facial expression, "
and

"using hand (arm) gestures. " For each tactic and each goal,

89

there was an item asking if the subjects use that tactic to achieve
that goal.

Subscales formed for each goal showed some distinction
between goals though not strong distinction (an average
correlation of .77 between subscales). Thus it is reasonable
to sum items across goals to form subscales for tactics.

Subscales formed for each tactic showed that four of the
tactics are extremely highly correlated while "controlled
breathing" was slightly different. The other four tactics
correlated in the 90's with each other, but breathing only
correlated .80 with the others. Nonetheless, there is only minor
distinction between the tactics and so only a total score was
Considered. The reliability of the 20 item scale was high (.89

on the pretest and .82 on the posttest) .

\QITTI rovement in mood

The impact of exercise on mood has been known to some
re Searchers for over 20 years . This has resulted in many studies
of the effect of strenuous exercise on improvement in mood. Four
me ta-analyses have been done on various subsets of these studies

(Kugler, Seelbach, & Kruskemper, 1994; North, McCullagh, &Tran,
19 9 O; Schlicht, 1994; and Rowley et al. , 1995) . The difference
bet\«reen findings of the meta—analyses is primarily due to

di f ferences in the subject population treated. Table 18 reports

the results of each meta-analysis.

90

Table 18.
Meta-analysis on the Effect of Strenuous Exercise on Mood Using

d as the Measure of Effect Size.

Authors Population General Dep. Anxiety
North et al. (1990) Normal -.53

Schlicht (1994) Normal - . 15
Kugler et a1 . (1994) Coronary patients - . 46 - . 31

Rowley et a1. (1995) Successful athletes —.15

 

Note. General Dep. = General Depression.

Overall mood . We start with the findings for overall mood .
Most studies of this type use the total POMS score. Rowley et
al . (1995) report an average value for d of —.15. For the
Strenuous programs in the present study, the effect for total
POMS is d = - .34 which is a much stronger effect than that reported
by Rowley et a1. However note that Rowley reviewed studies on
Successful athletes. This study found considerable evidence
tT-I'Iat there is much more improvement for those who start out with
pOOr mood than for those who start out with good mood. Successful
at hletes would have participated in extremely rigorous strenuous
el‘tercise programs for years before those studies were run. Thus
they are likely to have better mood elevation than the general
p0Kylilation. If we average change for those in the top two thirds
in the present study, the mean improvement is d = -.20. This
value almost perfectly matches the findings reviewed by Rowley
et~ 611.
For t'ai chi, the d value for overall mood was d = -.40;

t . .
he same as for strenuous exerc1se. For yoga and stretching,

91

the improvement was d = —.77 which is a much larger effect than

for any of the other three programs. Thus t ' ai chi works as well

as strenuous exercise and the non-traditional programs work even

better.

Depression.

average the findings from North et a1.
For the strenuous programs

Consider the findings on depression. If we

(1990) and Kugler et al.

(1994) , we get a value of d = —.49.

in the present study, the d value for depression is —.36. Given

a sample size of only 51, this finding is not significantly

different from the value for the meta-analyses.
For t'ai chi, the d value for depression was -.30; only

Slightly less that for strenuous exercise. For yoga and

stretching, the improvement was -.33 which is about the same as

for any of the other three programs. Thus t'ai chi and the

non—traditional programs work as well as strenuous exercise.

Anxiety. Schlicht (1994) found an average effect on

anxiety of d = -.15. This is in sharp contrast to the findings

for depression: an average of d = -.49. Given the very high

correlation between depression and anxiety (about r = . 77) , this

di 35 ference is peculiar. From the product rule of path analysis,

the improvement for anxiety should be at least (.77) (-.49)

I ‘ 3 8 . The Schlicht study has some kind of problem. Note that

the average in the Kugler et a1. (1994) is d = — .31 which is much

closer to the value predicted by path analysis.

The present study found a value of d = -.36 for the

trenuous programs. This 18 incons18tent With the findings of

Sch:Licht but exactly congruent to the path analytic prediction

92

from the findings for depression. The findings from this study

thus tend to confirm the problem in Schlicht (1994) that is

evident from path analysis. For a sample size of 13, the study

value is not significantly different from d = —.31 as found in

the review by Kugler et al.

the d value for anxiety was -.26; not

For t'ai chi,

significantly less than that for strenuous exercise. For yoga

and stretching, the improvement was - .55 which is a much larger

effect than for any of the other three programs. Thus t'ai chi

works almost as well as strenuous exercise and the non-

traditional programs work even better.

Summary. The findings from this study for the strenuous

programs are largely consistent with meta-analysis results that

average across many studies. The major departure is from the

findings reported by Schlicht (1994) for anxiety; though the
Schlicht findings are themselves inconsistent with both the
findings from Kugler et al. (1994) and the value predicted from
the findings on depression using path analysis. The findings
from this study are most consistent with the value predicted by
path analysis. The strenuous programs produced considerable
improvement on all aspects of mood; an average value of d = - .30
across the mood variables.
On all mood variables, t ' ai chi produced improvement that
was Very close to that produced by the strenuous programs . Yoga

and stretching was just as effective as the other programs for

ekpression and worked better than the other programs for anxiety

and general mood. Thus the non-traditional exercise programs

 

93

were just as successful as strenuous exercise and may even work

better.

Improvement as a function of initial level

If an individual already has a high mood level, there is

little room for improvement. An individual at a low mood level

has a lot of room for improvement. Thus it was predicted that

all dependent variables would show a pattern of differences in
improvement as a function of their initial level; with more
improvement in those who start low than in those who start in

the middle, and with more improvement in those who start in the

middle than for those who start out high.

For the whole sample pooled across exercise programs,
t:here was strong support for the initial level hypothesis.

AVe raged across mood variables, the improvement was only d = . 15

for those who start high, but a higher d = .41 for those who start

in the middle, and a still higher d = .67 for those who started

with very poor mood.

The results for awareness are similar but with

C 0 0 O
on'lplications. Averaged across awareness variables, the

lmprovement was largest for those who started with low awareness:
d i

\

. 90. For the middle group, the improvement was much lower:
d T .27. For the highest group, the improvement was not only
lower but actually in the wrong direction: d = -.35. However,

Ilse Of the pooled group is suspect for this analysis because there
w . . .
ere striking differences between the strenuous programs and the

o . .
the]: programs in terms of change in awareness. There was no

94

increase in awareness for the strenuous groups but a very large
increase in awareness in the other two groups; especially for
yoga and stretching.

Attempts to check the initial level hypothesis for

separate treatment programs were extremely tenuous because of

the small sample sizes for the separate programs. The overall

pattern was similar in all groups, but many of the results were

wildly influenced by sampling error.

Bogy awareness

This study was designed with two agendas in mind. On the

one hand, the study tested the hypothesis that non-strenuous

eXercise programs can improve mood. This hypothesis was

COnfirmed; mean change for yoga and stretching was d = - . 73 which
i 8 higher than either t ' ai chi (d = - .40) or the strenuous programs
( d = - .40) . However, this hypothesis was derived from a more

fundamental hypothesis about body awareness. The theory was
t:tlat exercise increases awareness of the body. Awareness of the
body increases awareness of mood. This in turn makes it possible
to better control mood. This hypothesis was at least partially
di Sconfirmed.

Body awareness was measured by focusing on key motor

bel'laviors: posture, breathing patterns, hand gestures, and

faQial movements. Subjects were asked whether they were aware

of these behaviors in various contexts (the SA-tactics scale) .

They were also asked whether they believed that they could use

SuCh behaviors to control their mood (the PEM scale) . That is,

 

95

two measures of body awareness were created for this study.
Subjects were also asked how much they are aware of their mood
(the SA-mood scale). That is, three aspects of awareness were
measured; two measures of body awareness and a measure of
awareness of mood.

The critical finding is that for the strenuous programs,
there was considerable improvement in mood (d = -.40) but no
increase on any of the three measures of awareness (for SA-
tactics, d = .04; for PEM, d = -.12; and for SA-mood, d = -.08) .
Thus the strenuous program results show that there can be
improvement in mood without improvement of awareness.

For t'ai chi, yoga, and stretching there were large
increases in awareness on all three awareness dimensions. For
the non-strenuous programs, the increase in awareness was
C3Onsiderably larger than the improvement in mood (awareness: d
= 1.39, d = 1.37, d = .88 for SA-tactics, PEM, and mood
reSpectively) (mood: d = —.73) . There are two possibilities.
1:irst, it may be that for these programs awareness does play a
role in the mood improvement. Alternatively, the increase in
“10063 may stem from the instruction process in these programs.
FOI‘ the t'ai chi, yoga, and stretching programs, instructors make
frequent comments on body awareness. These instructions may
Sir“ply make subjects more aware of their body while having no
effect on their mood.

There is some indirect evidence for a difference between
StIt‘enuous and non—strenuous processes. The strenuous exercise

PrOgram produced an improvement in mood of d = -.40 but the

  

,. ..Jaiol. ids-111...: l w‘fi 4“:

96

non—strenuous program had a larger effect of d = - .73 . Suppose
that the physical movement aspects of the non-strenuous programs
produces an effect of about the same size as the strenuous
programs (probably less). That is, mean change in mood would
have been about d = - .40 if these programs had no psychological
emphasis on awareness. The further improvement to a mean of d
= — . '73 may then be due to the impact of increased body awareness
on mood.

The results of this study support the theory that Eastern

exercises such as t’ai chi, yoga, and even simple stretching

increase the awareness of body and mood states because the
Participants can learn how to use various physical tactics to
become conscious of mood states and kinesthetic movements.
Awareness of moods through the physical tactics taught in these
eXercises, such as postures and breathing patterns and hand
QGStures, have been studied in nonverbal research (Ekman, 1969)
in various contexts. These tactics are also identified in
behavioral management strategies in sports settings (Loehr,
1990) in order to help athletes to modify emotions . By learning
these tactics, by becoming aware, and by increasing experience
and practice, people can become more conscious of both body and
mind.

In a future study, I would like to examine the effects
of non-strenuous exercise on awareness or other variables. For
this purpose, I would like to try to develop a scale of PEM and
SA on the basis of the present study. In sports and exercise,

there is little empirical research on physical management, and

97

I would therefore like to do such research and apply it to sports
settings .

This research could be applied by coaches and teachers
in sports settings. They could encourage and train students to

become aware of their body movements and moods in order to perform

well . By learning nonstrenuous exercises such as yoga and t’ai

Chi , students could learn physical tactics step-by-step because
they would be instructed in such tactics as how to breathe or
how to execute a posture with slow movements, and instruction
Could be geared to the level of individual students. As the
Present study shows, using these tactics can reduce negative
emotions, improve moods, and increase body awareness, which
might be the key to balancing and controlling emotions. Any
beginner can learn these tactics and be prepared whenever he or
She participates in strenuous activities. Breathing, for

eXample, is an important tactic in any sports setting, and in
yoga we can teach the student how to breathe in any setting. As
the student increaSes awareness of moods and the body, he or she
Can correctly interpret moods states and body tactics, thereby
reducing negative emotions. I would like to encourage coaches
and teachers to learn nonstrenuous exercises to help students

1mprove moods and performance.

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103

Tse, S. K. , & Bailey, D. M. (1992) . T'ai chi and postural control

in the well elderly. The Ameriean Joarnal of Occupational
Therapy, 46, 295-300.

 

Troishi, A., Chiaie, R. D., Russo, F., Russo, M. A., Mosco, C.,
& Pasini, A. (1996) . Nonverbal behavior and Alexithymic
traits in normal subjects: individual differences in

encoding emotions. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease,
184(2), 561-566.

Wadded, T. A. (1984) . Relaxation therapy of essential

hypertension: specific or non-specific effects. Journal
of Psychosomatic Research, 28, 53-61.

 

Wolf, S. L., Kutner, N. G., Green, R. C., & McNeely, E. (1993) .
The Atlanta FICSIT study : two exercise interventions to

reduce fraily in elders . Journal of the American Geriatric
Society, 41, 329-332.

 

Yellin, D. (1983). Left brain, right brain, super brain: the
holistic model. Reading World, Oct., 11(1), 36-44.

APPENDIX A

Consent Form

Department of Physical Education and Exercise Science

Michigan State University

Rika Kawano, a doctoral student at Michigan State University,
has requested my participation in a research study. This study
is concerned with the relationship among self-awareness, emotion,

and exercise.

I have been informed that the purpose of the research is to assess

the effects of body exercise on participants in this program.

I understand that the results of the research study may be
published but my name and identify will not be revealed. A
numbering system will be used to differentiate the subjects. In
order to maintain confidentiality of my records , Rika Kawano will
secure the completed questionnaires and no one will have access

to these questionnaires except the principal investigators.

I am free to refuse to participate in certain procedures, answer
certain questions, or discontinue my participation at any time

without penalty.

I have read the above information. The nature, demand, and
benefits of the project have been explained to me . I understand
that I may withdraw my consent and discontinue participation at
any time without penalty or loss of benefit to myself. In signing
this consent form, I am not waiving any legal claims, rights or

remedies.

Signature: Date:

 

 

104

APPENDIX B

The Profile of Mood States (POMS)

 

 

NAME DATE

 

SEX. Male I- Eemale 5.

 

 

Ielow is a list o! words that desen‘he Memes peoole have. Please and each one
carefully Then fill in ONE eorcle under the answer to the ugh: which best describes
HOW YOU HAVE BEEN FEELING DURING YHE PAS? WEEK INCEUOING YOOAY.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The numbers role! so these phases.
O‘Notesell ‘ a... ‘ E-e
18AM!“ : :3: :_:3:
thoderetely 325;; :Egg‘:
J'Ouiteebn 3:85: 3:02:
48£luomely 5:23: x¢a "
21. Hopeless ....... 2 "i i l 1 45. Desperate ......... ° ' 3 ’ ‘
Cell C. 0' 6. ° 22. Relaxed ....... .3 3' 3 3 Z 46 sluggish .......... 5 " 3 2 ‘
.. E .. . 23' Unwoflhy - . . . .'-.'.~ 3 3' ' 3 47. ReOeIIiOUs ......... ' 1 '3 8 ¢
: .. : = =
.- d C ‘ . ‘ J“ a-‘a- q A - - -
1 : 3 2 2 24. Sputelul ....... .92/”13:9 46. Helpless . ......... ° .' i 3 ‘
o 3 O 5 =
2 < I O u
.. . y- - - A - -
1. Fnendly ........ 2 c. i '3 -: 25. Sympathenc . . . . .‘33‘&@'3 49. Weary . . . ........ ° 3 ’ ’ ‘
2 Tense ......... 2 .. * ’ : 26. Uneasy ........ .72/3" 3’32 50 Bewildered ........ 9 I' ' 5 ‘
3 Angry ......... e ? 3 3 Z 27. Restless ....... .3'3‘3/3-3 5: Alan ............ 3 "I P. 5 ‘
4. Worn cut . . . . . . . .3. 7 i '1 E 28. Unable to concentrate 33,-31(3)?) 52. 09“in ......... o J a s a
5. UnhaDDy ........ i E i 3 E 29. Faugued ........ 3331’. '3 SJ. Funous . . ........ ° ' ‘ ‘ ‘
6 Clear-neacec ..... E E 5 3 3 30. Helpful ......... 35333 54 Efficient .......... ° ; 1 ’ ‘
9"“ '?’?'?.’?'7 - o'. :3.
7 leely .......... - .L l ’ ‘ 31. Annoyed ........ vex... -. v 53. Trusting ..........
8 Conlused . . . . . . . i 3 32 7- 3 32. Dnscomagec ..... 3 GEES. 56. Full of pea ........ ° ‘ ' ’ ‘
9, Sorry tor mung: done .3 7 3.3-3 3. Resenuul ....... '3. '35 3 G 57. Bad-tempered ...... ° ' ’ ’ ‘
10 Snaky ......... 3 E 3 AS 34. Nervous ........ 333 3’3: 58. Worthless ......... ° ' ' ’ ‘
a . , A. A A
ll. Luszless ......... .2 3333‘ 35. Lonely ......... ~3-‘3¢@'¢ 59. Forgetful ......... ° ' ’ ’ ‘
12 Peevec ......... '35 .339 36. Muserable ....... 'E'SCEQE 60. Carelree .......... 9 '. ’ ’ ‘
13. Consmerate ...... 3133-33 37. Muddled ........ @3396) 61. Terrified .......... ° ' ' ’ ‘
:4 Sad ........... 355339 35. Cheerful ...... ..33333 52 Gumy ........... ° ' . 7 '
ls Actwe ......... E 3. 3 3 ‘3. 39. Butler . ...... . . $93 322932 63. Vlgor0us . . ........ ° ' ’ ’ ‘
16 On edge ........ E 33. ff 3 40. Exhausted ....... 33333 64. Uncertain abouuhmgs . .' ' ‘ ’ ‘
- c— a- .n- A A A A A -
17. Crunchy ........ 2 1 ’. 1 1 41. Anxmus ........ £- ' 3. 213.1 6:. Bushed .......... ' ' ’ ’ ‘
_ q - n. f‘ A a f“ ’-
18. Blue .......... 2 L 2 ’ S. 42. Ready to fight . . . . EAL-3.: .1- .9
‘a—av— zanaf'sz-
19. Energenc ....... 3. .L 3 3 3 43. Good namred ..... 3‘4; 3: 31¢
20 Pamcky ........ 5. V I 3: 1 4.: Gloomy ........ E'TE': E

 

 

 

105

 

APPENDIX C

The Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI)

SELF-EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE
STA! form Yo!

Name Date

 

DIRECTIONS: A number of statements which pepple have used to

describe themselves are. given below. Read each statement and then 7’ 7,1
blacken in the appropriate circle to the nght of the statement to ll‘l- ‘4’,’ .L ’0,
dicate how you generally feel. There are no right or wrong answers. Do ‘I ‘ "a, r ’ '1
mt spend too much time on any one statement but give the answer ‘1, ’4,’ *1, "0,,
which seems to describe how you generally feel. "' " ""
L l feel pleasant ................................................ 3 ’i ’5 3
2. I feel nerwus and restless .......................... . ........... {C ’1' ‘2' E
3. I feel satisfied with myself ........... ‘ .......................... (c - 1 ’3 3
4. i wish i enuld be as happy as ulhcrs seem-tn be ................. .43 ’3‘ 3 2‘
5. l feel like a failure ........................................... (D .‘i' 5 Q
a Ikdramd ................................................. 3 :3 a z
7, I am "calm. cool. and culieClctl" ............................... 3 2i 3 ‘s'
8. l feel that difficulties are piling up sn that i cannot mercnme them (9 ‘ 3 Ti 63
9. I hurt}: tun much over something that really doesn‘t matter ...... 3 G 3 3
lOJarn/happy ............................... (D Cl: 3 C."
11. 'lchai'e disturbing thuughts ......... . .......................... G (E ’1‘ 3
l2. l lack self-confidence ............................ ’ ............. 3 (E 5 G
13. i feel secure ................................................. (9 Cl: C!) G)
143 I make decisions easily ........................................ 3 Ci 3 G
15_ I feel inadequate ............................................. :0 (B S G
16. 1 am content ................................................. G (I) 3.; ’e‘
17. Some unimportant thought runs through my mind and bathcrs me 3 (*3 3 G
13- i take disappointments so keenly that i can’t put them out of my
mind ............................... i ........ . ................. G G: C; G:
19. I am a steady person ........................ ' ................. CD 03 (i. G
20. I get in a state oftension or turmoil as i think over my recent concerns
and interests ................................... I .............. (D (D G 3

106

APPENDIX D

The Physical Emotional Management (PEM) Questionnaire

Name: , , 7 Date:
On the following pages are listed a number of statements concerning human movement which are related to your ability
of physical management. Consider each item listed and circle the number on the answer scale after each item which
best represents your feelings according to the following scale.

