,, z. iHESl'S llliiiilii'iililWilliIii'ililiiiiilliiiiifliflil 31293 01716 3506 This is to certify that the dissertation entitled A Theoretical and Conceptual Framework for the Development of Recreation Programming Which Enhances the Self-Esteem of African American Adolescents presented by Saleef Kafajouffe has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for doctoral degree in Park4 Recreation and Tourism Resources Edward M . Mahoney Major professor Date AngusLZLJaaL MSU is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0- 12771 LIBRARY Michigan State University PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINE return on or before date due. DATE DUE MTE DUE DATE DUE ‘M ' W «be p. 4:: 1.31 1M Was-p.14 A THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF RECREATION PROGRAMMING WHICH ENHANCES THE SELF-ESTEEM OF AFRICAN AMERICAN ADOLESCENTS BY Saleef Kafajouffe A.DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Park, Recreation and Tourism Resources 1997 ABSTRACT A THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF RECREATION PROGRAMMING WHICH ENHANCES THE SELF-ESTEEM OF AFRICAN AMERICAN ADOLESCENTS By Saleef Kafajouffe Decades ago, Kenneth B. Clark (1963) stated that one of the most characteristic and impressive things about the American people are their dedication to their children. Something has gone terribly wrong. According to the State of America's Children Yearbook (1994), if trends continue by the year 2001, a total of 17 million children will be poor and the U.S. will spend $358 per person annually to lock up our youth. Westinghouse and other major companies are re-tooling major divisions of their companies for purposes of supplying the law enforcement and prison industries with the "latest" in crime fighting technology. Millions of our children are destined. to become raw :material for the prison industry. Private sector prisons can now be found on the New York Stock Exchange (Donziger, 1996), and there appears to be no end in sight. The field of urban recreation, not unlike other human service areas, has suffered from a pronounced avoidance and awkwardness regarding honest dialogue concerning what implications race, ethnicity and culture have for urban recreation planning. Urban recreation must assume a very prominent role in any systemic community response to known developmental needs of Black youth. There is a question as to whether the field will continue to provide only traditionally defined recreation activities and delivery systems, or will culturally specific recreation emerge to meet the developmental needs of Afro-Ethnic children and adolescents. This dissertation presents a comprehensive and essential theoretical/conceptual discussion to assist the Leisure/Recreation professional in developing and delivering recreation activities and experiences that enhance the self- esteem of .Afro-Ethnic youth. Heretofore, the psychosocial underpinnings of Black self-concept and self-esteem, have been elusive, veiled by cultural indifference and sometimes presumed by many, not to exist at all. These important psychosocial underpinnings have generally been supplanted by "generic recreative activity vaccines," created by often well meaning leisure professionals seeking to develop an immunity against the low self-esteem that besets many .Afro-Ethnic youth. This dissertation presents a body of cogent theoretical material and informational sets, to enable Leisure professionals to develop .Afro-ethnic sensitivity and .more importantly Afro-ethnic competencies. Copyright by Saleef Kafajouffe 1997 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to thank God, my wife Curlada, my children Myles, Trinell, and Jnaubah, my sister .Audrey' Morris, my cousin Charles Thorton, other family members, the South Park community of Port Huron, Michigan where I was born and nurtured, and all those individuals who have genuinely sought to be my friend and or colleague during the completion of my doctoral program at Michigan State University. I also want to recognize the following champions of youth. with. whom. the author has some personal familiarity; the late James R. Leonard (Port Huron, Michigan), Richard Letts (Lansing, Michigan) and the late Robert (Bobby) Stitt (Saginaw, Michigan). Finally, I also wish to acknowledge African American children and adolescents, about whom much is written and for whom not nearly enough is done. VI TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ........................................... viii CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION ..... . .......................................... 1 Problem Context. ....... . ...................... . ..... ...1 Purpose and Objectives ................................. 4 The Organization of the Dissertation ................... 5 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................... 7 Self—Concept/Esteem... ............................. ...18 Black Identity/Self-Esteem ............................ 32 Community Recreation .................................. 44 Black Esteem and Community Recreation; Historical View .................................. 48 CHAPTER THREE SYSTEMS FORMULATION MODEL; SELF-ESTEEM COGNITION; AND BLACK SELF-CONCEPT .......................................... 51 Nature/Nurture Self-Evaluation Model ............. 53 Phylogenetic Human Development (PHD) ........ 54 Ontogenetic Human Development; self-perception (OHD,sp) ............... 56 Environment (E) .............. .....56 Sensory Experience (SE) ........... 57 Random Self Consciousness (RSC)...64 Reoccurring Contextual Dimensions (RCD) ............. 69 Emotional Attachment (EA) ......... 7O Contextual Self-Concept Domains (CSCD) ............... 72 Self-Concept (SC) Black Self-Concept ........... 73 CHAPTER FOUR DEVELOPMENT OF A.BLACK ESTEEM ASSESSMENT TOOL .............. 80 Pilot Study Results ................................... 86 Assessment Tool ....................................... 88 VII CHAPTER FIVE DEVELOPING AN AFRO-ETHNIC THERAPEUTIC RECREATION PROTOCOL..95 Black Esteem Protocol ................................. 95 Conceptual Definitions ................................ 96 Protocol ........................................... 102 'Philosophy ........................................... 106 Mission Statement .................................... 107 Program Components ................................... 108 CHAPTER SIX CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................... 115 APPENDIX.A SELF-ESTEEM DESCRIPTORS AS RELATED TO .AFRICAN AMERICAN YOUTH ............................... 124 BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................. 133 \IIII LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 - Psychological Leisure Preference/Self—Esteem Interface Continuum ............................. 97 Figure 2 - The P.E.A.K.S. Model For Self-Concept .......... 104 Figure 3 — Interactive Self-Evaluation Model .............. 105 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION PROBLEM CONTEXT A review of the literature reveals there has not been a comprehensive and contemporary discussion or analysis of relevant ecological theories and concepts, which explicate the self-esteem, construct and esteem cognition of Afican American adolescents, as it relates to recreation programming. Also, currently there does not exist, holistic, culturally specific "psycho-therapeutic" recreation program protocols for the purpose of enhancing the self-esteem of .African American adolescents. Often a question arises, regarding how effectively recreation delivery systems deal with the self- esteem needs of today's so-called youth-at-risk. In part, this is because many researchers and theorists both within and outside the field of recreation have consistently confined the context of useful scientific inquiry and theory building primarily to rural outdoor recreation. There has been relatively little research on the potential associated with recreation as a means of dealing with urban youth-at-risk and negative youth-at-risk behaviors. There has been even less research on the potential of recreation as a means for developing self-esteem. This belief is evidenced by the seminal leisure publication entitled "Benefits of Leisure." This publication, consisting of approximately 35 contributors of articles based on more than 1,600 literature citations, discusses a variety of benefits of leisure (Driver, Brown & Peterson, 1991). Benefits are categorized as: (1) economic benefits and (2) improved. conditions of individuals-groups-society. .Although this is one of the most current and comprehensive examinations of the topic of "leisure benefits", it incorporates relatively few