AH EXPLGRMEGR 8F EDUCATEGNAL CfifiMTl‘v’E STYLES AS. A VEEECLE FOR QETERMWU'EG E‘OTENTEAE. SSSCESS 0F Cfi-MMUNEW CGLLEGE SI-‘WENTS WHEN SELECTED SCCUHTEOML CURRECULA Thais {car {‘53 Daqrw of DR. D. R‘EECSEEAZ‘i STATE. UNEVERSWY Marion Miiier Rice 2973 THESIF‘. ' I .l g... my; 9. 2003 © 1974 MARION MILLER RICE ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii The majc Significant cc Students and t ABSTRACT AN EXPLORATION OF EDUCATIONAL COGNITIVE STYLES AS A VEHICLE FOR DETERMINING POTENTIAL SUCCESS OF COMMUNITY COLLEGE STUDENTS WITHIN SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL CURRICULA By Marion Miller Rice The major purpose of this study was to determine if there were any significant cognitive style differences between the selected ideal students and the selected non-ideal students in three curricula: l) Law Enforcement 2) Cosmetology 3) Business Administration In addition, it was the purpose of this study to further determine the degree of congruence between the collective cognitive style of the theoretical ideal student as judged by instructors within the Collective Cognitive Style rating scale and the actual tested collective profile as measured by the cognitive style test battery for the selected ideal and non-ideal student groups within the respective curricula. The defined population for the study was composed of instructors and second year students within the Business Administration, Law Enforcement and Cos- metology curricula at Oakland Community College, a comprehensive, multi- campus community college located in the Metropolitan Detroit area of 0 .H n Michigan. data each curriculur curricuia. The instruments ass of instructor i te:hniques of i ciarifying the de-‘ining of a " attaai enrolled RESUI ts of discriminating ironies fer the Michigan. Data was collected by employing all the instructors within each curriculum and the class lists of all students within the given curricula. The instrumentalities employed in the study included; (a) the instruments associated with the cognitive style testing, and the survey 'of instructor identification of the theoretical ideal student and (b) the techniques of informal interviewing associated with explaining and clarifying the performance requested of the instructors regarding the defining of a "theoretical ideal" student, and the identification of actual enrolled students as "ideal“ or "non-ideal" types, respectively. Results of the study indicate that instructors are not highly discriminating between the selected ideal and selected non-ideal student groups for the following empirically derived observations: a. the large quantity of elements held in common by the selected ideal and selected non-ideal b. the small quantity of elements that are unique to the selected ideal and the selected non-ideal student groups It had been anticipated that the selected ideal student groups would differ from the selected non-ideal groups in obvious differentiations and also the number of differences. The findings also indicated that grade point averages discriminate between the ideal and non-ideal students within the Business Administra- tion and Law Enforcement curriculum. It should be noted, however, that the use of grade point averages as verifiers or discriminators would be dependent on selected occupational curricula for the following reasons: (T Further explor as discriminators w First, there is gre students and teach: "esscnsibility for ‘urther recomende technical classes a. immediacy of employment upon completion of the occupational curriculum b. continuity of specific skills activities from the classroom to the entry step of the occupation c. the professional skills classes are in greater proportion that the academic classes within the occupational curricula Further exploration is recommended in the use of grade point averages as discriminators within the two-year technical areas for two reasons: First, there is greater probability of intensive interaction between students and teachers; and second, the instructor feels an immediate responsibility for placing the student in the employment field. It is further recommended that the grade point averages computed be based on technical classes only and should not include general education classes. ,1 ~__ AN EXPU AS A TE 0F COT-‘1 AN EXPLORATION OF EDUCATIONAL COGNITIVE STYLES AS A VEHICLE FOR DETERMINING POTENTIAL SUCCESS OF COMMUNITY COLLEGE STUDENTS WITHIN SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL CURRICULA By Marion Miller Rice A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1973 0.378%; Copyright by MARION MILLER RICE 1973 ii TO MY PARENTS Jack and Anna Miller This thesis is dedicated to you for your constant and willing sacrifices throughout my life so that I might become an educated citizen with an appreciation for the rights and responsibilities associated with that privilege. iii No one i develop and CC flier adVIsor the Study. T M Adi” grati Apprec‘ Data Process ST' GQOY‘ge r. Hrs. EUQEnia and to Mr, DQIpfu] "Se" Department, assistanCe, ‘u‘r‘ EUth Co D ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS No one is more aware, than I, of the many people who helped me develop and complete this study. The guidance and support of the writer's major advisor, Dr. Max Raines has been of immeasurable value throughout the study. The helpful suggestions and "faith" of Dr. Perry Lanier, Dr. Mel Buschman and Dr. Keith Groty. the members of my committee are held in gratitude. Appreciation and thanks are extended to Bruce Martin, Director of Data Processing at Oakland Community College for his technical advice, Dr. George Mitchell for his demanding professional expectations, to Mrs. Eugenia Klingler for her assistance and aid whenever I needed it and to Mr. Joseph Harman of the Auburn Hills LRC for his willing and helpful "searches." My thanks also go to the Auburn Hills Counseling Department, to the classified staff. to Miss Gwendolyn Smith for her assistance, to Mr. Arthur Batten for his "graphic" contributions, to Mr. Euth Cocoves for his professional consultation, and to Mrs. Sylvia Pascouau for her help and ready "smile." A special expression of gratitude goes to Dr. Joseph Hill for his infinite patience and continuing support of graduate students who need him. iv The model of our behavior, not our radical arguments, is what is most persuasive. Unknown EKCTLEDGEHENTS . USTOF TABLES . . LBIOF APPENDICES fiapter L BACKGROU' Intro Backg Purpo Signi Quest Assur Defir RELATED Iden' Voca- Clas COQn SUmm DESIGN Sour How Chapter I. II. III. TABLE OF CONTENTS BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, l Introduction ..................... I Background of the Study ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, l Purpose of the Study ................. 9 Significance of the Study ,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 9 Questions to be Answered ,,,,,,,,,,,,,, l4 Assumptions Underlying the Study ,,,,,,,,,,, l4 Definitions of Key Terms ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, lS- RELATED LITERATURE ................... 19 Identity and Self-Concept DevelOpment ,,,,,,,, l9 Vocational Choice .................. 29 Classroom Expectations and Their Impact ,,,,,,, 32 Cognitive Style ........... . ....... 37 Summary ....................... 44 DESIGN OF THE STUDY ................... 45 Source of Data--Population .............. 46 Samples Employed in the Study ............ 47 How Selected .................... . 48 Representativeness ................. . 49 Adequacy of the Sample ................ 49 Data Collection ............. . ..... 49 Instrumentalities .................. 50 Pilot Study .................... . 54 Procedures ..................... . 54 Techniques ...................... 55 Summary ....................... 56 vi fionr N AXALYTICF Analy‘ Cogni‘ Mappi1 Mather Emoir Deten The Deten Ide Deter Non Analy Sim of Findi Colie Summa CONCLUSI COHcl Quest DISCU Quast DiSCL QUQSt DISCL QUEsi QUESi Imp]; Sufime ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES DATA AND FINDINGS ........ Analytical Techniques ............... Cognitive Style Mapping .............. Mapping ...................... Mathematical Mapping ................ Empirical Mapping ................. Determination of the Collective Theoretical Ideal ................ Determination of the Selected Ideal Student .................. Determination of the Selected Non-Ideal Student ................ Analyses of the Determination of Similarities and Differences of the Respective Styles ............. Findings ...................... Collective Cognitive Style Maps .......... Summary ...................... CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH Conclusions .................... Question One .................... Discussion ..................... Question Two .................... Discussion ..................... Question Three ................... Discussion ................ . . . . . Question Four ................... Question Five ................... Implications for Further Research ......... Summary ...................... SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................... APPENDIX vii 65 “1;;351. -' ;_'_L‘ BUSlnesg Business EUSlnesg COSOEtoi Cosmeto- Cosmeto Law Enf LBW Enf Law Eni Busine, BELWT Law Er Table U1 co 00 \l O! o o o 0 10. ll. 12. l3. 14. LIST OF TABLES Sample Population ................... Information Regarding Grade Point Averages of Respective Groups .......... . ..... Business Administration--Theoretical Ideal Student Business Administration-~Selected Ideal Student . . . . Business Administration--Selected Non-Ideal Student . Cosmetology--Theoretical Ideal Student ........ Cosmetology--Selected Ideal Student .......... Cosmetology--Selected Non-Ideal Student . . . . . . Law Enforcement--Theoretical Ideal Student ...... Law Enforcement-~Selected Ideal Student ........ Law Enfbrcement--Selected Non-Ideal Student ...... Business Administration--Elements Held in Common Between: Theoretical Ideal--Selected Ideal Theoretical Ideal--Selected Non-Ideal Selected Ideal and Selected Non-Ideal . . . Cosmetology--Elements Held in Common Between: Theoretical Ideal and Selected Ideal Theoretical Ideal and Selected Non-Ideal Selected Ideal and Selected Non-Ideal . . . Law Enforcement--Elements Held in Common Between: Theoretical Ideal and Selected Ideal Theoretical Ideal and Selected Non-Ideal Selected Ideal and Selected Non-Ideal . . . viii 67 69 7O 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78-79 80 81 7"! 13:19 2L N. a. Business “4“91 9'11 '5 ———-— Busines: Diffei Business Differ Cosmeto' Cosmetoi Cosmetol Law Enfo LAW Enfo LAW Enfc Table 15. Business Administration--Theoretical Ideal Differences with: Selected Ideal Selected Non-Ideal ......... 82 l6. Business Administration-~Selected Ideal Differences with: Theoretical Ideal Selected Non-Ideal ......... 83 l7. Business Administration--Selected Non-Ideal Differences with: Theoretical Ideal Selected Ideal ........... 84 l8. Cosmetology--Theoretical Ideal Differences with: Selected IdeaT Selected Non-Ideal ......... 85 l9. Cosmetology--Selected Ideal Differences with: Theoretical Ideal Selected Non-Ideal ......... 86 20. Cosmetology--Selected Non-Ideal Differences with: Theoretical Ideal Selected Ideal ........... 87 Zl. Law Enforcement--Theoretical Ideal Differences with: Selected Ideal Selected Non-Ideal ......... 88 22. Law Enforcement--Selected Ideal Differences with: Theoretical Ideal Selected Non-Ideal ......... 89 23. Law Enforcement--Selected Non-Ideal Differences with: Selected Ideal Theoretical Ideal ......... 9O ix Assenii x A. 3. Cognitive Collective Problems 5 ComDuter P Style Ele Appendix A. B. C. LIST OF APPENDICES Cognitive Style as an Education Science . . . . Collective Cognitive Style Survey ....... Problems Set On: ................ (a) Scaling Items in Terms of Difficulty Eb; Standard Scores c Percentile Scaling (d) Scaling Judgments--Joseph E. Hill Problem Set on Objectivity of Process of Mapping Styles-~Joseph E. Hill . ....... Instructor Scaling Procedures and Responses . . Computer Print-Out--Determination of Cognitive Style Elements in Maps ............ ...... . 112 ....... 113 ....... 114 ....... 115 . . ..... 116 ....... 117 IWJUCTION This chapter of the study, the the assumptions u Asection of this 1rT'ed herein. 3.59112 9 were Counselors f. "CHAPTER 1“ BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY INTRODUCTION This chapter deals with the background of the study, the purpose of the study, the significance of the study, the questions to be answered, the assumptions underlying the study, and the definition of key terms. A section of this chapter has been devoted to each of the topics identi- fied herein. BACKGROUND 951g STUDY Counselors for many years have attempted to determine what personal and environmental factors contribute to vocational choice and are con- ducive to vocational achievement. Traditionally, in the field of guidance, it has been popular to interpret a person's scores on vocational interest inventories and his choice of vocation as a function of his "vocational interests," as if these interests were different from or independent of personality. A long adherence to this concept produced an independent literature known as "interest measurement." The work of Berdie, Strong, Darley and Hagenah, and Super and Crites epitomizes the view that interest inventories measure interests, vocational choices and vocational preferences. Hoiiand indicated t environmental facto exalicit the need f; inHolland's resear influenced by perso values and goals, a tional forces.2 Bc Stilt-concept. "3 s- tental ." HollandS If v( expr: lnte sona acti The validit the assumption ti people agree up01 fic evidenCe 91v 2 Holland indicated that "the growing knowledge about the personal and environmental factors associated with a person's vocational choice made "1 explicit the need for a broader conception. This need became clearer in Holland's research study in l963 that indicated vocational choices are influenced by personality traits, responses to certain projective devices, values and goals, attitudes of parents and many other personal and situa— tional forces.2 Bordin states "interest inventory scores are measures of 4 self-concept."3 Super and Crites state "vocational choice is develop- mental." Holland5 also says: If vocational preference is construed as an expression of personality, then "vocational interests represent the expression of per- sonality in work, hobbies, recreational activities, and the classroom. The validity of vocational interest inventories is predicated on the assumption that there are vocational stereotypes. Not only do people agree upon the stereotypes for a given vocation, but also scienti- fic evidence gives support to some aspects of the stereotypes. 1John L. Holland, The Psychology of Vocational Choice (Waltham, Massachusetts Blaisdell PuBI 5 ng Company, 19665, p. 2. 2John L. Holland, ”Some Explorations of a Theory of Vocational Choice 1. One and Two Year Longitudinal Studies." Psychological Monographs, l962, 76, 26 (Whole No. 545). 3E. S. Bordin, "A Theory of Interests As Dynamic Phenomena." Educational agg_Psychological Measurement, l943, 3, p. 49. 4Super, D. E. J. O. Crites, R. C. Hummel, H. P. Moser, et al. Vocational Develo ent. (New York: Teachers College, Columbia Univer- sity, Bureau of Publications, l957). 5John L. Holland, Op. Cit., p. 3. ._~_v;~.- ‘nn .14 an): .1 Studies related t1 7 3'Jowd,6 Grunes . If a person personality and t attracts and rete is supported by F Curricula in a C! experience to th. Instructors in a 0km C 7 V. 1:. a “3 JOhn PerSOnaHtL all: ( DnQ R0e 10D Seltlo. ' SUD' awe“ . nPu¥ 11 l 3 Studies related to this position have been contributed by Beardslee and O'Dowd,6 Grunes,7 Holland? Roe,9 and Super.10 If a person enters a given vocation because of his particular personality and history, it would seem to follow that each vocation attracts and retains people with similar personalities. This assumption 1] Would it also follow that definitive vocational is supported by Roe. curricula in a community college would retain and provide a success experience to those students who are a prototype expectation of the instructors in a given curriculum? 6 1 D. C. Beardslee and D. D. O Dowd. Colle e Student Images of A Selected Grou of Professions and Occupations. Wesleyan Un1verslty, (Midaletown, onnecticut,l960) 7H. F. Grunes, "Looking at Occupations," Journal 9f_Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1957, 54, 86-92. 8John L. Holland, "A Classification for Occupations in Terms of Personality and Intelligence." American Psychologist, 1959, 14, 476. 9Anne Roe. The Psychology 2f_0ccupations. (New York: Wiley, 1956). 100. E. Super and P. B. Bachrach, Scientific Careers and Vocational Development Theory. (New York: Teachers College, Colfimbia University, Bureau of Publications, 1957). nAnne Roe, "Early Determinants of Vocational Choice.” Journal of. Counseling_Psychology, 1957, 4, 212-217. Robert Lin ”the behavioral particular posit expectations , lla 4 Robert Linton first publicized the term "role" and defined it as "the behavioral enacting of the patterned expectations attributed to a particular position in a social system.”2 In a study of teacher expectations, Watson13 states: Role theory would imply that successful goal attainment in the classroom would be related to at least three variables: 1) the means for achieving these goals which are employed by the teachers, 2) the student's perception of the goals to be attained; and 3) the student's acceptance or rejection of the goals to be attained. Past research has focused on the relation between the means for achieving and goal attainment. Seemingly, these studies have assumed that teacher identification and implementation of the means for achieving particular goals are the onl necessary and sufficient facets of goal at ainment, and that this attainment should be measurable after relatively short instructional periods. How- ever, the success of achieving such goals is logically and psychologically dependent on adequate communication of the goals to the student and his acceptance of them. It would seem, then, that the questions generally researched in curriculum studies might be premature ones in that teacher expectations and student behaviors as perceived by both teachers and students should be determined first. 12 13Elizabeth Natson, "Dimensions of Teacher Expectations and Student Behavior in High School of Social Studies Classes." Ihg_Journal gj_Educa- tional Research, Vol. 66, No. 2 October 1972. Robert Linton, _‘[_h_e_ Study 9_i_’_ Marl, (New York: Appleton-Century, 1936). The sphere of conscious one. Acc Imitation" he state that interaction ha behavior. The insi Prophesy. A student who we expectation c destined to fail, t° 5m! and then he states: The seli a false bEhaviOT tion C01 fulfiiia For the events beglnni Herton also I‘efg Often, sltuat 5 The sphere of influence that the teacher exerts is not always a conscious one. According to Merton,14 in his concept "Prototypes for Imitation” he states that the person exerting influence is not aware that interaction has resulted in modification of the others' subsequent behavior. The instructor's influence can evoke a self-fulfilling prophesy. A student who is not capable of modeling after the revealed proto- type expectation of an instructor could become convinced that he is destined to fail. The anxious student devotes more time to worry than to study and then turns in a failing exam. Merton, examines this when he states: The self-fulfilling prophecy is, in the beginning, a false definition of the situation evoking a new behavior which makes the originally false concep- tion come true. The specious validity of the self- fulfilling prophecy perpetuates a reign of error. For the prophet will cite the actual course of events of pgoof that he was right from the very beginning. ‘ Merton also refers to people "talking-past-each-other." He states:16 Often, the basic agreement in the analysis of a situation is plentifully obscured by the basic disagreement in the evaluation of that situation. As a result, it is erroneously assumed that the opponents differ in their cognitive procedures and findings, whereas they differ only in their sets of va ues. 14Robert Merton, Social Theor and-Social Structure, (rev. ed.; New York: The Free Press, 1964 , p. 4l9. lslbid, p. 423. ‘PIbid. p. 45. _l Ftuch of vocati= that young adults " h‘lll be. However, in higher educati01 change their mind This writer belies the counseling pr: its". also be cons the Deal world as Wild is the ins- “rent of a studen expectations or DEC“Rational Ch The Precec ch». ' $3: and r0 educati on al I SC rm C09" 1 ti v: mle exPeCtat ODE of 0c 1 a CQficept Dina D‘él‘layi 07‘s Studies a CD”car-71:3, :1 these effs 6 Much of vocational development and choice theory have emphasized that young adults "know" what they want to do--what their career goals will be. However, little consideration has been given to those students in higher education who "know" what they want to do and then either change their mind or fail before completion of their "chosen" program. This writer believes that while career decision-making is critical in the counseling process, the possibility of an "aborted" career choice must also be considered by the counselor. Counselors must be aware of the real world as well as the theoretical world and part of that real world is the institutional environment which either nurtures the develop- ment of a student or adapts him to its own needs and goals. Classroom expectations or "press" can contribute to the success or failure of an occupational choice. The preceding section dealing with interest measurement, vocational choice, and role theory has been discussed for their relevancy to the educational science known as cognitive style. The investigator believes that cognitive style can be an index to the measurement of curriculum role expectation. One of the significant approaches to designs for the establishment of a conceptual framework for education in which the classroom environ- mental press may be described and defined is that of the "educational sciences." Traditional approaches to investigations of cognitive behaviors have dealt mainly with concept formation. These types of studies have tended to be limited to such considerations as: What are concepts? How are they attained? How are they learned? In effect, these efforts have been directed toward investigations of various ranifications of 1 involved in these functions in the 1 littin,” for exat described as cogn in the interactio antecedent condit Dr. Joseph E. Hi1 Oakland Conmunit; iranevork in the various "science develop the educ Education as the and knowledge. for meaning is 1 ”Which Is to 1 mm] Stl‘uctur deriyed fields Infoma] Ol“ Sel Context, and a 15 a p"OCess o 11\ H. , “beefing l8 . do “PRICES: A 11" 7 ramifications of what might be termed "concept learning." Investigators, involved in these types of studies, however, have not examined cognitive functions in the context of cognition as a facet of personality. Witkin,17 for example, has advanced the notion that the phenomenon described as cognitive style is a type of personality construct expressed in the interaction between perceptual (cognitive) response systems and antecedent conditions in the life history of the subject (person). Dr. Joseph E. Hill18 and his associates at Wayne State University, Oakland Community College, and elsewhere have developed a conceptual framework in the form of the Educational Sciences and have defined the various "sciences" comprising this structure. In their efforts to develop the educational sciences, Hill and his associates consider education as the process of searching for meaning, i.e. understanding and knowledge. The formal and institutionalized process of searching for meaning is the configuration commonly called "school," the purpose of which is to help the individual in the search for meaning in the formal structures of the fundamental disciplines, in the applied or derived fields of knowledge, and in the areas of general information. Informal or self-education can and does occur in almost any setting or context, and a large part of the behavior of members of formal organizations is a process of searching for meaning. 17H. A. Witkin, "Individual Differences in Ease of Perception of Imbedded Figures" Journal gf_Personality. Vol. 19, 1950, p. 1-15. 18Joseph A. Hill, "An Outline of the Educational Sciences" (an unpublished manuscript, Wayne State University, July, 1968), p. 1. Accordin descriptions s certain aspect science in its Through banner in whi< Specifically 1 8 The seven educational sciences include the following: 1) symbols and their meaning 2) cultural determinants of the meaning of symbols 3) modalities of inference 4) biochemical and electrophysiological aspects of the memory function 5) cognitive style 6) administrative style, counseling style, and teaching style 7) systemic analysis-~decision-making According to Hill each body of information includes "factual descriptions, concepts, generalizations and principles which apply to certain aspects of education, and therefore can be considered as a science in its own right."19 Through the use of cognitive style "maps" one can inventory the manner in which a person derives meaning and acquires knowledge. Specifically one can determine a person's major and minor orientations in the use of theoretical and qualitative symbols as well as how the person is influenced by his family, his associates, as well as his own individuality in his efforts to derive meaning and acquire knowledge. Another component included in a person's cognitive style are the modalities of inference or reasoning patterns most generally employed by him in the process of deriving meaning or acquiring knowledge from his environment and personal experiences."20 19161M. 201 id. ~83):£r_‘-3._d The use of th therefore be a wee success of student need for such a s“ P‘JAPTSE OF THE E The Purpose cognitive Style ( ”Mel and the 1) emp‘ Oyi ng Characteri st. St“Ants 9 The use of the educational science known as "cognitive style”21 can therefore be a means for examining methods of determining potential success of students within certain occupational curricula. There is a need for such a study. PURPOSE 9: '_T_li§_ STUDY The purpose of the study is to determine if there are any significant cognitive style differences between the selected ideal students (30 credits or more) and the selected non-ideal students in three curricula: 1) Law Enforcement 2) Cosmetology 3) Business Administration In addition, it is the purpose of this study to further determine the degree of congruence between the composite theoretical ideal student as judged by instructors within the Collective Cognitive Style rating scale and the actual tested composite profile as measured by the cognitive style test battery for the selected ideal and non-ideal student within the respective curricula. SIGNIFICANCE OF Ifl§_§IyQY The significance of the study resides fundamentally in its potential for employing the cognitive style "map" as an index to a student's success in a particular curriculum. This index, since it includes personality characteristics (Qualitative symbols--see definition of key terms) of students could be a valuable tool employed by counselors for use in 2‘1 id. sew-excl“ corftlatWe Guralz' The composite occupational c of graduates c would have val for the purpose cont .ext in whic 10 self-exploration and occupational exploration. Pritchard suggests that self- exploration and occupational exploration should become more fully correlative processes.22 Gural23 also states: There appears to exist a tendency in vocational counseling to dichtomize self-exploration and occupational exploration as independent from each other, i. e., first to construct a picture of the individual and then to turn to a consi- deration of vocational information in the hope of discovering a match. This kind of matching approach must be overcome. Bridges between the individual and vocational life, if they are to be psychologically meaningful, must be developed on dynamic as well as factual grounds. The composite prototypes of the aggregate instructors within given occupational curriculum observed and matched to the cognitive styles of graduates could provide such a "bridge." This kind of information would have value in group instruction in the social psychology of careers, for the purpose of encouraging greater realism regarding the social context in which individual decisions are made. 22David H. Pritchard, "The Occupational Exploration Process: Some Operational Implications," in Ihg_Ps cholo of Vocational Development, ed. by Robert M. Roth, David B. HersEeson, anHTThomas Hi11iard (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc. 1970), p. 23. 23James R. Gural , "A Cognitive Style Approach to the Reconceptualiza- tion of a Curriculum for Vocational Guidance and Counseling“ (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Wayne State University, 1972. M .