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"THE PEN AND THE PULPIT": ISAAC MAYER WISE'S
FICTION IN THE ISRAELITE

 

By

Lev Raphael

A DISSERTATION

Suhnitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements

forthedegreeof

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of English

1986

Copyright by
LEV RAPHAEL
1986

ABSTRACT

"THE PEN AND THE PULPIT": ISAAC MAYER WISE'S
FICTION IN THE ISRAELITE

 

By
Lev Raphael

More than anyone else in the nineteenth century, Isaac Mayer Wise
is responsible for the development of Reform Judaism in the United
States. His unceasing efforts to unify and invigorate American Jewry
led to the creation of the Union of American Hebrew Congregations, the
Central Conference of American Rabbis, and the first permanent
American rabbinical seminary, Hebrew Union College.

Wise also considered himself the first American Jewish novelist.
Between 1854 and 1864 he serialized eleven novels in his newspaper l‘h_e
Israelite, though only two were ever published in book f —-

The Combat of the People (1859) and The First of the Maccabees (1860).

 

Wise claimed that his novels were one way in which to create images of
contemporary and historical Jews that would build American Jews' self—
esteemarrimrierstandingoftheirpast, aswell aspressthecasefor
Reform. There has never been a study of Wise's fiction, its themes
and achievement. Critics and biographers merely refer to the fiction
in passing or summarily dismiss it as unworthy of attention. There

is even some confusion as to the exact number of novels he wrote and

the dates of several novels' publication.

The most striking characteristic of Wise's novels is their deep
and strident rage against Gentile, and predominantly Roman Catholic,
oppressicn of Jews. Gentiles emerge in the fiction as villains bent
on conversion and destruction of the Jews, who are generally presented
as noble, heroic, intelligent and infinitely superior in culture and
humanity to their enemies. Wise's literary imagination is deeply
Gothic. Persecution is the central element of his novels, with the
Jewish people taking the role of the Gothic heroine who is abused,
threatened, kidnapped, imprisoned. One of the novels rises above
paper—thin characterizations and often ludicrous plots, and deserves

to be brought out of obscurity. The Last Struggle of the Nation

 

(1856-1858), describing the Bar Kochba revolt of 135 C.E., is a deeply
felt and movingly created picture of the rise and fall of the last

independent Jewish state.

"...we have been given the pen and the pulpit,
the EngliSh language and a boundless enthusiasm."

The Israelite
April 25, 1879

 

For Glenn Wright, with many thanks

TABLE OF CDN'I'ENTS

 

 

 

Page
INTRODUCTION .................................................... 1
Notes ..................................................... 7
SELECTED CI-IRDAULOGY ............................................ 8
CHAPTER ONE - INCLUDIM; MNELS ................................. 9
GIAP'I‘ER‘Im-THEENMESOFISRAEL ............................ 42
CHAPTER THREE - HELL IN THEIR HEARTS ........................... 86
CHAPTER FUJR - FOR Ga) AND ISRAEL .............................. 148
CDMZLUSION ..................................................... 179
I - THE ADVELS AS LITERATURE .............................. 179
II - WISE'S (DH-11C IMAGINATION ............................. 188
NOTES .......................................................... 197
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A - Wise on The Last Struggle 9f the Nation ...... 204
APPENDIX B - 5 Little Bohemian ........ . ................... 208
BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................... 212

INTRODUCTION

Isaac Mayer Wise dominated the American-Jewish scene in the
nineteenth century for almost fifty years. A tireless writer,
preacher, lecturer and polemicist, he fought to create a Judaism that
was both Reformed and American. His single-mindedness, his extensive
traveling and publishing, won him admirers and detractxarsnand left an
impressive legacy. A pragmatist, Wise translated the vision of Reform
into religious institutions.

In the late 1840's, newly-arrived from Bohemia, Wise was already
writing newspaper articles about the reed for unity and structure in
American-Jewish life (1). He deplored the ignorance and blind
adherence to tradition he found in American Jews and proposed the
solutions of a common liturgy, a synod to guide Judaism in America,
and a college that would train American rabbis, reducing dependence
on rabbis from mrope. Wise's goals took some twenty-five years to
achieve fruition. In 1873 the Union of American Hebrew Congregations
was formed with its first order of business the establishment of
Hebrew Unicm College, which was accomplished two years later.
Graduates of that first permanent rabbinical seminary joined in 1889
to found the Central Conference of American Rabbis. All three Reform
organizations are flourishing and HUC is a central institution of

Jewish learning in America.

Firmly established in 1854 as Rabbi of Cincinnati's B'Nai
Yeshurun Temple, one of the cormtry's largest and most flourishing
ca'xgregaticns, Wise set out to establish a weekly journal which he
envisicmed as a weapon and a tool. It would fight anti-Jewish
discrimination wherever he found it, bring the richness of Scientific
Judaism from what he considered its German obscurity to an American
audience, and create what did not exist: American-Jewish literature.

In 1851, studying English and working on his History of the
Israelitish Nation in the Albany State Library, Wise had discovered

 

that "there simply was no Jewish literature in the English
language...I became furious, " he recalls, "rushing impetuously through
the materials on hand, but in vain. There was nothing" (2).

In the Opening issue of his newspaper, July 15, 1854, whose motto
was "Let There Be Light, " Wise began to remedy that problem, the
first page launching him as an American-Jewish novelist. He wrote

eleven novels in the course of The Israelite's first decade, and

 

inspired other writers to deal with Jewish themes in fiction and
poetry. In addition to writing for and editing that newspaper and its

German language companicn, Die Deborah, Wise published many books and

 

essays on the theology of Judaism, early Christianity, and Jewish
history. This was all in addition to his congregational and
educatimal duties and his extensive travels to dedicate temples and
boost the cause of Reform.

Much of Wise's writing is forgotten and in fact, scholars and
historians focus more on Wise's activities in the realm of the

practical than on what he wrote, with the exception of Israelite

editorials which are frequently quoted. Wise contributed to this
neglect. In his memoirs he constantly asserts that he hated to write,
and was always pushed into it by circumstances that would admit of no
other solution. The situation with his fiction is more complicated,
however, as we shall see. Wise's published comments on his novels
express a deep ambivalence, and the very little that has been said
about his fiction reflects those conflicting feelings. Given his
stature, Wise's fiction has received the barest attention; it is
usually mentioned just in passing, perhaps to give a sense of his
range and versatility.

For Wise, writing, preaching, and lecturing were inseparable; he
used "the pen and the pulpit" equally to Americanize the Jew and his

Judaism. But his aims for The Israelite were more specific still: to

 

arouse Jewish consciousness, highlight the bright side of Jewish

character, inculcate respect for Jewish literature, awaken Jewish
patriotismintheyoung. Thelargestquestiontoconsiderinthis
study, then, ishowtheseaims wereexpressedthroughhis fiction.

My intention here is not to claim that Isaac Mayer Wise's fiction
is the work of a neglected genius; his novels certainly "lack the
esthetic, intellectual, and moral complexity and artistry that we
demand of great literature" (3). But they are nonetheless worthy of
attention for a number of reasons: Wise was a major figure of
nineteenth century American Jewish life and examining the novels sheds
new light on his beliefs and career; Wise's aim in writing fiction was
to create a new literature and a new consciousness for American Jewry;

what little has been said about time novels is distorted and

incomplete, and the entire body of his fiction has never been
examined. In a larger context, Wise's curious ambivalence about his
fiction reflects an era which sought to determine the true value of
ficticm: other, more substantial writers also wrestled with the
questimofworth. More attenticntoohasbeenpaidinrecentyears
to the study of the American Jewish community before the great
immigratims of 1880, and examining Wise illuminates the grey area
of American Jewish literature before writers like Abraham Cahan and
Emma Lazarus.

Because Wise's fiction is unknown, my concern here is with making
it accessible; to that end, I have heavily relied on plot descriptions
(simplified for clarity). But the emphasis on plot is also important
because Wise's novels are really variations on one story: the courage
of Jews through history in the face of Gentile perfidy. Chapter Che
will analyze Wise's attitude toward his fiction as expressed in his

two memoirs, Reminiscences (1875) and "The World of My Books" (1898).

 

It will also survey what critics and biographers have said about the
fiction, partly in response to Wise himself. Chapters Two and Three
cover eight novels set primarily in Europe, written from 1854 to 1864,
in which Christian villainy battles but does not subdue Jewish heroism
and faith. The novels discussed in Chapter Two are set in the 1830's
and1840's; thosetreatedinChapter'Ihreearesetinpreviws
centuries. (hapterThreediscussesthethreenovelsWisesetin
ancient Israel during the Bar Kochba Revolt, the time of Herod, and
the Maccabean Revolt. Two of these novels were published in book form

from the same plates used in The Israelite, and Wise tried raising

 

subscriptions to publish the third. In the Conclusion I will discuss
the novels' literary quality, and the nature of Wise's literary
imagination. Appendix A brings together Wise's comments on his major

novel , The Last Struggle of the Nation; Appendix B examines a

 

"Jamesian" tale that may or may not be by Wise.

I have found Wise’s fiction far more interesting, entertaining,
and suspenseful in its own right than any critic has indicated, but
then I was not searching for a Jewish Hawthorne, Melville, or Poe.

The ficticm surprised me in another way, however. Given Wise's
persistent and heroic efforts to create Jewish unity through
rabbinical and congregational organizations, a college, and a common
liturgy, I expected his novels to strongly press the case for Reform.
01 the whole, that is not their thrust. While various aspects of
Reform are sometimes singled out for praise, the driving force of this
fiction is anger. Again and again, Wise attacks Christians for their
contempt, hatred, persecution and murder of Jews. Jewish wedding
rituals, the Sabbath, and Passover may be singled out as commendable
and important elements of Jewish faith, but Wise builds the case for a
strong Jewish identity by recounting the sufferings of the Jews at the
hands of their enemies. The implication is, of course, that Jews can
neverexpectbetter, exceptinAmerica, andeventheretheymustbe
wary of missionaries. The fiction has also shed unexpected light on
Wise's dismissal from his Albany post in 1851 and amplified what he is
known to have written about conditions during the Civil War.

Myinitial researchonthis topic was supportedbyasmall grant
from the College of Arts and Letters of Michigan State University,

which also awarded me a dissertation fellowship in 1983. My work this
past year could not have proceeded so quickly without the geierous
support of the Memorial Foundation for Jewish Culture. Glem Wright
has been the ideal thesis advisor: calm, clear, good-humored,
thoughtful and sensitive. His editorial comments have always been on
target, illuminating the text and my intentions, and I am deeply
grateful for his continuing to work with me despite some difficult
circumstances of his own. This project has been consistently
enjoyable because of his guidance. Michael Bennett of Michigan
State's interlibrary loan staff has been extremely helpful and I thank
The American Jewish Archives and its director, Jacob Marcus, for
prompt responses to many requests for information and copies of Wise's
novels. Tamara Fish has been enthusiastic and supportive, and Gershen
Kaufman has generously offered his time, insights, and encouragement.
I am grateful for his careful proofing of the text. Kristin Lauer--my
friend, guide and cheerleader for fifteen years--has been involved in
every stage of this research and my graduate work at Michigan State.
She alone knows how much I owe her. Lastly, without my parents'
belief in me and support through rocky times, this project would have

taken far longer.

NOTES
(1) Cccident, VI, No. 9, pp. 431-5, December 1848. Quoted at

length in Max B. May Isaac Mayer Wise (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons,

 

1916), pp. 77-80.

(2) Isaac Mayer Wise Reminiscences trans. and ed. David

 

Philipson. 2nd edition (New York: Central Synagogue of New York,
1945), p. 50.
(3) Nina Baym Woman's Fiction A Guide to Novels by and about

Wonen in America, 1820-1870 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1978),

 

p. 14.

SELECTED CHRCbDLOGY
Isaac Mayer Wise
1819-1900

1819--born in Steingrub, near Eger, Bohemia

1843--Becomes minor religions official (religionsweiser) in Radnitz,
Bohemia

1844--marries Terese Bloch

1846--emigrates to America; first public address: temple consecration
in New Haven, Conn.; elected rabbi of Beth El, Albany

1847--First published article in Allgeneine Zeitung des Judentums

1850--travels to Washington and hears the Senate en route to
Charleston, S.C. seeking Beth Elohim's pulpit

1851--Dismissed from Beth El; forms Anshe Emeth ("Men of Truth")
congregation in Albany.

l852——Writes articles for The Asmonean as contributing editor; "The
End of Popes, Nobles and Kings"

1854-—History of the Israelitish Nation; accepts B'nai Yeshurun pulpit
in Cincinnati; starts The Israelite: The Convert, The Jewish
Heroine; The Catastrophe at Eger

1855--The Shoemaker's Family; Romance, Philosophy and Cabalah,
Resignation and Fidelity; starts Die Deborah, German weekly

1856--The Last Struggle of the Nation (ends 1858)

1857--Minhag America prayerbook

1858-—The Conbat of the People (published in book form 1859)

1859--First of the Maccabees (published in book form 1860)

1860--The Wizard of the Forest

1863--Nominated by Ohio Peace Democrats for State Senator, but
congregation makes him decline

1864--The Rabbi of Bacherach

1868--The Origin of Christianity

1873- -Union of American Hebrew Congregations formed (UAHC)

1874-1875--Reniniscences in Die Deborah

1875—-Hebrew Union College founded

1880--History of the Hebrews Second Comonwealth

1889-—Central Conference of American Rabbis formed (CITAR)

1892--'Ihe History of K.K. Bene [sic] Yeshurun

1896-1897--"'I'he World of My Books" in Die Deborah

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTERONE

INCLUDIM; NOVELS

"He wrote many books, including novels. . . ."

Nathan Glazer
American Judaism

 

Nathan Glazer's passing reference to Isaac Mayer Wise's fiction
is typical of the general neglect suffered by the eleven novels Wise

wrote for The Israelite (1). Jewish historians mention the fiction as

 

if adding another, minor medal to a well-beribboned uniform. Wise may
be "surely the most written abolt American Jew of the nineteenth
century," (2) but his fiction has received the barest attention.
Those few critics and biographers who do mention it have little or
nothing of substance to say.

Wise's biographers, both early and more recent, have tended to
write hagiography in which Wise is "rabbenu, morenu: our rabbi, or
teacher, sainted scholar, prince of the Torah, one in a generation"
(3). Their comments on his fiction have not been substantial or
especially irnsightful. Other, negative judgments of the fiction are
not quite as insubstantial, but they add little to our urnderstanding.
Occasionally, those judgements seen based on less than careful
scholarship, and even an apparent failure to read the works they

dismiss. The only critic attempting a meaningful survey of Wise's

10

fictional oeuvre, Abraham Steinberg, even gets the number of Wise's
novels wrong, citing just six as definitely by Wise arnd two others as
"probablY' his (4).

In several of the brief discussions there is a curiols
ambivalence that appears to have its solrce in Wise's own statements
abolt his fiction. Sefton Temkin notes that Wise's biographers have
relied far too heavily on Wise's "own published recollections without
checking them against contemporary sources" (5). , In like marnner,
writers discussing Wise's fiction have ill-advisedly quoted Wise's own
conments--or been subtly influenced by them--without noting the
coltradictions in what he says. The fiction itself has lain almost

ignored in the pages of The Israelite.

 

Because Wise's autobiographical writings are so full of
inconsistencies, discussion of Wise arnd his memoirs has frequently
focused on major or minor questions of historical record. For
instance, was Wise really ordained (given s'micha) in Europe and by
whom? Did he meet Judah Benjamin in his 1850 Washington, D.C. visit?
Whywashedismissed fromhis firstAlbanypost? Washeamoderateor
radical reformer--or an opportunist? Was his name even the German for
"wise" because an ancestor was given the honorary title chacham
(Hebrew for "wise")? In his definitive biography, James G. Heller
devotes a long "prefatory critical note" to dealing with a number of
such questions that arise because his early accounts of Wise are

largely based on Reminiscences and works that rely on that memoir. In

 

wondering how reliable Wise's own words were, Heller concludes that

Wise was "wrong abolt details, dates, etc." (6), but got the stories

ll

themselves right. The tone of the note is defensive, which partially
vitiates the conclusion, and Heller does have to admit that for many
of Wise's statements no external corroboration exists.

Leon Jick finds this "loyalist" defense unsuccessful, however
valiant, warning critics to treat Wise's autobiography with "lnealthy
skepticism" because Wise's "accounts of events tend to exaggerate his
own role and give full rein to his later prejudices" (7). Jick argues
for something like the tolerance with which we wolld greet a charmirng
family blowhard; after all, "Wise himself was more earthy than those
who would canonize him" and "might have acknowledged (arnd justified) a
bit of hyperbole" (Jick, p. 218). While this "explanation" is rather
simplistic, it alludes to a question that is far more interesting than
determining what Wise actually did or said or even was. How did Wise
present himself and his writing in his memoirs? The answer--to be
considered in Part II below--will help explain the curiols lack of
study his fiction has received, as well as the attitude of his

critics, which will be surveyed in Part III.

II
In their discussion of the ways in which autobiographies are
linked with the American Myth, William C. Spengemen and L. R.
Lundquist offer a serious and extremely useful caveat. It is a
mistake to read a writer's memoirs seeking historical accuracy, they
say. Autobiography "implies only that the author is writing
specifically abont himself; it has nothing to do with factual truth.

It presents rather, a metaphor for the raw experience" (7).

12

Autobiography is the translation of an author's "urnique view of
himself" into his culture's language, by which the author creates two
things: "a fictive character who undergoes adventures drawn from the
author's memory and a narrative persona who reports these experiences
and evaluates them." The source of this fictionalization of
experience is the author's desire to "adapt some consistent,
overriding View of himself and his past...if he does not, his life
will seem to him fragmented and incoherent, arnd his story will appear
to us pointless arnd confused" (p. 514). Spengemen and Lundquist see
the American Myth as "describing human history as a pilgrimage from
imperfection to pefection." This millenial myth has a cast of for:
Prophet, Hero, Villain arnd Outcast, with American writers of
autobiography tending to assume one such role. Wise assumes three in
his menoirs: he is everything but Villain.

When Wise arrived in New York, he was penniless and mnkrmn, a

minor religions functionary (Temkin, p.103). Reminiscence is a

 

chronicle of Wise's eleven-year rise from virtual obscurity to
notoriety as the nationally—known rabbi of one of the comtry's most
prominent congregations in a major economic center, Cincirnnati, "Queen
of the West." an the way, there are a great many struggles against
Orthobxy and apathy which Wise generally wins with stinging oratory.
Wise eventually moves throlghout the country as a sort of Reform
Johnny Amleseed, noting about his travels in 1855 to Chicago,

Milwaukee and Detroit:

l3

Everywordthatl spokedurirngthetripwasa
fruitful seed that took root and songht the light.
New congregations were formed in rapid succesion
in the places where I had stopped, and questions of
Reform were agitated so strongly that they never
ceased being debated (8).

The book's primary note is heroic and it rings with assertions
like "the world belongs to him wlno dares, " "I was a child of destiny,"
"no man, no event...should ever conquer me," "I never refused to take
a challenge," "I must conquer, come what may, " "I never undertook a
jonrney without some definite object, " "courage grows in battle, " "no
one among all the Jews that had emigrated to America...had to fight
such a coterie of bitter enemies as I." When Wise first meets Rabbi
Max Lilienthal in New York, he practically receives a call to arms.

Wise reports that Lilienthal—-who wonld later co-edit The Israelite

 

and preach in Cincinnati--cries, "Hold up yonr head! Conrage! Yon
are the man. We need you" (p. 20).