references related to the benefits of urban recreation or recreation aimed at specifically at urban youth. The first 400 references clearly and substantially indicate a focus upon outdoor and wilderness based recreation, e.g., camping, rock Climbing, fishing, hunting. The lack of scientific research and protocols directed at recreation programming for youth-at-risk is particularly significant given that "urban indoor recreation" continues to be presented as an effective means for building the self- esteem of steadily growing population of so-called "at risk" youth, Black: as well. as White. Yet, there is a lack of 3 theoretical and conceptual literature that examines the effectiveness or efficiency of recreation as a means of dealing with youth-at-risk. The programming tendency has been to simply keep youth-at-risk off the street during those times when the potential for maladaptive behavior seems greatest. Little focus has been given to recreation programming that deals with the development of long term positive self- esteem. It is generally accepted that racism and lack of economic opportunity has shaped in a very negative way the life context of Blacks in general and Black youth in particular. This life context is significantly influenced by collective self-esteem deficits. Recreation strategies employed to stimulate positive self-esteem in African American youth have generally lacked optimum levels of effectiveness. An unpublished and undated paper by Jemerson et. al. argues that there are certain issues and questions that leisure professionals must face when providing programs specifically designed to improve the self-esteem of urban youth. The authors, who collectively possess more than 60 years of experience as recreation programmers and administrators working with African American youth, identify the following issues which they believe to be critical in addressing the self-esteem. of .African..American youth: (1) defining the leisure professional's role, (2) specialized training needs for the leisure professional, (3) program 4 evaluation (4) changing the commmunity's self-esteem. Additionally, McDonald (1989) suggests that prospective recreation leaders must be evaluated in light of personality, interpersonal and counseling skills, self-esteem, and the role differences of recreation leaders to determine if these variables effect the enhancement of self-esteem on the part of the participants. The literature indicates significant conceptual and theoretical gaps in the collective knowledge possessed by recreation professionals and agencies regarding: (1) the cognitive/developmental and ecological basis of self-esteem and, (2) the organization and structure of racially relevant recreation protocols designed to address the self-esteem needs of African American youth. PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES The primary purpose of this dissertation is to develop and present an enabling theoretical and conceptual framework for the development of systemic psycho-therapeutic urban recreation program protocols, which may be employed to enhance the self-esteem of urban dwelling African American adolescents. The specific objectives are to: (1) Utilize available literature in the fields of social, educational, ecological, cognitive and developmental psychology to provide a theoretical and conceptual discussion of the complex psycho- 5 social anatomy of self-esteem relative to African American adolescents. (2) Provide a conceptual model for the creation of an ecologically and culturally responsive recreation program design and delivery system that includes: the development 'of an effective "Racial Pluralism Acumen" to be maintained by public community based recreation agencies. (3) The development of strategies for the mitigation of fears and apprehensions held by many recreation agencies regarding the adoption of more culture specific recreation programming. THE ORGANIZATION OF THE DISSERTATION The dissertation is presented in six chapters. The next chapter will comprise a review of literature concerning self- esteem, self-concept, identity formation, and Black Identity formation. This chapter includes a brief historical perspective relative to Blacks and community recreation. The literature that is reviewed comes primarily from the various areas of the field. of psychology, i.e., cognitive, developmental, educational, ecological and social and also the fields of human ecology and recreation/leisure. Chapter three presents a comprehensive formula based conceptualization of salient components of Self- Concept/Esteem. Chapter four provides an indication of the materials and process used in the development of a "Black Esteem Assessment Tool." Chapter five provides an example of 6 an Afro-Ethnic Recreation Protocol. This chapter presents a conceptual strategy for the development of Afro-Ethnic recreation program protocols designed to enhance self-esteem in Black adolescent youth-at-risk. Chapter six contains conclusions and recommendations. Supplemental material is included as appendix A. CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW Leisure, play and recreation are important to the health and. well being of societies and 'various populations that comprise different societies. Leisure and play may have emerged as a valued social phenomenon around the same time humans successfully' harnessed fire. Imagining' early' humans gathered around a camp fire for purposes of warmth and the preparation of food, leads the author to the conjecture that many of these fireside gatherings, would eventually become valued as restful time frames dedicated to such things as group cohesion. As various technological advancements created shifts in the amounts of work and discretionary time for play, leisure was pursued more intensely by greater numbers of people (Chubb & Chubb, 1981; Kraus & Curtis, 1973). While general disagreement still characterizes discussions within academia and the profession regarding what constitutes leisure, and within a more narrow social context, 8 what constitutes recreation, there is general agreement that fun and games have been, and continue to be, important in different societies. Music, dance, hunting, fishing, sports and ceremonies were functional elements of Egyptian life. According to Wilson (1971), there were even games such as checkers. Rybczynski (1991) suggests that. the .Aristotelian. view held that the goal of life was happiness and that leisure as distinguished from amusement and recreation was the facilitating state for happiness. Aristotle essentially saw leisure as positive and useful though he did warn however, that societies would degenerate if people were not prepared for leisune. It has been disclosed by (Ibrahim, 1989), that the Arab scholar of the Middle Ages, Ibn Khaldun, also warned that free time could become either leisure or idleness and he believed that these were the two conditions that provided for the rise and fall of societies. Other authors, Driver, Brown and Peterson (1991) and Csikszentmihalyi (1990) agree that leisure and recreation represent potentials for both good and bad, adaptive and maladaptive behavioral manifestations. One can point to virtually any place on the globe that is inhabited by people and observe leisure and recreation as an integral and complex component of societies. Leisure traditions have developed as fundamental elements of the social structure of many countries today. As an example, many leisure pursuits in Mexico, including various games, are based 9 upon religious ritual practiced by the distant Aztecs and Mayans. (Cortez, 1989) In other societies, such as Korea, recreation is especially important, in that, it is instrumental in: (1) developing a sound and healthy leisure life, (2) improve both culture and physical and mental health, (3) enhances productivity, (4) establishes and cultivates desirable human relations and (5) builds a sound and bright democratic society. (Won, 1989) Burnett (1989) indicates that structured recreation plays a major role in Kenya in terms of the leisure lives of its citizens. In Kenya there is exhibited through structured recreation, a strong emphasis upon socialization and social cohesion. .According' to Burnett (1989), recreation for the Kenyans is not just a means to keep mentally or physically healthy, it is done in such a way that it keeps them in touch with their culture. A recent article entitled, Recreation As Seen By the Zulu of South Africa suggests that recreation does not appear to exist as the antithesis of work. Recreation exists as a fundamental element of daily life (Magi, 1989). Although there is not much literature on leisure and recreation in .African. and..African. American