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AMERICAN AND KOREAN WORKERS' ADAPTATIONS TO
EXPATRIATE WORK ENVIRONMENTS:
SOCIAL SERVICE NEEDS AND
OPPORTUNITIES FOR SOCIAL WORK INTERVENTION

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AMERICAN AND KOREAN WORKERS’ ADAPTATIONS
TO EXPATRIATE WORK ENVIRONMENTS:
SOCIAL SERVICE NEEDS AND
OPPORTUNITIES FOR SOCIAL WORK INTERVENTION
By

Soo-Chan Choi

A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

School of Social Work

1998

ABSTRACT

AMERICAN AND KOREAN WORKERS’ ADAPTATION S
TO EXPATRIATE WORK ENVIRONMENTS:
SOCIAL SERVICE NEEDS AND
OPPORTUNITIES FOR SOCIAL WORK INTERVENTION

By

Soo-Chan Choi

“Globalization” has been frequently used to describe today’s world
economy. The number of foreign subsidiaries which multinational
corporations operate has tremendously increased and now the industrial
workforce has many more opportunities to work with people whose roots lie
in different national cultures. A review of the literature, however, indicates
that numerous expatriate workers sent overseas returned home early
because they were unable to adapt to different cultural settings.

By applying synergistic systems approaches, the present study
examined cross-cultural determinants which were more likely to draw
expatriate workers to successful adjustment in foreign assignments. A
survey research using questionnaires and personal interviews was conducted
to a sample of 229 expatriate workers: 101 Americans in South Korea and
128 Koreans in the United States. Results of the study have verified that the

extent to which the expatriates adjust to overseas assignments is likely to

depend on four major factors, i.e., (1) national culture, (2) organization and
community, (3) individual attributes, and (4) family members.

In addition to proposing the cross-cultural adjustment framework for
expatriate workers, this study investigated social service needs of the
American expatriates and the Korean expatriates, and conducted a
comparative study of these two groups. Their needs were assessed by
examining both serious problems encountered in the foreign country and
services desired to alleviate the problems. Based on average frequencies with
which the problems were cited by the comparison groups, issues such as
language barriers, cross-cultural misunderstanding, concern about elderly
parents back home, children’s schooling, crime and safety, repatriation, adult
health care, and legal problems were generally identified. Corresponding to
these problems, expatriates desired services such as language programs,
cross-cultural training, services for elderly parents in the home country,
school counseling for children, crime prevention, repatriation programs, adult
health care programs, and legal services.

The results of this study call for practical roles and interventions by
industrial social workers in the global work setting. The findings strongly
suggest that corporations can benefit from employing industrial social
workers who can utilize their expertise in the processes of selection, training,
building overseas support systems, and repatriation to maximize the effective

and efficient foreign expatriation.

Copyright by
Soo-Chan Choi
1998

To my parents,

Yungzung Choi & Kichung Won Choi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to acknowledge and express my appreciation for the
support of many people and institutions who contributed to the completion of
this Ph.D. dissertation. Without their concern, encouragement, patience, and
love, this dissertation would not have existed.

My deepest thanks goes to Dr. John Herrick (Social Work), my
dissertation committee chair, who provided the kind guidance and wonderful
encouragement to complete this research. Dr. Herrick’s generosity,
confidence, and kindness have had profound effects upon my professional
development.

I also wish to express my appreciation to the other members of my
committee including Dr. Rena Harold (Social Work), Dr. Steven Gold
(Sociology), Dr. Michael Moore (Labor and Industrial Relations), Dr. Kyu-
Taik Sung (Social Work), and Dr. Marilyn Flynn (Social Work at University
of Southern California). I am indebted to Dr. Harold for sharing her social
work expertise and providing me intellectual direction and remarkable
support that I needed throughout this process. My deep appreciation also

goes to Dr. Gold for his probing research questions and insightful views, and

vi

his constructive advice based on unique sociological perspectives. I owe a
special debt to Dr. Moore who rendered invaluable assistance by constantly
guiding me to think about practical implications of the study at the current
labor and industrial environment. I am grateful for the opportunity to work
with him on this research. I am also indebted to Dr. Sung for providing me
with consultations and advice on the “nuts and bolts” of the survey research
for this study. I must add here that Dr. Flynn sparked my interest in this
research and provided me with constructive criticism and invaluable advice.
I do not have words to express my immense gratitude to her for flying to East
Lansing to participate in every committee meeting for this dissertation.

There are other individuals who have directly and indirectly
contributed to my dissertation. I would like to thank my family members for
their support and encouragement. They have prayed for my success all the
time. I am additionally indebted to Jinsang Kim, Inbo Kim, Sungeun Kim,
Bokyung Kong, Han'a K. Song, Kyungman An, Yunjung Chang, and Lyung
Lee for their positive supports for data collection. A special thanks also goes
to Mary Robison and Sally Pratt for making tremendous efforts to improve
the syntax of this dissertation.

I also deeply acknowledge the graduate students, staff, and faculty of
the School of Social Work, Michigan State University. They have provided
me not only social work knowledge but also academic spirit and fellowship,

which have enabled my professional development and personal growth. I will

vii

be always thankful to these wonderful people who have shaped my learning
experience.

The research for my dissertation depended on the respondents—whose
willingness and support must not be overlooked. Respondents from major
automobile companies in the United States and South Korea, e.g., Ford, GM,
Hyundai, Daewoo, and Kia, and subcontracting automotive components
suppliers, all have willingly participated in this study. I sincerely thank all
these kind people who graciously gave their time to answer the survey

questionnaires or to be personally interviewed.

viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................... xi
LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................... xiv
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER II
THE REVIEW OF LITERATURE ................................................................. 7
Problems in Overseas Assignments ..................................................... 7
Framework of Acculturation ............................................................ 13
Factors Influencing Expatriates Acculturation ................................... 14
Process of Cross-Cultural Adjustment ............................................... 24
Social Work in the Global Workplace ................................................. 26
CHAPTER III
INSTRUMENT DEVELOPMENT STUDY .............................................. 33
Sample ......................................................................................... 36
Method ......................................................................................... 37
Findings ....................................................................................... 38
Discussion ..................................................................................... 44
Application of the Findings .............................................................. 48
CHAPTER IV
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ........................................ 51
Sample ......................................................................................... 51
Independent Variables .................................................................... 53
Dependent Variables ...................................................................... 65
Socio-Economic Status (SES) Variables ............................................ 67
Instrument ................................................................................... 7O

ix

CHAPTER V

FINDINGS .......................................................................................... 73
Analysis of Demographic Characteristics ........................................... 75
Testing Hypotheses ........................................................................ 83
CHAPTER VI
SOCIAL SERVICE NEEDS OF EXPATRIATE WORKERS ...................... 112
Needs Expressed Based on Frequency ............................................ 114
Needs Expressed Based on Importance ........................................... 128
Convergence of Frequency and Importance ...................................... 137

CHAPTER VII

CONCLUSION ................................................................................. 142
Summary of Results .................................................................... 143
Implication of Major Findings ....................................................... 147
Suggestions for Social Work Interventions ...................................... 150

Research Limitations and Recommendations for Future Study... ......162
APPENDICES .................................................................................................. 166

BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................ .186

LIST OF TABLES

Table

1.

Two Intervention Models: Core Technology vs. Comprehensive
Service .......................................................................................... 30

Frequency of Difficulties in Working with Foreign Counterparts

Cited by American Employees and Korean Employees .......................... 38
Questions for the Cross-Cultural Adaptation for the Second-Stage
Study ............................................................................................ 50
Work-Related Values Affected by Power Distance .................................... 55
Work-Related Values Affected by Individualism .................................. 57
Work-Related Values Affected by Uncertainty Avoidance ..................... 59
. Research Hypotheses and Related Issues ............................................ 68
General Categories on Questionnaire and Related Items ...................... 71

Socio-Demographic Characteristics of American Expatriates and
Korean Expatriates ......................................................................... 77

10.Means of Socio-Economic Status of American Expatriates and

Korean Expatriates ......................................................................... 8 1

11.Analysis of Variance for Perceived Stress by Cultural Dimension .......... 88

12. Linear Regression of Perceived Stress by Power Distance and

Uncertainty Avoidance ..................................................................... 89

13.Means and Correlation Matrix of Coping Methods and Perceived

Stress: American Expatriate Workers ................................................ 92

xi

14.Means and Correlation Matrix of Coping Methods and Perceived
Stress: Korean Expatriate Workers ..................................................... 93

15. Loading of Items of Relationships with Foreign Counterparts on
Four Factors ................................................................................... 96

16. Regression of Perceived Stress by the Expatriates’ Relationships
with Foreign Counterparts ............................................................... 99

17. Summary of Results: Testing Hypotheses ......................................... 111

18. Frequency of Problems Experienced in Foreign Countries Cited
by American Expatriates and Korean Expatriates .............................. 115

19. Frequency of Expected Services in Foreign Countries Cited
by American Expatriates and Korean Expatriates .............................. 119

20. Importance of Problems Experienced in Foreign Countries Cited
by American Expatriates and Korean Expatriates .............................. 130

21. Importance of Desired Services in Foreign Countries Cited by
American Expatriates and Korean Expatriates ................................... 132

22.Average Rankings of Problems Experienced in the Foreign Countries
by Frequency versus by Importance ................................................. 137

23.Average Rankings of Desired Services in the Foreign Countries
by Frequency versus by Importance ................................................. 138

24. Relevance between Problems Experienced and Services Desired
in Foreign Countries: Ranking Based on Frequency ............................ 140

25.Relevance between Problems Experienced and Services Desired
in Foreign Countries: Ranking Based on Importance ........................... 141

26. Categories of Difficulties in Working with Foreign Counterparts
Cited by Americans Using Questionnaire in Appendix A ..................... 167

27. Categories of Difficulties in Working with Foreign Counterparts
Cited by Koreans Using Questionnaire in Appendix A ......................... 169

28. Rating of Difficulties in Working with Foreign Counterparts
Cited by American Employees and Korean Employees ........................ 171

xii

29. Sources of Study Subjects for the Second-Stage Survey ..................... 172

30. Rankings of National Cultures Using Hofstede’s Classification ........... 175

xiii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

1. Framework of cross-cultural adjustment ............................................. 16
2. The “U” shaped curve depicting adjustment to a new culture ................. 25
3. The role of social worker in the comprehensive service model ................ 32

4. Frequency of difficulties in working with Korean counterparts
cited by Americans .......................................................................... 41

5. Frequency of difficulties in working with American counterparts
cited by Koreans ............................................................................. 43

6. Component plot in rotated space: The expatriate workers’
relationships with foreign counterparts ............................................... 97

7. The expatriates’ perceived stress by number of foreign countries
in which the expatriates have previously worked ............................... 102

8. The expatriates’ perceived stress by length of employment in
the host country ............................................................................ 104

9. The expatriates’ perceived level of stress by previous cross-cultural
training ....................................................................................... 106

10. Frequency of problems cited by both American expatriates and
Korean expatriates ......................................................................... 1 17

11. Frequency of services desired by both American expatriates and
Korean expatriates ......................................................................... 121

12. Frequency of problems cited only by American expatriates in
South Korea .................................................................................. 123

xiv

13. Frequency of services cited only by American expatriates in
South Korea .................................................................................. 124

14. Frequency of problems cited only by Korean expatriates in the
United States ................................................................................ 127

15. Frequency of services cited only by Korean expatriates in the
United States ................................................................................ 128

16. Importance of problems cited only by American expatriates
working in South Korea ................................................................. 133

17. Importance of expected services cited only by American
expatriates in South Korea ............................................................. 134

18. Importance of problems experienced cited only by Korean
expatriates in the United States ...................................................... 135

19. Importance of expected services cited only by Korean expatriates
in the United States ....................................................................... 136

XV

Chapter I

INTRODUCTION

The world economy has become globalized. International business
represents about $10.5 trillion or over one third of the world economy
(Fontaine, 1997). For the United States alone, merchandise exports have
risen from $22.4 billion in 1963 to $464 billion in 1995 (United Nations,
1995). The number of foreign subsidiaries that US. corporations operate has
increased along with expanding international business activities. Current
estimates of the number of Americans living and working abroad range from
3 to 5 million (Bureau of Consular Affairs, 1997). The US. corporation,
General Electric, estimates that 25% of its managers will need to take
international assignments to keep pace with the requirements of global work
(Black, Gregersen, & Mendenhall, 1992).

In terms of international alliances, most of the Fortune 500 firms in
the United States and nearly 40% of US. industrial companies with more
than 100 million dollars in sales are engaged in one or more international
joint ventures (Gillespie, 1990). Direct foreign investment in the economy of
the United States has also grown dramatically in recent years, and currently

exceeds 400 billion dollars. About three million Americans, or three percent

of the American labor force, work for foreign-owned companies in the United
States (Culter, 1989).

As a result of these trends toward greater international involvement
by both the United States and foreign countries, more and more of the
industrial workforce will work in other nations and experience different
cultural settings. These changes are likely to cause conflicts and tensions
associated with foreign work settings and cultural differences.

According to recent studies, 16% to 40% of US. citizens (hereafter
called Americans) who went overseas returned home early because they could
not adjust to the management styles of foreign supervisors or to the host
country's culture (Wagner & Hollenback, 1995).1 This means that
approximately one to two of every five US. expatriates sent overseas will be
unable to adapt. This problem is even more serious when we consider
“brownouts”——employees who do not return prematurely, but who are
nevertheless ineffective or less effective in the performance and execution of
their responsibilities. Some observers have estimated that between 30% and
50% of all US. expatriates fall into the “brownout” category (Black,
Mendenhall, & Oddou, 1991; Hiltrop & Janssens, 1995).

Grove and Hallowell (1997) noted that a global company invests from

$300,000 to $1,000,000 annually in each of its expatriate workers, depending

 

1 The failure ratio of foreign assignments varies: Mendenhall & Oddou (1995) estimated
approximately 20% of personnel sent abroad return prematurely from an overseas
assignment; Caudron (1991) categorized early return rates by the country of assignment and
found a 68% return rate for expatriate workers in Saudi Arabia, 36% in Japan, 27% in
Europe, and 18% in Great Britain.

on the nature of the job, the international exchange rate, and location of
assignment. Hiltrop and Janssens (1995) found that the average cost of
relocating an expatriate employee and his or her family to range between
$55,000 and $150,000. Furthermore, Dowling and Schuler (1990) estimated
that approximately $2.5 billion was lost because of poor performance in
overseas assignments for American companies. Failures of operating
overseas can eventually cause lost agreements, contracts, and sales; damaged
reputations; unrealized profit expectations; failed mergers, joint ventures,
and acquisitions; and attrition of good employees.

Besides financial losses due to unsuccessful employee assignments,
individual expatriate workers experience “invisible” costs. When an
expatriate migrates to an unpredictable environment, he or she is most likely
to experience culture shock as the result of a sudden change. Cohon (1981)
indicated that the expatriate’s migration is one of the most obvious instances
of complete disorganization of an individual’s role system and that this
induces significant stress, requiring the expatriate to build a new cognitive
map.

In addition, expatriate workers inevitably face a variety of adjustment
problems caused by different socio-economic systems, languages, and social
customs. Family dissatisfaction with living in the foreign country is also one
of the principal obstacles for the expatriates. Mendenhall and Oddou (1995)

noted that the expatriate who fails to overcome these difficulties and returns

to a home country prematurely may suffer loss of self-esteem and self-
confidence and a loss of prestige among one’s peers

When the costs in both human suffering and material losses are
considered, companies will find that promoting workers’ adaptation to
culturally different work environments must be a priority for sending
employees on global assignments. However, few assignees and family
members receive special training in encouraging cross-cultural adaptability
in overseas assignments. In fact, 70% of US. expatriates and 90% of their
families are sent overseas without any preparatory cross-cultural training
(Black & Mendenhall, 1991; Fontaine, 1997).

Social workers understand the potential of workplace problems that
affect various aspects of individual functioning (Perlman, 1982).
Nevertheless, social work researchers have conducted very little
experimental studies that examine impacts on employees of expatriate work
environments. Although a few studies have shown the importance of direct
client services in the workplace, especially in the areas of mental health and
substance abuse counseling, and some have begun to address job-related
issues such as plant shut-downs, industrial reorganization, and a rapidly
changing technology, these studies did not deal adequately with difficulties
encountered by employees, their families, and work organizations. In
particular, social work intervention aimed toward helping expatriate workers
and/or their families who face different national cultures, a major concern of

this study, has not been addressed.

To explore the nature of expatriation and the problems associated with
culturally different work settings, expatriate workers in the automobile
industry in the United States and South Korea were selected for the present
study. Automobile companies in the two nations have actively increased
international business cooperation, but few empirical studies report how
specific cultural factors influence expatriate workers’ adaptations to new
work environments. In addition, the increasing importance of the Far East
region in our globalized industry and trading heightens the chance that
future American workers will be transferred to the Far East and will need to
make adjustments in living and working in this geographical region.

This dissertation investigated the basic fiamework of international
adjustment by the expatriate worker in order to understand difficulties he or
she may encounter. The term international adjustment is used throughout
this study as the conceptualized degree of an individual’s psychological
comfort with various aspects of a new overseas environment (Black, 1988;
Oberg, 1960; Ruben & Kealey, 1979; Takeuchi & Harmon, 1995). This study
also examines how the field of social work, particularly industrial social
work, has responded to various problems in the global work setting, and what
specific concepts or theories have been used to justify social work
intervention. Finally, this study covers several types of services that
industrial social workers should provide for expatriate workers in order to

facilitate successful expatriation.

 

 

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The results of this study are expected to contribute to an
understanding of patterns of adjustment in international settings and to
promote cross-cultural training needs and social work service interventions
for both expatriate employees and their families for the overall improvement

of the quality of work-life in multinational corporations.

Chapter II

THE REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Several studies focusing on the essence of expatriation found that
completing an international assignment presents expatriate employees and
their families with a variety of difficulties and challenges (Adler, 1986;
Fontaine, 1997; Kobrin, 1988; Grove & Hallowell, 1997; Solomon, 1994; Zeira
& Banai, 1985).

Studies of expatriation in the United States have reported that the
failure rate of expatriate employees is high. Hiltrop and J anssens (1995), for
instance, noted that 50% of US. expatriates do not complete their
assignments in developed countries. The proportion rises to 70% in
developing countries. Tung (1982) also found higher failure rates among US.
multinational corporations than among European and Japanese firms.
Although estimating precise failure ratios and costs is difficult, the
assignment of managers and/or workers abroad is a difficult procedure and
one that is not likely to be deemed successful.

Failed overseas assignments are costly to the company in terms of lost
money and productivity, as well as individual expatriates who encounter

career failure, personal maladjustment, and family disruption. The following

 

(it

is

If.)

describes the essence of problems that three major groups, i.e., organizations,
individual expatriate workers, and their families tend to experience in

foreign assignments.

Problems in Overseas Assignments
Organization/Company

The demand for expatriate workers has increased. Zeira and Banai
(1985) found that the rapid growth of multinational companies and especially
joint ventures in developing countries has produced a renewed demand for
managers and/or workers capable of serving outside their countries.

However, the financial costs of employing expatriate workers are
significant. Expatriate workers typically earn substantial allowances in the
form of premiums for relocation, cost-of-living differentials, travel expenses,
housing allowances, and education allowances. These may increase base
salaries by 25% to 100% (Hiltrop & Janssens, 1995). In addition, most
multinational companies supplement salaries to make up for the amount of
money expatriates lose by paying higher taxes when working abroad.

Repatriation to the home country is also becoming recognized as
problematic (Adler, 1986; Black et al., 1992; Essex, 1998; Grove & Associates,
1997 ; Harvey, 1983). A study revealed that 65% of United States expatriates
were actually demoted after returning from an international assignment.
Twenty-five percent of repatriated employees left their company within one

year, and 40% within two years (Shepard, 1997). When the expatriate is not

integrated successfully upon return, companies may lose valuable human

resources .

Individual mtriate workers

Individual expatriate workers frequently encounter an environment
that is highly stressful. To begin with, separation fiom friends, leaving one’s
home country, and drastic changes in one’s environment generally provoke an
experience of stress or emotional disturbance (Hiltrop & Janssens, 1995).
The host country is culturally, politically, economically, and legally different
from that of one’s home country. Attitudes toward work differ. As a result,
many expatriates tend to develop symptoms of “transfer anxiety,” culture
shock, social dislocation, adaptation problems, “exile complex” (feeling
abandoned by headquarters), frustration, and disappointment (Brooke &
Remmers, 1977; Ronen, 1986).

Expatriate workers must deal with problems stemming from the
relationship between their corporate headquarters and foreign subsidiaries
(Hiltrop & Janssens, 1995). The headquarters’ objectives and policies may
conflict with needs and expectations of those who are in overseas
assignments. For instance, a subsidiary may want to reinvest most of the
profits it makes into its own operations. The parent company, however, may
prefer to take the profits and use the revenue to invest in another subsidiary.
According to Rahim (1983), such differences of expectation may create role

conflicts for expatriate employees.

10

Another substantial factor influencing the effectiveness of expatriation
involves the so-called “information gap” between expatriates and their
colleagues at home (Esssex, 1998; Hiltrop & Janssens, 1995). Expatriate
employees frequently feel alienated from a variety of occurrences at
headquarters. Howard (1974) found that more than two thirds of expatriates
in his study complained of suffering from an information gap phenomenon.
These employees, believing that their colleagues treated them as if they were
“out of sight, out of mind,” often felt professionally unproductive and

personally dissatisfied.

Expatriate’s family

Although the issues of individual expatriate employees are important,
previous studies indicate that the adaptability of an employee in a foreign
subsidiary depends to a large extent upon how satisfied the employee’s
spouse and children are with the foreign environment (Essex, 1998; Fontaine,
1997; Grove & Associates, 1997; Tung, 1982). Harvey and Lusch (1982)
found that stress in the family affects an overseas manager’s ability to be
creative, make decisions, and manage employees. Similarly, Hays (1971)
argued that an adaptive and supportive family is important in avoiding
failure in an overseas assignment.

The impact of the international transfer is often likely to be more
severe on a spouse than on the expatriate worker. Several studies have

described difficulties in adjustment faced by adult females accompanying

 

 

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their husbands overseas (Briody & Chrisman, 1991, Fontaine, 1997; Harvey,
1985; Rodgers, 1984; Takeuchi & Harmon, 1996). According to a recent
study, 90% of expatriates were male, and 78% were married (Solomon, 1994).
Among those married male expatriates, 46% of the accompanying spouses left
a career in the United States. Eighty-eight percent of multinational
corporations thus considered that the dual-career problem would become a
critical issue in international assignments. While expatriate workers
maintain their careers while abroad, most of their spouses leave relatives
and friends in the home country, not to pursue their own careers, but rather
to be with their husbands or wives in overseas assignments.

Separation from friends and family at home may cause spouses to feel
loneliness or isolation, but expatriate workers may have less time for
companionship. The expatriate often works long hours to deal with the
unfamiliar working conditions of the new assignment and thus he or she may
be unable to spend as much time as necessary to reduce family anxiety and
dissatisfaction (Adler, 1986).

Spouses tend to experience the foreign culture on the most immediate
and every day basis and thus they are more likely to encounter culture shock
than expatriate workers. For example, a spouse may have to find out all the
essential elements of running a household, arranging for servants, choosing
the best places to go for groceries, and deciding whether to bargain or not

(Harvey, 1985).

12

Children are another complicating element. Families in a foreign
country are very concerned about how their children will manage in the new
environment. Children may have special needs or may not adjust easily to a
new school and neighborhood (Soloman, 1994). Difficulties that expatriate
children face may put a strain on a marriage and eventually these issues can
affect expatriates’ productivity in overseas assignments.

Some expatriate families, particularly from Far Eastern countries,
such as China, Japan, and South Korea, tend to be concerned about elderly
parents and/or relatives whom they must leave behind in the home country.
McCaffrey and Hafner (1985) illustrated Asians’ perspectives toward parents
through the following story:

On a sea voyage, you are traveling with your wife, your child,

and your mother. The ship develops problems and starts to

sink. Of your family, you are the only one who can swim and

you can only save one other individual. Whom would you save?

This question was posed to a group of men in Asia and the

United States. In the United States, more than 60% of those

responding said they would save the child, 40% would choose to

save the wife, and none would have saved the mother. In the

Asian countries, 100% said they would save the mother. Their

rationale? You can always remarry and have more children but

you cannot have another mother. (p. 26)

Although several studies have raised family-related issues in the
expatriate work setting, most of them have rarely identified the extent to

which expatriates’ family members adjust in the foreign country and its

effects on the expatriates’ adaptability in the new work environment.

l3

Framework of Acculturation

A clearer understanding of the key factors that constitute the
expatriate’s adjustment processes is essential to implementing (1) selection
instruments that are predictive of expatriate acculturation, (2) cross-cultural
training programs that would address the relevant factors of acculturation
and train expatriates in the necessary skills relevant to those factors, and (3)
professional intervention models, led by industrial social workers. However,
Mendenhall and Oddou (1995) argued that the field of expatriation research
currently suffers from an inadequate understanding of the relevant variables
of expatriate acculturation and the use of inappropriate selection, training,
and intervention methods for expatriates.