The book occasionally and entertainingly reads like an opera,
with supernumeraries chiming in to praise arnd exhort Wise. In 1851,
long-brewing dissatisfaction with Wise erupted in his Albany
congregation of Beth El; Wise had abused his authority arnd been
insensitive to the religions feelinngs of his more Orthodox congregants
(9). The congregation's president attempted to keep Wise from the

pulpit on the morning of Rosh Hashanah (New Year's), struck him, arnd a

 

melee resulted that ended with the police closing the tenple.
Aftewards, one of Wise's supporters declaims:

'We all recognize that this is a critical monent for
American Judaism, which must be either thoronghly reformed
ordie. Werecognizenolessclearlythatyonarethe
bearer of the new idea which will conquer or fall with yon.

14

Wearereadytostandbyyontotheend, andtosacrifice
everythirginonrpower. Ifweendure, theOr‘thodoxparty
will soon perceive that it gave itself the death blow last
Rosh Hashanah. If we fail, Judaism will fall with us' (p.
173).
Wise also compares himself to Samson arnd Faust, explicitly and
implicitly: he is frequently tenpted to give up the rabbinate for a
careerinlaw, teachingorapositionintheLibrraryofCogress. But
these mephistcphelean temptations only firm his resolve to go forward
"in God's name."

Wise, the bearer of a new idea, the Promethean, is also not
surprisingly a prophet with a "lnoly mission," invoking both Moses and
Paul as models: "I stood before the burning thornbush and struggled
with myself, " "Since the days of Saul of Tarsus...no sensible person
has undertaken to travel far and wide, to quarrel with everybody, to
scold, to endure so many attacks, threats, insults, and defamation on
behalf of Judaism as did I" (p. 202). The conparison to Paul is not
at all incogruous, given Wise's high estimation of Paul end his sense
of Paul's mission. In "Paul and the Mystics" Wise praises Paul for
his "fearless, powerful and unyielding character" (10) and his efforts
to denationalize "the Hebrew ideal" and promulgate it amog the
Gentiles "in the form of universal religion." The parallels with
Wise's vision of Judaism's future are obvions; Dena Wilensky as well
as others have denonstrated that throngh Wise's work ran the belief
that Judaism wonld becone the world's religion, uniting all people in
rationality and peace. It was a claim Wise made boldly and
consistently (ll).

Wise's prophetic vision in Reminiscences is predominantly a

 

15

bright one; again and again he calls himself an idealist and optimist,
enthusiastic "on the subjects of America arnd freedom," and Reform.
But the striving, the sense of mission and truth Wise has to share are
connterpointed by someﬁnirg darker. Wise also compares himself to
Macbeth and Hamlet. The latter's "'I'he time is ont of joint: 0 cursed
spite/That ever I was born to set it right!" (Act I, Scene V, 188-
189) seems echoed in observations like "A terrible fate has condemned
me to be ﬁne scapegoat of an era in conrediction wiﬁn itself" (p.
196). A sense of doon and isolation runs parallel to Wise's heroism,
and emerges whenever Wise is disappointed or frustrated: "I shall
never be happy," "I stood alone, completely alone," "not a sonl had
ﬁne conrage to take my part, " "I was alone once again," "like
Jeremiah, I sat upon ﬁne ruins."

For all ﬁnis desolation, however, Reminiscences is a story of

 

triumph, andlestreadersbeunclearabonthowtoapproachhisstory,
Wise suppliesavirtual program inﬁneformofadreamhesayshehad
ﬁne night before landing in New York. The ﬁnemes of his heroism,
isolation and prophetic role are all clearly present and ﬁne dream is
worthy of full quotation:

I dreamed that a great storm which drove ﬁne ship toward ﬁne
land had arisen. Every one swayed, trembled, feared,
prayed; the inky waves rose monntain high, and broke into
seeﬁnirg masses, only to give way to oﬁner watery heights.
Convulsively I embraced wife and child, and spoke words of
calm end comfort. It ﬁnen appeared to me as though a high,
steep, rocky monntain was hurrying toward us end ﬁnreatened
to crush us. 'Here we must land, or we sink,‘ cried ﬁne
captain, with quakirg voice. Scarcely had ﬁnese words been
uttered ere the ribs of ﬁne ship, which had been hurled on
ﬁnerock, cracked. Itookadaring leap, andstoodonﬁne
rock with wife and child, ﬁne ocean still roared; a wave
seizedﬁneship, arndcastit farontintoﬁneseeﬁning
waters; in a few moments it was swallowed up in ﬁne night,

l6

anddisappeared from mygaze. Soﬁnen, herewewereona
rugged rock; at onr feet ﬁne waters, agitated by ﬁne wild
storm, raged; above us end abont us were forbidding rocks,
while ﬁne darkness added its terrors. Finally, after a log
interval, morning dawned, arnd revealed ﬁne degerous
situation. 'However steep this monntain appears, we must
ascend it,‘ said I to my wife. I took my child on one arm;
tremblirgly my wife clurg to ﬁne oﬁner, and ﬁnen forward, in
God's name! It seemed to me as ﬁnough an inner voice
called, 'Up above ﬁnere is help.‘ Wiﬁn dififculty we
clambered from rock to rock, higher and higher, constantly,
mntirirgly. Then, as ﬁnough ﬁne measure of woes was not yet
full, hollow-eyed, ghostly, grinning dwarfs, lascivions,
ragged goblins, and tinny poodles with large, hollow, puffed-
ontheads, came towardsusonﬁnenarrowpaﬁn, opposedonr
further progress, and mocked me mercilessly. I brushed ﬁnem
aside; but foreverytenﬁnatlpushedawayahundredarose
fromontﬁnebarerock. Theycameinﬁneshapeofnight—
owls, arnd deafened me with their cries; ﬁne sizzed abont me
like angry wasps, and sturg me; ﬁney placed ﬁnemselves, like
stupidblocks, inmypath; inshort, ﬁneydideverythirgto
harassmeandpreventmyfurtherprogress. Mywife atmy
side cried for fright but my courage, strength and
confidence grew. I begged, implored, avoided, circumvented
ﬁnem, tonoavail. ThenImarohedstraightﬁnronghﬁne
crowd of dwarfs, paid no attention to ﬁneir ravin'gs, dashed
ﬁnem aside to the right and ﬁne left, until finally, weary
and perspirirg, we reached ﬁne summit of ﬁne monntain
Arriving ﬁnere, I saw ﬁne most beautiful arnd glorions
landscape, ﬁne richest, most fertile meadows, but I sank
fainting; ﬁnereupon I awoke, and fonnd that it was all a
dream; but I have often ﬁnought of that dream (pp. 14-16).

Sefton Temkin asuntely recognizes this dream as "ﬁne leit motif
for Wise's life" (12) and that its importance lies in what ﬁne dream
reveals abont Wise. "Wise sees himself as ﬁne lone hero, ﬁne
instrument of salvation" and "ﬁne idea of presentirg himself to ﬁne
public in that light does not abash him" (p. 14). The dream is
transparently anachronistic, especially in its larguage, which is
often more appropriate for doctrinal struggles than a Walpnrjgisnacht:
"opposed onr further progress," "prevent my further progress," "placed
ﬁemselves, like stupid blocks, in my paﬁn." But what wonld a prophet

 

and hero be wiﬁnout such a burning vision of his mission to come?

17

Temkin also points ont elsewhere that from his earliest struggles in
ﬁne United States, Wise envisioned himself as a God-inspired "lonely
warrior" (Temkin, p. 570).

Reminiscencesisindeedthestoryofanarduousbutsuccessful

 

rise from being a schlemihl to eminence. The "I" Wise writes abont is
headstrong, daring, and though he does need polish, Wise admires hinm
forhisenergyasmuchaslaterwritersdo. 'I'hebookisasortof
Bildurgsroman, with Wise learnirg a great deal: how to inspire a
cogregation after early failures at oratory; how to succesfully rout
Christian missionaries by word end by his pen; how to move comfortably
in Gentile social circles; how to plan and calculate his "campaigns";
how to get slog more amiably wiﬁn a cogregation; how, even, to
acquire more "tact arnd moderation," a necessity he did not easily
comprehend.

Wise may present himself as a hero, prophet, and visionary, but
what he says abont his writing is not quite so exalted, and definitely
more complex. He fonrnd his early articles to be "very poor," mere
"scribbling," insipid and obscure. Yet his first articles "debunldng"
Christianity for Jews were dreaded by Christians, he says, and
attacked by Jews who feared ﬁnat Wise wonld brirg down Gentile wrath
on American Jewish heads. Thus even before he considers himself a
capable writer, he sees his work is noteworthy arnd controversial.

Wisesaysﬁnathebecameaneditor(hewasactuallya
contributing editor) of ﬁne Orthodox Asmonean in 1850 "almost against
ﬁne will of" his other self (p. 202). He claims ﬁnat ﬁne weekly's

editor-in-chief, Robert Lyons, was persuaded to hire him by a mutual

18

friend, "Mrs. F.," who also pressured Wise to write a book on Jewish
philosophers, which was never written. As a jonrnalist, Wise "became
a veritable literary maclnine" who wrote better ﬁnan his critics. The
same Mrs. P. urged Wise to write on Jewish history and ﬁnis project
revealed to him ﬁnat "There were practically no books on ﬁne most
elementary Jewish subjects," (13) and so Wise heroically worked himself

"almost to death" to fill that gap with his History of the Israelitish

 

913312, publisted in Albany in 1854. Tre book presented Jewish
history from "ﬁne democratic standpoint, condemning ﬁne monarchy as
contrary to the laws of Moses," arnd relegated miracles to ﬁe realm of
religion, not history. This was ﬁe most explosive of Wise's writirgs
up to ﬁnat point, a book that wonld "shock ﬁe world," arnd l‘e claims
ﬁnatﬁeOrﬁnodoxuseditasanopportunitytoreundandattadshim.
Wise credits ﬁne History with having "worked a revolution within
Judaism arnd Christianity"; it also gave him invaluable experience with
typesetting and proofing.

The heroic note recurs in Wise's determination to inaugurate a
rewspaper in 1854 dedicated both to Judaism and Reform: "I will start
a conflagration which the whole Orﬁnodox host will not be able to

quench" (p. 263). In discussing Tl‘e Israelite Wise comments on his

 

ease at composition, his enjoyment of writing and his facility with
English. Wise also rhapsodizes on ﬁe inspiration arnd feelirg, ﬁne
"heart's blood," that go into writing ﬁnat may be igrnored, devalued
and even attacked by ﬁe ignorant. All ﬁnis is in contrast to earlier
remarks about ﬁne difficulties of writing and ﬁe act certainly seems

tohavebecomeeasierforhimbyhisownacconnt, arndwhenoe

19

considers his increasirg output.

"There was re Jewish journal West of ﬁe Allegtenies" (14) end
Wise intended a broader range for his newspaper ﬁnan that of Isaac
Leeser's Occident arnd Lyon's Asmoean. He felt that Leeser's monthly
presented Judaism as "a set of Observances devoid of any higher spirit
ﬁnat elevated marnkind" (15) and Lyon's weekly was a hodgepodge of
differing views "crowded in end upon each oﬁer between lead mites,
iron works, railroad stocks, market prices, new books, music arnd
dramatical performances" (Cohen, p. 141). To overcome ﬁne apaﬁny
among his prospective audience, Wise could hardly have excluded
revels, for re wrote at a time wl'ern America's reviewers recognized
revels as a major feature of ﬁe age. Putnam's wrote in October 1854,
"We krew not what we would do wiﬁeut ﬁnem....Do you wish to instruct,
to convince, to please? Write a revel! Have you a system of religion
or politics or marnrers or social life to inculcate? Write a revel!"

(16) Tie Southern Literary Messenger opined in May of ﬁne same year:

 

"Tl'e revel is ﬁe characteristic effort of ﬁe present age. It is
more. It is its creature arnd impression" (Baym, p. 36).

The 1850's saw ﬁne number of weekly newspapers in ﬁne United
States rise by more ﬁnan a ﬁnird, from 2,048 in 1850 to 2,971 in 1860,

end ﬁe most widely read, Robert Bonner's New York Ledger, serialized

 

fiction by popular writers like E.D.E.N. Southworth on its front page
(17). Wise clearly understood ﬁne contemporary importance arnd impact
of ﬁe genre, writirng in 1859 that ﬁne revel

offers ﬁe advantage ﬁnat it unrolls in life pictures to ﬁne

reader, ﬁe realized doctrines of morals arnd religion which
inﬁeirabstractformaredryandserious; inﬁerevel

20

ﬁey are irncarnated, living, pleasant, attractive, and much
more impressive. Good revels wiﬁn a moral arnd religions
tendency will effect more good ﬁnan good treatises on ﬁese
subjects; because they are read more extensively, understood
more readily, and ﬁne livirng and acting characters impress
ﬁemselves much deeper in ﬁe mirnd ﬁnan dead words (18).

Wise is in tune here with many contemporary reviewers wl'e "elevated"
ﬁne "basic psychological reality of ﬁe human love for fiction" (Baym,
p. 37).

In ﬁe prospectus for The Israelite, Wise promised "revels,

 

romances arnd poems, gleaned from our own fields, arnd steaved by our
sons arnd daughters" (l9)-—but wl'ere were ﬁne revels to come from?
Wise avers ﬁnat friends promised translations from French and German,
which were apparently a staple of early Jewish journals in America
(Harap, p. 271). Once again, however, Wise stood abarndoed arnd aloe:
"My sorriest embarrassment lay in ﬁe fact that I had announced Jewish
revels in ﬁe prospectus, and could not obtain any...despite all
promises Ihadnoe. Ihadrechoicebuttowriterevelsin [sic] ﬁne

sweat of my brow" (Reminiscences, p. 270).

 

What follows in ﬁe memnoir is a crucial arnd much quoted passage
(see Part III) in which Wise describes his meﬁnod of writirng steadily
but always in haste, and its apparent consequences:

Howdideriterevels? Iwroteﬁerequiredchapterevery
week, butnosooerﬁnanlhadto. Trefirstpageswereset
upwhileﬁelastwerebeingwritten. Ononecccasionl was
in a sorry plight: I had made two maidens fall in love with
oearndﬁnesamecharacter, andIhadtogetridofoneof
ﬁem. I was in sore straits. How was I to get rid of a
lovelorn female? I had no experience in such ﬁnirgs, arnd
yet wanted to dispose of rer decently, romantically arnd
effectively. I ﬁerefore had ﬁe poor ﬁning become insare;
arnd ﬁe unhappy creature had to jump from a window during
ﬁe conflagration of ﬁne ghetto of Frankfort and ﬁnus meet
rer deaﬁn. Tre poor creature was greatly mourned and wept
for ﬁne following Saturday, and all ﬁe tears fell on my

21

burdeed conscience. The most serious feature was that my
wife made sport of me every Thursday evening, and declared
stoutly that I had forgotten entirely new to enact a lover's
part (pp. 270-71).

In moving from his first pages being set up to describing his "sorry
plight" in ﬁne following sentence, Wise seems to imply ﬁnat writing
urnderﬁepressureof deadlines somehow ledtohavingasurplus
heroine. This implication is made explicit almost twenty years later
in "Tie World of My Books":

How did I write revels? Each week I wrote a chapter exactly
aslogasﬁespaceinﬁepaperpernmitted. Usuallyﬁe
manuscript wentredret frommypentoﬁeprintirgpress,
often wiﬁeut beirg decked, arnd geeral 1y wiﬁnout even
havirgbeenoutlinedinadvarnce. onceI forgotﬁenanmeof
ﬁe sweet heroine and gave her a different oe ﬁne following
week. It became plain ﬁnat I had given ﬁe good We
twosweeﬁearts. Oreofﬁemhadtogo, andso, inspiteof
all ﬁne efforts of ﬁe rabbi, Naphtali Cohen, I let the poor
girl burn to deaﬁn in ﬁe Frankfurt fire. That Friday, when
ﬁnis terrible chapter appeared, I spoiled ﬁne appetites of
mydearladyreaders forﬁeir fish. But Oppenheimer was
saved; 1e had to marry only oe girl (Guide, p. 115).

Wise's second version of ﬁe anecdote is more colorful arnd
entertaining than ﬁe first, arnd even more inaccurate. Because it has
appeared in discussions of Wise's fiction, ﬁe story needs to be
examined more closely.

T're fire Wise refers to is in his revel Romance, Philosophy arnd

 

Cabalah, or, ﬁe Oonflagration in Frankfort o. t. M., A Narrative from

 

fromﬁebegimingofthelastcentury,discussedincnaprtermree

 

below. A reroire does go mad arnd kill herself in ﬁe revel, but
Wise's oﬁner facts are wrong. The hero is net an quenheimer but
Judah Gruenhut; an Oppenteim appears in areﬁer revel, Tre Catastrophe

 

at Egg. Rabbi Cohen makes re attempt to save Dinah; 1e is in fact

something of a villain in the book. Wise's major claim ﬁnat l'e forgot

22

ﬁe Ieroine's name is simply net true. Tie two young women in love
wiﬁn ﬁne rero, Dinah annd Engine, are always clearly differentiated in
ﬁe revel-—oe is Jewish and ﬁne other is net, for example. Wise's
readers mayinndeedhave objectedtoﬁewayinwhichDinahdied, but
rer death was net a solution to a memory lapse caused by hasty
composition. The story is quoted as an example of Wise's inattention,
his candor, or his arrogance (see Part III below), but apparently no
one checked its basis in Wise's fiction.

Wise vaunts ﬁne popularity of his fiction in Reminiscences, but

 

emphasizes its role as a weapon in his battle to arouse Jewish pride,
especially in ﬁe young. To ﬁnat end, re wrote historical revels set
in "brilliant periods of Jewish history": The Last Struggle of ﬁne

 

Nation (1856-1858), T'te Combat of ﬁe People (1858), annd 'I'ne First of

 

 

ﬁe Maccabees (1859) discussed in Chapter Four. Tie first of ﬁese

 

revels net only "left a deep impression on ﬁeusands," according to
Wise, but he himself wept arnd rejoiced as re wrote. Wise's praise of
his historical novels contrasts sharply with his being forced into
becoming a revelist, end that contradiction is reflected in some
discussions of Wise's fiction, which is classed as didactic and
popular, but not carefully composed.
IfitisamistaketotakeWiseathisownwordonsomany
larger questions, why ﬁnen should we give complete trust to what re
saysabouthisfiction? Ifthenevel was consideredtobeoeofﬁne
19ﬁn century's primary art fornms in America, why could Wise net have
intended to write ﬁem all alog, especially for his own newspaper?

In ﬁnat connection, it is well worth neting that Wise's story of

discovering an absence of American Jewish literature in the Albanny
library in 1851 is net entirely accurate; Wise was aware of ﬁe
problem several years earlier. In his very first published article,
written in German in 1847 for ﬁne Algemeine Zeitung des Judentums (20)

 

 

Wise capped a glowing arnd unrealistic description of ﬁe American
Jewish scee wiﬁn a comment on ﬁe death of Grace Aguilar, Anglo—
Jewish poet and revelist, wlese work also appeared in American Jewish
journals. Tre lack of ﬁne kinnd of literature Aguilar wrote was "even
greater, ﬁnan it is perceived to be, " Wise wrote, annd would only be
addressed wl‘en German Jews in America learned English (21). Because

Wise consistently paints himself as reroic and aloe in Reminisceees,

 

hisassertionﬁnathewrote fictiongrnlybecausenehadtoisalikely
arnd misleading exaggeration.