societies, the available literature indicates their cultural importance. On an individuated and group satisfaction level the relative benefits of outdoor generally include: stress reduction, rest and recuperation, education (academic) e.g., 10 discovery learning, mental rehabilitation, positive physiological impacts, self-esteem, personal challenge/self efficacy and interpersonal skills recreation (Driver, Brown, Peterson, 1991). On a more broad, societal level, benefits are said to be environmental, economic, community! pride and development, cultural understanding, strengthening of families, supportive behavioral and cognitive base for students in terms of school performance. The recognized social, cultural and economic importance of recreation. has lead.:many' countries and communities to invest in making recreational opportunities more accessible to different segments of their populations. For example, after the Moscow Olympics and prior to the collapse of the USSR, the government declared that youth sports clubs would no longer be reserved only for the physically gifted youngsters. A serious attempt was made in 1981 to stimulate among young people, participation in was termed "casual" recreation (Riordan, 1989). .According ix) Scholer (1989), social legislation. in Norway has so enhanced opportunities for leisure and competitive indoor sport that they are now an important part of their way of life. In 1948, the United Nations issued a Declaration of Human Rights wherein it was formally indicated that people have a right to rest, leisure including reasonable limitation of work hours, periodic holidays with pay, the right to freely' participate in the cultural life of the community and enjoyment of the arts. (Chubb & Chubb, 1981) 11 In the early 1960's, the Federal Bureau of Outdoor Recreation was established primarily to provide an infusion of dollars for open space and conservation programs (Kraus & Curtis, 1973). In 1964, The Land and Water Conservation Fund Act. 'was jpassed, establishing' :matching funds for the development of outdoor recreation facilities. The "Charter for Leisure", developed collectively in 1970 by . sixteen international recreation organizations, serves as powerful support for the idea that leisure generates tremendous benefit on an individuated and societal basis (Chubb & Chubb, 1981). In 1971 the Interdepartmental Work Group on Urban Recreation, within the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, published a report for the Nationwide Outdoor Recreation Plan. In this report to Congress, it was acknowledged that most of the Nation comprises urban dwellers and consequently the term urban recreation was firmly established as an expression of a significant recreation programming domain. This occurrence can be considered as the birth of Urban Recreation as a formally recognized leisure concept and programmatic focus. As a result of a national urban recreation study conducted by the Department of Interior in 1978, Congress enacted the Urban Park and Recreation Recovery Act of 1978. Recreation has continually been viewed as a hedge against maladaptive at-risk behaviors and identities exhibited by many adolescents. It is Kelly's (1982) opinion that 12 identity includes both how we define ourselves and how others define us. He believes that individuals constantly present themselves to others, interpret responses, and sometimes redefine their self-image Ibased. on ‘the feedback received. .According to Kelly (1983), there is some aspect of the leisure activity that generates the right circumstance for the crafting of identities. This may suggest a multi—dimensional cognitive and self-expressive view of self-concept functions of recreation and leisure. McDonald (1989) contends that recreational. professionals should. explore every' :method possible to jprovide organized. programs that enhance self- esteem. Kelly (1982,1983) argues that organized recreation programming is an important element of any developmental community infrastructure, in regards to empowering youth with the requisite awareness, values and skills of responsible adulthood. Significant attention has been given to the potential of recreation programming and participation as a means for occupying and developing urban youth. This potential was identified and eXplored during the 1994 Congressional Hearings, convened in support of an Amendment Bill (H.R. 4034) entitled the Urban Recreation and At-Risk Youth Act of 1994. The Hearing included discussions regarding the perceived relationship between at-risk youth and urban recreation. The Dryfoos (1990) Delinquency domain of at-risk behavior, which will be presented later in this 13 chapter, was where the Congressional Hearings focused a majority of attention and energy with respect to the usefulness of recreation as an intervention strategy. Disclosures were made regarding how recreation could deter crime by providing a constructive use of non-school hours for at-risk-youth. Many of those who gave testimony argued that recreation and sport programs teach important values and life skills including teamwork, individual responsibility and self- esteem. The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency testified that recreation activities clearly help divert youth from self-destructive behaviors. During the Hearing, representatives of the National Association of Police Athletic Leagues stated that there is a direct link between crime prevention and Police Athletic League participation. It was suggested that young people who have nothing to do and nothing to look forward to prone to crime. Organizations such as the National Governors .Association, the ‘Urban Institute, the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development have recommended the expansion of recreation as a means to prevent juvenile delinquency (Miller, et al. 1994, p.4). In the early twenties community leaders began to recognize that, "mplay is the serious business of childhood. It should mean not only happiness and health but mental, moral, and spiritual development as well. Habits and ideals formed in childhood usually remain." (Speakman, 1924, p. 78). 14 “A new interest in play is being aroused in many sections, - largely because of a recognition of social values in a sane, steady, continuous program of Cbmmunity recreation. (Atwell, 1923, p. 7) .A national youth oriented organization called the Search Institute compiled. what is referred. to as 20 major risk indicators associated with the adolescent population, based upon survey data from 47,000 American adolescents. Those risk indicators include: (1) frequent alcohol use, (2) binge drinking, (3) daily cigarette use, (4) frequent chewing tobacco use, (5) frequent use of illicit drugs, (6) sexually active, (7) non use of contraceptives, 8) depression, (9) attempted suicide, (10) vandalism, (11) group fighting, (12) police trouble, (13) theft, (14) weapon use, (15) school absenteeism, (16) desire to drop out of school, (17) driving and drinking, (18) riding and drinking, (19) seat belt non use, (20) bulimia (Benson, 1989) The survey also revealed that many adolescents have a variety of significant deficits in their lives. Over half of the youth are home alone at least two every day; 48% place high importance on self serving values; 40% watched three or more hours of TV per day; 31% frequently attend parties where peers drink; 21% feel they are under stress most or all of the time; 17% report at least one incident of physical abuse; 10% indicate at least one incident of sexual abuse; 7% have at least one parent with a serious problem with alcohol or drugs; 15 6% experience a consistent lack of care, support and understanding and; 2% report that most of their close friends are involved in drug use and/or are in frequent trouble at school. The National Center for Health Statistics revealed that in 1993, American youths between the ages of 10 and 19 years old died every 92 minutes from a gunshot wound. A total of 3,661 were homicide; 1,460 were suicide. (Jet Magazine, May 6, 1996) "Homicide is still the leading cause of death for black males 15-24. A black male has one in 21 chance of being murdered before he is 25” Roberts-Thomas, 1991, pp. 20,21). The Black Community Crusade for Children reports that guns were the leading cause of death among Black males between the ages of 15 and 19 years old. In 1993, a bullet killed a Black child every 3 hours and 19 minutes (Jet Magazine, May 6, 1996). "While black men comprise about six percent of the population, they account for almost 50 percent of the prisoners in local, state and federal facilities(Jet Magazine, May 6, 1996). More than 610,000 African American