In terms of a framework of cross-cultural adjustment of expatriate
workers, an acculturation model has been proposed by Black et a1. (1991).
The concepts of the acculturation model have been applied to various cross-
cultural studies (Fontaine, 1997; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1995; Takeuchi &
Hannon, 1996). According to Black et al. (1991), expatriates’ adjustment to a
foreign culture consists of three major related but separate dimensions, i.e.,
overseas job, interaction with natives of the host country, and general non-
work environment.

The first dimension is adjustment to the job to which the employee is
assigned. Black et al. (1991) noted that this type of adjustment is the easiest
of the three dimensions for expatriate workers, primarily because job

adjustment is facilitated by similarities in procedures, policies, and task

l4

requirements between the foreign operation and those of the home-country.
However, aspects of the corporate culture of the foreign operation, as well as
the national culture where the foreign operation is, are often seriously
different from those back home and exert an influence on expatriate workers’
tasks and responsibilities.

The second dimension is adjustment to interacting with natives of the
country to which the expatriate employee is assigned. Black et al. (1991)
considered this to be the most difficult dimension of the three types of
adjustment, mainly because interactions with host-country nationals are
where differences in mental maps and rules show up.

The final dimension of cross-cultural adaptation is adjustment to the
general non-work environment. This dimension includes such issues as food,
shopping, transportation, entertainment, and heath care. In terms of
difficulty, this dimension would generally fall between job and interaction

adjustment.

Factors Influencing Expatriates Acculturation
From the review of the literature, it seems that factors influencing
adjustment to a foreign culture occur in time in two phases: factors involved
Mug departure (the anticipatory adjustment phase) and factors involved

after arrival (the in-country adjustment phase). First, the degree to which

 

correct information about the values, norms, and behavioral rules of the host

culture is available to expatriates before they leave for overseas assignments

l5

supports anticipatory adjustment. Second, post-arrival, or in-country factors,
also affect expatriates’ adaptation to foreign assignments. Major variables
that influence the expatriates’ cross-cultural adjustment are country,
organization, individual, and family. Finally, the extent to which the
expatriates adjust to a foreign country can be assessed by their adaptability
in three dimensions: work adjustment, interaction adjustment
(communicating with the host nationals), and general adjustment
(adjustment to facets of the society at large). Figure 1 illustrates the
relationships of these variables which affect the expatriates’ cross-cultural

adaptation.

l6

In-Country Adjustment

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Anticipatory Adjustment
INDIVIDUAL
, trainingi previOus !
\ exeerlence
accurate
expectations
t
ANTICIPATORY
ADJUSTMENT
COMPANY
selection
training

 

COUNTRY

- culture novelty

- attitudes toward
expatriates

- heterogeneity
vs. homogeneity

 

 

 

ORGANIZATION

- rationale for
expatriation

- training

- culture novelty

- social support

 

 

INDIVIDUAL
- self

- others

- perception

 

 

FAMILY

- spouse’s attitude

- expatriate/spouse
interaction

- child’s reaction

 

DEGREE
OF
ADJUSTMENT

WORK
ADJUSTMENT

INTERACTION
ADJUSTMENT

GENERAL
ADJUSTMENT

 

 

 

 

 

- social support

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 1. Framework of cross-cultural adjustment. Modified from the
Black et al. (1991, p.303) model.

 

Anticipatory Adjustment

The extent to which expatriate workers adjust in foreign assignments
depends on their experiences in advance of actually being transferred
overseas. The nature of anticipatory adjustments primarily consists of two
major levels: individual and organization (Black et al., 1991; Black &
Mendenhall, 1991; Mendenhall & Wiley, 1994). The anticipatory adjustment
at the individual level includes pre-departure cross-cultural training to
provide expatriate workers with accurate information about the social,
cultural, and lifestyle adjustments they will have to make to adapt overseas.

It also involves previous overseas experience. Many researchers have

 

speculated that simply living in a foreign country could positively impact the
formation of accurate expectations (Black et al., 1991; Church, 1982;
Mendenhall & Wiley, 1994).

At the organizational level, providing employees and family members
with cross-cultural training can positively impact cultural adjustment skills
and job performance and thus help prevent costly expatriate failures
(Caudron, 1991). This training might be categorized as either an individual
or an organizational factor because individuals can provide pre-departure
training for themselves or can have it provided by their firms. Black et al.
(1991) also suggested that some intensive cross—cultural training should be
continued even after the individual has been in the host country for a month

01‘ SO.

18

In addition to the cross-cultural training, if the organization maintains
effective selection mechanisms in choosing candidates whose personalities
and required skills “fit” the circumstance of the host country, more favorable

adjustment to the foreign culture can be anticipated.

ln-Countrv Atfiustment

 

Country factors

Country factors are those aspects peculiar to the host country and/or
home country which promotes or hinders expatriate adjustment. For
instance, cultures of some host countries are more difficult to adapt to than
others (Mendenhall & Wiley, 1994). Torbiorn (1982) found that American
expatriates expressed high levels of dissatisfaction when assigned to
countries such as India/Pakistan, Southeast Asia, the Middle-East, North
Africa, East Africa, and Liberia in the areas of job satisfaction, levels of stress
and pressure, health care, housing standards, entertainment, food, and skill
of coworkers. Also, greater cultural barriers were reported for Southeast
Asia, Japan, Africa, and the Middle East than for other world regions.
Therefore, how well the expatriate adjusts to his or her overseas experience
seems to be in part related to the country of assignment.

Host country factors also include attitudes toward expatriate workers,
the degree of nationalism, and the role of indigenous workers. For example,
some countries actively seek foreign investment, making it very attractive to

foreign companies, while others are more hostile to foreign corporate

l9

involvement because they see it as a threat to national sovereignty
(Mendenhall & Wiley, 1994). In addition, some countries have legal
requirements related to the number of expatriates allowed and the number of
host national workers that must be hired in order to maintain the local labor
force.

An expatriate’s home country often influences his or her adjustment
and performance as well. An expatriate’s conception of organization is found
to be deeply rooted in the home culture (Laurent, 1983). An expatriate
worker originally from a heterogeneous culture, e.g., the United States, may
have more difficulty in adjustment when he or she works in a homogeneous
society, e.g., South Korea, than an expatriate from a homogeneous culture to
a heterogeneous society because the homogeneous community may not

readily accept someone who is from a different culture.

Organizational factors

Researchers have identified four major organizational factors that
promote effective expatriation and repatriation, i.e., (1) rationale for
expatriation, (2) training, (3) culture novelty, and (4) social support. These
factors tend to have strong relationships with adjustment in a work setting.
First, the rationale for expatriation is to determine who is selected and what
he or she is expected to accomplish, e.g., whether for technology transfer,

management development, or control of corporate culture (Schneider &

Asakawa, 1995).

20

The second organizational factor is post-arrival cross-cultural training.
Although training helps individuals understand the rules and customs of the
host culture in the anticipatory adjustment phases, training is also useful to
support them in developing the behaviors and skills necessary to operate
effectively in the foreign culture. This training often involves spouses and
children of expatriate workers. Because the extent to which the expatriate’s
family adjusts to the host country influences the employee’s productivity in
the foreign assignment, the family’s needs should be addressed (Harvey,
1985; Tung, 1982; De Cieri, Dowling, & Taylor, 1991).

The third organizational factor that can affect work adjustment is the
degree to which the organizational culture in the foreign operation is
different from the organizational culture of the home office. This is called
cultural novelty (Mendenhall & Wiley, 1994). The greater the difference, the
more difficult the adjustment, and the longer the expatriate may ultimately
take to adjust to the host setting (Black et al., 1991).

The fourth organizational aspect involves the extent to which members
of the foreign operation provide social support to the newcomer. Supportive
coworkers in the subsidiary can provide both useful information about the

host culture and emotional support while the newcomers “learn the ropes.”

Individual factors
The literature of expatriate adjustment includes numerous linkages

between individual skills and cross-cultural adjustment. Researchers

21

identify three major categories of individual factors related to in-country
adjustment, i.e., (1) self-orientation (2) others-orientation, and (3) perception-
orientation (Black et al., 1991; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1995). The degree of
the individual expatriate’s skills in each of these dimensions tends to affect
his or her overseas adjustment.

The first category, self-orientation, is the ability to believe in oneself
and have confidence in one’s ability to deal effectively with foreign
counterparts and new work environments.2 While arrogance or an inflated
self-image will not help cross-cultural adjustment, those who show successful
overseas adaptation tend to persevere even in the face of mistakes, ask
questions about mistakes they make, learn from their mistakes, and try not
to make the same mistakes repeatedly (Black et al., 1992).

In addition, the expatriate who is able to find parallel substitutes for
his or her interests and activities in the new culture is more likely to be
successful in adjusting to that new culture. For example, learning to enjoy
soccer instead of football, or to appreciate traditional folk music rather than
western music, will be helpful to the American expatriate’s acculturation
(Mendenhall & Oddou, 1995).

The issue of stress reduction is another important aspect which

consists of self-oriented dimension. Cross-cultural theorists have long

 

2 Although Tung (1982) noted that an individual expatriate’s technical competence affects his
or her adjustment in a foreign assignment, others differently reported that no correlation
exists between feelings of expertise in the expatriate’s job and successful adjustment to the

foreign culture (Mendelhall & Oddou, 1991).

22

believed that the entrance into an unfamiliar culture produces stress within
the expatriate (Byrnes, 1966; Oberg, 1962). Relatively recent studies also
indicate that the ability to deal with stress is very important to expatriate
adjustment (Abe & Wiseman, 1983; Bardo & Bardo, 1980; Graham, 1983;
Hawes & Kealey, 1981; Ratiu, 1983). Mendenhall and Oddou (1995)
particularly found that well-adjusted expatriates were better able to cope
with the stress of ambiguous interpersonal relations and were more
impervious to depression and loneliness than were poorly adjusted
expatriates. Similarly, Hawes and Kealey (1981) found that the ability to
cope successfully with “day-to-day life overseas” emerged as an important
variable in the acculturation process.

The second group of individual factors is often referred to as 9th_er_s_-
orientation or relational characteristics, which help individuals actively
interact with new people from different cultural settings. In particular, the
ability to develop long-lasting friendships with host-nationals is an important
factor in successful overseas adjustment (Abe & Wiseman, 1983; Hammer,
Gudykunst, & Wiseman, 1978; Hawes & Kealey, 1981; Ratiu, 1983). The
host-nationals can provide practical information and support that facilitate
the expatriates in understanding behaviors and attitudes in the new culture.

In addition, several studies report that the expatriate’s willingness to
communicate with host-nationals is also important to cross-cultural

adjustment and that the expatriate’s confidence in using the host culture's

23

language has a great influence on successful adjustments (Abe & Wiseman,
1983; Hammer et al., 1978). Communication skills tend to show positive
relationships with expatriates’: (1) willingness to use the host-nationals’
language; (2) confidence in interacting with people; (3) use of conversational
currency; and (4) desire to understand and relate with host-nationals.

The third group of individual factors includes one often termed
perceptual-orientation. This focuses on the individual’s ability to grasp and
understand the invisible cultural maps and rules. For example, some people
are much better able to appreciate and understand the invisible and subtle
determinants of people’s behavior than others. Ruben and Kealey (1979)
noted that well-adjusted expatriates tend to be nonjudgmental and non-
evaluative when interpreting the behavior of host-nationals. This
nonjudgmental approach in the cognitive evaluation of host-nationals leads
to clearer information transmission and better interpersonal relationships

between the expatriates and host-nationals.

Family/Non-work factors

Recent studies show a consistent and strong relationship between the
adjustment of the expatriate worker and that of the spouse (Black &
Gregersen, 1991; Black et al., 1992; Fontaine, 1997; Grove & Associates,
1997 ; Grove & Hallowell, 1997). The relationship is most likely reciprocal,

and the adjustment of the employee and the spouse is mutually influential.

24

Researchers empirically demonstrated that adjustment of the spouse was
positively related to the spouse’s favorable attitude toward the foreign
assignment and self-initiated pre-departure training (Black & Gregersen,
1991; Takeuchi & Harmon, 1996).

Another family factor that has an important relationship with cross-
cultural adjustment is social support outside the workplace. A variety of
resources that exists in the host country, such as day care centers, public
transportation, religious services, and recreation programs, will enhance
expatriates’ and/or their families’ adaptability to the host culture (Black et
al., 1991). With necessary information regarding these social services,
supports from host-nationals outside the foreign workplace may provide

emotional relief to the newcomers.

Process of Cross-Cultural Adjustment

Research on cultural adaptation suggests that key stages occur in the
overseas experience that reflect an individual’s psychological and cultural
adjustment to a new environment. Oberg (1960) employed the term “culture
shock” to describe such feelings as anxiety, confusion, and strain when
individuals come into contact with a new culture. According to Briody and
Chrisman (1991), typically depicted as a “U” shaped curve, the most difficult
period for the individual occurs after an initial period of enthusiasm. Over
time, the individual gradually acquires sufficient information about the host

country culture and develops an ability to cope in the new environment.

25

Although the “U” shaped curve pattern is not supported in all
empirical studies, they noted that the stages of adaptation and the “U”
shaped pattern are valuable in examining expatriates and students, among

others, residing in a particular location on a non-permanent basis.

Overseas
Adaptation

 

 

Time

Figure 2. The “U” shaped curve depicting adjustment to a new culture.
Adapted from Brody and Chrisman (1991, p. 266).

Social Work in the Global Workplace

During the past decade, one of the most significant developments in
the field of social work has been industrial social work. Trade unions and
employing organizations had been outside the social services arena and were
not part of the formal human services tradition. However, with the efforts of
industrial social workers, the workplace has become a target for social work
intervention and the number of Employee Assistance Programs has
enormously increased as well. In 1973, only 500 programs existed in the

United States. By 1988, approximately 20,000 programs had been created

26

nationwide (Spitzer & Favorini, 1993). A recent study predicts that by the
year 2000, more than half of all workplaces with 50 or more employees in the
United States will probably have an employee assistance program (Tyler,
1996).

According to Kurzman (1993), industrial social work is characterized
by policies, procedures, and counseling-oriented services to identify or
respond to employees with personal, emotional, or behavioral problems,
especially those that interfere with their performance at work. Googins and
Godfrey (1987) also noted that industrial social work includes such diverse
areas as counseling, referral, consultation, and input into corporate social
responsibility and collective bargaining agreements. In the main, however,
most industrial social workers spend the majority of their time providing
direct client services, especially in the areas of mental health and substance
abuse counseling (Googins, 1975).

Although provisions of mental health and substance abuse services are
important, the new global economic context requires a reevaluation of the
skills and responsibilities traditionally associated with industrial social work.
In particular, as a result of vigorous global exchanges, the let century
American workplace increasingly will be comprised of individuals who
experience expatriation to a foreign country that not only will have unique
Styles of interaction and modes of communication, but also unique world

Views and frames of reference. Therefore, industrial social workers must

27

confront the emergence of a new client population, i.e., expatriate workers in
overseas assignments.

To respond to increasing personnel needs in a global setting, social
workers may need to turn their attention from identifying and treating the
individual employee in a domestic company to addressing the “whole” person
who encounters with numerous circumstances both inside and outside the
workplace. Social work in this instance must be based on a system
perspective that emphasizes the “person-in-environment (PIE)” approach.
This PIE approach encompasses the reciprocal relationships and other
influences among an individual, the relevant other or others, and the

physical and social environment (Barker, 1991).

Intervention models

According to differences in educational preparation and perceptions of
need by the major parties, i.e., management, labor, and health-care
providers, who may have different interests in employee assistance services,
industrial social workers have developed various types of intervention.
However, historically the two prominent models of contemporary social work
in the work setting are: (1) the core technology-focused model and (2) the
Comprehensive service model (Kurzman, 1993). First, the core technology-
fO_Cused model is primarily concerned with getting documented alcoholics into
detoxification, rehabilitation, and aftercare. Its main perspective toward

Substance abusers is “health versus pathology.” The major purpose of

28

intervention is to “control” employees in order to achieve managerial goals of
cost-effectiveness, as well as to enhance employees’ productivity. The core
technology model typically employs alcoholism counselors who provide
counseling and referral to outside treatment programs, but offer few
prevention services. In this model, personal, family, and environmental
problems are frequently ignored. Some of these efforts involve untrained
staffs with little professional expertise. The central function of industrial
social worker emphasizes “assessment and referral,” rather than “treatment.”
Roman and Blum (1985), who coined the phrase “core technology,” defined
what constitutes the component roles and functions of industrial social
workers:

a identification of employees’ behavioral problems on the basis

of their job performance
0 consultation with supervisors, managers, and shop stewards

o appropriate use of “constructive confrontation” as leverage
when employees are referred

0 micro- and macro-linkages with external counseling,
treatment, and other community resources

0 the centrality of employees’ alcohol problems as the focus of

programs with the most significant promise for producing
recovery and genuine cost savings for the work organization.

(pp. 16-17)

The core technology model has a history of success in reaching out to and

serving middle— and later-stage alcoholics who work under intensive

29

supervision in manufacturing settings, though it may not be well fitted to the
variety and complexity of today’s work environment (Kurzman, 1993).

The comprehensive family-service model focuses not on the medical
model but instead on a social functioning perspective that underscores the
need to identify and harness workers’ strengths. The comprehensive service
model is designed not as an alternative management tool, but as a benefit for
workers. It focuses on personal problems, including alcoholism and drug
abuse, that may affect the employee’s ability to function productively and it
emphasizes workplace social utility. Unlike the core technology model, which
limits its sc0pe primarily to assessment and referral, this model emphasizes
prevention and short-term treatment. Assistance is likely to be for a
personal problem (not for an illness or a disease) that is affecting the worker’s
ability to function. The comprehensive service model is oriented to an
ecological perspective (person-in-environment) and it focuses not only on
individual employees but also on their family members and persons who may
negatively influence workers’ performances. Therefore, in this model, the
social worker might find affordable day care for a worker’s young children,
elder care for a worker’s aging parents, or special education services for a
worker’s delinquent, adolescent son/daughter. Table 1 illustrates the

different assumptions of the two industrial social work models.

30

Table 1. Two Intervention Models: Core Technology vs. Comprehensive

 

 

Service
Variable Core Technology Comprehensive Service
Design Management tool A benefit for workers

Orientation Alcohol and drug abuse

Principle A workplace disciplinary
alternative
Function Supervisory training and

intervention with workers

Focus Current job performance
Objective Enhancement of employees’
productivity
Concept New personnel prerogative

for employers

Scope Assessment and referral

Intake Primarily by supervisors’
referrals

Clients Workers

Prevention Tertiary

Perspective A health versus pathology;
to discipline or to heal (cure)

Commitment Providing prescribed
services

Personal problems that may
affect workers’ performance

A workplace social utility
Supervisory training,
intervention with workers,

workplace health, education,
wellness, and prevention

Present and potential
capacity to function

Preservation of precious
human and fiscal resources

New resource and
entitlement for workers

Assessment, referral, and
prevention

Referral by supervisors, self,
and peers

Workers, families, and their
communities

Primary and secondary

An ecological-life perspective;
to enhance social functioning

Providing prescribed services
and promoting social change

 

Note. Revised from Kurzman, P.A. & Akabas, S.H. (Eds). (1993). The work and well-being

(p.34). Washington DC: NASW.

3]

Although the two models are different, the most pertinent issue in the
field of industrial social work is the systems perspective. The core technology
model, with its focus on troubled workers and their supervisors, is easier to
apply when the family and the workplace are conceptualized as separate
domains (Roman, 1989). “The factory or office here comes to be seen as a
complete, closed autonomous system,” according to Kurzman (1993),
“pursuing its own goals and developing its own values and norms of behavior
regardless of the outside world” (p. 36). Such a closed systems model,
however, seems to be inappropriate in today’s global economy.

In contrast to a closed system, an open system, on which the
comprehensive family service model is based, indicates a continuous
exchange with other systems and with the environment. An active import
and/or export of energy or resources occurs between environments. The Open
system theory helps social workers promote perception and understanding of
the social environment which is composed of many varied social systems.
This theory also encourages social workers to focus on interdependence
rather than independence. Therefore, industrial social workers principal
mission should be intervention that changes both the employee and the work
environment, rather than simply focusing on one or the other problem.

As noted earlier, a variety of factors, such as the country setting, work
organization, family, and social support systems, influence the expatriate’s
adaptation to a culturally different work environment, in addition to

particular individual characteristics and/or abilities. On the basis of the

32

systems perspective, industrial social workers needs to understand the
nature of interactions among cross-cultural factors before they intervene to
assist troubled expatriate employees. Figure 3 illustrates the comprehensive

service role of industrial social workers in the field of expatriation.

   
   
     

  

Individual

 
   
 

.'.- I‘l'
" u

v
u
' .
, . , . *I
...;»I‘ .
..‘v '_.
‘ \

    

organi- 1 ,,
zation "‘

 

Figure 3. The role of social worker in the comprehensive service model

Chapter III

INSTRUMENT DEVELOPMENT STUDY

As demonstrated in Chapter II, previous cross-cultural studies have
presented a framework of expatriate adjustment in overseas assignments and
have found multidimensional aspects of expatriate adaptation, i.e., general
adjustment, work adjustment, and interaction adjustment. However, few
researchers investigated the combined effects of (1) national culture, (2)
organization and community, (3) individual expatriate’s attributes, and (4)
family members. These four dimensions, generally based on systems theory
perspective, are most likely to influence expatriate workers’ adjustment in
foreign assignments. Furthermore, little empirical research has focused on
both the specific problems expatriate workers encounter and services or
programs they would like to see developed in the host country.

This study was conducted in two separate stages. The first-stage study
clarified interpersonal factors affecting workers’ adjustment to different work
environments through a survey of both American employees and Korean
employees who expatriated respectively from the American work
environment and the Korean work environment. Although expatriate

workers are likely to encounter difficulties in relationships with foreign

33

34

counterparts and/or local employees in the host country, there exists no
instrument to measure the effects of the relationships on the expatriates’
adjustment. Thus, the first-stage study was designed to examine major
interpersonal problems from which expatriates suffer in overseas
assignments. The findings of the study were applied to the second-stage
study as one of the acculturation variables to investigate its influence on
workers’ adaptation to the culturally different work environment.

The second-stage study overall assessed the impact of global operation
on the sojourners’ adaptation to the host country, based on both the results of
the first-stage study and the relevant literature regarding cross-cultural
adjustment. The second-stage study also employed a variety of indices
identified in previous studies of global work assignments (Carver & Scheier,
1989; Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstein, 1983; Cross, 1995; Hofstede, 1980).
However, some new indices were expected to emerge fi'om this study, which
are relevant to understanding American and Korean workplaces where
cultural differences may cause problems between American employees and
Korean counterparts. Using these indices, a questionnaire was constructed
for the second stage of the study. The questionnaire explores four major
domains: (1) dimensions of the national culture of the United States and
South Korea, (2) individual expatriate’s attributes, e.g., perceived stress,
coping ability, relationships with foreign counterparts, and expatriate

experiences, (3) organization and community relations, and (4) life

35

satisfaction of family members in the host country. Research methodology for

the second-stage study is described in detail in Chapter IV.

Sample

The purpose of the first-stage study was to develop a survey
instrument for the second-stage study. The first-stage study was conducted
in the automobile industrial settings in both the United States and South
Korea fiom October 1996 to January 1997 to determine what difficulties exist
among American employees and Korean employees in terms of mutual
relationships. By conducting careful comparisons between the findings fiom
this survey and existing materials on cross-cultural studies, the cross-
cultural adjustment of expatriate workers was assessed.

The original sample for the first-stage study was obtained from
employees who have worked either for American automobile companies or for
Korean companies and have been expatriated fi'om America to South Korea
or from South Korea to America. The sample also included local workers who
frequently interacted with those expatriates from different cultures. To focus
on the relationships between Americans and Koreans, the sample was
restricted to two major American automobile companies (Ford Motor
Company and General Motors), one Korean automobile maker (Kia Motors
Corporation), and their subcontracting automotive components suppliers.

These companies are closely interrelated through business association and

36

technical exchanges, and their employees have extensive experience in
working with American or Korean counterparts. In fact, Ford Motor
Company has maintained an equity partnership with Kia Motors holding
approximately 10% of its shares in Kia since 1986, whereas Kia Motors has
supplied more than 85,000 Festivas every year to Ford since 1987 (Festiva,
recently renamed Aspire, is a small subcompact car mostly with a 1.3-1iter
engine). Although General Motors ended its joint-venture partnership with
Daewoo Motor Company in South Korea in 1992, it still interacts with
several Korean automotive components firms. In total, approximately 100
expatriate employees and local workers have actively worked with foreign

counterparts in these companies.3

Method

Due to the small sample size, survey questionnaires were mailed to all
these employees asking them to answer problems which tended to evoke their
difficulties associated with cultural differences while they worked with
foreign counterparts. In total, 74 questionnaires were returned (giving a
response rate of approximately 74%): 33 American employees (20 from Ford,
7 from General Motors, and 6 from subcontracting American automotive
components suppliers) and 41 Koreans (29 from Kia, 9 from GM-Korea, and 4

from subcontracting Korean automotive systems firms).

 

3The estimated number is based on personal interviews with executives in Ford, GM, and
Kia.

37

They were also asked to rate, according to the degree of importance,
each of the difficulty items they raised. The questions were translated into
Korean for the Korean respondents and then translated back into English by
bilingual assistants to ensure the equivalence of meaning (Brislin, 1986). All
respondents were assured that their responses would be kept strictly
confidential. The questionnaire required less than ten minutes to complete.
For those who had not returned the questionnaire in a month, a follow-up
request was made by telephone. In this follow-up process, some respondents
verbally completed the questionnaire over the telephone. Telephone
interviews were carried out using the same items in the questionnaire

(Appendix A).