'Ine ambivalent attitude towards his writing appears more intense
in "Tie World of My books," written over twenty years later. It is a
series of essays describing Wise's shifting literary interests annd
productions, almest all of ﬁem in response to a call ﬁnat could net
be ignered. Wise "constantly repeats that re detests writing books,
arndyet ﬁere is a strong pride implicit in ﬁe defense whichle puts
up for every one of his writings" (Guide, p. 106). Pride is an
understatement; the image of prophet and nero is central here in ﬁe
realm of literature. Again annd again, circunnstarees force Wise to
write even though he had resolved "never to torture humanity wiﬁn a
book" (p. 107): re was elected by fate to be an auﬁer.

Wise first wrote poetry, which 1e burned, and turned to fiction

out of desperation. Writing a story, "Tne Siege of Milann," in his

24

early twenties, was a response to having worn out boots, ﬁnreadbare
cloﬁes annd "re moey, re credit, ne staunch friends wle had anyﬁnirg
to spare" (p. 108). He sold ﬁe story, ﬁnus saving himself end his
boots. Wise claims never to have been able to read "Siege" again--
which implies that he kept a copy until some point?--"fronm fear ﬁnat
my conscieee wonld force me to return ﬁe hoerarium to ﬁne publisner
wte had paid for ﬁe worﬁnless stuff" (p. 108).

Ttere are two versions of "Siege's" publication (see Part III),
but whether ﬁe story appeared in Prague, elseme or annywlere at all
isnetﬁeissuehere; whatisinterestingisﬁestory'smartialand
sentimental nature, given boﬁn ﬁe role of romanee in his revels, annd
ﬁe emphasis on armed struggle in his ﬁnree revels set in Anncient
Israel. This first story, Wise says, was "full of gunn smoke, ﬁne
clash of sabers, annd ﬁe ﬁnunnder of carnnerns, gallant deeds of reroism
and cruel pangs of love" (p. 108).

Despite having gotten himself out of finanncial trouble, Wise says
ﬁnat l'e felt "deep contrition" for having produced secular literature
annd begged his scneolmaster for forgiveess. Wise went so far as to
alter for himself ﬁe group penitential prayer on ﬁe following Lorin
m (Day of Atonement) which is phrased in ﬁe first person plural
("We have sinned, etc.") to include his personal confession, "I have
written." (Xe can argue that Wise is telling a tall tale to ﬁese wne
might have been amused by his foray into secular literature, or taking
aswipe at ﬁeOrﬁedox, or thatreismockinghisownyouthful
intensity. But it seems more probable that Wise was inndeed ambivalent

abont writing fiction arnd writing in geeral, arnd ﬁnat ﬁnis

25

ambivaleee grew over ﬁe years. Why else portray each major book of
hisasavictoryoverhisown desires andconviction? Whysayﬁnat
his real goal in life was "to make some substantial contribution" to
ﬁne world "raﬁer ﬁnan to write someﬁninng" (Guide, p. 109) annd ﬁenn
skew new each book of his was a substantial contribution?

In Albarny, Wise saw an opportunity not just to contribute to
American Jewish literature, but to create it. Wiﬁn "its two large
libraries, re Jewish book, except ﬁe Cnumash [Pentateuch] annd
prayerbooks was to be found." T'nere was "nethirg substantial on
Jewish history or culture...simply ne Jewish literature in ﬁe English
language. And ﬁen ﬁe desire to write awoke in me, weekly at first,
ﬁnen ever more strogly, until I had overcome my dislike of writing
annd had forgotten my lack of knewledge" (Guide, p. 111). 'I'te abseee
of an American Jewish literature; attacks on Reform; and Wise's desire

to bring knewledge of Scientific Judaism (Wisenschaft des Judentunms)

 

into English led him to write articles in Tne Occident and '11e

 

Asmoean as well as his History (see above). But all ﬁnis writing was
wiﬁeut his volition: "man is what circumstarnces make him" (Guide, p.
110).

'I'l'e fiction annd poetry (22) Wise wrote for Tne Israelite were written

 

only "cut of dire need" annd ﬁe paper itself was started at ﬁe demannd
of friends. Wise's version of becoming a novelist is more specific

rere ﬁnan that in Reminiscences twenty-oe years earlier. Because

 

"reﬁning useful could be founnd" in English, his writing fiction seems
even more reroic: "in ﬁnat desperate situation, reﬁning remained but

for me to do ﬁne wo ." Not only is Wise more offhannd abont his

26

fiction ﬁnan in Reminiscences, as quoted above, he says 1e m his

 

excursion into fiction ("God forgive me") annd that re wanted only
anonymity as "The American Jewish Novelist." His auﬁership was only

revealed accidentally wnen his son-in—law published Tne Combat of ﬁe

 

Piopl_e_ (1859) arnd The First of ﬁe Maccabees (1860) end put his name

 

on ﬁe title pages, Wise says. Tne story is net true. Wise had
signed his fiction as early as 1856, annd even wiﬁeut a signature, l'ew
conld re have remained completely anenynmons when Cincinnati's Jewish
communnity numbered only a few ﬁeusand and ﬁne American Jewish scee
was not rife with writers wlem readers could suspect of being "Tne
Novelist"? Anonymity seems even more unlikely given that Wise set his
firstnevel inBohemiaandevenmentioedﬁnetownnearesthis
birthplace.

Wise claims ﬁnat ﬁe trannslations l'e did of ﬁe prayerbook re

edited, Minhag America (American Rite) were also due to ontside

 

 

pressure, and he entered ﬁe field of apologetics for similar reasons.
Friendsurgedhimtomndertakeabookexplainingﬁedoctrinesof
Judaism from a Reform stanndpoint and turn that into a catechism, which
he did, wiﬁeut regret, ﬁnis time. As for writing abont Christianity
to connter missionaries in ﬁe 1850's end after, Wise says, "I was
conscripted for ﬁe battle. Againnst my wistes, against my aesﬁetic
inclination, in disregard of my pecuniary arnd moral interests, I had
to appear in ﬁe public arena as an auﬁer againnst Christianity"
(Guide, p. 120). Tne reluctant auﬁer credits himself wiﬁn having
tackled ﬁe prevaing aﬁeistic spirit of ﬁe times; harmonizing

Judaism annd contemporary science, ﬁnus ridding Judaism forever of the

27

plague of atheism; routing ﬁe missionaries; and creating
understanding between Jews and Christians.

While "The World of My Books" is an informal and unfinisted
memoir, it is consistent in its vision of what writing meanns to Wise.

It is a less combative work ﬁnan Reminiscences, perhaps because he has

 

seen ﬁe triumph of Reform in ﬁe establishment of Hebrew Union
Cbllege, ﬁe Central Conference of American Rabbis and ﬁe Union of
American Hebrew Cogregations, and because re has ontlived his rivals,
David Einrernn and Isaac Leeser (23). But Wise's distaste or conflict
overwritingdeepensinﬁesecondwork. Itstranslatorretesthat
Wisewroteit"atﬁepeakofhiscareer, surveyingapastwhichany
mann might prize" (Guide, p. 116). Why ﬁen does Wise portray himself
as a man shaped by ineluctable circumstance to write against his will?
Is it an attempt to pre-empt possible criticism of his writing by at
oee trumpetting its impact and success while disclainming
responsibility for it? Is Wise, wlese rhetoric of reroism has
softened, shifting ﬁe field of his battles to triumphs over himself
and his aversion to writing? Is l'e like Koneleth declaimirg ﬁnat all,
cralmostallisvanity? Shonldweperhapswonderwiﬁnﬁenarrator

of Flaubert's Parrot, "What chance wonld ﬁe craftiaet bicgrapter

 

stanndagainstﬁesubject wlesawhimcominganddecidedtoamuse
himself?" (24)

As a number of screlars have pointed ont (Guttman, Rubinstein,
Dawidowicz), Wise is more complex and contradictory ﬁnan his

bicgrapters have geerally acknewledged. It is thus net surprising
that Wise's fiction has been all but ignered. Not only is it somewhat

28

innaccessible, but Wise devalues annd acclaims it so strangely in his
two autobiographies. It is quite possible ﬁnat Wise's annbivaleee was
simply a posture, a way of depicting himself as someﬁning of a
tormented artist, struggling against himself and his world. But if
thatisso, reoehasboﬁneredtoconsiderrewWisetalksabonthis
writing and lew his attitudes, real or assumed, might have influeeed
readers of his autobiographies. Critics have net paid attention to
Wise's abivaleee, but have tended to focus eiﬁner on his didactic
aims or his "casual" technique and its consequeees. Unintentionally

or net, Reminiscences and "'I‘re World of My Books" do net clarify ﬁe

 

subject of his fiction, but sew confusion and quite possibly distaste.

III

Wise's first biographer was David Philipson, a major figure in
Americann Reform Judaism. Wise knew his faﬁer, a Columbus, Ohio
mechanic, and charged ﬁne boy's life by inviting him to ﬁe rabbinical
college ﬁnat was opening in 1875 (25). A graduate of Hebrew Union
College's first class in 1863, Philipson's "wrele personal culture and
career were made possible" by enrolling there (Freelef, p. xii). Co-
sponsor of the 1885 Pittsbrugh Platform (26) and auﬁer of ﬁe

standard Reform Movement in Judaism, Philipson also trannslated arnd

 

edited Wise's Reminiscences. In his introduction to ﬁese memoirs

 

as ﬁey appeared in The Israelite two monﬁns after Wise's death,

 

Philipson claims that ﬁe memoirs reveal a side of Wise's personality
lmom only to intimates: "a romantic strain...which enabled him to

forget ﬁe realities of life and find recreation in an imaginative

29

world which obtained expression in revel and drama" (quoted in

Reminiscerees, p. 7). The fiction sonnds almost dilettantish, mere

 

yonﬁnful effusions, and is ﬁnus stripped of any real significannce.
Thisimpressionisheighteedbyapassing refereeeinﬁe
biographical introduction of his edition of Wise's writings to
"several revels" Wise wrote in Vienna when 1e was around twenty-two or
twenty-ﬁnree.

Philipson co-auﬁered that introduction to Selected Writings of

 

Isaac Mayer Wise (1900) wiﬁn Luis Grossman, wre became Wise's

 

assistant rebbi in 1898 and led ﬁe Cincinnati cogregation after
Wise's deaﬁn. Grossmanhas a bit more to say abont Wise as a writer
of fiction. Wise's writing in geeral was net an "anmiable pastime, "
but part of his strenuous life purpose (Writings, p. 89). A man of
action, Wise always translated his views into policy, for innstanee
writing to prove ﬁnat Judaism was in harmony wiﬁn science, writing a
great deal on the origin of Christianity, on Jewish religion and
history, and Biblical criticism. With an equal earnestness, Wise
wrote "romarnces annd revels" so "ﬁnat ﬁere sleuld be a revival of
pride in onr beautiful history, and that ﬁe virtues of onr ancestry
have a vitalizing power such as ﬁe story of all l'eroism has" (p. 99).
Grossman lists nine of Wise's revels as well as several re wrote in

German for Die, Deborah--Wise's German language newspaper (27)--and

 

concludes that Wise "sl'ewed a high order of ability," treating his
subjects "with psycnelogical tact, " ﬁeugh he "may have been premature
in his revel writing" (p. 99). T'tese remarks are net only vague, it

is difficult to knew what ﬁe last comment actually meanns. Did Wise

3O

begin writing fiction before re was mature enough or had a sufficient
command of English? Did Jewish writers have a better sense of Jewish
historywhenGrossmanwas writingthaninWise'sday, orwasﬁnerene
ready audience for Jewish fiction in ﬁe 1850's and 60's? This last
may be Grossman's point because half of what be briefly says abont
ﬁe fiction is an extertation to contemporary Jewish writers to mine
Jewish history as only ﬁney can do for its moral life, tragedy and
paﬁes. This attempt could make "reformation moral and net merely
formal" (p. 99).

Philipson's and Grossman's biographical essay is based on

Reminiscences as well as conversations Philipson had wiﬁn Wise (28),

 

and Max. B. May's 1916 biography relies on both ﬁese earlier sonrces.
Wise's grandson, May set out to prove that Wise was not only American
Judaism's major figure from 1850-1900, but also ﬁe fonnder of ﬁnat
Judaism and ﬁe institutions which preserved it. To achieve ﬁnat end,
May tells ﬁe story of Wise's life largely in his own words, qlnting
reavily from Wise's writing and autobiographies in which Wise shared a
similar view of his role. May mentions Wise reading "ﬁe best writers
of Bglish and Gernman" (May, p. 355), but has reﬁning of his ownn to
say abont Wise's fiction or Wise's writing in geeral because re feels
re is net competent to judge Wise as an auﬁer (p. vii).

In a chapter surveying Wise's important position as editor of The
Israelite, May quotes Wise's plan to offer Jewish revels in his
newspaper "to awaken ﬁe slumbering patriotism" of his prospective
audience, bnntaswehaveseen, ﬁepromisedrevelsneverappearedand

re had to write ﬁem himself (May, p. 203). May does net comment on

31

Wise's apparently offhand description of writing just under deadlines
anndinoeinstancehavinganextraneroinerehadtodisposeof
"decently, romantically, and effectively." Readers are ﬁnus left to
draw ﬁeir own conclusions. For ﬁese later writers wte may have
relied on May's work, ﬁere is nere initiated an error in dating oe

of Wise's revels. Writing in 1875, Wise lists Tie Convert and Eng

 

Steemaker's Family as ﬁe first two revels appearing in Tte Israelite,

 

 

but Family appeared in 1855 and was his fonrth revel (29).
Dena Wilensky also quotes reavily from Wise's writing in From

Sinnai to Cincinnati (1937), but her aim is explaining Wise's anti-

 

Zionism, at a time when ﬁe classical Reform position againnst
Zionism was under heavy fire and wonld ultimately be nnodified in ﬁe
Cleveland Conference. In what is virtually an anﬁelogy, Wilensky
attempts to slew ﬁet Wise's belief in ﬁe revelation at Sinai of ﬁe
Ten Cormmanndments to Moses and ﬁe Jewish people was at ﬁe core of his
ﬁnonght. Wilensky calls Wise an "Auﬁer, Poet, and Dreamer" (p.23);
ﬁere are, lewever, re excerpts from his fiction or comments on it.
Wilensky's highly-charged book simply gives ﬁe number of his revels,
eleven, neting ﬁnat ﬁey appeared in The Israelite and that some are
book-legth.

Israel Knex's brief and readable Rabbi in America (1956) also

 

 

relies too reavily on Reminiscences. 'I‘hongh Knex does show Wise as

 

stubborn and combative, ﬁe portrait is weighted towards descriptions
like this oe of Wise's role as a teacner:
1e discovered ways of relieving ﬁe distress of

students...of uttering a warnm and friendly word when ﬁere
was in oe a heaviness of spirit or in aneﬁer a feeling of

32

forlornness (Knex, p. 106).
While often following Wise's self-flattering accomts of his
struggles, Knex is net so obliging in his discusssion of ﬁe fiction,
to whichte devotee two pages at ﬁe endof achapteronbattles Wise

foght as editor of Tie Israelite.

 

Knex characterizes Wise's fiction as "replete wiﬁn
sentimentality, wiﬁn melodramatic action and surprise, with villains
and heroes" (p. 94). Written "for popular consumption," ﬁe revels
were "didactic, " inadequate and of slight literary merit despite ﬁeir

"great--if fleeting--success" (Knex admits that Tie Israelite's

 

readers probably enjoyed ﬁe revels). Though Wise wrote wiﬁn great
fluency, Knex laments ﬁe lack of criticism or evaluation; ﬁnus while
his pedagogic aim of rousing Jewish feeling may have been acceptable,
Wise's inability to realize his fiction's "literary innadequacy" is
net. Admiring Wise's versatility, Knex does net see Wise as having
had contact with great literature, annd considers ﬁe revels Wise set
in ancient Israel a somewhat questionable attempt to vicarionsly enjoy
nationalism when Reform was divesting Judaism of that aspect.

Knex uses part of ﬁe same passage in Reminisceees ﬁnat May

 

quotes in which Wise comments on his literary meﬁed arnd ﬁe surplus
leroine we have already met in Part II. Knex criticizes Wise for his
satisfaction at having "cleverly" solved ﬁe problem of eliminating

ﬁnat heroine. A careful reading of Reminisceees makes ﬁe "boast"

 

seem more like Wise's heavy-handed humor ﬁnan self-satisfaction,
especially as Wise rounds off ﬁe story with Mrs. Wise codemrnirg his

un-chivalrous behavior.

33

But ﬁere is a deeper problem with Krex's view of Wise's fiction.
He admits that it was popular and pleasing, ﬁe surprisingly fluent
production of a versatile writer, but dismisses it for having mirninmal

literary value. In ﬁe same Reminisceees passage that Knex quotes

 

from, Wise affirms his didactic aim for The Israelite as a wnele:

 

I knew very well that my paper world have to be sinmple and
popular; for I wanted to write for ﬁe people--i.e., for my
people. This world net give sckelars any reason for
particular adnmiration (p. 77).
Wise wanted ﬁe paper to disseminnate his ideas and projects ﬁnrongieut
ﬁe conntry and inn his own community, and by all accomts it fulfilled
that aim, as well as exposing "all wre abused and maltreated ﬁe Jew
solely on account of his religion" (May, p. 239). Wise used his
newspaper to continnually "call for a union of Jewish cogregations, a
Urnited States rabbinical seminary, and a pernmarnent rabbinnical
organnization, as well as to give moral and spiritual support (and

press) to reform cogregations all over ﬁe land" (30). Tie Israelite

 

was nnncre succesful ﬁnan Isaac Leeser's Occident and attracted "a large
following among ﬁe upwardly mobile, rapidly Americannizirg Jewish
bmtgler" (Jick, p. 127). Bertram Korn concludes that it "exerted a
powerful force in ﬁe formation of Jewish public opinion on Jewish and
national problems" (Korn, p. 125) and Naomi Cden credits Wise's
newspaper with "heroulean" and "pioeering efforts on behalf of
American Jewish defense" (Cohen, p. 150). Knex's contempt for Wise's
fiction and by extension its audience, offers little to anyoe seeking
to understand Wise or his work. As Norﬁnrop Frye writes, "Wlen a
critic interprets, re is talking abont [ﬁe artist], wren 1e
evaluates, 1e is talking abont himself, or at most, abont himself as a

representative of his age" (31).
Abraham Steinberg offers ﬁe most complete disonssion of Wise's

fiction in Jewish Characters in ﬁe American Novel to 1900 (1956)

 

wnere he credits Wise with being "ﬁe first American Jewish novelist
to treat Jewish ﬁemes extensively" (32). EVen nmore importantly, Wise
is to be praised for "providing an eergetic example and establishing
an organ for oﬁer American Jewish writers (Steinnberg, p. 257). While
Wise himself was "a failure as a nevelist" and his disciples Moritz
Loth and Henry Moos were even less distinguisl'ed, oe protegee, Naﬁnan

Mayer (wlese work first appeared in Tl'e Israelite), produced "ﬁe

 

first American Jewish revel of literary worth" (p. 257).
Steinnberg is certainnly to be credited for supplying plot
sunmmaries of Wise's revels (ﬁey range from a line or two to almost a

page). However, his reliarnce on Reminiscences to ﬁe apparent

 

exclusion of oﬁer works on Wise leads to some curions errors and
conclusions. Steinberg lists Wise as ﬁe definite auﬁer of only ﬁe
six revels Wise mentions in his autobiography, concluding ﬁnat two

oﬁers are "probably" Wise's: The Catastropne at Egg; and Resignation

 

 

and Fidelity. Both works are attributed to Wise in Selected Writings.