males age 20-29, almost one in every four, are in jail, in prison, or on probation. Moreover, only about 436,000 black males in all age groups (out of a total 15 million) are attending institutions of higher learning. Eighteen percent of American black men 16 will spend some time behind bars. For white males the figure is 3 percent. Since 1947, the marriage rate for pregnant black teenagers (15-17) years old has decreased about 80%, and for those 18—19 years old, the rate is down about 60%. Nationally, about one in five (20%) white babies are born to an unmarried mother, while among blacks the ratio is two out of three(66%). The national infant mortality rate is about 50 percent higher among’ blacks than. among 'whites( Roberts-Thomas, 1991, pp. 20,21). Delinquency rates for Black youth are also high, and there are those who say that alcoholism is increasing among Black women at a higher rate than for White females (Sue, 1990, citing Smith, 1985). Black male unemployment is two to three times that of White males. The average White high school graduate income is $26,526, Black high school graduate income is $20,271. The average net worth of African American families is $4,604 compared with $44,408 for White families. (June, 1996, p. 241) According to U.S. Justice Department reports there were an estimated 2.3 million arrests of juveniles in 1992, a 57 per cent increase since 1983. Arrests of juveniles for murder increased by 128 per cent during this same period. By 1992, juveniles accounted for 15% of all murder arrests. People between the ages of 10 — 20 commit 50% to 60% of all crimes in the United States. The State of America's Children Yearbook 17 (1994), indicates that if current trends continue, by the year 2001, 37,000 children will be arrested every week. It is difficult to arrive at a reliable dollar costs associated with negative at risk youth behaviors. However, during the 1994 hearings on H.R. 4034, 1994, it was disclosed that a study conducted by the National Governors Association, estimated that $1.6 Billion was being spent annually to incarcerate juveniles, an average of $29,000 per juvenile delinquent. As recreation academicians, administrators and programmers we have generally sought to create “recreation lockdowns,” wherein we simply contain youth within a facility and activity of one sort or another between the hours of 3:00 to 6:00 p.m., implying as we do so, that if the youth are "with the program" they obviously can not be "out there", participating in illegal, violent or otherwise deviant leisure behaviors engaged in by youth. (Caldwell, et al., 1992) Rarely, if ever, do we ask the question which probes for the reason why most of the youth, adolescent youth in particular, would rather be "out their" than "with the program". " No matter how many different and exciting activities, sports and games they offered as inducements, the boys continued to drop in only sporadically." (Halpern, 1992; citing Nasaw, 1985, p. 216) Why? Economic factors notwithstanding, the lack of personal and collective self- esteem, is at the core: of :much of the so-called at-risk 18 behavior exhibited. by'2many' of our .African .American youth (Kunjufu, 1984). Dash (1989) in his writing detailing a year long study of black teenage pregnancy in Washington, D.C., states that he realized shortly after moving into Washington Highlands, that so much of what people told him about their decisions was the result of low self-esteem. Self-esteem. and identity formation have historically, been viewed by writers as major challenges for African Americans, attributable largely to the racism. which has existed in the U.S. (Thomas & Sillen, 1976; Jones, 1972)..As‘ DuBois (1969) posited over 80 years ago, there exists for Blacks, a double consciousness, a sense of always looking at one's self through the eyes of others, of measuring one's soul by the tape of a world that looks on in amused contempt and pity. One ever feels his twoness, - an American, a Negro; two souls, two thoughts, two unconcealed strivings, two warring ideals in one dark body, whose dogged strength along keeps it from being torn asunder. SELF-CONCEPT/ESTEEM "Recent theoretical developments in self-concept research are described which argue for a separation of the constructs of self-concept and self-esteem." (Dhawan & Watkins, 1989, p. 555). Mayberry (1990) argues that one must examine self-concept in order to understand self-esteem. 19 Though frequently used interchangeably, self-concept and self- esteem are two distinctly different constructs. The inability of theorists and practitioners to distinguish features of these two co-actional constructs is problematic regarding any subsequent understanding of a Black esteem construct. The key to refining the construct called self-concept, appears to lie in the ability of theorists to better conceptualize, define and isolate its true nature. Recent investigations have supported a context-dependent self-concept model and have resulted in a more comprehensive conceptualization of self-concept as a multidimensional, rather than one-dimensional, construct (Delugach et al., 1992, p. 214, citing Bannister & Agnew, 1977; Bracken, 1992; Byrne, 1984; Epstein, 1973; L'Ecuyer, 1981; Marsh, 1988; Shavelson et al., 1976). According to the model proposed by Shavelson and colleagues, both of these global areas can be divided further, such that academic self-concept might reflect specific academic subject areas and.:non—academic self-concept :might contain social, emotional, and physical domains (Delugach et al., 1992, p. 214). Rentsdh & Heffner (1992) argue that the psychological centrality of self-concept elements determines the degree to which the elements might effect self-esteem. Fox (1988) believes that individuals can have very different evaluative perceptions of themselves in separate aspects of their lives such as their social relationships, academic abilities, or physical appearance has led to the widespread 20 acceptance of the self as a tmultidimensional object. The Delugach article expresses the very distinct notion that more broad comprehensive and therefore more holistic conceptualizations are necessary regarding what is typically referred to as self-concept. The literature is clear on the idea that self-concept relates to WHAT, is being evaluated regarding self and not the evaluation itself. "Self-esteem may be more than the sum of all aspects of a person's self-concept; it may be the way one feels about the self-concept domains that are important to him or her,..." (Mayberry, 1990, p.733) It is also important to note that the self-construct dimensions are very much influenced by the opinions and views held by others (Kelly, 1982,1983). There is therefore a public self, socially motivated and driven which is often in direct opposition to the private self reflecting the person's own personally' held ‘values and. beliefs. about themselves. This circumstance provides a basis for dissonant emotional states. Coopersmith defines self-esteem. as the evaluation of self and indicates the extent to which the individual believes himself to be capable, significant, successful and worthy. (Ahmed, Valliant & Swindle, 1985) The authors in the same article argue that self-esteem is an extremely situation related trait. For example, high levels of self-esteem may be exhibited within one peer context and not another. 21 Coopersmith's disclosure helps ix) establiSh self-esteem as the evaluation itself as distinctly opposed to self-concept that describes what is to be evaluated. Self-esteem certainly appears to be the actual judgement rendered regarding Self. It is recognized that self-esteem may be a composite of both trait-like and situational components (S. A" IMcIntire and Edward L. Levine, 1984). "Measures of self-esteem should be based on conceptual models which specify the level of self-esteem being measured (global & specific) and on measurement operations which are consistent with the conceptual models (O'Brien, 1985, p. 383).” Self-esteem measurement is most often based upon inadequate models or no preceding conceptual model of self- concept at all, particularly when assessing self-esteem cross culturally (Wells, 1976). Rosenberg (1965) explains that such things as, school grades, social status,... the combined effect of social class and religious affiliation, fulfillment of personal goals, ones neighborhood, racial discrimination, family structure and interpersonal abilities have an influence on self-esteem. However, Rosenberg's global :measurement of self-esteem comprising 10 questions does little to mirror even the minimal conceptual matter presented above. Most psychological theories assume that the quality of