- 1 v HQZJWIWL a Super and Bachra The appi de V1 as ' per whi the sta An instruc instructor atti students could the insti‘uctio eIlilectaticms c ObjECLTVQS_ 1 is the lntTOdI teaChers . “ te 11 Super and Bachrach24 state: The classical trait emphasis becomes less appropriate in the study of vocational development in early and mature adulthood, as the variables normally stressed by the personality approach become prepotent, while social variables continue to exert themselves as strongly as ever at these stages. An instrument that can provide some insight into the influence of instructor attitudes and expectations on the vocational development of students could provide content for in-service training programs within the instructional areas. Instructor self-awareness of their role expectations could have a direct implication in determining classroom objectives. The most difficult task faced by the educational technologist is the introduction of behavioral objectives to the classroom. To many teachers, "technology" smacks of mechanization, dehumanization, and automatism. Their claims to knowledge about instruction stem from what they perceive as a "humanistic" position as opposed to a "technological" stance. But why should the two be dicodomized? If there are instructor expectations other than those outlined in a textbook or a syllabus, why are they not displayed as objectives of the course? A cult of personality pervades the schools. Students seek information about the instructor's personality when scheduling classes as well as the course content. 24D. E. Super and P. B. Bachrach, Scientific Careers agg_Vocational Development Theory (New York: Bureau of‘Publicatlons, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1957). 12 According to Cohen:25 The value that might be ascribed to contact with a faculty member may well be the most important thing the college has to offer. That point is not a contention. What is unfortunate is that the "looking inward" on the part of each instructor stands in the way of genuine assessment of this effect on the students. Who can attempt to measure his own impact, let alone the impact of his college? Many instructors see themselves as the raison d' etre for institutional existence. The fact that instructors fail to perceive the usefulness of objectives even in the colleges where they have been writing them for years may relate to their feelings of self-centeredness. A full commitment to the use of objectives demands that the faculty attend to student learning as its prime consideration. Inservice training sessions for instructors can provide awareness of personal biases or "self-centeredness" and its influence on the potential learning success of students. Cohen continues:26 Instructors must be made aware of the influence of their unstated objectives on the learning achievements of their students. Studies of teacher behavior have undeniable value in the design of teacher-training, inservice training, curriculum development and program evaluation. 25Arthur M. Cohen, "Technology: Thee or Me? Behavioral Objectives and the College Teacher." Educational Technology, November 1970. 26Ibad. *mm El h astudy by C05 Resea make facto need to IE ghoul for l for i pleX theo thin not anal so C are manl are pOS' Nfis resea :otype exempl i 1‘ manipulation of Hom‘training characteristics Declassroom s f _ orevaluation 13 27 In a study by Cohen, she states: Researchers of teaching effectiveness need to make attempts to control the effects of key factors which also affect learning; also they need to cut down on teacher variability due to idiosyncratic differences in style. I should turn at this point and make a plea for brilliant new theory capable of accouting for all the psychological and social com- plexities of the classroom-~the long awaited theory of teaching. There are people who think such theories can be created, but I am not one of them. Teaching desperately needs analysis into more abstract components and so do teaching tasks. We need theories which are sufficiently simple so that ideas for manipulation of features of the classroom are actually derivable from the basic pro- positions. This researcher feels that the identification of a curriculum pro- totype exemplifying the teacher expectations could provide positive manipulation of the classroom environment. Educators could use "expecta- tion" training to manipulate the prototype expectations and actual student characteristics. Instructors could redesign the task or objectives of the classroom so that students could display a broader range of talent for evaluation and demonstrate appropriate prototype characteristics. In summary. the significance of this study lies in its attempt to explore the factors within the educational environment that have a bearing upon the development of vocational attitudes and successful completion of vocational programs. Factors such as these have implications for counseling, instruction, and administration. 27Elizabeth G. Cohen, "Sociology and the Classroom: Setting the Con- ditions for Teacher-Student Interaction." Review of Educational Research. Fall. 1972. 14 QUESTIONS 1p pg; ANSWERED The purpose of this study will be realized by seeking answers to the following general questions. What cognitive style elements are common to the groups of theoretical ideal, selected ideal and selected non-ideal Business Administration students? What elements are unique to each of these respective groups? What cognitive style elements are common to the groups of theoretical ideal, selected ideal and selected non-ideal Law Enforcement students? What elements are unique to each of these respective groups? What cognitive style elements are common to the groups of theoretical ideal, selected ideal and selected non-ideal Cosmetology students? What elements are unique for these students? Will the differences judged by the instructors between ideal and non-ideal students be reflected in the differences in the collective cognitive styles of those students? Considered in the context of the collective cognitive styles of groups of students selected on the bases of instructor ratings, and in terms of student performance, can grade point averages be used as forms of reliability and validity verifiers of these student selection procedures within selected vocational curricula areas? ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING THE STUDY 1. The reliability and validity factors of the Oakland Community College Cognitive Style test battery are sufficient to the purpose of the present exploratory study effort. Expressed opinions are held opinions. The following assumptions are essential to the conceptual framework for education called the Educational Sciences: a. Education is the process of searching for meaning. b. Thought is different from language. c. Man is a social creature with an unique capacity for deriving meaning from his environment and personal experiences through the creation and use of symbols. d. Not content with biological satisfaction alone, man continually seek meaning. Education of the study 0 (c) modalities memry functic administratior Coonitive E, and H, whe' tion, _E_ indic Smool s . and 1:lled Wltll a ; Clandestine r ierize a h fl, “5’ he take: he becoMes - Vith his 0w. faml)! or b Ranch" or km from his En 15 DEFINITIONS pl; KE_Y_ TERMS Educational Sciences--A conceptual framework for education composed of the study of (a) symbols and their meanings (b) cultural determinants (c) modalities of inference (d) electrophysiology and biochemistry of the memory function (e) cognitive style (f) teaching style, counseling style, administration style (9) systemic analysis and decision-making. Cognitive Style--A cartesian product G, composed of three sets, S, g, and H, where §_denotes the set of elements defining symbolic orienta- tion, §_indicates the set of cultural determinants of the meaning of symbols, and H, designates the set of modalities of inference. Collective Cognitive Style--A collection of cognitive styles identi- fied with a particular group, i. e., math students, administrators, etc. Prototype - Theoretical Ideal Student--These terms used inter- changeable refer to a collection of cognitive style symbols that charac- terize a hypothetical ideal student as judged by instructor-raters. Cognitive Stylgr-A student's cognitive style is determined by the way he takes notice of his total surroundings--how he seeks meaning--how he becomes informed. Is he a listener or a reader? Is he concerned only with his own point of view or is he influenced in decision-making by his family or by his group associates? Does he reason more like a mathe- matician or social scientist? Cognitive Stylg_Mapf-A picture of the way a student derives meaning from his environment and personal experiences. Each map, like each student is different. “new. “w:- 3'! mt. -‘ Theoretical infividual somet and numbers are tical symbols or Oualit ° ‘ a 1:11 to the awarenes commitments an: qh’alltatiVe S 16 Theoretical Symbols--Symbols that present to the awareness of the individual something different from that which the symbols are. Words and numbers are examples of theoretical symbols. There are four theore- tical symbols on a cognitive style map: 1. Theoretical Auditory Linguistic--Ability to acquire meaning from the spoken word. 2. Theoretical Auditory Quantitative--Ability to find meaning from spoken symbols and math relationships. 3. Theoretical Visual Linguistic--Ability to find meaning from the printed word with comprehension and an understanding of grammatical usage. 4. Theoretical Visual Quantitative--Ability to acquire meaning from printed symbols and math relationships. Qualitative Synbols--Those symbols which present and then represent to the awareness of the individual that which the symbol is. Feelings, commitments and values are some examples of the meanings conveyed by the qualitative symbols. The following are qualitative symbols: Code Empathetic--sensitivity to the feelings of others; ability to put yourself in another's place and see things from his point of view. Code Esthetic--ability to enjoy the beauty of an object or the pureness of an idea. Code Ethic-~commitment to a set of values, a group of principles, obligations and/or duties. This commitment need not imply morality. Both a priest and a criminal may be committed to a set of values although the "values" may be decidedly different. Code Histrionic--ability to exhibit a deliberate behavior, or play a role to produce some particular effect on other persons. This type of person knows how to fulfill role expectations. 17 Code Kinesics--ability to understand and to communicate by non-linguistic functions such as facial expressions and motions of the body (e. g., smiles and gestures). Code Kinesthetic--ability to perform motor skills, or effect muscular coordination according to a recommended or acceptable form (e. g., bowling according to form, or golfing). Code Proxemics--ability to judge the physical and social distance that the other person would permit, between oneself and that other person. Code Synoetics--a "realistic" personal know- ledge of oneself. Code Transactional--ability to maintain a positive communicative interaction which significantly influences the goals of the persons involved so that there are positive outcomes for both. Code Temporal--ability to respond or behave according to time expectations imposed on an activity by members in the role-set associated with that activity. Cultural Determinants--The following three statements indicate the degree of the influence on the meaning of symbols mediated by an individual. Family--indicates a major family influence, or an extremely close friend. Associates-~indicates influence by colleagues, friends or persons other than those qualifying as family. Individuality--the need of the individual to influence the meaning of symbols with his own interpretation. Modalities gj_1nference--The following five statements indicate the form of inference which the person employs. 18 Magnitude--a form of "categorical reasoning" that utilizes norms or categorical classifi- cations as the basis for accepting or rejecting a decision or opinion. Persons who need to define things in order to understand them reflect this form of inference. Difference--This pattern suggests a tendency to reason in terms of one-to-one contrasts or comparisons of selected characteristics or measurements. Artists often possess this modality as to creative writers and musicians. Relationship--This modality indicates the ability to synthesize a number of dimensions or incidents into a unified meaning, or through analysis of a situation to discover its com- ponent parts. Psychiatrists frequently employ the modality of relationships in the process of psychoanalyzing a client. Appraisal--Is the modality of inference employed by an individual who uses all three of the moda- lities noted above (M. D. and R.) giving equal weight to each in his reasoning process. Individuals who employ this modality tend to analyze, question, or in effect, appraise that which is under consideration in the process of drawing a probability conclusion. Deductive--Indicates deductive reasoning or the form of logical analysis requiring premises and a conclusion that is a necessary consequence of the process employed. The fact 1‘. Ships between i Curricula has 1 The following read" all orie COM-EDT. (level; ““1 th911‘ imp "CHAPTER 11" RELATED LITERATURE The fact that the present study focuses on exploring the relation- ships between instructor expectations and academic success in vocational curricula has resulted in consideration of a variety of literature. The following areas will be discussed in order to provide the informed reader an orientation to the focus of the study; (1) identity and self- concept development; (2) vocational choice; (3) classroom expectations and their impact and (4) cognitive style. IDENTITY ANQ_§§L§:CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT Among the problems of concern to many community college students are the decisions they must make concerning their career plans and eventual entry into the world of work. They are faced with the problem of selecting (1) a field of occupation, (2) an educational program that will prepare them for their field, and (3) an institution that will provide the opportunity for them to achieve the necessary education. 19 20 Super1 has suggested that occupational choices are implementations of the self-concept. He postulated that the self-concept is the product of interacting heredity, physical factors, opportunity for various roles, and the extent of approval from superiors and peers. Compromises between the individual and his self-concept are made through role-playing opportunities in fantasy. counseling, school, or work. Recent studies on the self-concept have yielded some evidence to indicate there is a positive relationship between the congruency of self and ideal-self and the achievement of successful adjustment. (Calvin and Holtzman,2 Hanlon,3 Holt,4 Levy,5 Strong and Feder6). These studies indicated that a high correlation between a person's appraised self and ideal-self is concomitant with successful school adjustment, successful adjustment resulting from psychotherapy, acceptance of others, and acceptance by others. 1D. E. Super, "Vocational Adjustment Implementing a Self-Concept." Occupations, 1951, 30, 88-92. 2A. 0. Calvin & W. H. Holtzman, "Adjustment and the Discrepancy Between Self-Concept and Inferred Self." g,_Consult. Psychol., 1953, 179 39-44. 3T. E. Hanlon, "Congruence of Self and Ideal-Self in Relation to Personality Adjustment.“ g, Consult. Psychol., 1954, 18, 215-218. 4R. R. Holt, "Accuracy of Self-Evaluation: Its Measurement and Some of Its Personalogical Correlates.“ g,_Consult. Psychol., 1951, 15, 95-101. 5L. H. Levy, "The Meaning and Generality of Perceived Actual-Ideal Discrepancies." J, Consult. Psychol., 1956, 20, 396-398. 6D. J. Strong & D. D. Feder, "Measurements of the Self-Concept: A Critique of the Literature." g, Consult. Psychol., 1961, 8, 170-177. 21 A study by Anderson and Olsen7 attempted to determine the relation- ship between congruence of self and ideal-self and occupational choices made by potential four-year college students and potential junior-college tenminal students. Results of this study indicated that a greater number of subjects showed a tendency to choose occupational goals above their aptitude level and in inappropriate occupational areas than the number of subjects who chose occupations below their aptitude level. The tendency on the part of subjects to choose occupations above their aptitude levels may be the result of the influence of their culture in which a great emphasis has been placed on the prestige and value of occupations that require college training. The tendency on the part of a number of subjects to choose occupations above their aptitude level or inappropriate occupational areas may be a result of the subjects perceptions of self. The inability of these subjects to realistically appraise their aptitudes and success- fully relate them to the critical job tasks of occupations may contribute to the tendency to make inappropriate choices. 7Thomas B. Anderson and LeRoy C. Olsen, "Congruence of Self and h Ideal-Self and Occupational Choices." Readings ig_Theory and Researc : The Psychology;ggg_Vocational Development, e . y Ro ert MT—Rbtfi, David B. Hershenson, and Thomas Hilliard (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1970). 22 Super and Bachrach8 also states that interests, values and capaci- ties are integrated and attain vocational meaning through the develOpment and reality-testing of the self-concept; that the desire to play a socially approved role which has an adequate occupational equivalent is an essential aspect of job satisfaction. Blau, Gustand9 and others provide the following relevant concepts: Choice reflects a compromise between the individual's preferences and expectations (an attempt to maximize expected value); value orientations determine the relative significance of different kinds of rewards and indeed determine what employment conditions constitute rewards; the relative significance of various choice determinants changes with successive states in the individual's life history, but also in degree of rationality and degree of discrimination in weighing alternatives pose limiting conditions on choice; and that there are inter-occupation as well as inter-individual variations in the relative significance of determinants of occupational selection. 8Donald E. Super. a Paul B. Bachrach, “Scientific Careers and Vocational Development Theory.” (New York: Bureau of Publications. Teachers College, Columbia University, 1957). 9Peter M. Blau, John W. Gustand, Richard Jessor, Herbert S. Parnes E Richard C. Wilcock, "Occupational Choice: A Conceptual Framework." Industrial Lab. Relat. Rev., 1956, 9 (4) 531-543. 23 In discussing adolescent vocational development, Erik Erickson10 propounded the thesis that societies provide particular processes and mechanisms which, when adopted by their constituent members, allow these individuals to cope successfully with the problems and tasks presented by each successive stage of maturational development. According to Erickson's developmental schema, the principal task of the adolescent period is the formulation of an identity. While Erickson offered no single definitive statement as to the meaning of "an identity," a review of his writings on this subject indicates that he took it to include the attainment of (a) stability, (b) integration, and (c) recognizability (both to oneself and to others) of one's selfhood. He described the (socially provided process leading to the formation of an identity as: Adolescents are primarily concerned with what they appear to be in the eyes of others as compared with what they feel they are, and with the question of how to connect the roles and skills cultivated earlier with the occupa- tional prototypes of the day... The sense of ego identity, then, is the accrued confidence that the inner sameness and continuity prepared in the past are matched by the sameness and continuity of one's meaning for others. as evidenced in the tangible promise of a "career." Thus Erickson appears to be stating that out of the experiences leading to the development of a "sense of identity“ (i.e. a perception of congruency between one's self-image and the image of oneself one sees others as holding) and to the attainment of an ego syntonic occupational role, the individual moves toward that stability, integration, and recognizability of selfhood which he has called identity. Further, 10E. H. Erickson, "The Problem of Ego Identity." Journal gf_American Psychoanalytic Association, 1956, 4, 56-121. the development occupational r01 society which a1 adolescence . One assurip formulation is t patterns and pro his own develOprr within the socie if taken up and Bushnell has pro ”9'5 0W" cultur ”daily provide about the bGhavi made by Bushnen edb ' ' Bus 3 N. Sinfotg 24 the development of the sense of identity and the location of a fitting occupational role are the specific. interrelated processes provided by society which are calculated to promote identity formation during adolescence. One assumption which is logically implicit throughout Erickson's formulation is that the individual must have adopted his society's patterns and processes before he can avail himself of them in promoting his own development. These processes. while potentially available within the societal structure, can only be of benefit to the individual if taken up and used by him, and then only within their own context. Bushnell has proposed the term “enculturation” for the process of acquiring one's own culture (out of which, in turn, one may come to possess the socially provided mechanisms Erickson cites). The fbllowing predictions about the behaviors attendant on the process of identity formation were made by Bushnell:]] l. The sense of identity (as defined by Erickson) achieved by adolescents will be positively related to the extent to which they perceive themselves as fitting into an anticipated occupational role. 2. The sense of identity achieved by adolescents will be positively related to their degree of enculturation. 3. The degree to which adolescents perceive them- selves as fitting into an anticipated occupational role will be positively related to their degree of enculturation. J. H. Bushnell, "Student Culture at Vassar," in The American College, ed. by N. Sanford (New York: Wiley. 1962), pp. 489-5l37" Sarbir He defines c stimulus obj responses fr proportion c sented by th will agree a Adding to th Theodor and "inston . Cmile and St. winter, 1972 25 Sarbin12 refers to this enculturation process as "conformance." He defines conformance as the modal perceptual response to a social stimulus object. When a social object elicits qualitative perceptual responses from members of a specified subculture, a relatively large proportion of the reference population will agree on the quality repre- sented by the object; a small number will differ from the majority but will agree among themselves; and a few will agree with virtually no one. 13 Adding to this, Feldman states; Students also learn a number of organization skills attitudes and motivations that are necessary for success in the typical middle-class and upper middle-class occupational world, including the general abilities and motivations needed to meet deadlines. start and finish tasks. juggle several things at once and keep them straight. and budget one's time and energy. 12Theodore R. Sarbin, Studies in Behavior Pathology. Holt Rinehart and Winston. New York, 1961. '__ 13Kenneth A. Feldman. "Some Theoretical Approaches to the Study of Change and Stability of College Students," Review of Educational Research, Winter. l972, Vol. 42, No. l. "' ' “ At the 55 that the colleg even learn to a zation in which tional motivati in which he par contends that t linking of persv the student pro; label him accorc College. 26 At the same time, Becker‘q'makes the further intriguing suggestion that the college student as a recruit into the middle-class world, must even learn to attach his own desires to the requirements of the organi- zation in which he becomes involved. He must learn, in short, "institu- tional motivation" wanting things simply and only because the institution in which he participates says these are the things to want. Becker contends that the college experience provides much practice in this linking of personal and institutional desires. It would appear that as the student progresses through college, those around him, define and label him according to the positions he hopes to occupy when he leaves college. 14H. 5. Becker, “What do they Really Learn at College?” Trans-Action, 1964 1, 14-17. 27 Further discussion of the influence of the environment on self- concept is provided by Sarbin‘5 in his definition of the interaction of self and role; Self consists of ideas the individual has of himself which he has learned in relation- ship with others, and role as organization actions of a person coordinated with a given position or status. Self and role interact since the self strives for consistency and selects those roles compatible with the self-concept. and these role experiences. in turn, either do or do not reinforce the concept of self. when the self-concept and the role are incompatible, conflict arises. The self-concept is not only, in part a product of social roles, but also seems to be a major determinant of occupa- tional role taking, that is. of occupational choice. People tend to view a vocation as favorable or unfavorable for them because their ideas of that occupation either do or do not fit into their concept of themselves. 15T. R. Sarbin, “Role Theory." 1n_Handbook.gf Social Esychology, ed. by Gardner Lindzey. Cambridge, Mass. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co. l954, Vol. I. pp. 223-258. 28 Before discussing vocational choice theory, we must consider that current vocational choice theory has as its general framework. the supposition that the choosing of an occupation should be viewed within context of the general personality development of the individual as he comes to view himself and the world around him (Honmm,16 Siegelman & Peck,17 Super).18 More particularly, it postulates that the choosing of a certain set of social roles, such as that involved in vocational choice, and the rejecting of others is dependent on the characteristics which one attributes to oneself, on either a conscious or unconscious level, and the characteristics which are attributed to performance in the various social roles. The choice is then made on the basis of the extent to which an individual "sees himself in the role" or the role as befitting himself. 15.1. L. Holland, "Explorations of a Theory of Vocational Choice and Achievement: ll. A Four Year Prediction Study.” Psychological Repgrts, 1963. 12, 547-594. 17M. Siegelman, M. a R. F. Peck. "Personality Patterns Related to Occupation Rates." Genetic Psychology Monographs, l960, 61. 29l-349. 13E. E. Super, "A Theory of Vocational Development." American Psychologist. 1953, 8. lBS-l90. VOCATIDF-lfit _____._._. Tied: a theoretic classroom i are four st mpll'c. 29 VOCATIONAL CHOICE Tiedeman's19 four stages of vocational decision-making provides a theoretical background for vocational choice and relevancy to the classroom impact researched in this study. Tiedeman states that there are four stages in vocational decision-making: Exploration. This stage is marked by random, exploratory considerations. It is characterized by generalized, vague concern with little or no apparent progress toward choice. Knowledge of self and occupational world is a felt need. but the individual has develOped no strategy or plan of action for satisfying this need. There is an absence or near absence of definite negative choices (exclusions from the range of possibilities). This is accompanied by vague anxieties and doubts about the future. Crystallization. This stage represents progress toward, but not attainment of choice. The indivi- dual recognizes alternative possible choices and at least some of the consequences of these alter- natives. Conflicts are recognized; advantages and disadvantages are weighed; the bases for a decision are being developed at least implicity. The process for narrowing down the range of possibilities through negative choices is operating. False steps and inappropriate earlier decisions are recognized and used as bases for future decision. Choice. This stage represents a definite commitment with some degree of certainty to a particular goal. It is accompanied by expressions of satisfaction and relief for having made the commitment. The individual may focus on aspects or characteristics of self which are evidence to him that he has made an appropriate decision. This stage further represents a swing from the pessimism characteristic of the exploratory stage to a kind of naive optimism about the future. The individual usually expresses a singleness of purpose and an unswerving attitude of goal direction as well as eagerness and impatience to reach the goal. Focus upon the consequences of the decision and further planning are not yet in evidence. 190. V. Tiedeman, "Decision and Vocational Develooment: A Paradigm and Its Implication." Personnel Guidance Journal. 