Findings

Difficulties common to both comparison gloups

In general, the American employees as well as the Korean employees
experienced various difficulties in relationships with foreign workers.
Similar difficulties cited by the comparison groups were carefully assorted
under the same category (Appendices B and C). Table 2 presents major types

of difficulties in working with foreign counterparts.

38

Table 2. Frequency of Difficulties in Working with Foreign Counterparts
Cited by American Employees (N = 33) and Korean Employees (N

 

 

 

 

= 41)
American Employees Korean Employees
e of Difficul
Typ ty fl/g _r_1_ rank °_/q p rank
Communication barriers 60.6 20 1 61.0 25 2
Different business style 51.5 17 3 22.0 9 6

Misunderstanding of social 30.3 10 4 65.9 27 1
customs

Logicality 15.2 5 8 19.5 8 7
Hierarchical management 54.5 18 2 — — —
Resistance to changes 21.2 7 6 — — —
Lack of open communication 21.2 7 6 — — —-
Lack of strategic plans 15.1 5 8 — — —
Individualism — — — 39.0 16 3
Discrimination — — — 31.7 13 4
Reliability — — — 29.3 12 5
Business manners — —— — 17.1 7 8

 

Note. % = the number of responses/the total number of respondents; p = the number of
respondents; rank is based on the percentage size. 5th (p = 8) for Americans and 9th (p = 5)
for Koreans belong to “others.” Only items cited by more than 15% of all respondents were
selected.

39

Among the difficulties, communication barriers emerged as the most
conspicuous. The percentage sizes of both comparison groups were similarly
large. In total, 20 out of 33 American employees (60.6%) and 25 out of 41
Korean employees (61%) ranked communication as the biggest or the second
biggest obstacle. In addition to this common issue, three other difficulties,
i.e., misunderstanding of social customs, different emphasis on logicality, and
different business style, were prevalent to both American and Korean
employees, although the degree of importance shown by rank varied.
However, the five items, i.e., hierarchical management, resistance to change,
lack of open communication, lag of strategic plans, and different
management structure, were unique to American respondents, while the
other five items, i.e., individualism, discrimination, reliability. business
manners, and unclear responsibility. were unique to Korean respondents.

According to both groups, the issues of misunderstanding toward the
different cultures evoked serious difficulties when sojourners work with local
employees and vice versa. All respondents of both comparison groups gave
high salience on this issue; it was the fourth-ranked difficulty for Americans
and the first-ranked difficulty for Koreans. Both groups cited logicality as a
major issue. Americans seemed obviously concerned about the thinking
pattern of Koreans. For example, several of them indicated in the
questionnaire that Koreans were too emotional to separate business process

from personal feelings. Meanwhile, Koreans responded that Americans were

40

too logical and seemed to calculate losses and gains most of the time.
Another item of difficulty, cited by both groups, was different business style.
Seventeen out of 33 Americans and nine out of 41 Koreans cited this issue.
Interestingly, this was the third biggest difficulty (51.5%) for Americans.
They seemed to perceive that the problem was rooted in collectivism in
Korean society. Americans mentioned that Koreans tended to delay decisions
until all were in agreement or at least informed. Americans often had to wait
for a long time for Korean companies to make final decisions. In the process
of negotiation, some Americans remarked that they were embarrassed by
different emphasis given to certain social aspects, such as “the importance of
meeting outside of work” or “informal group meetings.” According to them,
Koreans seemed unwilling to talk about business until they believed they
could relate in a “warm and friendly” manner with foreign counterparts, and
thus, Koreans often asked American workers to dine out with them after

regular business hours to establish a personal relationship.

Difficulties cited only by American workers

The findings clearly suggest that both American employees and
Korean employees had difficulties unique to their respective group situations,
which were not shared with the other comparison group. For the American
group, it seemed to be difficult to adjust to the hierarchical management

system in South Korea. Eighteen out of 33 Americans (54.5%) pointed out

41

this difficulty, which emerged as the second important issue. They frequently
responded that Korean companies were still dominated by “top down
management,” contrasting to “horizontal” team meetings widely used in US.
corporations. Americans seemed fiustrated when they negotiated with
Korean junior or middle managers who had little authority to make decisions
on their own. In addition, American workers were often bewildered by
Korean counterparts’ over-consciousness of the visitors’ rank or status in the
company.

Americans were critical of Koreans’ strong resistance to changg
(21.2%). The Americans cited that Korean workers were unwilling to listen

to their advice or recommendations for change and innovation. The following

 

c . _ ._- 4 1 ,-._~. v n .- a .1- ‘).p.. ‘
Int,“ ..~ ..-- ... . .-- : bI'1sr-"
. n t_ ..t_- 1.:1‘ .. . ~ . - _ -v, t)“ -
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D.“ t I M - . - ‘u‘h )- war- ‘1 “WK'J‘JWMIUMN u. "r . - -.. .. ..

oren bus 3 e . .. . .. ..- 515

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lend. of soc. culture “’"w; 30.3

Resistancetochange "“f.“1_" 21.2

Difficulties

m.fi.r.rn van 1‘. mmu-u‘rrfiwx, _ . 21 2

Lack of open comm.

 

lllogicality

Lack of strategic plan

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 4. Frequency of difficulties in working with Korean counterparts
cited by Americans

42

were frequent answers regarding this category: “Koreans are inflexible to
open new ideas” and “Korean workers adhere to existing positions and/or
procedures.” For the Americans, Korean workers seemed reluctant to share
information and to express their own opinions. Figure 4 illustrates types of
barriers that created difficulties for the Americans in adjusting to the Korean

work setting.

Difficulties cited only by Korean workers

For Korean workers, one of the most frequently cited items was
American workers’ individualism (39%). They responded that Americans
were so self-oriented that they were unwilling to commit to the team or
company, and they would easily leave a company if a new job were more
attractive. Moreover, Americans seemed to draw too sharp a line between
public and private affairs and seldom shared their personal lives with Korean
counterparts. Therefore, Korean respondents did not find it easy to see
Americans as trustworthy and reliable partners. In fact, 12 out of 41
Koreans (29.3%) cited the issue of being unable to trust the American
counterpart.

Another interesting issue only Koreans cited was their experience in
feeling discriminated against in the workplace and the feeling that they were
patronized in negotiations. Thirteen out of 41 Koreans (31.7%) agreed that

this issue was their concern. Their feeling of being discriminated against

43

originated not only from their ordinary daily work, but also fi'om the
organizational structure of overseas assignments. Native Koreans
complained that American multinational corporations in South Korea were
reluctant to hire local employees and provided unequal opportunities in
promotion and work evaluation. Respondents stated that the companies
often pressured Korean workers to quickly adapt to American business styles,
overlooking Korean business culture; this caused some resistance on the part
of local workforce. In addition, seven out of 41 Korean respondents (17.1%)
commented that they were uncomfortable with business etiquette or manners

of Americans. Figure 5 illustrated that the difficulties Korean workers faced

 

Mlsund. of culture 593:1:- ..:.'4:.:‘..-';i:=.:xii;::'.4.., 6:5. i..;~..‘:.-.i:-:vi~.':'.......~:-.. :‘ _;_.::‘~41_:-::.
Comm. barriers 4
Individualism L
Discrimination r
Reliability -- " ~

Differ. bus. style : ‘

Difficulties

Logicality
Bus. manners ’

Differ. corp. cult. .

 

 

 

 

 

Others ‘2 ‘- ‘

 

 

 

J

I l l l I

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Percentage

Figure 5. Frequency of difficulties in working with American counterparts
cited by Koreans

 

 

 

 

when de.

 

majority

importai

Discussi
T
foreign
barriers
host cm
relation
study t

adaptat

Korean
dilllcul
1mm
Expatri

Korean

 

44

when dealing with American counterparts. In terms of the rating score, the
majority of both American and Korean workers rated “4” (somewhat

important) or “5” (very important) (Appendix D).

Discussion

The first-stage study examined cultural differences in working with
foreign counterparts and attested the importance of the difficulties or
barriers which kept discouraged expatriate workers from adjusting to the
host country. Specifically, a set of 11 items of difficulties in foreign worker
relations were identified and these items were applied to the second-stage
study to examine whether they affect expatriate workers’ cross-cultural
adaptation.

As described earlier, Korean expatriates in the United States and local
Korean employees at American subsidiaries in South Korea cited as major
difficulties in working with American counterparts the issues of
igiividualism, discrimination, reliability, and business manners. American
GXpatriates who have worked in South Korea and local American workers at
Korean subsidiaries in the United States pointed out difficulties in

hierarchical management, resistance to change, unwillingness to share

 

information, and lack of strategic planning among Koreans. Difficulties

 

Common to both comparison groups were communication barriers,

misunderstanding of social customs, logicality, and different business style.

 

 

 

 

II
studies.
particul:
South K
decision
correspi.
which H
in the fi
decision
the freq
final (1.
{Ollowin
Korean

Stile of

_. e

(«b—4‘ >4-

.——.>-——4 H In

 

45

These findings replicate some of the results of existing cross-cultural
studies. For example, Chang (1989) who compared management systems,
particularly in decision-making procedures between the United States and
South Korea, noted that foreigners may not find it easy to understand who
decision makers are and how a decision is made in Korean companies. This
corresponded to the different decision-making process of Korean workers,
which emerged as one of the most difficult barriers to American expatriates
in the first-stage study. The Americans were often critical about complicated
decision-making procedures, e.g., the lack of authority of mid-level managers,
the frequent number of meetings, and the length of time it took to reach a
final decision in Korean companies. Chang (1989) thus presented the
following to increase the understanding of decision-making processes in a
Korean company. It also reflects the collective and hierarchical management
style of Korean society:

A plan of project is prepared usually by a staff member in the

lower hierarchy of organization, either through his or her own

initiative or the suggestion of his or her superior. The prepared

plan is then circulated among the line of chain of command.

Whoever reviews the document expresses his or her own views

and the original document is changed accordingly until a

consensus is almost reached by the time it is discussed at the

top management level. If everyone involved agrees with the

plan, the president puts his or her seal of approval making it a

legitimate document. (p. 233)

This hierarchical management system ultimately requires mid-

managers to receive approval from the top, even if they have the power to

46

make decisions. Hence, at the negotiation table Koreans tend to be reluctant
to make a commitment and they take a long time to make a final decision and
to act upon it.

Nowadays some Korean companies have tried to speed up the decision-
making process by reducing the number of decision makers, empowering
their employees by delegating more decision-making power to lower-level
employees, and using electronic mail to receive approval from even the
president without the slow paperwork working up to the office of the
president (Kim, 1996).

On the issue of social relationships, Triandis (1989) argued that in
collectivistic cultures, individuals belong to a few stable in-groups and have
intense relationships within those in-groups. Americans from an
individualistic culture, by contrast, belong to many in-groups; in-group
membership is viewed as voluntary, and responsibilities and attachments to
most others within those groups are less intense than they are in
collectivistic cultures. Therefore, developing friendships with Americans is
likely to be difficult for many Korean employees and vice versa.

In addition, Moran and Stripp (1991) described that Asians, including
Koreans, tend to form relationships with foreigners slowly, but once a
relationship has developed, it would continue through years of business.
However, a long-term relationship is not likely to be achieved without a high

level of trust toward their counterparts. Thus, Koreans may consider

47

entertaining after work as a way to learn about the personality, character,
and trustworthiness of individuals. On this point, responses from the two
groups in the first-stage survey sharply contrasted each other. While
American respondents were uncomfortable with “drinking or dining out” after
work and talking about personal matters, Koreans felt disappointed that
Americans did not make efforts to build a “real” friendship and trust. Indeed,
the same issue can be interpreted in the opposite manner by people from
different cultures.

Although individualism is never strongly recommended in Korean
culture, it is a major characteristic of the American management system
(Chang & Chang, 1994). American employees make clear distinctions
between official and nonofficial business or personal matters. Although
personal connection is a factor that may aid a successful career in the United
States, an employee succeeds mainly based on his or her job performance.

In terms of logicality, American respondents in the first-stage survey
pointed out that many Koreans were incapable of presenting explicit and
logical data when they tried to persuade others or negotiate with Americans.
However, Kim and Kim (1989) attributed this to the different social emphasis
on “values” and “facts” in the two cultural settings. They found that Western
managers tend to view everything more in terms of quantifiable “facts” than
of non-quantifiable “values.” Thus, Western managers prefer “facts” to

“values” for their decision-making inputs as well. The Western way of

48

thinking is dictated largely by a purely factual approach which eliminates
most “value-based” judgements. However, Korean managers often make
important business decisions because they value a certain way of action, in
spite of the price they must pay. As a result, in Korean business operations,
“value judgement” traditionally has priority over purely factual
considerations.

Finally, Kim (1996) suggested that American workers should request
specific information regarding the fact that Americans believe Koreans are
unwilling to share necessary information with Americans. Difficulty of
sharing information was cited as one of the major barriers by American
respondents in this survey:

Many Westerners complain that they do not get detailed

information fiom their Korean associates. They also complain

that they cannot understand what their Korean counterparts

want. Koreans are neither good at describing things in detail

nor at being specific. Koreans often omit the information that

they assume others already know. To bridge the communication
gap, Americans should ask specific questions. (p.102)

Application of the Findings

The results of the first-stage study are largely supported by some of
the existing cross-cultural studies described above. However, no empirical
study demonstrates how these difficulties in working with foreign
counterparts specifically affect the expatriate’s adaptation to the host

country, particularly in the US. and South Korean settings. Therefore, the

 

iii

9')

49

findings fiom the first-stage study were applied to the second-stage study to
examine how each interpersonal difficulty influences the expatriates’
adaptation to overseas assignments.

From the 19 items identified in the first-stage survey, the eight items
excluded were either those which were rarely cited or those not related to
cultural differences. The most frequent response in each category was
selected and then modified to make it a closed-ended question.

Finally, the following 11 items (Table 3) were chosen to assess
expatriate workers’ adaptation to the new work environment in different
cultural settings. Respondents were asked to rate themselves on the types of
difficulty, listed in Table 3, using a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly
disagree . . . 5 = strongly agree). However, the statement of communication
problem was answered by a different scale (1 = very poor . . . 5 = very good).

A factor analysis was conducted in Chapter V for these 11 items.

”Ti
C ommi
Misunt
custom

Logica.

Differe

Hierar.

Lack 0

00mm

RPSlStg

50

Table 3. Questions for the Cross-Cultural Adaptation for the Second-Stage

Study

 

Type of Difficulty

Questions

 

Communication barriers
Misunderstanding of social
customs

Logicality

Different business style
Hierarchical management
Lack of open
communication

Resistance to change

Individualism

Discrimination/
racial prejudice

Reliability

Business etiquette

How good are you at understanding spoken
English/Korean?

Are you familiar with the social customs in
the host country?

Do you tend to draw a clear line between
official and personal affairs in the workplace?

Do you prefer to make group decisions?

Is it natural that you follow the directions of
supervisors?

Are you willing to share information with
foreign counterparts?

Are you very open to the advice or
recommendation of foreign counterparts?

If the company really needs you, are you
willing to work overtime on weekends?

Have you received unequal treatment by
foreign counterparts based on my culture?

Do you trust foreign counterparts?

Do you understand what would bother foreign
counterparts when you dine with them?

 

Note. Only items cited by more than 15% of all respondents of each comparison were

selected.

Chapter IV

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

This chapter describes research processes and methods for the second-
stage study. The purpose of this study was to investigate relationships
between expatriates’ adjustment in overseas assignments and four major
influential factors, i.e., national culture, organization and community,
individual attributes, and family members. The research methodology of the
second-stage study is mainly based on the former instrument development
study (first-stage study) in Chapter III and previous cross-cultural relevant

studies.

.3me

The second-stage study was conducted in both United States and
South Korea from May 1997 to September 1997. The sample for the second-
stage study was drawn fiom American expatriates in the automobile industry
registered with the American Chamber of Commerce (ACC) in Korea, and
from Korean expatriates listed in the Directory of Overseas Korean
Corporations who have worked for automobile corporations or automotive

components companies in the United States. Although neither the ACC

51

three
than
Kore

Ofthi

enhe
hstc
that

Hith

confi.

retur
128

repoi
Work
Saun
cmnp

K019;

52

directory nor overseas Korean directory lists all the expatriate workers, more
than 70% of American expatriates in South Korea and nearly all of the
Korean expatriates in the United States are believed to be registered in one
of the directories.4

Questionnaires were mailed to all 381 expatriate employees listed in
either directory: 183 Americans and 198 Koreans. Appendix E illustrates a
list of the companies for the second-stage survey. This study recommended
that the respondents take the questionnaires home and then mail them back
to the researcher in pre-stamped and self-addressed envelops. In this way,
confidentiality of the responses was secured.

Of the total 381 copies of the questionnaire sent out, 229 were
returned. The overall response rate was 60% (101 American expatriates and
128 Korean expatriates). This ratio is higher than the response rates
reported by most previous international studies related to cross-cultural
workplace (Black & Gregersen, 1991; Dawson & Dickinson, 1988; Jobber &
Saunders, 1988; Tung, 1981). The response rates differed slightly by the two
comparison groups (55% for American expatriates in South Korea; 65% for
Korean expatriates in the United States).

The sample, representative of the populations of both comparison
groups, consisted mostly of upper level managers who have been with their

firms for an average of 15 years, including two year’s expatriate experience in

 

4 The percentage is based on personal interviews with a membership coordinator from ACC
in Korea and a publication manager from Korea Trade & Investment Administration.

 

theli
years.

were I

unce
beca'

She“

0“iu
COun
Sury
"For
COun
man.
9X19;

GEOr.

H01}

6

53

the United States or South Korea. The average age of the expatriates was 41
years. Nearly all of the expatriate employees were male (95.6%) and most

were married (87%). Further description of the sample follows in Chapter V.

Indfiendent Variables
National Culture

In the present study, the first independent variable is the national
pu_lt_u_rp of Americans and Koreans. Of Hofstede’s four cultural dimensions,
three were applied to this study: (1) individualism (2) power distance, and (3)
uncertainty avoidance. One dimension, i.e., masculinity, was excluded
because Hofstede (1980) reported that the United States and South Korea
showed little difference in this factor.

Hofstede had access to morale surveys conducted by a large American-
owned multinational firm. Comparable samples of employees in all the
countries where the company was represented were asked to complete the
survey. His study has a great deal of empirical support since it was based
upon a large sample of over 117,000 responses to a questionnaire across 53
countries. Therefore, the contribution of Hofstede’s study to cross-cultural
management is universally accepted and his framework has been utilized
extensively in cross-cultural literature (Edelmann, Asendorpf, Contraello,
Georagas, & Villaneuva, 1989; Hoecklin, 1995; Matsumoto, 1989; Wagner &

Hollenbeck, 1995; Westwood & Everett, 1987).

 

C(

I(

54

In addition, Hofstede’s framework does not merely provide a simple
comparison of cultures, but rather allows for an assessment as to the extent
to which cultures differ from one another. His fi'amework emphasizes on the
effect of cultural differences, especially in terms of understanding people’s
conceptions of an organization, the mechanisms that are considered
appropriate in controlling and coordinating the activities within it, and the
roles and relations of its members (Hoecklin, 1995). In the following,
Hofstede’s cultural dimensions related to expatriate work environments in

the United States and South Korea are summarized.

Power distance

Power distance is the degree to which inequality (a “pecking order” or
hierarchy) is seen as an irreducible fact of life. It would affect the extent to
which employees accept that their boss has more power than they have and
that the boss’s opinions and decisions are right simply because he or she is
the boss. This degree of inequality is measured by the power distance scale,
which runs from 0 (the smallest power distance) to 100 (the largest power
distance). According to Hofstede’s empirical research in 53 nations, the
United States showed lower scores (rating = 40, rank = 38) than South Korea
(rating = 60, rank = 27). Table 4 shows the characteristics of managers and
workers affected by the degree of power distance in the two respective

societies.

 

55

Table 4. Work-Related Values Affected by Power Distance

 

 

Low Power Distance High Power Distance
(The United States) (South Korea)

Less centralization Greater centralization
Flatter organization pyramids Steep organization pyramids
Mangers seen as making decisions Managers seen as making decisions
after consulting with subordinates autocratically and paternalistically
Close supervision negatively Close supervision positively
evaluated by subordinates evaluated by subordinates
Managers like to see themselves as Mangers like to see themselves as
practical and systematic benevolent decision-makers
Higher-educated employees hold Higher- and lower-educated
fewer authoritarian values than employees hold similar values about
lower-educated ones authority

 

Note. Adapted from Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consetmences: Interfltional differences
in work-related values. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Individualism

Individualism is a concern for oneself as an individual as opposed to
collectivism which is oriented respectively toward the priorities and rules of
the group to which one belongs. People in societies where the interests of the
individual are dominant tend to classify themselves and others by individual
characteristics rather than by group membership. The United States had the
highest individualism score among 53 nations, but South Korea acquired one

of the lowest scores in Hofstede’s research. Table 5 illustrates the basic

56

values of managers and workers in a contrasting pair of societies, e.g., the

United States and South Korea.

Table 5. Work-Related Values Affected by Individualism

 

High Individualism
(The United States)

Low Individualism
(South Korea)

 

Involvement of individuals with
organizations primarily calculative

Organizations are not expected to
look after employees from the

cradle to the grave

Organization has moderate
influence on members’ well-being

Employees are expected to defend
their own interests

Promotion from inside and outside,
and based on market value

Managers try to be up-to-date and
endorse modern management ideas

Policies and practices apply to all

Belief in individual decisions

Emphasis on individual initiative
and achievement; leadership ideal

Everyone has a right to a private
life and his/her opinion

Involvement of individuals with
organizations primarily moral

Employees expect organizations to
look after them like family
Organization has great influence

on members’ well-being

Employees expect organization to
defend their interests

Promotion from inside and based
on seniority

Less concern with fashion in
management ideas

Policies and practices vary
according to relations

Belief in group decisions

Emphasis on belonging to
organization; membership ideal

Private life is invaded by
organizations and clans

 

Note. Adapted from Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: Internfiional differences
in work-related values. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

58

Uncertainty avoidance

Uncertainty avoidance is the lack of tolerance for ambiguity and the
need for formal rules. This dimension measures the extent to which people in
a society feel threatened by and try to avoid ambiguous situations. They may
do this by establishing more formal rules, rejecting deviant ideas and
behaviors, and accepting the possibility of absolute truths and the attainment
of unchangeable expertise (Hoecklin, 1995).

Lifetime employment is more common in high uncertainty avoidance
countries such as Japan, Portugal, and Greece, whereas a high degree of job
mobility is more common in low uncertainty avoidance countries such as
Singapore, Denmark, and the United States (Adler, 1986). The United States
ranked 43rd with 46 percentile, while South Korea ranked 16th with 85
percentile in Hofstede’s study. Table 6 describes typical characteristics of the
workplace in a low uncertainty avoidance society (United States) and a high
uncertainty avoidance society (South Korea). Finally, Appendix F illustrates
integrally where the United States and South Korea place in each of

Hofstede’s cultural dimensions.

Table 6. Work-Related Values Affected by Uncertainty Avoidance

 

Low Uncertainty Avoidance
(The United States)

High Uncertainty Avoidance
(South Korea)

 

Greater readiness to live by the day
Less emotional resistance to change
Less hesitation to change employers

Loyalty to employer is not seen as a
virtue

Managers should be selected on
criteria other than seniority

More risk-taking
Hope of success

A manager need not be an expert in
the field he or she manages

Conflict in organization is natural

Delegation to subordinates can be
complete

Rules may be broken for pragmatic
reasons

More worry about the future

More emotional resistance to
change

Tendency to stay with same
employer

Loyalty to employer is seen as a
virtue

Managers should be selected on
the basis of seniority

Less risk-taking
Fear of failure

A manager must be an expert in
the field he or she manages

Conflict in organization is
undesirable

Initiative of subordinates should
be kept under control

Rules should not be broken

 

Note. Adapted from Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: InternationalJifferences
in work-relpted values. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

 

60

Individual Attributes

The second independent variable, individual attributes, consists of the
following four indices, which was modified from Cross’ research (1995): (1)
individual coping strategies, (2) relationships with foreign counterparts (3)
previous foreign experience, and (4) length of residence in the host country.
In her pioneering study, Cross examined differences in the individualism and
collectivism of American and East Asian students and the influence of these
cultural factors on cross-cultural adaptation. Cross particularly suggested
the several key elements, such as coping methods, satisfaction with
relationships, and perceived stress, are measures of the degree of cross-
cultural adjustment. Her implications are also comparable to those of earlier
cross-cultural studies (Armes & Ward, 1989; Furnham & Bochner, 1986;
Kealey, 1989; Searle & Ward, 1990; Ward & Kennedy, 1992).

First, individual coping methods were measured to examine their
effects on expatriates’ adjustment. An expatriate worker who applies a
prevalent cOping method in the host nation might show high adaptability.
For example, in individualistic cultures, where personal uniqueness and self-
expression are stressed, the individual’s own efforts, e.g., taking direct action,
confionting others, or speaking up on one’s own behalf, might be
recommended for overcoming a difficult situation. However, in collectivistic
cultures, in which individual wishes and goals are expected to be

subordinated to group goals, direct coping strategies would threaten this

61

implicit norm in relationships and direct actions may be viewed as immature
or selfish; thus, indirect coping strategies are likely to be effective (Cross,
1995). Therefore, the expatriate worker’s adaptation to the host country
depends on what coping strategy the worker uses.