parenting and of the parent-child relationship in early childhood is critically important to the child's later 22 personality' development (Kanigsberg' & ILevant, 1988). Self- esteem is a very major component of personality (Freedman et al., 1975). The development of self-esteem emerges from the first contact the child has with his family. (Kunjufu, 1984) "Amato and Ochiltree (1986) found that self-esteem was not associated with family structure resources (family income, parent's occupational status) but rather with family process resources, (parent's expectations, parent's interest, family cohesion)" (Glovinsky-Fasholtz, 1992, p. 636; citing Amato & Ochiltree). "The negative consequences of economic deprivation were more likely to be transmitted through their effects on family processes than directly through their effects on adolescent's self perception" (Whitbeck et al., 1991, p. 361). Coopersmith (1967) suggests that the level of confidence and authority expressed by the parents within the household may contribute significantly to the child's conviction that his parents are successful. Thus, it may be concluded that children with high self-esteem are more likely to have parents who provide indirect impressions and direct experiences of success. Regarding self assessments: "The importance of others is dependent on the degree of involvement between the participants in interaction,..." (Grgin & Dekovic, 1990, p. 839; citing Forgas, 1985). "Children acknowledge their parents' authority and adapt their behavior and their self- evaluation according to parental approval or disapproval" 23 (Grgin & Dekovic, 1990, p. 839). It is assumed by most psychological theories that the quality of parenting and of the parent-child relationship in early childhood will influence greatly, the child's later personality development (Kanigsberg & Levant, 1988). Coopersmith (1967) concludes that mothers of children with high self-esteem tend to be high in their own self-esteem and conversely, the mothers of children with low self-esteem are themselves, seen to be low in self-esteem and likely to be emotionally unstable. Coopersmith believes, fathers of high self-esteem. subjects are :more likely' to be attentive and concerned with their sons, and the sons are more likely to confide in their fathers. The interaction between husband and wife in the families of children with high self-esteem is marked by greater compatibility and ease than is the case in the families of children with low self-esteem. Fathers of high self-esteem subjects appear more concerned and involved with their sons, and have greater authority in their households than do the fathers of children with less self-esteem. The demands for achievement appear greater for persons with high esteem than they are for persons with low self-esteem. In regards to parental values Coopersmith suggest that; "the codes of behavior they set before their children, both by tuition and example, serve as guides to achieving success and power. Children with low self-esteem are more likely to claim that their parents emphasize and prize accommodation than are 24 the parents of children with medium or high self—esteem" (Coopersmith, 1967). Coopersmith (1967) suggests that one must be careful not to presume high esteem in a child, simply because that child is always obedient or seems always willing to fit-in. Being overly accommodating is a reflection of low not high esteem. Judging by their emphasis on accommodation and lack of concern with achievement, these parents and children presumably rely on pleasing others rather than self-competence for their feelings of success. "Gecas and Schwalbe (1986) reported that late adolescent boy's self-esteem was affected more strongly by the parental behavior dimension of autonomy/control while girls were more strongly affected by parental support or involvement. Also, their results suggested that fathers' behaviors more strongly affected their children's self-esteem than did mothers' behaviors" (Joubert, 1991, p. 116). This is problematic, given the growing absence of Black fathers from the home. Offer, et al. (1982), report a high correlation between parent-child communication and the quality of the child's self-image. In general, better parent- adolescent communication is associated with more positive adolescent self-image. Mother-daughter communication was most strongly related to their self-image of adolescent girls. Erikson (1963) posits eight stages of psychosocial development through which a given individual evolves. Those 25 stages are as follows: (1) Trust versus Mistrust, (2) Autonomy versus Shame and. Doubt, (3) Initiative versus Guilt, (4) Industry versus Inferiority, (5) Identity versus Identity Confusion, (6) Intimacy ‘versus Isolation, (7) Generativity versus self-absorption, and (8) Integrity versus Despair. The stage of development corresponding to the particular age group with which we are most concerned here, is labeled by Erikson as "Identity versus Identity Confusion" and is generally completed between the ages 12 to 18. ILt is during this stage, an American child must resolve issues such as: Who am I? Who am I to others? Who will I become? Who can I become? Am I handsome/pretty? Am I smart? Do I have skills? Do others think I'm smart? Do I like who I am? _Hamachek (1990) posits that the identity issues of Stage 5 are self-concept issues and more likely to be resolved favorably if the pmevious four stages have been resolved on the side of positive ego resolutions, i.e., more trust than distrust, more autonomy than shame and doubt, and so on. If, on the other hand, there have been too many negative ego resolutions during the four preceding stages, this, as Erikson (1980) has observed, may result in identity confusion. Identity‘ diffusion entails not knowing‘ what to value and maladaptive valuation. The maladaptive valuation may in fact, if sufficiently repetitive, be internalized as shame in the author’s 26 estimation. Kaufman (1980) explains that shame can be an impotence-making experience because it feels as though there is no way to relieve the matter, or satisfy the situation in a positive manner, no way to restore the balance of things. There is the feeling that one has simply failed as a human being and nothing can be done. Savin-Williams & Demo (1984) argue that there are those theorists who believe that during adolescence self-esteem reaches an all time low, fluctuating from moment to another during these stressful and sometimes unstable years. It is possible however, to paint a very different landscape of adolescence and adolescent self-esteem. Savin-Williams and Demo concluded in their longitudinal study, that "adolescence is not necessarily a time of great upheaval in the self- concept and that the person who enters adolescence is basically the same person that exits it" (Savin-Williams & Demo, 1984, p. 1100). The majority of the adolescents in the study that experienced a stable self-esteem, benefited from certain stabilizing factors. Clearly family system ranks as a major stabilizer. While the study by Savin-Williams & Demo (1984) provides valuable insights, it also points to a problem in research that hampers the understanding of Black self- esteem. In the Savin-Williams & Demo longitudinal study, only 3 of the 41 were minorities. Researchers often generalize the findings of studies conducted primarily on White adolescents to persons of other races and cultures. There is a lack of 27 self-esteem research conducted on African American adolescents to define self—esteem factors. "Clothing is believed to play a significant role in the socialization process, which in turn leads to the development of the self-concept" (Daters, 1990, p. 46; citing Stone, 1965; Takahaski & Newton, 1967). "Clothing can contribute to adolescent acceptance or rejection" (Daters, 1990, p. 46; citing Kelly & Eicher, 1970; Littrell & Eicher, 1973; Smucker & Creekmore, 1972). The adolescent during the process of valuing him or herself uses various wearing apparel and the responses they tend to elicit from others. The importance of clothing generally reaches a peak for a given individual during adolescence (Daters, 1990). When the other various self-concept dimensions for whatever reason, receive little or no constructive attention, there is a much greater reliance placed upon clothing. Harper & Marshall (1991) have concluded that the association between low self-esteem and problematic health and physical development reflects to some extent, the effectiveness of the media in determining the ideal body-image of women and the extreme difficulty adolescent girls, and indeed, even older females have in attaining this image. Constantinople