1961, 40. l5-2l. 30 Clarification. This stage represents a process of closure in which the individual is involved in clarification and elaboration of the conse- quences of his commitment, as well as in planning the details and next steps to be taken to follow through on the commitment. (Some of these consequences of commitment may well have been considered prior to commitment in the crystalli- zation stage; yet, in this stage these considera- tions are more imminent and personally relevant, whereas earlier they were more distant and hypothetical). In addition, the individual is usually engaged in a process of elaboration and perfection of his self-image and his image of the future. Although planning the overt action itself may be delayed until the environmental conditions are appropriate for action. Super20 approaches the clarification of occupational roles in his definition of the five stages of vocational development: growth, exploration, establishment, (implementation) maintenance, and decline. Within the implementation stage the following activities are enumerated : Ea; confirmation and verification of choice b professional identification (c) knowledge of self and role requirements In this process. self concepts are continually modified as new experiences are incorporated and assimilated into the individual's cognitive structure. The community college experience provides opportunity for confirma- tion and verification of choice by contributing vocationally relevant experiences within its occupational curricula. Since occupational training provides a taste of an occupation, it can allow the student to test his choice. gain professional identification and assimilate zoSuper. Op. 911;. 3l knowledge of himself as well as the role requirements of his occupation to be. 2] they found that the community In a study of Edwards and Tuckman. college experience leads to an "intensification of appropriate occupa- tional identification among students enrolled in occupationally oriented programs“ (thus playing a role in career development as described by Super). The study in its comparison to the students in the university setting, found that the first two years of the university produced no noticeable shift in terms of occupational identification. The perceptions which an adolescent has of the roles played by the members of the various occupations have an important influence on his 22 career choice. Dipboye and Anderson contend that these perceptions may be thought of as role expectations: When an individual is at some choice point in his career development and he must arrive at some sort of decision, he uses, among other things. ideas and feelings about people who work in the occupations which he is considering. These ideas and feelings include his perceptions or expectations of the occupational role. 2lKeith J. Edwards and Bruce W. Tuckman, "Effect of Differential College Experiences in Developing the Students' Self and Occupational Concepts." Journal gj_Educational Psychology, Dec. 1972, pp. 563-580. 22H. J. Dipboye and W. F. Anderson, "Occupational Stereotypes and Manifest Needs of High School Students," in Ihg.Psychology of Vocational Develo ent. ed. by Robert M. Roth, David B. Hershenson, and—Thomas Hile liard (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc. 1970). A study 0' expectations 1" data for the t! favorable or W either do 0" d‘ In Chapter vocational choi expectations, 0 fulfill. The p teacher "style" W EXPEC The charac can have import. and development Well as the goa' attempted to des 32 A study of Davis23 regarding self-concept and occupational role expectations in nursing and social work provided additional supportive data for the theory that people tend to view an occupational role as favorable or unfavorable for them because their ideas of that occupation either do or do not fit into their self-concept. In Chapter I. it was suggested that although a student had made a vocational choice. this choice could be "aborted" by negative classroom expectations, or expectations that the student did not or could not fulfill. The potential impact of these classroom expectations and teacher “style“ will be discussed further. CLASSROOM EXPECTATIONS AND may fit The characteristic way in which an instructor teaches his classes can have important consequences for his students' learning satisfaction. and development. His teaching style reflects his educational values as well as the goals he hopes his students will attain. Researchers have attempted to describe these teaching styles by such varied methods as 24 25 systematic observations, Medley and Mitzel, rating methods. Remmers, and measures of social interaction, Withal and Lewis.26 23Anne J. Davis. “Self-Concept, Occupational Role Expectations. and Occupational Choice in Nursing and Social Work." Nursing Research. Jan.. Feb., 1969. Vol. 18, No. l. 24D. M. Medley B H. E. Mitzel, "Measuring Classroom Behavior by Systematic Observation.“ in Handbook of Research gg_Teaching. ed. by N. L. Gage (Chicago: Rand McNally, I933). 25H. H. Remmers, “Rating Methods in Research on Teacher.” in Handbook of Research gg_Teaching, ed. by N. L. Gage (Chicago: Rand McNally. T533). 26J. Withal a W. W. Lewis, "Social Interaction in the Classroom," in Handbook of Research gg_Teaching, ed. by N. L. Gage (Chicago: Rand McNally, More recently, r through the use of classroom pro attempted to app The results indi by the students received poor te 1“ large organiz among graduate s Positively relat The results fror teaching Styles student achieve” Although v considerable Edi scientists are l unconscious, in‘ failure in dire: 01’ “self-fulfil have identi fi e d 27Leonard 28 R.L K tm’ '01- . .ah i 29Le ' 0\u 33 More recently, researchers have approached the classroom environment through the use of questionnaires that ask students for their perceptions of classroom procedures and behaviors. In a recent study, Baird27 attempted to appraise teaching styles through students' perceptions. The results indicated that perceived ambiguity on the part of instructors by the students consistently related to students' feelings that they had received poor teaching. Similar results have been found among employees in large organizations, Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoeck, and Rosenthal28 and among graduate students. Baird.29 In those studies ambiguity was positively related to psychological withdrawal and feelings of stress. The results from relating the indices to grades also suggest that teaching styles may be an important variable in elevating or depressing student achievement. possibly through their power to involve the student. Although research results indicate that teaching styles have considerable educational importance, psychologists and behavioral scientists are unaware of the specific mechanisms--conscious and unconscious, intentional and unintentional--that affect success or failure in directions expected. If there is a consistent phenomenon of “self-fulfilling prophecy. how does it operate in the schools? Studies have identified certain obvious factors. 27Leonard L. Baird, "Teaching Styles: An Exploratory Study of Dimensions and Effects." Journal 9: Educational Psychology, 28R. L. Kahn, D. M. Wolfe, R. P. Quinn. J. D. Snoeck, and R. A. Rosen- thal. "Organization Stress: Studies in Role Conflict and Ambiguity." New York: Wiley, 1964). 29Leonard L. Baird, "A Study of the Role Relations of Graduate Students." Journal gj_Educational Psychology, l969, 60. 15-2]. 34 Rosenthal30 observed differential cues presented to students by teachers. Instructors allowed more time for "bright" students to answer questions and displayed facial expressions indicating obvious displeasure at remarks made by "dull" students. Through both its curricula and its related activities, the community college environment provides role models for the student. Patterning his behavior after some of these new models. the student finds his attempts accordingly approved or disapproved by these educational key figures. He finds that playing these roles gratified or frustrates his vocational choice verification. His original behavior, a product of his home environment, is now modified and developed by forces from the broader social environment of the community college, and specifically; the classroom. Almost every book on education refers to the idea of the teacher as model. Yet there is no one theory of modeling. no one generally accepted definition of the term. We actually know little about the prototype teacher, the perceptions held by students of their teachers. or the long-term effects of teachers on students, all elements of model- ing. As Adelson,31 so perceptively points out, theories of education often include views of modeling that are "implicit. unacknowledged, and unexamined.” 30Robert Rosenthal, “Self-Fulfilling Prophecy," sychology Today (September), T968. 3lJoseph Adelson, "The Teacher as a Model,“ The American College, edited by N. Sanford. (New York: John Wiley, 1962): 35 According to Cohen and Brawer,32 we can conceive of model elements rather than model wholes. Further, we think of some model elements as positive and others as negative. Each component is able to affect the other, and thereby to mandate the general impression gained by observers. Accordingly. a model can have either a positive or negative effect-- students can assume the weaknesses and ignorances Of a teacher model just as they can gain strength and wisdom from him. When the positive side of a person dominates the model is presumed to have a "good" effect. When negative elements stand out, the model is perceived as a debilitating force. The teacher who is aware of the many features he may project as model may also become more aware of his own many facets. He can then become conscious of those dimensions that he would want to incorporate and to project to others and of those that he would reject. Although self-concept development, vocational choice and modeling all have been investigated in the educational context. curriculum role expectations have been minimally researched. However, a study of Eisenman33 investigated the creativity change in student nurses during their period of training. Using the Personal Opinion Survey which is a 30 item true false. paper and pencil personality measure of creativity developed by Eisenman, the results indicated there appeared to be a ten- dency for creativity to decline with increasing nursing education. It seems that subjects in the study were socialized into a less original orientation. Such a lessoning of original behavior is consistent with 32Arthur M. Cohen B Florence B. Brawer, Confrontin Identity, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1972. 33Russell Eisenman, "Creativity Change in Student Nurses: A Cross Sectional and Longitudinal Study," Developmental Psychology, Nov. 1970, pp. 320-325 36 some of the roles which the professional nurse has to assume. As manager of a hospital ward and as a subordinate to the physicians, the nurse is usually expected to follow rules and routine, and is not expected to be innovative. There appeared to be a conformity behavior elicited by the role expectations of the instructors in the nursing schools. In an effort to examine the assumption that humaneness and cognitive growth are antithetical, or "Its nice to be nice, but you've got to teach them something," Aspy and Roebuck34 investigated the relationship between teachers' classroom behavior and their students' levels of cog- nitive functioning. Cognitive functioning was measured as a process variable and the focus was on the differential contributions of the various teacher behaviors to the attainment of levels of cognition beyond memory and recognition. The results of the study indicated that once the cognitive processes move beyond memory and recognition, positive regard is more directly facilitative of cognitive functioning or "thinking" as a process within the instructional situation. The effect of classroom expectations and behavior on attrition has been the expressed concern of many researchers. Jane Matson35 has stated, "The student who withdraws from junior college may lack a sense of belonging or identification with the college environment." 34David N. Aspy and Flora N. Roebuck, "An Investigation of the Relationship Between Student Levels of Cognitive Functioning and the Teacher's Classroom Behavior." Ihg_Journa1 gf_Educational Research, April. 1972. 35Jane Matson, "Community College Students," Speech given to the Illinois Association of Community and Junior Colleges. Chicago, Illinois, March 22, 1968. 37 t36 of community college A follow-up study by Bossen and Burnet "persisters” and community college withdrawals indicated the following results. Ninety-six percent of the persisters reported that generally their teachers performance in the classroom was excellent or very good. Only fifty-two percent of the withdrawal group chose superlatives in describing their teachers. Undoubtedly this judgment by the withdrawal group is colored by their perceived inadequate response to the academic environment of the college. COGNITIVE SI!L§_ Educational research for some time has attempted to focus on how individuals learn and how instruction can be personalized. Out of these efforts there has resulted a body of knowledge dealing with individual differences. Some of this research has dealt with how individuals perceive and interpret their environment. and the word "cognition“ has been applied to this process. Cognition when defined as the act or process ofknowing, is closely related to perception. Carried a step farther, if an individual perceives and derives meaning from his environment by frequently employing the same process. this process can be labeled his cognitive style. 36Doris Bossen and Collins W. Burnett, "What Happens to the With- drawal?" Junior College Journal. June 1970. Allpor stated that I Allport, eacl culture, and Broven different re; 9" classes 0 l'llfluence on ver5u5 perce novel, diffi. cognitive st lS anOlved Weetha] -m 38 Allport37 appears to have applied the above definition when he stated that each individual develops a cognitive style. According to Allport, each individual is unique in the way he blends veridicality. culture, and his own personal existence. According to Allport: . .it would make no sense at all if we had to start every day building on a new and veridical cognition of the world we live in. It is far more efficient to make new experiences and dissolve them into our Old experience. We do not cognize them afresh but recognize them in terms of our own past history, interests. and habitual sets. Broverman38 held that cognitive styles are manifestations of different response probabilities or response strengths in certain types or classes of behavior. He held that cognitive style is a directive influence on behavior. Broverman labeled one cognitive style "conceptual versus perceptual-motor dominance" and applied it to tasks which are novel, difficult, or demanding of concentration. He labeled another cognitive style "strong versus weak automazation." This cognitive style is involved in simple, highly practiced tasks which may be conceptual or perceptual-motor in nature. 37Gordon Allport. Pattern and Growth in Personality (New York: Holt, Rinehart. and Winston,1937), p. 262. 380. M. Broverman. "Cognitive Styles and Intra-Individual Variations in Abilities, and Dimensions of Cognitive Style," Journal of Personality, 28,1960. pp 240- 256. mus-mu. ll Ausubel cognitive orga endures indivi Vari0us l“ the psycho Slge] 40 3150 tat‘3Slorizain‘c have ldenti f1 39 Ausubel and Fitzgerald39 view cognitive style in relation to cognitive organization. To them cognitive style is self-consistent and endures individual differences in cognitive organizations. Cognitive style refers both to individual differences in general principles of cognitive organization (e. . simplifica- tion and consistency trends? and to self- consistent idiosyncratic tendencies that are not reflective of human cognitive functioning in general (1. e., intolerance for ambiguity, memory for particular kinds of experience). It reflects differences in personality organization as well as genetically and experientially determined differences in cognitive capacity and functioning. Various theoretical bases of cognitive style have been discussed in the psychological literature through the years. Kagan, Moss and Sigel40 also have explored cognitive style as a preferential mode of categorization where alternatives are possible. These investigators have identified three styles of categorization where subjects are faced with sorting an array of visual representations. The first style of categorization is descriptive and the criteria utilized fOr grouping are manifest. objective, physical attributes. The second style is called relational-contextual. Here the responses indicated interdependence in a particular situation and are expressed in functional terms. The third style is called categorical-inferential which means that classification depends on inferred characteristics. 39David P. Ausubel and Donald Fitzgerald, "Meaningful Learning and Retention: Intra-Personal Cognitive Variables." Review.gf Educational Research. 31, 1961, pp. 500-510. 4OIwing Sigel, _e_t_. al. _S_ty]_e_s_9_f_ Categorization angIgteflgg- tual ggg_Personality,COrFElates jg,Young Children.*(Merr111-Pa1mer Insti- tute, Detroit. not dated). 40 In the 1940's, Allport4] suggested the concept of "style," which he defined as the consistency and pattern of expressive behaviors that individuals manifest in performing various types of activities. In Allport's definition of style, the term is somewhat similar to its common use in such expressions as: an individual's way (style) of living, a style of speaking, a writing style, or style of dress. This orientation allows the utiliza- tion of the term “style" to denote an entire pattern of responses, i. e., it can refer to not only a particular way of life, but to a particular class of events (e. 9. style of speaking). In this context, the term “style“ is both general and relatively specific, 1. e., all it is not limited to a particular denotation (e. 9., all aspects of response patterns). In discussing cognitive style investigations in psychology, Hi1142 reaches the following conclusion: In essence, then, the contemporary studies of cognitive style involve the investigation of cognitive processes in the context of personality and defined social variables. These approaches indicate the recognition on the part of certain psychologists (e. g., Broverman, Gardner, Kagan, Moss, Sigel, Witkin) that cognitive behaviors form a fundamental part of a socio-personal matrix, and that the employment of certain classes of behavior called "cognitive“ have consistent qualities which justify their being defined as stylistic. The educational sciences and the concept of cognitive style as identified in Chapter I has provided a vehicle for several studies on classroom behavior. 4IJoseph E. Hill, "Cognitive Style as an Educational Science" (unpublished manuscript, Detroit, Michigan, 1968), p. 1. 42mm. 41 A study conducted by Joseph DeLoach43 analyzed cognitive and teaching style disparity as an antecedent of cognitive dissonance in instructional evaluation. A number of other studies completed in the educational sciences have investigated the relationship of cognitive style to other areas of education. Lawrence Wasser44 and Arlan Schroeder45 used the educational sciences construct of cognitive style to investigate teacher evaluation of student achievement. Both found that students with cognitive styles similar to the teacher's cognitive style received a significantly greater number of high-letter grades (A's and B's) than those whose cognitive styles were “different" from their teacher's style. Schroeder also found that students possessing cognitive styles similar to that of the teachers, to a significant degree evaluate the teacher as being more effective than do students with cognitive styles disjunct with the style of the teacher. Wasser worked with thirty sixth grade pupils and their teachers. Schroeder worked with one hundred eighteen ninth grade students and one teacher. 43Joseph DeLoach, "An Analysis of Cognitive Style: Disparity as an Antecedent of Cognitive Dissonance in Instructional Evaluation: An Exploratory Study in the Educational Sciences". (Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Wayne State University, 1969). 44Laurence Wasser, “An Investigation into Cognitive Style as a Facet of Teachers Systems of Student Appraisal," (Unpublished doctoral disser- tation, The University of Michigan, 1969). 45Arlan Schroeder, "A Study of the Relationship Between Student and Teacher Cognitive Style and Student Derived Teacher Evaluations", (Un- published doctoral dissertation, Wayne State University. 1969). larvin Fraga' and two inst' a collective industrial t Anothe related to t student perf was able to Successful h hath Studen' and those e' '35 able to Students Nh ”PPGI‘ Or 10 students Wl mathematics “Who of into an ex; T . Ie llShEd doc Marv 42 Marvin Fragale46 found similar results in studying thirty-two students and two instructors in a community college. Fragale was able to identify a collective cognitive style for industrial technology teachers and for industrial technology students. Another group of studies completed in the educational sciences related to the educational science of cognitive style to curriculum and student performance in certain disciplines. For example, Keith Shuert47 was able to identify the elements of cognitive style held in common by successful math students, those elements held in common by unsuccessful math students, those elements unique to the successful math students, and those elements unique to the unsuccessful math students. James Blanzy48 was able to identify distinct collective cognitive styles for: (1) students whose achievement of performance goals placed them in the upper or lower 27% of the class, (2) students who withdrew, and (3) students with the most positive or least positive attitude toward mathematics. The results of a study by James Warner implied that among a group of sixty-seven college freshman in a life science course divided into an experimental group using a self-instructional multi-media approach and a control group taught by the lecture-discussion method, 46Marvin J. Fragale, "A Pilot Study of Cognitive Styles of Selected Faculty Members and Students in a Community College Settin ,“ (unpub- lished doctoral dissertation, Wayne State University, 1970?. 47Keith L. Shuert, “A Study to Determine Whether a Selected Type of Cognitive Style Predisposes One to Do Well in Mathematics," (unpub- lished doctoral dissertation, Wayne State University, 1970). 48James J. Blanzy, "Cognitive Style as an Input to a Mathematics Curriculum System: An Exploratory Study in the Educational Sciences,“ (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Wayne State University, 1970). 43 certain elements of cognitive style appear to be amenable to instruction by a self-instructional, multi-media approach, while others seem more 49 was also able responsive to the lecture discussion method. Warner to identify predominant elements of cognitive style demonstrated by successful and unsuccessful students in both groups. Vaughn Hoogasian50 identified collective cognitive styles for four hundred seventy-two students who earned various letter grades in a two-course sequence in English, but the collective style did not prove to be a definitive predictor of final letter grades in the courses when applied to the individual student who approximated one of the collective cognitive styles for any of the letter grades. A recent study by Glenn McAdamSl found that in a class of fifteen community college students, those students with a cognitive style "match“ with the teacher's expressed a positive attitude about their instructional experience activities in the class. Those students with a negligible match with the teacher expressed a lack of high interest in the class activities. 49James L. Warner, "An Analysis of the Cognitive Style of Community College Freshman Enrolled in a Life Science Course," (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Wayne State University, 1970). 50Vaughn Hoogasian, "An Examination of Cognitive Style Profiles as Indicators Of Performance with a Selected Discipline," (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Wayne State University, 1970). 51Glenn F. McAdam, "Personalizing Instruction through the Educational Sciences of Cognitive Style and Teaching Style," (unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1971). 44 The studies reviewed above are all related to the present study by virtue of their application of the educational science construct; cognitive style, to the analysis of various problems in education. They have contributed to the refinement of instrumentation for gathering data relative to the various educational sciences and at the same time have suggested the broad range of educational problems that lend them- selves to analysis within the framework of the educational sciences. 5MB}. In this chapter, a presentation has been made of the relevant literature concerning (1) identity and self-concept development; (2) vocational choice; (3) classroom expectations and impact and (4) cognitive style. The review of the literature in conjunction with the presentation of the design of the study in the fOllowing chapter provides the fOundational context necessary for the analysis of the data and findings presented in Chapter IV. In i and a re‘ concerne study, a the data It as an h) QEDEral Quent s« instruc Of Sele "CHAPTER III" DESIGN OF THE STUDY In the two preceding chapters, the background of the present study and a review of the related literature were presented. This chapter is concerned with; (l) the source of data, (2) the sample employed in the study, and (3) the instrumentalities and procedures used in collecting the data. It should be noted again that the present study is not designed as an hypothesis testing effort, but is designed to provide answers to general questions which may generate hypotheses to be tested in subse- quent studies. These questions, deal with the relationship between instructor Theoretical Ideal expectations and the actual cognitive style of Selected "ideal“ and “non-ideal" students within each curriculum. 45 “were _' FLU! 11...... u I SDIRCE OF DATA ——. -_-—- The defii and second yea Cosmetology cu College is a c Metropolitan E secondary inst bacculaureate 0aeration and The Oak' electorate of SerVEd inCludl public Schoo] addition. the The enronme“ Oilehing enro] l5.000 at the To MEet grams General Educa to students are 46 SOURCE 9!: DATA Population The defined population for the study was composed of instructors and second year students within the Business, Law Enforcement and Cosmetology curricula at Oakland Community College. Oakland Community College is a comprehensive, multi-campus community college located in the Metropolitan Detroit area of Michigan. The college is a public, post- secondary institution whose degree and program offerings are below the bacculaureate level. The college presently has four campuses in Operation and is contemplating a fifth to be developed at a later date. The Oakland Community College District was established by the electorate of Oakland County, Michigan, on June 8, 1964. The district served includes approximately 900 square miles and contains twenty-eight public school districts with thirty-nine public high schools. In addition, there are twenty-two non-public high school in the district. The enrollment of the college has risen from a record community college opening enrollment of 3,860 students in September, 1965, to approximately 15,000 at the present time. To meet the heterogeneous needs of the community, Oakland Community College offers six major types of educational services: Transfer Pro- grams, Technical and Vocational Programs, Developmental Programs, General Education, Community Services, and Counseling and Guidance. All students enrolled for six or more credit hours are required to take the Cognitive Style Test Battery. The results, called "maps" are sent to the Counseling Departments on each campus where the particular students are enrolled and assigned to counselors. 47 §____AMPLES EMPLOYED IN 1H_§_ STUDY Since it was impossible to employ all the students included in the defined population of the study, due to time schedules, limited personnel, and financial limitations, a sampling procedure was employed. All instructors from each of the fOllowing three curricula parti- cipated in the study; Law Enforcement, Business Administration, and Cosmetology. The three curricula were selected on the basis of a l judgment-purposive sampling technique described by William Deming as fellows: The results from a judgment-sample are obtained by procedures which depend to some appreciable portion on (1) a judgment selection of 'typical' or 'representative' counties, cities, road segments blocks, individual people, households, firms, articles or packages concernin which information is to be obtained: or (2? weighing factors that are prescribed arbitrarily. Sample selection based on this technique, according to Hill and 2 ". . . is determined on the basis of what the research worker Kerber, might consider from his experience to be typical, or representative, sampling units.” Based upon such factors as: (l) the student identifying with his curriculum area, (2) the potentiality of the faculty member having a relatively high degree of knowledge of students "majoring“ in the curriculum, and (3) well defined student characteristics, goals and objectives, the judgment was made that these three curricula would not 1 William E. Deming, Some Theory of Sampling (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. l950),p ll. 2 Joseph E. Hill and August Kerber,M Models Methods, and Anal tical Procedures in Education Research (Detroit: Haw ate TUETVersiTy Press. .p.'