 

 

A more serions error is Steinnberg's naive reading of Reminisceees.

 

Inalogpassagedeecribinghisworkonﬁethreerevelssetin
ancient Israel, Wise net only remarks on ﬁeir eager audience of
"ﬁeusands" but credits them with "arousing patriotisrm and a desire
for Jewish learning" (p. 337). Steinberg interprets Wise's assertion
ﬁnat ﬁe revels "accomplished ﬁeir purpose fully, alﬁnough I never

had any ambition to become reewred as a revelist" as an attempt to

35

disclaim his literary ambitions (Steinberg, p. 257) because ﬁey were
"unrealized." In ﬁe context of Wise's attitude toward his writing,
ﬁe "disclaimer" only serves to leighten his success raﬁer ﬁnan
dinminish it.

Steinnberg also misreads comments of Wise's ﬁnat appeared on July

3, 1857 at ﬁe end of The Israelite's ﬁnird volume. With great

 

satisfaction, Wise reviewed his newspaper's "most extraordinary,
"indepedent and spledid career" of succesful combat againnst
Christian missionaries and Christianity in geeral, againnst enti-
Jewish prejudice, atheism, "self-styled orthodoxy" and "ultra reform."

While ﬁe focus of Wise's sanguine full-page review is 'I‘re Israelite's

 

success in varnquishing its enemies, Wise also praises ﬁe role of ﬁe
literature ﬁnat appeared ﬁere, irncludirg "ﬁe labors of Tie American
Jewish Novelist" which had

re-animated ﬁe spark of patriotic sentiment, of genuine
Jewish pride and self-estimation in ﬁe hearts of ﬁeusands
of onr co-religionist, especially ﬁe yong. Tle view of
anncient Jews has been changed radically...ard a sentiment of
veeration and high regard for or faﬁers; and a closer
attachment to ﬁe synagogue annd ﬁe Jews has been
egedered.

Given ﬁe bellicose toe of Wise's retrospective, his woderirg
wleﬁer The Israelite has any literary value, and claiming that it

 

does, fonr times in oe paragraph, seems uncharacteristically
uneertainn for Wise. Even at this early date, Wise's attitude toward
his writing is urnclear and ambivalent.

It seems clear that Steinberg has fallen prey to Wise's onrions
but compelling attitude to his own fiction. Steinberg is of'two minds

on Wise's desigrnation of himself as "Tne American Jewish Novelist":

36

ﬁe label's use is termed at oe point "simple" and at aneﬁer
"prod." Even more contradictory is Steinnberg's classirg Wise a
"failure" as a writer of fiction, wiﬁnout supplying any evidence, and
while praising Wise's "remarkable mastery" of English and his ability
to "attain a quite literate and literary style." (p. 257).

Sefton Temkin's two-volume biographical dissertation on Wise
(1964) refers very briefly to ﬁe revels: Wise forayed into fiction
with "characteristic readiness to try his hard at somean new"
(Temkin, p. 420). Temkin quotes Wise's "candid" description of his

literary techrnique in Reminiscences and quotes "World" as well,

 

coeluding ﬁnat Wise took a more detected view of his fiction ﬁere.
Temkin's work is valuable for ﬁe care wiﬁn which re establisred ﬁe
accuracy or inaccuracy of many of Wise's claims; his relianee on Wise
inn ﬁe question of his writing is ﬁnus somewhat surprising. In
Temkin's estimation, all of Wise's volumineus writings were merely
"by-products" of his activities; his prayerbook Minhag America was ﬁne
"mainepring" and it aloe had emotional sigrnificaree for Wise (p.
537) .

James G. Heller first refers to Wise's fiction in passing in his
history of Wise's Cinncinnati cogregation, B'nai Yeshurun. Extolling
Wise's "daemonic momentum" and ﬁe richness fonrd inn ﬁe early years

of Tie Israelite, Heller mentions Wise's ability to ponr ont,

 

"literally from week to week, " a continnuirg revel for his newspaper's
first page, "probably to retain ﬁe interest of ladies and yonng
people" (33). Tie main audieee at ﬁe time for fiction was indeed

women, particularly yonng women, and Heller's intent is clearly to

37

praise Wise's eergy. However, ﬁe toe of his remarks seems
disnmissive; it is ﬁerefore net surprising to find few little
Heller-—rabbi of B'nai Yeshurun from 1926 to l954--says abont Wise's
fiction in his exhaustive 1964 biography.

Heller first speculates that in Vienna from 1842-1844, Wise may
have "been nursing ﬁe netion ﬁnat he might possess some literary
talent. It is net urnﬁninnkable ﬁnat 1e derisned a hidden ambition to
become a great writer of fiction" (Heller, Wise, p. 76). Heller linnks
ﬁnis possible goal wiﬁn Wise's ability boﬁn to "toss off some secular,
lighﬁnearted German plays" (34) and to "spin ont, installment by

installment" revels for The Israelite. If Wise dig dream of becoming

 

a writer, his "Siege of Milan" assunmes more inmportannce ﬁnan eiﬁer
Wise or oﬁer writers have given it. "Siege" was Wise's first
publication; re copy exists and ﬁere are different versions of its
publication. Perhaps relying on his memory of conversations wiﬁn
Wise, David Philipson says ﬁe story was oe of several revels and
appeared in a Prague newspaper, Bohemia. Wise himself said in "Tie
World of My Books" ﬁnat he wrote oe story in Viennna and Boremia was
issued in a "little country towrn."

Offering a "glimpse" into Wise's fiction, Heller retes ﬁnat
Wise's aim in launching his newspaper was net moralizirg but
instruction, and writing revels was a partial fulfillment of ﬁnat aim.
Heller says ﬁese "fictional adventures" were "astonishingly popular"
wiﬁeut, unfortunately, giving evidence, and twice lists ﬁeir titles.
He goes on to paraphrase Wise on ﬁne haste wiﬁn which re wrote and

retells ﬁe tale of the superfluous heroine, conflatirg ﬁe versions

38

in Reminniscences and "World" so ﬁnat Wise's single mistake is turned

 

into a pattern. Heller ﬁnus ontdoes Wise, picturing him as a slapdash
creator. In extenuation, perhaps, re says ﬁnat Wise "did net take
lightly ﬁe task of composing [his nevels]...he strove to trarnsnmit a
krewledge of Jewish history, its paﬁes and grandeur" (p. 660).
Wise's revels were "amazingly vivid and interesting," ﬁnongh his style
was "typical of him and of the period and his English was net perfect
"in ﬁe early years": "Tears flew rapidly from Ier eyes" is oe
example. To evinnce Wise's "period" style, Heller quotes ﬁe first
paragraph of The Last Struggle of the Nation:
Itwasadarknight. Rainponreddownfromobscureclonds
in rushing currents. A hurricane-like wind swept over ﬁe
plain of Esdrael, and reverberated in awful melodies from
Momt Carmel. An unnbroken silence reigned supreme in ﬁe
plain below, and on ﬁe vine-covered Carmel, wnere ﬁe
autumn leaves whistled ﬁe awful accords wiﬁn ﬁe rushing
wirdandﬁebreakingandfoamingwavesofﬁeseaat its
foot. Men and beasts had sought stelter under ﬁe roofs,
rere wonld expose himself to weeping and mourning nature
(35) .

Lucy Dawidowicz faulted Heller's biography for offering readers
little of value abont Wise or ﬁe Reform movement and oe can say
almost ﬁe same of his comments on ﬁe fiction. Heller makes re
attempt to examine ﬁe fiction in any depﬁn, and his only original
contribution is to briefly speculate on Wise's ambitions as a writer.
Aside from ﬁe passage quoted above, ﬁere is re real evideee
ﬁnat Heller serionsly considered Wise's fiction, ﬁnough re could
hardly have ignered it altogeﬁer. Heller's neutrality verges on
armbivaleee; like Knox 1e admires Wise's eergy and productivity, but

1e cannnet say anyﬁning especially positive or specific abont ﬁe

39

fiction itself annd his comments lack a colerennt point of view.
Of all considerations of Wise's fiction, Louis Harap's is ﬁe

most negative in The Image of the Jew in American Literature (1974).

 

Wise getsﬁenedforbeing "oe ofﬁeearliestandnestprcductive
Jewish nevelists inn ﬁe comtry." But Harap dismisses Wise's fiction
as "conpletely undistinguisred and, to be canndid, unreadable today"
(Harap, p. 274). Harap places Wise in the first group of writers to
devote ﬁemselves to Jewish themes, as early 19th century dramatists
like Mordechai Noah did not. Pressing for Jewish fiction ﬁnat would
noise "manny a youﬁnful near-t" annd fill it "wiﬁn love and admiration
for Israel" was admirable on Wise's part, as was his energy. Harap
adnnits ﬁnat Wise's "readers probably were inspired by his didactic,
devotional tales" (p. 274), but Wise was a failure because re did net
alter ﬁe contemporary negative image of ﬁe Jew in American
literature.

Harap's very brief discussion is inncomplete annd distorted on
several accounnts. Wise set out to make Jews proud of ﬁemselves at a
time when a "rascally Jew figured in every cleap revel, every
newspaper printed some stale jokes abont ﬁe Jews, every backwoodsman
had a few such jokes on hannd for use in public addresses"

(Reminisceees, p. 272). Wise was starting a Jewish newspaper for a

 

Jewish audieee; why ﬁen should he be faulted for failing at what he
did net attempt? A more serious problem with Harap's view of Wise is
that ﬁe fiction is "unnreadable." Harap discusses a great many books
that he says have minimal literary merit, so ﬁe epiﬁet "unreadable"

implies ﬁnat Wise is beyond ﬁe literary pale. Harap buttresses his

40

claim by ﬁe first line of The Combat of the People: "Solemn annd

 

harnmonious wasﬁemerrysogofﬁewingedminstrelsofﬁeair
greeting ﬁe radiant lnerald of ﬁe rising queen of ﬁe day" (p. 274).
Because ﬁe revel opens wiﬁn a Temple service in Jerusalem it seems
likely ﬁnat Wise crese ﬁnis "elevat " diction deliberately; and in
fact, ﬁe subsequent passages are net quite so stilted. But coeider
by contrast ﬁe very different opening of The Steemaker's Family
written two years earlier:

It was some time in December, 1847, wnen ﬁe nerthern
part of Austria was covered wiﬁn a deep snew. Tne sound of
ﬁe rivulets, running down ﬁe mountains, was silenced by ﬁe
extreme frost, rushing in, as it were, wiﬁn ﬁe cold blast
of an unnfriendly nerﬁn wind. Tne low roofs in ﬁe village
of S. supported a heavy weight of snew. Icicles hung in
various forms from ﬁe caves, and ﬁe windows were hung with
frosty crystals. Tne groLn'd cracked under ﬁe footsteps of
ﬁe few human beings wre ventured to walk abont ﬁe village.
Tne snew, lately fallen, was driven about by a strong wind,
filling up each footstep as soon as ﬁe traveller had
passed. The clapping of shutters and front doors, and ﬁe
sounds of ﬁe evening-bell, completed ﬁe somber effect
peculiar to ﬁe winter evening in ﬁnat climate (E
Israelite, January 5, 1855).

My point here, an obvious oe, is that quoting oe line of any
writer's work is a weak basis for sweeping conclusions.

In what seems oﬁnerwise to be a ﬁerough and detailed work, Harap
makes a nnumber of unexpected errors in discussing Wise. At one point
re credits Wise wiﬁn having auﬁered eight nevels, but elsewrere
quotes Heller's figure of eleven wiﬁn no attempt to explain ﬁe
disparity. He makes the same mistake as oﬁers have doe in listing

'I'te Shoemaker's Family as written in 1854 and re is years off in

 

dating Wise's lecture "'I'ne Wandering Jew" as appearing at ﬁe end of
ﬁe 19ﬁn century wnen it was written in 1877 (36). In a book ﬁnat

41

teens wiﬁn marny dozens of plot summaries of books Harap retes have
little value, net including oe summary of a Wise revel seems to
We his judgment of Wise's fiction as "unnreadable."

Given ﬁnat Wise "bibliographically outrarnks" all oﬁer American
Jewish figures (Dawidowicz, p. 63), his fiction has received
remarkably little attention, and what has been written is neiﬁer
particularly useful ner accurate. There is some confusion about
publishing dates, ﬁe number of revels Wise wrote, and most
especially, about Wise's attitude towards his writing, which has
geerally been simplified and ﬁnus misread. Critics and bicgraprers
have substituted Wise's entertaining anecdote about ﬁe dangers of
serialization for professional, ﬁerough analysis. Wten Wise's
fiction is praised, it is in vague ternms: ﬁe revels express his
"romanticism" wiﬁn "ability" and "psyclelogical tact, " are seen as
moreproofofhisverstailityandenergy, ormarkhinn asaninnnevator,
Iewever untalented. 'I'nese wre criticize or condemn ﬁe revels fault
Wise's style, his use of melodrama and sentimentality, but appear to
waver in describing Wise's aims and his apparent success. Tle abseee
of substantial discussion and ﬁe often ambivalent and confused nature
of what little is said is partly due to Wise himself. Considering
Wise's stature in American Judaism, an examination of his fiction is

overdue.

CHAPTERTMD

THE ENEMIES OF ISRAEL

Written from 1854 to 1864, ﬁe revels discussed in ﬁnis chapter
and ﬁe next are almost all set in "Germany"--that is, "ﬁnat part of
Central Europe wnere Jewish communities took ﬁeir cues from Germann
culture" (37). But wheﬁer ﬁeir action takes place in ﬁe nineteenth
or ﬁe fifteenth century, ﬁey tell a very similar story: Jewish
triumph over Christian, and in oe case Moslem, oppression. While
individual Christians may be what we wonld new call "righteous
Gentiles," as a wrele ﬁey appear as irdoctrinated by ﬁe Roman
Caﬁelic Church to hate Jews. Jews are pressed and ﬁnreatered to
convert; are plundered, abducted, and forcibly baptized; imprisoed,
torturedardkilled, butﬁeyremainstroginﬁefaceofterror.
Despite oppression and all ﬁe countervailing seductions of safety,
position and wealth, ﬁe Jews in ﬁnese revels do net ultimately
abandonﬁeirpecpleandﬁeirfaiﬁn. TneirbeliefinGodandﬁe
inviolability of ﬁeir religion is net shaken and ﬁey often face down
ﬁeir enemies with piercing rnetoric.

As Nina Baym has stewn in aneﬁer connection, "instruction is net
at cross-purposes with entertainment," ﬁe lesson itself of ﬁese
revels entertaining ﬁese readers wle identify wiﬁn ﬁe triumph of
Ieroes and heroines over adversity and obstacles (38). 'I‘Iese leroes
andreroinesareinmostcaseenetstronglyindividualized; ﬁeyare

really figures ﬁnat exemplify a nnumber of characteristics like

42

bravery, fortitude, courage, stregﬁn. The settings ﬁey appear in
are particularized only in ﬁe nest geeral way, except wlere details
of Jewish ritual, nelidays and customs are brought into ﬁe text. Tre
most complex aspect of ﬁese revels is ﬁe sometimes confusing
plotting, which frequently involves hidden and disguised identities
and exposition-crammed stories ﬁnat characters tell to explain
ﬁemselves and their actions. In almost every oe of ﬁese revels,

ﬁe traditional elements of fiction are secondary to ﬁe ﬁemes.

Tie Convert: issues 1-5 of Tie Israelite, July 15, 1854 ﬁnrough

August 11.

'Inemes: ConvertingtoC’nnristianitytogainpersonal and
professional advantage in an anti-Semitic society can only fail.
Conversionists want more than mere complianee, and will use arny means
to get complete obedienee.

Setti_ng: Koenigsburg and Prague in nerthwest Austria-Hungary
(Bohemia) in the 1840's.

Characters: Moses Baum, Doctor, convert to Christianity

Isaac and Hannrnah Baum, his parents
Zodek Baum, his older broﬁer
Raclel Baunm, his sister

Samuel Oohn, Moses' best fried
Rabbi Haim (John, Samuel's faﬁer
Tte Prior

Tne Police Spy

 

 

 

It is net surprising ﬁnat Wise tackles ﬁe subject of conversion
in his first revel. American Protestantism was "experiencing a new
upsurge in evangelism" (Cohen, p.65) in ﬁe two decades before ﬁe
Civil War. Missionaries' conversionist literature painted Judaism as
a "dead religion, log superseded by a loving and benevolent
Christianity, and re loger relevant to civilization. Tiese wl'e
continuedtopractice itprovedﬁeirmoral backwardnessardﬁeir

proverbial stiff-reckedness" (p. 62). Louis Harap retes ﬁnat even

44

ﬁeugh intense "efforts to convert ﬁe Jews bore neglible fruit...
Jewish leaders were unduly coeerred over ﬁe ﬁnreat" (Harap, p. 269).
Indeed, ﬁe most prominent missionary agency, ﬁe American Society for
Melioratirg ﬁe Condition of ﬁe Jews, was a failure. Unable to agree
on new it should accomplish reform, ﬁne society "made almost ne
converts, its plans for a colony for Christian-Jews failed, and it was
unable eiﬁer to send missionaries abroad or to bring converted Jews
from Europe" (39). Despite its poor slewing, newever, ﬁe society
continued to attract moey and interest, and ﬁe missionary m
was so strog "ﬁnat Wise and oﬁers saw a would—be proselytizer in
every pious church atteder" (Goren, p. 63). America's first Jewish
periodical, _@ Jﬂn, appeared in 1822 to attack missionaries and
defed Judaism; Isaac Leeser carried on ﬁe fight in his Occident and
Wise "plunged almost frenziedly into a running tirade againnst ﬁe
'hypocrisy' and 'immoraliw' of missionaries in ﬁe United Sta "
(Cohen, p.70).

Wise's revel opens in modern Koenigsberg in Western Bolemia,
wnere ﬁe "steeplae of its churcles are visible far beyod ﬁe Eger
valley." 'Ine storyretonlybeginsinﬁe'ﬁdng'scity" andinﬁe
shadowofﬁeanurch, butinﬁedarkershadowofitepast. 'IneJews
living at ﬁe Western end of ﬁe city are descendents of Jews We
"sought refuge in ﬁnat solitary corner of Germany, wren ﬁe crusaders
made havoc amog ﬁeir breﬁnrenn on ﬁe Rhine."

Simple, religious Isaac Baum and his wife Hannah mourn ﬁeir son
Mose's conversion, which ﬁey have learned abont from a letter, ﬁncugh

ﬁeir beautiful daughter Radel implores her moﬁer to accept "ﬁe

4S

ineomprelensible decrees of Providence." But Hannnnah exclaims "in ﬁne

accentsof wild agony":
'Oﬁnatﬁesonwl'emIboreuntomyheartwasdead, andI
wouldprayforhimdayandnight; butnewnetevenﬁe

consolation of prayer is left to ﬁe bereft mother, I cannret
pray for a Meshumed!‘ [apostate] (Vol. 1, no.1, p.1).