elaborates that in adolescence self-esteem is the end product of successful resolutions of each crisis; the fewer or the less satisfactory the successful resolutions, the less self-esteem on which to build at this stage of development, and the greater the likelihood of a prolonged 28 sense of identity diffusion, of not being sure of who one is and where one is going (Lerner,1986 citing Constantinople, 1969). At the conclusion of various life crises, when self- esteem, has been confirmed, it grows to be a conviction that one is learning effective steps toward a tangible future, that one is developing a defined personality within a social reality' which one understands (Lerner,1986 citing Erickson,1959). Hamachek(l990) indicates further that identity diffusion is more than not knowing who one is (identity), it suggests also, not knowing for sure what one can do (initiative, industry), not knowing one can do what one needs to be done (autonomy) and, in some instances, not even knowing whether or not anyone can be counted on to help (trust). Identity confusion problems, like logs floating down a river, form a logjam. when the normal flow of one's development current carries with it too nany negative ego resolutions that come together at the same time. It may be the case that there is a degree of elasticity associated with Erikson's developmental stages. In other words, it may not be possible to draw a cut off line at the precise age, separating each stage from the other. For example, the age bracket during which identity is believed to solidified, in many situations is well beyond the age of 18 for example, during which time frame, it is said, that 29 identity is solidified, can probably be extended in many situations, well beyond age 18. One should not therefore, become alarmed at witnessing identity development which appears to be retarded in individuals beyond the chronological age of 18. This may be particularly true for persons who have experienced less than successful resolution at earlier stages. One view of human development is that it is the result of a probabilistic epigenesis, Gottlieb (1991), i.e., DNA based organismic structures, e.g., the brain or one's motor skills, differentiated over time by human experience and cognitive behavior. An alternative View is that Human Development is the result of a DNA based organismic declarative, which makes no allowance for the plasticity, i.e., genetic make-up being influenced by experience (Greenough, 1991; Gottlieb, 1991; Turkheimer & Gottesman, 1991; Cairns, 1991; Lerner, 1991). Psychological Development, (i.e., how, and perhaps more importantly, what the mind thinks, prior to the elicitation of behavior), is the result of a certain "developmental reciprocity", described by (Lerner, 1991), as a dynamic interactive relationship. This relationship comprises the human organism and the varied contexts within which the organism is embedded. A human being will act upon his/her environment as their environment acts upon them. According to Maslow (1971) culture and environment is only a necessary cause of human nature, but not a sufficient cause. He also 30 agrees that. biology .is (Muir a. necessary’ cause and. not a sufficient cause of human nature. Self-esteem may serve a mediating function in the bi- directional interaction. .between the organism. and the environment. Self-esteem, with its emotive character, may influence not only the acquisition of sensory information, but in addition, the neural mechanisms that generate perceptual impulses leading to behavior. Self-esteem.must be comprehended and attended to in ways that transcend the purely affective and greatlyxuovgergly simplified and commercialized assertion that self-esteem merely equates to one feeling good about oneself. It is apparent that many African American adolescents act and use certain props to camouflage a lack of self-esteem. For example, many adolescent males wearing a shiny new pair of brand-name sneakers, appear on the surface to have a great deal of self-esteem. They are often View as "cocky" by adults, particularly White adults. This apparent self-esteem is however, dependent upon the prop and the prestige of the prop, rather than positive feelings about himself, his family or his race. In the same sense, many African American "girls-at risk" use hot straightening combs and chemical hair straightening products to straighten their hair. When the artificially straightened hair returns to its natural character, a more guarded self-conscious behavior begins to appear. 31 According to Branden (1969) & Freedmen et al. 1975, self-esteem is a fundamental need of man's consciousness. It is a need that cannot be ignored or bypassed. Men who fail to achieve true self-esteem, or who fail to a significant degree, strive to fake it. The individual who fits this description will attempt to hide behind a sort of pseudo- self—esteem. Branden (1969) believes that pseudo-self—esteem can be understood as an irrational pretense at self-value, a non-rational, self-protective device to diminish anxiety and to provide a suspect sense of security. This perpetual avoidance mechanism precludes the discovery of the real causes for the absence of authentic self-esteem. This phenomenon discussed by Branden (1969) is described by Elliott (1982) as "self presentation", wherein the individual presents an hypothesized self in the hopes of having it validated. This phenomenon is frequently observed in African American youth-at-risk. In summary, the literature indicates that self-esteem is influenced by, or correlated with such phenomenon as school setting and teachers (Atherley, 1990), parental styles (Joubert, 1991), perceptions of physical attractiveness (Gurman & Malban, 1990; Backman & Adams, 1991), career goals (Chiu, 1990; Pavlak & Kammer, 1985; Poole & Cooney, 1985), temperament (Klein, 1992), teacher attitudes and teaching methods (Atherly, 1990), degree of influenceability and conformity' (Rhodes & ‘Wood, 1992), loneliness & depression . 32 (Kalliopuska & Laitinen, 1991; Brown et al., 1990; Kernis et al., 1991), self-perceived physical competence (Sonstroem et al., 1991), relationships with significant others, i.e., family and friends (Coopersmith, 1967; Rosenberg, 1965; Lackovic—Grgin & Dekovic, 1990; Patterson et al., 1990; Walker & Green, 1986), social competence (Waters, et al., 1985), development of specific sports skills (Hopper et al., 1991), age & gender (Elliott, 1982; Oyefeso & Zacheaus, 1990), achievement,(Wigfield & Karpathian, 1991), perception of social group membership (Luhtanen & Crocker, 1992; Lay, 1992), clothing (Chowdhary, 1988), creativity (Yau, 1991), self- efficacy and the general perception of being competent (Allgood-Merten & Stockard, 1991; Schwalbe & Staples). Also, according to the literature self-evaluation must be measured as both a construct and process. Stable positive self- evaluation requires stable environmental factors (Demo, 1992). BLACK IDENTITY/SELF-ESTEEM Based on the literature that was reviewed, it can be concluded that identity is an overall composite view or self- generating picture of oneself. Self-esteem on the other hand, reflects the context driven valuations of self. Dhawan & Watkins (1989) provide support for looking at these constructs on the basis of culture and race. Researchers have found that adolescents with high ethnic identity have higher self-esteem 33 and use more active strategies in dealing with threats such as discrimination. and stereotypes than those with low ethnic identity (Phiney & Chavira 1992). Perhaps the most valuable article dealing with Black identity, in terms of both its conceptual power and comprehensiveness, reviewed by the author was the Spencer and Markstrom-Adams (1990) synthesis of literature dealing with identity formation among ethnic minority children and adolescents. "Identity 1J1 its vaguest sense suggests, of course, mudh of what has been called the self by a variety of workers, be it in the form of a self- concept, a self-system, or in that of fluctuating self experience." (Spencer & MarkstromrAdams, 1990, p. 291). Racial and ethnic identity can be understood in terms of a level consciousness of self, within a particular group. "Independent of the child's race, socioeconomic status, sex, and age(3,4,and 5), baseline data obtained by Spencer (1970) and reported by Spencer and Horowitz (1973) indicated a significant pattern of negative connotations associated with the color Black and African American people" (Spencer and Markstrom-Adams, 1990, p. 295). "A. parallel pattern. of own-group :preference has been described. by' Spencer (1982b) for older (ages 10 and 12) African American children. Such advances in cognitive skills are perhaps reflected in a more realistic assessment of oneself and one's group and greater consciousness of the 34 "referent other" used for comparison purposes when evaluating the self" (Spencer and.Markstrom racial group membership (Jenkins [citing Billingsley, 1968; and Pettigrew, 1964] 1982). In other words, Black parents have tended to maintain, in admittedly too few numbers, a strong sense of what the author will call racial integrity ‘versus racial genocide. These are polar opposites on a conceptual "identity continuum". 