Cross (1995) considered only direct coping methods because the
purpose of her study was constrained to aid Asian students’ adaptation to the
American culture in which direct coping is more common. However, this
study examined various types coping strategies because no empirical study
specifically demonstrates what coping methods are prevalent among
American expatriates in South Korea and Korean expatriates in the United
States.

Individual expatriates’ coping methods were measured by using items
from the Carver, Scheier, and Weintraub’s (1989) COPE scales, which assess
a wide variety of coping responses. Carver et a1. (1989) reported that the
COPE scales showed high test-retest reliability: Cronbach’s alpha reliability
coefficients for 13 out of 14 coping dimensions were over .6.

The expatriate workers in this study indicated how often they engage
in each coping strategy using a four-point scale (1 = I didn’t do this at all . . .

4 = I did this a lot). The items used in the coping measure are as follows:5

 

5 The items that showed the highest loading score in each COPE category were mainly
applied to this study (Carver et al.,1989). In the category of seeking social support for
instrumental reasons, seeking social support for emotional reasons, acceptance, turning to
religion, and denial, however, second or third highest loading-scored items were selected.
The highest loading-scored items in these four dimensions seemed to be inconsistent with
Korean views or hard to attain appropriate translation into Korean.

62

o I take additional action to try to get rid of the problem (active
coping).

o I try to come up with a strategy about what to do (planning).

0 I put aside other activities in order to concentrate on this
(suppression of competing activities).

0 I force myself to wait for the right time to do something
(restraint coping).

o I try to get advice from someone about what to do (seeking
social support for instrumental reasons).

0 I discuss my feelings with someone (seeking social support
for emotional reasons).

0 I look for something good in what is happening (positive
reinterpretation).

o I accept that this has happened and that it can’t be changed
(acceptance).

0 I try to find comfort in my religion (turning to religion).

0 I get upset and let my emotions out (focus and venting of
emotions).

o I pretend that it hasn’t really happened (denial).
o I give up getting what I want (behavior disengagement).

o I turn to work or other substitute activities to take my mind
off things (mental disengagement).

o I drink alcohol or take drugs, in order to think about it less
(alcohol/drug disengagement).
Second, the influence of relationships with foreign counterparts on
expatriates’ adjustment was investigated. The assessment of 11 items in

Table 3, based on the findings of the first-stage study in Chapter III, was

63

conducted as one of the independent variables which affect the expatriate’s
adaptation to the host culture. Respondents were asked to respond to each
statement using a five-point scale (1 = strongly disagree . . . 5 = strongly
agree). A different scale was employed for the item dealing with the
communication barrier (1 = very poor . . . 5 = very good).

Third, previous foreign experience was assessed by the number of
foreign countries in which an expatriate had worked in before he or she was
assigned to the current nations, i.e., the United States or South Korea.
Finally, the lengfli of residence in the host country was obtained to examine
the correlation between the duration of working in the foreign country and

the degree of the expatriate’s adjustment.

Community and Work Organization

In terms of community relations, Cross (1995) asked American and
East Asian students the extent to which they were satisfied with social
aspects of their graduate experience at the university. Two social factors—
relationships with others from one’s home country and fiiendships with host
country nationals—were particularly considered to predict cross-cultural
adjustment (Cross, 1995; Furnham, 1988).

Co-nationals are likely to provide expatriate workers friendship, a
reference group, and support for the expatriates’ identity and values

(Adelman, 1988; Bochner, 1986; Boyer & Sedlacek, 1988). However, these

 

 

enclavi
host C‘
adjust
Kealej
Chapt
expat.
inforr

35506

natio
inves

Olga]

64

enclaves of co-nationals sometimes restrict interactions with people from the
host culture. Relationships with host nationals have predicted successful
adjustment for newcomers in many studies (Church, 1982; Furnham, 1988;
Kealey, 1989; Searle & Ward, 1990; Ward & Kennedy, 1993). As noted in
Chapter II, fiiendships with host country nationals generally provide the
expatriates with opportunities to learn more about the culture, gain practical
information, and develop social skills. Therefore, this study examined the
association between community relationships with people from the
sojourner’s home country as well as relationships with host country
nationals. In addition to expatriates’ community relations, this study also
investigated the degree to which pre-departure training provided by work

organization influenced expatriates’ adaptation to overseas assignments.

Family Members

An important factor is how satisfied the expatriate’s family members—
his or her spouse and children—are with the host country (Black &
Gregersen, 1991; Black et al., 1992; Fontaine, 1997; Grove & Hallowell, 1997;
Takeuchi & Harmon; 1996). In particular, Black and Stephens (1989) argued
that one of the most common reasons for the failure to complete international
assignments is the problem of adjustment of one’s spouse and family. Thus,
this study asked American and Korean expatrites the following items with a

5-point scale (1 = not at all satisfied . . . 5 = very satisfied).

65

o How satisfied are you with your social relationships with
people fi'om your country?

0 How satisfied are you with your work-related relationships
with foreign counterparts?

o If you are living with your spouse in the United States (or
South Korea), how satisfied would you say he/she is with
living in this country?

0 If you are living with children in the United States (or South
Korea), how satisfied would you say they are with living in
this country?

Dependent Variable

The dependent variable in this study is “the degree of cross-cultural
adaptation in overseas assignments.” As in Cross’ study (1995), the extent of
expatriates’ adjustment was suggested to be measured by the Perceived
Stress Scale (PSS) (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstein, 1983). This scale
measures respondents’ appraisals of the stress from their current life
situations in fairly global terms. Cohen and his colleagues have found that
the PS8 has high test-retest reliability (.85 over a two week period) and is a
significant predictor of outcomes such as depression, social anxiety, and
illness.

The PSS ’consists of the following items that ask respondents about

their feelings and thoughts during the last month.

0 How often have you been upset because of something that
happened unexpectedly?

66

o How often have you felt that you were unable to control the
important things in your life?

0 How often have you felt nervous and “stressed”?

o How often have you dealt successfully with irritating life
hassles?’

o How often have you felt that you were effectively coping with
important changes that were occurring in your life? ’

o How often have you felt confident about your ability to
handle your personal problems? ’

o How often have you felt that things were going your way? '

o How often have you found that you could not cope with all
the things that you had to do?

0 How often have you been able to control irritations in your
life?’

0 How often have you felt that you were on top of things? ’

o How often have you been angered because of things that
happened that were outside of your control?

0 How often have you found yourself thinking about things
that you have to accomplish?

o How often have you been able to control the way you spend
your time? ’

o How often have you felt difficulties were piling up so high
that you could not overcome them?
Meanwhile, this study asked the expatriate workers to respond these
14 items with one of the following alternatives:

I. rarely or none of the time
2. some of the time

 

67

3. occasionally or a moderate amount of the time

4. fairly often

5. most or all of the time
PSS scores were obtained by reversing the scores on the seven positive items,
e.g., 1 = 4, 2 = 3, 3 = 2, 4 = 1, 5 = 0, and then summing across 14 items. Items
marked “*”, i.e., 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 9th, 10th, and 13th, are the positively

stated items. Finally, the total PSS scores were divided by 14 to gain the

mean stress levels of individual expatriates.

Socio-Economic Status (SES) Characteristics

At the end of the questionnaire, respondents were asked for socio-
demographic information, such as age, sex, marital status, job status,
educational level, and their length of employment. Existing studies have
demonstrated that these factors often predict the level of success of the
newcomer’s adjustment (Black & Gregersen, 1991; Furnham & Bochner,
1986; Searle & Ward, 1990; Takeuchi & Harmon, 1996; Ward & Kennedy,
1992).

To measure the general non-work adjustment, the expatriates were
also asked to indicate social service needs in overseas assignments. In
addition, background data questions included spouses’ language proficiency
and job-related information in the host country. Finally, Table 7 summarizes

the hypotheses of the present study.

68

Table 7. Research Hypotheses and Related Issues

 

 

Level of
Hypothesis Dimension Issues
1. The expatriate workers’ adaptation to the National Country
host country will be directly related to his or culture
her cultural attributes, such as the degree of
individualism, power distance, and
uncertainty avoidance.
2. (a) The American expatriate workers will National Country
represent low power distance, low culture
uncertainty avoidance, and high
individualism.
(b) The Korean expatriate workers will
represent high power distance, high
uncertainty avoidance, and low
individualism.
3. American employees working in South Korea Stress Individual
(a homogeneous society) are more likely to
experience stress than Korean employees in
the United States (a heterogeneous society).
4. The expatriates’ cross-cultural adaptation is Coping Individual
likely to depend on the types of coping methods
methods they apply in daily life.
5. Cultural adjustment by the expatriate Relationship Individual
worker will be directly related to his or her with foreign
work attitudes toward foreign counterparts. counterparts
6. The extent to which the expatriate worker Previous Individual

adapts to the host culture tends to be foreign
positively related to the number of countries experience
in which he or she has previous worked.

7. The longer foreign employees live in the host Length of Individual
country, the more likely they are to adjust to residence
the host culture.

69

Table 7 (cont’d).

 

 

Level of
Hypothesis Dimension Issues
8. The more cross-cultural training the Cross- Organization
expatriate worker has had before he or she cultural
is assigned, the more he or she adjusts to training
the host culture.
9. The expatriate worker who becomes more Community Community
involved in the host country community, is interaction
more likely to adjust to the host culture
than one who interacts mainly with others
fiom his or her home country.
10. The degree of adjustment of the expatriate Family Family
worker is likely to be positively related to attitudes
whether his or her spouse has a favorable
attitude toward the overseas assignment.
11. Expatriate workers whose families must Family back Family
stay behind in the home country are less home

likely to adjust to the host country than
workers whose families accompany them.

 

70

Instrument

To reach the objectives of the current research, a survey questionnaire
and personal interviews with both American and Korean expatriate workers
were conducted. A self-administered questionnaire was used in the study as
the method of measurement. The expatriates were often expected to express
personal feelings about their supervisors, foreign counterparts, and even if
they used alcohol and/or drugs to cope with stressful circumstances. This
self-administered questionnaire is more appropriate than any other survey
methods in asking such sensitive questions (Rossi, Wright, & Anderson,
1983). To increase the validity and reliability of the data, the back-
translation skills were applied for Korean version; to be translated first into
Korean and then to be translated back into English. Although face-to-face
interviews were also conducted with some executives or managers in
automobile makers, the interviews were limited to collect general information
regarding the automobile industry in the United States and South Korea and
overall situations of expatriate work settings. Finally, Table 8 summarizes

the nature of questionnaire used for this study.

71

Table 8. General Categories on Questionnaire and Related Items

 

 

Category evel of Issue Description Adjustment Items
Individualism Country Challenge, training, N/A 1-6
physical condition,
freedom, use of skills,
personal time
Power Country Preferred mgr. type, N/A 7, 8, 20
distance perceived mgr. type,
afiaid of expression
Uncertainty Country Tension, rule N/A 19, 21,
avoidance orientation, intention Part II:
to stay 15
Relationship Work Misunderstanding of Work & 9-18
with foreign organization social customs, lack of interaction
counterparts open communication,
reliability,
discrimination, etc.
Perceived Individual Perceived Stress Scale Work & 22-35
stress general
Coping Individual COPE Scale General 36-49
method
Interaction Community Relationships with Work & 50-51
host-nationals/co- interaction
nationals
Satisfaction Individual & Family satisfaction Interaction 52-53
family & general
Problems/ Individual Expatriate’s General 54-55
Service problems/needs in
needs living in a foreign

country

 

Table 8 (cont’d).

72

 

 

Category evel of Description Adjustment Items
ssue

Demographics Individual Age, sex, race, N/A Part II:
& education, marital 1-10
family status, nationality, no.

of children, etc.

Occupational Individual, Employment, job status, Work Part II:

background family, & length of time spent 11-14,
work abroad, pre-departure 16-24
organization training, spouse’s job

information, etc.

 

Chapter V

FINDINGS

In the second stage of the dissertation research, useful data were
gathered for testing 11 hypotheses. All of these hypotheses were presented in
Chapter IV. With a series of tests on the relationships between independent
and dependent variables based on the data from the questionnaire survey
and interviews, demographic characteristics of the sample (N = 229) were
analyzed: 101 American expatriate workers and 128 Korean expatriate
workers.

The 11 hypotheses were grouped into four categories: those hypotheses
regarding (1) national culture (two hypotheses), (2) individual expatriate
workers (five hypotheses), (3) organization and community (two hypotheses),
and (4) the expatriates’ families (two hypotheses).

For the tests of the first two hypotheses regarding national culture, the
present study examined the differences of cultural attributes between the
American group and the Korean group respectively in three dimensions,
namely, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and individualism, as
classified by Hofstede (1980). The effects of these dimensions on the

expatriates’ cross-cultural adaptation were investigated.

73

74

Second, this study hypothesized and then carefully examined if the
cross-cultural adjustment of expatriate workers was influenced by personal
inclinations or backgrounds, i.e., coping methods, relationships with foreign
counterparts, previous foreign experience, and length of residence in the host
country. Stress levels of each comparison group were additionally assessed
and compared with each other.

Third, the effects of both pre-departure training in the work
organization and the expatriates’ interactions with the community on the
cross-cultural adjustment were analyzed. This study assumed that the
expatriates were likely to be involved in three types of community
interactions, i.e., expatriates-oriented, host nationals-oriented, and almost
balanced with both expatriates and nationals.

Finally, the degree to which family members affect the expatriates’
adjustment to overseas assignments was investigated. This study
particularly focused on the influence of spouses’ and/or children’s attitudes
toward the host country as well as the expatriates’ concerns over family
members back home to the expatriates’ adaptation.

In order to carry out the above analyses, various statistical
methodologies were applied, including frequency analysis, t-tests, correlation
analysis, factor analysis, analysis of variance (ANOVA), multivariate

analysis of variance (MANOVA), linear, multiple, and logistic regression

75

analyses. To test each hypothesis, data on relevant variables were analyzed,

using one or more of these statistical methods.

Analysis of Demographic Characteristics

Participants were asked for basic background information about
themselves. Both American respondents (N = 101) and Korean respondents
(N = 128) were predominantly male, married, middle-aged, middle-class, and
well-educated. Table 9 summarizes socio-economic factors of both the
American expatriates and the Korean expatriates. About 94% of American
respondents and 97% of Korean respondents were male (95.6% for both
groups). Approximately 87% of all respondents were married and 92% of
these couples had married prior to being assigned to the current foreign
country. Solomon’s (1994) study revealed that 90% of the expatriates were
male and 78% were married.

The age range was larger in the American group, with eight
respondents 29 years or younger; 29 were between 30 and 39 years, 25 were
between 40 and 49 years, 36 were between 50 and 59 years, and three were
60 years or older. In the Korean group, four were 29 years or younger, 77
were in the 30-39 age group, 45 were in the 40-49 age group, and two
belonged to the 50-59 age category. No Korean respondents was 60 years or
older. According to t-tests between the two comparison groups—the

American expatriates and the Korean expatriates—onthe average, American

76

expatriates working in South Korea were older than Korean expatriates in
the United States (L = 5.36; g: 146.25; p < .001).

Among the Americans, about 70% were whites, 26% were Asian
Americans or Pacific Islanders, 2% were blacks or Afiican-Americans, and 3%
were Hispanic Americans. A large portion of those surveyed were skewed to
the ethnic composition of Asian Americans or Pacific Islanders, and this
strongly suggests that American multinational corporations tend to consider
the ethnicity of employees in assigning their expatriate workers. Korean
expatriate workers, comprised only of ethnic Koreans, were not asked to
identify their racial background.

About 95% of the Americans and about 99% of the Koreans had
completed baccalaureate or post-baccalaureate education. However, the
overall educational attainment of the Americans (M = 2.56, S_D = .71) was
higher than that of Koreans M = 2.19, S_D = .45), 1; = 4.64, df = 159.83, p <
.001. Forty-six out of 101 Americans had master’s degrees (45.5%) and eight
had doctoral degrees (7.9%), while 21 out of 128 Koreans had master’s

degrees (16.4%) and two had doctoral degrees (1.6%).

77

Table 9. Socio-Demographic Characteristics of American Expatriates (N = 101)
and Korean Expatriates (N = 128)

 

Socio—Demographic

American Expatriates

 

Korean Expatriates

 

 

Characteristics p f/p p 3/9
Sex
Male 95.0 94.1 124.0 96.9
Female 6.0 5.9 4.0 3.1
Age
29 or younger 8.0 7.9 4.0 3.1
30-39 29.0 28.7 77.0 60.2
40-49 25.0 24.8 45.0 35.2
50-59 36.0 35.6 2.0 1.6
60 or older 3.0 3.0 .0 .0
Race
White/Caucasian 70.0 69.3 — —
Black/Afio-American 2.0 2.0 — —
Latino/Hispanic 3.0 3.0 — —
Asian/Pacific Islander 26.0 25.7 — —
Marital Status
Never married 15.0 14.9 5.0 3.9
Married 76.0 75.2 123.0 96.1
Widowed 1.0 1.0 .0 .0
Divorced 6.0 5.9 .0 .0
Separated 3.0 3.0 .0 .0
Education
High school or below 5.0 5.0 1.0 .8
Bachelor’s degree 42.0 41.6 104.0 81.3
Master’s degree 46.0 45.5 21.0 16.4
, Doctoral degree 8.0 7.9 2.0 1.6
Religion
Catholic 32.0 31.7 50.0 39.1
Protestant 43.0 42.6 8.0 6.3
Buddhist 6.0 5.9 23.0 18.0
No religion 14.0 13.9 45.0 35.2
Others 6.0 5.9 2.0 1.6

 

78

Table 9 (cont’d).

 

No. of children

None 21.0 21.0 11.0 8.6
One 18.0 18.0 21.0 16.4
Two 38.0 38.0 91.0 71.1
Three 14.0 14.0 5.0 3.9
Four or more 9.0 9.0 .0 .0
No. of children in host country
None 64.0 64.0 12.0 9.4
One 12.0 12.0 20.0 15.6
Two 17.0 17.0 91.0 71.1
Three 5.0 5.0 5.0 3.9
Four or more 2.0 2.0 .0 .0
Employment
Full-time 99.0 99.0 127.0 100.0
Part-time 1.0 1.0 .0 .0

Job classification
(Office-related)

Executive 50.0 50.0 12.0 9.4
Manager 28.0 28.0 86.0 67.7
Supervisor 1.0 1.0 11.0 8.7
Recognized expert 2.0 2.0 4.0 3.1
Professional 12.0 12.0 3.0 2.4
Entry professional 3.0 3.0 8.0 6.3
(Plant-related)
Plant manager 3.0 3.0 1.0 8
Production mgr. .0 .0 .0 0
Superintendent .0 .0 .0 .0
General supervisor .0 .0 2.0 1.6
Supvr. /group leader 1.0 1.0 .0 0
Skilled trades .0 .0 .0 0
Length of employment
Less than 2 yrs. 11.0 11.0 3.0 2.4
2 yrs. -— less than 5 yrs. 17.0 17.0 6.0 4.7
5 yrs. - less than 10 yrs. 10.0 10.0 29.0 22.8
10 yrs. — less than 20 yrs 29.0 29.0 83.0 65.4
20 or more years 33.0 33.0 6.0 4.7

 

Note. N = 229; % is based on valid percentage which excludes missing data.

79

Overall, Catholics comprised the largest number of church attendees
(35.8%), followed by Protestants (22.3%). However, more Protestants (42.6%)
than Catholics (31.7%) were among American expatriates, whereas Catholics
(39.1%) were the largest religious group among Korean expatriates, followed
by Buddhists (18%) and Protestants (6.3%). In the case of the Koreans, this
distinction of church attendance by religion appears atypical, compared to a
recent study of Korean religions which found that 49.3% of the Korean
population were Buddhist, 34.8% were Protestant, and 10.5% were Catholic
(Han, 1993).

Although there was no significant difference in the number of children
between the two comparison groups, the number of children brought to the
host country was statistically different (t = -8.26; d_f = 163.11; p < .001).
Almost half of the American expatriates who had children did not bring them
to South Korea, while almost all Korean expatriate workers brought their
children to the United Sates.

Regardless of nationality, nearly all the expatriates were full-time
employees and were assigned to management duties rather than production-
related work. Regarding job status, several differences were worth noting
between the two comparison groups. American corporations assigned a
relatively large number of executives to South Korea (50 out of 101),
compared to Korean companies (12 out of 128). The American expatriates

working in professional fields also outnumbered the Korean expatriates.

80

However, the number of American managers assigned to Korean subsidiaries
was approximately one-third of the Korean managers assigned to the United
States. About 28% of the American expatriates and 7% of the Korean
expatriates had worked for less than five years (including the time they spent
in the host country), but this difference was not statistically significant (t_= -
.61; fl = 143.73; p = .54). Table 10 shows data on socio-economic status of the

two comparison groups.

81

Table 10. Means on Socio-Economic Status of American Expatriates (N =

101) and Korean Expatriates (N = 128)

 

 

 

 

 

 

Socio- American Workers Korean Workers t-test
Demographic
Characteristics M S_D M i (_l__f L
Sex 1.06 .24 1.03 .17 178.01 1.00
Age 2.97 1.04 2.35 .57 146.15 5.36""
Race 1.85 1.32 — — — —
Marital status 2.07 .82 1.96 .19 109.01 1.31
Education 2.56 .71 2.19 .45 159.83 4.64“”
Religion 2.20 1.20 2.54 1.36 224.01 -2.02"
No. of children ' 2.72 1.21 2.70 .68 147.15 .13
No. of children 1.68 1.05 2.70 .69 163.11 -8.26
in host country
Employment 1.01 1.00 1.00 .00 99.00 1.00
Job
classification
(Office-related)
Executive 1.50 .50 1.91 .29 150.83 ~7.16***
Manager 1.72 .45 1.32 .47 225.00 6.44’"
Supervisor 1.99 .10 1.91 .28 164.04 2.84“
Recog. 1.88 .14 1.97 .18 225.00 .53
expert
Professiona 1.88 .33 1.98 .15 132.82 -2.73”
1
Entry prof. 1.97 .17 1.94 .24 222.33 1.20
(Plant-related)
Plant mgr. 1.97 .17 1.99 8.87 140.27 -1.17
Prod. mgr. 2.00 .00 2.00 .00 — —
Supt. 2.00 .00 2.00 .00 — —
Genl. supvr. 2.00 .00 1.98 .12 126.00 1.42
Supvr./group 1.99 1.00 2.00 .00 99.00 -1.00

leader

 

82

Table 10 (cont’d).

 

Socio- American Workers Korean Workers t-test

 

 

 

Demographic
Characteristics M: S_D M _S__D d_f t

Job
classification
(Plant-related)
Skilled trades 2.00 .00 2.00 .00 — —

Length of 3.56 1.39 3.65 .75 143.73 -.61
employment

Note. ’p_ < .05., ”p_< .01., "‘p< .001.

83

TestingHypotheses
National Culture

Hypothesis 1

The first hypothesis posits that American expatriate workers and
Korean expatriate workers respectively are likely to represent unique
cultural attributes in power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and
individualism: Americans tend to show lower power distance, lower
uncertainty avoidance, and higher individualism, while Koreans tend to
represent higher power distance, higher uncertainty avoidance, and lower
individualism. Because cultural difference is a relative concept, the
differences between the comparison groups would probably be a matter of
expressing a “more or less” tendency, or a matter of degree.

To measure national differences in power distance, the current study
followed an equation of Power Distance Index (PDI) which was used in the
Hofstede study (1980). PDI values were computed on the basis of the
country’s mean scores for the following three questions5:

(a) Non-managerial employees’ perception that employees are

afraid to disagree with their managers (Question no. 20)
(b) Subordinates’ perception that their boss tends to make
decisions in an autocratic (1) or persuasive/paternalistic (2)

way (Question no. 8)

(c) Subordinates’ preference for anything but a consultative (3)
style of decision-making by their boss (Question no. 7)

 

’ Actual questions used to attain the PDI are listed in Appendix G.

84

To compute the country’s PDI, Hofstede employed mean percent values
for items (b) and (c) as shown in the following equation. Mean scores for item
(a) were applied as well; they were multiplied by 25 to make their range
roughly equal to the extent in percentage values of items (b) and (c). In
addition, the constant 135 was added to give the country’s index values a
range between zero (smallest power distance) and 100 (largest power
distance). The actual formula used was:

PDI = 135 —— 25 (mean score of “afraid to disagree (a)”)
+ (percentage of “perceived mgr. (b)” 1 + 2)
— (percentage of “preferred mgr. (c)” 3) (1)

According to the result of the computation of the PDI values for the
comparison groups, Korean expatriate workers represented considerably
higher power distance (PDI = 73.8) than American expatriate workers (PDI =
41.9). PDI scores of the two groups obtained from this study were fairly
similar to PDI scores of South Korea (60) and the United States (40) reported
in Hofestede’s study (1980). A difference of 13.8 between the two PDI scores
of South Korea might not be considered a large one. The occurrence of larger
PDI values among the Korean workers suggests that the Korean hierarchical
system might be based on some pre-existing inequality; managers believe
they are entitled to certain privileges, and subordinates tend to be initiated
only by managers. Smaller power distance situations among the American

workers suggest that the hierarchical system in the United States is likely to

85

be established for convenience, and that it may change depending on the
circumstances. In this system, managers and subordinates tend to consider
each other as more equal (Hoecklin, 1995).

The Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI) for each of the two groups was
compiled on the basis of the mean scores for the following three questions
(Hofstede, 1980)6:

(a) Rule orientation: Agreement with the statement “Company

rules should not be broken—even when the employee thinks
it is in the company’s best interest” (Question no. 21)

(b) Employment stability: Employees’ statement that they

intend to continue with the company (1) for two years at

most, or (2) fiom two to five years (Question no. 15—Part B)

(c) Stress, as expressed in the mean answer to the question
“How often do you feel nervous or tense at work?” (Question
no.19)

The actual computation of the UAI values used mean percent scores for
item (b), and mean scores for items (a) and (c) as shown in the following
equation. These mean scores were multiplied by 30 for item (a) and 40 for
item (c) to make their range, and thus their contribution to the UAI was
roughly equal to the range in percentage values of question (b). Additionally,
the constant 300 was used to provide a range for the country’s index values

between eight (lowest uncertainty avoidance) and 112 (highest uncertainty

avoidance). The formula applied was:

 

6 Actual questions used to attain the UAI are listed in Appendix G.

86

UAI = 300 — 30 (mean score of “rule orientation (a)”)
— (percentage of “intending to stay less than 5 years (b)”
1 + 2 )
— 40 (mean score of “stress (c)”) (2)

The result of an analysis using the above formula indicated that the
UAI score (71.9) of the Korean expatriates was substantially higher than that
of the American expatriates (17 .1). Although the score on the Korean
expatriates in the present study was close to Hofstede’s score on South Korea
(85) with only a small difference, the score on the American expatriates was
considerably lower than his score (46). This result suggests that Korean
workers are likely to feel threatened and try to avoid ambiguous situations
more actively than American workers. Koreans may do this by establishing
more formal rules, rejecting deviant ideas and behaviors, and by accepting
the possibility of absolute truths and attempting to attain unchallengeable
expertise (Hoecklin, 1995). Lifetime employment, one of the major
phenomena in a society where high uncertainty avoidance applies, tended to
be more common among the Korean workers than the American workers, but
this difference was not statistically significant M [Koreans] = 3.06, S_D = .92;
M [Americans] = 2.83, E = 3.06; L = -1.65, d_f: 178.49, p < .09).

Hofstede’s Individualism Index (INV) values are based on the result of
a factor analysis of the 14 “work goals” items identified in his survey. For the
present study, six out of the 14 items, which represented the highest loading

scores, were carefully selected. In the Hosfstede study, the loadings of the

87

items indicate the correlation coefficients across the 40 countries of which he
investigated the linkage between the factor score and the country’s mean
score for each “work goal” question. He maintained that the Individual Index
was strongly related to these six items among his 14 questions. For this
study, the computation of the INV scores was not applicable due to the
differences in the numbers of items that were used in the Hofstede study.

Although specific Individualism Index scores were not measured, it
was found that the American expatriates represented somewhat higher
individualism M = 4.04, _S_I_) = .43) than the Korean expatriates M = 3.98, _S_D_
= .54), but this difference was not statistically significant. However, when
the scores of foreign-born Americans were controlled, the mean score of the
American expatriate group increased up to 4.16 (S_D = .36) and this was
significantly different from the mean score of the Korean expatriate group (t
= 2.27, d_f = .02, p < .05). This result suggests that American workers are
likely to identify themselves and their co-workers by individual
characteristics, rather than group membership. They are also likely to
pursue their own goals even when they conflict with the company’s best
interest. For Korean workers, however, the interests of the group usually
take precedence over the interests of the individual.

In conclusion, the American expatriates and the Korean expatriates
substantially differed in their dimensions of power distance and uncertainty

avoidance; the Americans represented a considerably lower degree of power

88

distance and uncertainty avoidance than the Koreans. Only when scores on
foreign-born Americans were controlled did the degree of individualism

among the American workers turn out to be higher than the Korean workers.

Hypothesis 2

The present study hypothesized that cultural adaptation by expatriate
workers might be directly related to their cultural attributes in the areas of
power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and individualism. The assessment
of the extent to which the expatriates adjusted to the host country was based
on their perceived stress levels.

The result of an analysis of variance suggested significant differences
in the interaction between the expatriates’ perceived stress level and their
unique characteristics in the three cultural dimensions. As illustrated on
Table 11, the combined effects of the three cultural attributes as well as

respective cultural dimensions were all statistically significant.

Table 11. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for Perceived Stress by Cultural

 

 

Dimension
Variable S_§_ MS a E
Power distance 3.704 1.235 6.91 .001
Uncertainty avoidance 1.998 .666 3.73 .012
Individualism 2.096 .699 3.91 .010

(All variables combined) 8.280 .920 5.15 .001

 

89

In the breakdown of the sample, the degree to which the American
expatriates represented power distance was positively associated with stress
they experienced in South Korea, while the degree of uncertainty avoidance
of the Korean workers was most likely to affect a high level of stress in the
United States. The result of the linear regression analysis of perceived stress
in the comparison groups is presented in Table 12.

This suggests that expatriate workers from a low power distance
society (the United States) tend to have more difficulties in adjusting to a
high power distance society (South Korea), than expatriates who are assigned
to a low power distance society from a high power distance society, as in the
case of the Koreans. Likewise, expatriate workers who show high
uncertainty avoidance are likely to face difficulties more often when they are

Table 12. Linear Regression of Perceived Stress by Power Distance
(Americans) and Uncertainty Avoidance (Koreans)

 

 

 

 

American Expatriates Korean Expatriates
Variable g [3 g g B L
Power distance .137 .234 2.337‘ — — —
(.058)
Uncertainty avoidance — — — .151 .232 2.629“
(.057)
(All variables 1.337 — 9.704‘“ 1.637 — 9.081'“
combined) (.138) (.180)

 

Note. The standard error is shown in parenthesis following B. For American expatriates,
Perceived Stress (Y) = 1.337 + .234 (Power Distance); for Korean expatriates, Perceived
Stress (Y) = 1.637 + .232 (Uncertainty Avoidance). 'p < .05. "p < .01. "’p < .001.

90

assigned to a low uncertainty avoidance nation (the United States), than
expatriates who show low uncertainty avoidance but work in a high

uncertainty avoidance society (South Korea), as in the case of the Americans.

Individual Expatriate Workers

Hypothesis 3

This study hypothesized that American employees are likely to
experience more stress when they work in South Korea (a homogeneous
society) than Korean employees working in the United States (a
heterogeneous society), but this hypothesis was not tenable. A close analysis
of the data showed that the stress levels of the Korean workers were higher
than those of the American workers, suggesting this difference was
statistically significant M [Koreans] = 2.09, Si) = .40; M [Americans] = 1.63,
S_D = .41; _t = -8.54, d_f: 224, p < .001.

This finding of the present study does not correspond to the Laurent
assumption (1983), which specifies that expatriate workers originally from a
heterogeneous culture are more likely to have difficulties in adjustment when
they are assigned to a homogeneous society, than expatriate workers from a

homogeneous culture to a heterogeneous society.

91

Hypothesis 4

The fourth hypothesis posits that the expatriates’ cross-cultural
adaptation is likely to depend on the types of coping methods they apply in
daily life. The correlation between coping methods and stress, and mean
score of stress are presented in Table 13 (for the American expatriates) and
Table 14 (for the Korean expatriates). In general, strategic planning that the
expatriates applied to difficult situations was suggested to be effective in
reducing stress levels, but ventirg of emotions, denial, behavioral
disengagement, and alcohol and/or drug disengagement were suggested to
negatively affect the expatriates’ stress levels

Direct coping strategies, which were indicated by a combination of
active coping and planning by Cross (1995), were not suggested to be effective
in reducing stress levels of the American expatriates. For the Korean
expatriates, combined direct coping strategy effects of active coping and
planning were not statistically significant, either: E (5, 120) = 1.87, p < .11.
However, when direct coping methods were broken down into active coping
and planning, and then compared, planning emerged as the strongest
predictor for alleviating stress for the Korean expatriates in the United

States @ = -.108, p < .026).

92

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94

In various regression analyses, negative coping methods, which were
not conducive to the reduction of stress, emerged from each comparison
group. American expatriates showed higher stress levels when they applied
the following coping methods: (1) seeking social support for instrumental
reasons (B = .123, p_ < .045); (2) focusing on and venting of emotion (I_3 = .119,
p_ < .039); (3) behavioral disengagement @ = .224, p_ < .001); and (4) mental
disengagement (B = .113, p < .036). In the case of Korean expatriates, the
more they used acceptance (B = .115, p < .033), behavioral disengagement (B
= .178, p < .015), and alcohol and/or drgdisengagement (B: .165, p < .003)
as coping strategies, the more they tended to experience stress. These
incompatible coping styles that both American workers and Korean workers
employed were suggested to have not necessarily helped them reduce stress
levels, but they might rather have aggravated difficulties in adjusting to the

new environment.

Hypothesis 5

The fifth hypothesis posits that cultural adjustment by the expatriate
worker tends to be directly related to his or her relationships with foreign
counterparts. The items regarding relationships with foreign counterparts
identified in the first-stage study were applied to test this hypothesis.

To identify clusters of relationship issues, the 11 items were submitted

to a principal components analysis. Four eigenvalues greater than 1.0 were

95

extracted; they collectively accounted for 57.5% of the total variance. The
measurement of Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) for these relationship issues was
.62. This was regarded as a reasonable value, especially for the scores with
few items in the present study. The loading scores of the relationship items
on the four main factors are presented in Table 15. A component plot for
each item in rotated space is illustrated in Figure 6.

Factor 1 was labeled explicitness of relationship. This factor consists of
three items: (1) willingness to listen to advice from, (2) share information
with indigenous workers and/or foreign counterparts, and (3) a tendency to
draw a clear line between official and personal affairs in the workplace. As
these items share a common meaning of “open-heart” or honesty, the factor
was so named. Factor 2 was labeled social customs. This factor included two
items: (1) the expatriates’ familiarity with social culture and (2) business
etiquette in the host nation. Both reflect cultural traits and customs in this
study. Factor 3 was labeled business style and was defined by the three
areas of business issues: (1) difl'erent business style, (2) hierarchical
management, and (3) the degree of loyalty to the company. Finally, Factor 4
was labeled reliance. It included two items: (1) trust issues toward foreign
counterparts and (2) racial and/or ethnic discrimination. The result of the
factor analysis suggests that interpersonal factors in cross-cultural
adjustment mainly consist of the four dimensions, i.e., explicitness of

relationship, social customs, business style, and reliance.

96

 

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relationships with foreign counterparts

98

Overall, different business style in the two cultural contexts was
suggested to be the most positively related bivariate correlate of stress Q =
.27, p < .01), while the degree to which the expatriates understood business
etiquette in the host country was the most negatively related to stress (I_‘ = -
.18, p < .01). That is, the more the expatriate workers encountered a
different business style in their foreign counterparts, the more they
experienced stress. Expatriates who were familiar with common business
etiquette in the host culture reported lower stress levels.

Each comparison group represented unique issues in adapting to the
foreign work environment. Table 16 shows the results of regressing the
perceived stress level on all relationship issues respectively of the American
group and the Korean group. The data revealed several new findings.
Among the American workers in South Korea, issues of familiarity with
social customs, trusting form counterparts, and understanding hierarchical
managment accounted for most of the explained variance, although the
familiarity with social customs was not statistically significant (p < .077).
The more the American workers trusted the Korean counterparts, the less
stress the Americans felt. American expatriates who were accustomed to
hierarchical management systems showed less stress when they worked in
South Korea. However, for Korean workers the degree of familiarity with the
hierarchical management system did not affect their stress levels, suggesting

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100

Although coefficient correlations with stress were not statistically
significant, relationship issues, such as openness to advice from the Korean
counterparts, loyalty to company, and Korean language proficiency, were
negatively related to perceived stress of the American workers. Data suggest
that these relationship issues might help decrease their stress levels.
However, Logical decision. different business style, willingness to share
information with foreign counterparts, and racial discrimination were related
positively to the perceived stress, suggesting that these factors tended to
cause difficulties for American expatriates’ working with Korean
counterparts.

The degree to which the Korean workers understood American
business etipuette may be the strongest predictor of stress reduction. The
Korean workers who preferred group decision-making, and thus experienced
differences from the American business style, exhibited considerably higher

stress levels (different business styles).

In addition, familiarity with American customs, Logical decision-

 

maki g, willingness to share information, loyalty to company, trusting].r
American counterparts, and mglish proficiency were likely to alleviate
Korean expatriates’ stress, while preference for hierarchical management,
listening to advice from American counterparts, and racial discrimination

tended to evoke difficulties in working in the United States. However, all

101

these relationship issues were not statistically significant, suggesting they

were not effective in reducing stress.

Hypothesis 6

The sixth hypothesis states that the degree to which expatriate
workers adapt to the host culture is likely to depend on the number of foreign
countries in which they have worked. The result of a regression analysis
suggested that this hypothesis was tenable G} = -.100, p < .001). The more
the expatriates had previous work experiences in foreign countries, the less
they exhibited stress in the current host country (Figure 7). The regression
equation which was associated with stress and the number of foreign

countries that the expatriates had experienced was:

Y = 2.110 — .100 (X)

where Y is perceived stress and
X is the number of foreign countries (4)
to which the expatriate was assigned

102

 

1.9

1.8

Stress (mean)
/

1.7

1.6 V

1.5
0 1 2 3 or more

 

 

 

Number of Foreign Countries Experienced

Figure 7. The expatriates’ perceived stress by number of foreign
countries in which the expatriates have previously worked

103

Hypothesis 7

The seventh hypothesis posits that the length of employment of the
expatriate workers in the host country is likely to affect their cross-cultural
adaptation. In a regression analysis, the length of employment in the host
country emerged as a significant predictor of the expatriates’ adjustment (5 =
-.057, p_ < .033). Figure 8 illustrates how the expatriates’ stress levels change
according to the length of time worked in the host country.

The expatriate workers in this study showed the highest level of stress
in the first year of employment in the host country. The stress levels started
to decrease considerably after the first year and continued to decline until the
third year of employment. Thereafter, it increased slightly until the fifth
year. These findings do not correspond to the previous “U” curve theory,
introduced in Chapter II, related to the first five years of employment in the
host country. The “U” curve theory assumes that expatriate workers adjust
better at the initial period of assignment due to their enthusiasm for the new
tasks and interests in the host culture. The expatriates tend to experience
significant stress following the initial period of enthusiasm until they become
very familiar with the host country and develop coping abilities in the new
working environment. In this study, the stress level of the expatriates once
again declined after the fifth year. This stress alleviation after the fifth year,

to some degree, was closed to the “U” curve assumption.

104

 

 

 

 

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c6
Q)
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a, 1.9 .
CD
2’,
65
1.8 I
1. _ _ t
7 1 yr. 3 yrs. 5 yrs. 7 yrs. 9 yrs. or more

Length of Employment (years)

Figure 8. The expatriates’ perceived stress by length of employment in
the host country

105

Hypothesis 8

The effect of cross-cultural training on the extent to which the
expatriates adjust to the host culture was examined. The result of an
analysis of variance suggested that cross-cultural training had a significant
influence on the degree to which the expatriates felt stress: F (1, 217) = 4.707,
p < .031. In the other words, expatriate workers who had cross-cultural
training before they were assigned found it easier to adjust to living in a
foreign country. Figure 9 illustrates relationships between the expatriates’
perceived stress level in the host country and the number of hours of cross-

cultural training that the expatriates had received in their home countries.

106

 

2.0

1.8.

 

1.6‘

1.41

Stress (mean) .

1.2I

1.0‘

 

 

 

0 1-15 hrs. 16-37) hrs 31-45 hrs.

Previous Cross- Cultural Training (hours)

Figure 9. The expatriates’ perceived level of stress by previous
cross-cultural training

107

Hypothesis 9

The ninth hypothesis posits that the expatriate workers who interact
often with host country nationals are more likely to adjust to the host culture
successfully than those who interact mainly with those from their home
country. To test this hypothesis, the effects of the expatriates interacting
with the people of communities in the host country were examined by
applying dummy variables7:

(1) More interaction with expatriate community:

If Question 19 (Part II) = 1, assign dummy 1 = O, dummy 2 = 0

(2) More interaction with host national community:
If Question 19 (Part II) = 2, assign dummy 1 = 1, dummy 2 = 0

(3) Almost equal interaction with both communities:
If Question 19 (Part II) = 3, assign dummy 1 = 0, dummy 2 = 1
The result of regression analysis was statistically significant, F (2, 216)
= 4.728, p_ < .01. The following illustrates the regression equation and
expected stress levels of expatriate workers in each pattern of community

interaction:

(a) Regression equation:

Y (Perceived stress) = 1.987 — .242 (Dummyl) — .160 (Dummy2)

(b) Expected stress levels of expatriate workers:

(1) More interaction with expatriate community:
Y = 1.987 — .242 (0) — .160 (0) = 1.987

 

7 Appendix G includes Question no. 19 (Part II).

108

(2) More interaction with host nationals:
Y = 1.987 — .242 (1) — .160 (0) = 1.745

(3) Almost equal amount of interaction:
Y = 1.987 — .242 (0) — .160 (1) = 1.827
The regression coefficients on both dummy 1 and dummy 2 were
respectively significant at the .05 level. This finding suggests that the
expatriate workers who interacted more with host country nationals adjusted
better to the host culture than those who interacted more with people from

their home country. Thus, Hypothesis 9 was supported.

Hypothesis 10

The tenth hypothesis predicts that the extent to which expatriate
families are satisfied with living in the host country is likely to influence the
expatriates’ adjustment. Regarding the expatriates’ spouses, their favorable
attitudes toward the overseas assignment were negatively correlated with
the expatriates’ lower stress levels, but this correlation was not statistically
significant. Favorable attitudes of the expatriates’ children toward living in
the host country did not seem to affect the workers’ stress levels, either.

Nevertheless, an analysis of variance suggested that the children’s
attitudes toward living in the host country had a significant influence on the
expatriates’ intention to stay in the assigned country: E (4, 155) = 2.584, p_ <
.039. This suggests that the more the expatriates’ children were satisfied

with living in the host country, the more the expatriate workers intended to

109

stay and continue to work on the overseas assignment. Although the spouses’
favorable attitudes to the host country showed somewhat positive correlation

with the expatriates’ intention to stay, this was not statistically significant.

Hypothesis 11

The final hypothesis posits that expatriate workers whose families
must stay behind in the home country are less likely to adjust to foreign
assignments than workers whose families accompany them. The overall
sample—both comparison groups combined—had an average of 2.7 children,
but were accompanied by 2.3 children in the overseas assignment.
Differences between comparison groups were statistically significant (p <
.001). American expatriates had 2.7 children, but brought only 1.7 children
to South Korea, while Korean expatriates were accompanied by almost all
their children.

According to results of a simple factorial analysis of variance, the
combined effects of both the number of children and the number of children
living in the host country on the expatriates’ perceived level of stress were
statistically significant: F (8, 216) = 4.622, p_ < .001. This suggests that if the
expatriates’ children stay behind in the home country, it is then likely to
influence negatively the cross-cultural adjustment of the expatriate workers.

In fact, the American expatriate workers whose children did not accompany

110

them worried about their children back home and this problem ranked sixth

among their difficulties experienced in South Korea.

111

Table 17. Summary of Results: Testing Hypotheses

 

 

 

 

 

 

Hypothesis Result
COUNTRY
1. Defining national culture (U .S. vs. S. Korea)
Power distance Supported
Uncertainty avoidance Supported
Individualism Supported
(conditional)
2. National culture (vs. adjustment)
Power distance Supported
Uncertainty avoidance Supported
Individualism Not supported
INDIVIDUAL EXPATRIATE
3. Adjustment comparison (U .S. vs. S. Korea) Not supported
4. Coping methods Supported
5. Relationships with foreign counterparts Supported
6. Previous foreign experience Supported
7. Length of residence Supported
ORGANIZATION/COMMUNITY
8. Cross-cultural training Supported
9. Community interaction Supported
FAMILY MEMBERS
’ 10. Family attitude
Spouse . Not supported
Child Supported
11. Family back home Supported

 

Note. Testing the issue of individualism in Hypothesis 1 was supported only under the control of foreign-
bom American expatriates. All the hypotheses were statistically tested at .05 level.

Chapter VI

SOCIAL SERVICE NEEDS OF EXPATRIATE WORKERS

Through the analyses of the hypotheses, the present study ascertained
that the cross-cultural adjustment of the expatriate workers was affected by
their national cultures, individual attributes, work organizations and/or
communities, and family members.

What then are the major problems these workers face in overseas
assignments and what types of services are critically needed to alleviate
these problems? Answers to these questions are expected to provide us with
basic information needed to plan for intervention. Needs assessment is a
critical first step in the design of a social intervention (Rossi, Freeman, &
Wright, 1979). That is, in order to plan for human services, needs must be
accurately assessed.

Needs assessment should be approached by examining both problems
of clients and services desired by the clients (Research Group, 1976; Sung,
1989). To assess the needs of the expatriate workers, both American
expatriates and Korean expatriates were asked to check the five most serious
problems they experienced and the five most desirable services they would

like to see developed (A list of items regarding the problems and services was

112

113

provided to each respondent as shown below). In addition to data on the
frequency with which each expatriate worker cited problems and services, a
degree of importance given by the worker to the problem and the service was
also assessed. Such a combined approach, which accounted for both
frequency and importance in regard to both problems and services, would
mitigate the negative bias from any single approach and increase the validity
of the needs measurement.

The items used for the needs assessment included not only the usual
problems and services of social workers’ concern, but also such problems as
language, racial relations, crime and safety, transportation, and recreation—
all of which the expatriate workers encounter in their respective host

countries. The items included in the questionnaire are as follows:

0 Marital relations 0 Language

0 Family relations 0 Racial/ethnic relations

0 Emotion relations 0 Cross-cultural differences
0 Mental health 0 Educational needs

0 Day care 0 Employment

0 Children’s health 0 Homemaking

0 Adoption 0 Financial needs

0 Children’s schooling 0 Recreation

0 Juvenile relations 0 Volunteer activities

0 Parenting 0 Police and fire services

0 Family planning 0 Legal support

0 Safety/Crime o Transportation/Traffic

- Gambling 0 Religion

0 Alcohol/Drug usage a Elderly parents back home
0 Adult health care 0 Children back home

0 Physical handicaps o Repatriation

ll4

Needs Emssions Based on Frequency

Needs Common to Both Comparison Groups

Problems experienced

In the process of needs assessment, the first step was to average
frequencies with which the problems or the services were cited by the
expatriate workers. Results of the questionnaire administration indicated
that both American expatriates and Korean expatriates had encountered
various types of problems in the host country and they desired similar social
services. Based on the frequency with which the items were checked, the ten

most serious problems were initially identified (Table 18).

115

Table 18. Frequency of Problems Experienced in Foreign Countries Cited by
American Expatriates (N = 101) and Korean Expatriates (N = 128)

 

American Expatriates Korean Expatriates

 

 

Type of Problem

 

n 29 rank _r_1 2/2 rank
Language barriers 66 65.3 1 95 74.2 1
Cross-cultural 64 63.4 2 68 53.1 4
misunderstanding
Concern about elderly 22 21.8 6 71 55.5 3
parents back home
Adult health care 22 21.8 6 38 29.7 8
Crime/safety 17 16.8 10 58 45.3 5
Lack of recreation 60 59.4 3 — — —
Transportation/traffic 32 31.4 4 — — —
Concern about children back 24 23.5 5 — — —
home
Marital conflict 20 19.8 8 — — —
Lack of employment 20 19.8 8 — —— —
guidance
Children’s schooling — — — 77 60.2 2
Repatriation — —- — 50 39. 1 6
Racial/ethnic conflict — —- — 48 37.5 7
Legal problems — — ——- 38 29.7 8
Lack of financial support — — — 30 23.4 10

 

Note. 9 = the number of respondents; f/_o = the number of cases cited/the number of responses; rank is
based on the percentage size. The ten items listed received the most responses in each group.

116

It is noteworthy that both Americans and Koreans cited language
barriers, cross-cultural misunderstandig, concern about elderly parents
bagflome, adult health care, and crime and safety issues as the most serious
problems commonly experienced in the host country. Larguayge barriers
emerged as the top-ranking problem. In total, 66 out of 101 American
expatriates (65.3%) and 95 out of 128 Korean expatriates (74.2%) cited
language barriers as the most serious problem. Although respondents gave
different ranking, the majority of the Americans (63.4%) and the Koreans
(53.1%) reported cross-cultural misunderstanding in the host country.

Both groups were concerned about elderly parents backfihome. About
22% of the American workers cited this item, giving this problem a ranking of
sixth. Among the Korean workers, however, this item was the third most
serious problem. More than half of the Koreans surveyed (55.5%) expressed
concern over elderly parents back home. Although adult children in both
cultures appeared to have filial concern and a sense of responsibility for their
elderly parents back home, Koreans reported greater concern and sense of
responsibility than Americans.

Adult heath care services appeared to be a serious problem to both
groups of expatriates. Americans in South Korea tended to have greater
concerns about health care than Korean expatriates in the United States.
The American group ranked health care as the sixth most serious problem;

the Korean group ranked it eighth. In other words, the Americans appeared

117

to believe that medical facilities and health care services in South Korea were
less qualified than those in the United States, or it seemed to be difficult for
them to access to the Korean health care system.