.'3 48 only satisfy the mandates associated with designing a judgment-purposive sample of students, but would also provide a high degree of representa- tiveness of the vocational curricula. HQW,SELECTED Class lists of all students enrolled in the given curricula within the fall-winter, 1972-1973 academic year having accumulated 30 credits or more constituted the total student population used in the study. The enrollment identified is as fellows: Law Enforcement ..... .320 students Business Administration. .364 students Cosmetology . . . . . . . 49 students Those students that were identified by instructors using a card sort technique provided the sample of students employed. An additional refining of the sampling process will be provided and identified in PROCEDURES . The judgments made regarding selection of curricula for analysis and the student population to be studied were made in collaboration with the following staff members of Oakland Community College: Dr. Joseph E. Hill . . . .President Dr. Derek Nunney ..... Vice President for Academic Affairs Dr. Virginia Svagr . . . .Director of Testing Mr. Bruce Martin . . . . .Director of Data Processing Dr. George Mitchell. . . .Counselor It should be noted that all the instructors included in the defined population participated in the study. Under these circumstances, a sample of instructors was not drawn. In other words, the total defined 49 population of instructors was employed. The defined pOpulation of instructors was as follows: Law Enforcement . . . . . .four instructors Cosmetology . . . ..... six instructors Business Administration . .three instructors REPRESENTATIVENESS The representativeness of the samples of the defined populations which they are to represent will be determined on the basis of such factors for students as: (1) Male-Female distribution in sample compared with total population, and (2) Grade Point Average mean in sample as compared with total population. ADEQUACY QE.THE SAMPLE Since the present study is exploratory in nature, and is thus not concerned with collecting a large number of cases for purposes of statistical validation, the size of the sample employed can be relatively small.3 In order to provide answers to the questions in Chapter I, a sample size of n=330 would be sufficient for the purposes of the study. DATA COLLECTION Data collection is described in terms of (1) the instrumentalities, i. e., the instruments and techniques employed to collect the data, and the procedures that were employed. 50 INSTRUMENTALITIES The instrumentalities employed in the study included, (a) the instruments associated with cognitive style testing, and the survey of instructor identification of students; (See Appendix A and B) and (b) the techniques of informal interviewing associated with explaining and clarifying the perfOrmance requested of the instructors regarding the defining of an "ideal" student, and the identification of actually enrolled students as "ideal" or “non-ideal" types, respectively. INSTRUMENTS In an attempt to find a means to identify the vocational prototype within each curriculum, two methods were considered: (1) the conducting of interviews and (2) a paper-pencil survey. It was decided that a written survey would provide a more precise method of determining level of consensus among faculty as indicated in the QUESTIONS IQ_§§.ANSWERED, Chapter I. As a result, the COLLECTIVE COGNITIVE STYLE SURVEY was developed. Cognitive style constructs and definitions were itemized and phrased in such a way that a scale could be affixed. 51 The Likert4 5-point scale seemed most precise for this type of instrument. The following are examples from the survey: 1. Theoretical Visual Linguistic--ability to find meaning from the printed word. A rating of 3 or higher indicates a student who reads with a better than average degree of comprehension and one who exhibits a better than average understanding of gram- matical structure. 2. Qualitative Code Esthetic--ability to enjoy the beauty of an object or the pureness of an idea. 3. Qualitative Code Histrionic--ability to exhibit a deliberate behavior or play a role to produce some particular effect on other persons. It was determined that a value of 5 on the scale would indicate a most desirable characteristic for the prototype in the curriculum and a value of l, the least desirable for success. 4Rensis Likert, "A Technique for the Measurement of Attitudes," Columbia University, Ihg_Archives gj_Psychology-l40, (New York: The University, 1932). The Oakland Community College Cognitive Test Battery from which the Cognitive Style map is developed was employed to determine the cognitive style characteristics of students within the defined curricula and provide a comparison with the Collective Cognitive Style Survey. The following are sample questions employed in the test battery and the characteristic that they measure: “I can make more sense out of what a person means when he speaks to me rather than if he writes to me." "I find it comfortable to add spoken or dictated numbers mentally." "After I dictate a letter, I read it to be certain it is correct.“ "I solve mathematical problems more rapidly if they were written." "My friends tell me that I am understanding." "I require beauty in my surroundings outside as well as inside buildings." "I direct my life according to moral values." "I can act friendly and accepting in order to acquire favors." "I use facial expressions to communicate emotions." "I have enjoyed acquiring good motor skills so that I compete successfully in sports." Theoretical Auditory Linguistic Theoretical Auditory Quantitative Theoretical Visual Linguistic Theoretical Visual Quantitative Qualitative Code Empathetic Qualitative Code Aesthetic Qualitative Code Ethic Qualitative Code Histrionic Qualitative Code Kinesics Qualitative Code Kinesthetic "I know which strangers enjoy a pat on the back if I have an occasion to congratulate them." “I know my strengths and weaknesses." "I am able to persuade people involved in dis- agreements to strive for agreement." "I learn a subject better when I can discuss it with my associates." ”Family values should have lasting effects on each of us." “I do not need others to help me make decisions." “I 'play the devil's advocate' with people to force them to look at another point of view." “Information should be analyzed in a number of ways before a conclusion is reached." "Life is simple if you go by the rules." "I have no difficulty in understanding how to put puzzles together." "I find the type of reasoning demanded by the rules of mathematics suits my mode of think- ng.“ 53 Qualitative Code Proxemics Qualitative Code Synoetics Qualitative Code Transactional Cultural Determinant- Associate Cultural Determinant- Family Cultural Determinant- Individuality Modality of Inference- Difference Modality of Inference- Appraisal Modality of Inference- Magnitude Modality of Inference- Relatioship Deductive Reasoning 54 PILOT STUDY A pilot study was conducted to test the adequacy of the survey instrument. Two instructors from the Executive Secretary curriculum along with a defined population of 62 students were included in the pilot study. The instructors were asked to fill out the survey and react to any lack of clarity within the instrument. As a result of their suggestions, refinements were made in the instrument. In the analysis of instructor reSponses, it was noted that the ratings tended to be consistently high or low and discrimination was slight. Therefore, it was decided that the total study must include procedures for scaling in judgments. (See Appendix C), (See Chapter IV)-- Analytical Techniques). PROCEDURES The following procedures were employed in the process Of collecting data for the study: 1. Each instructor was asked to fill out the Collective Cognitive Style Survey (See Appendix B) to identify a curriculum prototype or ideal student from which a composite profile was to be constructed. 2. A consensus prototype was identified from the data collected by the survey. 3. Each instructor was given 3 x 5 cards identifying the second year students within the instructor's curriculum. 4. Each instructor was asked to categorize students using the card sort technique into four groups: a. the ideal student in the curriculum b. the non-ideal student in the curriculum c. the uncertain (instructor is unable to categorize ideal or non-ideal) d. the "don't know" (instructor does not recognize student's name). 55 In the determination of their categories, instructors were asked to consider if they would recommend the student for employment upon completion of the curriculum program. 5. Students that were classified into the instructor consensus ideal or non-ideal category were employed as the samples in the study. (Consensus was determined by fifty percent or more agreement by instructors). TECHNIQUES Data were collected for the present study in the manner and sequence that follows: Once the instructors to be included in the study were identified, individual appointments were made. At the onset of each appointment, the instructors were informed of the purpose Of the study and what would be expected of them in terms of activity and time. The Cognitive Style Survey and the card sort was administered to all of the instructors in the study. The directions for the instrument and the card sort technique were made explicit and carefully explained by this researcher. Each appointment was held in the instructor's office or the Office of the researcher. The rooms were air-conditioned, well-lighted and relatively quiet. Sufficient time was allowed for each instructor to complete the data requested. Each instructor was given an opportunity to raise any questions he wished regarding the study or the instrument and techniques. Most instructors were extremely cooperative. One instructor was hesitant to participate due to a personal concern about the potential implications for his teaching style. Once reassured that the individual responses would remain confidential, he agreed to participate. Several instructors were out of town and it was necessary to wait until they returned. 56 SUMMARY The purpose of this chapter has been to describe the design of the study in terms of the source of data, the sample employed in the study, its selection, representativeness, and adequacy, and the methods and procedures of data collection. In the next chapter, the analytical techniques employed in the study and the findings of the study will be presented. The fifth and final chapter will present the conclusions, implications and recommenda- tions emanating from the study. "CHAPTER IV" ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES DATA AND FINDINGS The three previous chapters have been assigned to cover the back- ground of the study, its purpose, a review of the latest literature and the design of the study expressed in the (1) source of data, (2) samples employed, and (3) the instrumentalities and procedures of data collection. The purpose of this chapter is to: (1) present the analytical techniques that were employed and (2) to present the findings. ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES The following operations were the analytical techniques employed in the study: 1. Cognitive Style Mapping 2. a. Determination of the collective cognitive style of the theoretical ideal student group. b. Scaling procedures for interpreting the ratings of different raters employed to determine the Collective Cognitive Style of the theoretical ideal student group for a given curriculum. 3. Determination of the collective cognitive style of the selected ideal student group. 4. Determination of the collective cognitive style of the selected non-ideal student group. 5. Analyses of the respective styles to determine similarities and differences between them. 57 58 Due to the exploratory nature of the study, no attempt has been made to submit hypotheses to test, but the main emphasis has been placed on seeking answers to general questions. This procedure lends the study an hypothesis generating flavor, and adds significance to implications emanating from the effort. COGNITIVE STYLE MAPPING The concept Of cognitive style as defined in the educational sciences, as stated in Chapter III, is different from those defined and described in the discipline of psychology. The construct of cognitive style as defined in terms of the educational sciences is a Cartesian product, g, composed on three sets: Where §_denotes the set of symbgls and their meanings, §_designates the set of cultural determinants of the meaning of symbols, and H_indicates the set of modalities of inference. The cognitive style of an individual is mapped by determining appropropriate orientations of elements associated with each of the three sets comprising the "style product." These elements are combined into profiles ranging over the three sets, i. e., "symbols," "determinants," and "modalities of inferences." This collec- tion of profiles forms the cognitive style of the individual. For complete definitions of the "style" elements, the reader is referred to the Definition of Terms in Chapter I, as well as information included in Appendix B the Collective Cognitive Style Survey instrument. 59 m The concept of set is of considerable importance to the process called "mapping." A mathematical set is a carefully defined collection of discrete elements. An glgmggt_is a fundamental constituency of a set. A set may include a finite number of elements, an infinite number or no elements at all. The elements contained in each set may be defined empirically or mathematically. MATHEMATICAL MAPPING Mathematical mapping employs the use of functions and equations to effect the mapping process. For example, this function Y=2X=l, may be used as an Operator to map the set of all the positive integers from 1 through 100 inclusively into A set B, composed of two subsets, i. e., y and 3 (not y), of all the odd positive integers (subset y) and all the even positive integers (subset 3). This type of mapping is performed as a binary operation. To illustrate how mathematical mapping might be employed with cognitive style, each element is considered in terms Of two classes, (binary). the class of the element sought, and the class of gfll_other elements. For example, if the operator were composed of cut-off scores regarding the element of Theoretical Visual Linquistic in the set called "Symbols and their Meanings,“ all elements to be considered would be divided into two parts; (1) those forming the theoretical linquistic elements, and all those ggt.c0nsidered linquistic elements. When the major or minor orientation has been determined for the element T(VL), it is considered to have been "mapped" in the set dealing with symbols and their meanings. 60 Mapping is therefore nothing more than taking a "set" and coming up with a new set in which the element you are looking for is isolated from the rest Of the elements. In mathematical mapping, a mathematical operator is utilized to develop cut-Off scores. In the process Of empirical mapping, the "defined elements" are identified through the use of empirical observation, and their orientations are determined on the basis of a "makes sense" or "does not make sense" decision rendered by the "mapper." EMPIRICAL MAEEIN§_ The process of empirical mapping as described by Hill1 (see Appendix D) can be defined as a teacher or counselor diagnosing (mapping) selected elements (variables or characteristics) of the cognitive style of an individual on the basis of test scores, inventory scores, observed behaviors, reported behaviors and other infOrmation pertaining to the individual whose "style" is being "mapped." Essentially, the empirical mapping of an individual's cognitive style calls for decision-making by a diagnostician regarding which elements, of all those included in the sets, S, E, and H, respectively, to include in the individual's map. 1Joseph E. Hill, "Problem Set on Objectivity of Process of Mapping Styles" (unpublished manuscript, Oakland Community College, 1973), p. . 61 According to Hill,2 In addition to any limitations imposed by measuring instrumentalities, empirical mapping of cognitive style is also limited by the abilities and charac- teristics of the human diagnostician. Not all persons will be good diagnosticians. Some will be better than others. Under these circumstances, it is necessary not only to understand the concepts of reliability, validity, objectivity, and discrimination as they apply to instrumentalities, but to understand how they are affected by the process of empirical mapping. In order to complete the mapping process, it is necessary to under- stand how major, minor and negligible orientations, respectively, in the elements of the sets comprising cognitive style, are determined. The 3 fOllowing principles which are modifications of Flanagan's technique are applied in "mapping." Principle 1: If the individual whose style is being mapped demonstrates by test or inventory scores, ratings by Observers, or other forms of assessments, an ability or tendency in the cognitive style element under consideration that would place his perfOrmance, in the judgment of the diagnostician, truly in the range of the fiftieth through the ninety-ninth (50-99) percentiles of a population, or set populations, of scores, ratings, or assessments of that ability or tendency, then a mgjgg orientation in that element is assigned to the individual. ZIOid. 3John C. Flanagan, "General Considerations in the Selection of Test Items and a Short Method of Estimating the Product-Moment from the Data at the Tails Of the Distribution," Journal of Educational Psychology, xxx11 (December, 1939). Pp. 674-80.““"“" 62 Principle 1;, If the individual whose style is being mapped demonstrates by test or inventory scores, ratings by observers, or other forms of assessments, an ability or tendency in the cognitive style element under consideration that would place his performance, in the judgment of the diagnostician, truly in the range of the twenty-sixth through the fOrty-ninth (26-49) percentiles of a population, or set of populations, of scores, ratings, or assessments of that ability or tendency, then a minor orientation in that element is assigned to the individual. Principle III. If the individual whose style is being mapped demonstrates by test or inventory scores, ratings by Observers, or other farms of assessments, an ability or tendency in the cognitive style element under consideration that would place his performance, in the judgment of the diagnostician, truly in the range of the zero through twenty-fifth (0-25) percentiles of a population, or set of populations, of scores, ratings, or assessments of that ability or tendenoy, then a negligible orientation in that element is assigned to the individual. Major orientations are shown in the map by capital letters. For example a major orientation in theoretical visual linquistic ability would appear as, T(VL). Minor orientations are indicated by the insertion of a prime, ('). For example, a minor orientation in theoretical auditory linquistic ability would appear as, T'(al), or in the case of the "associates“ element in the "cultural determinants" set of an indi- vidual's "style," a minor orientation would be indicated by, A'. Neg; ligjglg_orientations are indicated by the omission of the element from the map. 63 For more definitive information about cognitive style "mapping" the reader is referred to Dr. Joseph E. Hill, Oakland Community College, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan. DETERMINATION OF Ifl§_COLLECTIVE THEORETICAL IDEAL The procedure that was used to identify the elements that comprised the “map“ or composite profile of the theoretical ideal student group within the reSpective curricula, employed the scaling of the rankings of the instructors by means of T-scores. Since T-scores are normalized z-scores (standard scores), their percentile rankings associated with the gggmgl_distribution can be determined. Since these percentiles are determined from the ggmg_distribution, i.e., the theoretical normal distribution, they can be averaged. Once the rankings of the instructors had been scaled, it was possible to determine the level of the rank accorded a particular element by a given rater. With this information known for each element, and far each rater, it was possible to determine the orientation of the element and to "map" it accordingly. For example, on the line below are the "ranks," the T-score scaling equivalents, and their respective percentile ranks read from the normal distribution: instructors Avg. Element 1 2 3 %tile Rank T itile Rank T itile Rank T Ztile Rank Orientation T(VL) 5 61 86 5 63 90 5 57 76 84 T(VL) T(AQ) 3 46 36 3 43 25 3 45 32 31 T'(aq) Q(CKH) 2 38 11 2 37 10 2 41 19 13 Neg. 64 The reader is referred to Appendix E for a complete display of instructor ratings and responses. DETERMINATION QE_THE SELECTED IDEAL STUDENT In order to determine the collective cognitive style of the selected ideal student group, Flanagan's modifications were employed. For example, the following computer print-out was associated with T(AL): Classification 9: Responses Key to Categories —I II Negligible (scores from O to 25 percentile) N ll Minor (scores from 26 percentile to 49 percentile) to II Major (scores from 50 percentile to 99 percentile) Element T(AL) Number Category of Scores Percent Total Negligible rating 0 O 0 Minor 36 77 '100 Major 11 23 23 Total 47. 1062 This information indicates that at least a minor orientation in T(AL) existed, i.e., T'(al) for 100% of the selected ideal Business Administration student group, noting that 77 percent of the group showed T'(al) and that 23 percent showed T(AL) major. Since the major T(AL) would certainly include a minor orientation, then 100 percent of the group must possess, at least a minor orientation in theoretical auditory linquistic capability. Under these circumstances, T'(al) would be included in the collective cognitive style map of this group. 65 In similar fashion, Q(CEM), qualitative code empathetic, the print- out indicated: Element Q(CEM) Number Category of Scores Percent .IQEEL Negligible rating 0 0 0 Minor 4 8.5 8.5 Major 43 91.5 100 Total 47 100% Since the display showed that, a major orientation, Q(CEM) existed in 91.5 percent of the cases, a Q(CEM) indicator would be included in the collective cognitive style of the group. This result and others are shown in the display map of this group's map under the findings section of this chapter. In addition, a copy of the complete computer print-out can be found in Appendix F. DETERMINATION Of THE SELECTED NON-IDEAL STUDENT The analytical technique employed in this category was identical to that employed with the selected ideal student group. ANALYSES OF THE DETERMINATION QE_SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES QE_ THE RESPECTIVE STYLES The technique employed to conduct an analysis of elements common to the respective styles, and of those that were unique to each of the respective collective cognitive styles; (theoretical ideal, selected ideal, selected non-ideal) was one of visual inspection. TherefOre, each element was analyzed by visual inspection to determine if that element was, or was not, present in each of the cognitive style maps for the respective groups. In order to perform a thorough analysis, and to 66 obtain findings that provided a multi-dimensional view of the matter under consideration, elements found to be ”different," and those found to be ”unique” were classified according to each of the collective “styles.“ For example, the elements in one group's style found to be "different" from that Of the groups' to which they were being compared, were shown in reference to the first group. Then this procedure was employed to show the elements of the second group's "style" that was different from the first group's elements. FINDINGS Findings include data pertaining to the collective cognitive style maps of the respective groups showing elements "different" from those found in the collective style maps of other groups, those maps showing elements "unique" to the collective "style" of each group, and the curricular areas with which these groups were associated; Business Admini- stration, Law Enforcement, and Cosmetology. In addition, the findings also include grade point averages of the Business Administration and Law Enforcement groups. Grades were not available for the Cosmetology student group. 67 TABLE I SAMPLE POPULATION Curriculum Business Administration Cosmetology Law Enforcement Ideal % of n Non-Ideal 47 66 24 14 78 4 17 74 6 Total 71 100 18 100 23 100 68 TABLE 2 INFORMATION REGARDING GRADE POINT AVERAGES OF RESPECTIVE GROUPS Mean Grade Total Population Male Female Point Average Business Administration N=364 289 75 2.52 Law Enforcement N=320 299 21 2.93 Cosmetology N= 49 1 48 Not Available Sample Business Administration Selected Ideal n=47 39 8 2.70 Selected Non-Ideal n=24 21 3 2.15 Law Enforcement Selected Ideal n=17 17 0 3.04 Selected Non-Ideal nII 6 5 l 2.67 Cosmetology Selected Ideal n=14 1 13 Not Available Selected Non-Ideal n8 4 0 4 Business Administration -- A null hypothesis can be rejected at the .05 level of significance. Law Enforcement -- A null hypothesis cannot be rejected at the .05 level, but it is significant at the .10 level. 69 COLLECTIVE COGNITIVE STYLE MAPS In this section, the data consist of the collective cognitive style maps for the theoretical ideal, the selected ideal and the selected non-ideal student groups within each curriculum; Business Administration, Law Enforcement and Cosmetology. They are presented in Tables 3-11. Tables 12-14 indicate the elements found to be common to the respective groups' collective "styles" within each curriculum. Finally, Tables 15-23 indicate those elements that were found to be unique to each of the collective cognitive styles of the respective groups within each curri- culum area. TABLE 3 BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION The composite map of the Theoretical Ideal student group as deter- mined by the collective raters in the curriculum of business administra- tion is shown below: T(VL)T(AL)T(VQ)T'(AQ) g- Q CEM 0 CET I R, L CT M' (K) To provide the reader with a sense of the meaning of this collective cognitive style for the theoretical ideal student group, it should be noted that the T(VL), T(AL), T(VQ), and T'(aq) are combined with Eggp_ of the qualitative symbolic elements shown. For example, [T(VL)-Q(CEM)], [(VL)-Q(CET)], [T(VL)-Q'(CK)] are some of the binomial elements emanating from the combination of T(VL) with the qualitative symbols. In similar 70 fashion, such binomial elements as: [T(AL)-Q(CT)], [T(VQ)-Q'(ch)], and [T'(aq)-Q'(cp)] also occur. The binomial elements are linked with such elements as: (I-A'), from the second set, and, say, (R-M') from the third set, to form profiles gygp_the ”product style." An example of ppp_such profile would be: [T(VL)-Q(CS)1 X [I] X [R-M'] Another profile would be: [T(AL)-Q(CEM)] X [I-A'] X [L] These profiles and others are given behavior interpretations in Chapter V in the section dealing with the conclusions of the study. TABLE 4 BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION The composite map of the selected ideal student as determined by the computer print-out. (See Appendix F) and empirical mapping. T'(aq)T'(al)T'(vl) I, I F' L 9= 0 CEM) Q CS) Q(CET 0' co 0' ct Q'§Ckh Q' ces Q' ck) 71 TABLE 5 BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION The composite map of the selected non-ideal student as determined by the computer print-out. (See Appendix F) and empirical mapping. T'(aqlT' (vq) (CEM) CS) ' cet Q'gckh Q! 0| 0| A, I L 9' Q Q 0 co) (ct ck You will note that the selected non-ideal student composite display a major Associate in the second set, whereas the theoretical ideal and selected ideal do not. 72 TABLE 6 COSMETOLOGY The composite map of the Theoretical Ideal Student as determined by the Collective Raters. T'(allT'laq) g= Q(CEM) Q CES I Q CET D. L CS) M'R' You will note that no major theoretical symbols are present. 73 TABLE 7 COSMETOLOGY The composite map of the Selected Ideal Student as determined by the computer print-out. (See Appendix F) and empirical mapping. T'(al)T'(aq)T'(vl)T'(vq) 98 Q CEM I. F R Q CES D' 74 TABLE 8 COSMETOLOGY The composite map of the Selected Non-Ideal Student as determined by the computer print out. (See Appendix F) and empirical mapping. T' (a1 )T' (aqll' (v1 W (Va) 9' Q CEM) I Q CES) F' L 75 TABLE 9 LAW ENFORCEMENT The composite map of the Theoretical Ideal Student as determined by the Collective Raters. T(VL)T(AL) I F g= o CET R O CEM) o CS) A' L' Q(CK) Q(CKH) X x 0 CT) Q'icp) Q'ich) (K) You will note that Q(CET) qualitative code ethic is the highest ranking element. 