37 Adlen (1985) identifies five associative factors of healthy identity formation (1) parent and family background characteristics, (2) parent child-rearing goals, (3) parent child-rearing practices, (4) parent-son interpersonal relationships, and (5) child socialization outcomes. To this list the author adds (parent-daughter interpersonal relationships). As McAdoo (1992) suggests that values of the wider society are, for the most part, detrimental to the development of positive self-esteem (of Black children), ethnic identity, and achievement in school. McAdoo (1988) presents an alternative context, not often employed when viewing Black families. Despite being faced with discrimination and poverty, many Black families have managed to acquire the needed education, skills, and achievements that have allowed them to become more economically secure. Finally, the degree to which a Black family can be considered high or low functioning with respect to adolescent identity development, can be understood within the context of the William Cross model for Black self-actualization. Whether the identity variable is school grades or perceived grades of hair, parents distributed systematically within the following stages: 1) Pre—encounter, 2) Encounter, 3) Immersion-Emersion, 4) Internalization and, 5) Internalization-Commitment (Cross, 1991), will probably tend to yield a differentiated, yet group or category specific, and stage specific, pattern of parental 38 validation and nurturance. The adolescent will get what the parent is capable of giving. The first stage of the Cross model is characterized by anti-Black: attitudes/Euro-centrit: disposition. Stage two produces one or more experiences, often emotionally painful, that force the individual to re-think their' pre-encounter identity. During Cross's third stage the individual commits to change, then literally immerses him or herself in Blackness, e.g., literature, clothing, etc. At some point the person emerges from the oftentimes rigid ideation usually associated with this stage into a perhaps more all-embracing disposition. With stage four comes a genuine sense of pride and self- worth. The dissonance often characteristic of the encounter and immersion-emersion stages is usually resolved during this fourth stage. Lastly, the fifth stage is marked by a sustained interest and commitment to Blacks and the plight of Blacks. Many Blacks who are young and poor feel they have never had a fair chance, nor is that prospect likely. In light of the insults and. discrimination they' have faced throughout their lives, it is not surprising that as many as do vent their resentment in violence (Hacker, 1992). The sobering demographics signaling the start of this discussion, are often erroneously referred to as descriptors of Black culture when they are more accurately, aberrations of Black culture, created largely by overt and passive racism in general and economic oppression specifically. 39 It is important to be cognizant, of the tremendous resilience exhibited by the majority of Black families living in America, who manage to survive the racial oppression and racial indifference which appears to be on the rise (Hacker, 1992). When parents, particularly female single parents, maintain a sense of God and spirituality in the home, positive stability will generally accrue to children. (June, 1991) Self-esteem is believed to be a factor of stabilization in Black youth. BLACK SELF-ESTEEM MEASUREMENT With respect to the research effort to date, to detect and confirm the degree to which Blacks have positive or negative self-esteem, the incidence of conflicting results is so overwhelming that validity' becomes an obvious problems (Gordon, 1977). This situation yet prevails. It should be noted also, that the various instruments used most often to determine self-esteem, e.g.,(Rosenberg and Cbopersmith) have not changed. substantively 1J1 past. 30 years, greater acknowledgement of multi-dimensionality of self-concept and self-esteem, notwithstanding. .As Wells (1976) argues, the wide scale acceptance and application of an undefined self-esteem construct has methodological repercussions. Further, confusion at the conceptual level necessarily' manifests itself in equal or 40 greater confusion at the methodological level. Wells (1976) suggests that many validation studies for self—esteem measures present in the literature, have uniformly neglected the first stage in demonstrating construct validity, that of adequately defining and explicating the construct of interest. For" example, Johnson (1990) explored. the relationship between underemployment, underpayment, attributions and self- esteem among Black men. He agrees that the ability of Black men to obtain and hold a "good" job is the traditional test of participation in .American society. Steady employment with adequate compensation. provides purchasing' power and social status. It also develops the capabilities, confidence and self-esteem that an individual needs to be a responsible citizen and provides a basis for a stable family life Johnson (1990). However, the study concludes that the self-esteem of Black men, defined operationally in the study by the Rosenberg self-esteem scale, is somehow raised, not lowered by underemployment. Theoretical. psychological concepts such. as external attribution and racial versus personal self-esteem are offered as mitigating elements which tend to explain the discovery of higher not lower self—esteem. While the Rosenberg self-esteem scale is generally preferred and used, the study and its conclusions raises questions about the validity of the scale in measuring Black self-esteem. According to Rcbson (1989), the primary shortcoming of the Rosenberg scale, is that it is inherently vague and lacks 41 intuitive credibility. Robson indicates that some theorists have suggested that while it may be psychometrically sophisticated, it is conceptually primitive. When it comes to the measurement of Black self-esteem, a major difficulty associated. with instruments that measure self-esteem, rest with the repeated attempts of self concept/self—esteem researchers, to create a culture free instrument. These attempts do not acknowledge the ecological and developmental differences between Black self-esteem and White self-esteem. To assert that self-esteem is not at least tinted, if not marked indelibly, racially and culturally, is a mistake (Wells, 1976; Robson, 1989). Pang, Mizokawa, Morishima and Olstad (1985) disclose that Pacific American (APA) children have been studied with attention to the overall self- concept and to the specific racial and physical self-concepts. Findings have shown that ARA children in general do not feel as positive about their physical characteristics as (k) their White American peers. The validity of scales and instruments used to examine and assess some aspect of mental development relative to Blacks, have long been questioned (Long, 1925; Wells, 1976; Robson, 1989). In regards to African Americans, both self appraisals and the appraisals of others contribute to a lowered. sense of self worth DuBois (1969); Clark (1939); Thomas et al. (1976); Spencer & MarkstromeAdams (1990); Spencer, Brookins & Allen (1985); Kunjufu (1984); Jones 42 (1972); Cross (1991). These processes have also been used to explain why blacks have poorer self-images than whites, although research using direct measures of self-esteem has provided evidence to the contrary (Hoelter, 1983). This raises questions as to what traditional instruments are measuring when applied to blacks. Thomas & Sillen (1976) suggests that for the past 25 years, the mental health field has been in the thrusts of a significant evaluation of the role mental health and related professions have played in the continuance of racist ideas and practices regarding human development. These authors also suggest that that psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, and other professionals have long recognized that racism was epidemic in our society. They had assumed that their special training and their dedication to humanistic values made them immune and they underestimated the tenacity of tradition, the deep roots of racist thinking in the history of the disciplines concerned with human behavior. An example is G. Stanley Hall, founder of the American Journal of Psychology in 1887 and often referred to as the "father of child study", who described in his work Adolescence (1904), Africans, Indians, and Chinese as members of 'adolescent races' in a stage of incomplete growth (Thomas & Sillen, 1976) . 