 

For each statement below, please circle one of the following numbers using the scale below:

Scale: not at all ............. 1
slightly ............. 2
somewhat ............. 3
very ............. 4
always ............. 5

Emotions/mood by physical management:
1. ability to restrain anger whenever necessary

1-1 with using verbal expressions 1----2----3----4----5
1-2 with using body control l----2----3----4----5
1-3 with controlling breathing l----2----3-—--4----5
1—4 with using facial expression l----2----3----4----5
1-5 with using hand (arm) gestures l----2--—-3--—-4—---5
1-6 by using ( ) 1----2----3----4----5
1-7 by using ( ) 1----2----3----4----5

2. ability to suppress anxiety or nervousness whenever necessary

2-1 with using verbal expressions 1----2----3---_4----5
2-2 with using body control 1----2----3----4----5
2-3 with controlling breathing 1----2----3----4----5
2-4 with using facial expression 1----2----3----4----5
2-5 with using hand(arm) gestures 1----2----3----4----5
2-6 by using ( ) l----2----3----4----5
2-7 by using ( ) l----2----3----4----5
3. ability to change mood (i.e., calm) positively whenever necessary

3-1 with using verbal expressions l----2----3----4----5
3-2 with using body control l----2----3----4----5
3-3 with controlling breathing 1—---2----3--«4----5
3-4 with using facial expression l----2----3----4----5
3-5 with using hand(arm) gestures 1----2----3----4—--—5
3-6 by using ( ) 1----2----3----4----5
3-7 by using ( ) 1----2----3----4----5
4. ability to relax muscle tension whenever necessary

4-1 with using verbal expressions 1----2----3----4----5
4-2 with using body control 1----2----3----4----5
4-3 with controlling breathing 1----2----3----4----5
4-4 with using facial expression 1----2----3----4----5
4-5 with using hand(arm) gestures 1----2----3----4----5
4-6 by using ( ) 1----2----3----4----5
4-7 by using ( ) l-—--2----3----4----5

107

APPENDIX E

The Self-awareness (SA) Questionnaire and Personal Information

Directions: This questionnaire is designed to help us understand the relationship between your attitude toward
exercise and your body condition in your life. Most responses will only require a short answer or a check in a ( ).
Your responses are important to us. As a participant in this study, please understand that your responses will be
confidential. We really appreciate your willingness to help us learn more about your sense of body-awareness and
exercrse.

I) Personal Information:
Sex: Male / Female Weight: ( lbs) Height: ( ft in)

Age: ( ) Occupation: (
)
Ethnic group: ( ) White ( ) Black/African American
( ) Asian American ( ) Hispanic or Latino American
( ) Native-American ( ) Other

II) Attitudes toward Exercise:
(1) Are you currently participating in any other exercise program or are you exercising periodically by yourself? If
Yes, please answer following questions.

2-1)
kind of program:

 

how often: min/day days/wk min/session
purpose:

 

mood after exercise:

 

2-2)
kind of program:

 

how often: min/day days/wk min/session
purpose:

 

mood after exercise:

 

2-3) If No, why don’t you exercise?

 

II) Behavior in daily life:
3-1) What do you usually do when you feel tired during the day?

 

 

108

109

3-2) Which parts of your body usually feel tight when you experience stress?

 

3-3) What do you usually do to reduce the tightness of your body?

 

 

34) What do you usually do when you experience a stressful situation? (e.g., bad day at work)

 

 

3-5) Do you have any body pain? Yes No
If yes, in which part of your body do you feel pain most of the time?

 

3-6) How intense the pain is?

 

3-7) What do you do to reduce the pain?

 

 

3-8) What do you do when you are depressed?

 

 

3—9) What do you do when you are in anxiety situation?

 

 

110

IV) For Questions 4, please circle one of the numbers using

[I16 scale below: not at all ,,,,,,,,,,,,, 1
slightly ............. 2
somewhat ............. 3
very ............. 4
always ............. 5

4-1) In general, how much are you

4-1-1 aware of your mood 1----2----3----4----5
4-1-2 aware of body feeling l----2----3----4----5
4-1-3 in which part of the body ( )
4-1-4 aware of emotion l----2----3----4----5
4-2) Before exercise, how much are you

4-2-1 aware of your mood 1----2----3----4----5
4-2-2 aware of body feeling 1----2----3----4--—-5
4-2-3 in which part of the body ( )
4-2-4 aware of emotion 1----2----3----4----5
4-3) After exercise, how much are you

4-3-1 aware of your mood l----2—---3~--—4----5
4-3-2 aware of body feeling 1----2----3---—4---—5
4-3-3 in which part of the body ( )
4-3-4 aware of emotion 1----2----3----4----5
44) How much are your muscle relaxed

4-4-1 shoulder relaxed l----2----3----4----5
4-4-2 neck relaxed 1----2----3----4----5
4-5) How much attention do you pay to your posture,

4-5-1 when you walk 1----2----3----4----5
4-5-2 when you sit l----2—---3----4----5
4-5-3 when you stand l----2----3----4----5
4-5-4 when you think (ponder) l----2----3----4----5
4-5-5 when you speak 1----2----3----4----5
4-6) How much attention do you pay to your arm (hand) gestures (movements),
4-6-1 when you walk 1----2----3----4----5
4-6-2 when you sit l----2----3----4----5
4-6-3 when you stand 1----2----3----4----5
4-6-4 when you think (ponder) 1----2----3----4----5
4-6-5 when you speak 1----2----3----4----5

4-7) How much attention do you pay to your breathing pattern,

4-7-1 when you walk 1----2----3---—4----5
4-7-2 when you sit l----2----3----4----5
4-7—3 when you stand 1----2----3----4----5
4-7-4 when you think (ponder) 1----2----3---—4----5
4-7-5 when you speak - 1----2—---3----4----5

111

4-8) How much attention do you pay to your facial expression,

4-8-1 when you walk 1----2----3----4----5
4-8-2 when you sit 1-—--2----3----4----5
4-8-3 when you stand l----2----3----4----5
4-8-4 when you think (ponder) 1----2----3----4----5
4—8-5 when you speak 1----2----3----4----5
4-9) How much attention do you pay to perceive your level of nervousness?
4-9-1 when you are middle of the situation l----2----3----4----5
4-9-2 when you recall the situation 1----2----3---.4----5
4-10) How do you perceive by perceive your level of nervousness?

4-10-1 butterflies? in your stomach 1-——-2----3---—4----5
4-10-2 by perceiving your posture l----2----3----4----5
4-10—3 by perceiving tightness in your face 1----2----3----4----5
4-10-4 by perceiving your breathing pattern 1----2----3----4----5
4-10-5 by perceiving your voice(speaking) 1----2----3----4----5
4-10-6 by perceiving the sweat l----2----3----4----5
4-10-7 by perceiving other ( ) 1----2----3---.4----5
4-10-8 by perceiving other ( ) 1---—2----3----4----5

APPENDIX F

..n .( ( t'.‘( .

l.\ ‘I ‘

.uf-F'w“

 

 

OOH OO: NM: NO: OH ON: OH OH NN: b: MN: O OH O H HN ON ON M: OM O: HH: NN
OO: OOH OO NM O ON OH: HN: OO HM ON O: H: N: N: OO: OM: OH: O: OH: O NH HN
NM: OO OOH NN M: OH ON: ON: OH HO O HH: H: ON: ON: OO: MO: OH: O: OH: O: M: ON
NO: NM NN OOH OH: ON PH: ON: OH O: OO O MN: O: N OH: OM: OO: OH OM: O OH OH
OH O M: OH: OOH OH: OM OM NH M O M OH O: O: O O OH MO: HM ON: OM: OH
ON: ON OH ON OH: OOH OO: NO: H: O NN OH OM N: O: MN: O: O: MN OO: MN MM OH
OH OH: ON: bH: OM OO: OOH bO N O: O: ON: O O b HN bN OH OO: OM OO: OO: OH
OH HN: ON: ON: OM NO: NO OOH N O: OH: ON: O: O O ON ON OH HO: OO MO: OO: OH
NN: OO OH PH NH H: N N OOH ON ON O: NH O O OO O O OH: HH O N OH
O: HM HO O: M O O: O: ON OOH ON ON: OH NN: ON: O: HM ON MN: OH OH: ON: MH
MN: ON O OO O NN O: OH: ON ON OOH HN: H: NH: HH: M: NH ON OH: OH: OH: O: NH
b O: HH: O M OH ON: ON: b: ON: HN: OOH ON: MO OO O: NH: ON: OO OM: DO OO HH

OH H: H: MN: OH OM O O: NH OH H: ON: OOH HN: NO: HH NN OM ON: OO OH: ON: OH
O N: ON: O: O: N: O O O NN: NH: MO HN: OOH OO OH O O: OO OH: Oh Oh O
H N: ON: N O: O: b O O ON: HH: OO NO: OO OOH b O OH: OO ON: Oh Oh O
HN OO: OO: OH: O MN: HN ON OO O: M: O: HH OH O OOH OO OH O: ON O: HH: 5
ON OM: MO: OM: O O: ON ON O HM NH NH: NN O O OO OOH OO OH: ON NH: OH: O
ON OH: OH: OO: OH O: OH OH O ON ON ON: OM O: OH: OH OO OOH OM: NM OH: HN: O
M: O: O: OH MO: MN OO: HO: OH: MN: OH: OO ON: OO OO O: OH: OM: OOH OO: Hm. Ob O
OM OH: OH: OM: HM OO: OM OO HH OH OH: OM: OO OH: ON: ON ON NM OO: OOH OM: OO: M

O: O O: O ON: MN OO: MO: O OH: OH: NO OH: Oh Oh O: NH: OH: Hm. PM: OOH OO N

HH: NH M: OH OM: MM OO: OO: N ON: O: OO ON: Oh Oh HH: DH: HN: Om. OO: OO OOH H

NN HN ON OH OH OH OH OH OH MH NH HH OH O O N. O O O m N H

 

uaofiouflnoofi mo Hound MOM vouuounou : “Hanna GOHuoHoHHOU
QOHuM§nmuuo How xHHuME GOHuoHonHoo anoHHm> NNxNN oak
unoHunHoMHOU NN

112

113

 

Ocflzoumuum a mmo> .Hso Hon u m .oumm w MHG "H "qu>Huom mo mmmcmDOSGmuumss wouoz
Om Ob. OO.N ss>uH>Huom mo mmmcmSOSGmHum ANNV
be mmmo.ma emmm.m mofiuomo mmumuo:umoo Aamv
om mmnm.m oomo.H @009 mmuouo:umom nomv
ms mmmb.ma mmem.m Hooch smoumuo-umoo Amsv
mm mmmv.m mmam.m- aumflxem-sumud-omoo Away
Hm «emm.m momm.a nomfi>uono:omoo AFHV
om memm.sfl mmflo.m- >-oa msomumnm-umom Amav
om ommm.om mmmm.oa- Ham msomumuo-umom Amflv
Hm eamm.ma Hmmm.oe m u0oomm mm umoo “say
Hm ammo.m meam.wm mm m0 aneuomu umoo Amav
mm memm.HH mmno.mw Ema Mo mmuoom omen ANHV
mm Hemm.m oeee.mm xem-e m.nmmuonamflmm mo ummu umom AHHV
mm mmme.m mmmo.ms Anomh>v mzom mo ammo uwoo Aoav
mm meem.mm mmfle.mm o+m+o+u+m umoo Amy
mm m>m>.mm mmmm.ms >-Au+w+e+m+ov umzomamuOo ho ammo umom Amv
om mmeo.mfl oomm.em mofloomoem ummumnd Any
mm moa>.m aomm.mm eooe<m unmounm Amv
Hm nmno.wa mmmm.mm and “0 monoom and Ham ammomnm Amv
mm maeo.oa mHHm.mm xem-e m.ummumnamflmm mo ummumnm nev
mm Hamm.m mmmo.ea Anomfl>v mzom “0 ummuouo Amv
Hm e¢m¢.mm mmmm.m¢ o+m+e+o+m ombuono Amv
Hm mave.sm omnm.flm >-Au+m+e+m+ov umzomflmuOU mo ommumnm AHV
2 am new:

 

moHumHumum m>HuQHMUmmU mnu Ucm mmHQmHHm> map mo mEmz

APPENDIX G

Reliability analysis of pre-test of Physical Emotional Management (PEM)

Goal 1

PREPEMll
PREPEMIZ
PREPEM13
PREPEM14
PREPEMIS

m-bWNH

Mean

.2048
.6145
.2048
.9880
.1446

WNWUU

Covariance Matrix

PREPEMll

.8478
.3726
.4088
.4171
.4578

PREPEMll
PREPEM12
PREPEM13
PREPEM14
PREPEMIS

Correlation Matrix

PREPEMll

1.0000
.3959
.4452
.4399
.4542

PREPEMll
PREPEMlZ
PREPEM13
PREPEM14
PREPEMIS

N of Cases =

Mean
16.1566

Statistics for
Scale

Mean
3.2313

Item Means

Mean
1.0292

Item Variances

Inter-item
Covariances Mean

.4409

Inter-item
Correlations Mean

.4296

Item-total Statistics

Scale
Mean
if Item
Deleted

PREPEMll
PREPEMlZ
PREPEM13
PREPEM14
PREPEMIS

12.9518
12.5422
12.9518
13.1687

13.0120

PREPEMlZ

1.0447
.4824
.2880

45076

PREPEM12

1.0000
.4733
.2736
.4537

83.0

Variance

13.9630

Minimum
2.9880

Minimum
3.8478

Minimum
.2880

Minimum
.2736

Scale

Variance

if Item
Deleted

.8025
.6171
.4611
.3371
.8169

QWWWW

Analysis of Variance

114

Std Dev Cases
.9208 83.0
1.0221 83.0
.9971 83.0
1.0300 83.0
1.0947 83.0
PREPEM13 PREPEM14 PREPEMIS
.9941
.4659 1.0608
.3969 .6115 1.1984
PREPEM13 PREPEM14 PREPEMIS
1.0000
.4537 1.0000
.3636 .5424 1.0000
N of
Std Dev Variables
3.7367 5
Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
3.6145 .6265 1.2097 .0537
Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
1.1984 .3506 1.4135 .0160
Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.6115 .3235 2.1235 .0071
Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.5424 .2688 1.9826 .0049
Corrected
Item- Squared Alpha
Total Multiple if Item
Correlation Correlation Deleted
.5746 .3314 .7487
.5208 .3369 .7648
.5719 .3662 .7483
.5664 .3964 .7500
.6072 .4172 .7364

115

 

 

Source of Variation Sum of Sq. DF Mean Square F Prob.
Between People 228.9928 82 2.7926
Within People 210.8000 332 .6349
Between Measures 17.8410 4 4.4602 7.5817 .0000
Residual 192.9590 328 .5883
Total 439.7928 414 1.0623
Grand Mean 3.2313
Reliability Coefficients 5 items
Alpha = .7893 Standardized item alpha = .7901

**#**#*****##***tittitit!it.it!*tfili******tt¢#ilfififittttlitltlllii

Reliability analysis of pre-test of Physical Emotional Management (PEM)

Goal 2
Mean Std Dev Cases
1. PREPEMZI 3.0366 .9993 82.0
2. PREPEMZZ 3.1585 .9996 82.0
3. PREPEM23 3.2805 .9199 82.0
4. PREPEM24 2.8902 1.0887 82.0
5. PREPEMZS 2.9024 1.1179 82.0
Covariance Matrix
PREPEMZI PREPEMZZ PREPEM23 PREPEM24 PREPEMZS
PREPEMZI .9986
PREPEM22 .5991 .9992
PREPEM23 .3847 .5723 .8463
PREPEM24 .7942 .6226 .4880 1.1853
PREPEMZS .6703 .8181 .5709 .8040 1.2496
Correlation Matrix
PREPEMZI PREPEMZZ PREPEM23 PREPEM24 PREPEMZS
PREPEMZI 1.0000
PREPEMZZ .5997 1.0000
PREPEM23 .4184 .6223 1.0000
PREPEM24 .7300 .5720 .4872 1.0000
PREPEMZS .6000 .7321 .5552 .6606 1.0000
N of Cases = 82.0
N of
Statistics for Mean variance Std DeV"Variables
Scale 15.2683 17.9271 4.2340 5
Item Means Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
3.0537 2.8902 3.2805 .3902 1.1350 .0281
Item Variances Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
1.0558 .8463 1.2496 .4033 1.4766 .0262
Inter-item
Covariances Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.6324 .3847 .8181 .4335 2.1268 .0192
Inter-item
Correlations Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.5978 .4184 .7321 .3137 1.7497 .0092

Item-total Statistics

116

 

 

Scale Scale Corrected
Mean Variance Item- Squared Alpha
if Item if Item Total Multiple if Item
Deleted Deleted Correlation Correlation Deleted
PREPEMZl 12.2317 12.0321 .7063 .5853 .8590
PREPEMZZ 12.1098 11.7039 .7638 .6326 .8458
PREPEM23 11.9878 13.0492 .6066 .4228 .8804
PREPEM24 12.3780 11.3245 .7393 .6195 .8513
PRBPEMZS 12.3659 10.9509 .7740 .6291 .8427
Analysis of Variance
Source of Variation Sum of Sq. DF Mean Square F Prob.
Between People 290.4195 81 3 5854
Within People 146.4000 328 4463
Between Measures 9.2098 4 2.3024 5.4376 .0003
Residual 137.1902 324 4234
Total 436.8195 409 1 0680
Grand Mean 3.0537
Reliability Coefficients 5 items
Alpha = .8819 Standardized item alpha = .8814

tittit.*******#**ti*ttt##it********¥*¢¢***fit##itttttlitttilttfiitt

Reliability analysis of pre-test of Physical Emotional Management (PEM)

Goal 3
Mean Std Dev Cases
1. PREPEM31 3.2963 .9930 81.0
2. PREPEM32 3.2469 .9291 81.0
3. PREPEM33 3.2963 .9006 81.0
4. PREPEM34 3.1852 1.1081 81.0
S. PREPEM35 3.0494 1.0595 81.0
Covariance Matrix
PREPEM31 PREPEM32 PREPEM33 PREPEM34 PREPEM35
PREPEM31 .9861
PREPEM32 .6009 .8633
PREPEM33 .4111 .4509 .8111
PREPEM34 .7319 .6662 .4444 1.2278
PREPEM35 .6227 .7377 .4602 .8532 1.1225
Correlation Matrix
PREPEM31 PREPEM32 PREPEM33 PREPEM34 PREPEM3S
PREPEM31 1.0000
PREPEM32 .6513 1.0000
PREPEM33 .4597 .5389 1.0000
PREPEM34 .6652 .6471 .4454 1.0000
PREPEM35 .5918 .7493 .4823 .7268 1.0000
N of Cases = 81.0
N of
Statistics for Mean variance Std DeV"Variables
Scale 16.0741 16.9694 4.1194 5

117

 

 

Item Means Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
3.2148 3.0494 3.2963 .2469 1.0810 .0106
Item Variances Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
1.0022 .8111 1.2278 .4167 1.5137 .0304
Inter—item
Covariances Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.5979 .4111 .8532 .4421 2.0755 .0218
Inter-item
Correlations Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.5958 .4454 .7493 .3040 1.6825 .0114
Item-total Statistics
Scale Scale Corrected
Mean Variance Item- Squared Alpha
if Item if Item Total Multiple if Item
Deleted Deleted Correlation Correlation Deleted
PREPEM31 12.7778 11.2500 .7106 .5331 .8563
PREPEM32 12.8272 11.1948 .7899 .6498 .8393
PREPEM33 12.7778 12.6250 .5521 .3205 .8898
PREPEM34 12.8889 10.3500 .7562 .6160 .8460
PREPEM35 13.0247 10.4994 .7788 .6643 .8396
Analysis of Variance
Source of Variation Sum of Sq. DF Mean Square F Prob.
Between People 271.5111 80 3.3939
Within People 132.8000 324 .4099
Between Measures 3.4469 4 .8617 2.1318 .0767
Residual 129.3531 320 .4042
Total 404.3111 404 1.0008
Grand Mean 3.2148
Reliability Coefficients 5 items
Alpha = .8809 Standardized item alpha = .8805

************lliilit*******#*****#********#**i.*******¥******tfitlt

Reliability analysis of pre-test of Physical Emotional Management (PEM)

Goal 4
Mean Std Dev Cases
1. PREPEM41 2.7108 1.0064 83.0
2. PREPEM42 3.2289 .9150 83.0
3. PREPEM43 3.3494 .9296 83.0
4. PREPEM44 2.7952 1.0793 83.0
5. PREPEM45 2.8554 1.0375 83.0
Covariance Matrix
PREPEM41 PREPEM42 PREPEM43 PREPEM44 PREPEM45

PREPEM41 1.0129

118

 

 

PREPEM42 .4816 .8372
PREPEM43 .4681 .5776 .8642
PREPEM44 .7327 .6450 .5359 1.1649
PREPEM45 .5918 .5823 .4658 .8237 1.0764
Correlation Matrix
PREPEM41 PREPEM42 PREPEM43 PREPEM44 PREPEM45
PREPEM41 1.0000
PREPEM42 .5230 1.0000
PREPEM43 .5003 .6790 1.0000
PREPEM44 .6746 .6532 .5341 1.0000
PREPEM45 .5668 .6134 .4829 .7356 1.0000
N of Cases = 83.0
N of
Statistics for Mean Variance Std DeV"Variab1es
Scale 14.9398 16.7646 4.0945 5
Item Means Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
2.9880 2.7108 3.3494 .6386 1.2356 .0801
Item Variances Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.9911 .8372 1.1649 .3277 1.3914 .0194
Inter-item
Covariances Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.5904 .4658 .8237 .3579 1.7685 .0130
Inter-item
Correlations Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.5963 .4829 .7356 .2527 1.5233 .0072
Item—total Statistics
Scale Scale Corrected
Mean Variance Item- Squared Alpha
if Item if Item Total Multiple if Item
Deleted Deleted Correlation Correlation Deleted
PREPEM41 12.2289 11.2031 .6751 .4889 .8641
PREPEM42 11.7108 11.3544 .7416 .5979 .8497
PREPEM43 11.5904 11.8058 .6409 .4915 .8713
PREPEM44 12.1446 10.1252 .7970 .6711 .8341
PREPEM4S 12.0843 10.7611 .7238 .5769 .8527
Analysis of Variance
Source of Variation Sum of Sq. DF Mean Square F Prob.
Between People 274.9398 82 3.3529
Within People 158.0000 332 .4759
Between Measures 26.5783 4 6.6446 16.5834 .0000
Residual 131.4217 328 .4007
Total 432.9398 414 1.0457
Grand Mean 2.9880
Reliability Coefficients 5 items
Alpha = .8805 Standardized item alpha = .8807

119

Reliability analysis for post-test of Physical Emotional Management (PEM )

Goal 1

(11:50:)th

POPEMll
POPEM12
POPEM13
POPEM14
POPEMlS

POPEMll
POPEM12
POPEM13
POPEM14
POPEMlS

POPEMll
POPEM12
POPBM13
POPEM14
POPEMlS

Statistics for
Scale

Item Means

Item Variances

Inter-item
Covariances

Inter-item
Correlations

Covariance Matrix

POPEMll

.6974
.4149
.2234
.4782
.3526

Correlation Matrix

POPEMll

1.0000
.5288
.3065
.5967
.4129

N of Cases =

Mean
16.9878
Mean
3.3976

Mean
.8618

Mean
.3728

Mean
.4334

Item—total Statistics

POPEMll
POPEMlZ
POPEM13
POPEM14
POPEMlS

Scale
Mean
if Item
Deleted

13
13
13
13

13.