76 TABLE 10 LAW ENFORCEMENT The composite map of the Selected Ideal Student as determined by the computer print-out. (See Appendix F) and empirical mapping. 9: T'(al)T'(vl)T'(aq)T'(vq) A, I L Q(CS) ’ R' 77 TABLE 11 LAW ENFORCEMENT The composite map of the Selected Non-Ideal Student as determined by the computer print-out. (See Appendix F) and empirical mapping. T'(vq) 9= 0 CEM) A R You will note that the Selected Non-Ideal Student does not display the theoretical visual linquistic or theoretical auditory linquistic at at either the major gp_minor orientation as does the theoretical ideal and selected ideal. 78 The following findings indicate composite maps of the commonalities between the various student composites within each curriculum. Common elements are defined as elements present as well as common major or minor determination. TABLE 12 BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION Elements held ip_common by the Theoretical Ideal and Selected Ideal. T'(aq) 0 CS) Q CEM I L atom; Q'gct 0' cp X X 0' ck (L - Appraisal is said to be held in common since the appraisal modality of inference contains within it all the modalities). Elements held in common between the Theoretical Ideal and Selected Non-Ideal. T'(aq) O CS) I L Q CEM) Q'Ecp) X X 0' ck) 79 TABLE 12--continued Elements held in common between the Selected Ideal and Selected Non-Ideal. T'(aq) I L You will note that more major elements are held in common between the Selected Ideal and Selected Non-Ideal than between the Theoretical Ideal and the Selected Ideal. 80 TABLE 13 COSMETOLOGY Elements held in common between the Theoretical Ideal and the Selected Ideal. T'(al)T'(aq) Q(CES) I L Q CEM QECET Q CKH) Q(CS) Q'éck 0' ch X X Elements held in common between the Theoretical Ideal and the Selected Non-Ideal. T'(al)T'(aq) Q(CEM) Q(CES) I L Q(CS) Q'(cet) X X Q'(ch) Elements held in common between the Selected Ideal and the Selected Non-Ideal. T'(al)T'(aq)T'(vl)T'(vq) Q CEM) 0 CS) O CES) Q CP) . Q'Ect X I X L 0' ch You will note that there are five major qualitative codes held in common by the Theoretical Ideal and the Selected Ideal, whereas only three are held in common by the Theoretical Ideal and the Selected Non-Ideal. 81 TABLE 14 LAW ENFORCEMENT Elements held in common between the Theoretical Ideal and the Selected Ideal. Q CEM) I L 0 CS) O CET) Elements held in common between the Theoretical Ideal and the Selected Non-Ideal Q(CEM) Elements held in common between the Selected Ideal and the Selected Non-Ideal. T'(vq) Q(CEM) 0 CP) Q'Eckh) X x Q' ck) You will note that there are only three common elements held between the Theoretical Ideal and the Selected Ideal in the first set. Whereas there are four common elements between the Theoretical Ideal and the Selected Non-Ideal, and five common elements between the Selected Ideal and the Selected Non-Ideal in the first set. 82 The following findings indicate composite maps of the differences between the student composites within each curriculum interchanging composites for use as a referent. TABLE 15 BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION Using the Theoretical Ideal as referent -— Differences with Selected Ideal T(VL)T(AL)T(VQ) Q(CT) Q'(ch) (K) Differences with Selected Non-Ideal T(VL)T(AL)T(VQ) Q(CT) Q(CET R Q'(ch X A' x You will note that T(VL), T(AL) and T(VQ) appear as differences with the Selected Ideal as well as the Selected Non-Ideal. 83 TABLE 16 BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION Using the Selected Ideal student as referent -- Differences with Theoretical T'(al)T'(vl) Q'gckh I R Q' ces Q' ct) F' Differences with Selected Non-Ideal T'(al)T'(vl) Q(CET) I Q' («25) You will note that qualitative code esthetic at the minor orienta- tion appears as a difference with the Theoretical Ideal as well as the Selected Non-Ideal. You can also see that qualitative code ethic at the major orientation is a difference in the Non-Ideal. 84 TABLE 17 BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION Using the selected Non-Ideal as referent -- Differences with Theoretical Ideal T‘(vq) Q'(ckh) A Q' cet) 0' (ct) Differences with the Selected Ideal T' (vq) 0' feet) You will note that there are no differences in the third set modalities pj.inference for either the Theoretical Ideal or Selected Ideal. 85 TABLE 18 COSMETOLOGY Using the Theoretical Ideal as referent -- Differences with the Selected Ideal Q(CT) Q'(cet) I D 0' c5) Q'(cn) X x Differences with the Selected Non-Ideal Q CET) 0 CT) Q(CKH) Q'éck Q' cp X X You will note that the differences with the Selected Non-Ideal all appear in the first set and none appear in the second and third set. 86 TABLE 19 COSMETOLOGY Using the Selected Ideal as referent -- Differences with Theoretical Ideal T' (v1)T' (vq) Q(CKH Q'(Ct A' R Differences with the Selected Non-Ideal Still F, Q'(ck) You will note that a major F-family determinant appears as a difference in both the Theoretical Ideal and the Selected Non-Ideal in the second set. 87 TABLE 20 COSMETOLOGY Using the Selected Non-Ideal as a referent -- Differences with Theoretical Ideal 1' (v1)T'(vq) QECK) L 0 CP) Q'(cet) X X Q'(ct) Differences with Selected Ideal You will note that there are more differences between the Selected Non-Ideal and the Theoretical Ideal than between the Non-Ideal and the Selected Ideal. 88 TABLE 21 LAW ENFORCEMENT Using the Theoretical Ideal as referent -- Differences with the Selected Ideal T(VL)T(AL) Q CK) Q CK”) Q CT) Q'(CP) X x Q'(ch) F ('0 You will note that there are three major qualitative code differences. Differences with the Selected Non-Ideal T(VL)T(AL) Q CET) (K) You will note that there are four qualitative code differences, with qualitative code ethic missing in the Selected Non-Ideal profile. 89 TABLE 22 LAW ENFORCEMENT Using the Selected Ideal as referent -- Differences with Theoretical T' (a1 )T' (v1)T'(aq)T' (vq) Q'(ckh) Q'(ct) A L Q'(ck) RI Differences with Selected Non-Ideal T'(al)T'(vl)T'(aq) Q(CET) , 0' (ct) L You will note that the differences between the Selected Ideal and the Theoretical Ideal are all at the minor level in the first set. A noteworthy difference between the Theoretical Ideal and the Selected Non-Ideal is the absence of the major qualitative code ethic in the Selected Non-Ideal map., 90 TABLE 23 LAW ENFORCEMENT Using the Selected Non-Ideal as referent -- Differences with the Selected Ideal Q(CT) Q'(cet) A Q'(ch) X x Q'(ces) Differences with the Theoretical Ideal You will note that a difference that appears with both the Selected Ideal and Theoretical Ideal is the presence of cultural determinant A- Associate in the Selected Non-Ideal profile. a?“ J} 91 SUMMARY In this chapter, the techniques employed in analyzing the data collected for the study were described. These techniques were discussed as they pertained to the following processes: (1) Cognitive Style Mapping (2) a. Determination of the Collective Cognitive Style of the Theoretical Ideal Student Group. b. Scaling procedures for interpreting the ratings of different raters employed to determine the Cognitive Style of the Theoretical Ideal Student for a given curriculum. (3) Determination of the Collective Cognitive Style of the Selected Ideal Student Group. (4) Determination of the Collective Cognitive Style of the Selected Non-Ideal Student Group. (5) Analyses of the respective styles to determine similarities and differences between them. In the second major section of this chapter, the findings of the study were presented in the form of (1) Cognitive Styles of the Theore- tical Ideal Student Groups, the Selected Ideal Student Groups, and the Selected Non-Ideal Student Groups, (2) Cognitive Styles indicating the differences and similarities between the three types of students within each curriculum. In the next chapter, the conclusions, implications and recommenda- tions based on the findings of the study are presented. "CHAPTER V" CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH The four previous chapters have presented the background of the study, a review of the related literature, a description of the design of the study and the analytical techniques employed, and the findings of the study. The final chapter is devoted to conclusions of the study in the form of answers and discussion relevant to the five questions posed in Chapter I. This will be followed by implications for further research in the form of hypotheses as generated from the conclusions. CONCLUSIONS The conclusions based on the findings presented in the preceding chapter are presented in the form of answers to the five questions posed in Chapter I. The answers or conclusions to the questions should be viewed as generalizations evolving from this exploratory study, and therefore necessarily subject to further examination in possible sub- sequent and more comprehensive research studies than the present effort. As an exploratory study, the present study makes no claims to firm and final answers to the questions posed. The generalizations are therefore subject to the limitations inherent in such a study. 92 93 QUESTION ONE What cognitive style elements are common to the group of theoreti- cal ideal, selected ideal and selected non-ideal Business Administration students? What elements are unique to each of these respective groups? The following elements are those displayed by all three Business Administration student groups in Table 12, Chapter IV and therefore appear to be non-discriminators: Minor auditory quantitative Major qualitative code synoetics Major qualitative code empathy Major individuality determinant Major appraisal inferential process The following elements are those unique to the collective cognitive style Of the theoretical ideal Business Administration student group as displayed in Table 15, Chapter IV and therefore appear to discriminate it from the other two student groups: Major theoretical visual linquistic Major theoretical auditory linquistic Major theoretical visual quantitative Major qualitative code transactional Minor qualitative code histrionics Major relationship inferential process Major deductive inferential process The following elements are those unique to the collective cognitive style of the selected ideal Business Administration student group as displayed in Table 16, Chapter IV and appear to discriminate it from the theoretical ideal and the selected non-ideal: 94 Minor theoretical auditory linquistic Minor theoretical visual linquistic Minor qualitative code esthetic Major individuality determinant Minor family determinant The following elements are those unique to the collective cognitive style of the selected non—ideal Business Administration student group as displayed in Table 17, Chapter IV and appear to discriminate it from the other two groups: Minor theoretical visual quantitative Minor qualitative code ethic Major associate determinant DISCUSSION The following generalizations result from the collective cognitive style of the selected ideal Business Administration student group.1 The selected ideal Business Administration student with the minor orientation in theoretical auditory linquistic and theoretical visual linquistic would probably have average abilities in subjects requiring extensive reading and writing. He would likely have creative tendencies as manifested by his minor qualitative code esthetic element. This student would probably have the ability to generate new ideas and have an appreciation for beauty helpful to the display and advertising aspects of marketing and retailing. His individuality determinant indicates that he is probably self sufficient and will prefer to act "individually." He would tend to have high drives, authoritarian 1The discussion sections will stress consideration of the selected ideal student groups only, in that from a "common sense" point of view, the findings empirically distinquish this group as most representative of each curricula group. 95 attitudes and leadership qualities. He would likely hold views that are different from the group and would refuse to subordinate himself to common group standards. He probably would suppress family priorities, although he would be aware of them, as witnessed by his minor orienta- tion in his family determinant element; he might place work first and family second. QUESTION TWO What cognitive style elements are common to the groups of theoreti- cal ideal, selected ideal and selected non-ideal Law Enforcement students? What elements are unique to each of these respective groups? The following element is displayed by all three student groups in Table 14, Chapter IV and therefore appear to be non-discriminating: Major qualitative code empathetic The following elements are those unique to the collective cognitive style of the theoretical ideal Law Enforcement student group as displayed in Table 21, Chapter IV. Major theoretical visual linquistic Major theoretical auditory linquistic Major qualitative code kinesics Major qualitative code kinesthetics Minor qualitative code proxemics The following elements are those unique to the collective cognitive style of the selected ideal Law Enforcement student group as displayed in Table 22, Chapter IV. 96 Minor theoretical auditory linquistic Minor theoretical visual linquistic Minor qualitative code transactional Major appraisal inferential process Minor relationship process The following elements are those unique to the collective cognitive style of the selected non-ideal Law Enforcement student group as displayed in Table 23, Chapter IV. Minor qualitative code ethic Minor qualitative code esthetic Major associate determinant Minor individuality determinant DISCUSSION It is interesting to note that the element of qualitative code empathetic is present in all three Law Enforcement student groups, but the reader will find that this element is also present in pll_student groups in the study. The selected jggpl_Law Enforcement student would probably possess verbal skills and would use them in a transactional approach to achieving objectives satisfying to himself and others as illustrated by the elements theoretical auditory linquistic, theoretical visual linquistic, and qualitative code transactional. Since the major appraisal inferential process contains all of the inferential processes, he would have the flexibility to selectively draw upon the inferential process situationally appropriate. This would certainly lend itself to reaching fairly rational, effective conclusions and judgments. He would appear to maintain composure and resort less to physical inter- action as seems to be demonstrated in the "style" of the theoretical ideal Law Enforcement student. The presence of the minor orientation 97 relationship_process would indicate that he has the ability to see connections or "relationships" and this would obviously be beneficial in "detecting" or deducing from evidence and circumstances. The absence of the deduction inferential process is compensated by the presence of the major appraisal and relationship elements. Both the theoretical ideal and the selected ideal possessed a major qualitative code ethic, while the selected non-ideal student group possessed a minor qualitative code ethic. It would seem to "make sense" that a potential law enforcement Officer should have a commitment to a set of values or a group of rules and regulations. This would appear as a lack in the non-ideal law enforcement students. The presense Of the element qualitative code esthetic might not be a necessary charac- teristic for students in this curriculum. Evidence of this element in a student's cognitive style might indicate other career choices to be more appropriate. The major associate determinant element displayed by the selected non-ideal student group might manifest itself in a reliance on others for help which could prove to be highly dysfunctional in a crisis situation. QUESTION THREE What cognitive style elements are common to the groups Of theoreti- cal ideal, selected ideal and selected non-ideal Cosmetology students? What elements are unique for these students? The following elements are those displayed by all three Cosmetology student groups in Table 13, Chapter IV and therefore appear to be non- discriminators: 98 Minor theoretical auditory linquistic Minor theoretical auditory quantitative Major qualitative code esthetic Major qualitative code synoetics Minor qualitative code histrionics The following elements are those unique to the collective cognitive style of the theoretical ideal student group as displayed in Table 18, Chapter IV. Major qualitative code transactional Minor qualitative code proxemics The following elements are those unique to the collective cognitive style of the selected ideal Cosmetology student group as displayed in Table 19, Chapter IV. Major qualitative code kinesthetic Major family determinant The following elements are those unique to the collective cognitive style of the selected non-ideal student group as displayed in Table 20, Chapter IV. Major qualitative code kinesics Minor qualitative code kinesthetic Minor qualitative code ethic DISCUSSION Because of the close contact between the cosmetology instructors and their students it had been anticipated that there would be high discrimination between the collective cognitive style student groups. It appears that this is not the case. In exploring the characteristics present in the cognitive style elements of the selected ideal Cosmetology student group, one could speculate that the kinesthetic element and its 99 associated motor skills provides a dexterity necessary in hairstyling, cosmetic application and manicuring abilities. However, the major family cultural determinant does not appear to be relevant, however, it could merit further exploration. It would seem that the cosmetology instructors in identifying the theoretical ideal student group, placed emphasis on the interaction between customer and cosmetologist as manifested in the qualitative elements code transactional and code proxemics. This could infer the placement of a priority on "business" expertise rather than skills dexterity. It is noteworthy that the selected non-ideal student group possesses the element code ethic and would probably behave as a "good" student adhering to rules and regulations. This curriculum area requires more research in order to Obtain definitive results. QUESTION FOUR Will the differences judged by the instructors between ideal and non-ideal students be reflected in the differences in the collective cognitive styles of those students? The findings indicate that instructors are not highly discriminating between the selected ideal and selected non-ideal student groups for the following empirically derived Observations: a. the large quantity of elements held in common by the selected ideal and selected non-ideal b. the small quantity of elements that are unique to the selected ideal and the selected non-ideal student groups 100 It had been anticipated that the selected ideal student groups would differ from the selected non-ideal student groups in obvious differentiations and also the number of differences. QUESTION FIVE Considered in the context of the collective cognitive styles of groups of students selected on the bases of instructor ratings, and in terms of student perfOrmance, can grade point averages be used as forms of reliability and validity verifiers of these student selection procedures within selected vocational curricular areas? The findings in Table 2, Chapter IV, indicate that grade point averages discriminate between the ideal and non-ideal students within the Business Administration and Law Enforcement curriculum. It should be noted, however, that the use of grade point averages as verifiers or discriminators would be dependent on selected occupational curricula for the following reasons: a. immediacy of employment upon completion of the occupational curriculum b. continuity of specific skills activities from the classroom to the entry step of the occupation c. the professional skills classes are in greater proportion than the academic classes within the occupational curricula All of the above reasons would indicate that using the grade point averages of students can be a form of reliability and validity verifica- tion for the selection of collective cognitive styles of ideal and non-ideal student groups within occupational curricula. The reader will 101 note, however, that there is considerably less grade differentiation between the selected ideal and selected non-ideal student groups in the Business Administration curriculum. This can be attributed to the higher proportion of academic classes within this program and the fact that Business Administration students tend to transfer to universities rather than enter employment immediately after completion of the program. On the other hand, Law Enforcement students tend to mpgp_consistently enter their occupation immediately upon completion of the program, or are already employed in the field. The grade differentiation between the ideal and non-ideal students appears to be highly discriminating. IMPLICATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH There are a number of implications stemming from the conclusions of this research effort that lend themselves to the generation of relevant hypotheses. The following hypotheses are derived from the conclusions emanating from Question 1: Hypothesis 1_ Successful Business Administration students will exhibit only average abilities in subjects requiring extensive reading or writing skills. Hypothesis _2_ Successful Business Administration students can be identified by certain qualitative code elements in their cognitive style. 102 The following hypotheses are derived from the conclusions emanating from Question 2: Hypothesis.§ Hypothesis 4_ The presence of a major qualitative code ethic will predispose a student to be successful in the Law Enforcement curri- culum. The presence of certain modalities of inference in the cognitive style map of potential Law Enforcement students will predispose them to success in that curriculum. The following hypotheses are derived from the conclusions emanating from Question 3: Hypothesis-p Hypothesis §_ Cosmetology students that possess skills in personal interaction and communication will achieve higher grades in the cosmetology curriculum than those students evidencing skills dexterity. Potential Cosmetology students that display the qualitative code ethic are predisposed to success in that area. The following hypotheses are derived from the conclusions emanating from Question 4: Hypothesis 1_ There are significant differences between the instructor determinations of ideal students and non-ideal students as they relate to their cognitive styles. 103 Hypothesis 8_ Instructor expectations of ideal students within a two-year technical curriculum correlate significantly with grades achieved by students in that curriculum. The following hypothesis is derived from the conclusion emanating from Question 5 : Hypothesis 2 Grade point averages, which represent composite judgments of faculty members, are sufficiently adequate to differentiate cognitive styles of students within the two-year technical programs. Hypothesis 9 would appear to be the most significant hypothesis generated by this study. Further exploration is recommended in the use of grade point averages as discriminators within the two-year technical curricula. It is recommended that research be restricted to the techni- cal areas for two reasons. First, there is greater probability Of intensive interaction between students and teachers; and second, the instructor feels an immediate responsibility for placing the student in the employment field. It is further recommended that the grade point averages computed be based on technical classes only and should not include general educa- tion classes, i. e., those classes that have direct impact of technical faculty judgments should provide the most significant outcomes. 104 SUMMARY The purpose of the final chapter has been to present the conclusions and implications for further research. It is hoped that this study has contributed useful information for the continued analysis of cognitive style as it relates to the field of educational guidance and the expansion Of knowledge comprising the educational sciences. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 105 BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS Adelson, Joseph. "The Teacher as Model." The American College. Edited by N. Sanford. New York: JOhn Wiley, 1962. Allport, Gordon. Pattern and Growth in Personality. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and’Winston, T9371 Beardslee, D. C., and O'Dowd, D. 0. College Student Images gf_ ATSelected Group pf Professions and Occupations. 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"A Theory of Interests As Dynamic Phenomena." Educational and Psychological Measurement, 3 (1943), 49. Bossen, Doris, and Burnett, Collins W. "What Happens to the Withdrawal?" Junior College Journal, (June, 1970), 22-47. 108 Broverman, D. M. "Cognitive Styles and Intra-Individual Variations in Abilities, and Dimensions of Cognitive Style." Journal pi: Personalipy, 28 (1960), 240-256. Cohen, Arthur M. "Technology: Thee or Me? Behavioral Objectives and College Teacher." Educational Technology, (November, 1970), 16-19. Cohen, Elizabeth G. "Sociology and the Classroom: Setting the Conditions for Teacher-Student Interaction." Review pf_Educational Research, (Fall, 1972), 86-94. Davis, AnneJ. "Self-Concept, Occupational Role Expectations, and Occupa- tional Choice in Nursin and Social Work." Nursing_Research, (January-February, 1969?, 94-96. Dipboye, W. J. and Anderson, W. F. "Occupational Stereotypes and Manifest Needs of High School Students." The Psychology_pf_Vocational Development, (1970). Edwards, Keith J. and Tuckman, Bruce W. "Effect of Differential College Experiences in Developing the Student's Self and Occupational Concepts." Journal prEducational Psychology, (December, 1972), 563-580. Eisenman, Russel. "Creativity Change in Student Nurses: A Cross Sectional and Longitudinal Study." Develppment Psychology, (November, 1970), 320-325. Erickson, E. H. "The Problem of Ego Identity." Journal gf_American Psychoanalytic Association, 4 (1956), 56-12l. Feldman, Kenneth A. "Some Theoretical Approaches to the Study of Change and Stability of College Students." Review pf_Educational Research, (Winter, 1972), 46-57. Flanagan, John C. "General Considerations in the Selection of Test Items and a Short Method of Estimating the Product-Moment from the Data at the Tails of the Distribution." Journal gf_Educational Psychology, XXXXII (December, 1939), 674-680. Grunes, W. F. "Looking at Occupations." Journal pf Abnormal ppg_Social Psychology, 54 (1957), 86-92. Hanlon, T. E. "Congruence of Self and Ideal-Self in Relation to Person- ality Adjustment." Journal pf_Consulting Psychology, (l95l),215-218. Holland, John L. "A Classification for Occupations in Terms of Personality and Intelligence." American Psyghologist, (1959), 476. Holland, John L. "Explorations of a Theory of Vocational Choice and Achievement: A Four Year Prediction Study." Psychological 109 Holt, R. R. "Accuracy of Self-Evaluation: Its Measurement and Some of Its Personalogical Correlates." Journal pf_Consulting_Psychology, (1951), 95-101. Levy, L. H. "The Meaning and Generality of Perceived Actual-Ideal Discrepancies." Journal pf Consulting_Psychology, 20 (1956), 396-398. Roe, Anne. "Early Determinants of Vocational Choice." Journal pf; Counseling Psychology, (1957), 212-217. Rosenthal, Robert. "Self-Fulfilling PrOphecy." Psychology Today, (September, 1968), 24-60. Siegelman, M. and Peck, R. F. "Personality Patterns Related to Occupa- tion Rates." Genetic Psychology Monographs, (1960), 291-349. Strong, 0. J. and Feder, D. 0. “Measurements of the Self-Concept: A Critique of the Literature." Journal pf_ConsultingPsychology, (1961), 170-177. Super, 0. E. "A Theory of Vocational Development." American Psycholo- gist, (1953), 185-190. Super, 0. E. "Vocational Adjustment Implementing a Self-Concept." Occupations, 30 (1951), 88-92. Tiedeman, D. V. "Decision and Vocational DevelOpment: A Paradigm and §ts Implications." Personnel and Guidance Journal, 40 (1961), 5-21. Watson, Elizabeth. "Dimensions of Teacher Expectations and Student Behavior in High School Of Social Studies Classes." The Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 66 (October, 1972), 22-257' Witkin, H. A. “Individual Differences in Ease of Perception of Imbedded Figures." Journal gf_Personality, Vol. 19 (1950), 1-15. UNPUBLISHED MATERIAL Blanzy, James J. "A Study of the Relationship Between Student and Teacher Cognitive Style and Student Derived Teacher Evaluations." Un- published doctoral dissertation, Wayne State University, 1966. DeLoach, Joseph. "An Analysis of Cognitive Style: Disparity as an Antecedent of Cognitive Dissonance in Instructional Evaluation : An Exploratory Study in the Educational Sciences." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Wayne State University, 1970. 110 Fragale, Marvin J. "A Pilot Study of Cognitive Styles of Selected Faculty Members and Students in a Community College Setting." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Wayne State University, 1966. Gural, James R. "A Cognitive Style Approach to the Reconceptualization of a Curriculum for Vocational Guidance and Counseling." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Wayne State University, 1972. Hill, Joseph E. "An Outline of the Educational Sciences." Unpublished manuscript, Wayne State University, 1968. Hill, Joseph E. "Cognitive Style as an Educational Science." Unpublished manuscript, Detroit, Michigan, 1968. Hill, Joseph E. "Problems Set on Objectivity of Process of Mapping Styles." Unpublished manuscript, Oakland Community College, 1973. Hoogasian, Vaughn. "An Examination of Cognitive Style Profiles as Indicators of Performance with a Selected Discipline." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Wayne State University, 1970. McAdam, Glenn F. "Personalizing Instruction Through the Educational Sciences of Cognitive Style and Teaching Style." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1971. Schroeder, Arlan. "A Study of the Relationship Between Student and Teacher Cognitive Style and Student Derived Teacher Evaluations." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Wayne State University, 1969. Shuert, Keith L. “A Study to Determine Whether a Selected Type of Cogni- tive Style Predisposes One to 00 Well in Mathematics." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Wayne State University, 1970. Warner, James L. "An Analysis of the Cognitive Style of Community College Freshman Enrolled in a Life Science Course." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Wayne State University, 1970. Wasser, Laurence. "An Investigation into Cognitive Style as a Facet of Teachers Systems of Student Appraisal." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The University of Michigan, 1969. OTHER SOURCES Matson, Jane. "Community College Students." Speech given to the Illinois Association of Community and Junior Colleges, Chicago, Illinois, March 22, 1968. APPENDICES 111 112 APPENDIX A Cognitive Style as an , Educational SCIence J. E. Hill Manuscript P. - 1 Ed . Sciences COGNITIVE STYLE AS AN EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE During the latter half of the 1930's, many psychologists were particularly interested in the study of the consistency and predictability of personality. In the early 1940's, Allport suggested the concept of "style," which essentially he defined as the consistency and pattern of expressive behaviors that indi- viduals manifest in performing various types of activities. In the context of Allpori's descriptive defi- nition of style, the term is highly similar to its common use in such expressions as: an individual's way (style) of living, a style of speaking, a writing style, or style of dress. This orientation permits the use of the term "style" to denote an entire pattern of responses,i. e., if can refer to not only a particular way of life, but to a particular class of events (e. 9., style of speaking). In this sense, the term "style" is both general and relatively specific, i. e., if is not restricted to a particular denotation (e. 9., all aspects of response patterns). Turning to the consideration of investigations of cognitive behaviors, the traditional approaches in these endeavors have dealt mainly with concept formation. These types of studies have tended to be limited to such considerations as: what are concepts? how are they attained? or, how are they learned? In essence, these efforts have been directed toward investigations of various ramifications of what might be termed "concept learning." Investigators involved in these types of studies, however, have not examined cognitive functions in the context of personality. During the past ten to fifteen years, the concept of cognitive style has been investigated in the context of cognition as a facet of personality. Witkin, for example, has advanced the notion that the phenomenor described as cognitive style is a type of personality construct expressed in the interaction between per- ceptual (cognitive) response systems and antecedent conditions in the life history of the subiect (person) In this context, then, the investigator is interested in such phenomena as the quality of mother-child relationships as antecedents to certain types of cognitive styles. Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill P. -2 Certain contemporary studies of cognitive style have been designed to consider the phenomenon as an individual '5 particular mode of response to a given set of stimuli (variables). Other modern efforts have sought antecedents, or correlates, between cognitive style and: (I) such personality variables as: de- pendency, anxiety, and passivity; (2) such cognitive variables as: intelligence, problem-solving, and reasoning; and (3) such psychological processes as: learning, and perception. In essence, then, the contemporary studies of cognitive style involve the investigation of cagnitive processes in the context of personality and defined social variables. These approaches indicate the recognition on the part of certain psychologists (e. 9., Broverman, Gardner, Kagan, Moss, Sigel, Witkin) that cognitive behaviors form a fundamental part of a socio—personal matrix, and that the employment of certain classes of behavior called "cognitive" have consistent qualities which justify their being defined as stylistic. The concept of cognitive style employed as an educational science is somewhat different from those de- scribed and defined in the discipline of psychology. The construct of cognitive style as defined in terms of the educational sciences is a Cartesian product, G, composed of three sets, S, E, and H, where S denotes the set of elements defining symbolic orientations, E indicates the set of cultural determinants of the construct is developed as follows: Consider the set "S" composed of 288 possible binomial combinations involving maior and minor theor- etical and qualitative symbolic orientations. Expressed in the form of set notation: (TX -Qy)l (Tx ' qy): S: (lx - Sly)! (Q), " l'x)° Where "T“ denotes a major theoretical symbolic orientation of an individual; "Q" indicates a mior qualitative symbolic orientation; "t" a minor theoretical symbolic orientation; "q" a minor qualitative symbolic orientation, the subscript "x" is a place-holder for one of the following notations: "al" - J. E. Hill Ed. Sciences Manuscript Po - 3 auditory linguistic, "aq" - auditory quantitative, "vl" - visual linguistic, and "vq" - visual quanti- "a" - auditory; tative; and the subscript "y" holds a place for $3. of eighteen following notations: "o" - olfactory, "s" - savory, "t" - tactile, "v" visual, "p" - prOprioceptive, "pk" - proprioceptive kinematics, "pt" - proprioceptive temporal, "cem" - code empathetic, "ces" - code esthetic, "cet" - code ethic, "ch" - code histrionic, "ck" - code kinesics, "ckh" - code kinesthetics, ”cp” - code proxemics, "cs" - code synnoetics, "ct" - code transactional, and "ctm" - code temporal. Since there are 72 possible binomial combinations for each of the four arrangements; i.e. , since there are 72 com- binations of the form (Tx - Qy)’ 72 of the form (Tx - qy), 72 of the type (Qy - tx), and 72 of the "double minor" category (tx - qy); "S" is a finite set composed of 4 x 72 = 288 elements. Consider similarly the fifteen elements, twelve of which are binomial combinations and three of which are of monomial form, comprising the set "E" called "the cultural determinants of the meanings of symbols. " Expressed in set notation: I, A, F. E (I - 0(2))! (A " i(z))l (F " i(z)l (I " f(z))l (A "' f(z))l (F ' 0(2))° where "l" indicates a major "individuality" determinant of the meanings of symbols, "A" denotes a major "associates" determinant, "F" a ma'or "famil " determinant, "i" a minor "individualit " determinant, __L. ___X I "a" a minor "associates" determinant, "f" a minor "family" determinant, and the subscript "2" holds a place for either a positive sign (+), or a negative sign (-) depending upon the type of influence the minor determinant involved tends to exert an the individual when he is in the process of determining meanings of symbols (e.g. , words sentences, pictures, "feels," stories, "tastes"). Now, consider the set "H" of five monomial and six binomial elements involving what are called "the modalities of inference. " Expressed in set notation, the eleven elements appear as follows: Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill . P. - 4 f M, D, R, L35 H = (M-d), (D-m), (R-m), @) (M - r), (D - r), (R - d). Where K denotes a deductive inferential process necessary to the completion of certain types of "educational tasks" (e.g., proving a theorem in Euclidean geometry), "M" indicates a major "magnitude" inferential mode, "D" represents a major modality called "difference," "R" denotes a major modalim termed "relationship," "L" indicates a major inferential mode known as "appraisa ," "m" denotes a minor modality of "magnitude," "d" represents a minor "difference" mode, and "r" indicates a minor modality of inference called "relationship." With the definitions of sets S, E, and H completed, a fourth set G, expressed as a Cartesian product, is possible. Thus, G becomes: G=SxExH, ’ §_ ‘ r .6. t r a * l, A, F, M, D, R, L G =l (Tx - Qy)' (Tx - qy),> x((| - 0(2)), (A - i(z)), (F - i(z)),? x((M - d), (D - m), (R - m)® t- ,Q-t I-f ,A-f ,F- M-,D- ,R-d. > ( r) ( r) ( ) K \ J K A set "9" , a Cartesian product of sub-sets of appropriate elements drawn from sets S, E, and H, can be constructed to define the "cognitive style" of an individual (e.g., student, teacher, administrator). Thus, there is an element "9" (a ”cognitive style") of set G‘such that: 9=¢(5, 6, l1) (1) Where (5 (phi) denotes a function in the form of a Cartesian product, and s, e, and h represent sub-sets of the sets S, E, and H, respectively. Obviously, each of these sub-sets are composed of elements unique to them (e.g., s/ , ‘3. , s}, e/ , ed, h/ , h). This type of notation is useful only in that it permits Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill P. - 5 a cc..npact representation of the "style" of an individual at a particular point of time and level of accomplishment in his educational development. ' Put in another way, the set G can be defined as the universal set, i.e., the set of all possible "cognitive : __ __ slles" accommodated by the Cartesian product of sets 5, E, and H . Consistent with the notation employed 1. in (I), this definition of G becomes: 1: ’ G =¢ (s, E. H) (2) Fl Under these circumstances, (I) refers to a_n element of G, while (2) denotes the universal set G. It ' should also be noted that according to these definitions, 5, e, and h could be called the "coordinates" Of Hg" . ___. J. Since the set S is composed of a possible 288 elements, 15 elements comprise E, and H includes II, it follows that the Cartesian product of these sets, i.e. , the universal set G, is composed of: 288 x I5 x II = 47,520 different "cognitive style" elements at a given level of educational development. This result is based on the reasoning that there are 288 ways of choosing an element from S, I5 ways of ;choosing one from E, and II ways of selecting one from H, or 288 x I5 x II possible ways of defining :"styles" over S, E, and H. It should be noted, however, that in actual practice the maximum number 3f elements that can be included in an individual's style "9“, at a given level of educational development, {5: 72x4x8=2304. I According to the language of set theory, although G is called the "Cartesian product" (or "direct 2 was defined. This approach to enumerating (counting) the number of elements in G does not imply r-hat any algebraic operations are to be performed on the elements themselves. I ln analogous fashion, the cognitive style of an individual, 9 = ¢ (5, e, h), is called "the Cartesian aroduct of the sub-sets s, e, and h. The elements comprising the respective sub-sets serve as coordinates, or "profiles," of an individual's "cognitive style." Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill P. -6 The construct called " cognitive style" can now be described as a Cartesian product, or direct product, of three sub-sets, i. e., s, e, and h, with the elements comprising these sub-sets serving as coordinates, or "profiles," of an individual's style . The phraseol09ies " Cartesian product" and “Cartesian space" are synonymous in mathematical lexicon, i. e., the term “space“ is synonymous with "set." Therefore, a Cartesian product is a particular type of space (or set) whose elements may serve as coordinates of "profiles" defined over that space. In this context, a cognitive style profile is a coordinate space of a Cartesian product. The term "space," as used here, emphasizes the non-numerical, and the non- algebraic points of departure of various constructs which can be considered by means of modern mathematics methods. Mapping Classifying the elements ofa given set (e. 9, set A) into two categories included in a second set (e. 9., B} is a process mathematicians call "mapping." The notation usually employed for this process is: A-—)B (3) The notation in (3) indicates a correspondence between the elements of set A and those of set 8. In this example, set A is called the domain of the mapping, and B the range. Mathematical mappings employ only the theoretical symbols ofabstract logic or mathematics. Empirical mappings involve persons making judgments on a "makes sense" or "does not make sense" basis to classify elements (e. 9., persons, processes, and properties ofa social system called "curriculum") into "logical” categories. This type of decision-making employs not only theoretical symbolic mediations (e. 9., "worcsl and "numbers") but demands qualitative symbolic aspects of reasoning (e. 9., "picturing" the solution at a problem) as well. For example, in order to diagnose (map) the cognitive style ("9") of an individual, the "educational scientist" (e. 9., teacher) must consider the individual's level of educational develop- ment in terms of the elements included in the sets S, E, and H, respectively. Empirically, the diag- nostician ("scientist") must decide which elements in the sets 5, E, and H, respectively, are appropriate Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill P. - 7 for: inclusion in the sub-sets s, e, and h that form the individual's cognitive style . This approach demands :3 the classification of the elements of S into two categories: 5 and ?(not 5); E into the two categories: e 75 and? (not e); and H into h and TI The process involved here is called "empirical mapping." This type t? of mapping (diagnosis) angrily be effected by gawk. 9., educational scientist) classifying the elements involved on a "makes sense," or "does not make sense" basis. If a mathematical mapping of : these elements were desired, there would need to be a logical and theoretical vehicle (e. 9., a formula, or equation) available by which the decision could be derived. In this case, a person is not actually :" involved in the decision-making process associated with the classification. Under these circumstances, the decision is rendered by performing indicated operations on the logical (mathematical) function used to determine the desired outcome. The point to be made is that the mapping of cognitive styles is mainly empirical in nature, and as such, is dependent upon the judgments of persons (diagnosticians) responsible 3 for the process of classifying the elements of symbolic orientations, "cultural determinants," and modalities of inference into Cartesian products that represent the cognitive styles of the individuals under consider- ation. The cognitive style of an individual cannot be empirically mapped without considering: (I) the level of educational development of the person, (2) the general symbolic conditions of educational tasks he will be called upon to accomplish, (3) certain antecedents (e. 9., family) to his present state of develOpment, 1:: nd (4) the appropriateness of the elements under consideration for the conditions under which the edu- 7cational tasks must be completed. The mapping of an individual's style is also affected by the diag- nostician's cognitive style. In this context, diagnostic teams have generally been able to produce ”styles' (of higher predictive and concurrent validity than those "mapped" by the individual diagnostician. Relationship In order to reduce the amount of notation associated with the discussion and description of the processes and procedures associated with the empirical mapping of an individual's cognitive style, it is necessary Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill P. -8 to consider a concept basic to all science, i. e., the concept of "relationship." The most useful defin- ition of relationship for any branch of science is the one which mathematicians have developed in terms of the elementary concepts of set theory. The definition in question is: A relationship is a sub-set of a Cartesian space . A binary relationship is one whose Cartesian space is defined by two sets. A relationship of "n" dimensions (n-ary condition) can always be expressed as a binary relation by distributing the n sets over two groupings, and then defining the Cartesian space of these two groupings (sets) as the binary relation. It is in this sense that the diagnostician (e. 9., "educational scientist") maps the n-profiles of an individual's cog- nitive style into the three sub-sets comprising the Cartesian product representing his style. A function is defined to be a binary relationship. Therefore, the concept of function and that of mapping, as discussed here, are identical. From equations (I) and (2) above, it should be noted that "g" is a function of s, e, and h; and that G is a function of S, E, and H. These facts were noted by including "¢" (phi) to represent the functional relationships involved. These functional relationships permit the following notation to describe, with a minimum number of symbols, the process involved in: (I) the empirical mapping ofan individual's cog- nitive style, and (2) the mapping ofan augmented cognitive style. In this context, the notation in (4) describes the mapping of an individual's "style": (Ev—99 (4) Where 9 denotes an individual's cognitive style derived from the "universal" set G composed of: 36,960 possible "profiles." The cognitive style of an individual can be changed by the process of training and‘eduoation. A cognitive style is considered to be changed at the training level of development when the individual exhibits be- havior (e . 9 ., responses to certain test variables, demonstration of certain physical actions) of his having CtCOUlt‘ed Ol’ least one or more elements In at least one of the nth-eat: nnmnrieinn hie r-nnnitiua ctvle- Ed. Sciences ” Manuscript J. E. Hill P. - 9 This accomplishment can be noted by the expression shown in (5): 9—990 (5) Where 9a denotes the augmented cognitive style of the individual, and g is as previously defined in (4). This type ofaugmentation is defined to be training. When individual demonstrates behavior which indi- cates that he is employing the "augmented elements" of his "style" to accomplish educational tasks different from those used to effect the original augmentation of his "style," he is considered to be educated at a level of development higher than the one which was associated with his original cognitive style "9 ." Tl3 APPENDIX B COLLECTIVE COGRITIVE STYLE SURVEY Instructor __ Curriculum Date INSTRUCTIONS: Please read the following definitions carefully and.evaluate each one as the characteristic of the potential ideal student in the curriculum. EXAMPLE: Qualitative Code Ethic - commitment to a set of values. a group of principles. obligations and/or duties. This commitment need not imply morality. Both a priest and a criminal may be comitted to a set of values although the ”values" may be decidely different. On a scale of l-S, where 5 is the most desirable and l is least desirable, how important is this characteristic for the ideal student in your curriculum? If you have any questions, please feel free to ask? 1. Theoretical Visual Linguistic--ability to find meaning from the printed word. A rating of 3 or higher indicates a student who reads with a better than average degree of comprehension and one who ex- hibits a better than average understanding of grammatical structure. 1 2 3 4 5 2. Theoretical Auditory Linguistic--ability to acquire meaning from the spoken word. l 2 3 4 5 3. Theoretical Visual Quantitative--ability to acquire meaning from printed symbols and math relationships. 1 2 3 4 5 4. Theoretical Auditory Quantitative-~ability to derive meaning from spoken symbols and math relationships. 1 2 3 4 5 5. Qualitative Code Empathetic--sensitivity to the feelings of others; ability to put yourself in another's place and identify with the role of another individual. 1 2 3 4 5 6. Qualitative Code Esthetic--ability to enjoy the beauty of an object afief the pureness of an idea. 1 2 3 4 5 7. Qualitative Code Ethic--commitment to a set of values, a group of principles, obligations and/or duties. This commitment need not imply morality. Both a priest and a criminal may be committed to a set of values although the "values" may be decidely different. 1 2 3 4 5 8. Qualitative Code Histrionic--ability to exhibit a deliberate behavior, or play a role to produce some particular effect on other persons. This type of person knows how to fulfill role expectations. T 2 ' 3 4 - 5 .2- REMEMBER: 5 is most desirable and l is least desirable. 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. Qualitative Code Kinesics--ability to understand and to communicate by non-linguistic functions such as facial expressions and motions of the body (e. g. , smiles and gestures). l 2 3 4 5 Qualitative Code Kinesthetic-~ability to perform motor skills, or effect muscular coordination according to a recommended or acceptable farm (e. g. . bowling according to form. or golfing). I 2 3 4 5 Qualitative Code Proxemics--ability to judge the physical and social distance that the other person would permit, between oneself and that other person. 1 ’2 3 4 5 Quajitative Code Synoetics--a "realistic" personal knowledge of one- se i 2 3 4 5 Qualitative Code Transactional--ability to maintain a positive communicative interaction which significantly influences the goals of the persons involved so that there are positive outcomes for both. 1 2 3 ‘4' 5 Qualitative Code Temporal--ability to respond or behave according to time expectations imposed on an activity by members in the role-set associated with that activity. 2 3 4 5 CULTURAL DETERMINANTS The fallowing three statements indicate the degree of the influence on the meanings of symbols mediated by an individual. 15. Family--indicates a major family influence, or an extremely close friend. 1 2 ‘ 3 4 5 16. I7. Associates-~indicates influence by colleagues. friends or persons other than those qualifying as family. i 2 3 4 5 Individuality-~the need of the individual to influence the meaning of symbols with his own interpretation. 1 2 3 4 5 MODALITIES gr INFERENCE The following five statements indicate the form of inference which the person employs. ' 18. I9. 20. 21. Magnitude-~a form of "categorical reasoning“ that utilizes norms or categorical classifications as the basis for accepting or rejecting a decision or opinion. Persons who need to define things in order to understand them reflect this form of inference. I . 2 3 4 5 Difference--this pattern suggests a tendency to reason in terms of one-to-one contrasts or comparisons of selected characteristics or measurements. Artists often possess this modality as do creative writers and musicians. l 2 3 4 5 Relationship--this modality indicates the ability to synthesize a number of dimensions or incidents into a unified meaning, or through _ analysis of a situation to discover its component parts. Psychia- trists frequently employ the modality of relationships in the process of psychoanalyzing a client. 1 2 3 . 4. 5 Appraisal--is the modality of inference employed by an individual who uses all three of the modalities noted above (M. D. and R) giving weight to each in his reasoning process. Individuals who employ this modality tend to analyze, question, or in effect, appraise that which is under consideration in the process of drawing a probability con- c us on. 'T ‘ 2 3 4 5 REMEMBER: 5 is most desirable and l is least desirable. 22. Deductive--indicates deductive reasoning or the form of logical analysis requiring premises and a conclusion that is a necessary consequence of the process employed. 1 2 3 4 5 ll4 APPENDIX C Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill PROBLEM SET ON: (I) SCALING ITEMS IN TERMS OF DIFFlCULTY, (2) STANDARD SCORES, (3) PERCENTILE SCALING, AND (4) SCALING JUDGMENTS I. Scaling Test Items in terms of Difficulty The term §£_aI_e_, in the context of mental measurement, is considered to be a continuum throughout which entities such as items, tasks, and performances are located in terms of some attribute such as difficulty. The location of the zero point of a scale is an arbitrary decision made by the constructor of the scale. The size of the units of a scale may be arbitrarily determined by its constructor, but, ideally, should be equal, maintain the same meaning, and remain stable throughout the range of the scale. In order to construct an instrumentality designed to accommodate a wide range of levels of educational development, it is necessary to include problems, tasks, or performances graded in terms of known steps or intervals of difficulty over a range beginning with items seeking re- sponses that are relatively easy for the respondents to produce through those that present a great challenge to each respondent. It is possible to construct a crude scale of difficulty by arranging the items comprising an instrumentality in a percent order of difficulty. It should be noted, however, that percent differences are not always satisfactory indices of differences in difficulty of items. If it can be assumed that the measurements of a "style" element are distributed approximately normally, then the variability of the measurements of a group, i. e. , the standard deviation (a) unit of a normal distribution associated with the percent of group passing, provides a better means for scaling difficulty than does the approach of "percent of group passing each of the items" alone. The "variability" approach makes it possible to locate and space items in terms of CT‘distance at specific points along a continuum of difficulty. In this context, the positions of the items relative to each other, as well as being relative to a selected "zero point, " are then known in terms of a stable unit, i. e., in terms of standard deviation, oro' scaling. The Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -2- following example, and the five step approach which it includes, describes how this type of scaling can be used in the construction of an instrumentality. Suppose that a scale is to be constructed to measure qualitative prOprioceptiveness, Q(P), of children in grades K-3; or a scale is to be constructed for measuring qualitative code kines- thetics, Q(CKH), reflected by children in grades 4-6; or a scale for measuring qualitative code temporal, Q(CTM in high school students is to be formed. The process for constructing such an instrumentality, based upon an item analysis approach, can be effected by the following five steps: (I) Prepare a large number of items, or tasks, or performances that range in difficulty from a very elementary, or easy, level to a highly advanced, or difficult, level in the element of "style" being sampled; and administer this collection to a large number of individuals drawn randomly from the papulation (group) for which the instrumentality is being designed. For example, if a scale is to be constructed to help teachers assess qualitative proprioceptiveness, Q(P), in children grades K-3, a large number of items describing tasks or performances such as: putting wooden pins in a peg board, coloring within lines, walking a balance beam, and tossing bean bags at a target, should be compiled. During the time that these tasks are being compiled each one of them should be assessed for level of difficulty by observing the level of educational development of the children finding it easy to perform the task in question and the "level" of those children having a decidedly difficult time in effecting the performance requested. After all the items have been sorted according to their possible levels of difficulty, they are administered to a large sample of pupils drawn from the papulation of children in "grades" K-3 available to the constructor of the instrumentality. (2) After the collection of "items" has been administered to the sample group, calculate Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -3- the percent of the group that performed satisfactorily on each item, where the term "satisfactorily" pertains to a performance leading to a mapping of either a minor or major orientation at the grade level the "item" was considered to sample, this grade level having been determined on the basis of pilot study information produced during the time the item was being developed. Eliminate items that are duplicates, those that appear to be too easy to master, those that are too difficult, and those that may be unsatisfactory for other reasons. Arrange the items selected for inclusion in the instrumentality, i. e., the scale, in an order of descending percents of difficulty. In this context, a task performed successfully by 95 percent of the sample group is easier than one accomplished by 80 percent of the group, while in turn the latter task is less difficult than one successfully performed by 60 percent of the sample group. Thus, the greater the percent of students accomplishing the task, the less difficult the item is considered to be, and therefore the lower the item is to be placed in a scale of difficulty. (3) Employing a table of values of a cumulative normal distribution,* the percent of students successfully performing the task associated with the item under consideration is converted into a positive, or a negative, standard deviation distance, i.e., a (+5“), or a (- 6') distance, relative to the mean. Recalling the inverse relationship between the percent of group successfully accomplishing an "item" and theo- distance above (+), or below(—), the mean. To illustrate this point,in the earlier example, the task accomplished succes— sfully by 95 percent of the sample group would be located -I .645 6"(below) from the mean; the task which was successfully performed by 80 percent of the group would be located -I .282 O'units below the mean; the task "accomplished" by 60 percent of the group would be located, approximately, -.25°" below the mean; and if there were another task which only 30 percent of the group successfully performed, *See attaaied table. Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -4- it would be located, approximately, +.525¢(above) from the mean. It is in this fashion that each item can be located along a continuum of difficulty, assuming that the distribution of difficulty is distributed normally. (4) After the o-distance of each "item" has been determined, find theadistance of each item from the zero point, i. e., from the level of zero ability, on the scale (continuum). The zero point can be located arbitrarily as follows: Suppose that 2.5 percent of the entire group fail to perform satisfactorily on all the items being considered. This result could place the level of zero ability 47.5 percent of the distribution below the mean, or at a distance of, -I .960' from the mean. It should be noted that the decision re- garding the location of the zero point of a scale is always an arbitrary one, and merely locates a reference point (e. 9., a level of minimum ability) from which performance can be measured. The point, -3.000'is often chosen as a convenient zero or reference point when the normal distribution is assumed to pertain to the activity under consider- ation. To illustrate how thed' distance of each item from the zero point can be deter- mined, the examples used in Step (3) are shown in the table below: Items 5 e s; 2 Percent Per- forming Successfully 95 80 6O 30 Distance from Mean in Percent Terms -45 -30 -IO +20 0" Distance from Mean -l .645 -I .282 -.25 +.525 6- Distance from Arbitrary Zero Point, -(--I .960) -(-l .960) -(-I .960) -(-l .960) "'96 +.315 +.678 +.7l0 ' +2.485 Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -5- It should be noted that the value of the O'distance of an item from the zero point or reference point is determined by subtracting algebraically the a" distance of the zero point from the mean, from that of the item. For example, the 5' distance of Item A from the zero point is: -l .645 - (-l .960) = +.315; for Item 8: -I .282 - (-l.960) = +.678; while for Item D: +.525 - (-l .960) = +2.485. (5) When the distance of each item from the reference point has been determined, the difficulty of each item relative to that of the others, and to the zero point, is known and the scaling process is completed. What is done with the instnrmentality beyond this point depends upon the purposes of the constructor. A large number of items separated by relatively small 0" distances may be selected so that the instrumentality covers a fairly wide range of educational development. On the other hand, the range may be limited to items from -2.50 O'distance to +2.500", and the instrumen- tality might be composed of a relatively few items spaced at, say, .5 O'distance of difficulty. The O'distance approach provides a means for establishing "norms" for an instrumentality designed for individuals of different levels of educational development, or different ages, or different school grades, or for persons comprising each of several different occupational groups. 2. Standard Scores If there are constraints in terms of time or human resources, instead of scaling separate items of an instrumentality, it is possible to scale aggregates of items or total scores. One of the more popular approaches to this end is that of standard scores. Scores made by the same individual on several different instrumentalities cannot usually be compared directly because of differences in the units of the instrumentality. In other cases, the scores of individuals in the same group earned on each of, say, four different tests cannot be Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -6- compared directly because of the change in the variability of the group's performance from one test to another. One means of overcoming these difficulties is to translate the raw score of an individual on a test to standard score form. It can be shown that the mean of a group's standard scores of the form: 2 = 50 + meg—)5) Where Z denotes the standard score, X is the raw score of an individual on an instrumentality, 3? is the value of the mean score of the group's performance on the instrumentality, and S is the value of the standard deviation of the distribution of the group's scores on the instrumentality. The mean of a set of 2 scores is: 7 = 50, and the standard deviation is: S2 = ID. Employing this formula, the comparison of scores made by the same individual on several different tests can be effected, but even more importantly the performance of an individual over a series of tests can be compared with those of another individual over the same series of tests. For example, suppose that the distribution of scores for Student A and Student 8, respectively over three tests, are as shown in the table: Students' Raw Scores (X) Mean S .D. Test A B 7(- S I 90 70 80 2.5 80 80 80 5.0 3 70 90 80 I0.0 At first glance, the arithmetic average (mean) of Student A's raw scores: 32A = w = 80, and the mean of Student B's raw scores over the three tests is: 7% = W = 80. Moreover, A's performance appears to have declined over the three tests, while B's performance reflects a gain or improvement trend. Translating the raw scores to Z scores, it is found that: Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -7. Student A Student 8 Testl z=50+10(3';;'§59—90 z =50+10(7%‘85°=10 = 80-80 _ 80-80 _ Test 2 z 50 + 10(—3—)= 50 z - 50 + io(——5—)- 50 Test 3 z = 50 + 10(70'680 =40 z = 50 + loéllf’B—O): 60 The total of Student A's Z-scores would be: l80 (N. B.the mean score of a series of Z-scores earned on different tests is not itself _a_ mean Z—score); while the total for Student 8 would be: I20. It is apparent that the level of performance over the three tests expressed in standard score form for each of the students is different, but expressed in raw score form the performance of each would appear to be equal with a slight possible advantage accruing to B because of the improvement or gain trend reflected over the three tests. In this context, it can be seen how Z- scores can be employed to provide a comparable scaling of the performances of individuals over a series of instrumentalities designed to measure the some aspects (e. 9., a given "style" element). Although standard scores make comparisons of otherwise dissimilar scores possible, the T score, which is nothing more than a normalized Z (standard) score increases the stability of the scaling. For example, a Z-score of 70 would indicate that the individual earning this score would be two standard deviations (Sz= I0) above the mean (Z = 50), while a T score of 70 would indicate not only how far above the mean the individual was, but would denote that he was in approximately the 98th percentile of the distribution which has been normalized. Although the transformation of Z-scores to T-scores is a simple procedure, it is omitted here in the interest of purpose, time, and space. Another means of stabilizing the scaling of scores is that of stanine scores. The term "stanine‘ is a contraction of the phraseology "standard nine." Essentially, the stanine scale is a con- densed form of a scale of T-scores. Stanine scores range from I through 9 along the base Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -8- line of a normal curve forming a scale in which the "distance" unit is .56 and the value of the median is 5. The percent of scores in each stanine is shown in Figure l. fl"\ 4% 7% 12% 17% 20% 17% 12% 7% . 4% 1 L2 j 3 j 4 5 6 7 j 8 9 0': -1.75 -1.25 -.75 -.25 +.25 +.75 +1.23 +1.75 ‘ Figure l. Stanine Scale with Percent of Scores in Each Stanine Since stanine scores are but a condensed form of a scale of T-scores, once again in the interest of purpose, time and space further discussion is omitted. 3. Percentile Scaling A percentile rank of a score locates the individual achieving that score on a scale of 100 and indicates the propor on of the group of l00 that has achieved scores lower than that score . An error commonly made by persons employing percentile rank scales is that the difference between a "rank" of IO and a "rank" of 20 is considered to be the same as the difference between a "rank" of 50 and a "rank" of 60, i.e. , that the differences between percentile ranks are equal throughout the range of the scale. This assumption of equal differences among percentile ranks is true only if the distribution of raw scores is rectangular in shape. The assumption is in error when the distri- bution of raw scores is approximately normal. Since distributions of raw scores are rarely rectangula- but are frequently approximately normal in their distribution, the assumption of "equal differences" Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -9- rarely applies. If the normal curve were partitioned into five sections, each of which included 20 percent of the area under the curve, it would appear as shown in Figure 2. N o\ N :3 20% 20% O" : 3.7.0 -.84 -.2-5— +.25 +.84 +5.7) Percentile: 0 20 40 60 80 100 Figure 2. Normal Distribution Showing Relationship Between Quintiles and 0' Distances from Mean From a table of values pertaining to a cumulative normal distribution, if it is assumed that -3.0 0' is associated with zero accumulated area, then the first 20% of the area is accumulated between -3.00"and -.84 0", the second 20% between -.84 G'and -.250’, the third 20% between -.25 O'Tand +.25 0", the fourth 20% between +.250' and +.840” , and the fifth 20% between +.84 O'and +3.0. In terms of absolute or distance, i. e., ignoring the algebraic sign, the first 20% covers: -3.0 - (-.84) = 2.16 0"; the second 20%: -.84 - (-.25) = .59 0', the third 20%: -.25 - (+.25) = .50 0"; the fourth: +.25 —.84 = .590"; and the fifth 20%: +.84 - 3.0 = 2.16 0". It should be obvious that the intervals along the base line associated with the 20 percent sections at the lower and upper ends of the distribution, respectively, are approximately four times as long as the one associated with the middle 20 percent section . These relationships are Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -10- preserved if percentile ranks are converted to T scores as shown in the array below: Percentile Rank 0" Distance T-S core_ 99 2.33 T = 50 + IO(2.33) = 73 95 I.64 T=50+IO(I.64)=66 90 l .28 63 80 .84 58 70 .52 55 60 .25 53 50 .00 50 4O -.25 47 30 -.52 45 20 -.84 42 I0 -I .28 37 5 -l .64 34 l -2.33 27 j Merely by expressing the percentile ranks of raw scores (assuming they are approximately normally distributed) in terms of T-scores automatically converts the scaling of these percentile ranks into an appropriate normalized form. 4 . S cal ing Judgments Responses to Questionnaire Items. There are several possible forms of rep‘ ies to questionnaire items such as: Rarely, Sometimes, Usually; Yes, No; Most Like Me through Least Like Me; or Most, Many, Some, Few, None. In those cases where the respondent is asked to select one of Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -1]- four or five categories as his response to the item, it is frequently desirable to weight each of the categories in accordance with how divergent it might be from the "neutral, " or the "typical" category of the set. In order to solve this problem, it is assumed that the opinions, attitudes, or judgments represented by the set of four or five response categories are approximately normal in their distribution over that set. Under these circumstances, based upon the percent of the group that selects a given category as a response to an item, a O'distance from the mean ("neutral" or "typical" category) can be determined and, in turn, be used as a "weight" for the category in question. Although Garrett discusses a method for scaling: (I) responses to questionnaire items, and (2) judges ratings, by means of employing highly precise O’distances associated with the normal curve,* the use of a scale of T-scores accomplishes these purposes with far less work, and with relatively little loss in the precision of the "weightings" or scalings of the categories involved. It is in this context that a scale of T-scores is employed to "weight" the response categories asso- ciated with the item included in the example below. Suppose that a questionnaire is composed of 20 statements regarding elements of "demeanor" associated with administrative style. The apinion of the respondent regarding the topic covered by the statement is to be expressed in terms of one of the following five categories: Strongly Agree, Agree, Undecided, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree. If each of these categories associated with the statement: The administrator who follows the guide of: my goals my way; usually provides good leadership. Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree *Henry E. Garrett, Statistics in Psychology and Education, Longmans, Green and Co. , New York: I958, Fifth Edition: pp. 323-332. Ed. Sciences Manuscript -12- J. E. Hill were selected by the percent of group shown in the table, assuming the selections of these categories by the respondents would be approx- imately normally distributed, i. e., that relatively few respondents will strongly agree or disagree, while the majority will hold inter- mediate views, find the "weight" for each category by employing the T-score method of scaling. Strongly Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Disagree Area of section, or percent of group selecting I3 43 2] l3 IO Approximate values of O'distance from mean to baseline point -I .50 -.40 .43 .98 I .65 for cumulative area to one-half the section T-score 35 46 54 60 67 The values shown in the table are calculated in the following fashion: Step I. The percent of group selecting a category is found by dividing the number of selections of the category by the total number of selections. For example, suppose that I00 persons respond to the statement. The data in the top row of the table shows that I3 persons selected the category "Strongly Agree" as representing their opinions of the statement, while 43 selected the category "Agree . " Step 2. The approximate value of the a'distance from the mean ("neutral" Ed . Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -13- answer) to the baseline point associated with the cumulative area up to one-half the area of the section is explained by the following calculations: A. In the case of the category "Strongly Agree," one-half of the I3 percent of the group at lower extreme of the normal curve, i. e., 6.5 percent, is at an approximate -I .506’from the mean. The value -I .50 is approximated from values iound in Table A-4, Cumulative Normal Dis- tribution. Regarding the category ”Agree," the area associated with the category "Strongly Agree," i. e., I3 percent, is added to one-half the area (43/2 = 21 .5) of the section associated with the category "Agree." This cumulative area of: I3+2I .5 = 34.5 is at an approximate -.40 6' from the mean. The value -.40 is approximated from values found in Table A—4, Cumu- lative Normal Distribution. The cumulative area associated with the category "Undecided" is: I3 + 43 + 2I/2 = 66.5; i. e., the area associated with "Strongly Agree," plus the area with "Agree," plus one-half the area of the section associated with "Undecided." Employing Table A-4, a cumulative area of .6650 is found to be associated with an approximate 0" distance from the mean of .43. The cumulative area associated with the category "Disagree" is: Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -14- I3 + 43 + 2I + I3/2 = 83.5. Employing Table A-4-, a cumu- lative area of .8350 is found to be associated with an approx-‘ imate O'distance from the mean of .98. E. In the same fashion as those of Steps A-D, the cumulative area associated with the category "Strongly Disagree" is found to be: I3 + 43 + 2I + I3 + I0/2 = 95; and the approx- imate 0' distance from the mean is found to be -I .65. §_t_e_p_3_: Employing the formula: T = 50 + I02; where T denotes the "rounded," whole number value of the T-score, and z the O'distance from the mean, the T-scores for each category are found as follows: Strongly Agree: T = 50 + I0 (-I .5) = 35 Agree: T = 50 + I0 (-.40) = 46 Undecided: T = 50 + I0 (.43) = 54 Disagree: T = 50 + I0 (.98) = 60 Strongly Disagree: T = 50 + I0 (I .65) = 67 It should be noted that employing the "average G'distance" method of scaling recommended by Garrett, the standard scores for the categories were found to be: Strongly Agree: 34; Agree: 46; Undecided: 54; Disagree: 60; Strongly Disagree: 68. Only in the categories covering the upper and lower extremes of the normal distribution is there a relatively small difference (one point of score) between the approximative T-score method of "one-half the area O'distance" scaling and the standard score method of scaling based upon the "average 6" distance" from the mean approach. If, in the same fashion, the categories of each of the 20 statements comprising the ques- tionnaire are "weighted" in terms of T-scores, then an individual's "score," i . e. , his apinion Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill .5. regarding the elements of "demeanor" in administrative style, can be found by adding the T- scores assigned to the 20 categories, i. e., one category per statement, which he selected. Since the units of the T-score scale are equal, they may be compared from item to item, from category to category, or from scale to scale. This type of T-score scaling provides a more accurate assessment of the extent to which extreme opinions regarding a given item are divergent from "neutral" Opinion than does an arbitrary weighting (scaling) method. Diagnosticians' Ratings. Many of the orientations of "style" elements for an individual can be mapped on the basis of diagnosticians' ratings of behaviors assumed to be associated with the elements under consideration. In some cases the diagnosticians rate individuals in terms of a five-point scale, where a rating of "5" indicates the "element" is reflected to a marked degree, a rating of " I" denotes a decided lack of presence of the element, and ratings of 4, 3, and 2 indicate intermediate degrees of presence of the element. Each diagnostician assigns a rating of the individual independent from the others. Some diagnosticians tend to rate individuals' behaviors at the higher end of the scale more frequently than at the lower end. Others rate behaviors at the lower end of the scale more frequently than at the higher end. Under these circumstances, it becomes necessary to assign weights to these ratings in order to make them comparable from diagnostician to diagnostician. The distributions of all the elements associated with the "styles" defined in the Educa- tional Sciences are assumed to be normal in each of the populations of individuals that might be considered by diagnosticians. It is also assumed that diagnosticians are approximately equal in competence to rate the behaviors (and therefore the "elements") under consideration. Under these circumstances, the T-score method of weighting (scaling) the ratings of diagnosticians, in a fashion similar to the one used in weighting categories associated with questionnaire items, can be employed. The following example illustrates the procedure: Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill _]6.. Suppose that two diagnosticians, A and B, rated 50 individuals for qualitative code proxemics, Q(CP), on the five-point scale described above. Assume that the percent of individuals are rated by each diagnostician as follows: Rating Diagnostician 5 4 3 2 I A 10% I5 ' 50 20 5 B 20 40 20 I0 I0°/o From these tabled percents it is apparent that Diagnostician B rates "higher” than A,’ and that a rating of 5 by A may not mean the same degree of presence of Q(CP) as a rating of 5 by B. Employing Table A-4, Cumulative Normal Distribution, the approximate values of O’distance from the mean to a baseline point for cumulative area up to one-half of the se :tion uncer con- sideration would be: Rating Diagnostician 5 4 3 2 l A I.65 .95 .00 -I.04 -I.96 B I.28 .253 -.524 -I.04 -I.65 The approximate T-scores (weights) associated with each of these values would become: Rating D iagnostician 5 4 3 2 I A 67 60 50 40 30 B 63 53 45 4O 33 From the T-score scalings (weightings) of the diagnosticians' ratings, it is inte'esting to note Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -17- that the rating of "3" assigned by Diagnostician B, which on the surface is the "neutral" or midpoint rating of the range I through 5, and therefore could be assumed to be associated with the fiftieth percentile of the presumed to be normal distribution of Q(CP) in the popu- lation from which the individuals under consideration were drawn, has a T—scare scaling of 45. Since a T-score of 50 is located at the fiftieth percentile of a normal distribution, the T-score scaling of 45 of B's rating of "3" would locate it at approximately the thirtieth percentile. In this context, a rating of "3" assigned an individual by "B" should be interpreted as a minor orientation in the Q(CP) element, while a rating of "3" by A (which shows a T—score of 50) should be considered a minimal major orientation in that element. The T-score scaling approach is relatively easy to employ when categorical information must be translated into stable units of numerical data. Since all the elements included in the "styles" defined by the Educational Sciences are assumed to be distributed normally throughout any papulation of individuals, relative judgments (e. 9., diagnosticians' ratings) of these elements can be "weighted" by the T-score scaling process. I Problems I. During a process of item analysis it is found that five problems associated with the measurement of T(VQ) are passed by: I5%, 34%, 50%, 62%, and 80%, respectively, of a large randomly selected group .of individuals. If the zero point of ability for these problems is assumed to be at -3.0 O‘distance from the mean of the assumed normal distribution of the difficulty of these items, find theO’distarce from the reference point for each item. (Ans. In order presented: 4.04; 3.4I; 3.00; 2.69; 2. l6) 2. On locally constructed instrumentalities designed to measure T(AL) a 2d T(AQ), re- spectively, the empirically established norms are: Mean = 70 and SD = 5; and Mean = 60 with SD = 7.5, respectively. If an individual earns a score of X = 75 on each Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -13- of the instrumentalities, use standard scores to determine if he possesses equal "strength" in the respective elements. (Assume the instrumentalities to be of equal reliability, validity, objectivity, and discriminative power.) 3. Five individuals earned T-scores of: 63, 53, 47, 45, and 42, respectively, on a stan- dardized instrument designed to measure T(VL). Find the percentile rank of each "score, " and determine whether the individual with this score should be assigned a major, a minor, or a negligible orientation in H: - element. 4. On an inventory designed to measure M, D, R, and L, each statement which pertains to only one of the four modalities is to be ranked from I through 5 (ranking of I, high). The rankings of a statement pertaining to the "appraisal (L) modality" were found to be distributed as follows: 1 .2. 9. .‘1 .5. 80/0 ZOO/o 380/0 2496 l 090 Using the T-score scaling approach, find the "weight" of each ranking category asso— ciated with this item. (Ans. I-32; 2-4I; 3-49; 4-58; 5-67) 5. 