Concern about crime and safety was another problem both groups
faced in the host country. Koreans showed more anxiety about their safety in
the United States: About 45% of the Koreans pointed out high crime rates in
the United States and they ranked this issue as the fifth most serious
problem. Meanwhile, about 17% of the Americans were concerned about
crime and safety in Korea and ranked this item tenth. Figure 10 shows the

five most frequently cited problems.

 

 

Language barriers

 

Cross-cultural mlsund.

 

 

Concern over parents

Problems

Adult health care

 

 

 

 

CrimeISafoty

 

 

l
l
1

Percentage

I American Cl Korean

Figure 10. Frequency of problems cited by both American expatriates and
Korean expatriates

118

Services desired

 

In the assessment of services most desired by the expatriate workers in
their respective host countries, several items emerged. Table 19 lists ten

services which were most often cited by each comparison group.

Table 19. Frequency of Desired Services in Foreign Countries Cited by

119

American Expatriates (N = 101) and Korean Expatriates (N = 128)

 

American Expatriates

 

Korean Expatriates

 

 

Type of Service 33L % rank 9: % rank
Cross-cultural training 55 54.5 1 69 53.9 2
Language programs 52 51.5 2 84 65.6 1
Adult health care 24 23.8 5 45 35.2 7
Crime prevention/safety 20 19.8 7 49 38.3 5
Education programs 19 18.8 8 45 35.2 7
Services for elderly parents 15 14.9 10 50 39.1 4
in the home country
Repatriation 15 14.9 10 46 35.9 6

Recreation programs 49 48.5 3 — — —
Transportation/traffic 33 32.7 4 — — —
solution

Employment guidance 21 20.8 6 — — —
Homemaking 16 15.8 9 — — —
School counseling —— ——- -— 56 43.8 3
Legal services — — — 40 31.3 9
Racial/ethnic problem — — — 39 30.5 10
solving

Financial support — — — 39 30.5 10

 

Note. n = the number of respondents; % = the number of cases cited/the number of

responses; rank is based on the percentage size.

responses in each group.

The ten items listed received the most

120

Most Americans and Koreans cited cross-cultural training and
langgage programs as their most desired services. These were either the first
or second most desired services for both Americans and Koreans.

Americans and the Koreans also cited adult health care programs,
crime prevention, and services for elderly parents in their own home country.
Desire for better adult health care programs was more common among the
Americans in South Korea, while concern with crime prevention was more
conspicuous among the Koreans in the United States. Adult health care and
crime prevention were ranked fifth and seventh respectively by the
Americans, but seventh and fifth by the Koreans. Although services for
elderly parents in the home country was desired by a greater number of
Koreans (50 out of 128; 39.1%), the Americans also considered this item
important by citing it as their tenth most desired service (15 out of 101;
14.9%).

In addition, needs for education programs and repatriation services
were cited as eighth and tenth respectively by the Americans, whereas the
Koreans cited these seventh and sixth. Forty five out of 128 Koreans (35.2%)
and 19 out of 101 Americans (18.8%) desired for additional or extensive

education programs in the host country; the ranking of this item for each

 

group was somewhat similar. However, more Korean workers desired

repatriation services than did American workers. About 36% of Koreans, the

 

sixth largest number of the respondents, cited the need for this particular

121

service. Americans ranked services for elderly parents in the home country
as the tenth most important issue. Figure 11 shows the seven services most

frequently desired by both groups.

Needs Only of American Expatriates

Problems experienced

Although both the American group and the Korean group shared
similar needs in foreign assignments, the findings clearly suggest that both

groups indicated unique needs in their respective situations.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

53.9
Cross-cultural training . .5
' ' no.6
Language programs 51 5
55.2
Adult health care 23.8
g e .3
E Crime Prevention 9.8
' 43.2
Education programs . _3
‘ 5.1
Serv. for old. parents 1 43
35.9
Repatriation _.
/ /
I I T I I I l I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Percentage

I American El Korean

Figure 11. Frequency of services desired by both American expatriates and
Korean expatriates

122

In terms of problems experienced while working in South Korea, the
American group particularly cited Lady of recreation, transportation and
traffic, concern over children back home, marital conflict, and la_c_k_of
employment gpidance.

First, the Americans pointed out a lack of recreation facilities and/or
proggams available in South Korea. Sixty out of 101 Americans (59.4%) cited
this difficulty, making this the third important issue. However, this study
did not examine whether the Americans had considered it difficult to find
American-style recreation facilities and/or opportunities in South Korea or
whether they had simply failed to adjust to Korean-style recreation.

Second, 32 Americans (31.4%) brought up the issue of m
transportation and traffic. It conspicuously ranked fourth. In fact, this
difficulty is not particular to any ethnicity but is a common problem for most
residents in major metropolitan areas in South Korea, such as Seoul and
Pusan (Lee, 1997).

Third, concern about children back home was cited as the fifth most
significant problem for the Americans (23.5%). This concern was likely to be
caused by the fact that more than half of the American respondents who had
children did not bring their children when they went to South Korea. Thus,
the Americans’ concern about children would probably be greater than that of

Korean expatriates who were mostly accompanied by their children.

123

Fourth, about 20% of the American expatriates answered that they
faced marital conflict while they were staying in the host country. In fact,
the extent to which American expatriates’ spouses were satisfied with living
in South Korea was lower than Korean expatriates’ spouses in the United
States 034 [American spouses] = 3.41, SD = .12; _M_ [Korean spouses] = 3.87,
S_D = .08; _t_ = - 3.16; if: 121.24; p < .001). The degree of satisfaction among
the American expatriates’ children was statistically lower as well (M
[American children] = 3.46, SD = .98; _M [Korean children] = 4.21, _S_D_ = .64; t
= - 4.80; g = 60.99; p < .001). These data suggest that low life-style
satisfaction of the American families in South Korea could contribute to

marital conflicts with the American expatriates.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Recreation (3) ‘ “ .............................. . .
.................... .. - 59.4
a Transportation“) ; ............... , . 31-4
S ., .......................................
f, a.
a. Marltelconfiict(8) ......_..-. i193
Lackofempl.guld.(8) ‘. ______ ,. l9-8
0 1o 20 3o 40 so so

Percentage

Figure 12. Frequency of problems cited only by American expatriates in
South Korea. The numbers in parentheses indicate rankings
within the group.

124

Finally, for the Americans, the lack of employment guidance was tied
in rank with marital conflicts as eighth. Figure 12 summarizes frequency of

problems cited only by the Americans.

Services desired

Although the six services most commonly desired by both comparison
groups were identified; the American group in South Korea specifically called
for better services to meet needs. They saw recreation programs,
transportation and traffic solutions, employment guidance and training, and
homemaking services as important. With regard to the first three items, i.e.,
recreation, transportation/traffic, and employment guidance/training, the
ranking based on services matched fairly well with the ranking based on

problems cited.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Recreation pro. (3) f ‘ i if i
8 Transportation“) PM" I. 32.7
.2 b "
Z .
0 . .
"’ Empl.guid.(6) .

Homemaking (9) ‘J J " " . ~
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Percentage

Figure 13. Frequency of services cited only by American expatriates in South
Korea. The numbers in parentheses indicate rankings within the

group.

125

The Americans additionally cited homemaking as one of the most
desirable services that they would like to see expanded and they ranked it
ninth. Figure 13 illustrates frequency of services desired only by the

American expatriates in South Korea.

Needs Only of Korean Expatriates

Problems exmarienced

 

In addition to the common problems cited by both comparison groups,
only Korean expatriates responded that they had experienced difficulties
with issues regarding children’s schooling, repatriation, racial and/or ethnic
conflict, legal status, and laglgf financial support from the parent company.

More than 60% of the respondents, the second largest group of
Koreans, expressed concern about educational issues related to children’s
schooling. They were anxious to see that their children successfully adapted
to the new American school system and learning environment. According to
Berg and Jaya (1993), Asians, including Koreans, tend to dedicate a large

portion of their lives to educating their children.

Unlike other ethnic groups who migrated to avoid starvation,
poverty, or war, they [Asians] come, by or large, to enhance their
children’s chances of success. Therefore, the Asian green grocer
on the street corner in Manhattan may be aiming to have his
and/or her children graduate from Harvard or Yale. Nothing
less will do (p. 31).

126

As remarked in Chapter II, repatriation to the home country is
becoming recognized as problematic and a major concern for the Korean
expatriates who were about to return to South Korea. Approximately 39% of
the Koreans cited this difficulty, placing it as the sixth most serious problem.
In the personal interviews, some Korean expatriates were concerned about
the children’s re-adaptation to the Korean school system and their own
readjustment to the Korean work environment.

About 38% of the Koreans reported that they had experienced racial
and/or ethnic discrimination since returning from the United States. This
seemed to be consistent with the results of the first-stage study that was
conducted to design the study questionnaire in Chapter III: About 32% of
Korean respondents agreed that this issue was a concern.

Thirty-eight out of 128 Koreans also pointed out visa-related Legal
problems in the United States. This often occurred when they tried to extend
their working contracts or change their working conditions in the host
country. Visa-related regulations also frequently hindered the spouse from
maintaining a career in the host country, a factor that might eventually
affect his or her satisfaction or adaptability to the new environment.

In addition, the Koreans often faced a leg: of financial support from
the parent company. About 23% of the Korean respondents agreed that this
issue was a concern. Some Korean companies did not seem to be fully

supportive in terms of the expatriates’ budgets for the overseas assignment.

127

Figure 14 shows the frequency of problems cited by only Korean expatriates

in the United States.

Services desired

The services desired only by the Korean expatriates tend to match the
problems that they cited as difficulties experienced in the United States. The
four services requested only by the Koreans were school counseling, lggaj
services, racial and/or ethnic problem solving, and financial support.
Although repatriation was one of the most serious problems for the Koreans,
this concern was not among the ten services Koreans would most like to have

(re: Table 19).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

"V" ' ‘ ‘ " a. 60.2
Chilren's schooling (2) ’ I
_- ._-,‘,. . “.5...‘ .7 .1...“ .i‘-‘ .. , .‘.-.-.*.,:.1 "37.7.1'7,“ stf’ruvy'C“ ’ L9.1
Repatriation (6) , A -_ .
" 3‘" , . . ,
jg Racial conflict (7) , ., _ .. ,.
a i I . l,
Legal problems (8) .. q__ » .s.
Lack of fin. support (10) .. 23"
I. I/ I/ I I I I l
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Percentage

Figure 14. Frequency of problems cited only by Korean expatriates in the
United States. The numbers in parentheses indicate rankings
within the group.

Services

128

Rankings based on these services were moderately consistent with
rankings based on problems. Figure 15 shows Koreans ranked their desires

for various services.

Needs Expressions Based on Importance

In addition to the data on frequency given to the problems and the
services, the degree of importance given by the two comparison groups to the
same problems and the same services was estimated as well. This was the
second step in assessing the expatriates’ needs in the host country. Sung
(1989) noted that convergence of the needs data should be carried out in two
steps: (1) averaging frequencies with which the problems and services were
cited and (2) averaging importance (weight) values given to the problems and

services.

 

 

 

 
 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

School counsel. (3) E -., rrrrr ‘ """""" 43 8]
Lmem ' 'v -- . ‘ - w. 2, ,_.. "f' 313
Legal service (9) ‘ q
i ‘ " 30.5
Racial prob. solv. (10) ‘_ ,
’ " ' :‘ ‘ ‘ * 30.5
Financial support (10) ‘ _ ., ..
E! I I I T r I I I I
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Percentage

Figure 15. Frequency of services desired only by Korean expatriates in the
United States. The numbers in parentheses indicate rankings
within the group.

129

Next, assessing the association between the priority based on frequency and
that based on importance, the relevance between the problems and the
services should be sought.

The American expatriates and the Korean expatriates were asked to
rank each problem they experienced in the host country from 5 to 1 in
priority, 5 being the most serious . . . 1 being the least serious. They were
also asked to rank those services that they would like to see developed with 5

being the most desirable and 1, the least desirable.

Needs Common to Both Comparison Groups

Problems experienced

A list of importance values and rankings concerning the problems is
presented in Table 20. Ten items rated most important by each group were
identified. The table shows five common problems and their rankings as
cited by both groups. Again, langpage problems was ranked first. The
Americans weighed it as 4.1 out of 5; the Koreans weighed it 3.8. Problems
regarding emotion, children’s schooling, mental health, and child health care
followed. However, these five top ranking problems cited by the expatriates
were placed within a somewhat small range of differences in importance,
suggesting that the respondents considered these items almost equally

important.

I30

Table 20. Importance of Problems Experienced in Foreign Countries Cited by
American Expatriates (N = 101) and Korean Expatriates (N = 128)

 

American expatriates Korean expatriates

 

 

 

Type of Problem 9, _M... rank :1} M_ rank
Language barriers 66 4.1 1 95 3.8 1
Emotional problems 7 3.9 2 18 3.2 6
Children’s schooling 12 3.4 3 77 3.6 2
Mental health 3 3.3 4 27 3.4 4
Child health care 9 3.3 4 21 3.1 8
Adoption 3 3.3 4 — — —
Family planning 3 3.3 4 — — -—
Marital conflict 20 3.1 8 — — —
Homemaking 14 3.1 9 — — —
Cross-cultural 64 3.0 10 — — —
misunderstanding
Juvenile problems — — — 21 3.4 3
Concern about children — — — 13 3.3 5
back home
Concern about elderly — — — 71 3.2 6
parents back home
Family conflict — — ’ — 18 3.1 8
Parenting problems — — — 24 3.0 10

 

Note. p = the number of respondents; rank is based on the importance value. The ten items
that received the highest mean scores in each group were selected.

131

Services desired

Table 21 presents the ten most conspicuous service items based on
importance values. In particular, the list includes four services most
commonly desired by both groups: langpage programs, child health care,
youth programs, and mental health services. Except for youth programs,
three out of the four items were the same in kind and nearly the same in
ranking as in the case of the problems that they experienced. Again, these
top~ranking services cited by both groups showed a small range of differences

in importance values.

132

Table 21. Importance of Desired Services in Foreign Countries Cited by
American Expatriates (N = 101) and Korean Expatriates (N =

 

 

 

 

128)
American expatriates Korean expatriates
Type of Service _I_l_ M: rank 2 M rank
Language programs 52 4.2 2 84 4.0 1
Child health care 11 3.9 5 24 3.7 2
Youth programs 6 3.7 7 31 3.2 8
Mental health services 5 3.6 9 27 3.1 9
Alcohol/Drug prevention 5 4.4 1 — — —
Counseling for gambling 2 4.0 3 — — —
Rehabilitation 4 4.0 3 — — —
Marital counseling 8 3.9 5 — — —
Emotional support 6 3.7 7 —— —— ——
Adoption 2 3.5 10 — — -—
Financial support —— — — 32 3.6 3
Support for children in the — — — 12 3.5 4
home country
School counseling — — — 56 3.5 4
Services for elderly parents — — — 50 3.4 6
in the home country
Parenting education — — — 18 3.2 7
Racial/ethnic problem — — — 39 3.1 10

solving

 

blots, _n__ = the number of respondents; Rank is based on the importance value. The ten items
that received the highest mean scores in each group were selected.

133

Needs Onlv of American Expatriates

Problems experienced

In addition to the five problems that both comparison groups
experienced, the Americans also expressed serious concern about issues of
adoption, family planning, marital conflict, homemaking, and cross-cultural
misunderstanding. Some differences existed between the frequency-based
items and the importance-based items. Although the Americans did not
frequently cite adoption and family planning, both ranked fourth in terms of
the degree of importance.

Variations of importance values in each problem were fairly small.

Figure 16 shows the importance of problems cited only by the American

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

expatriates.
mom (4) 1k” _, _.; l;__-_;-:.»-' t" ' ' ‘, " . 3'3
3: Marital conflict (a) " ‘ ' ~- _ _ ' :_ z; ’ ‘ f," " g 3.1
E
mung (9) 591'?“ - .-".‘.‘ '1'; I” . . - ' 1 3.1
Cross-cult. misund- (10) 3
_ '1 i '1 I/ I I
o 1 2 3 4 5
Mean Scores

Figure 16. Importance of problems cited by American expatriates working in
South Korea. The numbers in parentheses indicate rankings
within the group.

134

Services desired

The Americans gave high importance values to alcohol and/or drug
prevention, counseling for gambling problems, rehabilitation, marital
counseling, emotional support, and adoption issues. Again, these items based
on importance values were not consistent with the services based on
frequency in terms of kind or ranking. For example, alcohol and/or drug
prevention and counseling for gambling problems respectively ranked first
and third, but they did not rank in the top ten service items that received the
most responses in the American group. Figure 17 illustrates the ranking of

problems cited by Americans living in South Korea.

 

.
’4‘“. -' 'w'h,~'h V. I- urn a a « l,.rJ~ ~~'\J‘; .' it» uh. V'- be. an .; .r-J'hl 4- ‘a. u. .--.v. muuuu'w‘wu-xm' .‘u'o -1 a. -:'.l lg-xuudwcu v- vu y...‘ n-- Mn... -‘Wou-I- - a .:a ' ' 4

AlcoholIDrug prevent. (1)

......... 7, - fi,_.__._ ..;1 ' , - ...1L.... d.

“44.3%-..- m -_-.-. --._.-_..---.- .. - ...- _..2 - .. w- .--_-.~-. ._._..~---.--- -- .. _..- -- .0.-. a”. --h - .. - -- 1 _ 4

Counsel. for gambling (3)

 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

.2 ‘1
s
5’. Marital counseling (5) .- , .. . 1. . . . _. ., ' .. ' ' 3-9
Emwonal support (7) «‘-" 2 .-“-‘-‘ ‘»- " - ~ .- - - . a. ...... »~.~-.. .. , 3-7
. ,5
£23 .131; ‘. g: ' 'Tfifi-f ‘2‘.“7 ‘ " “‘"T‘it‘frrfifi‘fi’" ‘.‘T‘ “'1‘? " 2'." = L l"“.".’ T". 3 :1"? f.‘ ’i‘ '."'.’.. _. .v 7.
Adoption (10) -,-,m.uwa‘.‘.‘i"£‘i‘."9l‘vfl\é‘l‘:‘.~1~Trir~§l§v -- 'C'l‘a'b‘q'tfs m ‘ v.2 .’ v.vcvrramu-J.axvcum‘ 'a‘.’ ‘l‘4‘,.'.'.'1' ~ 3'5
/
I I I I I
0 1 2 3 4 5
Mean Scores

Figure 17. Importance of desired services cited only by American expatriates
in South Korea. The numbers in parentheses indicate rankings
within the group.

135

Needs Only for Korean Expatriates

Problems experienced

Five issues such as iuvenile problems, concern over children back
home, concern over elderly parents backf home, family conflicts, and
parentingm'oblems were of particular concern for Koreans. Regardless of the
frequency of problems cited, juvenile problems, concern over children back
hm, family conflict, and parenting problems obtained high importance
values. For the Koreans, concern over elderly parents back home was
conspicuous. This issue ranked high in importance value as well as in
frequency. The degree of importance for the problems named only by the

Koreans is presented in Figure 18.

 

‘n‘ ,-I- - - ~ . - . - ‘. -- . .' . ._ .
‘2‘.-.5;53J!5-_ _LL..- _ ._--_'- -1.--" L' .. ._'-__-_ _ _ .1 .: -_' _L'A-‘s't .___._'__-. ._ “.3. . .. ... .. __:'. ._._-.__-_ _ _ - - -....-L .1

Juvenile problems (3) , q _______> 3-4

.
" .W’r'uV“ '~ w ‘: «fin-r < ' " fr 'ur: '1'v-r' 1 ‘nv V -- w“ tr". 'V'u '1‘, CWE" “ . I— .':-~"~ a r r: -v w n' - . -. .
‘fi‘wva-nw“ smarIS-e‘.‘ ., "x «Rum. x. ‘\ ”win-Ln up: _. .. legal-umI.M.’;me.m_*a€ufifC-J3Juuv xS‘UW- a”.

Concern OVOT Ch. bk. hm. (5) .-:-:-;~;‘;‘:~:-'.

rt ‘,
t s

3.3

'3’
-

Concernoverparents(5) J .. -_

Problems

 

Family conflict (8) ‘ _.. ...... ,

 

 

 

' - . ~ A ' - . 47 L L 4 ll
Parenting (10) - ..

 

I
d
d

Mean Scores

Figure 18. Importance of problems experienced cited only by Korean
expatriates in the United States. The numbers in parentheses
indicate rankings within the group.

136

Services desired

The following items gained high importance values only from the
Koreans: financial support, support for children in the home county, gm
counseling, services for elderly parents in the home county, parenting
education, and racial and/or ethnic problem solving. Three of these items
were generally consistent with problems that the Koreans considered
important, i.e., support for children in the home countpy, services for elderly
parents in the home country, and parenting education. Figure 19 illustrates
the degree of importance and the ranking of the services desired only by the

Koreans in the United States.

 

 
  

  
 
 

    
 

 

  
   

  
 
     

 

 

 

 

Financial support (3) 54:2! mt; 4.. L”;~‘:'4:53.€‘ 3'6
———
Supp. for ch. bk. home (4) L:§>iw-..:§s;\uérr~;s§=;.m. 3'5
_—
2 School counseling (4) mamas» , 3-5
0
"5" . .. .. 34
5 Serv. for aid. parents (a) a.» aagéxmmwwmrww -
Parenting education") summonses- .. 3-2
—
. .1
Racial/Ethnic prob. solv. (1o) 3
o 1 2 3 4 5

Mean Scores

Figure 19. Importance of desired services cited only by Korean expatriates in
the United States. The numbers in parentheses indicate
rankings within the group.

137

Convergence of Frequency and Importance

Next, the relevance between frequency and importance was examined.
First, frequencies with which the Americans and the Koreans respectively
cited the problems or the services were converged by assessing the average of
the two sets of frequencies. Second, a comparable procedure was then
applied for the two sets of importance with which both groups respectively
rated the problems or the services. Finally, the potential discrepancy
between the average rankings based on frequency and those based on
importance was further examined by comparing the two types of rankings.

As shown in Table 22, the rankings based on frequency largely
corresponded to the rankings based on importance with regard only to four
serious problems, i.e., language barriers, concern about elderly parents back
home, children’s schooling, and marital conflict.

Table 22. Average Rankings of Problems Experienced in the Foreign Country
by Frequency versus by Importance

 

 

Ranking based on Ranking based on
Type of Problem Frequency Importance
Language barriers 1 ------------------------------ 1
Concern over elderly 3 ------------------------------ 9
parents back home
Children’s schooling 4 ------------------------------ 2
Marital conflict 10 ------------------------------ 10

 

Note: Dotted lines indicate the relevance between an experienced problem and an expected
service. Problem ranking is based on Table 18; service ranking is based on Table 20.

138

Next, as illustrated in Table 23, both types of rankings appear to be
closely matched with regard to five services, i.e., langpage programs, services
for elderly parents backfi home, school counselkng, cross-cultural training, and

adult health care.

Relevance between Problems and Services

By taking into account the respondents’ expressions of both problems
and desires for services, more reliable needs data could be obtained. The
problems and services based on frequency (Tables 18 and 19) and those based
on importance (Tables 20 and 21) were matched with a comparable pair.
Findings suggest that, in setting priorities, most of the problems generally
correspond to most of the services, whether the priorities are based on
frequency or importance as shown in Tables 24 and 25.

Table 23. Average Rankings of Desired Services in the Foreign Country by
Frequency versus by Importance

 

 

Ranking based on Ranking based on
Type of Service Frequency Importance

Language programs 1 ------------------------------ 1
Services for elderly parents 5 ------------------------------ 5
in the home country

School counseling 7 ------------------------------ 3
Cross-cultural training 2 ------------------------------ 8
Adult health care 4 ------------------------------ 8

 

Note: Dotted lines indicate the relevance between an experienced problem and an desired
service. Problem ranking is based on Table 19; service ranking is based on Table 21.

139

To summarize, the major needs that the expatriate workers were most
likely to have were: language barriers or programs, cross-cultural differences,
concerning about or services for elderly parents bacflome, children’s
schooling, mental health care, youth problems or programs, adult health care,

crime and safet , repatriation, and legal problems or services.

140

Table 24. Relevance between Problems Experienced and Services Desired in
Foreign Countries: Ranking based on Frequency

 

Experienced Problems

Expected Services

 

 

 

Problem Ranking Ranking Service
Language barriers 1 ------------------ 1 Language programs
Cross-cultural 2 ------------------ 2 Cross-cultural training
misunderstanding
Concern over elderly 3 ------------------ 6 Services for elderly
parents back home parents back home
Children’s schooling 4 ------------------ 8 School counseling
Crime/safety 6 ------------------ 4 Crime prevention
Repatriation 7 ------------------ 9 Repatriation programs
Adult health care 8 ------------------ 4 Adult health care
Legal problems 9 ------------------ 10 Legal services

 

Note: Dotted lines indicate the relevance between an experienced problem and an expected
service. Problem ranking is based on Table 18; service ranking is based on Table 20.
Rankings are computed by average numbers of responses, regardless of the comparison

 

groups.