.5000
.3780
.3902
.7561
9268

wwwww

Mean

.4878
.6098
.5976
.2317
.0610

POPEM12

.8829
.3472
.3631
.5056

POPEMlZ

1.0000
.4233
.4027
.5262

82.0

Variance
11.7653

Minimum
3.0610

Minimum
.6974

Minimum
.2234

Minimum
.3045

Scale
Variance

if Item

Deleted

.1296
.6207
.7841
.6188
.4514

~14)qu

Std Dev

.8351
.9396
.8729
.9597
1.0226

POPEM13

.7620
.2672
.2718

POPEM13

1.0000
.3190
.3045

Std Dev
3.4301

Maximum
3.6098

Maximum
1.0456

Maximum
.5056

Maximum
.5967

Correcte
Item-
Total

Correlati

.6170
.6287
.4289
.6088
.5854

Cases
82.0
82.0
82.0
82.0
82.0
POPEM14 POPEMlS
.9210
.5042 1.0456
POPEM14 POPEMlS
1.0000
.5138 1.0000
N of
Variables
5
Range Max/Min
.5488 1.1793
Range Max/Min
.3482 1.4994
Range Max/Min
.2821 2.2628
Range Max/Min
.2922 1.9598
d
Squared
Multiple
on Correlation
.4557
.4394
.2072
.4510
.3867

Variance
.0585

Variance
.0187

Variance
.0097

Variance
.0103

Alpha
if Item
Deleted

.7410
.7339
.7950
.7404
.7494

120

Analysis of Variance

 

 

Source of Variation Sum of Sq. DF Mean Square F Prob.
Between People 190.5976 81 2.3531
Within People 177.6000 328 .5415
Between Measures 19.1854 4 4.7963 9.8098 .0000
Residual 158.4146 324 .4889
Total 368.1976 409 .9002
Grand Mean 3.3976
Reliability Coefficients 5 items
Alpha = .7922 Standardized item alpha = .7928

it***##1##******#***#**********#*lttttit#**¢**#*tltttifittittittfit

Reliability analysis of post test -Physical Emotional Management (PEM)

Goal 2
Mean
1. POPEMZI 3.2683
2. POPEM22 3.3049
3. POPEM23 3.5488
4. POPEM24 3.0976
5. POPEM25 2.9756
Covariance Matrix
POPEM21 POPEM22
POPEM21 .9148
POPEM22 .5592 .8565
POPEM23 .4312 .5343
POPEM24 .5908 .5131
POPEM25 .5992 .6125
Correlation Matrix
POPEM21 POPEM22
POPEM21 1.0000
POPEM22 .6317 1.0000
POPEM23 .4839 .6197
POPEM24 .6169 .5537
POPEM25 .6386 .6746
N of Cases = 82.0
Statistics for Mean Variance
Scale 16.1951 15.4429
Item Means Mean Minimum
3.2390 2.9756
Item Variances Mean Minimum
.9209 .8565

Std Dev

.9564

.9255

.9316
1.0014

.9810

POPEM23

.8680
.4396
.4333

POPEM23

1.0000
.4712
.4741

Std Dev
3.9298

Maximum
3.5488

Maximum
1.0027

Cases

82.
82.
82.
82.
82.

00°00

POPEM24

1.0027
.7061

POPEM24

1.0000
.7188

N of
Variables
5

Range
.5732

Range
.1462

POPEM25

.9624

POPEM25

1.0000

Max/Min
1.1926

Max/Min
1.1707

Variance
.0476

Variance
.0038

Inter—item

121

 

 

Covariances Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.5419 .4312 .7061 .2749 1.6376 .0077
Inter-item
Correlations Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.5883 .4712 .7188 .2476 1.5254 .0073
Item-total Statistics
Scale Scale Corrected
Mean Variance Item- Squared Alpha
if Item if Item Total Multiple if Item
Deleted Deleted Correlation Correlation Deleted
POPEM21 12.9268 10.1674 .7149 .5223 .8495
POPEM22 12.8902 10.1483 .7527 .6025 .8409
POPEM23 12.6463 10.8981 .5978 .4120 .8762
POPEM24 13.0976 9.9410 .7125 .5685 .8503
POPEM25 13.2195 9.7784 .7664 .6401 .8367
Analysis of Variance
Source of Variation Sum of Sq. DP Mean Square Prob.
Between People 250.1756 81 3.0886
Within People 138.4000 328 .4220
Between Measures 15.6244 4 3.9061 10.3080 .0000
Residual 122.7756 324 .3789
Total 388.5756 409 .9501
Grand Mean 3 2390
Reliability Coefficients 5 items
Alpha = .8773 Standardized item alpha .8772

*ttiiittitltfitifitfiittt*itt******tt*ttittifi#***********tt¢flttfitttt

Reliability analysis of post test -Physical Emotional Management (PEM)

Goal 3

UlthNH

POPEM31
POPEM32
POPEM33
POPEM34
POPEM35

POPEM31
POPEM32
POPEM33
POPEM34
POPEM35

Covariance Matrix

POPEM31

.8403
.4911
.2462
.5843
.5786

Mean

.4268
.4634
.5732
.3049
.0610

UMUJUW

POPEM32

.8937
.4348
.3014
.5146

Std Dev

.9167
.9454
.9167
.9899
.9981

POPEM33

.8403
.1935
.2486

Cases

82.
82.
82.
82.
82.

POPEM34

.9800
.5985

00000

POPEM35

.9962

Correlation Matrix

122

 

 

POPEM31 POPEM32 POPEM33 POPEM34 POPEM3S
POPEM31 1.0000
POPEM32 .5667 1.0000
POPEM33 .2930 .5018 1.0000
POPEM34 .6439 .3221 .2132 1.0000
POPEM35 .6324 .5454 .2717 .6057 1.0000
N of Cases = 82.0
N of
Statistics for Mean Variance Std Dev Variables
Scale 16.8293 12.9335 3.5963 5
Item Means Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
3.3659 3.0610 3.5732 .5122 1.1673 .0382
Item Variances Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.9101 .8403 .9962 .1560 1.1856 .0056
Inter-item
Covariances Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.4192 .1935 .5985 .4050 3.0934 .0235
Inter-item
Correlations Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.4596 .2132 .6439 .4307 3.0202 .0262
Item-total Statistics
Scale Scale Corrected
Mean Variance Item- Squared Alpha
if Item if Item Total Multiple if Item
Deleted Deleted Correlation Correlation Deleted
POPEM31 13.4024 8.2928 .7198 .5799 .7368
POPEM32 13.3659 8.5559 .6299 .5057 .7635
POPEM33 13.2561 9.8472 .3904 .2565 .8310
POPEM34 13.5244 8.5982 .5780 .5010 .7797
POPEMBS 13.7683 8.0568 .6848 .5280 .7451
Analysis of Variance
Source of Variation Sum of Sq. DF Mean Square F Prob.
Between People 209.5220 81 2.5867
Within People 171.6000 328 .5232
Between Measures 12.5366 4 3.1341 6.3840 .0001
Residual 159.0634 324 .4909
Total 381.1220 409 .9318
Grand Mean 3.3659
Reliability Coefficients 5 items
Alpha = .8102 Standardized item alpha = .8096

123

tilt!t***#************#****#*#*iit##ittiifiiitttittiitit*lttitlltt

Reliability analysis of post test -Physical Emotional Management (PEM)

Goal 4

UI-bWNH

POPEM41
POPEM42
POPEM43
POPEM44
POPEM45

POPEM41
POPEM42
POPEM43
POPEM44
POPEM45

POPEM41
POPEM42
POPEM43
POPEM44
POPEM45

Statistics for
Scale

Item Means

Item Variances

Inter-item
Covariances

Inter-item
Correlations

Covariance Matrix

POPEM41

.92
.37
.34
.48
.65

86
91
66
75
43

Correlation Matrix

POPEM41

1.00
.40
.38
.48
.67

N of Cases =

16

00
51
96
90
48

Mean
.0610

Mean
.2122

Mean
.9613

Mean
.4922

Mean
.5116

Item-total Statistics

Scale
Mean

POPEM41
POPEM42

if Item
Deleted

13.1585
12.5976

WWWWN

Mean

.9024
.4634
.6341
.0610
.0000

POPEM42

.9431
.6037
.5269
.4198

POPEM42

1.0000
.6735
.5245
.4296

82.0

Variance
14.6506

Minimum
2.9024

Minimum
.8522

Minimum
.3457

Minimum
.3722

Scale
Variance
if Item
Deleted

9.9869
9.8484

Std Dev Cases
.9637 82.0
.9711 82.0
.9231 82.0
1.0346 82.0
1.0062 82.0
POPEM43 POPEM44 POPEM45
.8522
.5164 1.0703
.3457 .6420 1.0123
POPEM43 POPEM44 POPEM45
1.0000
.5407 1.0000
.3722 .6167 1.0000
N of
Std Dev Variables
3.8276 5
Maximum Range Max/Min
3.6341 .7317 1.2521
Maximum Range Max/Min
1.0703 .2182 1.2560
Maximum Range Max/Min
.6543 .3086 1.8929
Maximum Range Max/Min
.6748 .3027 1.8132
Corrected
Item- Squared
Total Multiple
Correlation Correlation
.6132 .4804
.6331 .5032

Variance
.1012

Variance
.0070

Variance
.0130

Variance
.0124

Alpha
if Item
Deleted

.8156
.8103

124

POPEM43 12.4268 10.1736 .6155 .5086 .8151
POPEM44 13.0000 9.2346 .6911 .5042 .7939
POPEM45 13.0610 9.5148 .6643 .5683 .8016

Analysis of Variance

 

 

Source of Variation Sum of Sq. DP Mean Square F Prob.
Between People 237.3390 81 2.9301
Within People 185.2000 328 .5646
Between Measures 33.2098 4 8.3024 17.6984 .0000
Residual 151.9902 324 .4691
Total 422.5390 409 1.0331
Grand Mean 3.2122
Reliability Coefficients 5 items

Alpha = .8399 Standardized item alpha = .8397

Overall Reliability of Physical Emotional Management (PEM)

125

pre-test by using 20 items: 4 Goal 5 5 Tactics

\OCDxlmU'l-bWNH

PREPEMll
PREPEMIZ
PREPEM13
PREPEM14
PREPEMlS
PREPEMZl
PREPEMZZ
PREPEM23
PREPEM24
PREPEMZS
PREPEM31
PREPEM32
PREPEM33
PREPEM34
PREPEM35
PREPEM41
PREPEM42
PRBPEM43
PREPEM44
PRBPBM45

PREPEMll
PREPEMlZ
PREPEM13
PREPEM14
PREPEMIS
PREPEMZl
PREPEMZZ
PREPEM23
PREPEM24
PREPEMZS
PREPEM31
PREPEM32
PREPEM33
PREPEM34
PREPEM35
PREPEM41
PREPEM42
PREPEM43
PREPEM44
PREPEM45

PREPEMll

Covariance Matrix

PREPEMZI
PREPEMZZ
PREPEM23
PREPEM24
PREPEMZS
PREPEM31
PREPEM32
PREPEM33
PREPEM34
PREPEM35
PRBPBM41
PREPEM42
PREPEM43
PREPEM44
PREPEM45

PREPEMZI

Covariance Matrix

.8500
.3611
.4153
.4306
.4514
.4014
.2389
.2361
.4347
.4069
.4208
.2319
.2208
.2458
.2764
.3514
.4069
.3444
.3694
.4181

.9975
.6045
.3858
.7924
.6668
.6352
.5877
.4352
.6532
.7225
.4642
.4752
.3696

NNUJWNLUWWWWNNWWLMWNWWUJ

Mean

.2222
.6173
.2099
.9753
.1605
.0494
.1605
.2840
.9012
.9136
.2963
.2469
.2963
.1852
.0494
.7160
.2469
.3580
.8025
.8642

PREPEMIZ

1.0142
.4938
.2779
.4997
.3441
.4497
.3475

PREPEMZZ

1.0114
.5789
.6285
.8265
.4144
.6224
.3144
.5824
.5420
.4336
.4724
.3293
.5071
.4221

Std Dev

.9220
.0071
.0089
.0365
.1006
.9988
1.0057

.9251
1.0909
1.1202

.9930

.9291

haH:Hs4

PREPEM13

1.0179
.4802
.4034
.3395
.5409
.6147
.4335
.5684
.2745
.3475
.3495
.3606
.3645
.4478
.3100
.3614
.3545
.2789

PREPEM23

(D
H
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

PREPEM14

PREPEM24

PREPEMIS

1.2114
.5170
.4989
.3789
.6535
.7265
.3269
.4474
.3894
.5199
.5170
.5086
.4099
.3043
.5071
.5846

PREPEMZS

1.2549
.4759
.6966
.3509
.6412
.7168
.6252
.4341
.3563
.6452
.5756

Covariance Matrix

PREPEM31
PREPEM32
PREPEM33
PREPEM34
PREPEM35
PREPEM41
PREPEM42
PREPEM43
PREPEM44
PREPEM45

PREPBM41
PREPEM42
PREPEM43
PREPEM44
PREPEM45

PREPBMll
PREPEMIZ
PREPEM13
PREPEM14
PREPEMIS
PREPEMZI
PREPEMZZ
PREPEM23
PREPEM24
PREPEMZS
PREPEM31
PREPEM32
PREPEM33
PREPEM34
PREPEM35
PREPEM41
PREPEM42
PREPEM43
PREPEM44
PREPEM45

PREPEMZI
PREPEM22
PREPEM23
PREPEM24
PREPEMZS
PREPEM31
PREPEM32
PREPEM33
PREPEM34
PREPEM35
PREPEM41
PREPEM42
PREPEM43
PREPEM44
PREPEM45

PREPEM31

.9861
.6009
.4111
.7319
.6227
.4977
.5884
.5301
.6093
.4907

PREPEM41

.9809
.4710
.4779
.7682
.6235

Correlation Matrix

PREPEMll

1.0000
.3889
.4465
.4505
.4448
.4359
.2576
.2768
.4322
.3940
.4597
.2708
.2660
.2406
.2830
.3848
.4821
.3976
.3680
.4336

PREPEMZl

1.0000
.6018
.4175
.7273
.5960
.6404
.6333
.4838
.5903
.6828
.4693
.5196
.3939
.4689
.5809

(cont.)

PREPEM32

.8633
.4509
.6662
.7377
.5210
.4633
.3855
.5494
.5215

PREPEM42

.8383
.5855
.6619
.5965

PREPEMIZ

1.0000
.4860
.2663
.4508
.3421
.4440
.3730
.2496
.2916
.2398
.2759
.1542
.2323
.1702
.3659
.3613
.1863
.3064
.2230

PREPEMZZ

126

PREPEM33

.3343
.4657

PREPEM43

.8827
.5466
.4742

PREPEM13

.3813
.3227
.2643

PREPEM23

1.0000
.4864
.5547
.3971
.4264
.4679
.3870
.3043
.3892
.3589
.5287
.3790
.2729

PREPEM34

1.2278
.8532
.5407
.5287
.4079
.7120
.5005

PREPEM44

1.1855

.8353

PREPEM14

PREPEM24

PREPEM35

1.1225
.6017
.4377
.3821
.5849
.6318

PREPEM45

1.0938

PREPEMIS

PRBPEMZS

127

Correlation Matrix

PREPEM31 PREPEM32 PREPEM33 PREPEM34 PREPEM35
PREPEM31 1.0000
PREPEM32 .6513 1.0000
PREPEM33 .4597 .5389 1 0000
PREPEM34 6652 .6471 4454 1.0000
PREPEM35 5918 .7493 4823 .7268 1.0000
PREPEM41 5060 .5662 3337 .4927 .5734
PREPEM42 6472 .5446 3649 .5211 .4512
PREPEM43 5682 .4416 5674 .3918 .3839
PREPEM44 5635 .5431 3409 .5902 .5070
PREPEM45 4725 .5366 4945 .4319 .5702
PREPEM41 PREPEM42 PREPEM43 PREPEM44 PREPEM45
PREPEM41 1.0000
PREPEM42 5194 1 0000
PREPEM43 5136 6806 1.0000
PREPEM44 7124 6640 .5343 1.0000
PREPEM45 6019 6229 .4826 .7336 1.0000
N of Cases = 81.0
N of
Statistics for Mean Variance Std Dev Variables
Scale 62.5556 198.1250 14.0757 20
Item Means Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
3.1278 2.7160 3.6173 .9012 1.3318 .0474
Item Variances Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
1.0235 .8111 1.2549 .4438 1.5472 .0205
Inter—item
Covariances Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.4675 .1398 .8532 .7134 6.1026 .0213
Inter-item
Correlations Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.4566 .1542 .7493 .5952 4.8610 .0160
Item-total Statistics
Scale Scale Corrected
Mean Variance Item- Squared Alpha
if Item if Item Total Multiple if Item
Deleted Deleted Correlation Correlation Deleted
PREPEMll 59.3333 183.9500 .5328 .5745 .9430
PREPEMIZ 58.9383 185.3086 .4304 .5195 .9447
PREPEM13 59.3457 181.6290 .5692 .6556 .9425
PREPEM14 59.5802 179.9716 .6141 .6623 .9418
PREPEMIS 59.3951 178.3670 .6309 .5885 .9416
PREPEM21 59.5062 177 0281 .7563 .7566 9394
PREPEMZZ 59.3951 178 0920 .7086 .7561 9402
PREPEM23 59.2716 182 0753 .6086 .6889 9418
PREPEM24 59.6543 175 8540 .7286 .7766 9398
PREPEMZS 59.6420 174 7327 .7475 .7611 9395
PREPEMBI 59.2593 179 0694 .6799 .7396 9407
PREPEM32 59.3086 178 4410 .7582 .7653 9396
PREPEM33 59.2593 183 0694 .5845 .6436 9422
PREPEM34 59.3704 176 6361 .6879 .7264 9406
PREPEM35 59.5062 177 1781 .7029 .7843 9403
PREPEM41 59.8395 178 8364 .6911 .6698 9405
PREPEM42 59.3086 180 3910 .6870 .7663 9407
PREPEM43 59.1975 182 1605 .5947 .7132 9421
PREPEM44 59.7531 176 3383 .7124 .7747 9401
PREPEM45 59.6914 177 5910 .6974 .7640 9404