RabbiHaimOohnjoinsﬁem intakirgoffﬁeirsnees, cuttirgapiece
of ﬁeir cloﬁnes as a ritual sign of mourning (_slni_v_a_) and sitting on
ﬁe floor; later re returns wiﬁn a m (prayer quorum) for prayer.
Isaac blames Mose's conversion on his eldest son Zodek, wne
counseled ﬁnat ﬁeir faﬁer stop supporting Moses inn his medical
studies in Prague. Pennniless, desperate and ashamed, Moses re doubt
fell afoul of conversionists ﬁere: "'I'ne eenmies of Israel are always
readytomakespledidpromisestoﬁese wlese souls ﬁey lead
astray," Baum says, "ﬁey have ﬁe power and ﬁe moey, and we are
feeble and but few in number." Zodek chimes in, decrying ﬁe lot of
contemporary Jews fenced in by a Iestile government:
'We are compelled by ﬁe laws of ﬁe land to reside in this
town, because we are born Iere, and because we are Jews,
ﬁereisneway forusinthisplacetoearnapieceof
bread, we mustgotoEgeronSurdayardreturnonFriday,

live ﬁere amog strangers, far from our relatives an object
of scoffandpersecutiontoourneighbors. Weareforoedto

payateavytaxforﬁeprivilegeofearningahardliving
by ﬁe sweat of our brows, again because we are Jews' (ne.l,
p.1).
But Zodek still attacks his broﬁer's lack of resolution, and Moses'
profligate life as a medical student in Prague while ﬁeir sister
needed a dowry. Zodek also accuses Rabbi Oohrn's son Samuel of having

led Moses astray. Samuel did net fast on Tishe B'Av (Tie Ninﬁn of Av,

 

mencrializing ﬁe Temple's destruction in 70 C.E.), was lax in his

prayers, and ate with Gentiles. Ractel is in love wiﬁn Samuel, but

46

Zodekrevealstoﬁeirfaﬁer ﬁnatl'eis inlove withwealﬁnchseph
Mast's daughter and ﬁnat rer broﬁer wants to marry Radel. Isaac
Baumisconvireedﬁnatﬁesetwomarriages willeraseﬁestainof
Mose's conversion.

In Mose's Prague lodgings, which swarnns with books and
manuscripts, ﬁe handsome and elegant doctor argues wiﬁn Samuel Cohn
abont his conversion, declaring ﬁnat "re was forced by circumstaree to
ﬁnat step. AsaJew, nesaid, lehadneopportnmitytocome into
public office, and even as a practical physician could net succeed,
wtere opposed by a less skilful colleague of ﬁe Christian faiﬁn."
Conversion has freed him of legal restrictions and prejudice, bringing
him "many and influential patrons." Moses even Iepes to obtain a
unniversity professorship, but professional advancement is net his only
reasonforconverting: renewhasﬁeresourcestotelphisfamily.
Samuel, seeing Moses for ﬁe first time since re converted, warns that
Moses will regret his action and disagrees ﬁnat Judaism is merely "ﬁe
performanee of a set of ceremonies," interchangeable wiﬁn any oﬁer
set. Samuel's younger brother Smolek arrives with letters from
Kcenigsberg; oe from Racnel explains ﬁe situation at home and begs
Samuel to nelp Moses and terself. Moses writes a letter declaring
Samuel's "innneceee in regard to his conversion," which Samuel departs
wiﬁn instanntly.

Back in Koenigsberg on Shabbos (Friday night), an argument breaks
out at ﬁe Baums' when Raclel's inteded, Aaron Mast, arrives after
ﬁeShabbosmealandwantstotakeIertoRabbi Cchnn'stojoinoﬁer

frieds in welcoming Samuel back. Isaac Baum forbids it, but Aaron

47

demands his rights as a groom to be. Racleluwle was weeping for
Moses before--silences Aaron with a piercing look before her moﬁer
drags her off. Apprised of ﬁe love between Samuel and Racl'el, Aaron
swears "I will tear him in pieces, if he even speaks to ter," and
leaves. Late at night Isaac mistakes his pale trembling daughter for
aremonstratirgglest; Zodekalsotakesherforagtestwhenrelater
conesacrossherasleepwithherreadinnerarmsonﬁetable.

Tlerextmorning, Samuel Cohnpreactesapowerful sermonatﬁe
synnagogue"inapurelyGermanstyle, andconstructedaccordingtoﬁe
rules of rnetoric," which eds with a vision of future harmony between
Jews and Gentiles. The cogregants are sharply divided over ﬁe
sernnon's merits, wiﬁn Zodek particularly dismissive. Samuel is
dazzling oee again at an afterneon §h1_ur_ (traditional Shabbos
afterneon discussion of a Talmud portion). Wten Isaac Baum and Zodek
describe ﬁe "greets" ﬁey saw ﬁe previous night (Zodek's was
Headless"), ﬁe Rabbi strogly doubts ﬁeir existeee, as does
Samuel. A misunderstanding ensues when Samuel advises seding for ﬁe
doctor to treat ﬁnem--which ﬁe Baums take to be a slightirg reference
to Moses ("The Doctor"). Enraged, Baum almost strikes Samuel, wl'e
hands him Moses' letter. In tears, Baum disavows Ractel and Aaron
Mast's planned marriage, and offers ten to Samuel if he can "reclaim"
Moses. Unntil ﬁnen Samuel will net be allowed to see fer, but sre
later tosses Samuel a handkerchief throngh ﬁe window, wet wiﬁn ler
wars and bearing fer nanme.

Prague's Stralef Convent, "oe of ﬁese lasting monuments of

priestly predominnance and despotism," a palace boﬁn glcony and richly

48

appointed, is ﬁe lair of Moses's patron, ﬁe corpulent, beady-eyed
Prior, wterevealstoﬁesteckeddoctorﬁeresultsofhis
intelligeee gaﬁerirg: "all ﬁe secrete of his [Moses'] house,
company, employment, and even sentiments." Baum reads dangerons
auﬁers--Voltaire, Bolirgbroke, Feuerbach and Paine--but ﬁe sneering
prelate will net turn him over to ﬁe Imperial auﬁerities if Moses
joins the Jesuit order. Baum refuses, ﬁey argue, and 1e draws a
pistol to prevent ﬁe Prior from calling his servants, but ﬁe
contemptuous churchmen pounds his chair and a secret wall panel lets
inﬁnreeof his minions. Baum escapes, rewever, having firedhisgunn
and filled ﬁe air with smoke (later we learn 1e wounded ﬁe Prior in
ﬁe arm), and Mosee is followed teme by a police spy wl'e reveals ﬁnat
retooisaconvert. Athislodgings, Mosesdiscovershisservant
drugged and all his "incriminating" papers missing, and ﬁe spy
reports ﬁnat Recrel is being Ield by ﬁe police for net having a
passport. Released from prison and at Moses' lodgings, Radel and
BaumarejoinedbyRabbiCohnwneinformsﬁemﬁnat Samuel is in

Padua's rabbinical college, wlere re is leaded. It is Erev Yom Kippur

 

and ﬁey atted services at ﬁe new Reform Temple, impressed by ﬁe
music, ﬁe creir, and ﬁe decorum.

Tie story's climax is a chream inwhich Baum is seizedbyﬁe
Prior, given arnms and forced alog with a "large crowd of armed men,
with priests, bearing standards, crosses, and oﬁer insignnia of ﬁe
church." Tne fanatical, savage crowd, spurred to "divine vegearee,"

surges through ﬁe countryside to Koenigsberg's Jewish quarter:

49

marrivirgﬁere, ﬁepriorwasseenstardirgonahigh
platform, and lifting up ﬁe cross re exclaimed furiously,
'Kill and burn ﬁe eemies of ﬁe cross, have re compassion,
murder ﬁe child and its moﬁer, ﬁnis is divine vegearee
and eternal remission of sins. Blood, blood, blood, ﬁe
blood of ﬁe eemies of ﬁe cross!‘ 'I're crowd repeated ﬁe
lastwordsofﬁeprior, ardﬁenﬁeybrokeintoﬁehouses
of the Jews to kill, plunder and burn (no.5, p.33).
The orgy of violence and destruction spews forth Moses' faﬁer wrem
ﬁe Prior demands re kill, but Moses slays ﬁe prior and exclaims ﬁe
Stema ("Hear O Israel..."), waiting "calmly to receive ﬁe blows to
end his life."

Samuel wakes him at ﬁnis point and Moses declares "I am a Jew. I
can be re Caﬁelic." Raclel and Samuel are happily reunited and ﬁe
spy produces passports he has held in readiness for himself and Moses
so ﬁnat ﬁey can leave for America, wnere as Moses says, "a man is
entitledtohis ownview, andnone isboundtobeahypocriteinorder
to obtain an hoerable portion in society."

‘I'ne Convert eds with Rachel and Samuel happily married and

 

Samuel ﬁe preacher of a large cogregation: Moses and ﬁe spy become
"founders of a Hebrew cogregation in ﬁe Far West"; and ﬁe Prior is
under suspicion by ﬁe Austrian government because ﬁe spy planted
Moses' papers in his reuse: "A Jesuit was deceived, this is quite

new, " Moses retes.

Wise's chief targetsinﬁnisrevelareﬁeChurchardﬁeoerons
political and ecoemic strictures on German Jews that did make
conversion an attractive possibility for some. While Moses Baum seems
motivated by a nere reasonable assessment of his professional and

social limitations as a Jew, ﬁe unnamed police spy wIe eventually

relps him is a more extreme example of frustration. Tre spy reveals
his secret in Chapter IV and ﬁe fol lowing exchange dramatizes ﬁeir
differeees:
'Wnen I was a Jew openlyandavowedly, I wasahurntedbeast
anobjectof scoffedpersecution. TrernIsworeinmy
wrath,’ the spy continued grnashing his teeﬁn, 'to embrace
Caﬁelicisrm, and become a police spy, ﬁnat I may do unto
ﬁem asﬁeyhavedoeuntome. Butlhaveneverharmeda
Jew, so kelp me God.’ 'Vegearee is an igneble monster and
unworthy of a man,‘ ﬁe Doctor remarked. 'But it is sweet,
and I was violently irritated, and unnmanly [sic] excluded
from ﬁe society of men, l'ew could I be a man?‘ was ﬁe
spy's bitter reply (no.4, p.26).
We never learn ﬁe specifics of ﬁe spy's misfortune or even his name,
and re ﬁnus seems to represent Jewish hatred of persecution which is
more modulated in ﬁe various speedes of Moses, his faﬁer and his
broﬁernbut springs from ﬁe same sources.

Wise's creice of a "convent" for ﬁe revel's confrontation
between ﬁe good but misled Jew and ﬁe evil prelate edees his
lecture "Tie End of Popes, Nobles and Kings" (40). In ﬁnat rousing
talk, which became his first American publication, Wise calls ﬁe
convent a "dark abode of deceit and cunnningness" wlere priests could
indoctrinate ﬁe ignerant and "maintain ﬁe dominnion of Rome" ("Erd,"
p. 8). That dominion may be fading, but Imperial power over ﬁe Jews
is stillstrogardﬁnePrior'sﬁnreattoturnMcsesovertoﬁe
police as a subversive is net idle. Moses' cunning antagonist is
appropriately villainous: eloquent, peremptory, possesor of "a keen
mindedsearchirgglance,"hulkinginaﬁnroe—likechairinaGothic
hallreacledby"anarrow andsomewhatdarkpassage, guardedbya

wlele company of petrified saints." One can imagine Wise's audieee

51

wouldhave fourdﬁe Prior'sbeirg woundedardunder Imperial
suspicion at ﬁe novel's end as satisfying as Moses does.
BnntﬁePriorisnetTheConvert'ssoletarget: IsaacardZodek

 

Baum are lesser villainns, speaking for a Judaism or Jewish way of life
characterized by ignerarnce and superstition. Boﬁn Baums are foolishly
convineedﬁnatﬁneyhaveseengrestsandaresurethatﬁecausemust
be a flaw in ﬁeir mezuzah (41). Tte Baum's willingness to jump to
nonsensical conclusions is of a piece with their attacking Samuel's
sermon delivered in flawless German. It is, after all, "ﬁe young and
better informed portion of ﬁe old men" of ﬁe cogregation wre are
inmpressed by ﬁe sermon which concludes wiﬁn a vision of Jews and
Gentiles becoming united in ﬁe future. Zodek, "leader" of the
ignerant, codemns that vision as mere advice for Jews to convert.
Sagacicus Samuel is possessed of an equally perceptive faﬁer.
Rabbi Cohrn finds ﬁe Reform service at ﬁe Prague Temple so highly
pleasing and edifying "ﬁnat 1e wisled to see all synagogues in Israel
conductedinsuchaproperandelevatingmarnrer." Itiswcrﬁnreting
that Wise praises Sulzer's "impressive" music which he introduced into
his own cogregations, for having "toncled every neart, and satisfied
ﬁe religions yearning of every mind." Likewise praised is ﬁe
preseee of "Jews and Gentiles from ﬁe best classes of society."

Tress words are almest a catchphrase in ReminiscenceenWise's ultimate

 

praise for a social or religions event. Henry Feingold points out
ﬁnat Wise and oﬁer Reform leaders went out of ﬁeir way to cultivate
Protestant leaders because Reform could only succeed by becoming

Americann "and ﬁnat in turn mearnt associating with America's prirncipal

52

religons creed" (42). Tne praise Wise heaps on ﬁe service ﬁnat Moses,
Radel and Rabbi Cohn atted is clearly in line wiﬁn ﬁe perception
neld by Germann Jews ﬁnat Reform Judaism offered an enlighteed
religion "which songht to stem ﬁe tide of conversion to Christianity
by Jews estranged from what ﬁey perceived as ﬁe obsolete ritnals of
Judaism and frustrated by ﬁe discriminatory practices of ﬁeir
society" (Raphael, p. 7).

While many German Jews did indeed convert "for political or
professional advareemen " and to escape an "anachronistic,
unenlighteed and unnappealing Judaism" (Raphael, p.6), ﬁe problem in
ﬁe Unnited States seems to have been more ﬁe lack of Jewish knewledge
and commitment to religions observanee. Tne former appears to be
reflected in Wise's translation in ﬁe text of even ﬁe most common
religions terminelcgy, like Minnchah, afterneon prayer, Tephilin,
phylacteries, and Tzitziﬁn, prayer shawl fringes. Wise's assessment
of his readers' lack of Jewish knewledge is borne ont by nest screlars
of ﬁe period: "Tre German Jewish immigrant wne came in ﬁe earliest
waves of immigration...did net boast a ﬁerough grounding in
Judaism....Tnese nest steeped in ﬁe religious tradition were...least

likely to emigrate to what was rumored to be a tref medinnah (unkoster

 

society)" (Midrash, p. 61). And so, alog with stirring Jews to take
pride in ﬁe advarnces of Reform, to be on guard agairnst "ﬁe eemies
of Israel, "to abandon superstition and ontworn practices," Wise also
seems to have had a more prosaic goal: basic religions education.
Samuel decries Jews having learned to ﬁninnk of ﬁeir religion as a set

of ceremonies, as Moses evidently does whern 1e converts, and twice

53

vows to write a treatise on Jewish education. Wise, of course, wrote
two versions of such a book (43).

Tne revel's most dramatic sequence is Moses' dream in Chapter
Five, which at first seems to be actually happening. Tired by his
adventuresatﬁeconventardwiﬁnﬁespy, rescuinghissister, and
ﬁemovinggolNidre service, Moses lies down; ﬁe recent events

and marny oﬁer ideas associated with each oﬁer crowded upon
his half-suspeded faculties in a fantastical yet vivid
mannrer. Suddenlyﬁedoorofhisroomwasburstopen, ﬁe
oldpriorrusledinwithalargecrossinoehard, arda
sword in ﬁe other; behind him was a crowd of arnmed men with
repulsive comtenances. Tle prior advannced towards ﬁe
Doctor, and with a ﬁnunderlike and furions voice he ﬁnus
addressed him, 'Rise, defeder of ﬁe rely cross, ﬁe hour
of Godly vegeance and eterrnal remission of sins is at
hand' (no.5, p.73).
Forcedtotakeuparms anddraggedontside, Mosesseesacrowd
enfuriated [sic] by farnaticism." It is net until ﬁe crowd is
sweeping from Prague to Koenigsberg ﬁnat oe is sure ﬁnis cannret be
actually happening.

Wise himself may have been haunted by such dreams, which were net
farremovedfromﬁerealityreknew. He was born in 1819, ﬁeyear
of ﬁe infamons "Hep! Hep!" Riots ﬁnat swept Germany and Austria (44),

and Wise significantly refers to ﬁem in Reminisceees, describing his

 

arrival in New York. Wise nelps some fellow travelers from being
cverchargedbyGernmanrersecartdrivers wrecurse andﬁnreatenhinm
and ﬁe Jews. Wise says re ﬁeught to himself: "yon have left home
and kindred in order to get away from ﬁe disgusting Judaeoplebia, end
nereﬁefirstGermangreetingﬁnatsonndsinyourearsislep! rep!"
(p.16)

ItisthatrealityMcses Baum leavestostartacogregationin

America's West and his name is surely net accidental. Like his
biblical namesake, ne smites a Gentile and later becomes a leader of
his people, ﬁeugh at first a somewhat unlikely candidate for such a
fate. This Moses is ﬁe only oe of Wise's protagonists We will
convert (ﬁnough re returns to Judaism); all ﬁe oﬁers will refuse.
"Baum" isalsoGerman fortreeardbeyodﬁecbvionsimageof
transplantation and growth, Wise might have had in mind the oft-quoted
line from ﬁe Torah service extolling Torah "as a tree of life to all
ﬁese We take hold of it."

'ITeConvertopensonareteofgriefandmonrnirgandedswith

 

reunnitedlovers, aconvertrestoredtoJudaism andstartinganew life
in America, and ﬁe blackmailing conversionist foiled. (In ﬁe way to
ﬁnis happy eding Wise singles ont for praise rational belief,
enlighteed family feeling, ﬁe warmth of ﬁe Sabbaﬁn (always a
coeern of his), America's freedom, and most importantly, fighting
oppression and refusing to succumb to Roman Caﬁelic blandishmente
and ﬁnreats. Wise has already establisred ﬁe cast of characters ﬁnat
will appear in various irncarnations in his subsequent revels: neble
young man, love-struck and faithful yonng woman, befuddled and
unintentionally cruel parents, wicked men of ﬁe cloﬁn, and
superstitions Jews. And Wise has also begunn creating his literary
world, oe in which Christian tyranrny can triumph only nmomentarily

over Jews, wne are always morally superior to ﬁeir oppressors.

Tne Jewish Heroine: August 18, 1854 to September 22, 1854.
Settn_n_ng’ : Targiers and Fez, Tne Barbary States, 1830's.
Themes: Despite ﬁe most seductive and ferocions pressure to

 

55

convert, Jews will net leave ﬁein: faiﬁn. Jews should beware "false
frieds" because conversionists are everywhere.
Cnnaracters: Preebe Hachuel, a beautiful Jewess
Haim, her faﬁer, a poor trader
Simcha, ner meﬁer
Tahara de Masmcodi, Pneebe's Moslem fried
Arbi Bsido, Governor of Targiers
Don Jose Riero, Spanish Consul to ﬁe region

Conversion is even more central to Wise's secod revel; a simpler

storythanTreConvert,itreadsverymuchlikeanexpededanecdote

 

because ﬁe action is fairly limited. Tre daughter of Haim and
Simcha Hachuel, Pneebe, is praised for l'er beauty by "ﬁeusards of
youﬁns," hit rarely allowed ont. Because lner faﬁer is net a
successful eeugh trader to afford housekeld help, Pneebe must do
"nearly ﬁe wnele of ﬁe domestic labor." As sre grows older,
prettier and more restless, sle resents ﬁnis burden and frequently
expresses ner discontent to a Moorish friend, Tahara de Masnmcodi.
Unforturnately for Pteebe, newever, Tahara is a "fanatic," a "false and
artful" fried for religions reasons:
It being a precept of ﬁe Alcoran, ﬁe Arabs consider ﬁe
conversion of a heretic (for such ﬁey deem all ﬁese of a
different faiﬁn) to ﬁeir belief as a most meritorions act;
ﬁey tesitate net at ﬁe means ﬁey employ to make such
conquests, when opportunnities offer (ne.6, p.41).
WhenascoldingfromlermoﬁeronedaysedsPreebeofftorer
fried's, lamenting her situation and wishing "to escape from ﬁe
cruel oppressions which she imagined sle was subjected to, " Tahara
offers conversion. Tahara's boasting about her own religion has
always filled Pieebe with pity and she rejects ﬁnis "terrible
proposal." Tahara hurries to Targier's goverrer, Arbi Esido, "a harsh
and capricions character," to tell him that "a Jewess more beautiful

tharn ﬁe Spring wants to convert but her moﬁer prevents it." The

56

Governer sends a soldier to drag Preebe off while her relpless moﬁer
watcl'es.