141

Table 25. Relevance between Problems Experienced and Services Desired in
Foreign Countries: Ranking based on Importance

 

 

 

 

Experienced Problems Expected Services

Problem Ranking Ranking Service
Language barriers 1 ------------------ 1 Language programs
Children’s schooling 2 ------------------ 3 School counseling
Mental health 3 ------------------ 10 Mental health programs
Juvenile problems 5 ------------------ 7 Youth programs
Child health care 6 ------------------ 2 Child health care
Concern about elderly 8 ----------------- 5 Services for elderly
parents back home parents back home
Adult health care 1 ------------------ 8 Adult health care

 

Note: Dotted lines indicate the relevance between an experienced problem and an expected service;
Problem ranking is based on Table 19; service ranking is based on Table 21. Rankings are computed
by average values of importance, regardless of the comparison groups.

Chapter VII

CONCLUSION

The present study focuses on a cross-cultural framework for the study
of expatriate workers’ adjustment to overseas assignments. A set of 11
hypotheses was employed to develop the framework, which has been
presented in the preceding chapters.

This study has confirmed that the framework is composed of four
major dimensions, i.e., (1) national culture, (2) organization and community,
(3), individual characteristics and relationships with foreign workers, and (4)
family members. Each of these dimensions tended to directly affect the
expatriate workers’ adaptability in the foreign assignment.

In addition to developing the framework of cross-cultural adjustment,
a needs assessment was conducted to identify both serious problems which
the expatriates were experiencing in the foreign country and services desired
by them to alleviate the problems. This needs assessment has provided
information that will be useful for planning social work services or
interventions for the expatriate workers.

This chapter begins with an overall summary of the research findings.

Implications of the findings are also discussed, suggesting social work

142

143

interventions for expatriates in foreign work environments. With the
limitations of this study, various recommendations for future studies are

presented at the end.

Summag of Results

Major findiggs from testing hypotheses

The results of the various statistical analyses suggested that most of
the hypotheses were tenable. In terms of the three cultural dimensions, i.e.,
power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and individualism, the American
expatriate workers and the Korean expatriate workers showed different
degrees of the cultural attributes. These differences influenced the extent to
which the expatriates adapted to the host culture. For example, the
expatriate workers from a low power distance society (the United States)
experienced more difficulties in adjusting to a high power distance society
(South Korea) than did the expatriates to a low power distance culture from a
high power distance culture. Meanwhile, the expatriate workers who showed
a high degree of uncertainty avoidance encountered more difficulties in their
adjustment in a low uncertainty avoidance society (United States) than did
expatriates who represented a low degree of uncertainty avoidance, but were
assigned to a high uncertainty avoidance culture (South Korea). Contrasting

to Hypothesis 2, the stress levels of the Korean expatriates in the United

144

States (a heterogeneous society) were higher than those of the American
expatriates in South Korea (a homogeneous society).

All of the four hypotheses regarding individual expatriates were
supported in this study. First, planning, a direct coping method, was the
strongest predictor in promoting the adaptation of the Korean expatriates in
the United States. The negative predictors related to coping strategies that
the American expatriates employed were seeking social support for
instrumental reasons, focusing on and ventigg of emotion, behavioral
disengagement, and mental disengagement. For the Korean expatriates,
coping methods such as accefiapce, behavioral disengagement, and a_lcp_h_9_l
and/or drug disengagement caused stress in the US. work environment.

Second, relationships with foreign counterparts also affected the

expatriates’ adjustment to the new work environment. The more the

 

expatriate workers encountered a different business style among their foreign
counterparts, the more they were likely to have difficulties in adjusting.
The expatriates’ familiarity with etiquette in the host culture, however,
alleviated his or her stress levels. Unique relationship issues also emerged
from the American group: factors such as trusting Korean counterparts and
familiarity with hierarchical management systems were strong predictors of
the American expatriates’ adaptation to the Korean work setting.

Third, the degree to which the expatriates adapted to the host culture

was likely to be positively related to the number of countries in which they

145

had previously worked. Fourth, the length of employment in the host country
was a positive predictor in promoting the expatriates’ adjustment.

Data gathered support two hypotheses regarding organizational and/or
community issues. The more the expatriate workers had cross-cultural
training before they were assigned, the more ability they demonstrated to
adjust to the host culture. And, the expatriate workers who interacted more
with the host country community were more likely to adjust than those who
interacted mainly with people from the home country.

In terms of the expatriates’ family issues, relevant hypotheses were
moderately supported. Although the degree of children’s satisfaction about
life abroad was suggested to have significant influence on the expatriates’
intention to stay in the host country, attitudes of spouses toward the host
country were found to be not influential. Finally, expatriate workers whose
families stayed behind in the home country are less likely to adjust to the

host country than workers whose families accompanied them.

Social service needs of expatriate worm

The needs assessment examined major problems expatriate workers
face and services they desire for meeting needs in overseas assignments.
Both American and Korean expatriates raised various issues, including
langpage barriers, cross-cultural misunderstanding, concern about elderly
parents back__home, children’s schooling, crime and safety. repatriation, adult

health care, and legal problems. Corresponding to these problems,

I46

respondents cited a range of services such as language programs, cross-
cultural training, services for elderly parents in the home country. school
counselirgg for children, crime prevention, repatriation program—ms, 1%
health care prom, and legal services.

In addition to the data on frequency, expatriate respondents assigned a
degree of importance to the problems and desired services. Similarly, the
results based on fiequency, issues such as language barriers, children’s
schooling, mental health, juvenile problems, child health care, concern over
elderly parents back home, and adult health care were highly rated as
serious problems that the expatriates generally faced in overseas
assignments. Again, the expatriates desired social services such as langpage
progpams, school counsehmg for children, mental health prw, Mk
progpams, child health care systems, services for elderly parents in the home
countgy, and adult health care services.

Some of the above issues emerged from a particular ethnic group. In
terms of frequency of problems or services, American expatriates focused on
issues such as recreation, transportation and/or traffic, children back home,
marital relations, employment guidance, and homemaking; Korean
expatriates in the United States mainly cited children’s schooling,
repatriation, racial and/or ethnic relations, legal support, and financial needs.
These items based on frequency also fairly corresponded to data based on

rankings of the importance in the problems and the services.

147

Implication of Major Findings

The present study has broadened conceptual knowledge of American
and Korean expatriate workers’ adaptation to culturally different work
environments, presenting a composite picture of the expatriate work setting.
The findings suggest social work interventions to alleviate various problems
of expatriate workers and to facilitate adjustment problems in overseas
assignments.

This study was particularly designed to gather cross-cultural
adjustment data, based on synergistic systems approaches. It established a
methodological link among the four major environments that affect the
expatriates’ adaptation to overseas assignments: national culture,
organization and community, individual expatriate workers, and the
expatriates’ families.

The results of this study support existing literature on cross-cultural
studies (Briody & Chrisman, 1991; Fontaine, 1997; Hofstede, 1980,
Mendelhall & Oddou, 1991, Takeuchi & Harmon, 1996). Hypotheses 1
(defining cultural attributes of the comparison group), 6 (number of foreign
countries experienced), 8 (cross-cultural training), 9 (community interaction),
and 11 (family members back home) coincide with previous findings. The
data offer moderate support to Hypothesis 10.

Some unique findings also emerged. The cultural attributes of the

expatriates directly influenced their adjustment in the host country

I48

(Hypothesis 2). Expatriate workers characterized by low power distance but
who worked in a high power distance society were more likely to experience
adjustment difficulties, whereas the expatriates from low uncertainty
avoidance tended to have more difficulties in adapting to a high uncertainty
avoidance society.

This study examined extensively the influence of individual coping
methods to the expatriates’ cross-cultural adaptation (Hypothesis 4). In
addition to planning, which Cross (1995) found to be a strong predictor of
alleviating stress for the Asian students in the United States, this study
discovered negative effects such as acceptance, behavioral disengagement,
and alcohol and/or drugdisengagement that some Korean expatriates applied
to overcome difficulties. The extent to which the American expatriates were
more dependent on coping methods such as seeking social support for
instrumental reasons, focusing on and venting of emotion, behavioral
disengagement, and mental disengagement was suggested to evoke higher
stress in South Korea.

Hypothesis 5 involved examination of the effects of relationships with
foreign counterparts that the expatriates maintained. Using the factor
analysis method, 10 out of 11 items from the first-stage survey were grouped
into four factors: e_xplicitness of relationship, social customs, different

business style, and reliance.8 These 10 items were suggested to be directly or

 

3 Sub-categories in each factor are listed in Table 15.

149

indirectly influencing the expatriates’ adaptation to the new work
environment.

To design a practical intervention plan, a needs assessment was
carried out. Chapter VI discusses major problems these expatriate workers
faced and types of services they critically needed in their overseas
assignments. The assessment provided information on common needs of both
comparison groups and each comparison group.

Some results of the study were, however, not consistent with earlier
findings. Previous research has indicated that expatriate workers who
originated from a heterogeneous culture but are assigned to a homogeneous
culture would encounter more difficulties than workers fiom a homogeneous
culture assigned to a heterogeneous culture. In the present study, American
expatriates from a relatively heterogeneous society showed higher
adaptability in South Korea, considered a homogeneous society, than Korean
workers in the United States, a heterogeneous society.

The “U” curve theory in Chapter II was partially supported through
Hypothesis 7. Although the expatriates’ cultural adaptability after the fifth
year of working in foreign assignments had dramatically increased as
predicted by the “U” curve assumption, the expatriate workers in this study
showed the highest level of stress in the first year of employment in the host
country and this was not correspondent to the previous research. During the

initial period, the “U” curve theory holds that expatriate workers show better

150

adjustment due to their enthusiasm for the new tasks and interests in the

host culture.

Suggestions for Social Work Intervention

Industrial social workers have not yet been actively involved in the
strategic planning for human services in multinational corporations, at least
not in the process of assigning expatriate workers. However, with the unique
systemic perspective on the basis of the comprehensive service model, the
social worker could be a valuable counselor, consultant, and therapist to
enhance the adjustment of expatriates to new work environments. Rather
than looking at the expatriate process in fragmented pieces, international
assignees have a higher chance of success when a social worker links the
overseas assignment elements together from start to finish. The professional
social worker is considered to have enough understanding and ability to see
how any one part of the process links with other parts.

According to Solomon (1995), the elements of the international
assignment process include: assessment selection, company orientation,
cross-cultural training, dual career support, relocation/move assistance, in-
country orientation, support and development, re-entry planning and
assistance, repatriation, and reintegration. The social worker can directly
facilitate a range of activities, including selection, cross-cultural training,

overseas support systems, helping expatriates and their families to adapt to a

151

foreign assignment, and repatriation. The expansion of social work programs

in the industrial setting is a key issue which needs to be critically addressed.

Selection

Companies should first select employees who are qualified for overseas
assignments. A sophisticatedly planned selection system enhances the
likelihood of the best candidate for the’overseas job. The vast majority of
multinational corporations in the United States, however, select their
expatriates based on managerial or technical excellence (Mendelhall &
Oddou, 1991). They presume that managing well in the United States takes
the same characteristics as managing well in South Korea (In this respect,
Korean companies are similar to the American corporations). They also
believe that the expatriate’s ability to solve a technical problem will lead to
success in any environment. However, technical competence may have
nothing to do with his or her ability to adapt to a new environment, deal
effectively with foreign coworkers, or perceive foreign behavioral norms.

Industrial social workers may evaluate the following factors in the
process of selection of expatriate employees by: (1) assessing a worker’s
cultural attributes and national culture respectively and comparing them
with each other; (2) considering his or her previous expatriate experiences in
overseas assignments; (3) examining the adaptability potential of the spouse

and other family members.

152

First, the assessment of individual cultural characteristics follows the
formulas 1, 2, and 3 described in Hypothesis 1 in Chapter V. Each acquired
score on PDI, UAI, and INV consequently predicts the individual’s tendency
in power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and individualism. Information
about the national culture in the host country where he or she expects to be
assigned can be obtained by Hofstede’s study. In Cultural Consequences
(1980), he classified the cultural attributes of each country on the basis of
power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism, and masculinity.
Appendix F includes a list of 53 national cultures analyzed by Hofstede.

Through the careful comparison of cultures between the individual
worker and the host country, the social worker can select an appropriate
assignee who is the most likely to adapt to the host culture. As tested in
Hypothesis 2, the social worker can avoid assigning a worker who tends to
indicate low power distance to a high power distance nation. Sending a
worker who is inclined toward high uncertainty avoidance to a low
uncertainty avoidance prevalent country would be inappropriate.

Second, the extent to which an expatriate worker adapts to the host
culture is likely to depend on the number of foreign countries in which he or
she has worked (Hypothesis 6). Earlier expatriate experiences in overseas
assignments should be considered as one of the most important aspects for
predicting successful adjustment of the expatriate workers. In the selection

process, the social worker should consider the number of foreign countries

153

employees have previously worked in and carefully pay attention to their
residential experiences during the overseas assignments.

Third, Hiltrop and Janssens (1995) argued that the company should
conduct a “family screening process.” According to them, important factors
social workers need to consider in this selection process are: the level of
marital stability, responsibilities for aged parents, the presence of learning
disabilities in a child, behavioral problems in teenagers, and the strength of
the family’s ties to the community, friends, and other family members.

Since the reason most often cited for the failure of foreign operation is
a spouse’s inability to adapt, the social worker should consider the spouse’s
likelihood to succeed overseas. This issue is further complicated when both
spouses work. One of the two generally has to put a career “on hold.” In
addition, families with middle and late teens often have more problems than
those with younger children (Mendelhall & Oddou, 1991). These are critical
issues that must be dealt with by industrial social workers.

In addition, assigning an expatriate worker whose family will
accompany him or her to the foreign country will be more likely to be
successful than sending him or her alone and leaving the family back home.
In support of Hypothesis 11, the difference between the actual number of
children and the number of children accompanying the expatriate worker to
the host country negatively influenced the cross-cultural adjustment of the

expatriate workers. In fact, the American expatriates whose children did not

154

accompany them often expressed worries about their children back home and
they considered this as one of the most serious problems connected with
working in South Korean. Some companies, however, do not allow
expatriates to go abroad with the whole family; they may support expatriates’
spouses only, not their children. If a worker is eager to be assigned with all
the family, the social worker should advocate for the worker and encourage
the company to support his or her family in the host nation.

Finally, according to Mendenhall and Oddou (1991), industrial social
workers should participate in the selection process with evaluating additional
factors such as:

0 Do the expatriates have sufficient cross-cultural skills in
terms of individual-oriented, others-oriented, and perception—
oriented aspects?9

0 How appealing is the assignment to the family?

0 How likely are they to succeed in adjustment?

0 Are there support systems for them (and their families) in
the host country?

Training

Once the selection process is completed, companies should offer formal
training programs to prepare expatriate workers and families for overseas
assignments. Despite the clear needs to minimize the expatriates’ problems

caused by “culture shock,” few companies offer formal cross-cultural training

 

9 Each cross-cultural skill is introduced in Chapter II.

155

to help employees deal with adaptation issues. Some firms simply hand the
expatriate a few brochures intended to give the information just before he or
she boards a plane. Though brochures are sometimes quite informative,
written information alone usually is not sufficient to guarantee successful
adaptation when an employee is sent to a culture that differs significantly
from his or her own (Mendelhall & Oddou, 1991).

The results from this study demonstrate that that most expatriates
received little pre-departure training. In total, 75.5% of the expatriate
workers responded that their companies provided no cross-cultural training
(65.3% of the Americans; 83.6% of the Koreans). This study shows the
amount of cross-cultural training received significantly influenced the extent
to which the expatriates adjusted to overseas assignments (p < .031); this
corresponds to a recent review of the literature by Black and Mendenhall
(1990) who found strong empirical support for a positive relationship between
cross-cultural training and cross-cultural adjustment. The finding of this
study additionally suggests that the training might be more effective in
increasing expatriates’ adaptability when it is conducted for more than 30
hours (re: Figure 9).

In terms of contents, the pre-departure training described in previous
studies should meet the expatriates’ needs for understanding of foreign
customs, thinking patterns, societal values, language, organizational culture,

environmental factors, and support systems. Among these issues, a test of

156

Hypothesis 5 in this study verified that familiarity with social customs,
trusting foreign counterparts, and understanding hierarchical management
were most likely to affect the American expatriates’ adaptation to South
Korea, while issues of different business style and familiarity of business
etiquette tended to significantly influence the Korean expatriates in the
United States. Thus, training of employees about to be sent to a foreign
country should include general education (different business environments,
social and business etiquette, and social customs), role playing, ethnic
sensitivity training, culture confrontation, critical incidents, and field
experiences in order to overcome misunderstandings, fi'ustration, and
differences in customs and traditional courtesies. Industrial social workers
should understand all these effects on cross-cultural adjustment and actively
participate in or organize the entire training programs. If necessary, social
workers should link the expatriates with community resources such as
foreign language centers.’

Testing Hypothesis 4 denotes that individual coping styles and/or
abilities directly affect the expatriates’ adjustment. In general, strategic
planning was the most influential predictor in alleviating stress in overseas
assignments, while ventig of emotion, M, belgivioral disengagement,
and alcohol and/or drtgg disengagement, on the contrary, increased the
expatriates’ stress levels. During cross-cultural training sessions, social

workers should examine individual coping methods and intervene to

157

strengthen employees’ strategic planning ability as well as to minimize
negative effects from the inappropriate coping methods in order to help
expatriate workers overcome difficulties in the host country.

In addition, trying to understand and deal with cross-cultural
problems before leaving one’s home country reduces the degree of stress
expatriate workers will inevitably encounter in a foreign country. General
problems that expatriate workers are likely to experience in foreign
assignments are described in Chapter VI.

Since the main reason for early returns to the country of origin is the
spouse’s and/or family’s inability to adapt, social work services should also
include the spouse and any other family members planning to accompany the
worker abroad. According to Mendenhall and Oddou (1991), such training is
often more important for the spouse than it is for the expatriate worker.
Although the employee changes job locations, the nature of the job may not
change drastically. However, the spouse may experience extreme changes: a
postponed career, a different language, different stores and shopping habits,
a lack of friends and family nearby upon which to rely, and so forth.

Finally, social workers should not overlook today’s technology which
can play an important role in cross-cultural training. For example, video-
conferencing is used as a key element in many training programs. An
employee who is about to leave the home country can meet local experts in

the destination country. In other words, teleconferencing makes it possible

 

 

158

for the potential expatriate worker to converse with someone who is actually
working and living in the host country, and thus he or she can experience the

host culture and the new work environment in advance.

Overseas Support Systems

To minimize the risk of expatriate failure, companies should provide
continuous supports or training to the expatriates even after they arrive in
the foreign assignment. Hiltrop and Janssens (1995) recommended that
expatriate workers should be exempted from active duties in the first six
months of arrival in a foreign country because the pressure to produce
immediately in an overseas assignment compounds the demands imposed on
the expatriates and may negatively affect fulfillment on the job. Their
performance should be assessed on the basis of long-term profitability rather
than on short-term figures.

Once expatriate workers start to work in the overseas assignment,
social workers should consider establishing an overseas support system for
the expatriates. First, social workers can encourage supervisors to assist in
expatriates’ adjustment. The supervisor could be responsible for informal
counseling, the sponsorship of monthly social gatherings to discuss problems
and successes as expatriates, and could serve as a mentor to newly arrived
spouses. Industrial social workers can train “potential” supervisors in a

foreign site to be sensitive to cross-cultural issues, identify their employees’

159

job performance problems, recognize their difficulties in living in the new
environment, and refer employees to qualified professionals. In fact,
supervisory training has been recognized as a major component in the
domain of industrial social work. Historically, employee assistance programs
have emphasized supervisory training in their design and operation since the
1940s (Boone, 1995). The sufficient use of social workers in supervisory
training can promote expatriates’ adjustment in the culturally different
workplace.

Second, communication is critical among expatriates, not only for
ongoing information-sharing, but also for the “out of sight, out of mind”
dilemma. Much can change after a long-term overseas assignment. If the
expatriate is the only one at the foreign assignment, social workers should
encourage the employee to call corporate or division headquarters and his or
her family as often as needed. The expatriate worker may need to ask
questions for guidance, to receive suggestions from other former expatriates
about difficulties he or she is experiencing, or just to have someone who will
listen. If necessary, telephone counseling with the expatriate should be
facilitated. Social workers can be available to offer such support.

Social workers should recognize again that recent technology is an
important communication tool and actively apply it to both expatriate
workers and their families. Electronic mail (E-mail), faxes, voice mail, video-

conferencing, online newsletters and shared data bases are some of the ways

160

global employees can remain linked to their home country and colleagues.
Croft (1995) also noted that electronic communication could help employees
adjust to their new surroundings by providing a channel to seek feedback on
cultural issues. Because many expatriates are highly mobile, electronic
communication is one of the most efficient methods of interaction. Social
workers should encourage the expatriate, troubled or not, to contact them in
headquarters by E-mail to discuss any problems they have as they try to
adjust to the new environment.

Third, social workers can also inform the expatriate of any local
resources to increase mutual support. For example, if the family is active in
a church, social workers could tell them about the nearest congregation of
their faith. If the expatriate is a member of a club such as Rotary or Lions,
social workers can inform him or her about local chapters (Mendenhall &
Oddou, 1991). Also, the other forms of employee assistance programs,
contracted-out services from a private consulting firm, a nonprofit community
facility, or a private social work practitioner in the host country, can be used
by social workers as referral sources.

Fourth, although it is important to maintain social networks among
the expatriates, interacting with host nationals seems to be more effective in
adjusting to the host culture. The result of testing Hypothesis 9 confirmed
that the expatriate worker who became involved more with the host country

community was more likely to adjust to that culture than one who interacted

161

mainly with others from his or her home country. Social workers should
emphasize the importance of the host country community and offer practical
guidance on how to become involved in the community. Social work theories
regarding community organization might be applied to this intervention.
Finally, joint efforts with another corporation should be considered. If
another U.S.-owned or South Korea-owned firm or subsidiary in the same
area has expatriate employees, the two firms might cooperatively encourage
those employees to share information and otherwise help each other
(Mendenhall & Oddou, 1991). Thus, it is essential to keep in touch with
other industrial social workers who work for other multinational corporations
and to cooperate with them in order to pursue the interests of both successful
adjustment of expatriate workers and their families who do not belong to the

same company but face similar difficulties in the same region.

Repatriation

As described in Chapter II, expatriate workers who return to their
home country after an extended period of time are likely to face a number of
problems. Although expatriates do not expect any unusual upon returning,
they often soon realize that the country and the company have changed
considerably since taking their foreign assignment (Hiltrop & Janssens,
1995). A large number of the expatriates, particularly the Korean

expatriates in this study, found that repatriation was one of the most serious

162

problems that they encountered related to the foreign operation. They
expected to have specific repatriation services or programs available to help
them repatriate effectively.

Social workers should understand the essence of this re-entry problem
and develop a succession plan that identifies the subsequent job position
upon repatriation. Shepard (1997) revealed that only 25% of returning
expatriates receive any forms of repatriation counseling to prepare them for
reentry. Six months prior to the termination of the global assignment, an
internal position search should be initiated (Hiltrop & Janssens, 1995). In
addition to job related issues, social workers can design a repatriation
program which applies not only to individual workers but also to their
families. During personal interviews with the Korean expatriates in the
United States, some expressed serious concerns about the readjustment of
their children to the Korean education system. The key issue that the work
organization should recognize is to involve the expatriates in the
corporation’s decision-making process and to listen carefully to the
expatriates’ and their families’ needs to minimize a “culture shock in
reverse.” This is indeed basic social work practice, i.e., listening carefully to

client needs and responding to them.

Research Limitations and Recommendations for Future Study

The results of this study should be viewed cautiously because of some

limitations. Results of this study may not be generalizable to diverse

163

workforce. Respondents were primarily middle- and upper-level managers.
About 96% of the sample were male; thus, only 4% were female. For the
American expatriates, both African Americans and Hispanics accounted for
only five percent (2% and 3% respectively). Future studies need to involve
more diverse samples—females, people of color, and rank and file workers—
increase the validity of research outcome. Gender and race issues in the
expatriate setting should be considered.

This study was designed to examine various issues of cross-cultural
adjustment between the two particular comparison groups. Thus, the study’s
findings may be limited to expatriate workers in a specific region: American
expatriates in South Korea and Korean expatriates in the United States.

This study assessed the expatriates’ cross-cultural adjustment and
considered the influence of national culture, organization and/or community,
individual expatriate workers, and family members. However, broad power
dependency between the two countries, e.g., the United States and South
Korea, may also influence expatriate workers’ adjustment. In the world
economic system, South Korea is more likely to depend on the US. economy
and the attitudes of Korean expatriates toward the US. companies in
business negotiations, for example, would not be the same as those of
American expatriates in South Korea. Thus, future studies should consider

this power relation as a fifth element, provide more insights into the effects of

164

the world’s power structure on expatriates’ adjustment, and lead to a more
generalized theory of cross-cultural adjustment.

There exists some inadequacy in terms of testing factors which
influence foreign adjustment of expatriate workers. For example, results of
Hypothesis 10 suggested that most spouses were satisfied with their lives in
the foreign country and thus the degree of spouses’ satisfaction did not
significantly affect the expatriates’ adaptability. However, the extent of the
satisfaction was rated not by spouses themselves but by the expatriates. All
questions used in this study were designed to ask the expatriates only, not
the spouses. If the future study has a separate questionnaire for spouses and
asks them directly how satisfied they are with living in the host country, the
answers of spouse satisfaction may differ.