128

Analysis of Variance

 

 

Source of Variation Sum of Sq. 0? Mean Square F Prob.
Between People 792.5000 80 9.9063
Within People 918.0500 1539 .5965
Between Measures 72.9698 19 3.8405 6.9077 .0000
Residual 845.0802 1520 .5560
Total 1710.5500 1619 1.0565
Grand Mean 3.1278
Reliability Coefficients 20 items

Alpha = .9439

Standardized item alpha = .9438

Overall Reliability of PEM
Reliability analyses for Physical Emotional Management (PEM)
post-test by using 20 items
Mean Std Dev Cases
1. POPEM11 3.4878 8351 82.0
2. POPEM12 3.6098 9396 82.0
3. POPEM13 3.5976 8729 82.0
4. POPEM14 3.2317 9597 82.0
5. POPEMIS 3.0610 1 0226 82.0
6. POPEMZI 3.2683 9564 82.0
7. POPEM22 3.3049 9255 82.0
8. POPEM23 3.5488 9316 82.0
9. POPEM24 3.0976 1 0014 82.0
10. POPEM25 2.9756 9810 82.0
11. POPEM31 3.4268 9167 82.0
12. POPEM32 3.4634 9454 82.0
13. POPEM33 3.5732 9167 82.0
14. POPEM34 3.3049 9899 82.0
15. POPEM35 3.0610 9981 82.0
16. POPEM41 2.9024 9637 82.0
17. POPEM42 3.4634 9711 82.0
18. POPEM43 3.6341 9231 82.0
19. POPEM44 3.0610 1.0346 82.0
20. POPEM45 3.0000 1.0062 82.0
Covariance Matrix
POPEMll POPEM12 POPEM13 POPEM14
POPEMll .6974
POPEMlZ .4149 .8829
POPEM13 .2234 .3472 .7620
POPEM14 4782 .3631 .2672 9210
POPEMlS 3526 5056 .2718 5042
POPEM21 2255 3035 .2945 2334
POPEM22 0593 3056 .2724 2001
POPEMZB 2105 3279 .3964 2046
POPEM24 2111 2855 .2373 3351
POPEM25 1478 3854 .2370 3637
POPEM31 2707 4279 .2603 3443
POPEM32 2033 4670 .4357 3234
POPEM33 1367 1647 .4064 1989
POPEM34 2445 3180 .2477 3112
POPEM35 0687 3945 .2841 1338
POPEM41 1223 2824 .2072 1463
POPEM42 1168 2818 .2011 2370
POPEM43 .1313 2011 .2337 1722
POPEM44 .1798 3080 .2100 2943
POPEM45 .0123 2469 .0988 2222
Covariance Matrix
POPEM21 POPEM22 POPEM23 POPEM24
POPEM21 .9148
POPEM22 .5592 .8565
POPEM23 .4312 .5343 .8680
POPEM24 .5908 .5131 .4396 1.0027
POPEM25 .5992 .6125 .4333 .7061
POPEM31 .3285 .2139 .2197 .4146
POPEM32 .3556 .4866 .3722 .2629
POPEM33 .3752 .3046 .4223 .2150
POPEM34 .2629 .1775 .2133 .4390
POPEM35 .2674 .3392 .1143 .3397
POPEM41 .1746 .2647 .1900 .3553
POPEM42 2569 .3508 .3969 .3123
POPEM43 1981 .2240 .4625 .2337
POPEM44 2550 .2157 .2501 .4014
POPEM45 2593 .3457 .2963 .5062

129

POPEMlS

1.0456
.4155
.3145
.1760
.5125
.5694
.3317
.3788
.2239
.2775
.4036
.2653
.2677
.1460
.3666
.3580

POPEM25

.9624
.3933
.4435
.2858
.3285
.4583
.3433
.3077
.1885
.3101
.4815

POPEM31
POPEM32
POPEM33

POPEM34
POPEM35
POPEM41
POPEM42
POPEM43
POPEM44
POPEM45

POPEM41
POPEM42
POPEM43
POPEM44
POPEM45

R E L I

POPEMll
POPEMIZ
POPEM13
POPEM14
POPEMIS
POPEMZI
POPEMZZ
POPEM23
POPEM24
POPEM25
POPEM31
POPEM32
POPEM33
POPEM34
POPEM35
POPEM41
POPEM42
POPEM43
POPEM44
POPEM45

POPEM21
POPEMZZ
POPEM23
POPEM24
POPEM25
POPEM31
POPEM32
POPEM33
POPEM34
POPEM35
POPBM41
POPEM42
POPEM43
POPEM44
POPEM45

A B I

POPEM31

.8403
.4911
.2462

.5843
.5786
.4002
.4294
.3927
.4304
.3951

POPEM41

.9286
.3791
.3466
.4875
.6543

L I T Y

Correlation Matrix

POPEMll

1.0000
.5288
.3065
.5967
.4129
.2824
.0768
.2705
.2524
.1805
.3536
.2575
.1786
.2958
.0824
.1519
.1441
.1703
.2081
.0147

POPEMZI

1.0000
.6317
.4839
.6169
.6386
.3747
.3933
.4279
.2776
.2801
.1895
.2765
.2244
.2578
.2694

POPEM32

.8937
.4348

.3014
.5146
.3174
.4863
.3815
.3171
.2840

POPEM42

.9431
.6037
.5269
.4198

A N A L Y S I S

POPEMIZ

1.0000
.4233
.4027
.5262
.3377
.3515
.3746
.3034
.4181
.4968
.5258
.1912
.3419
.4206
.3119
.3089
.2319
.3169
.2612

POPEM22

1.0000
.6197
.5537
.6746
.2522
.5562
.3590
.1937
.3672
.2968
.3903
.2622
.2253
.3712

130

POPEM33

POPEM43

.8522
.5164
.3457

- S

POPEM13

1.0000
.3190
.3045
.3527
.3371
.4875
.2715
.2767
.3253
.5280
.5078
.2866
.3261
.2463
.2373
.2900
.2326
.1125

POPEM23

1.0000
.4712
.4741
.2572
.4226
.4945
.2313
.1229
.2116
.4387
.5378
.2595
.3161

C A L E

POPEM34

POPEM44

1.0703
.6420

POPEM14

1.0000
.5138
.2542
.2253
.2288
.3488
.3864
.3914
.3565
.2261
.3276
.1397
.1582
.2543
.1944
.2965
.2301

POPEM24

POPEM35

.9962
.4752
.2924
.2572
.3913
.4198

POPEM45

1.0123

(A L P H A)

POPEMIS

1.0000
.4249
.3323
.1847
.5005
.5676
.3539
.3919
.2388
.2741
.3955
.2692
.2696
.1547
.3465
.3480

POPEM25

1.0000
.4373
.4783
.3178
.3383
.4681
.3631
.3230
.2082
.3056
.4878

POPBM31
POPEM32
POPEM33
POPEM34
POPEM35
POPEM41
POPEM42

POPEM43
POPEM44
POPEM45

POPEM41
POPEM42
POPEM43
POPEM44
POPEM45

N of Cases

Statistics for

Scale

Item Means

Item Variances

Inter—item
Covariances

Inter-item
Correlations

POPEM

1.000
.566
.293
.643
.632
.453
.482

.464
.453
.428

POPEM
1.000
.405
.389

.489
.674

8

66.

31

0
7
O
9
4
0
4

O
9
3

41
O
1
6

O
8

2.0

Mean

0732

Mean

.3037

Mean

.9135

Mean

.3288

Mean

.3591

Item-total Statistics

POPEMll
POPEMIZ
POPEM13
POPEM14
POPEMlS
POPEMZI
POPBMZZ
POPEM23
POPEM24
POPEM25
POPEM31
POPEM32
POPEM33
POPEM34
POPEM35
POPEM41
POPEM42
POPEM43
POPEM44
POPEM45

Scale
Mean
if Item
Deleted

62.5854
62.4634
62.4756
62.8415
63.0122
62.8049
62.7683
62.5244
62.9756
63.0976
62.6463
62.6098

POPEM32

1.0000
.5018
.3221
.5454
.3484
.5297

.4372
.3242
.2985

POPEM42

1.0000
.6735
.5245
.4296

Variance
143.2291

Minimum
2.9024

Minimum
.6974

Minimum
.0123

Minimum
.0147

Scale
Variance

if Item

Deleted

134.
129.
132.
131.

131

POPEM33

1.0000
.2132
.2717
.2598
.3220

.5427
.2361
.1606

POPEM43

1.0000
.5407
.3722

Std Dev
11.9678

Maximum
3.6341

Maximum
1.0703

Maximum
.7061

Maximum
.7188

Correcte
Item-
Total

Correlati

.3928
.5917
.5113
.4844
.5720
.5867
.5969
.5731

POPEM34 POPEM35
1.0000
.6057 1.0000
.2645 .4940
.3777 .3016
.3397 .2791
.5241 .3789
.3347 .4180
POPEM44 POPEM45
1.0000
.6167 1.0000
N of
Variables
20
Range Max/Min
.7317 1.2521
Range Max/Min
.3729 1.5348
Range Max/Min
.6938 57.1951
Range Max/Min
.7041 48.9217
d
Squared
Multiple
on Correlation
.6304
.5921
.5396
.5828
.6175
.6409
.7408
.7505
.7050
.7437
.7212
.7121
.5744
.6734
.7417
.6358
.6195
.7174
.6240
.7001

Variance
.0583

Variance
.0087

Variance
.0167

Variance
.0183

Alpha
if Item
Deleted

.9181
.9140
.9158
.9164
.9145
.9141
.9139
.9144
.9127
.9118
.9119
.9121
.9162
.9148
.9143
.9153
.9141
.9150
.9142
.9146

132

Analysis of Variance

Source of Variation Sum of Sq. DF Mean Square F Prob.
Between People 580.0780 81 7.1615
Within People 990.7000 1558 .6359
Between Measures 90.9000 19 4.7842 8.1828 .0000
Residual 899.8000 1539 .5847
Total 1570.7780 1639 .9584
Grand Mean 3.3037
Reliability Coefficients 20 items

Alpha = .9184 Standardized item alpha = .9181

133

Overall reliability of pre-test of Physical Emotional Management (PEM)
pretest of sums of each goal (Goal 1-4)

 

 

Mean Std Dev Cases
1. SlPEMl 16.1852 3.7487 81.0
2. SIPEMZ 16.1728 9.1225 81.0
3. SlPEMB 16.0741 4.1194 81.0
4. SlPEM4 14.9877 4.1307 81.0
Covariance Matrix
SlPEMl SlPEMZ SlPEM3 SIPEM4
SlPEMl 14.0528
SlPEMZ 12.3551 83.2198
SlPEM3 8.1861 13.9120 16.9694
SIPEM4 9.4023 13.0772 12.3634 17.0623
Correlation Matrix
SlPEMl SIPEMZ SlPEM3 SlPEM4
SlPEMl 1.0000
SlPEMZ .3613 1.0000
SlPEM3 .5301 .3702 1.0000
SlPEM4 .6072 .3470 .7266 1.0000
N of Cases = 81.0
N of
Statistics for Mean Variance Std Dev Variables
Scale 63.4198 269.8966 16.4285 4
Item Means Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
15.8549 14.9877 16.1852 1.1975 1.0799 .3368
Item Variances Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
32.8261 14.0528 83.2198 69.1670 5.9219 1130.6291
Inter-item
Covariances Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
11.5494 8.1861 13.9120 5.7259 1.6995 4.5726
Inter—item
Correlations Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.4904 .3470 .7266 .3795 2.0937 .0223
Item—total Statistics
Scale Scale Corrected
Mean Variance Item— Squared Alpha
if Item if Item Total Multiple if Item
Deleted Deleted Correlation Correlation Deleted
SlPEMl 47.2346 195.9568 .5706 .4048 .6025
SlPEMZ 47.2469 107.9883 .4150 .1768 .8321
SlPEM3 47.3457 184.0040 .6167 .5516 .5679
SlPEM4 48.4321 183.1485 .6233 .5974 .5643
Analysis of Variance
Source of Variation Sum of Sq. DF Mean Square F Prob.
Between People 5397,9321 80 67.4742
Within People 5188.2500 243 21.3508
Between Measures 81.8364 3 27.2788 1.2821 .2811
Residual 5106.4136 240 21.2767
Total 10586.1821 323 32.7746
Grand Mean 15.8549
Reliability Coefficients 4 items
Alpha = .6847 Standardized item alpha = .793

Overall reliability of pre-test of Physical Emotional Management (PEM)
posttest of sums of each goal (Goal 1-4)

1. SZPEMl
2. SZPEMZ
3. SZPEM3
4. SZPEM4
Covar
SZPEMl
SZPEMl 11.7653
SZPEMZ 7.2246
SZPEM3 7.2572
S2PEM4 5.3094
Corre
SZPEMl
SZPEMl 1.0000
SZPEMZ .5360
SZPEM3 .5883
SZPEM4 .4044
N of Cases = 82.0
Statistics for Mean
Scale 66.0732
Item Means Mean
16.5183
Item Variances Mean
13.6981
Inter-item
Covariances Mean
7.3697
Inter-item
Correlations Mean
.5402
Item-total Statistics
Scale
Mean
if Item
Deleted
SZPEMl 49.0854
SZPEMZ 49.8780
SZPEM3 49.2439
SZPEM4 50.0122
An
Source of Variation 8
Between People
Within People
Between Measures
Residual
Total
Grand Mean 16.

Reliability Coefficients

Alpha

.8233

134

Mean Std Dev Cases
16.9878 3.4301 82.0
16.1951 3.9298 82.0
16.8293 3.5963 82.0
16.0610 3.8276 82.0
iance Matrix
SZPEMZ SZPEM3 SZPEM4
15.4429
8.0337 12.9335
7.5805 8.8130 14.6506
lation Matrix
SZPEMZ SZPEM3 SZPEM4
1.0000
.5685 1.0000
.5040 .6402 1.0000
N of
Variance Std Dev Variables
143.2291 11.9678 4
Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
16.0610 16.9878 .9268 1.0577 .2102
Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
11.7653 15.4429 3.6777 1.3126 2.7574
Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
5 3094 8.8130 3.5036 1.6599 1.2449
Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.4044 .6402 .2358 1.5832 .0060
Scale Corrected
Variance Item- Squared Alpha
if Item Total Multiple if Item
Deleted Correlation Correlation Deleted
91.8815 .6019 .4065 .7976
82.1084 .6414 .4146 .7811
82.0879 .7398 .5611 .7351
85.1727 .6144 .4392 .7931
alysis of Variance
um of Sq. DF Mean Square F Prob.
2900.3902 81 35.8073
1589.5000 246 6.4614
51.7195 3 17.2398 2.7242 .0449
1537.7805 243 6.3283
4489.8902 327 13.7306
5183
4 items
Standardized item alpha = .8246

APPENDIX H

Factor Analysis of Physical Emotional Management (PEM)

Listwise deletion of cases with missing values

Mean Std Dev Label
SlPEMl 16.18519 3.74870
SlPEMZ 16.17284 9.12249
SIPEMB 16.07407 4.11940
SlPEM4 14.98765 4.13066
Number of Cases = 81
Correlation Matrix:
S1PEM1 SIPEMZ SlPEM3 SlPEM4
SlPEMl 1.00000
SlPEMZ .36129 1.00000
SlPEM3 .53011 .37021 1.00000
SlPEM4 .60720 .34704 .72658 1.00000
Determinant of Correlation Matrix = .2388371
Inverse of Correlation Matrix:
SlPEMl S1PEM2 SlPEM3 SlPEM4
SlPEMl 1.68016 .
SlPEMZ -.25364 1.21470
S1PEM3 -.25305 -.25598 2.22998
SlPEM4 -.74831 -.08155 -1.37778 2.48375
1-tai1ed Significance of Correlation Matrix:
' . ’ is printed for diagonal elements.
SlPEMl SlPEMZ SlPEM3 S1PEM4
SlPEMl .
SlPEM2 .00046 .
SlPEM3 .00000 .00033 .
SlPEM4 .00000 .00075 .00000
Extraction 1 for analysis 1, Principal Components Analysis (PC)
Initial Statistics:
Variable Communality * Factor Eigenvalue Pct of Var Cum Pct
*
SlPEMl 1.00000 * 1 2.50342 62.6 62.6
SlPEMZ 1.00000 * 2 .74622 18.7 81.2
SlPEM3 1.00000 * 3 .48880 12.2 93.5
SlPEM4 1.00000 * 4 .26156 6.5 100.0
PC extracted 1 factors.

Factor Matrix:

SlPEMl
SlPEMZ
SlPEM3
SlPEM4

Factor 1
.80033
.60488
.85440
.87579

135

136

Final Statistics:

Variable Communality * Factor Eigenvalue Pct of Var Cum Pct
*
S1PEM1 .64054 * 1 2.50342 62.6 62.6
SlPEMZ .36588 *
S1PEM3 .73000 *
SlPEM4 .76700 *
Reproduced Correlation Matrix:
SlPEMl SlPEMZ SlPEM3 SlPEM4
SlPEMl .64054* -.12282 -.15370 -.09372
SlPEMZ .48411 .36588* -.14660 -.18271
SlPEM3 .68381 .51681 .73000* -.02169
SlPEM4 .70092 .52975 .74827 .76700*

The lower left triangle contains the reproduced correlation matrix; the
diagonal, reproduced communalities; and the upper right triangle residuals
between the observed correlations and the reproduced correlations.

There are 5 (83.0%) residuals (above diagonal) with absolute values > 0.05.

VARIMAX rotation 1 for extraction 1 in analysis 1 - Kaiser Normalization.