At ﬁeir first encounter, ﬁe Governer offers her rich cloﬁes
and jewels, but ﬁe weeping, trembling Preebe resists: "I never will
change my humble garments for oﬁers, exhibiting gold annd my shame--a
Jewess I was born, Sir, a Jewess I wish to die." E‘sido is angered,
but 1e admires her "resolution and modesty." Tahara's false testimony
makes Preebe's "recantation" a crime of blasphemy, punishable by
deaﬁn, and ﬁe ladies of ﬁne palace paint Pleebe a picture of ﬁe
wealth, power annd adventure ﬁnat will be hers if sre converts, but
Pleebe only trembles, weeps and sighs. Haim blames his wife's
harshness for having brought about what 1e ﬁninnks is his daughter's
conversion.

Patient Pleebe is detained for ﬁnree days, still misting,
despite ﬁnreats of being chained, starved, immured, and "torn
piecenneal by wild beasts." Imprisoed, she has a nighttime interview
wiﬁn her parents ﬁnrough ﬁne grate, during which sre is weigred down
by silence annd distress, and ﬁeir anguish is "impossible" to
describe. Convinced that she has "failed in ﬁe duty of a good child"
bynetbeingresignedtoher mother, Phoebe isdeterminedtoserveas
an example to oﬁer young women. Her faﬁner later seeks information
about Ier fate, but ﬁe Governer is furious and Haim laments ﬁese
unfortunate men "whom fate has condemned to live in ﬁnis wretcned
country; we, merely because we are Jews, are treated as slaves; we are
scoffed, despised; ﬁey will not even live in ﬁe same street wiﬁn us.

What happiness can we experience under such persecution." Wise

57

footnetes this outburst:
'I'teJewsaretreatedveryharshlybyﬁeMoorsinﬁnispart
of Africa; ﬁeir religions fannaticism leads ﬁem to connmit
terrors repugnant to humanity. It often happens ﬁnat a Jew
wlehasnettakenoffhissleeswhenwiﬁnin twentypacesof
a Mosque, receives two hunndred bastinadoes on ﬁe soles of
his feet, or some similar punishment (ne.7, p.50).

At aneﬁer interview with her parents Pleebe is even more
determined to die for her religion, astonishing ﬁem with her
resolution: "We gains ﬁe greatest glory, ﬁe tyrant overcone by his
victim, orﬁeoppressed, evenatﬁeexpenseof life, wtebeconesﬁe
victor?" sne asks. "Charming Phoe " is punisl'ed for fer obduracy by
beingplacedinadarkairlessdungeon, anironcollaronlerneck,
chains fastenedtoherhands and feet--but shedwellsonGodinher‘
ﬁeughts. WhenﬁneSpanishViceConsulDonJose Rierohearscfher
plight he interoedes, but it is too late because ﬁe Emperor has been
infornned and ordered her brought to Fez. "Moors as well as Jews" are
dismayed by ﬁnis dismal turn of events. Because Preebe's family must
payﬁecostsoflerremcvaltoFez, ﬁchvernerdenands forty
dollars, and prohibits rer parents or any Jews from contact wiﬁn
Preebe. 'I‘re moey is supplied by Don Jose, annd chained, signing
Pleebe, radiant and imposing, is tied to a mule by a "frightful
Mulatto" wtere sre invokes God's consolation in "a contenplative
ecstasy." Herparents watchinsecretandﬁeirsneckturnsto
convulsed mourning annd fainting.

Silent, unnoonplaining Pleebe is pressed on ten: awful six—day
journeytoconvertbyall whoseeter; hercourageousrefusal

astonisteseveryoe. AtFez, ﬁePrinceand300courtierson

58

horseback fire ﬁeir gnnns to impress Preebe, but sre is still unmoved,
as is also ﬁe case when sne is entertained in a "magnificent saloon
decorated wiﬁn extreme granndeur, in ﬁe Arabian style" and offered
rich cloﬁning annd perfumes. Tre Prinnce annd Emperor counnsel all to
treat Ier with kindness, annd ﬁeugh impressed by her lavish
surroundings, Preebe cannet be misled by ﬁe Prince's wife to
convert.

In her logest defense, Pleebe exponnnds on ﬁe lion, ﬁe oak, ﬁe
Christian, ﬁe Jew, annd ﬁe Moslem as all being unalterably what
nature made ﬁem, concluding ﬁnat religion "is imprinted on ﬁe sonl
by nnature." A confrontation with ﬁe Emperor, wne offers Ier a rare
diamond, andhisnepnewinmarriage, leadshinntoabandonPhoebe‘bo
Justice, but re orders ﬁnat before any punishment be inflicted, "every
meanns of persuasion annd mildness" be enployed. "Tl'e Moors had
determined to convert ﬁe Jewess, annd sought it wiﬁn desperation" annd
nine days of "useless persuasion" follow. Pleebe is told ﬁnat rabbis
("sagee of rer faith") will cone to intercede with rer, but ste does
net knew ﬁney are acting unnder personal ﬁnreats.

Ttese sages cannet shake Pteebe's "inexplicable courage" annd ste
is condemned to death for "ler repeated blasptemy of ﬁe Proptet and
his dogmas." EVen descriptions of her execution leave her unnmoved,
but ﬁe coning execution fills ﬁe Moors--"wrese religions fanaticism
is indescribable...wiﬁn ﬁeir accustomed joy." While Pleebe is
tauntedandexecratedbymobsonﬁewaytoherdeaﬁn, evenﬁe
fannatical annd bloodﬁnirsty Moors find her "meekness annd devotion"

touching, annd her tomb is later venerated even by Moors as well as

59

Jews. Her parents are left distracted and ﬁe novel ends wiﬁn two
lessons:

learn, parents, by ﬁnis example, ﬁnat too nnuch severity
in rearing children often leads to ﬁe most cheadful
disasters of life.

Youth, imitate her virtuous constanncy, and forget net
ﬁnat a faiﬁnless friend caused her destruction (re.11, p.82).

'I'fe pointedness of ﬁe novel's morals highlighte 'Ife Jewish

 

Heroine's extrene simplicity; ﬁnere is oe sole line of action, unlike
ﬁe previons revel wiﬁn its larger cast of characters. Pfeebe is
betrayed by her false friend and suffers continued fnumiliations arnd
privationsasﬁnepressureonfertoconvertmounts. Inoeexcfnange
afteraretfer, sfeisbothtemptedandthreatenedtoconvert, beconing
more feroic annd more resigned, a "Goddess of Virtue" annd "Angel of
Beauty." At ﬁe story's opening sfe is already a jewel annd fer
suffering and martyrdom only brighten fer luster. 'I'fe falseess annd
cruelty of Israel's eemies in ﬁnis revel is so apparent in ﬁe very
first chapter that Pfeebe’s fate is never really in doubt. Each
subsequent chapter is less a complication or extension of ﬁe story
than an intensification of Pheobe's growing resolution to God-inspired
martyrdom. Pfeebe's temptations and sufferings increase, as does ﬁe
weight of fer parents' grief and ﬁe publicity annd precariousrees of
fer situation. Pfeebe grows more resolute, more resigned, arnd more
exalted in fer r‘fetoric.

Wise's second revel is net only different from ﬁe first in terms
of its simplicity; Wise relies far more here on dialogue ﬁnan

narration--so ﬁnat the effect is of reading a play ﬁnat has been

6O

turredintoarevel. (rereasonmaybeﬁesetting,whichWise
wouldonlykrewfromhisreading. 'Ihoughsettingisbyremeansakey
elenentof‘I‘feConvert, ﬁereareeeughtoucfeslikeﬁegreenlamps

 

at Moses' lodgings annd ﬁe Mizrach (marking ﬁe Eastern wall, for
prayer) at ﬁe Baums' to make ﬁnat revel convincingly familiar. By

conparison, setting is almost a cipher in The Jewish Heroine arnd in

 

only oe place is ﬁere an attempt to achieve verisimilitude. At ﬁne
Emperor's palace in Fez, Pfeebe is entertained as already stated, "in
a magnnificent saloon, decorated with extreme grarndeur, in ﬁe Arabian
style." No details are given.

Aretfer possible explanation for ﬁne reliannce on dialogue is that
Wise was innspired by a play or plays. Jews were net only portrayed
stereotypically in fiction of ﬁe period, ﬁey were also popular stage
villains; this stage Jew, adopted from English drama, was unlike Jews
in actual American life. Lonis Harap has detailed ﬁe "almost
unniversal annd conpletely uncritical acceptaree of ﬁe anti-Semitic
portrait of ﬁe Jew on ﬁe American stage" (Harap, p.211). 'Ihree
popular plays ﬁnat Wise might have seen, read or feard of were set in
ﬁe Barbary States arnd had stereotypic Jewish characters: Susarnrnah

Rowson's Slaves in Algiers (1794), James Ellison's American Captive

 

 

(1811) and Jonathan Smith's 'I'fe Siege of Algiers (1823).

 

Jews actually played an important ecoemic role in ﬁe Barbary
States, as witnessed by ﬁe American Jewish playwright Mordecai Noah,
wfeservedﬁerefronlBl3tolBlSasﬁeUnitedStatesOonenl. Noah
reportsﬁnatJewsinﬁeBarbaryStatesare"ﬁeprincipal atﬁefead
of ﬁne ouston house...conuol ﬁe mint and regulate ﬁe coinnage of

61

moey, ﬁey keep ﬁe Bey's jewels and valuable articles, end are his
treasurers, secretaries arnd interpreters; ﬁe little krewn of arm,
scieee, annd medicine is confined to ﬁe Jews." Noah assesses ﬁem as
posseesing "a very controlling influeee, arnd ﬁeir friendsfnip is
worthy of being preserved by public functionaries, and ﬁeir
opposition is to be dreaded." Given ﬁeir business skill, Noah
concludes ﬁey will, "if ret narrowly watcfed, avail ﬁemselves of
opportunnities to overreach annd defraud." Tfe first Jew in American

fiction appeared in Royall Taylor's The Algerine Captive end was

 

"based with sons accuracy on ﬁe powerful Jewish bannkirg fannilies in
Algiers, ﬁe Bacri annd Busrnachs" (Harap, p. 34).
Lingering as it does on Pfeebe's suffering annd fortitude, The

Jewish Heroine seems a determined effort net just to praise Jewish

 

feroism but to specifically connnter ﬁe stereotype of rich, ruﬁnless
arnd grasping Barbary States Jew. Her faﬁer after all may be a
trader, as manny Jews ﬁere were, but fe is by re means wealﬁny:
"Fortune had net been over generous of her favours to Haim Hachuel."
He is never more ﬁnan a desperate and bewildered faﬁer, overwfelmed
by grief, arnd ﬁe reader is often asked to sympathize with him end his
wife or told ﬁnat ﬁeir suffering resists description. Tfe villairns
areﬁeArabs, wfecanonlybekinndtodeceive; ﬁneyareoﬁerwise
"false," "fanatic," "artful," "crafty," "harsh," "capricious,"
"faiﬁnless," "ﬁeacherons," "ferocious," and "their religious
fannaticism is indescribable." Pfeebe is a victim of that fanaticism,
ﬁe only Wise protagonist to suffer deaﬁn, but sfe dies triumphant, a
proud and unnbowed Jew.

62

Tfe Sfeemaker's Family: Jaunary 5, 1855 to February 23, 1855.
m: a snnall village inn Polish Austria, 1847
Themes: Christian infamy will net go unnpnrnisfed. Reform offers
ﬁe opposite of Jewish superstition arnd prejudice.
Characters: Isaac Sumner, Sfeemaker annd Sexton
Sulamith, his danghter
Simeon, her broﬁer
Nbses, their broﬁer in America
Joseph Brauer, Simeon's Christian friend arnd
patron
Baroness Lichtenfeld, Brauer' s sister
Mr. Freiberg, Brauer's childfeod tutor, his
sister's lover
Mr. Lenech, Jewish busybody
Joseph Katz, wealty neighbor

 

In a violent December snewstcrnn, ﬁe family of "poor, simple but
hoest" Isaac Summer is unable to properly celebrate ﬁe conning
Sabbath because "ﬁere was neiﬁer flour, meat, nor fish...even re oil
was ﬁere to fill ﬁe Sabbath-lamp." Son Simeon arrives wiﬁn ﬁe
missing itens, but will net reveal ﬁeir sonroe. A red-fead, fe will
be ﬁe butt of jokes annd folk sayings ﬁnroughout ﬁe revel like "red
hair grows on re good feed." At a rich neigfnbor's house, Simeon end
his sister Sulamith areremindedofﬁeirpovertybyconparing
ﬁemselves to Joseph Katz' French-speaking, piane-playing arrogant
children. When Sulamith later laments fer lack of "learning," fer
broﬁerinsistsﬁnatﬁeyhavelearredhoesty, irndustryandhumility.
Late ﬁnat night a mysterious cloaked stranger goes off wiﬁn Simeon. A
letter comes from Moses with money in it and a rete for Simeon
praising his conmannd of English. Sulamith is strangely overwrought to
fearthatferbroﬁerhas secretly learnedErglishanndSimeonsuspects
ﬁnat sfe must be in love with someone; only ﬁnat could explain ﬁe

intensity of fer feelings.

Simeon's benefactor, Johnn Brauer, lives near ﬁe village, in a
Goﬁnichome setinacheerlessstanndofoaks. Brauer'shomeis feared
by superstitious Jews arnd Gentiles. They claim to have seen all sorts
of apparitions ﬁere arnd call red-fem Brauer "Tfe Red Wizard."
ern Simeon sfnares his coeern for Sulamiﬁn wiﬁn Brauer annd wonders
few to felp educate fer, Brauer conrnsels giving Sulamiﬁn history annd
philosophy to read, but net fiction or poetry because ﬁey wonld only
"gratify fer vannity." At ﬁe Katz' Simeon later sfews up ﬁe Misses
Katz as ignerant by reading Victor Cousin to ﬁnem which ﬁey mistake
for Racine (when ﬁey aren't dozing). Impressed by his learning,
Sulamiﬁnbegsferbroﬁnertoeducatehersothatsfecanmasterfer
"irressitable desire, a burnning passion, to commit ﬁe worst and
blackest of crimes." That night, ﬁneir faﬁer believes fe has seen a
gfest, but it is only ﬁe same stranger wfe led Simeon off ﬁe night
before with ﬁe password, "Watchman, what of ﬁe night?"

A large conpanny celebrating Mr. Katz' birthday mocks annd bedevils
Simeon for being a mysterious loer, annd Simeon rails against ﬁe
syrnagogue fe does net attend because of its "antiquated chants" annd
"unmeaning ceremonies." To his critics, Simeon delivers a plea for

understanding and Reform:

'Tfesynagogueisgoodenonghforme, butIdisliketosee
hypocrites shakeﬁeirfeadswfnenpraying, anndﬁninkingevil
of ﬁeir neighbors; crying aloud ﬁe praise of ﬁe Almighty,
annd slannder ﬁneir fellow creatures; boast upon being ﬁe
image of God, arnddegradeﬁemselvesbyﬁemeanest
prejudice, ﬁe nest ridiculous superstitions, annd feap
disgrace upon ﬁe Jewish name by uniting all sorts of
follies to religious observarnces. I hate to see men talk
words which ﬁney do net understand, believe ﬁnat which ﬁey
are unable to comprehend, annd make whimsical gestures to
please God, and still ﬁey style ﬁemselves Jews. I am a

64

Jew, sofelp me God, I am a Jew, and ﬁerefore, I cannet go

toyoursynagogue. Givemeasynagogueinwhichlam
instructed by a learned annd pious teacfer; give me a

synagogueinwhichpeoplepray; inwhichﬁepraiseof ﬁe
Almighty, as my heart feels it, may rise freely on ﬁe

pinions of sacred psalmody to ﬁe ﬁnrore of glory. Give me

a syrnagogue as our faﬁers wanted it, and I will be fonnnd

the best Jew' (no.28, p.217).
errn ﬁe "unnusually numerous" company disbarnds, Sinmeon end a rnumber of
ﬁe young men go to Brauer's. Sharing ﬁe news of Louis Phillipe's
abdication, Brauer predicts ﬁnat Austria will soon be in revolution
annd wfern a newcomer anneunees that Frarnce has become a republic ﬁere
is an uproar. Before Simeon returns fnome, Sulamith is bound, gagged,
blinndfolded annd spirited off in a carriage. No oe knews ﬁnis, annd
wfen Brauer later suggests ﬁnat sfe eloped with a lover, Simeon feels
astonisfed and betrayed.

Sulanmiﬁn is released in rich apartments, given beautiful cloﬁes
arndintroducedtoaBaroresswfeclaimstobeherrealmoﬁer,
relating ﬁe following story: fleeing ﬁe failed Polish revolution of
1830, ﬁe Baroness left ﬁe infant Sulamith in ﬁe care of ﬁe
Summers, anndsfehasonly just returnedtoclainmherproper‘tyandher
cfnild. The abduction was necessary to wipe away ﬁe stain of
Sulanmiﬁn's humble surroundings. Sulamith's confusion is tempered by
reliefﬁnatSinmeonisretferbroﬁerandthatherlove forhinm is
ﬁnus net criminal. Irate Isaac Summer, convineed ﬁnat Simeon is
somefew involved in Sulamith's disappearanee, angrily reveals ﬁnat
Simeon is net his son, but adopted, and a bastard as well. However,
Brauer tells ﬁe anguisfed Simeon ﬁnat fe is indeed legitimate and his

son end that he (Brauer) is really Baron Eberfeld. Simeon reacts wiﬁn

"a strange mixture of surprise, joy, pain, fear, and fnope."

65

Baron Eberfeld tells his complex story: ﬁe son of a Gernmann
rnoblearndaPolishConnntess, servinginﬁeRussianarmy, hereturred
from hisownmilitary servicetofinndhis castlebarredtohimbecause
his meﬁer had died and his sister had married an officer wfe sold ﬁe
property. Eberfeld is ﬁnen imprisoed as an imposter in Warsaw, but
ﬁe testimony of friendly Jews from his village frees him. Seeking
legal counsel in Brody, Polarnd, fe stays wiﬁn repentant converts from
Judaisnm, Dr. arnd Mrs. Perles, wfnose daughter Elizabeth he marries
after promising to raise ﬁeir child as a Jew. Returning from Warsaw
oe day, fe finnds his wife, ﬁe Perles's, ﬁeir servanm annd his son's
nnurse murdered. Eberfeld places his infant son with ﬁe Summers "that
he might be educated as a Jew, unnacquainted with ﬁe corruption of ﬁne
church, far from ﬁe degradation and infamy of ﬁe wealﬁny annd
migh ." Eberfeld moved nearby so ﬁnat fe could become his son's
teacfer annd mentor; his broﬁer-in—law meanwhile poisoed himself in
Paris and his sister and ﬁeir childhood tutor returned to the area.