Although this study has recommended social workers’ interventions in
the four major processes, i.e., selection, training, establishment of the
overseas support system, and repatriation, specific effects of the
interventions should be further confirmed in future studies. To measure
overall effects, future researchers might consider a longitudinal research
design that starts with workers at the beginning of the selection process and
follows them to the end of repatriation. Another type of longitudinal study
could involve employees who are about to be sent overseas, some who are
currently working in foreign assignments, and others who have completed

overseas jobs and returned to the home country.

165

In addition to evaluating expatriate adjustment processes, a future
study might analyze relationships between the degree of adjustment and the
extent of performance in overseas assignments. If such an experimental
study empirically verifies that the extent to which expatriate workers adapt
to foreign environments positively influences productivity in the workplace,
the importance of cross-cultural adjustment will be better recognized and
appreciated. And, such studies will contribute further to the expansion of

industrial social work in the expatriate work setting.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

APPENDIX A

Questionnaire for the First-Stage Study

 

We would like to have your honest opinion.

I am a doctoral student studying labor relations and social welfare at Michigan
State University. This is part of my study on the influence of cultural differences
between American employees and Korean counterparts on work satisfaction and
productivity in the workplace. Your answers will be a basis for a more specific future
survey.

Please, give us 3 major problems which tend to evoke difficulties associated with
cultural differences when you work with Korean counterparts. Then, according to the
degree of the importance, please rate each factor on each of the following scale (1, 2, 3, 4
or 5).

Please, do not write your name. Thank you very much.

 

 

 

The difficulties I often encounter when I work with Korean counterparts:

 

5. very important
4. somewhat important
3. important
2. somewhat unimportant
1. not important at all

 

2.
__ 5. very important
__ 4. somewhat important
_ 3. important
_ 2. somewhat unimportant
_ 1. not important at all

3.

 

5. very important
4. somewhat important
3. important
2. somewhat unimportant
1. not important at all

166

APPENDIX B

APPENDIX B

Table 26. Categories of Difficulties in Working with Foreign Counterparts
Cited by Americans (N = 33) Using Questionnaire in Appendix A.

 

 

Response Rank
Communication barriers 1
ex. Language barrier
Hierarchical management style 2

ex. Top down mgt. (the US: rational team meeting)
Little empowerment (authorities) given to junior/middle
managers
Conscious of a visitor’s rank/status
Lack of teamwork and cooperation (don’t know how to
handle criticisms and disagreement)
Rigid structured organizational thinking
Too much red tape
Low worker satisfaction
(because many Korean companies are very militaristic)

Different business style 3
ex. Decision making process: Collectivism

(tendency to delay decision until all are in agreement or
informed) (prefer to make group decision)
Negotiation style (Korea: importance of outside meeting)
Too many meetings (and each meeting takes too much
time)
Working pace: too fast (didn’t have time to reflect their
actions)
Different process for achievement of goal/objective
Great attention to detail (rather than “big picture”)

Misunderstanding social culture/custom 4
ex. Different work culture/work ethic
Difficulties in translation
Attitude toward women
Reluctant to say “No”

167

168

APPENDIX B

Table 26 (cont’d).

 

Response Rank

Resistance to changes 6
ex. Not listen to recommendations
Lack of consultation
Lack of creativity (good at following direction but not
think on their own)
Adherence to existing/outdated position/procedures

Lack of open communication 7
ex. Lack of information sharing/explanations

Illogicality 8
ex. Not being ordered to do things
Too emotional in business projects (don’t know how to
separate business process from personal feeling)
Exchange of complex ideas (don’t involve numbers)
Lack of rational/logical evaluation

Lack of implementation of strategic plans 9
ex. Difference in business priorities
No specific strategic plans

Others 5
ex. Lack of professional knowledge

Lack of accountability/responsibility by management
(new ideas are made by lower managers without clear
direction from the top)
Capricious (The Korean customer always tries to chang
the contract conditions even when my company believe
the business is “settled”)
Insufficient knowledge on US. regulations
Office Automation (E-mail, files, computers)
Conflict Resolution

Frequent management rotation (based on age/seniority/
time)

 

Note. Rank is based on the aggregation of scales that respondents rated in each category.

I;

 

APPENDIX C

Table 27. Categories of Difficulties in Working with Foreign Counterparts
Cited by Koreans (N = 41) Using Questionnaire in Appendix A.

 

Response Rank

 

Misunderstanding of culture/custom 1
ex. Lack of respect to cultural differences
Different perspectives/way of thinking
Misunderstanding from different eating habits
Cultural conflict (the US: opened/flexible; Korea:
closed! conservative)
Cultural prejudice/conflict
Co. is unwilling to give days off for Korean Holidays
Blood/territorial/alumni relation (Korea)
Difficulties in understanding humor

Communication barriers 2
ex. Misunderstanding to reactions
Lack of English ability
Individualism 3

ex. Lack of warm & friendly heart/affection
Drawing a too sharp line bet. public & private affairs
Overly money-oriented
Not a good team player
Lack of loyalty to the company

Reliance 4
ex. Keeping schedule
Being on time
Unclear duty/responsibility

Discrimination/white supremacy 5
ex. Reluctance in hiring natives & unequal opportunities in
promotion and wage
Strong pressure to adapt American business style
(overlooking characteristics of Korean business/market)

169

 

170

APPENDIX C

Table 27 (cont’d).

 

Response Rank _
Logicality 6
ex. Americans: too rational vs. Koreans: emotional/immediate

Different business style 7
ex. Different decision making process

Lack of international outlook/sensitivity (Korea)
Different accounting system

Different business practice, e.g., dining out together
after the business hour

Business manners 8
ex. Etiquette

Lack of courtesy/respect on supervisors/coworkers

(in the US.)
Unclear duty/responsibility 10
ex. Absence of centripetal force/person
Lack of understanding corporation culture/structure 11
Others 9

ex. Insufficient professional knowledge
Lack of consistent policy

Reluctance in revealing know-how/technology
Facial expression

Different daily life/hobby

Note. Rank is based on the aggregation of scales that respondents rated in each category.

APPENDIX D

APPENDIX D

Table 28. Rating of Difficulties in Working with Foreign Counterparts Cited
by American Employees (N = 33) and Korean Employees (N: 41)

 

 

 

 

American Workers Korean Workers

Difficulties rating 2 rating p
Communication barriers 4.63 20 4.80 25
Misunderstanding of 4.10 10 4.48 27
social culture
Logicality 4.80 8 4.38 8
Different business style 4.47 17 3.78 9
Hierarchical management 4.27 18 — _-
Lack of open 4.33 7 — —
communication
Lack of strategic plans 4.60 8 — —
Resistance to change 3.57 7 — —
Individualism — — 4.38 16
Discrimination — — 4.08 13
Reliance — — 4.75 12
Business manners — — 4.00 7
Understanding corporate _ _ 4.00 3
culture
Others 4.25 8 4.00 5

 

171

APPENDIX E

APPENDIX E

Table 29. Sources of Study Subjects for the Second-Stage Survey

 

Company

Description

 

(American Expatriates in South Korea)

Ford International Business
Development, Inc.

Ford Motor Company of Korea
Kia Ford Credit Finance
Company

Halla Climate Control Corp.

Halla Electronics Corp.

General Motors-Korea

Daewoo Automotive Components

Kia Motors Corp.

Bosch Korea Ltd.

Alliedsignal Korea, Ltd.

Ford’s representative office.

Sales and distribution network for
imported Ford vehicles in S. Korea

Joint venture: Financing business for
Ford and/or Kia vehicles

50/50 joint venture between Ford and
Mando Machinery Corp.: Automotive
climate control systems and engine
cooling

Joint venture between Ford and Mando
Machinery: Electrical equipment for

motor vehicles

GM’s administrative and sales office in
Korea

Joint venture between GM and Daewoo:
Automotive components and sub
systems

Headquarters and Sohari plant

Automotive equipment

Turbocharger products for automobile

 

I72

Table 29 (cont’d).

173

APPENDIX E

 

Company

Descrgition

 

Dynacast Korea, Ltd.

EG&G Korea

Korea Bosch Mechanics &
Electronics

Siemens Automotive Systems
Corp.

Teledyne

United Technologies

Dana Asia Korea Co.

Precision die castings for automobile
Analytical and clinical instruments;
mechanical and optocletronic

components for automobile

ABS and fuel pumps to car
manufacturer in S. Korea

Joint venture with Daesung Industrial
Co.: Electronic control unit for gasoline
engine

Engines and machine tools

Automotive components

Engine parts and fluid power systems

(Korean Expatriates in the US.)

Kia Motor Corp.

Daewoo Motor America
Daewoo Heavy Industries
Halla Climate Control Corp.
Hankook Tire America Corp.
Hyundai Motor America
Hyundai Precision & Industry

Haitai Electronics

Automobiles

Automobiles

Automobiles and automotive components
Car air conditioning components

Tires for automobiles

Automotive components

Automobiles and automotive components

Electronic components for automobiles

 

174

 

 

APPENDIX E
Table 29 (cont’d).
Company Description
Kwang J in Sang Gong Automotive components
Mando America Techical Center, Automotive components
Inc.
Samsung Motors Inc. Automobiles

Ssangyong Motors Corp. Automobiles

 

APPENDIX F

APPENDIX F

Table 30. Rankings of National Cultures Using Hofstede’s Classification

 

 

Power Uncertainty
Country Distance Avoidance Individualism Masculinity
Africa (East) 22 (64) 36 (52) 34 (27) 39 (41)
Africa (West) 10 (77) 34 (54) 40 (20) 30 (46)
Arab region 7 (80) 27 (68) 26 (38) 23 (53)
Argentina 35 (49) 12 (86) 22 (46) 20 (56)
Australia 41 (36) 37 (51) 2 (90) 16 (61)
Austria 53 (11) 24 (70) 18 (55) 2 (79)
Belgium 20 (65) 5 (94) 8 (75) 22 (54)
Brazil 14 (69) 21 (76) 26 (38) 27 (49)
Canada 39 (39) 41 (48) 4 (80) 24 (52)
Chile 24 (63) 12 (86) 38 (23) 46 (28)
Colombia 17 (67) 20 (80) 49 (13) 11 (64)
Costa Rica 43 (35) 12 (86) 46 (15) 48 (21)
Denmark 51 (18) 51 (23) 9 (74) 50 (16)
El Salvador 18 (66) 5 (94) 42 (19) 40 (40)
Ecuador 8 (78) 28 (67) ' 52 (8) 13 (63)
Finland 46 (33) 31 (59) 17 (63) 47 (26)
France 15 (68) 12 (86) 10 (71) 35 (43)
Germany (West) 43 (35) 29 (65) 15 (67) 9 (66)
Great Britain 43 (35) 47 (35) 3 (89) 9 (66)
Greece 27 (60) 1 (112) 30 (35) 18 (57)
Guatemala 3 (95) 3 (101) - 53 (6) 43 (37)
Hong Kong 15 (68) 49 (29) 37 (25) 18 (57)
Indonesia 8 (78) 41 (48) 47 (14) 30 (46)
India 10 (77) 45 (40) 21 (48) 20 (56)
Iran 29 (58) 31 (59) 24 (41) 35 (43)
Ireland 49 (28) 47 (35) 12 (70) 7 (68)
Israel 52 (13) 19 (81) 19 (54) 29 (47)
Italy 34 (50) 23 (7 5) 7 (76) 4 (70)
Jamaica 37 (45) 52 (13) 25 (39) 7 (68)
Japan 33 (54) 7 (92) 22 (46) 1 (95)
Korea (South) 27 (60) 16 (85) 43 (18) 41 (39)
Malaysia 1 (104) 46 (36) 36 (26) 25 (50)
Mexico 6 (81) 18 (82) 32 (30) 6 (69)
Netherlands 40 (38) 35 (53) 4 (80) 51 (14)

 

175

176

APPENDIX F

Table 30 (cont’d).

 

 

Power Uncertainty
Country Distance Avoidance Individualism Masculinity
Norway 47 (31) 38 (50) 13 (69) 52 (8)
New Zealand 50 (22) 40 (49) 6 (7 9) l 17 (58)
Pakistan 32 (55) 24 (70) 47 (14) 25 (50)
Panama 2 (95) 12 (86) 51 (11) 34 (44)
Peru 22 (64) 9 (87) 45 (16) 37 (42)
Philippines 3 (94) 44 (44) 31 (32) 11 (64)
Portugal 24 (63) 2 (104) 34 (27) 45 (31)
Singapore 13 (74) 53 (8) 40 (20) 28 (48)
South Africa 35 (49) 39 (49) 16 (65) 13 (63)
Spain 31 (57) 12 (86) 20 (51) 37 (42)
Sweden 47 (31) 49 (29) 10 (71) 53 (5)
Switzerland 45 (34) 33 (58) 14 (68) 4 (70)
Taiwan 29 (58) 26 (69) 44 (17) 32 (45)
Thailand 22 (64) 30 (64) 40 (20) 44 (34)
Turkey 18 (66) 16 (85) 28 (37) 32 (45)
United States 38 (40) 43 (46) 1 (91) 15 (62)
Uruguay 26 (61) 4 (100) 29 (36) 42 (38)
Venezuela 5 (81) 21 (76) 50 (12) 3 (73)
Yugoslavia 12 (76) 8 (88) ‘ 34 (27) 48 (21 )

 

Note. Adapted from Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: Internlationgl differences
in work-related values. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Numbers in parentheses indicate scores
in each cultural dimension, i.e., power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism, and
masculinity.

APPENDIX G

APPENDIX G

 

 

Cross-Cultural Adjustment Survey

This survey is designed to examine the effect of cultural aspects on workers’
adjustment to culturally different work environments in the United States and South
Korea. The information from this survey will be used in a graduate school thesis. I
would appreciate if you kindly give honest answers to the following questions.

If you agree to participate in this study, please understand the following:

1. The following questionnaire will take 15 to 20 minutes.

2. Your responses will be kept strictly confidential.
Please, DO NOT WRITE YOUR NAME.

3. After reading each question, you will answer it by circling
the number next to the best answer.

Thank you very much fogyour cooperation.

If you wish, I will share with you the outcome of this survey.
1 can be reached at:

US. Fax: (provided)
Seoul Fax: (provided)

 

177

 

178

APPENDIX G

Please think of an ideal job - disregarding your present job. In choosing an ideal job, how important would

it be to you? (Mark one answer for each line)

1.

 

 

_ of very little
of utmost . very of moderate . of little _ or no
HOW important is It to you to: importance important importance Importance importance
Have challenging tasks to do, from 1 2 3 4 5
which you can get a personal sense of
accomplishment?
Have training opportunities (to improve 1 2 3 4 5
your skills or to learn new skills)?
Have good physical working conditions I 2 3 4 5
(good ventilation and lighting, adequate
work space, etc)?
. Have considerable freedom to adapt l 2 3 4 5
your own approach to the job?
. Fully use your skills and abilities on the 1 2 3 4 5
job?
. Have sufficient time left for your 1 2 3 4 5

personal or family life?

The descriptions below apply to four different types of managers. First, please read through these

descriptions:

Manager
Type 1

Manager
Type 2

Manager
Type 3

Manager
Type 4

Usually makes his/her decisions promptly and communicates them to his/her subordinates
clearly and firmly. Expects subordinates to carry out the decisions faithfully and without
raising difficulties.

Usually makes his/her decisions promptly, but, before going ahead, tries to explain them
fully to his/her subordinates. Gives them the reasons for the decisions and answers whatever
questions they may have.

Usually consults with his/her subordinates before he/she reaches his/her decisions. Listens
to their advice, considers it, and then announces his/her decision. Then expects all to
cooperate to implement it whether or not it concurs with the advice they gave.

Usually calls a meeting with his/her subordinates when there is an important decision to be
made. Puts the problem before the group and tries to obtain consensus. Accepts the
majority viewpoint as the decision.

7. Now, for the types of manager above, please mark the one for which you would prefer to work.

1. _ Manager I 2. __ Manager 2 3. _ Manager 3 4. _ Manager 4
8. And, to which one of the four types of managers above would you say your own manager most closely

corresponds?

1. _ Manager 1 2. _ Manager 2 3. __ Manager 3 4. _ Manager 4

5. __ None of them

Please indicate the extent to which you personally agree or disagree with the following statement.

179

APPENDIX G

(Mark one answer for each line)

9.

10.

ll.

12.

13.

I4.

15.

16.

l7.

I8.

19.

20.

21.

I am familiar with the social customs of the
host country.

I tend to draw a clear line between official and
personal affairs in the workplace.

I prefer to make group decisions.

It is natural that I follow the orders of
supervisors.

1 am willing to share information with foreign
counterparts.

I am very open to the advice/recommendations
of foreign counterparts.

If the company really needs me, 1 don’t mind
coming in and working overtime on weekends.

I have received unequal treatment by foreign
counterparts based on my culture.

I trust foreign counterparts.

I understand what would bother foreign
counterparts when I dine with them.

I feel nervous or tense at work.

Employees in my parent company in the US.
seem afraid to express disagreement with their
managers.

I believe that a company’s rules should not be
broken--even when the employee thinks it is in
the company’s best interests.

strongly

agree

agree

 

1

2

undecided disagree

 

3

4

strongly
disagree

5

 

180

APPENDIX G

For each item, you will be asked to indicate how often you felt or thought a certain way in your daily life
during the last month. The best approach is to answer each question fairly quickly. That is, don’t try to
count up the number of times you felt a particular way, but rather indicate the number that seems like a
reasonable estimate.

(Mark one answer for each line)

 

. verv fairl not
In the last month, how often. ofte'n ofter’i sometimes often never
22. Have you been upset because of something 1 2 3 4 5

that happened unexpectedly?

23. Have you felt that you were unable to control 1 2 3 4 5
the important things in your life?

24. Have you felt nervous and “stressed”? l 2 3 4 5

25. Have you dealt successfully with imitating 1 2 3 4 5
hassles in life?

26. Have you felt that you were coping effectively 1 i 2 3 4 5
with important changes that were occurring in
your life?

27. Have you felt confident about your ability to 1 2 3 4 5
handle your personal problems?

28. Have you felt that things were going your 1 2 3 4 5
way?

29. Have you found that you could not cope with l 2 3 4 5

all the things that you had to do?

30. Have you been able to control irritations in l 2 3 4 5
your life?

31. Have you felt that you were “on top” of l 2 3 4 5
things?

32. Have you been angered because of things that l 2 3 4 5

happened that were outside of your control?

33. Have you found yourself thinking about things I 2 3 4 5
that you have to accomplish?

34. Have you been able to control the way you 1 2 3 4 5
spend your time?

35. Have you felt that you were facing difficulties 1 2 3 4 5
that were piling up so high that you could not
overcome them?

181

APPENDIX G

Please consider and indicate what you usually do and feel, when you experience difficult or stressful
events.

(Mark one answer for each line) (I usually do this:)
36. I take additional action to try to get rid of the problem. I 2 3 4
37. I try to come up with a strategy about what to do. 1 2 3 4
38. I put aside other activities in order to concentrate on this. 1 2 3 4
39. 1 force myself to wait for the right time to do something. 1 2 3 4
40. I try to get advice from someone about what to do. I 2 3 4
41. I discuss my feelings with someone. I 2 3 4
42. I look for something good in what is happening. 1 2 3 4
43. I accept that this has happened and that it can’t be I 2 3 4
changed.
44. I try to find comfort in my religion. 1 2 3 4
45. 1 get upset and let my emotions out. I 2 3 4
46. 1 pretend that it hasn’t really happened. 1 2 3 4
47. I give up getting what I want. 1 2 3 4
48 I turn to work or other substitute activities to take my 1 2 3 4
mind off things.
49. I drink alcohol or take drugs, in order to think about it 1 2 3 4
ess.

Please indicate your (or your family’s) degree of satisfaction with the following statement.

 

 

 

(Mark one answer for each line) very seldom never
satisfied satisfied undecided satisfied satisfied
50. How satisfied are you with work-related l 2 3 4 5

relationships with foreign counterparts?

51. How satisfied are you with your social 1 2 3 4 5
relationships with people fiom your country?

52. If you are living with a spouse in South 1 2 3 4 5
Korea, how satisfied would you say he/she is
with living in this country? (if not
applicable, please skip this question)

53. If you are living with children in South 1 2 3 4 5
Korea, how satisfied would you say they are
with living in this country? (if not
applicable, please skip this question)

182

APPENDIX G

54. What are the five most serious problems you are experiencing in South Korea (I =most serious, 2=2nd
most serious, 3 =3rd most serious, 4 =4th most serious, 5 =5th most serious)? Please check ONLY
FIVE problems in the following list, in order of seriousness

Problem

marital conflict

family conflict

emotional problems

mental health

day care

health problems of children
adoption

school problems of children
juvenile problems
parenting problems

family planning

crime

safety/security

gambling

alcohol and drug problems

_ health care problems of adults

physically handicapped

language banier

racial/ethnic conflict

cross-cultural misunderstanding

lack of educational opportunities

lack of employment guidance/training
lack of homemaking,/home help services
lack of financial support

lack of recreation

lack of volunteer activities

poor police and fire services

legal problems

public transportation

religion

concern over elderly parents back home
concern over children back home
repatriation
others (specify)

 

55. Please indicate five services that you would like to see developed as soon as possible (l=most
desirable, 2=2nd most desirable, 3=3rd most desirable, 4=4th most desirable, 5 =5th most desirable).
Please choose ONLY FIVE services in the following list, in order of preference.

Service

marital counseling

family counseling

emotional support/counseling
mental health services

day care

health care services for children
adoption

school counseling

youth program

parenting education

family planning services
crime prevention
safety/security

gambling problem counseling

alcohol and drug prevention services
health care services for adults
rehabilitation services for the handicapped

language program

racial/ethnic problem solving
cross-cultural training

education program

employment guidance/training
homemaking/home help services
financial support

recreation program

volunteer activities enhancement

police and fire services

legal services

public transportation

religious services

services for elderly parents in the home
country

support for children in the home country
repatriation
others (specify)

 

183

APPENDIX G

Please check the following questions about yourself:

1. Sex:
1. _ male
2. __ female

2. Current age:

I. _ s 29
2. _ 30-39
3. _ 40-49
4. __ 50-59
5. _ 2 60
3. Racial/Ethnic Background:
1. _ White or Caucasian
2. _ Black or Afro-American
3. _ Latino/Hispanic
4. _ Asian/Pacific Islander
5. __ other

4. Current marital status
I. _ never married
2. _ married (go to 4-1)
3. __ widowed
4. _ divorced
5.

_ separated

4-1. You married
1. _ prior to departure to South Korea
2. _ during your assignment in South Korea

5. Highest degree attained
l. _ high school/GED or less
2. __ bachelor’s degree
3. __ master’s degree
4. __ doctoral degree
5.

_ other

6. Religion
1. _ Catholic
2. _ Protestant
3. _ Buddhist
4. _ no religion
5. _ other

7. Nationality
1. _ American
2. _ Korean

3. __ other

10.

I2.

15.

I6.

17.

184

APPENDIX G
Nationality at birth (if different from your present nationality)
l. _ American
2. _ Korean
3. _ other
Number of children:

Number of children currently living in South Korea:

. Number of foreign countries you have worked (or lived) in:

Employment
1. _ full-time
2. _ part-time

. Job classification

Office-related Plant-related

l. _ executive l. _ plant manager

2. __ manager 2. _ production manager

3. __ supervisor 3. _ superintendent

4. __ recognized expert (scientist, etc.) 4. _ general supervisor

5. __ professional 5. __ supervisor/group leader
6. _ entry professional 6. _ skilled trades

. The total length of employment in your company (including the time you have worked in South Korea)

l. __ less than 2 years

2. _ 2 years - less than 5 years

3. _ 5 years — less than 10 years
4. __ 10 years - less than 20 years
5. _ 20 years or more

How long do you think you will continue working for your company?
1. _ 2 years at the most
2._2years-5 years
3. __ more than 5 years (but I will probably leave before I retire)
4. _ until I retire

Length of time you have worked in South Korea: year(s)

How many more years would you like to work in South Korea, regardless of your official contract?
I. _ 2 years at the most
2. _ 2 years - 5 years
3. __ more than 5 years (but I probably will leave before I retire)
4. _ until I retire

. Your social interaction in South Korea

I. _ more with expatriates
2. __ more with host nationals (Koreans)
3. _ almost equal amounts with both expatriates and host nationals

185

APPENDIX G
19. How good are you at understanding spoken Korean?
1. __ very good
2. _ good
3. _ moderate
4. _ poor
5. __ very poor

20. Did you experience cross-cultural training before you were assigned to South Korea?
1. _ yes (training hours: )
2. __ no

Please answer the following questions if you are living with a spouse in South Korea
21. Was your spouse employed just before you were assigned to South Korea?

I. __ yes

2. _ no
22. Is your spouse currently employed in South Korea?

1. _ yes

2._no

23. Spouse’s social interaction in South Korea

1. _ more with expatriates
2. _ more with host nationals (Koreans)
3. _ almost equal amounts with both expatriates and nationals

24. How good is your spouse at understanding spoken Korean?

1. _ very good
2. __ good

3. __ moderate

4. __ poor

5. __ very poor

Thank you for completing the questionnaire.

Please send this survey in the self-addressed envelope or fax it to the following:

US. Fax: (provided)
Seoul Fax: (provided)

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