>Warning # 11310
>On1y one factor was extracted. The solution cannot be rotated.
Factor Score Coefficient Matrix:

Factor 1

SlPEMl .31970
SlPEMZ .24162
SlPEM3 .34129
SlPEM4 .34984

Covariance Matrix for Estimated Regression Factor Scores:
Factor 1

Factor 1 1.00000
Following factor scores will be added to the working file:

Name Label

FAC1_1 REGR factor score 1 for analysis 1

APPENDIX I

pretest: 9411-413

Reliability Analysis Self-awareness (SA)

 

Mean Std Dev Cases
1. PRSA411 3.7738 .7501 84.0
2. PRSA412 3.5238 .8846 84.0
3. PRSA413 3.7619 .8158 84.0
Covariance Matrix
PRSA411 PRSA412 PRSA413
PRSA411 .5627
PRSA412 .3609 .7826
PRSA413 .4154 .3913 .6655
Correlation Matrix
PRSA411 PRSA412 PRSA413
PRSA411 1.0000
PRSA412 .5438 1.0000
PRSA413 .6788 .5422 1.0000
N of Cases = 84.0
N of
Statistics for Mean Variance Std Dev Variables
Scale 11.0595 4.3458 2.0847 3
Item Means Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
3.6865 3.5238 3.7738 .2500 1.0709 .0199
Item Variances Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.6703 .5627 .7826 .2199 1.3908 .0121
Inter-item
Covariances Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.3892 .3609 .4154 .0545 1.1510 .0006
Inter-item
Correlations Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.5883 .5422 .6788 .1366 1.2519 .0049
Item-total Statistics
Scale Scale Corrected
Mean Variance Item- Squared Alpha
if Item if Item Total Multiple if Item
Deleted Deleted Correlation Correlation Deleted
PRSA411 7.2857 2.2306 .6929 .5045 .7016
PRSA412 7.5357 2.0590 .5925 .3513 .8070
PRSA413 7.2976 2.0670 .6878 .5033 .6984
Analysis of Variance
Source of Variation Sum of Sq. DF Mean Square F Prob.
Between People 120.2341 83 1.4486
Within People 50.0000 168 .2976
Between Measures 3.3413 2 1.6706 5.9437 .0032
Residual 46.6587 166 .2811
Total 170.2341 251 .6782
Grand Mean 3.6865

 

137

Reliability Coefficients 3 items

Alpha = .8060

pretest: Q421-423

Mean
1. PRSA421 3.5181
2. PRSA422 3.5060
3. PRSA423 3.5181
Covariance Matrix
PRSA421 PRSA422
PRSA421 .7405
PRSA422 .4664 .8628
PRSA423 .4600 .3932
Correlation Matrix
PRSA421 PRSA422
PRSA421 1.0000
PRSA422 .5834 1.0000
PRSA423 .7082 .5608
N of Cases = 83.0
Statistics for Mean Variance
Scale 10.5422 4.8122
Item Means Mean Minimum
3.5141 3.5060
Item Variances Mean Minimum
.7244 .5698
Inter-item
Covariances Mean Minimum
.4399 .3932
Inter-item
Correlations Mean Minimum
.6175 .5608
Item-total Statistics
Scale Scale
Mean Variance
if Item if Item
Deleted Deleted
PRSA421 7.0241 2.2189
PRSA422 7.0361 2.2304
PRSA423 7.0241 2.5360

138

Standardized item alpha

= .8108
Std Dev Cases
.8605 83.0
.9289 83.0
.7548 83.0
PRSA423
.5698
PRSA423
1.0000
N of
Std Dev Variables
2.1937 3
Maximum Range Max/Min
3.5181 .0120 1.0034
Maximum Range Max/Min
.8628 .2930 1.5142
Maximum Range Max/Min
.4664 .0732 1.1861
Maximum Range Max/Min
.7082 .1474 1.2629
Corrected
Item- Squared
Total Multiple
Correlation Correlation
.7227 .5522
.6196 .3841
.7098 .5346

Variance
.0000

Variance
.0217

Variance
.0013

Variance
.0050

Alpha
if Item
Deleted

.7088
.8250
.7356

139

Analysis of Variance

 

 

Source of Variation Sum of Sq. DF Mean Square F Prob.
Between People 131.5341 82 1.6041
Within People 46.6667 166 .2811
Between Measures .0080 2 .0040 .0141 .9860
Residual 46.6586 164 .2845
Total 178.2008 248 .7186
Grand Mean 3.5141
Reliability Coefficients 3 items
Alpha = .8226 Standardized item alpha 2 .8288
pretest: 9431-433
Mean Std Dev Cases
1. PRSA431 4.0714 .8034 84.0
2. PRSA432 4.0952 .8866 84.0
3. PRSA433 3.8690 .9022 84.0
Covariance Matrix
PRSA431 PRSA432 PRSA433
PRSA431 .6454
PRSA432 .4509 .7860
PRSA433 .4312 .4705 .8140
Correlation Matrix
PRSA431 PRSA432 PRSA433
PRSA431 1.0000
PRSA432 .6331 1.0000
PRSA433 .5948 .5882 1.0000
N of Cases = 84.0
N of
Statistics for Mean Variance Std Dev Variables
Scale 12.0357 4.9505 2.2250 3
Item Means Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
4.0119 3.8690 4.0952 .2262 1.0585 .0154
Item Variances Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.7485 .6454 .8140 .1685 1.2611 .0082
Inter-item
Covariances Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.4509 .4312 .4705 .0393 1.0912 .0003
Inter-item
Correlations Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.6054 .5882 .6331 .0450 1.0764 .0005
Item-total Statistics
Scale Scale Corrected
Mean Variance Item- Squared Alpha
if Item if Item Total Multiple if Item
Deleted Deleted Correlation Correlation Deleted

140

 

 

PRSA431 7.9643 2.5409 .6888 .4765 .7406
PRSA432 7.9405 2.3217 .6821 .4701 .7428
PRSA433 8.1667 2.3333 .6542 .4285 .7731
Analysis of Variance
Source of Variation Sum of Sq. DF Mean Square F Prob.
Between People 136.9643 83 1.6502
Within People 52.0000 168 .3095
Between Measures 2.5952 2 1.2976 4.3600 .0143
Residual 49.4048 166 .2976
Total 188.9643 251 .7528
Grand Mean 4.0119
Reliability Coefficients 3 items
Alpha = .8196 Standardized item alpha = .8215
pretest: 0441-442
Mean Std Dev Cases
1. PRSA441 3.1463 .9179 82.0
2. PRSA442 3.0122 .8957 82.0
Covariance Matrix
PRSA441 PRSA442
PRSA441 .8425
PRSA442 .6649 .8023
Correlation Matrix
PRSA441 PRSA442
PRSA441 1.0000
PRSA442 .8087 1.0000
N of Cases = 82.0
N of
Statistics for Mean Variance Std Dev Variables
Scale 6.1585 2.9746 1.7247 2
Item Means Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
3.0793 3.0122 3.1463 .1341 1.0445 .0090
Item Variances Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.8224 .8023 .8425 .0402 1.0501 .0008
Inter-item
Covariances Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.6649 .6649 .6649 .0000 1.0000 .0000
Inter-item
Correlations Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.8087 .8087 .8087 .0000 1.0000 .0000
Item-total Statistics
Scale Scale Corrected
Mean Variance Item- Squared Alpha
if Item if Item Total Multiple if Item
Deleted Deleted Correlation Correlation Deleted

141

 

 

PRSA441 3.0122 .8023 .8087 .6539
PRSA442 3.1463 .8425 .8087 .6539
Analysis of Variance
Source of Variation Sum of Sq. DF Mean Square F Prob.
Between People 120.4695 81 1.4873
Within People 13.5000 82 .1646
Between Measures .7378 1 .7378 4.6828 .0334
Residual 12.7622 81 .1576
Total 133.9695 163 .8219
Grand Mean 3.0793
Reliability Coefficients 2 items
Alpha = .8941 Standardized item alpha = .8942
Pretest: 0451-455
Mean Std Dev Cases
1. PRSA451 3.1310 1.1062 84.0
2. PRSA452 3.0357 .9371 84.0
3. PRSA453 3.1905 .9753 84.0
4. PRSA4S4 2.4405 .9098 84.0
5. PRSA4SS 3.0119 1.1353 84.0
Covariance Matrix
PRSA451 PRSA452 PRSA453 PRSA454 PRSA455
PRSA451 1.2236
PRSA452 .7904 .8782
PRSA453 .9507 .7281 .9512
PRSA454 .3633 .2853 .2765 .8277
PRSA455 .6852 .4574 .5640 .5369 1.2890
Correlation Matrix
PRSA451 PRSA452 PRSA453 PRSA454 PRSA455
PRSA451 1.0000
PRSA452 .7625 1.0000
PRSA453 .8812 .7966 1.0000
PRSA454 .3610 .3346 .3116 1.0000
PRSA455 .5456 .4299 .5093 .5197 1.0000
N of Cases = 84.0
N of
Statistics for Mean Variance Std Dev Variables
Scale 14.8095 16.4452 4.0553 5
Item Means Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
2.9619 2.4405 3.1905 .7500 1.3073 .0902
Item Variances Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
1.0340 .8277 1.2890 .4613 1.5573 .0437
Inter-item
Covariances Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance

142

 

 

.5638 .2765 .9507 .6741 3.4378 .0479
Inter-item
Correlations Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.5452 .3116 .8812 .5695 2.8275 .0391
Item-total Statistics
Scale Scale Corrected
Mean Variance Item- Squared Alpha
if Item if Item Total Multiple if Item
Deleted Deleted Correlation Correlation Deleted
PRSA451 11.6786 9.6424 .8121 .7992 .7877
PRSA452 11.7738 11.0446 .7260 .6566 .8152
PRSA453 11.6190 10.4555 .7988 .8162 .7954
PRSA4S4 12.3690 12.6935 .4510 .2921 .8772
PRSA455 11.7976 10.6694 .6049 .4236 .8484
Analysis of Variance
Source of Variation Sum of Sq. DF Mean Square F Prob.
Between People 272.9905 83 3.2890
Within People 186.4000 336 .5548
Between Measures 30.2952 4 7.5738 16.1078 .0000
Residual 156.1048 332 .4702
Total 459.3905 419 1.0964
Grand Mean 2.9619
Reliability Coefficients 5 items
Alpha = .8570 Standardized item alpha = .8570
pretest: Q461-465
Mean Std Dev Cases
1. PRSA461 2.5714 .9605 84.0
2. PRSA462 2.5238 .9629 84.0
3. PRSA463 2.7857 1.0874 84.0
4. PRSA464 2.4286 .9853 84.0
5. PRSA465 3.1071 1.0868 84.0
Covariance Matrix
PRSA461 PRSA462 PRSA463 PRSA464 PRSA465
PRSA461 .9225
PRSA462 .6730 .9271
PRSA463 .8589 .7762 1.1824
PRSA464 .4509 .5318 .5146 .9707
PRSA465 .4682 .6179 .6738 .4475 1.1812
Correlation Matrix
PRSA461 PRSA462 PRSA463 PRSA464 PRSA465
PRSA461 1.0000
PRSA462 .7277 1.0000
PRSA463 .8223 .7414 1.0000
PRSA464 .4765 .5606 .4803 1.0000
PRSA465 .4485 .5905 .5702 .4179 1.0000
N of Cases = 84.0

143

 

 

N of
Statistics for Mean Variance Std Dev Variables
Scale 13.4167 17.2098 4.1485 5
Item Means Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
2.6833 2.4286 3.1071 .6786 1.2794 .0732
Item Variances Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
1.0368 .9225 1.1824 .2599 1.2817 .0179
Inter-item
Covariances Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.6013 .4475 .8589 .4114 1.9192 .0194
Inter-item
Correlations Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.5836 .4179 .8223 .4044 1.9676 .0180
Item—total Statistics
Scale Scale Corrected
Mean Variance Item— Squared Alpha
if Item if Item Total Multiple if Item
Deleted Deleted Correlation Correlation Deleted
PRSA461 10.8452 11.3854 .7563 .7157 .8343
PRSA462 10.8929 11.0848 .8107 .6641 .8213
PRSA463 10.6310 10.3802 .8059 .7423 .8193
PRSA464 10.9881 12.3493 .5617 .3354 .8784
PRSA465 10.3095 11.6139 .5960 .4099 .8738
Analysis of Variance
Source of Variation Sum of Sq. DF Mean Square F Prob.
Between People 285.6833 83 3.4420
Within People 169.2000 336 .5036
Between Measures 24.6095 4 6.1524 14.1267 .0000
Residual 144.5905 332 .4355
Total 454.8833 419 1.0856
Grand Mean 2.6833
Reliability Coefficients 5 items
Alpha = .8735 Standardized item alpha .8751
pretest: 0471-475
Mean Std Dev Cases
1. PRSA471 2.7711 1.0857 83.0
2. PRSA472 2.2771 .9148 83.0
3. PRSA473 2.3253 .8849 83.0
4. PRSA474 2.2530 .9607 83.0
S. PRSA475 2.6024 1.1146 83.0
Covariance Matrix
PRSA471 PRSA472 PRSA473 PRSA474 PRSA475

144

 

 

PRSA471 1.1787
PRSA472 .4545 .8369
PRSA473 .4534 .6527 .7831
PRSA474 .3269 .5632 .5752 .9230
PRSA475 .4445 .5749 .5943 .5043 1.2424
Correlation Matrix
PRSA471 PRSA472 PRSA473 PRSA474 PRSA475
PRSA471 1.0000
PRSA472 .4576 1.0000
PRSA473 .4719 .8062 1.0000
PRSA474 .3134 .6408 .6766 1.0000
PRSA475 .3673 .5638 .6025 .4709 1.0000
N of Cases = 83.0
N of
Statistics for Mean Variance Std Dev Variables
Scale 12.2289 15.2518 3.9054 5
Item Means Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
2.4458 2.2530 2.7711 .5181 1.2299 .0526
Item Variances Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.9928 .7831 1.2424 .4593 1.5865 .0425
Inter-item
Covariances Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.5144 .3269 .6527 .3257 1.9964 .0087
Inter-item
Correlations Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.5371 .3134 .8062 .4927 2.5721 .0212
Item-total Statistics
Scale Scale Corrected
Mean Variance Item- Squared Alpha
if Item if Item Total Multiple if Item
Deleted Deleted Correlation Correlation Deleted
PRSA471 9.4578 10.7147 .4725 .2486 .8623
PRSA472 9.9518 9.9245 .7791 .6801 .7788
PRSA473 9.9036 9.9174 .8166 .7225 .7712
PRSA474 9.9759 10.3897 .6360 .4879 .8147
PRSA475 9.6265 9.7734 .6078 .3899 .8256
Analysis of Variance
Source of Variation Sum of Sq. DF Mean Square F Prob.
Between People 250.1301 82 3.0504
Within People 174.4000 332 .5253
Between Measures 17.4699 4 4.3675 9.1285 .0000
Residual 156.9301 328 .4784
Total 424.5301 414 1.0254
Grand Mean 2.4458
Reliability Coefficients 5 items
Alpha = Standardized item alpha = .8530

pretest: 9481-485

1. PRSA481
2. PRSA482
3. PRSA483
4. PRSA484
S. PRSA485
PRSA481
PRSA481 1.3373
PRSA482 1.0181
PRSA483 1.1325
PRSA484 .8916
PRSA485 .9398
PRSA481
PRSA481 1.0000
PRSA482 .8184
PRSA483 .8709
PRSA484 .6385
PRSA485 .6186
N of Cases = 84.0
Statistics for Mean
Scale 13.1071
Item Means Mean
2.6214
Item Variances Mean
1.3885
Inter-item
Covariances Mean
.9758
Inter-item
Correlations Mean
.7150
Item—total Statistics
Scale
Mean
if Item
Deleted
PRSA481 10.6071
PRSA482 10.7143
PRSA483 10.6310
PRSA484 10.6071
PRSA485 9.8690

Covariance Matrix

Correlation Matrix

WNNMN

.5000
.3929
.4762
.5000
.2381

PRSA482

1.1571
1.1239
.9337
.8812

PRSA482

1.0000
.9292
.7189
.6236

Variance
26.4583

Minimum
2.3929

Minimum
1.1571

Minimum
.8812

Minimum
.5925

Scale
Variance
if Item
Deleted

17.1571
17.3873
16.8863
17.6390
17.2477

145

Std Dev Cases
1.1564 84.0
1.0757 84.0
1.1245 84.0
1.2074 84.0
1.3137 84.0
PRSA483 PRSA484 PRSA485
1.2645
.9157 1.4578
.9816 .9398 1.7258
PRSA483 PRSA484 PRSA485
1.0000
.6744 1.0000
.6645 .5925 1.0000
N of
Std Dev Variables
5.1438 5
Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
3.2381 .8452 1.3532 .1208
Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
1.7258 .5687 1.4915 .0475
Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
1.1325 .2513 1.2852 .0076
Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.9292 .3367 1.5683 .0130
Corrected
Item- Squared Alpha
Total Multiple if Item
Correlation Correlation Deleted
.8313 .7646 .8977
.8822 .8797 .8897
.8989 .9055 .8850
.7258 .5575 .9187
.6860 .4855 .9301

146

Analysis of Variance

 

Source of Variation Sum of Sq. DF Mean Square F Prob.
Between People 439.2071 83 5.2917
Within People 177.6000 336 .5286
Between Measures 40.5810 4 10.1452 24.5821 .0000
Residual 137.0190 332 .4127
Total 616.8071 419 1.4721
Grand Mean 2 6214

 

Standardized item alpha

Reliability Coefficients 5 itemsAlpha = .9220
pretest: Q491-492
Mean Std Dev Cases
1. PRSA491 3.3333 1.0100 84.0
2. PRSA492 '3.4167 1.0321 84.0
Covariance Matrix
PRSA491 PRSA492
PRSA491 1.0201
PRSA492 .4618 1.0653
Correlation Matrix
PRSA491 PRSA492
PRSA491 1.0000
PRSA492 .4431 1.0000
N of Cases = 84.0
N of
Statistics for Mean Variance Std Dev Variables
Scale .7500 3.0090 1.7347 2
Item Means Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min
.3750 3.3333 3.4167 .0833 1.0250
Item Variances Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min
.0427 1.0201 1.0653 .0452 1.0443
Inter-item
Covariances Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min
.4618 .4618 .4618 .0000 1.0000
Inter-item
Correlations Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min
.4431 .4431 .4431 .0000 1.0000
Item-total Statistics
Scale Scale Corrected
Mean Variance Item- Squared
if Item if Item Total Multiple

Variance
.0035

Variance
.0010

Variance
.0000

Variance
.0000

Alpha
if Item

147

 

 

Deleted Deleted Correlation Correlation Deleted
PRSA491 3.4167 1.0653 .4431 .1963
PRSA492 3.3333 1.0201 .4431 .1963
Analysis of Variance
Source of Variation Sum of Sq. DF Mean Square F Prob.
Between People 124.8750 83 1.5045
Within People 48.5000 84 .5774
Between Measures .2917 1 .2917 .5022 .4805
Residual 48.2083 83 .5808
Total 173.3750 167 1.0382
Grand Mean 3.3750
Reliability Coefficients 2 items
Alpha = .6139 Standardized item alpha = .614
pretest: Q 4101-4106
Mean Std Dev Cases
1. PRSA4101 3.3951 1.1584 81.0
2. PRSA4102 2.4815 1.0382 81.0
3. PRSA4103 2.6296 1.0775 81.0
4. PRSA4104 3.1358 1.1484 81.0
5. PRSA4105 3.8148 3.4355 81.0
6. PRSA4106 2.7654 1.1861 81.0
Covariance Matrix
PRSA4101 PRSA4102 PRSA4103 PRSA4104 PRSA4105
PRSA4101 1.3420
PRSA4102 .1949 1.0778
PRSA4103 .0106 .4056 1.1611
PRSA4104 .1457 .5838 .4384 1.3188
PRSA4105 -.0384 .1653 .3431 .2755 11.8028
PRSA4106 .0938 .5894 .2370 .5948 .5310
PRSA4106
PRSA4106 1.4068
Correlation Matrix
PRSA4101 PRSA4102 PRSA4103 PRSA4104 PRSA4105
PRSA4101 1.0000
PRSA4102 .1621 1.0000
PRSA4103 .0085 .3625 1.0000
PRSA4104 .1095 .4897 .3543 1.0000
PRSA4105 -.0097 .0463 .0927 .0698 1.0000
PRSA4106 .0683 .4786 .1855 .4366 .1303

148

 

 

PRSA4106
PRSA4106 1.0000
N of Cases = 81.0
N of
Statistics for Mean Variance Std Dev Variables
Scale 18.2222 27.2500 5.2202 6
Item Means Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
3.0370 2.4815 3.8148 1.3333 1.5373 .2583
Item Variances Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
3.0182 1.0778 11.8028 10.7250 10.9510 18.5354
Inter-item
Covariances Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.3047 -.0384 .5948 .6332 -15.4779 .0438
Inter-item
Correlations Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.1990 -.0097 .4897 .4993 -50.7157 .0298
Item-total Statistics
Scale Scale Corrected
Mean Variance Item- Squared Alpha
if Item if Item Total Multiple if Item
Deleted Deleted Correlation Correlation Deleted
PRSA4101 14.8272 25.0948 .0701 .0321 .4148
PRSA4102 15.7407 22.2944 .3955 .3760 .2951
PRSA4103 15.5926 23.2194 .2763 .1825 .3376
PRSA4104 15.0864 21.8549 .3796 .3295 .2897
PRSA4105 14.4074 12.8944 .1035 .0238 .6386
PRSA4106 15.4568 21.7512 .3699 .2945 .2901
Analysis of Variance
Source of Variation Sum of Sq. DF Mean Square F Prob.
Between People 363.3333 80 4.5417
Within People 1190.0000 405 2.9383
Between Measures 104.5926 5 20.9185 7.7090 .0000
Residual 1085.4074 400 2.7135
Total 1553.3333 485 3.2027
Grand Mean 3.0370
Reliability Coefficients 6 itets
Alpha = .4025 Standardized item alpha = .5985

Rerun Self-Awareness Test
(took off 4101 & 4105)

Covariance Matrix

Correlation Matrix

1. PRSA4102
2. PRSA4103
3. PRSA4104
4. PRSA4106
PRSA4102
PRSA4102 1.0778
PRSA4103 .4056
PRSA4104 .5838
PRSA4106 .5894
PRSA4102
PRSA4102 1.0000
PRSA4103 .3625
PRSA4104 .4897
PRSA4106 .4786

N of Cases =

Statistics for

Scale

Item Means

Item Variances

Inter-item
Covariances

Inter-item
Correlations

81.0

Mean
11.0123
Mean
2.7531

Mean

1.2411

Mean
.4748

Mean
.3845

Item-total Statistics

PRSA4102
PRSA4103
PRSA4104
PRSA4106

Scale
Mean
if Item
Deleted

8.5309
8.3827
7.8765
8.2469

NUNN

Mean

.4815
.6296
.1358
.7654

PRSA4103

1.1611
.4384
.2370

PRSA4103

1.0000
.3543
.1855

Variance
10.6623

Minimum
2.4815

Minimum
1.0778

Minimum
.2370

Minimum
.1855

Scale
Variance
if Item
Deleted

6.4272
7.3392
6.1096
6.4133

149

Q4102. 4103.