Moses returns from America--wfere fe was studying "political
institutions"--just as a mob erupts in ﬁe village crying "Down wiﬁn
Austria! Hurrah for newborn Polarnd! Down wiﬁn ﬁe Germans annd ﬁe
Jews! Hurrah for liberty annd independence! Down with ﬁe rich!"
Simeon silennces ﬁe crowd by speaking of liberty, arnd warning ﬁem net
to fight amog ﬁemselves because that is what ﬁe Austriarn government
wannts: dissension amog minerities. A rete W by foolish Mr.
Lemech, wfe has blanmed Simeon for Sulamith's disappearanee, reveals
ﬁnat fe has been paid 100 guilders by Baroness Lichtenberg (Eberfeld's
sister) for some "service." In her castle garden, ﬁe Baroess arnd

66

fer lover Mr. Freiberg, ﬁe old tutor whom Eberfeld trusts completely,
discussﬁneirsuccessful schemingofﬁepastandplantopersuade
SulamiﬁntoconverttoChristiannityandenteracowentsoﬁnatﬁe
Baroness' daughter can marry Simeon and ﬁe family fortune stay wiﬁnin
fer power.

Disguised as a friar Freiberg attempts to begin converting
Sulanmith, wfe manages to escape into ﬁe forest, mistaking him to have
revealedﬁnatﬁeBaronessisrethermoﬁer. Enraged, ﬁneBaroess
attemptstostabFreiberg, wleﬁnreatenstorevealﬁeirinfamytofer
broﬁner (Brauer/Eberfeld) and ﬁnen poison himself. Calmed and
reconciled, ﬁey plot to bring ﬁe Summers to ﬁnem by revealing
Sulamith is ﬁere at ﬁe castle. The plan works and Freiberg tells
ﬁe old couple that Simeon is her kidnapper and seducer, having
falsely convinced ﬁe girl ﬁnat sfe is ﬁe Baroness' daughter--a lie
he says ﬁe Baroess was unaware of. At Brauer's, Sinmeon reveals ﬁnat
fe suspects Freiberg of complicity in his mother's deaﬁn, mention of
wfem always makes Freiberg uneasy. As atest, Sinmeonoee luredhinm
tofergrave, whichsentﬁetutor'bffasifpursuedbyhungry
wolves." Simon forces Lemech to reveal ﬁnat fe abducted Sulamith for
ﬁe Baroess wfe promised Sulamiﬁn to him in marriage.

Sulamiﬁn flees five miles into ﬁe forest, but sfe falls asleep
andisrecaptured. Whensheregainsconsciousressbackatﬁecastle,
Freiberg lies to fer about Simeon, lascivionsly claiming ﬁe ycuﬁn
seduced her. Tfe village is meanwhile wild with runmcrs of ﬁe
Smmmers'disappearaneeandamobbreaksintoﬁeirhomeandplunders
ﬁe boon of money annd jewels ﬁnat Katz hid ﬁere for safekeeping. A

67

fersetraderrecognizesﬁefersesFreibergusedasﬁeBaroess'and
Moses leads an armed annd "enraged multitude" to fer castle in search
of ﬁe Summers arnd Sulamiﬁn.

The Baroness annd Freiberg attempt to control events by plarnnning
to marry Sulanmiﬁn to Lemech annd giving him 20 ﬁeusannd guilders so
ﬁnat as a rich man's wife, ﬁey tell fer parents, "fer character and
hoer wonld be restored at once." Driven to distraction, Sulanmith
cannretforeetallﬁeplan, butﬁemobburstsintosavefer, onﬁe
twenty-fifﬁn arnrniversary of ﬁe Freiberg's murders. Sulamith demannds
justice forﬁeBaroress, preventingherexecutionbyﬁemob.
Freiberg repeats his story blaming Simeon to ﬁe crowd, which is
aroused. Tumult results annd Sulamith raves until Simeon enters with
his faﬁner, Baron Eberfeld, annd tells ﬁe truﬁn, implicating Lemech.
At midrnight ﬁe veiled figure of a woman in a white blood-stained
dress enters annd Freiberg is frighteed into confessing ﬁnat fe felped
poison Eberfeld's meﬁer, murdered ﬁe Perles's, ﬁeir servanm, ﬁe
Baroness'husband, anndhiredﬁekidnnappersanndplarnnedtopoison
Sulamiﬁn. Freiberg attempts to stab ﬁe Baroess annd ﬁe "gfest" is
revealedasﬁeBaron'shousekeeper. FreibergandﬁeBaroessare
sentenced to life imprisonment; Moses becomes manager of ﬁe Baron's
estates; Simeon arnd Sulamiﬁn are happy--and oe wonld assume married
ﬁeugh ﬁnat is not stated--living in ﬁe Baron's house wiﬁn ﬁe

Summers.

While Tfe Sfeemaker's Family has a number of elements fanmiliar

 

from earlier Wise revels--ﬁe beautiful, neble annd log-suffering

68

feroine, ﬁe bewildered annd peremptory parents, praise for Reform, annd
ﬁe anti-Jewish violence--it is different in some significant ways.
The plot is Wise's most complex to date, his villain is a self-
conscious oe and his fero is created with more detail.

It is net surprising that Abraham Steinnberg's ﬁnree-line plot
summary of ﬁe book mistakenly says that Sulamiﬁn is of reble birth,
and that Freiberg is a Jew. If Sulamith really was Baroess
Lichtenfeld's daughter, ﬁnen ﬁnere wonld be re need to force fer into
a convent. But ﬁnis story, and ﬁe varions shifting tales ﬁnat
Freiberg spins, beclond ﬁe revel, as does Baron Eberfeld's chapter-
log explanation of few Simeon came to live wiﬁn ﬁe Summers even
ﬁeugh fe is ﬁe Baron's son and feir. Perhaps ﬁe plot convolutions
were as innterestirg to Wise as was ﬁe plotting ﬁe seductive Baroess
does with her corrupt lover Freiberg. In Chapter Five ﬁe conple
practically lick ﬁeir fingers over ﬁe delicionsness of ﬁeir genius
at playing parts in "romances" annd ﬁey exchange fulsome compliments.
Tfe Baroess praises Freiberg for his "large fount of sweet words"
ﬁnatcouldevenpersuadeferhewas anhoestman; Freiberg admires
her "splendid abilitioe" in playing parts and ﬁe Baroess herself
claims to have fooled net only people but ﬁe French annd Russian

Elements.
Wise's Prior in The Convert seeks power over Moses Baum annd

 

enjoys demonstrating what he has, while ﬁe Moslems in Tfe Jewish

 

Heroineactontofakindofmadnessintryingtoseduceorterrorize
Pfeebe into converting, but Baroess Lichtenfeld is somewhat

different. While sfe does have deep contempt for ﬁe "stupid" Jews

69

sfeisfoolingandattemptingtocontrol, fervillainnyisinasense
more generally domestic ﬁnan very specifically anti-Jewish (ﬁnogh oe
conld hardly imagine a Jew in this revel acting similarly). 'Ife
Baroess's tricker is motivated by lust for gain annd for Freiberg:
sfe coils ferself arnd her words aronnnd him annd Wise portrays fer as
enjoying fer macfninations in arnd of ﬁemselves. Sfe even dons a wig
tocfnangeferappearannce fornoverygoodreasoninﬁelastchapter——
except to be more "romantic," perhaps. Tfe staginess of fer plotting
ismatcfedbyﬁefuryofentrancesandexitsinsomeofﬁechapters,
but especially ﬁe last, and ﬁe secret signals exchanged by Brauer
annd oﬁers in ﬁe urndergronnnd organization: a "W" made with oe's
fingersandarespondingfinngertoﬁelips. Thereisalmnostan
element of comedy, as well, in ﬁe Baroness' assertion that sfe sinmply
"yielded for a moment only to an attack of ill temper" when sfe tried
to kill Freiberg for having let Sulamiﬁn escape.

Annd Wise's portrait of Simeon is unnusual. Like his predecessors,
fe is fond of books, annd a Reformer, but fe is by re means hanndsome or
elegant as ﬁey unniformly are, arnd indeed has a "forbidden [sic]
conntenance crownedwithaveryuglycropofredhair." It is ﬁnus
net just his desire for a more spiritual anndmodernJudaismandhis
innvolvement in some kind of pro-revolutionary gronp that set him apart
from ﬁe villagers. Redleads in Jewish tradition--because ﬁey are
umnsual--are linked with ﬁe devil, arnd said to be dishonest and
tricky. 'lfney are grudgingly adnmired for ﬁeir (in Yiddish)
"Mamzeyrishn" brains--ﬁnat is, ﬁe intelligeee of a bastard. Tfe

 

implication is ﬁnat bastards wonld have to be smarter ﬁnan oﬁers to

70

overcome ﬁe circumstances of ﬁeir birﬁn. Tfe "connection" of
bastardy arnd red-feadedness is also made in Chapter IV when Isaac
Sunmmer denounces Simeon as a shameful bastard conceived when his

moﬁer was menstruating (arnd ﬁnus ritually unclean)--§_ mamzer ben

 

niddeh.

 

Simeon describes ﬁe effects of folk prejudice to his critics at
ﬁe Katz celebration in Chapter III, replying to all ﬁese wfe wonder
why fe is so different, a loner:

'Are yon aware few many superstitions are connected with ﬁe
color of my hair? Do yon knew few ﬁe people are aconstomed
to think slightly of a poor sfeemaker's boy? Tfe world
treated me with contempt, and I pay it wiﬁn ﬁe sanme coin.
Is this so unjust? Tfe yonrg ladies went ont of my way,
because my onth appeararnce did not suit ﬁenm, end I
learned to smile at ﬁeir bitterness. Is this net natural?
I was debarredof company, anndIbecame fondofbooks. 'I'fe
morebooksIreadﬁemoreI learnedtobealoe, anndI
songht solitary abodes' (no.28, p.217).

Sinmeon's subsequent cry for a synagogue worthy of Judaism is net
justﬁeoryorrfetoric, butpartofhisentirebeing. 'I‘fepaﬁesand
fervor with which fe speaks abont his loeliress annd Refornm make oe
wonder if ﬁere is a tonch of autobiography inn this character. While
almost reﬁning is knewn of Wise's early years, poverty at feme forced
hinm to live wiﬁn his grarndfaﬁner at ﬁe age of six. anen his
grarndfaﬁner died six years later, what followed was what a rnumber of
Wise's biograpfners call his "warndering." It is impossible to
determine from ﬁe sonrces wheﬁer Wise himself was a redfead, but
two oﬁer red-feaded characters appear in his fiction, in

Tfe Rabbi of Bacherach (see Cfnapter Three) annd in oe of his German

 

revels serialized in Die Deborah, Der Roﬁnkopf oder doe

 

 

71

Scfnulmeisters Tochter. Tfe villagers may be afraid of Joseph Brauer

 

end his home, arnd Freiberg is frighteed by a "gfest" into confessing,
butﬁerealpowerof superstitionfereisinhurtinganindividual.
Atoepointinﬁerevel Simeonarndhisbroﬁerareﬁninnkingof
joinning ﬁe Hungarian army annd ﬁnat enﬁnusiasm matcfes Wise's own
dnnrirg ﬁe dramatic events of 1847 end 1848, at least as fe records it

in Reminnisceees. Tfe news of Louis Phillipe's abdication annd of

 

revolution in Vienna, Berlin, Hungary and Italy led hinm to expect "ﬁne
proclamation of ﬁe European Republic." Wise says ﬁnat fe saw "ﬁe
stnggle of humanity agairnst ﬁe stupefying element....I wisfed to
participate in ﬁe war of emanncipation." Sefton Temkin has observed
ﬁnat a constant ﬁnread in Wise's speeches arnd articles "is his
passionate belief in reason, liberty and progress end a hatred of any
institution standing in ﬁeir way" (Temkin, p.301).

America, which offered Moses Baum freedom to be a Jew arnd
whateverfewantedtobe, makesamoredirectentrareeintothisrevel
ﬁnrongh Moses Summer's letter, read ﬁnroughont ﬁe village, and his
return. Marcus Hansen describes ﬁe impact such letters from America
had in Europe. They were:

net merely a family but a community affair. Neighbors
assembled, ﬁe scfeolmaster was pressed into service, arnd
ﬁe letter was read amidst a profonnnd silence ﬁnat bore
eloquent testimony to ﬁe profonnnd interest. Often copies
were made annd sent to oﬁer communities...letters from
departed friends annd relatives contained net only
information arnd advice, but also tangible evideees of a
more abundant life--a bank note....(Hansen, pp. 153-54).
Annd Moses' letter does indeed innclude moey annd attract village-wide
attention, but his nest valuable token of living in Anmerica is his

deepeed commitment to liberty--liberty from scfenming anti-senitic

72

nebility, mob violence against ﬁe Jews, annd debilitating

superstition.

Resignation and Fidelity, or, Life A Romance: April 8, 1855 to
April 20, and May 4 to May 25, 1855.

Settjﬂg: Bofnemia, aronnnd 1840.

Themes: Conversionists are motivated by Jew-hatred and are no
match for pious, simple Jews. Congregational strife can often
produce cruelties; arranged marriages are a mistake.

Characters: Joseph Hartman, wealthy Parnass (cogregational leader)
"Log David, " his son
Molly, Log David's betroﬁed
David Straus, teacfer, in love wiﬁn Molly
Daniel, his consin
Samuel, a friend
Oonnt L., David's natural faﬁer
Tfe Shamesh (sexton), Molly's faﬁer
Hans Essig, ﬁe town's priest
Anselmo Altburg, ﬁe town‘s minister

 

 

 

This revel is a fast—paced almost burlesque story of love and
stndent life set in Bofemia around 1840, arnd Wise hints it is based on
fact. Joseph Hartman, a wealﬁny Parnass (cogregational leader), is
fest to a lavish entertainment in celebration of ﬁe betroﬁnal of his
son "Log David" (wfe is very tall) to ﬁe amiable and much-loved
Molly, "belle of ﬁe town" arnd daughter of ﬁe poor Shamesh (sexton).
Despite ﬁe geeral hilarity, Molly sigfns end is silent, annd David
Straus, ﬁe teacfer, is driven to distraction (rolling eyes, quivering
lips) wfen ﬁe egagement is formalized. Straus comes to Molly's
winndow ﬁnat night with a ring inscribed "resignation arnd fidelity."
Sfehas consentedto ﬁe marriage onlyto freeferparentsarnd
talented younger broﬁer from finanncial need; Straus decides to leave
for ﬁne University at Erlegen to study "anything and everyﬁning,
which was strong eeugh to claim his sole attention, arnd to make him

73

forget all events past annd present." On his vacation, Straus is
visited by his faﬁer, Connt L., wfe has re legitimate feir arnd offers
to make David his sole feir if he continues his succesful studies, annd
converts. T'fe Oomt offers ﬁnis argument:
'Yon knew well...ﬁnat in onr faﬁnerlannd ﬁe portals of
public distinnctionareopentohimonlywmiscalleda
Christian. Conviction, faith annd private views are re
matter of consideration in this respect. A canndidate for
public office must be called a Christian. er cares for ﬁe
name? Is it your fault, that yon are called David? or wonld
itbearnymerittoyouifyonrname sfeuldbe Francis? Nanmes
arearbitraryarndaccidental things, andcannbechangedat
onr pleasure. Yon are new called a Jew, ﬁnis excludes yon
from all public offices arnd ﬁe fncrer annd wealth connected
ﬁerewiﬁn. Idesiremyheirtobe amanof highstanndinginn
the country' (no.39, p.306).

David refuses, ﬁey argue end after ﬁe Oomt leaves, David fears
ﬁnat fe has received a prize for a philosophy essay, which leaves
oﬁer students jealons of his success. Tfe students believe ﬁnat
Connnt L.-—wfnose broﬁer is at ﬁe Russian court--is a Czarist agent,
arnd Straus is warned to leave ﬁe unniversity because of his connection
with ﬁe Count, or face deaﬁn. Returning "wiﬁn a bleeding feart annd
wounded pride," he is visited by tearful Molly who bids him to
remember fer even ﬁnough sfe will be Log David's bride.

Connt L. has promises "large sums of moey" to ﬁe town prieet
and minister if ﬁey can convert Molly to Christianity. Because David
lovesfer, ﬁeConnthopesferconversionwillconvineeDavidto
converttoo. Tfetownnspeopledoretknewﬁnisandspeonlateonﬁe
unusual daily visits of Faﬁner Hans Essig and Anselmo Alburg to ﬁe
Shamesh's fnumble feme. Essig is "a retorions opponent of ﬁe Jews"

wfe

74

never forgot to appear very religions, kind and even
sentinmental, if it served his purpose; but he conld also
play ﬁe despot, ﬁe reckless persecutor, ﬁe irreconcilable
enemy, if he could net oﬁerwise reach his purpose (re.40,
p.313).
For all that, fewever, ﬁe priest is finally "too stupid to be
dangerous to any body [sic], and too urnskillful to play successfully
ﬁe Jesuit." Feigning goodwill, Essig appoints Molly's faﬁer his
steward. Altburg, on ﬁe oﬁer hard, is fenestly goodrnatured, even
considered weak; pions and patient, fe is "ﬁe oppoernt of noe and
prayed for all."
Cournt L.'s machinations extend furﬁer ﬁnan seeking to convert

Molly. He has interceded with ﬁe connty judge (Landrichter) to

 

prevent Log David from getting official permission to marry Molly and
set up his feme. Essig's servant brings fer a letter from Straus in
which fe swears undying love, but sfe replies that ﬁeir contact must
cease. Log David arranges for Molly, fer parents and her broﬁer,
wfeisfeadedforgmna_s_1_u_m_ianrzburg, toacoompanyhinmﬁere, where
fewillusehismoeyarndinflueeetopersuadeﬁedistrictgoverrer
to give him permission to marry. Log David handsomely ontfits Molly
and fer family, giving her "rich jewelry, such as sfe never had, and
never expected to have."

Straus returrns to his moﬁer in areﬁer village ﬁnan Molly's, end
at his homecoming celebration David tells much-applauded stories of
student highjinks. Later, thongh, fe confesses his feartbreak to his
moﬁer. GendarmesardaconstablearrivetotakeStraus, nelogera
student, to military service at Wurzburg wfere Molly is sure sfe sees
himinunniform. Believingthat Sfehas drivenhim toﬁedrastic step

75

of enlisting, sl'e retreats to ler roons, ill, where Straus finds ler.
Log David discovers ﬁem embracing and in ﬁe subsequent fight Straus
iswoundedandﬁnrowndownastairease, ardchargedwithdisorderly
conduct and imprisoed when he returns to his barracks. Molly rushes
outtosearchforhim, invain, andCount L. visitshimatﬁe
hospital, wlere he learnns that Straus wonld return to his studies if
released. David's moﬁer arrives and orders ner "seducer" to kelp
ﬁeirson, butﬁeOcunthasalreadyhadhimreleasedfrommilitary
service.