43 Commenting on the efforts of Black psychologists and theory building relative to the psychological functioning of Blacks, Joseph A. Baldwin, chairman of the Psychology Department at Florida A&M University explains that; "...rather than operating as intellectually independent scholars/scientists employing our true creative genius in conceptualizing and explaining the psychological universe from the framework of the true historical, philosophical, and cultural reality of African people, we instead follow the Obscure and inisrepresenting intellectual leadership of our 'European nemtors',...by relying upon their historical, philosophical and cultural reality to direct and inspire our theoretical developments" (Burlew, et al. 1992, p. 49). Baldwin concludes further that the influence of White authorities and sources has been so intense that scholars and theorists have tended, to omit from the academic and scientific literature and thereby 'devalue' the highly relevant theoretical work of Black scholars, scientists and theorists, because such work is not preceded by or concomitant to some Eurocentric-oriented empirical exercise (Burlew, et al. 1992). Avoiding issues raised by Baldwin, has and continues to severely limit the ability of psychologists to 44 craft relevant and effective solutions to the psycho-socially- related challenges facing’ millions of Black youth in the United States. Looney (1988, p. 51) raises the question; " When knowledge of human development is largely constructed on White populations, how does a Black in America define self? " Baldwin contends that the field has failed to recognize significant contributions of Black psychologists and theorists who have sought to understand the psycho-social development of Blacks. For example, a widely used, 500 page graduate level text on developmental psychology, edited by Lerner (1986), fails to discuss racial implications relative to psychological development. It omits the work of Black psychologists, psychiatrists and theorists entirely. COMMUNI TY RECREAT ION .According to a 1994 project funded by the Skillman Foundation, institutions and processes that have traditionally provided youth guidance, for better or worst, are breaking down. The result is what might be called a guidance gap: today’s children are getting less guidance while functioning in a society that bombards them with a wide range of choices and that places many of them at a social, economic, and political disadvantage from the start. Sports and recreation must endeavor to enhance the development of youth in many positive ways. The benefits of sports and recreation extend 45 beyond physical activity and. motor skill development, to social, moral-character development, psychological self-esteem and confidence, educational development, health and well being. In 1991, to emphasize the responsibility of recreation agencies to develop programs designed to enhance self-esteem, the California Park and Recreation Society passed a resolution which contained key principles and recommendations directed towards community’ service agencies and. organizations which includes those engaged in park and recreation. This resolution urges these agencies to take actions that will serve to promote the development of jpositive self-esteem. among the population in general and to facilitate the raising of low self-esteem among Californians who are at-risk in various ways (Soderberg, 1991). Given earlier comments centering upon the importance of the family in the development of healthy children and adolescents, it is vitally important that it be noted here that; whether the outcome variable is family satisfaction, family interaction, or family stability, leisure activities do appear to be associated with positive outcomes and this is a relatively consistent finding (Othner & Mancini, 1988). The authors ck) admit to there being only very limited research available. Csikszentmihalyi & IKleiber (1989, p. 8), in. a paper which was prepared for delivery at the Benefits of Leisure Conference revealed suggested that; "...the value of leisure 46 is not that it offers relaxation, pleasure, or recreation; on the contrary, it requires effort in order to provide a sense of accomplishment and enhanced self-esteem..." "Leisure may thus offer some unique conditions for self- actualization that. more constrained contexts do not, particularly as it allows an individual to broaden his or her experience while involved in culture-affirming practices" (Csikszentmihalyi & Kleiber, 1989; citing Kelly, 1987, p.8). "...Involvement in an activity must be deep, sustained and disciplined to contribute to an emerging sense of self. This is especially important to note at a time when leisure practices are criticized for responding too readily to market demands and to the mass media, helping to perpetuate a superficial consumer mentality, instead of helping to accumulate new and complex experiences" (Csikszentmihalyi & Kleiber, 1989; citing Goodale & Godbey, 1988; Lindar, 1970, pp- 8,9,). Schorr & Schorr (1988) provide a set of guidelines on how to design recreation programming for youth: (1) a broad spectrum of services, (2) programs which cross when necessary traditional professional and bureaucratic boundaries, (3) program structures which are flexible, (4) programs which see the child within the context of the family and the family within the context of its surroundings, (5) program staff are perceived by participants as individuals who genuinely care about and respect those for whom they are providing a service, 47 (6) services are coherent and easy to use, (7) program continuity, (8) programs which exhibit the ability to adapt or circumvent traditional professional and bureaucratic limitations when necessary to meet the needs of those they serve and (9) professionals are able to redefine their roles. There is a lack of scientific information to asist in the design of recreation programming which mirrors Black self- concept and which leads to the development of Black self- esteem. The lack of applicable research is compounded by the absence of a unified theoretical framework for interpreting differences in self-esteem factors and processes between whites, blacks, and other ethnic minority groups. Most published. studies use as their basis the marginality' and ethnicity perspectives developed by Washburne (1978), which question whether differences in participation are due to the cultural characteristics of particular minority groups or to the social position they occupy in the dominant society (Hutchison, 1988, p.11). Washburne & Wall (1980, p. 1), argue that the "marginality explanation" interprets under- utilization of both city and wild land recreation resources by Blacks as less a reflection of choice than as a consequence of the cumulative effects of social, economic, and education discrimination and. segregation. practices. By' contrast, the "ethnicity perspective" assumes that participation variation may be due to the existence of minority subcultures with unique values and normative systems that are distinct from 48 those of the American mass-culture which is dominated by a Eurocentric emphasis (Kunjufu, 1984; Jones, 1972). When designing and providing esteem building recreation programming for Black youth, it is important to recognize that leisure patterns of Blacks are in part, based on their subculture style» or* ethnicity; If leisure is an integral reflection of culture, characteristic preferences for leisure activity among Blacks may have developed and been maintained in the same fashion as among Whites (Washburne, 1978). BLACK ESTEEM AND COMMUNITY RECREATION; Historical View: "Negro leadership in America has invariably for good or ill, wisely or unwisely sought to win the respect of the dominant majority by achievement; to attain equality by proof of equality in the various phases of life; to establish the good will by loyalty to the traditions and ideas of their country. Nowhere has this need of proof of equality been more marked than in athletics" (Carter, 1933, p. 208). Henderson (1936), provides a brief yet captivating glimpse of the famous boxer Joe Louis as he discloses that Louis had secured the admiration of millions. This author states that Joe Louis was to some, a symbolic Sphinx of Egypt,