Std Dev

.0382
.0775
.1484
.1861

H H H H

PRSA4104

1.3188
.5948

PRSA4104

1.0000
.4366

Std Dev
3.2653

Maximum
3.1358

Maximum
1.4068

Maximum
.5948

Maximum
.4897

Correcte
Item-
Total

Correlati

.5998
.3703
.5696
.4731

Analysis of Variance

4104. & 4106
Cases
81.0
81.0
81.0
81.0
PRSA4106
1.4068
PRSA4106
1.0000
N of
Variables
4
Range Max/Min Variance
.6543 1.2637 .0785
Range Max/Min Variance
.3290 1.3053 .0222
Range Max/Min Variance
.3577 2.5091 .0186
Range Max/Min Variance
.3042 2.6402 .0116
d
Squared Alpha
Multiple if Item
on Correlation Deleted
.3631 .5929
.1743 .7227
.3276 .6049
.2844 .6679

150

 

 

Source of Variation Sum of Sq. DF Mean Square Prob.
Between People 213.2469 80 2.6656
Within People 203.0000 243 .8354
Between Measures 19.0864 3 6.3621 8.3023 .0000
Residual 183.9136 240 .7663
Total 416.2469 323 1.2887
Grand Mean 2.7531
Reliability Coefficients 4 items
Alpha = .7125 Standardized item alpha = .7142

151

Overall Reliability analysis of Self-Awareness

pretest (sl) by using sums of each item

Mean Std Dev
1. SlSA41 11.0633 2.1204
2. SlSA4108 11.1013 3.2565
3. SlSA42 10.6582 2.1655
4. SlSA43 12.1139 2.2187
5. SlSA45 14.6709 4.1285
6. SlSA46 13.4684 4.2361
7. SlSA47 12.3038 3.9038
8. SlSA48 13.2278 5.1688
9. SlSA49 6.7722 1.7537
Covariance Matrix
SlSA41 SlSA4108 SlSA42
SlSA41 4.4959
SlSA410B 1.2884 10.6050
SlSA42 3.3937 1.3556 4.6894
SlSA43 3.0953 1.4883 2.8856
SlSA45 3.2134 3.3030 3.6040
SlSA46 3.6751 4.1827 3.3801
SlSA47 1.5959 4.6868 1.7462
SlSA48 3.0880 4.7715 2.6814
SlSA49 1.2838 1.3182 .9852
SlSA46 SlSA47 SlSA48
SlSA46 17.9445
SlSA47 7.7918 15.2399
SlSA48 13.3919 6.2760 26.7167
SlSA49 2.2235 .9547 4.3218
Correlation Matrix
SlSA41 SlSA4108 SlSA42
SlSA41 1.0000
SlSA4loB .1866 1.0000
SlSA42 .7391 .1922 1.0000
SlSA43 .6579 .2060 .6006
SlSA45 .3671 .2457 .4031
SlSA46 .4092 .3032 .3685
SlSA47 .1928 .3687 .2066
SlSA48 .2818 .2835 .2396
SlSA49 .3452 .2308 .2594
SlSA46 SlSA47 SlSA48
SlSA46 1.0000
SlSA47 .4712 1.0000
SlSA48 .6116 .3110 1.0000
SlSA49 .2993 .1395 .4768
N of Cases = 79.0
Statistics for Mean Variance Std Dev
Scale 105.3797 373.5975 19.3287
Item Means Mean Minimum Maximum
11.7089 6.7722 14.6709
Item Variances Mean Minimum Maximum
11.6371 3.0756 26.7167

SlSA43

.9228
.4226
.0357
.4649
.1404
.3212

H-bl—‘LOLAJub

SlSA49

3.0756

SlSA43

1.0000
.3736
.3230
.1691
.3610
.3395

SlSA49

1.0000

N of
Variables

9

Range
7.8987

Range

23.6410

OOOOOOOOO

SlSA45

17.0441
10.4253
6.2167
9.6144
2.8087

SlSA45

1.0000
.5961
.3857
.4506
.3879

Max/Min
2.1664

Max/Min
8.6866

Variance

5.1195

Variance
66.0132

152

Inter-item

Covariances Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
3.7342 .9547 13.3919 12.4372 14.0270 7.7409
Inter-item
Correlations Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
.3551 .1395 .7391 .5997 5.3001 .0210
Item-total Statistics
Scale Scale Corrected
Mean Variance Item— Squared Alpha
if Item if Item Total Multiple if Item
Deleted Deleted Correlation Correlation Deleted
SlSA41 94.3165 327.8345 .5374 .6439 .7934
SlSA4108 94.2785 318.2035 .3855 .1885 .8048
SlSA42 94.7215 328.8445 .5101 .5879 .7952
SlSA43 93.2658 326.9669 .5198 .5055 .7940
SlSA45 90.7089 271.3372 .6265 .4505 .7735
SlSA46 91.9114 259.4408 .7050 .5791 .7605
SlSA47 93.0759 296.8916 .4569 .2964 .7984
SlSA48 92.1519 250.3100 .5905 .4970 .7866
SlSA49 98.6076 340.0876 .4705 .3230 .8012
Analysis of Variance
Source of Variation Sum of Sq. DF Mean Square F Prob.
Between People 3237.8453 78 41.5108
Within People 8166.8889 632 12.9223
Between Measures 3235.4937 8 404.4367 51.1759 .0000
Residual 4931.3952 624 7.9029
Total 11404.7342 710 16.0630
Grand Mean 11.7089
Reliability Coefficients 9 items
Alpha = .8096 Standardized item alpha = .8321

it**************¥*it*ttl*ttlit******¢*it****t¥**#******#*#*¢*****

Overall Reliability analysis of Self-Awareness
posttest (s2) by using sums of each item

not include 44le
4101 & 4105 because they had low correlations
Mean Std Dev Cases
1. S25A41 11.3704 2.3262 81.0
2. SZSA410B 12.2963 3.4404 81.0
3. S2SA42 10.9630 2 3315 81 0
4. SZSA43 12.2840 2 0990 81 0
5. S2SA45 15.7284 4 2633 81 O
6. SZSA46 14.4938 4 0655 81 0
7. $2SA47 13.7284 3 8891 81 O
8. SZSA48 14.1481 4 8273 81 0
9. 52SA49 6.9259 1 8626 81 0
Covariance Matrix
S28A41 SZSA4108 SZSA42 SZSA43 SZSA45

SZSA41 5.4111

SZSA4108 1.6514 11.8361

SZSA42 4.2389 .7611 5.4361

SZSA43 3.2810 .6273 3.1856 4.4059

SZSA45
SZSA46
SZSA47
S2SA48
SZSA49

S25A46
SZSA47
SZSA48
SZSA49

SZSA41
SZSA4108
$28A42
SZSA43
SZSA45
SZSA46
SZSA47
SZSA48
SZSA49

SZSA46
S2SA47
SZSA48
SZSA49

Statistics for
Scale

Item Means

Item Variances

Inter-item
Covariances

Inter—item
Correlations

.8769
.9648
.7644
.1819
.8028

+4wa

SZSA46

16.5281
9.2108
13.7634
3.6120

Correlation Matrix

SZSA41

1.0000
.2063
.7816
.6720
.3909
.3135
.1950
.1053
.1853

S2SA46

1.0000
.5826
.7013
.4770

N of Cases =

Mean
111.9383

Mean

12.4376

Mean
11.5211

Mean
3.7923

Mean
.3404

.3815
.9769
.9315
.4681
.5347

coma-.501

SZSA47

15.1253

9.0407
2.6046

SZSA410B

1.0000
.0949
.0869
.3669
.3558
.3686
.3895
.5516

SZSA47

1.0000
.4816
.3596

81.0

Variance

376.7336

Minimum
6.9259

Minimum

3.4694

Minimum
-.5801

Minimum
—.0573

153

Item—total Statistics

$2SA41
SZSA4lOB
SZSA42
S28A43
SZSA45
SZSA46
SZSA47
SZSA48
S25A49

Scale
Mean
if Item
Deleted

100.5679

99.6420

100.9753

99.6543
96.2099
97.4444
98.2099
97.7901

105.0123

Scale
Variance

if

Item

Deleted

.7985
.2327
.7244
.0540
.4929
.7000
.5429
.6179
.6623

3.0023 2.6031 18.1753
2.7935 1.7830 10.6483
.8023 .7281 7.4503
.3806 -.5801 10.8032
.6222 .5088 2.2671
82SA48 SZSA49
23.3028
4.8486 3.4694
SZSA42 S2SA43 SZSA45
1.0000
.6509 1 0000
.3020 2909 1.0000
.2947 2089 .6144
.0885 0892 .4493
.0338 - 0573 .5249
.1433 1301 .2855
SZSA48 SZSA49
1.0000
.5392 1.0000
N of
Std Dev Variables
19.4096 9
Maximum Range Max/Min
15.7284 8.8025 2.2709
Maximum Range Max/Min
23.3028 19.8333 6.7166
Maximum Range Max/Min
13.7634 14.3435 -23.7263
Maximum Range Max/Min
.7816 .8388 -13.6517
Corrected
Item- Squared
Total Multiple
Correlation Correlation
.4664 .6862
.4691 .3784
.3674 6606
.3099 .5288
.6614 4939
.7579 6621
.5530 3933
.5879 6277
.5509 4696

Variance
6.6731

Variance
51.3826

Variance
11.4189

Variance
.0443

Alpha
if Item
Deleted

Analysis of Variance

Source of Variation Sum of Sq.
Between People 3348,7435
Within People 9270.6667
Between Measures 4324.2003
Residual 4946.4664
Total 12619.4102
Grand Mean 12.4376
Reliability Coefficients 9 items
Alpha = .8154 Standardized

154

DF

80
648

640
728

item alpha

Mean Square

41.8593
14.3066
540.5250
7.7289
17.3344

= .8228

69.9360

Prob.

.0000

APPENDIX J

Factor Analysis of SA
pretest on the Self-Awareness Test (sum of the scores)

Analysis number 1

Mean Std Dev Label
SlSA41 11.06494 2.14192
SlSA42 10.63636 2.18794
SlSA43 12.07792 2.22288
SlSA44 6.19481 1.73235
SlSA45 14.76623 4.13552
SlSA46 13.59740 4.20607
SlSA47 12.44156 3.85423
SlSA48 13.44156 5.05885
SlSA49 6.80519 1.76247
SlSA410B 11.19481 3.19555 sa(without 1 & 5)
Number of Cases = 77
Correlation Matrix:

S1SA41 SlSA42 SlSA43 SlSA44 SlSA45
SlSA41 1.00000
SlSA42 .74072 1.00000
SlSA43 .65941 .59839 1.00000
SlSA44 .24123 —.00189 .15660 1.00000
SlSA45 .37458 .41947 .40135 .19929 1.00000
SlSA46 .42211 .39137 .35945 .16440 .58455
SlSA47 .20049 .22837 .20326 .06972 .36565
SlSA48 .29118 .26553 .40526 .13119 .43267
SlSA49 .35194 .27142 .36329 .15912 .37638
S18A4108 .17883 .20410 .21456 .03822 .23648
SlSA48 SlSA49 SlSA410B

SlSA48 1.00000
SlSA49 .46578 1.00000
SlSA4108 .25344 .22643 1.00000
Determinant of Correlation Matrix = .0254016
Inverse of Correlation Matrix:

SlSA41 SlSA42 SlSA43 SlSA44
SlSA41 3.11022
SlSA42 -1.69932 2.70216
SlSA43 -.89496 -.43131 2.08209
SlSA44 -.57645 .55883 -.03430 1.19912
SlSA45 .29429 -.44190 -.20512 -.21641
SlSA46 -.52613 -.05436 .25334 -.02853
SlSA47 .04694 -.04777 -.01766 .00096
SlSA48 .29527 .09182 -.46499 .00146
SlSA49 -.33874 .09582 -.07600 -.04275
SlSA4108 .07478 -.08394 -.08190 .01909

SlSA46 SlSA47 SlSA48 SlSA49
SlSA46 2.30054
SlSA47 —.42560 1.37778
SlSA48 -.96285 .01171 1.93201
SlSA49 .25765 .11556 —.57374 1.47215
SlSA4108 -.11675 -.33911 -.04999 -.16694

l-tailed Significance of Correlation Matrix:

' . ' is printed for diagonal elements.

155

Listwise deletion of cases with missing values

SlSA46

1.00000

.44697
.59407
.28215
.29373

SlSA47

1.00000

.26992
.11549
.35615

SlSA45

.82369
.71803
.21403
.01240
.33352

.02438

SlSA4108

1.22037

SlSA41
SlSA42
SlSA43
SlSA44
SlSA45
SlSA46
SlSA47
SlSA48
SlSA49

SlSA410B

SlSA46
SlSA47
SlSA48
SlSA49

SlSA4108

Extraction

SlSA4l

.00000
.00000
.01728
.00040
.00007
.04020
.00510
.00085
.05984

SlSA46

.00002
.00000
.00646
.00476

Initial Statistics:

Variable

SlSA41
SlSA42
SlSA43
SlSA44
SlSA45
SlSA46
SlSA47
SlSA48
SlSA49

SlSA4108

PC

Factor Matrix:

SlSA4l
SlSA46
SlSA43
SlSA45
SlSA42
SlSA48
SlSA49

SlSA4IOB

SlSA47
SlSA44

Communality

.00000
.00000
.00000
.00000
.00000
.00000
.00000
.00000
.00000
.00000

HHl—‘t—‘l—‘b—‘l—‘Ht—‘H

3 factors.

Factor 1

.74958
.74914
.73559
.72241
.71241
.67305
.57560
.44033

.49681
.26535

Final Statistics:

Variable

SlSA41
SlSA42
SlSA43
SlSA44
SlSA45
SlSA46
SlSA47
SlSA48
SlSA49

SlSA4108

Communality

.81928
.83941
.70194
.65283
.56366
.66287
.60811
.58059
.44827
.45829

1 for analysis

1644444444444

**#****####*

SlSA42

.00000
.49348
.00007
.00022
.02288
.00980
.00848
.03750

SlSA47

.00880
.15861
.00074

1, Principal Components Analysis

Factor

OOWQONU‘DWNH

H

Factor

-.50297
.31875
-.39659
.18173
-.45789
.28204
-.00877
.42607

.51919
-.02054

Factor

1
2
3

2

156

SlSA43

.08690
.00015
.00066
.03811
.00013
.00058
.03048

SlSA48

.00001
.01307

Eigenvalue

3.98900
1.28569
1.06056
.90009
.80151
.55693
.51690
.41608
.28071
.19252

Factor 3

-.06663
.00773
-.05971
.09361
-.34960
.21919
.34187
-.28786

-.30288
.76289

Eigenvalue

3.98900
1.28569
1.06056

SlSA44

.04114
.07654
.27343
.12771
.08345
.37071

SlSA49

.02384

Pct of Var

kDCDNNO‘OOONKDKD

Pct of Var

39.9
12.9
10.6

SlSA45

.00000
.00054
.00004
.00037
.01920

SlSA4108

Cum Pct

on
U"
OHWHKDb-bobxlko

Cum Pct

39.9
52.7
63.4

157

VARIMAX rotation l for extraction 1 in analysis 1 — Kaiser Normalization.

VARIMAX converged in 5 iterations.
Rotated Factor Matrix:
Factor 3

Factor 1 Factor 2

SlSA42 .89110 .20664 -.05147
SlSA41 .87262 .10261 .21745
SlSA43 .78895 .16969 .22517
SlSA47 .06736 .77624 -.03215
SlSA46 .29450 .67821 .34084
SlSA4108 .08798 .66948 -.04842
SlSA48 .21162 .53616 .49833
SlSA45 .34665 .53379 .39819
SlSA44 -.00532 -.10795 .80072
SlSA49 .31010 .22497 .54908

Factor Transformation Matrix:

Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3

Factor 1 .68489 .59784 .41654
Factor 2 -.67934 .73064 .06834
Factor 3 -.26348 -.32978 .90654

Factor Score Coefficient Matrix:

Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3

SlSA41 .41101 -.15277 -.00542
SlSA42 .45111 -.04474 -.24878
SlSA43 .35069 -.09657 .00469
SlSA44 -.13312 -.20912 .67872
SlSA45 .00476 .18243 .16511
SlSA46 -.04172 .29102 .10178
SlSA47 -.11378 .46368 -.17942
SlSA48 -.08792 .19299 .27263
SlSA49 .01853 -.02502 .35186
SlSA4108 -.07801 .39763 -.17743

Covariance Matrix for Estimated Regression Factor Scores:

Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3

Factor 1 1.00000
Factor 2 .00000 1.00000
Factor 3 .00000 .00000 1.00000

APPENDIX K

Mean change in standard scores, Self impact correlation,

and Standard score standard deviation of gain

 

Nia
Spielberger's Trait Anxiety

 

WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name = n1.dat
Input values

Time 1
Mean = 36.5000
SD = 10.4100
Rel = .92
Time 2
Mean = 31.7500
SD = 8.8100
Rel = .92
Test retest correlation = .960
Sample size N = 8
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean = 36.5000
SD = 9.9849
Time 2
Mean = 31.7500
SD = 8.4503
Test retest correlation = %1.043
Sample size N = 8

This analysis corrects for error of measurement.
The variance in gain scores may or may not be
evidence of an interaction. Either all or a large
portion of the apparent individual differences in gain
may be caused by error of measurement rather than
variation in the treatment effect.

The observed mean gain = -4.7500

The standard deviation of observed gain scores = 3.1459
The estimated standard deviation of true gain scores = 0.0000
The reliability of gain scores = .000

Using these values and assuming a normal distribution,
the estimated intervals for individual true gain are --

68% -- —4.7500 to -4.7500
95% —— -4.7500 to —4.7500
Effect size measures
Raw score D = -4.7500
Standard score d = —0.514
Treatment correlation r = -0.249

Size of interaction --

Raw Score SD STG = 0.0000
Standard Score SD 5 = 0.0000
Impact correlation ir = 0.000

(correlation of initial level with gain)

Standard errors --
WARNING : This sample data estimates the standard
deviation of change scores to be 0. If this is true in the
population, then the self impact correlation is undefined.
In any case, estimation of the corrected self impact
correlation is unstable for this data. The standard
error cannot be estimated using current method.

SE for* D = 1.3373

SE for cl = 0.247

SE for’ r = 0.1121

SE for STG = 1.6688

SE for' s = 0.1804

t test for mean gain -- t = -4.27
Result is in the negative direction.
Tail probability = .000

158

159

for the interaction standard deviation for this
data.

A point probability at 0 is needed.
The probability that SD=0

(i.e. no interaction) = .500
The significance test for the interaction is NOT significant.