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Hill PROBLEM SET ON OBJECTIVITY OF PROCESS OF MAPPING "STYLES" In the chapter on mapping it was noted that by the very nature of the information with which the "mapper" of a "style" must deal, in addition to the variability accruing to his own cognitive style, i. e., the way he views the world, the process of mapping must be relatively subiective. It was also noted that in order to reduce this element of subiectivity, the three Principles for determining maior, minor, and negligible orientations of "style" elements, re- spectively, must be employed throughout the mapping process. In addition to these constraints, data from standardized tests, inventories, and scales should be employed with the Principles in the mapping process. It was further noted that when standardized instruments were not avail- able and locally-constructed instruments had to be employed, certain principles pertaining to: the obiectivity of test items, the obiectivity of questionnaires, the obiectivity of rating scales, and the obiectivity of observational methods need to be employed to help reduce the subiectivity of the mapping process. Although obiectivity is given a high priority in the mapping process, the mappings employed in the Educational Sciences are not intended to be impersonal diagnoses. To the contrary, trans- actions between the subiect and the diagnostician are encouraged so that the resulting mappings of measurements and data yielded by the observations involved can become more valid, reliable, and meaningful than they otherwise might be. In consideration of the fact that the diagnostician, and therefore his mappings, might well be suspect not only in terms of their reliability and validity, but in regard to their obiectivity and discriminative power as well, it becomes important to be aware of four main sources of error that tend to be operating during the processes of diagnosing and mapping, respectively. Without regard to ranking in importance to these processes, the sources of error in question are: Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -2- Conditions-Time Bias Error. Many behaviors which should be covered by the set of test measurements and/or observations of the individual under consideration may be inadequately sampled (or even omitted), because they occurred too infrequently (or not at all) during the period of observation, or during the testing situation. This source of error can be minimized by increasing the number of "sampling situations, " and including a variety of conditions under which observations can be made. In addition to these provisions, lengthening the interval of the observational periods has also proven to be beneficial. Classification-Bias Error. This source of error is a function of the diagnostician's tendency to interpret several relatively similar behaviors and certain results from mea- suring instruments in terms of a particular profile of "style" elements, thus assigning a disproprotionate weighting to that aspect of the individual's map. For example, if an individual is observed to behave somewhat different from the "usual" mode of behavior of subiects being observed in a given situation, some "mappers" place increased weight- ings on the "D" (difference) modality of inference, while the weighting might better be assigned to the subiect's "individuality" (I). In any event, this type of error can be minimized by the diagnostician following a pattern of accommodation, and a "wait and see" attitude, while continuing to consider all the possible profiles of elements that might "explain" the behavior. Role Expectation-Bias Error. Behaviors which certain individuals tend to display during periods of observation and testing are those which they perceive as expected of them at those times. Role expectation errors can be minimized by adiusting when and where observations are made, and by adiusting the setting of the testing period and the type Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -3- of instrument to be used. Of paramount importance to the reduction of this type of error is the rapport which the diagnostician can establish with this type of individual. Cognitive Stjle-Bias Error. This source of error includes a wide variety of possible response sets on the part of the diagnostician, such as the "halo effect," or at the opposite extreme the "cognitive dissonance effect." The reliability, validity, object- ivity, and discriminatory powers of a mapping process may be seriously affected by an intersection (e. 9., maior match) of the respective cognitive styles of the diagnos- tician and the individual he is considering. Under these circumstances, the behaviors of the individual might well fulfill the expectancies imposed upon them by the cognitive style of the diagnostician, and a halo effect on the mapping process could result. In similar fashion, but at the opposite extreme, a disiunction (e. g., negligible match, or "low minor") of the "styles" of the diagnostician and the individual, respectively, could lead to each person witnessing cognitive dissonance regarding the other, and the map of the individual's "style" being distorted accordingly. The effect of cognitive style bias can be minimized by the diagnostician being acutely aware of his own "style," and adiusting his mapping processes accordingly, or even disqualifying himself for the mapping of the individual under consideration. In the field of psychoanalysis this type of bias is dealt with by the psychiatrist undergoing analysis and being completely informed of the results prior to being allowed to practice. In some cases, psychoanalysts have disqualified themselves for the treatment of certain patients because of their knowledge of themselves, and the probable existence of certain factors with which they might not be able to deal objectively. In many ways the analysis of diagnosticians, and their processes of mapping, is analogous Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -4- to attempts to determine the accuracy of his social perceptions, sensitivity to others, self- assessment, and other similar types of factors. It is generally agreed that most such attempts have not yielded valid results. Recent developments in the study of these factors have led to the examination of the process involved instead of the accomflishments evidenced by indi- viduals in these dimensions. These types of approaches are consistent with those employed in the examination of the mapping process in the Educational Sciences, instead of an overt con- centration on the accomplishments of the diagnostician regarding these factors. Objectivity of Diagnosticians. The process of mapping should yield verifiable, reproducible information that is more than the idiosyncratic "mappings" of a given diagnostician. The process of mapping, nonetheless, essentially depends upon a diagnostician (or team of diagnosticians) exercising judgments pertaining to the appropriate orientations of elements of "style" for an individual based upon the results of observations made of that individual under certain conditions, or measurements of his abilities yielded by appropriate tests, scales, or inventorying devices. Team of Two Diagnosticians. A highly acceptable method for determining the objectivity of a given diagnostician is to compare the orientations of the elements of "style" he maps for a given individual for agreements and disagreements with those mapped for that individual by an experienced diagnostician, where the orientations mapped by both diagnosticians are based upon the same set of data and observation periods. Under these circumstances, a measure of the objectivity of the diagnostician and his process of mapping could be the percent of agree- ment between the orientations of the elements of "style" mapped for the individual by the novice and the experienced diagnostician, respectively. Following a method described by Bernstein ,*let Px be defined as the probability that the *See Allen L. Bernstein, "An Estimate of the Accuracy (objectivity) of Nominal Category Coding," Michigan-Ohio Regional Educational Laboratory (MOREL) Monograph Series Number One, Detroit, Michigan, October, I968. Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -5- novice diagnostician will (map the orientations of the elements of an individual's style "correctly." Let P), be defined as the probability that the experienced diagnostician will map the orientations of these elements of style "correctly." The necessary assumptions that Px and Py are constant and independent, and that the number of categories (orientations) to be considered is constant, i. e., a "major," or a "minor," or a "negligible" orientation for each of the elements to be mapped are the only "categories" to be considered, can be satisfied. Under these circumstances, the question becomes: "From the set of paired elements (paired "orientations of the elements mapped by the novice and experienced diagnosticians, respectively), how can the estimate of the value of Px and that of Py be calculated ?" By definition: and A denotes the ratio (percent) of agreement in the set of paired elements yielded by matching the mappings of orientations of "style" elements mapped by novice diagnostician X with those mapped by the experienced diagnostician Y. If (PI , P P , Pn) is defined as the set of probabilities associated with the set of 2, 3’ O O O O orientations of "style" elements (I, 2, 3, . . . ., n) mapped by each diagnostician, then estimates (pl, p2, p3, . . . ., pn) of (PI' P2, P3, . . . ., Pn) can be used to define the pl’ObObllll’leS of the n elements under consideration.* For example, suppose diagnostician X mapped orientations of five elements of "style" for a given individual, with the following probabilities being deter- mined by the percent of agreement between his "mappings" and previously known information” *It should be noted that the capital letters (Pl! P2, P3, . . . . , Pn) denote rameters of the dichotomous population of "successful classification" (mapping), and "unsuccessful classifi- cation" of orientations of "style" elements; while the lower case letters (p1, p2, p3, . . . . , Pn) indicate estimates, i. e., statistics, of their counterpart parameters, derived from samples, or "guesstimates . " **C..nn~¢ ‘Ln A:flflflh0‘:‘:fln :1- ADLAA ‘A man nlamanbo an“ "Bhll-" ‘A' .LA man A: an :nr‘:\lir‘nnl Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -6- regarding these "elements," pI = .72, p2 = .67, p3 = .77, p4 = .80, and p5 = .85; then these values can be used as estimates of (Pi’ P2, . . . . , P5) for n = 5 elements of "style." The probabilities associated with the possible results for diagnostician X and Y, respectively, can be found by means of the following expression: (Px + Qx) (Py + Qy) = PxPy + QxPy + Pny + Qny (I) An analysis of the interpretations of the products on the right side of equation (I) would show: Nature of Agreements Outcomes Probability and Disagreements Diagnostician X and Diag. Y "correct" PxPy X and Y agree Diag. X "correct," Diag. Y "incorrect" Pny X and Y disagree Diag. X "incorrect," Diag. Y "correct" QxPy X and Y disagree Diag. X and Diag.Y "incorrect" 0x0 X and Y agree on the y same "incorrect" element, or X and Y disagree, but each maps an "incorrect" element Now, if A = ratio (percent) of agreement in the set of elements yielded by matching the "mappings" of ”novice" X with those of diagnostician Y, then: A ='P P +Q O K x Y x Y where K denotes the fraction of the events in the set associated with the probability represented by the product: Qny, i. e., the probability indicating that diagnostician X and diagnostician Y have selected the same incorrect "element" in their respective mappings. For example, when: P X .7,andQ =l-P =l-.7=.3, x x P =.8,andQ =l-P =l-.8=.2, Y Y Y then: A = (.7)(.8) + (.3)(.2)K, Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -7- or: = .56 + .06K, is the value of the ratio (percent) of agreement in the set of paired "elements" of the respective diagnosticians' mappings . Bernstein has shown that the value of K can be estimated in a variety of ways, and has provided the following table of values of P for different values of A and K .* I - TABLE OF VALUES OF P, FOR VALUES OF K AND A A. K== 1 .5 .3 0 .95 .974 .975 .975 .975 .90 .947 .948 .949 .949 .85 .919 .920 .921 .922 .80 .888 .891 .893 .894 .75 .854 .860 .865 .866 .70 .816 .828 .832 .836 .65 .774 .793 .799 .807 .60 .724 .755 .764 .775 *Values in the Table are found by a formula derived as follows: A = PxPy + QnyKI can be written as: A = PxPy + (I — Px)(l - PY)K . When the two diagnosticians X and Y are considered to be prOperly trained and approximately equally experienced, it is reasonable to assume: Px = P), = P. If this assumption is true, then A becomes: A = P2 + (l'P)2K; or: P2 + K - 2PK + P = KiJK(1"+KS-K Be_ P2K = A. Solving this quadratic equation for the value of P yields: f + K cause with trained diagnosticians, the values ofA should be 2 1/2, and P should be >l/2, the smaller of the two quadratic roots is excluded. Using the larger root, P becomes: P = K+viiiliiii- 1+K ' Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill .3- It should be noted that the extreme values, K = I and K = 0, yield values of P a little dif- ferent from each other until the value of A is as low as .70. Even in this case, the difference is but: .836 - .8I6 = .02. Under these circumstances, it is a reasonably safe procedure to choose K = 0, and estimate the value of P by the formula: p = fa— Team of Three Diagnosticians. In general, it is desirable to use a third experienced diagnostician, thereby forming a "team" approach to mapping, whenever possible. Under these circumstances, the assumption that: Px = Py = P, is not necessary. With the addition of a third experienced diagnostician 2, it is possible to provide three sets of paired mapped orientations of elements of "style," one associated with X and Y, one with X and Z, and one with Y and Z. The probability set associated with the possible independent outcomes for three diagnosticians can be found from the equation: (PX+Qx)(Py+Qy)(Pz+Qz)=PxPyP2+PxPsz+PxQypg+QxPyP2+PxQng+QxPyQ¢+QnyPz+QnyQa = l (2} If it is arbitrarily assumed that agreement between the orientations of a given "style" element mapped by any two of the three diagnosticians constitutes a "correct" mapping of that element, then the sum of the first four terms of the right side of equation (2) is the probability that the re- sults of the given observation or measurement will be mapped into the "correct" orientation of the "style" element under consideration. In a fashion similar to the case of _twgdiagnosticians, it is possible for t_l_1£e_e_ diagnosticians to agree on (or map) "incorrect" mappings, and therefore a factor K must be applied to all terms of the equation ex_ce£t _th_e_ first ffl; If we employ the value: K = I, the percent of agreement between the diagnosticians will become l.00 (or 100%), which is a highly unlikely event for a set of mappings. If it is assumed, however, that K = 0, and P)( = P)’ = P2, then the following results calculated by formulas (I) and (2), respectively, occur as shown in the Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -9- table below: || - TABLE OF VALUES FOR A, FOR VALUES OF P, AND K = 0 fl Problem of Agreement ole'Tree Diag. under Problem of Agreement of two Assumption that Agreement of two Diag . 's P Diag. on "Correct" Majping Mappings Determine "Correct" Mapping % __90 A=PP =92=(.90)2=.81 A=PPP+PPQ+PQP+QPP =P3-3PZQ= . xy xyzxyzxyz xyz .903 - 3(.90)2(.10) = .972 ;480 .64 .896 370 .49 .784 :60 .36 .648 Example 1. (Three Diagnosticians). If M is defined as the percent of "correct" mappings, under the assumption that agreement by at least two of the diagnosticians on a mapping determines a "correct" mapping, and if the condition K = 0 is assumed to exist, then: M = PxPsz + PxPsz + PnyPz + QxPsz Since this is a single equation involving three variables, one of its solutions will occur under the condition of: Px = P = P2. Assuming this condition exists, the following cubic equation results: M = P3 - 3920 This equation is the some as the one employed in the "Table of Values for A." (a) Suppose that three trained diagnosticians are to employ the data yielded by their ob- servations of an individual in seven different settings to map the "orientations" (a "major, " or a "minor," or a "negligible") for each of five different "style" elements. Assuming that the "correct" mapping of an orientation of a style element is defined as that orientation of the given Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -10- element that is mapped by at least two of the diagnosticians, and assuming that the probability of mapping the "correct" orientation of a given element for each of the diagnosticians is the same, i. e., Px = Py = P2 = P, and that the value of that probability is: P = .83, find the probability (objectivity index) that all three diagnosticians (the total team) will map the orien- tation of that element correctly. Solution. Employing the equation: M = P3 - 3PZQ, the probability of all three diagnosticians mapping the "correct" orientation would be: M = (.83)2 - 3(.83)2(. I7):.".572 + 35142923. (b) Suppose the same conditions exist as in (a), but P = .90. Solution. Reading from the second column of Table II in the row where P = .90, the probability of all three diagnosticians mapping the "correct" orientation would be: M = .972. Example 2. If the m o_f agreement on correctly mapped orientations of style elements between diagnosticians X and Y is defined as A, that between X and Z is defined as B, and the "M iW" between Y and Z is defined as C, then the following three equations may be wri’TEI PP =A;PP =B;andPP =C. xy xz yz Multiplying the expression for A by the one for B, it is found that: P 2P P =AB, x y z or: P 2 =AB =52 x P P C ' y e In similar fashion, it is found that: 2 AC 2_BC Py -T-,and P! _-A— Ed. Sciences I Manuscript J. E. Hill -1]- These expressions permit the substitution of an estimate of the value of Px’ Py' and P1, re- spectively, under the assumption that K = 0. Suppose that the percent of agreement between X and Y on "correctly" mapped orientations of "style" elements, included in a pilot study sample of "mappings," is found to be: .80. Then, the estimated value of A would become: a = .80. In similar fashion, suppose the M o_f agreement between X and Z is estimated to be: b = .75; and, finally, the "agreement" between Y and Z is estimated as: c= .70.* The“: 2 =(.30)(.75) . 2 =(.80)(.70) ;and p 2 =(.75)(.70) px 70 ’ py 73 z 80 ; . _Wso. , _ .so.7o, _ .5(.o . °" PX“; .70 'Py‘l—‘vs—llll I‘m“. “\(l is?! ' and: px = \/ .857l ; py = \/ .7237 ; and pz = x/ .63623; or: p}.925; p93.864; and p}.810. These results indicate that diagnostician X would have the highest probability (pit-.925), and therefore would probably be the most objective of the three diagnosticians, in mapping the "correct" orientation of a "style" element based upon a given set of data, diagnostician Y the next highest probability (py\\ .864), and objectivity, and diagnostician Z the lowest probability (pi-a. .8l0), and the least objective, of the three. It should be noted, however, that since the three probabilities range in value from an estimated p = .810 to p = .925, the objectivity of a mapping of an orientation of the "style" element under consideration by any of these three diagnosticians would be rated as, "relatively high." *It should be noted that a, b, and c, respectively, are statistics from the pilot study sample whose values estimate those of their counterpart parameters A, B, and C which are characteristics of the population from which the sample was drawn. Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -12- These methods provide a good approach to determining the objectivity of diagnosticians engaged in the process of mapping orientations of "style" elements associated with the Educational Sciences. It should be emphasized at this point that the use of three diagnosticians tends to im- prove the process o_f estimating is objectivity if diagnosticians. In addition to this advantage, the three member team approach to mapping also increases the probability of increasing the reliability, validity, and discriminative power of the process. Problem 1(a). If it is known that the probability of a novice diagnostician, X, mapping the "correct" orientation of a given "style" element is Px = .60, and the probability of an experienced diag— nostician, Y, mapping the "correct" orientation of a given "style" element is: PY = .90; assuming that the mappings are based upon the same set of data, and that K = .2, determine the objectivity of diagnostician X. (Hint: Find values of Qx and Qy' and use formula for A, "percent of agreement . ") 1(b). IfA> .50 is considered "minimally acceptable" for the objectivity of the novice diag- nostician, should the training of X be continued? Why? 2(a). If the percent of agreement between equally experienced diagnosticians, X and Y, is: A = .85, and the value of K is known to be: K = .5, what is the probability of X mapping "correct” orientations for the "style" elements under consideration? What is the probability of Y accomplishing the same goal? (Hint: Use Table l). 2(b). If the situation existed where: K = .3, and Px = Py = .799, what would be the value of the percent of agreement between the "mappings" of the diagnosticians. 3. Suppose that three members (X, Y, and Z) of a diagnostic team consider an individual's responses to a series of inventory items regarding three elements of cognitive style, and view a videotape showing the individual participating in "exercises" that elicit behaviors pertaining Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -13- to these three elements of "style." If the M o_f agreement between X and Y on "correctly" mapped orientations of these three elements of "style," included in a pilot study sample of "mappings," is found to be: .85; and in similar fashion, the EM of agreement between X and Z is estimated to be: .80; and the "agreement” between Y and Z is estimated as: .90; then which of the diagnosticians could be considered the most objective of the three regarding these mappings? The least objective? 116 APPENDIX E FIGURE Scaling Procedures CURRICULUM COSMETOLOGY DISTRIBUTION OF INSTRUCTOR RESPONSES TOTAL 1 2 3 4 5 F Responses To 1 4 8 8 21 ;entile T 2 14 2t3 8]. ;ore 20 30 40 48 59 ructor 1 Responses 0 O 6 6 9 21 enrile 0 0 14 41 77 are 20 20 40 48 58 ructor 2 Responses 0 0 3 9 .9 21 entile 0 0 7 34 77 are 20 20 55 54 58 tuctor 3 Responses 0 0 0 10 11 21 entile 0 O O 24 74 are 20 20 20 43 56 ructor 4 Responses 1 3 8 2 7 21 entile 2. 11 36 .59 83 are 30 3] 4L 52 60 ructor 5 Responses 0 0 l 0 4 17 21 mntile 0 O 0 9 59 :ore j 20 20 20 36 53 motor 6 ‘. FIGURE Scaling Procedures BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION CURRICULUM DISTRIBUTION OF INSTRUCTOR RESPONSES TOTAL 1 2 3 4 5 3 Responses 0 5 6 4 6 21 :entile 0 11 36 61 86 :ore 20 38 46 53 61 :ructor 1 ' Responses 0 4 3 9 5 21 .entile 0 10 25 55 90 are 20 37 43 52 63 ructor 2 Responses 2 3 2 4 10 21 entile 5 19 32 45 116 are 34 41 45 49 57 ructor 3 Responses entile are ructor 4 Responses ant ile are ructor 5 Responses entile :ore ructor 6 i Scaling Procedures CURRICULUM FIGURE LAW ENFORCEMENT DISTRIBUTION OF INSTRUCTOR RESPONSES TOTAL 1 2 3 4 5 7'Responses 0 0 4 11 6 21 :entile 0 0 _10_ 45 85 :ore 20 20 37 48 61 ructor 1 Responses 1 1 4 8 7 21 entile 4 ’79 19 47 ‘88 are 32 35 4T’ 49 62 ructor 2 Responses 0 0 6 5 10 21 entile 0 0 23 40 76' are 20 20 ‘44— 47 57 ructor 3 Responses 1 6 9 . 3 2 21 entile 4 ’19 54’ 83 95 are 32‘ 41 '7 51 6O , 67 ructor 4 Responses entile ore ructor 5 Responses entile core ructor 6 41-» FIGURE CURRICULUM BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION INSTRUCTORS RESPONSES HTIVE STYLE PROTOTYPE ~ Average ACTERISTICS 1 2 3 Percentile retical (a) 86 90 76 84 al Linquistic (b) 5 5 5 retical Auditory 86 55 76 72 uistic 5 4 5 retical Visual 86 55 32 57 titative 5 4 3 retical Auditory 36 25 32 31 titative 3 3 3 itative Code Empathetic 86 9O 76 84 5 S 5 itative Code Esthetic 11 10 19 13 ' 2 2 2 itative Code Ethic 86 55 76 55 5 4 5 itative Code Histrionic 36 55 45 45 3 4 4 itative Code Kinesics 11 55 19 28 2 4 2 itative Code Kinesthetic 11 10 . 19 13 2 2 2 itative Code Proxemics 11 25 76 37 2 3 5 itative Code Synoetics 61 55 45 52 4 4 4 itative Code Transactional ' i 11 9O 76 _ 53 2 5 5 Jral Determinant - Family 36 10 5 17 ‘ 3 2 1 Jral Determinant - Associate 61 55 5 40 4 4 1 ural Determinant - Individuality 61 55 76 64 4 4 5 t 4 FIGURE ' BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION - 2 CURRICULUM INSTRUCTORS RESPONSES .‘ITIVE STYLE PROTOTYPE Average ACTERISTICS 1 2 3 Percentile rential Modality - Magnitude 36 25 45 35 3 3 4 rential Modality - Difference 36 10 19 21 3 2 2 rential Modality - Relationship 86 . 55 45 62 5 4 4 rential Modality - Appraisal 36 55 76 55 3 4 5 rential Modality - Deductive 61 55 76 64 4 5 5 Percentile Figure Rating ' FIGURE CURRICULUM COSMETOLOGY INSTRUCTORS RESPONSES I Averanc T113: STYLE PROTOTYPE _ ‘h: ZTTNQISTICS l 2 3 4 5 6 Percentil :tixial (a) l4 l4 7 24 36 9 17 . ldniquistic (b) 3 3 3 4 3 4 tical Auditory 14 77 34 74 82 9 48 3 5 4 5 5 4 t:ical.Visual 14 14 34 24 ll 9 17 .tative 3 3 4 4 2 4 t:ica1.Auditory 14 14 77 74 11 9 33 3 3 5 5 2 4 curive Code Empathetic 81 77 77 74 82 59 75 5 5 5 5 5 5 atixnz Code Esthetic 81 77 34 74 36 59 60 5 5 4 5 3 5 ative Code Ethic 43 77 77 74 82 59 68 4 5 5 5 5 5 ative Code Histrionic 43 41 34 24 82 59 47 4 4 4 4 5 5 ative Code Kinesics 81 41 7 24 82 59 49 5 4 3 4 5 5 ative Code Kinesthetic 81 77 77 NA 82 59 75 5 5 5 5 5 ative Code Proxemics 43 14 34 74 36 59 43 4 3 4 5 3 5 ative Code Synoetics 43 77 77 74 59 59 64 4 5 5 5 4 5 .ative Code Transactional NA 77 77 24 36 59 54 5 5 4 3 5 'al Determinant - Family 43 77 7 24 2 59 35 4 5 3 4 1 5 ral Determinant - Associate 29 41 34 24 11 59 28 2 4 4 4 2 5 ZTERTSTICS CURRICULUM FIGURE "- COSMETOLOGY - 2 INSTRUCTORS RESPONSES TIVE STYLE PROTOTYPE 1 2 3 4 5 al Determinant - Individuality 81 77 77 74 36 5 5 5 5 3 ntial Modality - Magnitude 43 41 77 24 36 4 4 5 4 3 ntial Modality - Difference 81 14 77 74 82 5 3 5 5 5 ntial Modality - Relationship 43 41 34 24 82 4 4 4 4 5 ntial Modality - Appraisal 81 41 77 74 36 5 4 5 5 3 ntial Modality - Deductive 81 14 34 24 36 5 3 4 4 3 rcentile Figure ting AVurage 6 l Eexvsnpil “k—M~- U1 U'l\0 67 46 64 47 61 41 FIGURE CURRICULUM LAW ENFORCEMENT INSTRUCTORS RESPONSES ITIVE STYLE PROTOTYPE Averaésc RCIFRISTICS l 2 3 4 Percentile :etical (a) 45 88 40 54 _.57 11 Linquistic (b) 4 5 4 3 retical Auditory 45 88 28 54 54 listic 4 5 3 3 fetical Visual 10 19 40 19 22 ;itative 3 3 4 2 'etical Auditory 10 19 28 19 19 ;itative 3 3 3 2 .tative Code Empathetic 45 88 76 54 65 ' 4 5 5 3 .tative Code Esthetic 10 47 28 4 22 3 4 3 l _tative Code Ethic 85 88 76 95 86 5 5 5 5 .tative Code Histrionic 45 47 76 19 46 4 4 5 2 tative Code Kinesics 45 47 76 54 55 4 4 -5 3 tative Code Kinesthetic 85 47 40 83 63 5 4 4 4 tative Code Proxemics 10 47 76 54 46 3 4 5 3 tative Code Synoetics 85 47 40 83 64 5 4 4 4 tative Code Transactional 45 19 76 83 56 4 ‘ 3 5 4 ral Determinant - Family 45 88 40 54 57 4 5 4 3 ral Determinant - Associate 45 4 28 54 33 4 1 3 3 .ral Determinant - Individuality 45 47 76 95 66 4 4 5 5 'ential Modality - Magnitude 85 7 28 19 35 5 2 3 2 FIGURE CURRICULUM LAW ENFORCEMENT - 2 INSTRUCTORS RESPONSES ITIVE STYLE PROTOTYPE Average ACTIZRISTICS 1 2 s 4 Percentlle rential Modality - Difference 45 19 28 19 28 4 3 3 2 rential Modality - Relationship 85 88 76 19 67 5 5 5 2 rential Modality - Appraisal 45 47 76 54 56 4 4 5 3 rential Modality - Deductive 85 88 76 54 76 5 5 5 3 ’ercentile Figure {ating 117 APPENDIX F DUPLICATION OF COMPUTER PRINT-OUT PERCENTILES |=Negliglble, 2=Minor, 3=Major Cosmetology T(AL) Percent .643 .357 T(AQ) Percent .357 .571 .071 T(VL) Percent .429 .57l T(VQ) Percent .7I4 .286 Q(Cem) Percent 1.000 Q(CES) Percent 1.000 Q(CET) Percent .286 .7l4 Q(CH) Percent .786 - Ideal (14) Count Count Count Count I4 Couht I4 Count Count 11 Response 2 3 Response l 2 3 Response 2 3 Response 2 3 Response 3 Response 3 Response 2 3 Response 2 Q(CK) Percent 007' .286 .643 Q(CKH) Percent .286 .714 Q(CP) Percent .214 .786 Q(CS) 1.000 Q(CT) .071 .643 .286 0: does 1 Percent .214 .786 A Percent .929 .071 F Percent .214 .786 Count #0- not exist, Count Count Response I 2 3 Response 2 3 Response 2 3 WM— 1=exists Response 0 I Response 0 1 Response 0 l M Percent .500 .500 0 Percent 1.000 R Percent .357 .643 L Percent .071 .929 K Percent .857 0'43 NON-IDEAL T(Al) Percent .643 .357 T(AQ) Percent .357 .571 .071 Count \le Count Count \OUI Count Count UI\O Count Response 0 1 Response 0 Response 0 1 Response 0 1 Response Response 2 3 Response T(VL) Percent .429 .57! T(VQ) Percent .7l4 .286 Q(Cem) Percent |.000 Q(CES) Percent I.OOO Q(CET) Percent :786) .2l4 fic» \‘ Q(CK) Percent .07! .286 .643 Q(CKH) Percent .286 .7l4 Q(CP) Percent .2l4 .786 Count 010‘ Count Count Response 2 3 Response 2 3 Response 3 Response 3 Response 2 3 Response l 2 3 Response 2 3 Response 2 3 Q(CS) Percent Count Response I.OOO l4 3 Q(CT) Percent Count Response 07| l l .643 9 2 .286 4 3 0=Does not Exist, I=Exists Percent Count Response .2l4 3 O .786 II I A Percent Count Response .2l4 3 0 .786 II I F Percent Count Response .2l4 3 O .786 II I M Percent Count Response .500 7 O .500 7 I R Percent Count Response .357 5 O .643 9 I L .O7l l O .929 I3 K Percent Count .857 l2 .l43 2 Response l-Negligible, 2=Minor, 3=Major Business Administration T(AL) Percent .875 .l25 T(AQ) Percent .l25 .542 .333 T(VL) Percent .750 .250 T(VQ) Percent .042 .4l7 .208 .333 Q(CEM) Percent .042 .083 .875 Q(CES) Percent .l67 .687 .l67 Q(CET) Percent .333 .667 Count Non-Ideal Response 2 3 Response Response 2 3 Response 0 l 2 3 Response l 2 3 Response I 2 3 Response Q(CH) Percent .458 .333 .208 Q(CK) Percent .208 .458 .333 Q(CKH) Percent .083 .292 .625 Q(CP) Percent .042 .333 .625 Q(CS) Percent .208 .792 Q(CT) Percent .l67 .458 .375 l Percent .208 .792 Count U10)— Count Count —\JN Count Response Response Response l 2 3 Response Response 2 3 Response Response A Percent I.000 F Percent .833 .I67 M Percent .708 .292 D Percent .9I7 .083 R Percent .792 .208 L Percent .292 .708 K Percent .625 .375 Count 24 Count Count l7 Count Response 0 Response 0 l Response 0 l Response 0 I Resppneen 0 I Response 0 I Response IDEAL T(AL) Percent .766 .234 T(AQ) Percent .l28 .3I9 .553 T(VL) Percent .830 0'70 T(VQ) Percent .340 .447 .2I3 Q(CEM) Percent .085 .9I5 Q(CES) Percent 0'06 .489 .404 Q(CET) Percent .I70 .830 Count 36 ll Count I5 26 Count Count l6 2| I0 Count Count 23 I9 Count 39 I0. Business Administration Response 2 3 Response I 2 3 Response 2 3 Response I 2 3 Response 2 3 Response Response 2 3 Q(CH) Percent .340 .532 .l28 Q(CK) Percent .064 .6l7 .3l9 Q(CKH) Percent .447 .553 Q(CP) Percent 0'28 .872 Q(CT) Percent .3I9 .638 Count I6 25 Count 29 I5 Count 2I 26 Count Count I5 30 Response Response I 2 3 Response 2 3 Response 2 3 Response 2 3 0=Does not Exist, l=exIsts I Percent I 340 .660 A Percent .9I5 .085 F Percent .5Il Count I6 3I Count Count 24 Response 0 l Response 0 It Response 0 M Percent .574 .426 0 Percent .9I5 .085 R Percent .957 .043 L Percent .277 .723 K Percent .702 .298 Count 27 20 Count Count I3 34 Count 33 I4 Response 0 I Response 0 I Response 0 I Response 0 l Response 0 l Law Enforcement |=Negligible, 2-Minor, T(AL) Percent O 529 .47I T(AQ) Percent .059 .529 04|2 T(VL) Percent .647 .353 T(VQ) Percent .294 .235 .47l Q(CEM) Percent .II8 .882 Q(CES) Percent .4l2 .4l2 .I76 Q(CET) Percent .235 .765 Count 9 8 Count Count CDhU'I Count Count I3 I3 -ldea| 3 Major Response 2 3 Response Response 2 3 Response I 2 3 Response 2 3 Response Response 2 3 Q(CH) Percent .I76 .706 .ll8 Q(CK) Percent .059 .647 .294 Q(CKH) Percent .353 .647 Q(CP) Percent .294 .706 Q(CS) Percent .059 .94I Q(CT) Percent .47l O 529 l Percent .I76 .824 A Percent .I76 n74 Count Response I 2 3 Response Response 2 3 Response 2 3 Response 2 3 Response 2 3 Response 0 I Response F Percent .824 .I76 M Percent .824 .I76 D Percent .882 .II8 R Percent .765 .235 L Percent .294 .706 K Percent .647 .353 Count l5. Response Response 0 I Response 0 I Response 0 I Response 0 l Response Law Enforcement l6. - Non - Ideal |=Negligible, 2=Minor, 3=Major T(AL) Percent .833 .I67 T(AQ) Percent .833 .I67 T(VL) Percent .833 .I67 T(VQ) Percent .667 .333 Q(CEM) I.000 Q(CES) Percent .I67 .500 .333 Q(CET) Percent .500 .500 Q(CH) Percent .333 .333 .333 Count 5 I Count Count Count Nb Count \NUJ Count NNN Response 2 3 Response 2 3 Response 2 3 Response Response I 2 3 Response 2 3 Response I 2 3 Q(CK) Percent .I67 .I67 .667 Q(CKH) Percent .333 .667 Q(CP) Percent .I67 .833 Q(CS) Percent I.000 Q(CT) Percent .I67 .833 l Percent .333 .667 A Percent l.000 F Percent .500 .500 Count Count Count Count Count Count Count Count UJUJ Response Response 2 3 Response 2 3 Response 3 Response 2 3 Response 0 I Response 0 Response M Percent .500 .500 0 Percent .667 .333 R Percent |.000 L Percent .667 .333 K Percent .667 O 333 Count WU! Count Nb Count Count N# Count Response 0 I Response 0 I Response 0 Response 0 I Response ' IIIIII/III’IIIIIIIIII 01730 9869