The conventional confidence intervals don't work

&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

 

 

Nia
POMS (Total Disturbance Score)= (ang + dep + ten+ fat+con) - vig
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name = n2.dat
Input values
Time 1
Mean = 27.1300
SD = 43.2700
Rel = .92
Time 2
Mean = 17.7500
SD = 27.1600
Rel = .92

Test retest correlation

— .620
Sample size N = 8
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean = 27.1300
SD = 41.5031
Time 2
Mean = 17.7500
SD = 26.0510
Test retest correlation = 674
Sample size N = 8
Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD STG = 30.7229
Standard Score SD

5 = 0.8867
Impact correlation ir - -0.779
(correlation of initial level with gain)

&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

Nia
Anger
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS

Input disk file name =
Input values

 

n3.dat

 

Time 1
Mean = 9.3800
SD - 10.5300
Rel .92
Time 2
Mean = 8.7500
SD =

10.0300
Rel = .92

Test retest correlation

- .040

Sample size N = 8

Corrected basic statistics
Time 1

Mean =

9.3800
SD = 10.1000
Time 2

Mean = 8.7500

SD = 9.6204
Test retest correlation
Sample size N =

8
Size of interaction --

— .043

160
Raw Score SD STG -
Standard Score 30

- 13.6424
5 = 1.3832
Impact correlation ir = -0.710
(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

Nia
Depression
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name
Input values
Time 1

n4.dat
Mean = 9.0000
SD = 9.8700
Rel = .92
Time 2
Mean = 7.2500
SD -

11.0200
Rel - .92

Test retest correlation
Sample size N

.870
— 8
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean = 9.0000
SD = 9.4670
Time 2
Mean = 7.2500
SD - 10.5700

Test retest correlation
Sample size N

.946
= 8
Size of interaction -—
Raw Score SD STG = 3.4776
Standard Score SD 3 = 0.3466
Impact correlation ir = 0.152
(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

 

 

Nia
Tension
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name = n5.dat
Input values
Time 1
Mean = 8.6300
SD = 7.0700
Rel = .90
Time 2
Mean — 6.2500
SD = 3.3700
Rel = .90
Test retest correlation = .590
Sample size N = 8
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean = 8.6300
SD = 6.7072
Time 2
Mean = 6.2500
SD =

3.1971
Test retest correlation = .656
Sample size N — 8
Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD STG
Standard Score SD 3 0.9907
Impact correlation ir -

5.2051

-0.886
(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

161

Nia
Fatigue
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS

Input disk file name = n6.dat
Input values

Time 1

Mean =

SD =

Rel = .91
Time 2

Mean =

SD =

Rel = .91

10.0000
7.9800

7.6300
6.7600

Test retest correlation
Sample size N = 8
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean =
SD =
Time 2

Mean = 7.6300
SD = 6.4486
Test retest correlation
Sample size N = 8
Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD 3.9217
Standard Score SD 3 = 0.5559
Impact correlation ir = -0.532
(correlation of initial level with gain)

= .780

10.0000
7.6124

= .857

STG =

&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

Nia
Confusion
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name = n7.dat
Input values

Time 1

Mean =

SD =

Rel = .83
Time 2

Mean =

SD .=

Rel = .83

6.7500
6.4800

4.6300
4.2100

Test retest correlation
Sample size N = 8
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean =
SD =
Time 2

Mean = 4.6300
30 = 3.8355
Test retest correlation
Sample size N = 8
Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD 0.0000
Standard Score SD 3 = 0.0000
Impact correlation

ir = 0.000
(correlation of initial level with gain)

= .910

6.7500
5.9036

= 81.096

STG =

&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

 

 

Nia
Vigor
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name = n8.dat
Input values
Time 1
Mean = 16.6300
SD =

9.2700

162

Rel -

- .90

Time 2
Mean = 16.7500
SD = 9.1800
Rel =

.90

Test retest correlation
Sample size N

— .390
= 8
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean = 16.6300
50 = 8.7943
Time 2
Mean = 16.7500
SD =

8.7089
Test retest correlation — .433
Sample size N = 8

Size of interaction -—

Raw Score SD STG =
Standard Score 50 s = 1.0646
Impact correlation ir =

-O.539
(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

9.3171

Nia
POMS
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS

(ang + dep + ten+ fat+con)
Input disk file name
Input values

Time 1

= n9.dat
Mean = 34.5000
SD == 25.2000
Rel .92
Time 2

43.7500
SD '

— 38.1900
Rel -

— .92

Test retest correlation — .780
Sample size N = 8

Corrected basic statistics

Mean -

Time 1
Mean = 34.5000
SD = 24.1710
Time 2
Mean = 43.7500
SD = 36.6306
Test retest correlation — .848
Sample size N = 8
Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD STG =
Standard Score SD 5 = 0.6641
Impact correlation ir =

20.6085

 

 

0.334
(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&
Nia
Physical Emotional Management
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name = n10.dat
Input values
Time 1
Mean = 60.6300
SD = 12.2100
Rel = .89
Time 2
Mean = 63.5700
SD = 14.5200
Rel -

— .89

Test retest correlation = .830
Sample size N = 8
Corrected basic statistics

Time 1
Mean - 60.6300
SD = 11.5189
Time 2
Mean = 63.5700
SD =

13.6981
Test retest correlation

— .933

Sample size N -

8
Size of interaction ——
Raw Score SD

163

STG - 5.1014
Standard Score SD 5 = 0.4031
Impact correlation ir = 0.246
(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

 

 

Nia
Self-awareness - mood (factor 1)
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name = n11.dat
Input values
Time 1
Mean = 32.5000
80 = 4.6900
Rel = .82
Time 2
Mean — 34.8600
SD = 2.7900
Rel = .82
Test retest correlation = .670
Sample size N = 8
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean = 32 5000
SD = 4.2470
Time 2
Mean - 34.8600
SD =

2.5265
Test retest correlation .817
Sample size N 8
Size of interaction --

Raw Score SD

STG = 2.6241
Standard Score SD 5
Impact correlation

0.7510
ir -

-0.832
(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

Nia
Self—awareness — tactics

WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
N12.DAT

Input disk file name
Input values
Time 1

 

(factor 2)
Mean = 55.8800
SD = 18.0500
Rel = .82
Time 2
Mean = 63.5700
SD = 10.1100
Rel = .82
Test retest correlation
Sample size N ~

— .780
— 8
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean = 55.8800
SD 16.3450
Time 2
Mean = 63.5700
SD - 9.1550

Test retest correlation
Sample size N

.951
8
Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD STG 8.1421
Standard Score SD 5 - 0.6146
Impact correlation ir - —0.938
(correlation of initial level with gain)

APPENDIX L

Mean change in standard scores, Self impact correlation,
and Standard score standard deviation of gain

 

Aerobics
Spielberger’s Trait Anxiety

WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name = a1.dat
Input values

Time 1
Mean = 38.7900
SD = 11.0400
Rel = .92
Time 2
Mean = 36.8800
SD = 8.5400
Rel = .92
Test retest correlation = .830

Sample size N = 41
Corrected basic statistics

Time 1
Mean = 38.7900
SD = 10.5892
Time 2
Mean = 36.8800
SD = 8.1913
Test retest correlation = .902

Sample size N = 41
This analysis corrects for error of measurement.
The variance in gain scores may or may not be
evidence of an interaction. Either all or a large
portion of the apparent individual differences in gain
may be caused by error of measurement rather than
variation in the treatment effect.

The observed mean gain = -1.9100

The standard deviation of observed gain scores = 6.1892
The estimated standard deviation of true gain scores = 4.7666
The reliability of gain scores = .770

Using these values and assuming a normal distribution,
the estimated intervals for individual true gain are --
68% -- -6.6766 to 2.8566
95% -- -11.2526 to 7.4326

Effect size measures

Raw score D = -1.9100
Standard score d = -0.202
Treatment correlation r = -0.100

Size of interaction --

Raw Score SD STG = 4.7666
Standard Score SD 9 = 0.5035
Impact correlation ir = -0.671

(correlation of initial level with gain)

Standard errors --

SE for D = 0.9967

SE for d = 0.112

SE for r = 0.0554

SE for STG a 0.7491

SE for s = 0.0791

SE for ir = 0.1167

t test for mean gain -- t = -1.98

Result is in the negative direction.
Tail probability = .028

164

165

Aerobics
POMS (Total Disturbance Score)=

 

(ang + dep + ten+ fat+con)
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS

 

- vig
Input disk file name = a2 dat
Input values
Time 1
Mean = 29.7800
SD = 29.4200
Rel a .92
Time 2
Mean = 20.6300
SD 25.2300

Rel a .92
Test retest correlation
Sample size N = 41

Corrected basic statistics
Time 1

= .780

Mean = 29.7800
SD

28.2187
Time 2

Mean =

20.6300
SD =

24.1998
Test retest correlation
Sample size N = 41

Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD _ 14.9662
Standard Score SD 5 a 0.5694
Impact correlation ir = -0.515

(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

= .848

STG -

Aerobics

 

Anger
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS

Input disk file name = a3.dat
Input values

 

Time 1
Mean = 9.8800
SD = 7.9100
Rel = .92
Time 2
Mean = 7.8300
SD = 6.3600
Rel =

.92
Test retest correlation

= .650
Sample size N = 41
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean = 9.8800
SD = 7.5870
Time 2
Mean = 7.8300
SD = 6.1003
Test retest correlation = .707
Sample size N

= 41

95% -- -12.6732 to 8.5732
Size of interaction --

Raw Score SD

STG = 5.4200
Standard Score SD 8 = 0.7873
Impact correlation ir -

- -0.605

(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

 

 

 

 

166
Aerobics
Depression
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name = a4.dat
Input values
Time 1
Mean = 11.9500
SD = 11.4400
Rel — .92
Time 2
Mean = 8.3300
SD = 7.1800
Rel = .92
Test retest correlation = .560
Sample size N = 41
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean = 11.9500
SD = 10.9729
Time 2
Mean = 8.3300
SD = 6.8868
Test retest correlation = .609
Sample size N = 41
Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD STG = 8.7084
Standard Score SD 8 = 0.9506
Impact correlation ir = -0.779
(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&
Aerobics
Tension
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name = a5.dat
Input values
Time 1
Mean = 11.4500
SD = 7.7700
Rel .90
Time 2
Mean = 9.2500
SD = 5.6100
Rel = .90
Test retest correlation = .670
Sample size N a 41
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean = 11.4500
SD = 7.3713
Time 2
Mean = 9.2500
SD = 5.3221
Test retest correlation = .744
Sample size N = 41
Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD STG = 4.9245
Standard Score SD 8 = 0.7660
Impact correlation ir

= o0.692
(correlation of initial level with
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

gain)

167

Aerobics

Fatigue
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS

Input disk file name = a6.dat
Input values
Time 1
Mean =
SD =
Rel
Time 2

8.3200

5.0000
= .91

Mean "'

SD -

Rel x

7.8500

4.7400
.91

Test retest correlation = .720
Sample size N = 41
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean -

SD =
Time 2

8.3200
4.7697

Mean -

7.8500
SD =

4.5217
Test retest correlation
Sample size N = 41

Size of interaction --

Raw Score SD

Standard Score SD

- .791

STG - 3.0112
s c-

— 0.6479
Impact correlation ir

-0.396
(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

Aerobics

Confusion
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name = a7.dat
Input values

Time 1
Mean -

8.0200
SD -

1 4.2000
Rel =

.83
Time 2

Mean = 7.5000
SD = 3.9500
Rel .83

Test retest correlation =
Sample size N = 41

Corrected basic statistics
Time 1

.710

Mean -

8.0200
SD =

3.8264
Time 2

Mean -

- 7.5000

SD = 3.5986
Test retest correlation =
Sample size N

.855
- 41

Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD STG =
Standard Score SD

3 a

2.0084
Impact correlation ir

0.5407

-0.372
(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

 

168

Aerobics
Vigor
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name = a8.dat
Input values
Time 1
Mean =
SD
Rel
Time 2

18.9800

4.6900
.90

Mean — 20.1300
SD -

4.8300
Rel = .90

Test retest correlation = .650
Sample size N a 41
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean -

SD =
Time 2

18.9800
4.4493

Mean =
SD -

20.1300

4.5821
Test retest correlation
Sample size N = 41
Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD

Standard Score SD

_ .722

STG = 3.3681
s = 0.7458
Impact correlation ir -0.338
(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

Aerobics
POMS (ang + dep + ten+ fat+con)
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name = a9.dat
Input values
Time 1
Mean =
SD =
Rel
Time 2

48.7600

27.5400
= .90

Mean =
SD -

Rel =

40.7500
23.7700
.90

Test retest correlation
Sample size N

_ .750

= 41
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1

Mean =

SD =
Time 2

48.7600
26.1267

Mean = 40.7500

SD = 22.5502
Test retest correlation = .833
Sample size N = 41

Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD

STG =
Standard Score SD

14.4630
5 = 0.5926
Impact correlation ir

-0.507
(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

 

169

 

Aerobics
Physical Emotional Management
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name a a10.dat
Input values

 

 

Time 1
Mean = 66.7900
SD = 14.8500
Rel = .82
Time 2
Mean = 64.1200
SD = 10.8100
Rel 8 .82
Test retest correlation = .360
Sample size N = 41
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean = 66 7900
SD = 13.4472
Time 2
Mean = 64.1200
SD = 9.7889
Test retest correlation = .439
Sample size N = 41
Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD STG = 12.6913
Standard Score SD 3 = 1.0791
Impact correlation ir —

-0.721
(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

Aerobics

 

Self-awareness
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS

Input disk file name = a11.dat

- mood (factor 1)
Input values

 

Time 1
Mean = 35.3200
SD = 4.5800
Rel .82
Time 2
Mean = 34.3600
SD = 6.7500
Rel == .82
Test retest correlation = .140
Sample size N = 41
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean = 35 3200
SD = 4.1474
Time 2
Mean = 34.3600
SD = 6.1124
Test retest correlation = .171
Sample size N = 41
Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD STG = 6.7754
Standard Score SD 3 = 1.2972
Impact correlation ir =

-0.458

(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

170

 

 

Aerobicss
Self-awareness - tactics (factor 2)
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name = a12 dat
Input values
Time 1
Mean = 70.1300
SD = 13.7000
Rel = .82
Time 2
Mean = 68.8600
SD = 17.1500
Rel = .82

Test retest correlation =
Sample size N = 41

Corrected basic statistics
Time 1

.480

Mean -

70.1300
SD=

12.4059
Time 2

Mean "

SD -

68.8600
15.5300
Test retest correlation =
Sample size N - 41
Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD

Standard Score SD

.585

STG -

13.0203
0.9264

-0.255
(correlation of initial level with gain)

8 =
Impact correlation ir

APPENDIX M

Mean change in standard scores, Self impact correlation,

and Standard score standard deviation of gain

Stretching
Spielberger's Trait Anxiety

WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name = sl.dat
Input values

Time 1
Mean = 45.0000
SD = 6.3600
Rel = .92
Time 2
Mean = 43.2000
SD = 5.7600
Rel = .92
Test retest correlation = .940
Sample size N = S
corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean = 45.0000
SD = 6.1003
Time 2
Mean = 43.2000
SD = 5.5248
Test retest correlation = %1.022
Sample size N = 5

This analysis corrects for error of measurement.
The variance in gain scores may or may not be
evidence of an interaction. Either all or a large
portion of the apparent individual differences in gain
may be caused by error of measurement rather than
variation in the treatment effect.

The observed mean gain = -1.8000

The standard deviation of observed gain scores = 2.1808
The estimated standard deviation of true gain scores = 0.0000
The reliability of gain scores = .000

Using these values and assuming a normal distribution,
the estimated intervals for individual true gain are --
68% -- -1.8000 to -1.8000
95% -- -1.8000 to -1.8000

Effect size measures

Raw score D = -1.8000
Standard score d = -O.309
Treatment correlation r = -0.153

Size of interaction --

Raw Score SD STG = 0.0000
Standard Score SD 3 = 0.0000
Impact correlation ir = 0.000

(correlation of initial level with gain)

Standard errors ~-

WARNING : This sample data estimates the standard
deviation of change scores to be 0. If this is true in the
population, then the self impact correlation is undefined.
In any case, estimation of the corrected self impact
correlation is unstable for this data. The standard
error cannot be estimated using current method.

SE for D = 1.3582
SE for d = 0.365

SE for r' = 0.1761
SE for STG = 1.4827

171

172

SE for s

0.2548

t test for mean gain -- t = —1.85
Result is in the negative direction.
Tail probability a .093

Since this mean gain is not significant,

you had
better check for low statistical power.

The conventional confidence intervals don't work
for the interaction standard deviation for this
data. A point probability at 0 is needed.

The probability that SD=0 (i.e. no interaction)

= .500
The significance test for the interaction is NOT significant.
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

 

 

Stretching
POMS (Total Disturbance Score)= (ang + dep + ten+ fat+con) - vig
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name = $2.dat
Input values
Time 1
Mean = 42.6000
SD = 22.9600
Rel = .92
Time 2
Mean = 26.2000
SD = 7.4000
Rel

= .92

Test retest correlation
Sample size N

- .860
= 5
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean 2 42.6000
SD 8

22.0225
Time 2

Mean 8

26.2000

SD 2 7.0978

Test retest correlation = .935
Sample size N = 5

Size of interaction --

Raw Score SD STG
Standard Score SD

8
Impact correlation ir

15.5927
0.9530

-0.987
(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

 

 

Stretching
Anger
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name = s3.dat
Input values
Time 1
Mean = 13.6000
SD a 3.3600
Rel a .92
Time 2
Mean = 8.8000
SD 2 3.4200
Rel a .92
Test retest correlation = .580
Sample size N a S
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean -

13.6000

173

SD = 3.2228
Time 2
Mean : 8.8000
SD -

- 3.2803

Test retest correlation
Sample size N

= .630
= 5
Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD STG = 2.7959
Standard Score SD 8 = 0.8598
Impact correlation ir -

— -0.413
(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

Stretching

 

Depression
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS

Input disk file name

= s4.dat
Input values

 

Time 1

Mean 3 12.8000
SD

7.7900

Rel = .92

Time 2
Mean = 10.6000
SD

7.1300
Rel

- .92

Test retest correlation
Sample size N

= .870

= 5

Corrected basic statistics
Time 1

Mean = 12.8000
SD = 7.4719
Time 2

Mean = 10.6000
SD = 6.8389
Test retest correlation = .946
Sample size N = 5
Size of interaction ~-
Raw Score SD STG
Standard Score SD

8 =
Impact correlation ir

2.4403
0.3407

-0.412
(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

Stretching

Tension

WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS

Input disk file name =
Input values

sS.dat
Time 1

Mean 2 9.2000
SD

= 1.7900
Rel = .90
Time 2

Mean a 8.0000
SD - 1.8700

Rel = .90

Test retest correlation = .300

Sample size N = 5

Corrected basic statistics
Time 1

Mean = 9.2000
SD

1.6981
Time 2

Mean =

8.0000
SD = 1.7740

174

Test retest correlation = .333
Sample size N = 5

Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD STG = 2.0056
Standard Score SD 8 = 1.1550
Impact correlation ir

-0.552
(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

Stretching
Fatigue
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name = 56.dat
Input values
Time 1
Mean —

12.6000
SD =

9.9600

Rel - .91

Time 2
Mean - 9.6000
SD -

5.8600
Rel = .91

Test retest correlation - .980
Sample size N = 5

Corrected basic statistics
Time 1

Mean -

12.6000
SD

9.5012
Time 2

Mean -

- 9.6000
SD = 5.5901
Test retest correlation = %I.O77
Sample size N = 5
Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD STG = 2.6694
Standard Score SD 5 = 0.3425
Impact correlation ir

—1.304
(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

Stretching
Confusion
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name = s7.dat
Input values
Time 1
Mean -

8.8000
SD -

- 5.5900
Rel

= .83
Time 2

Mean = 6.0000
SD - 1.0000

Rel = .83

Test retest correlation =
Sample size N = 5

Corrected basic statistics
Time 1

.760

Mean = 8.8000
SD

5.0927
Time 2

Mean = 6.0000

SD - 0.9110

Test retest correlation - .916
Sample size N = 5

Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD

STG -

4.2742

175
Standard Score SD 3 = 1.1684
Impact correlation ir

-0.996
(correlation of initial level with gain)

&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

Stretching
Vigor
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name = 38.dat
Input values
Time 1
Mean =
SD :
Rel =
Time 2

14.4000

5.5900
.90

Mean '-

SD -

Rel =

16.8000
4.4400
.90
Test retest correlation
Sample size N - 5

Corrected basic statistics
Time 1

= .940

Mean 2
SD a
Time 2

14.4000
5.3031

Mean I

16.8000
SDI

4.2122
Test retest correlation
Sample size N = 5

Size of interaction ~-
Raw Score SD -
Standard Score SD 8 =
Impact correlation ir

— %l.044

STG - 0.0000

0.0000
0.000

(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

Stretching

POMS (ang + dep + ten+ fat+con)
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Job title is rerun

Input disk file name = s9.dat
Input values

Time 1

Mean - 57.0000
SD = 18.4900

Rel = .92

Time 2
Mean 2
SD 8

Rel = .92

Test retest correlation
Sample size N =

43.0000
6.8900

= .630
5
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean =
SD =
Time 2

57.0000
17.7350

Mean "

43.0000
SD =

6.6087

Test retest correlation
Sample size N a

Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD
Standard Score SD
Impact correlation

= .685
S

STG =
S =

14.0600
1.0506

ir - -0.940

176

(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

 

 

Stretching
Physical Emotional Management
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name = le.dat
Input values
Time 1
Mean = 49.8000
SD - 9.6800
Rel = .89
Time 2
Mean = 66.0000
SD = 12.4500
Rel =

.89
Test retest correlation
Sample size N = 5

Corrected basic statistics
Time 1

— %-.260

Mean =
SD =
Time 2

49.8000
9.1321
Mean = 66.0000
SD 2 11.7453
Test retest correlation
Sample size N = 5
Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD STG = 16.8528
Standard Score SD 8 = 1.6020
Impact correlation ir -0.745

(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

- %-.292

Stretching
Self-awareness

 

- mood (factor 1)
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS

 

Input disk file name a sll.dat
Input values

Time 1
Mean = 24.2000
SD = 5.3100
Rel = .82
Time 2
Mean = 31.2000
SD = 4.3200
Rel = .82

Test retest correlation

= .600
Sample size N = 5
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean = 24.2000
SD = 4.8084
Time 2
Mean = 31.2000
SD = 3.9119
Test retest correlation = .732

Sample size N = 5

Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD
Standard Score SD

This analysis corrects for error of measurement.

STG = 3.3010

5 = 0.7531

177
Impact correlation ir = -0.590
(correlation of initial level with gain)

&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

Stretching
Self-awareness

 

WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name

tactics (factor 2)
Input values

 

= 812.dat
Time 1
Mean = 57.0000
SD = 9.9200
Rel = .82
Time 2
Mean = 73.4000
SD = 10.4500
Rel = .82
Test retest correlation = .380
Sample size N = 5
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean = 57.0000
SD = 8.9829
Time 2
Mean = 73.4000
SD = 9.4629
Test retest correlation = .463
Sample size N = 5
Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD STG = 9.5632
Standard Score SD

8 = 1.0365
Impact correlation ir

-0.481
(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

 

APPENDIX N

 

Mean change in standard scores, Self impact correlation,

and Standard score standard deviation of gain
Yoga
Spielberger's Trait Anxiety
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name = y1.dat
Input values

 

Time 1
Mean = 37.1300
SD = 6.5800
Rel = .92
Time 2
Mean = 29.1300
SD = 5.9600
Rel - .92
Test retest correlation = .630
Sample size N a 8
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean = 37.1300
SD = 6.3113
Time 2
Mean = 29.1300
SD 8 5.7166
Test retest correlation = .685
Sample size N = 8

This analysis corrects for error of measurement.
The variance in gain scores may or may not be
evidence of an interaction. Either all or a large
portion of the apparent individual differences in gain

may be caused by error of measurement rather than
variation in the treatment effect.

The observed mean gain = -8.0000

The standard deviation of observed gain scores = 5-4225
The estimated standard deviation of true gain scores = 4.8062
The reliability of gain scores = .886

Using these values and assuming a normal distribution,
the estimated intervals for individual true gain are --

68% -- -12.8062 to —3.1938
95% -- -17.4201 to 1.4201
Effect size measures
Raw score D = -8.0000
Standard score d = -1.329
Treatment correlation r = -0.553
size of interaction --
Raw Score SD STG = 4.8062
Standard Score SD 3 = 0.7982
Impact correlation ir = -0.499

(correlation of initial level with gain)

Standard errors --

SE for D = 2.3050

SE for d = 0.920

SE for r' = 0.2658

SE for STG = 1.2604

SE for s = 0.2093

SE for ir = 0.3069

t test for mean gain -- t = -4.17

Result is in the negative direction.
Tail probability = .000

&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

178

 

179

 

 

Yoga
POMS (Total Disturbance Score)= (ang + dep + ten+ fat+con) - vig
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name = y2.dat
Input values
Time 1
Mean = 39.8800
SD = 43.1300
Rel = .94
Time 2
Mean = 15.8800
SD = 35.0700
Rel 8

.94

Test retest correlation
Sample size N = 8

Corrected basic statistics
Time 1

= .940

Mean =
SD =
Time 2

39.8800
41.8161

Mean =
SD -

15.8800
34.0016

Test retest correlation
Sample size N - 8

Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD
Standard Score SD
Impact correlation

= %1.000

STG = 7.8145
8 = 0.2051
ir = -1.000

(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

Yoga
Anger
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name =
Input values
Time 1

y3.dat

Mean 2

SD 3

Rel = .92
Time 2

7.3800
3.2900

Mean =
SD 8
Rel x

3.3800
2.9700
.92
Test retest correlation =
Sample size N = 8

Corrected basic statistics
Time 1

.300

Mean =

SD =
Time 2

7.3800
3.1557

Mean a

3.3800
SD =

2.8487
Test retest correlation = .326
Sample size N = 8
Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD —
Standard Score SD 8 s
Impact correlation ir

STG - 3.4944

1.1624

-0.637
(correlation of initial level with gain)

&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

 

WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name

Input values
Time 1
Mean =
SD =
Rel

a .92
Time 2

Mean -
SD 8

Rel = .92

Test retest correlation

Sample size N

Time 1

Mean —
SD -

Time 2

14.6300
13.9271

Mean ‘

SD -

10.1300
12.2773

Test retest correlation

Sample size N =

Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD

Standard Score SD

8

STG

3
Impact correlation ir

8
Corrected basic statistics

180

Yoga
Depression

_ y4.dat

14.6300
14.5200

10.1300
12.8000

— .910

- .989

2.5375
0.1933
-0.703

(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS

Input disk file name =
Input values

Time 1

Mean -

SD=

Rel
Time 2

10.8800

10.9900
= .90

Mean =
SD =
Rel

6.8800
7.0400
.90
Test retest correlation =
Sample size N s 8
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1

Mean =
SD a

Time 2

10.8800
10.4260

Mean 8

6.8800
SD = 6.6787
Test retest correlation
Sample size N - 8
Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD STG =
Standard Score SD

8 =
Impact correlation ir

Yoga
Tension

y5.dat

.960

_ %l.067

2.1813
0.2491
-1.514

(correlation of initial level with gain)

&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name

Input values
Time 1
Mean

SD

181

Yoga
Fatigue

- y6.dat

11.2500

6.5800
.91

Rel
Time 2
Mean

SD -

7.8800
Rel

6.5100
.91
Test retest correlation = .770
Sample size N = 8
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean =
SD
Time 2

11.2500
6.2769

Mean = 7 8800

SD - 6.2101

Test retest correlation - .846
Sample size N = 8

Size of interaction --

Raw Score SD

STG =

3.4639
Standard Score SD 0.5548

-0.295

S =

Impact correlation ir
(correlation of initial level with gain)

&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

Yoga

Confusion
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name
Input values

Time 1

_ y7.dat

Mean -
SD =
Rel
Time 2

8.6700

4.6600
.83

Mean a
SD -

7.0000
Rel

5.1800
.83

Test retest correlation
Sample size N

.980
= 8
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean =
SD a
Time 2

8.6700
4.2455
Mean 2 7.0000
SD

4.7192
Test retest correlation

%1.181
Sample size N a

8
Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD

STG
Standard Score SD

0.0000
0.0000

0.000
(correlation of initial level with gain)

&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

s :3
Impact correlation ir

 

 

182

Yoga

Vigor
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS

Input disk file name a y8.dat
Input values

Time 1
Mean =

SD =
Rel

Time 2

12.8800

9.4200
= .90

Mean =
SD -

Rel = .90

Test retest correlation = .950
Sample size N = 8
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1

19.3800
7.5000

Mean =

SD =
Time 2

12.8800
8.9366

Mean -

SD -

19.3800

7.1151
Test retest correlation
Sample size N =
Size of interaction --

Raw Score SD

Standard Score SD

— %1.056
8

STG

0.0000
s = 0.0000
Impact correlation ir

0.000
(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

Yoga

POMS (ang + dep + ten+ fat+con)
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS

Input disk file name = y9.dat
Input values

Time 1
Mean =
SD =
Rel 3
Time 2

52.7500

36.8200
.92

Mean "

_ 35.2500
SD = 31.4600
Rel = .92
Test retest correlation = .920
Sample size N = 8
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean =
SD _
Time 2

52.7500
35.3165

Mean ‘

SD -

35.2500

30.1754

Test retest correlation = %1.000
Sample size N x 8

Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD STG = 5.1411
Standard Score SD s = 0.1565
Impact correlation ir

-1.000
(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

183

Yoga

Physical Emotional Management
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name = y10.dat

Input values

Time 1

Mean 8
SD 3
Rel
Time 2

61.4300

10.4200
.89

Mean =
SD =
Rel =

75.8300
10.7000
.89
Test retest correlation
Sample size N = 8

Corrected basic statistics
Time 1

= .780

Mean =

SD =
Time 2

61.4300
9.8302

Mean =

75.8300
SD =

10.0944
Test retest correlation
Sample size N = 8
Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD _
Standard Score SD 5 =

Impact correlation ir

= .876

STG - 4.9597

0.4978
-0.198

(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

Yoga
Self-awareness

 

 

- mood (factor 1)
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS

Input disk file name = y11.dat

 

Input values

Time 1
Mean = 34.5000
SD = 4.1400
Rel .82
Time 2
Mean = 39.1400
SD = 4.1800
Rel .82
Test retest correlation = .930
Sample size N = 8
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean = 34.5000
SD = 3.7489
Time 2
Mean = 39.1400
SD = 3.7852
Test retest correlation = %1.134
Sample size N = 8
Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD STG = 0.0000
Standard Score SD 8 = 0.0000
Impact correlation ir =

0.000

(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

184

Yoga

 

Self-awareness -

tactics (factor 2)
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS

 

Input disk file name

= y12.dat
Input values
Time 1
Mean = 62.6300
SD = 16.0300
Rel = .82
Time 2
Mean = 82.1400
SD = 14.4600
Rel = .82

Test retest correlation
Sample size N = 8

Corrected basic statistics
Time 1

= .940

Mean = 62.6300

SD = 14.5158
Time 2

Mean = 82.1400

SD = 13.0941
Test retest correlation
Sample size N = 8

Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD
Standard Score SD 9 =
Impact correlation ir

= %1.146

STG = 0.0000

0.0000

- 0.000
(correlation of initial level with gain)

 

APPENDIX 0

Mean change in standard scores, Self impact correlation,
and Standard score standard deviation of gain

 

Tai chi
Spielberger's Trait Anxiety

 

WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name = tai-1.dat
Input values

Time 1
Mean = 37.2000
SD = 9.1300
Rel = .92
Time 2
Mean = 35.2000
SD = 8.4400
Rel = .92
Test retest correlation = .930
Sample size N = 20
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean = 37.2000
SD = 8.7572
Time 2
Mean = 35.2000
SD = 8.0954
Test retest correlation = %1.011
Sample size N = 20
This analysis corrects for error of measurement.

The variance in gain scores may or may not be

evidence of an interaction. Either all or a large
portion of the apparent individual differences in gain
may be caused by error of measurement rather than
variation in the treatment effect.

The observed mean gain = -2.0000

The standard deviation of observed gain scores = 3.3562
The estimated standard deviation of true gain scores = 0.0000
The reliability of gain scores = .000

Using these values and assuming a normal distribution,

the estimated intervals for individual true gain are --

68% -- -2.0000 to -2.0000
95% -- -2.0000 to -2.0000
Effect size measures
Raw score D = -2.0000
Standard score d = -0.237
Treatment correlation r = -0.118
Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD STG = 0.0000
Standard Score SD 3 = 0.0000
Impact correlation ir = 0.000

(correlation of initial level with gain)

Standard errors --
WARNING : This sample data estimates the standard
deviation of change scores to be 0. If this is true in the
population, then the self impact correlation is undefined.
In any case, estimation of the corrected self impact
correlation is unstable for this data. The standard
error cannot be estimated using current method.

SE for D = 0.8013

SE for d = 0.110

SE for r' = 0.0539

SE for STG = 1.5090

SE for s = 0.1789

t test for mean gain -- t = -2.66

Result is in the negative direction.
Tail probability a .006

185

186

for the interaction standard deviation for this
data.

The conventional confidence intervals don't work
A point probability at 0 is needed.

The probability that SD=0 (i.e. no interaction)

= .500
The significance test for the interaction is NOT significant.
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&
Tai chi
POMS (Total Disturbance Score)=
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS

Input disk file name =
Input values

Time 1

(ang + dep + ten+ fat+con) - vig
tai-2.dat
Mean =
SD =

Rel
Time 2

28.8900

27.3000
= .92

Mean
SD =

Rel = .92

Test retest correlation
Sample size N 3

19.0000
27.7000

- .860
20
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean =
SD
Time 2

28.8900
26.1852

 

Mean "

19.0000
SD =

26.5689
Test retest correlation
Sample size N - 20

Size of interaction ~-
Raw Score SD

Standard Score SD

STG

9.5337
0.3614

-0.142
(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

8 =
Impact correlation ir

Tai chi

Anger
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS

Input disk file name =
Input values

tai-3.dat
Time 1

Mean -
SD 3
Rel = .92
Time 2

7.3700
5.2700

Mean "

SD -

Rel a .92

Test retest correlation
Sample size N a

5.6000
5.9900

= .810

20

Corrected basic statistics
Time 1

Mean 8

SD
Time 2

7.3700
5.0548

Mean 3:

5.6000
SD 8 5.7454

Test retest correlation = .880

Sample size N a 20

Size of interaction -—
Raw Score SD

STG -

Standard Score SD

5 2
Impact correlation ir

2.7243
0.5035
0.001

 

187

(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name

Input values
Time 1
Mean 3
SD =
Rel = .92
Time 2

Mean -

SD =
Rel = .92

Test retest correlation

Sample size N

Corrected basic statistics

Time 1
Mean =
SD =

Time 2

Mean =
SD 8

Tai chi
Depression

- tai-4.dat

9.7400
8.8700

7.3500
7.9200

— .900
20

9.7400
8.5078

7.3500

7.5966

Test retest correlation

Sample size N

Size of interaction --

Raw Score SD
Standard Score SD

Impact correlation ir

- .978
20

STG = 1.9080

0.2366
-0.564

s —

(correlation of initial level with gain)

&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS

Input disk file name
Input values
Time 1
Mean =
SD =
Rel
Time 2

9.4400

5.6700
= .90

Mean =

SD =
Rel

8.1000

5.4200
n .90

Test retest correlation

Sample size N a 20

Corrected basic statistics

Time 1
Mean 2

SD =
Time 2

9.4400
5.3790

Mean -

— 8.1000
SD = 5.1419
Test retest correlation
Sample size N = 20
Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD

STG -
Standard Score SD

8 =
Impact correlation ir

Tension

- tai-5.dat

- .750

- .833

3.0456
0.5788
-0.359

(correlation of initial level with gain)
Standard errors

&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

Tai chi
Fatigue

188

WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name -
Input values

— tai-6.dat
Time 1
Mean = 8.2100
SD = 5.8000
Rel = .91
Time 2
Mean = 8.2000
SD = 5.9100
Rel - .91
Test retest correlation = .540
Sample size N . 20
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean = 8.2100
SD = 5.5328
Time 2
Mean = 8.2000
SD = 5.6378
Test retest correlation = 593
Sample size N = 20
Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD STG = 5.0375
Standard Score SD s = 0.9019
Impact correlation ir -

-0.434
(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

Tai chi
Confusion
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS

 

Input disk file name = tai-7.dat
Input values
Time 1

Mean -

 

8.1600
SD=

5.7500
Rel s .83
Time 2

Mean = 7.7000
SD = 5.0900
Rel = .83

Test retest correlation = .880

Sample size N a 18

Corrected basic statistics
Time 1

Mean = 8.1600
SD

5.2385
Time 2

Mean = 7.7000

SD = 4.6372
Test retest correlation
Sample size N a

_ %1.060
18
Size of interaction ~-

Raw Score SD STG
Standard Score SD

5
Impact correlation ir

0.0000
0.0000

0.000
(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&66

 

 

Tai chi
Vigor
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name = tai-8.dat
Input values
Time 1
Mean = 16.2100
SD -

6.4700

189

Rel = .90

Time 2
Mean = 17.9500
SD = 5.5500

Rel s .90

Test retest correlation

= .620
Sample size N = 20
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean = 16.2100
SD = 6.1380
Time 2
Mean = 17.9500
SD = 5.2652
Test retest correlation = .689
Sample size N = 20
Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD STG = 4.5684
Standard Score SD 3 = 0.7989

Impact correlation ir = —0.550
(correlation of initial level with gain)

&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

Tai chi
POMS (ang + dep + ten+ fat+con)
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS

 

 

Input disk file name = tai-9.dat
Input values

Time 1
Mean = 44.6700
SD = 25.8500
Rel = .90
Time 2
Mean 3 36.9500
SD = 25.5200

Rel = .90
Test retest correlation
Sample size N s 20

Corrected basic statistics
Time 1

= .910

Mean = 44.6700
SD = 24.5235
Time 2
Mean = 36.9500
SD = 24.2104

Test retest correlation
Sample size N = 20
2e of interaction --
Raw Score SD STG = 0.0000
Standard Score SD 5 = 0.0000

Impact correlation ir = 0.000

(correlation of initial level with gain)

The conventional confidence intervals don't work
for the interaction standard deviation for this
data. A point probability at 0 is needed.

The probability that SD=0 (i.e. no interaction) -

— .500
The significance test for the interaction is NOT significant.
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

= %l.011

Tai chi

 

Physical Emotional Management
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS

 

Input disk file name = tai-10.datInput values

Time 1
Mean = 58.1700
SD = 12.4800

Rel = .89

190

Time 2
Mean = 68.3000
SD — 13.2900
Rel = .89
Test retest correlation = .220
Sample size N = 20
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean = 58.1700
SD = 11.7736
Time 2
Mean = 68.3000
SD = 12.5378

Test retest correlation =
Sample size N

.247
= 20
Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD STG = 14.9277
Standard Score SD 3 = 1.2274
Impact correlation ir —

-0.581
(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

Tai chi
Self-awareness
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS

 

Input disk file name

— mood (factor 1)
Input values

tai-11.dat

 

 

Time 1
Mean = 32.4000
SD = 6.6400
Rel = .82
Time 2
Mean = 34.3500
SD = 5.7600
Rel = .82
Test retest correlation = .450
Sample size N = 20
Corrected basic statistics
Time 1
Mean 2 32.4000
SD = 6.0128
Time 2
Mean = 34.3500
SD = 5.2159
Test retest correlation = .549
Sample size N = 20
Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD STG = 5.3793
Standard Score SD 8 = 0.9557
Impact correlation ir -

-0.586
(correlation of initial level with gain)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

 

 

Tai chi
Self-awareness - tactics (factor 2)
WITHIN SUBJECTS ANALYSIS RESULTS
Input disk file name = tai-12.dat
Input values
Time 1
Mean = 61.0000
SD = 14.7400
Rel = .84
Time 2
Mean = 71.1500
SD = 14.9000
Rel

= .84

Test retest correlation
Sample size N =

_ .650
20

191

Corrected basic statistics

Time 1
Mean = 61.0000
SD = 13.5094
Time 2
Mean = 71.1500
SD =

13.6561
Test retest correlation
Sample size N

- .774
= 20

Size of interaction --
Raw Score SD STG = 9.1367
Standard Score SD 5 = 0.6727
Impact correlation ir -

- —0.322
(correlation of initial level with gain)

 

1:1;