WIen Molly reveals her love for Straus to Ier parents, ﬁey agree
ﬁnat marrying Log David is wrong; re, however, is enraged and
ﬁnreatenns to punish ﬁem with "ﬁe whole weight of his anger." At ﬁe

Jewish meetinghouse two days before Rosh Hashanah a meeting is l'eld to

 

consider "several charges against ﬁe Shamesh [sexton]," and ﬁere is
much disputation because ﬁe meeting is Ield during ﬁe day, wtenn most
menbers cannret attend. Molly's family is accused of being on ﬁe
verge of conversion, Molly of "roaming ﬁe streets of Wurzburg wiﬁn
soldiers," and of "a base breach of promise." A majority agree to
adjourn but Log David's father, ﬁe Parnass (cogregational leader)
and his friends vote to dismiss Molly's faﬁer and hire someoe else.
This action shocks ﬁe Shamesh, and Essig and Altburg claim ﬁnat
conversion is ﬁe only annswer to Jewish hard-teartedness and divine
displeasure. 'I'l'e Shamesh is net at all convinced.

Back in Wurzburg, Straus is studying medicine, which Count L.
disapprovesofbecauseitcannetleadtostatusandpower. Ina
discussion wiﬁn anncﬁer student Straus codemns "rescality and

76

mischief, " while ﬁe oﬁer holds ﬁnat trick—playing is part of being a
student. David's consin Daniel returnns from delivering a letter to
Molly anddescribes a fight at aninnnn inwhichteandhis fried
Samuel ﬁnrasted Rosengans and oﬁer supporters of ﬁe Parnass. A
student informs Straus ﬁnat Count L., 111 in bed, is really being
pcisoedbystudentgroupswtebelievehimtobeaRussianspy.
Brandishing a gen, Straus forces his way past ﬁe Count's treacterous
steward to reveal ﬁe plot. A dog given a large dose of his medicine
dies, and ﬁe grateful Count calls a notary to have David made ﬁe
gift of his Alsatian estates and oe million francs.

Constables take away ﬁe sexton's moveable property because 1e
lost a law suit bronght by Log David, wre wanted ﬁe moey le'd spent
on Molly's family for ﬁne Wurzburg trip. A mob of drunnkenn Parnass
supporters comes at night to hurl ﬁe Shamesh ont into ﬁe street and
fisticuffs result: David, Danniel and Samuel arrive and soudly ﬁnrash
everyoeseveraltimes. MollyandDavidandnerparentsmoveto

Alsace with David's neﬁer, his cousin Daniel and Samuel.

This nevel is notable for its two kinds of conedy: a kneck-abont
sort of burlesque with ridiculonsly-named characters, and strog
mockery of Christianity and attempts to convert believing Jews. The
pro-Parnass inkeeper's name is Narrhaus ("reuse of fools"), supporters
of ﬁe Parnass have names like Blindfriend and Mestungah ("crazy"); and
ﬁe priest is surrounded by "satellites" wiﬁn names like Glauonix
("believe in reﬁning"), Schnaps, Tmnirnnix ("don't boﬁer me"). It is
net surprising, ﬁnen, ﬁnat a number of ﬁe more foolish villagers are

77

soundlybeatenupat leasttwicebyﬁenevel'send. Tfevioleneein
oﬁer revels is generally deadly and directed against Jews, but fere
it has ﬁe effect of slapstick; its already laughable victims become
more so.

Studentlifeisalsomockedandevencodemned. Inreportingto
David abont Molly's state, his consin Daniel raves in a "poetic style"
ﬁnat seems Wise's satire on ﬁe effusions of lovers and ponpons
students. Speaking in "conic-romantic enpfnasis, " Daniel praises
Molly as an angel and avers "if sfe wonld sit in ﬁe centre of
Vesuvius, guarded by old Pluto with his Cyclops, I wonld drive ﬁe old
boyintoﬁesea, andhis subjects wonldhavetomakeﬁefurniture,
and build a house for me and Molly." Like Claudius demanding
Polonions supply "more matter and less art, " David presses his cousin
for "prose."

Wise's attitude towards students' "prannks" is sonewhat unclear;
David Straus codemns ﬁem in Chapter IV but regales an audieee with
ﬁemincnapterIIandﬁereisnoclearindicationﬁnatfeisbeing
deliberately hilarions to hide his grief. As we fnave seen, unniversity
students are net above threatening a fellow student's life and
poisoningamanﬁeybelievetobeaneemyofﬁestate.

A different kind of comedy results fron ﬁe visits of Essig and
Altburg to Molly with ﬁe purpose of conversion, oe villager joking
thatﬁeyareﬁeretoconverteachcﬁer. 'I‘fechurcfunen'sefforts
net only lead to strog ﬁeological rebukes by Molly and fer faﬁer,
buttosquabbling betweenﬁemoverworksversusfaithorsalvationin
ﬁe world to come versus salvation in this world. Constant missionary

78

visits leave Molly and her parents "well versed in ﬁeological
information" and "all points of ﬁe two churcfes"--with unexpected
results. Molly is able to defeat oe churchmen with ﬁe argnunents of

ﬁe oﬁer. How is this possible?

Inﬁemorningﬁeywere told, everyoemustreadﬁeBible
inordertobesaved, butinﬁeafterneonﬁeywere
innformed, wfeever read that book is a candidate for fell.
Tfeoespokeofﬁnedivinityandpurityochd'sueﬁerand
his grand-moﬁer, wfe were patroesses of all chaste men,
about which ﬁne oﬁner made his sarcastic observations,
maintaining, ﬁnat such a belief was very sinful and foolish.
Tfe fest of saints and ﬁeir legends was a fertile ﬁeme to
ﬁeoe, andamatterofstrogcodemnationtoﬁeoﬁer.
Tfe oe dwelt with particular delight on ﬁe doctrine of
predestination and salvation by faiﬁn, while ﬁe oﬁer
called ﬁese dogmas ﬁe fabrication of Satann. Tfe pope was
calledbyoe ﬁneprince of darkness, andhismandateswere
named ﬁe commands of heresy and wickedness, while ﬁe oﬁer
senteveryoe tohell andeverlastingpurgatoryasawicked

feretic, wfe dared to utter such unnchristian words (ne.40,
p.314).

In his previons revels Wise has attacked ﬁe Church for its
ruthless persecution of Jews in contemporary Germany, but this is ﬁe
first attack in his fiction on Christian doctrine itself. For all
ﬁeir pressure, fewever, both ﬁe priest and ﬁe minister are
utlimately harmless fools wfe can make ne feadway in converting simple
believing people like Molly and her parents. Plurﬁernnere, ﬁey reveal
ﬁeir underlying contempt for Jews wfen bested in argument, betraying
tfeir real nature.

To anyoe familiar wiﬁn Wise's career, and especially

Rimmisceees, ﬁnis revel is surprisingly and strongly

 

autobiographical. Tfe Chapter V meeting in which ﬁe Shamesh is fired
is almost identical to that Wise describes 20 years later of being

1"elieved of his post in Albany's Beth El. In ﬁe revel, a

79

cogregational meeting is feld two days before ﬁe Jewish New Year
when ﬁere is a fair in town. After unimportant business, a
"mannuscri " is laid before the cogregation containning charges
againnst ﬁe Shamesh, which when read create "a geeral uproar." (1e
menber objects because business meetings are always feld at night so
ﬁet working menbers can atted, and ﬁe "general meeting was always
after New Year's Day." Conncluding ﬁnat ﬁe meeting and ﬁe charges
were unannounced, he moves to adjournn.
'I‘heParnassrefusestoputﬁemotiontoavoteandRosegans
says ﬁe family is about to convert; Molly is guilty of breach of
promise and consorting with soldiers and so ﬁe cogregation does net
want fer faﬁner as Shamesh. Tfe Parnass again refuses to allow a vote
on adjournment.
'We are ﬁe majority wfe wish to adjonrnn,‘ oe exclaimed
impatiently. 'I will slew yon few much yonr majority is
worth,’ ﬁe Parnass remarked ironically. 'We will sue yon
before ﬁe conrt,’ aneﬁer vociferated. 'I can sped oe
hundred ﬁeusand guilders to ontlaw you,' ﬁe Parnass
replied. This was a firebrand thrown amog ﬁe multitude.
Tfe most intense excitenent ensued, hard words fell on each
side and the last spark of order was gone (no.43, p.373).
Whenorder is restored, ﬁe Parnass again refusesiepermitavoteon
adjonrnment, and ﬁe "secod Parnass" (his assistant?) anneunees to
ﬁe "outraged" cogregation that ﬁe Parnass has "forfeited ﬁe chair"
by his nunparliamentary behavior. A motion to adjonrn is carried by a
majority and ﬁe Shamesh's frieds leave. Tfe Parnass and his
supporters read ﬁe charges and dismiss Molly's faﬁer even ﬁnongh the
meeting has been officially adjonrned.

Wise himself was ﬁe subject of a similar meeting, ﬁe

80

culmination of several years of intermittent controversy, according to

Reminiscences. His history with Beﬁn El, which fe served as rabbi and

 

teacferfrom 1846t01851, wasarockyoeevenbyhisownaccount.
Wise was resolutely against violations of ﬁe sabbaﬁn--"I insisted
that oe conld net be a Jew unless fe kept ﬁe Ten Commandments
(p. 73)"--and he admits ﬁnat fe "cfnastised wiﬁeut reserve" on ﬁnis
issue (p.74). Tfe subject of lannpcons, Wise at oe point created an
uproarbytearinguphis contract, whichledtoathree-year
reelection at a higher slary. Cﬁer sonrces of contention were ﬁe
cfeir he organized, Wise's approval of sending Jewish children to ren-
Jewish academies after ﬁeir Jewish education, and removing wonen's
seats to house ﬁe cfeir. "I was blamed for everyﬁning" (p. 118).
Wise innfuriated members of his cogregation by violating moaning
onsbomswhenhis daughterdied: net lettinghiscoatbecut, net
sitting sfeeless during ﬁe seven-day period of 5.13:3. Wise does net
allow ﬁnat ﬁnis might have been offensive, simply recording that fe
was "ﬁe subject of ﬁe most violent and bitter disonssion on ﬁe
street, in ﬁe saloons, at ﬁe gaming-table." Wise furﬁer enraged
his cogregation in 1850 by publicly admitting in Charleston (wfere fe
said 1e was innvited to speak on Reform, but was job-hunting, according
to Sefton Tenkin) that fe did net believe in a personal Messiah or
bodily resurrection. He also accepted Charleston's offer of a
position, which his cogregation forced him to decline. Wise goes on
to record that his Parnass, Louis Spanier, inexplicably came to oppose
him and Reform. After Wise rebuked a board member wfe kept his store

openonSaturday, Spanierorderedhinnnettopreachbecause it was

81

assumedhewouldusehispulpittobringupﬁe issue. Spanier was
accusedinnconrtof disturbingdivineserviceanddismissedwiﬁna
reprimand.

As controversy escalated, Wise's salary was wiﬁnfeld and sore
parents didnetpaytuitionforﬁescfeol, furﬁerreducinghis
incone. Wise says ﬁnat he was formally accused of writing on New
Year's eve, necking ﬁe women's ritual bath (_mikv_eh_) and preaching "a
God of Reason," raﬁer ﬁnan ﬁe God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. Wise
says ﬁe first two claims were false and ﬁe ﬁnird "ineonprefensible"
to him. A Board meeting sided wiﬁn Wise and all ﬁnis unnpleasanntness
led to a near-riot on New Year's day when Spannier punched Wise as he
took ont ﬁe Torah scrolls for ﬁe Torah service. ern Wise
ﬁnreatenned to appeal to ﬁne law, Spanier boasted, "I have a hundred
ﬁeusand dollars more ﬁnan yon. I do net fear ﬁe law. I will ruin
yon" (pp. 165-66). Police closed Beth El and Wise was led to ﬁe
police station (ﬁe arresting officer died ﬁnree monﬁns later, Wise
retes wiﬁnont conment! ).

Because Wise's opponents meant to discharge him legally and leave
him "vanquisfed and made harmless for all future time," ﬁey had feld
a meeting before New Year's, and ﬁnis is Wise's version in

Reminiscences of what happened:

 

Agreat fairhappenedtobeheldinﬁecityduringﬁeweek
before New-Year. Business was good, and ne oe wisfed to
leave his place of business. Spanier made use of ﬁe

ty. Alﬁncugh ﬁe cogregational meeting was always
feld after New-year and at night, fe called ﬁe meeting two
daysbeforeNew-yearandbyday, inorderﬁnatﬁebusiness
men conld net attend it. And alﬁncugh ﬁe law required ﬁnat
ﬁe special business to be brought before ﬁe meeting should
beindicatedinﬁenetices, feneglectedtcdothis. Tfe
people attended ﬁe meeting neverﬁeless, because ﬁey

82

divined tronble. Instead of proceeding wiﬁn ﬁe regular
businessﬁeParnass laidﬁechargeswhichhadbeenbrought
against me, but had been dismissed by ﬁe Board, before ﬁe
meeting....Sinee ﬁnis proceeding was clearly illegal, ﬁe
vice-president, Joseph Sporberg...declared ﬁnat it was his
dutytovindicateﬁelaw, andfeputﬁemotiontcadjonrn.
A vote was taken, and Sporberg decided ﬁnat ﬁe netion was
carried. He declared ﬁe meeting adjonrned, and left wiﬁn
his frieds. After ﬁey had goe, Spanier declared ﬁnat ﬁe
meeting was not adjonrned, and proceeded to business.

First, onr poor, sick, and efficient sexton was discharged,
because 1e was one of onr party; ﬁen new officers were
elected; ﬁnen it was resolved ﬁnat ﬁe charges against me
were sustained, ﬁnat I was deposed from office from ﬁnat
honr, and that ﬁe back-salary due me should not be paid
(pp. 163-64).

Tfere are obvions and important similarities between ﬁe story
told in ﬁe revel and ﬁnat told in ﬁe menoir. Tfe meetings are feld
at an irregular time to make mannipulation easier; ﬁe chair violates
correct procedure before and during ﬁe meeting; an ontraged majority
takes over, but ﬁe minerity proceeds wiﬁn its mission anyway, ﬁe
Parnass boastfully defying ﬁe law. While ﬁe charges are net made

specific in Resiﬂtion and Fideliw, Rosegans voices ﬁnree

 

objections to ﬁe Shamesh, ﬁe same nnumber of formal charges Wise

lists in Reminniscennces. In each version a Shamesh is dismissed wiﬁn

 

financial penalties (Molly's faﬁer will have to give up his house),
and in boﬁn cases, ﬁne "auﬁerities" abuse ﬁeir power and ﬁeir
cogregants. The lawsuit againnst ﬁe Shamesh in ﬁe revel edees a
lawsuit against Wise; ﬁe sfechet fe fired sued Wise for libel. Wise

claimed in Reminiscences that this ritual slaughterer drannk and

 

gambled and was ﬁuns unfit for ﬁe post according to Jewish law. The
case was settled when Wise admitted fault; in ﬁe revel, a vegeful

Log David deprives ﬁe poor Shamesh of all his property, seeking
moey, net to clear his name of a libelons charge.

A more conplete version of ﬁe story of Wise's dismisal is
offered by Naphtali Rubinger (45), wfe had access to Beﬁn El's
cogregational records. Wise was indeed charged wiﬁn feresy, but
ﬁere was a complex backgroud to ﬁe accusation. From ﬁe beginning
of his tenure at Beﬁn El, Wise's innnevations and personality created
"conflict wiﬁn menbers...wfe resented ﬁese changes in ﬁeir uede of
worship, and, even more, ﬁe zeal with which ﬁe rabbi projected
ﬁem" (Rubinger, pp. 161-2). At ﬁe feart of Wise's dismissal was a
power struggle with Spanier, Beth El's president. Wise delivered a
sermon against his wisfes, discharged ﬁe ritual slaughterer and hired
a replacement apparently wiﬁnout permission. Wise was also ﬁe
subject of a libel suit and unpleasant publicity related to ﬁe
incident in Charleston. Rubinger concludes that "Spanier was
convineed ﬁnat Wise had, by ﬁe willful, overbearing and intenperate
exercise of his ministerial office ﬁnreateed ﬁnat already shaky peace
and harmony of ﬁe cogregation" (Rubinger, p. 183).

ern Wise came to record ﬁe dramatic events of 1851 ﬁnat turned
hinn into a rabbi wfe "acknewledged re superior and was ready to fight
for his position" (Temkin, p. 241), he had already created a version

of ﬁese events five years after ﬁey occured. In Resignation his

 

personal eemies seem even more meanepirited, single-minded and petty
ﬁnaninhismeneirsbecauseﬁeyseektoharm apoor, oldandfaiﬁnful
servant of ﬁe cogregation. One can easily imagine Wise's
satisfaction at ﬁe repeated tfnrashings earned by sone of ﬁe anti-
Parnnass villagers by David, Samuel and Daniel. Wise's most private

bit of revege is on Viest Traub, ﬁe sfechet fe accused of drinking;

 

 

#9

one of ﬁe priest's hangers-on is named Viest Schnaps. Given ﬁnis
revel's strong autobiographical element, a cement Wise made abont his
fiction in 1859 takes on added signnificanee: fe said ﬁnat it had "more
truth than fiction" in it (quoted in Harap, p.273).

Conversion plays a somehwat different role in each of ﬁese fonr
revels, ﬁnough in all of ﬁnen, a family is ﬁe content of an
individual's struggle against cverwfelmirg Gentile odds. For Moses
Baum conversion is an entrance into Gentile society where fe can
establish himself and felp his family. But because fe has little
nuderstandingof Judaism, onecannettakehisconversionasuerethan
lip service to a dominant creed. Pfeebe Hachuel refuses all
tenptations offered by fer Moslem tormentors: finery, jewels, wealﬁn,
and power because conversion wonld violate her integrity as a Jew.
Sulamiﬁn never actually faces conversion, but it is held in readiness
againnst her. David Straus also refuses to even consider conversion,
ﬁeughitwonldmakehimaCount'sheir. Butheisnetpressedas
feavily as his beloved Molly, wfese sonl is courted by a Priest and a

Minister. Tfe inferently violent situation of Tfe Jewish Heroine and

 

to a lesser degree The Convert becones almost ludicrons in Resignation

 

 

and Fidelity with Hans Essig and Annselmo Altburg working at cross-

 

purposes to convert Molly.

In Wise's first revel, Christianity is merely its ontward signs
of priests, a convent, and social acceptability and colored by Gothic
elenente of darkness, gloom, spies, bravos, poisoning and secret

panels. 'I'nese elements recur in The Jewish Heroine and Tfe

 

Sfeenaker's Family, including a Radcliffean explained gfest. But in

 

85

Resignation and Fidelity, Christianity is not just attacked and

 

ridiculed ﬁnrongh its representatives, its very doctrines and
doctrinal controversies are mocked and derided. Tfe struggle between
Gentile and Jew ﬁnus moves from ﬁe temporal realm to ﬁe spiritual.
Of conrse, Jews are net angelic. As we have seen, mockery also
exteds to superstitions Jews like Moses Baum's faﬁer; pretentions
Jews like ﬁe Misses Katz for wfem French recitation is a potent
lullaby; power-hungry Jews like ﬁe Parnass depriving an old man of
his post. But ﬁe impact of Jewish knavery is geerally conic and
ﬁereisneverannydonbtwfeﬁerealvillainsare. Pressureto
convert is just oe expression of ﬁe violeee innferent in ﬁe Gentile
perception of Jews. That violence is always present in ﬁese revels,
wfeﬁer in Sulamiﬁn‘s abduction, ﬁe Prior's minions attacking Moses
Baum, ﬁe students ﬁnreatening David Straus' life, or ﬁe mob shouting
"Deaﬁn to ﬁe Jews!" that breaks into ﬁe Summers' house and plnuders

Mr. Katz' wealth.

CHAPI'ERTHREE

HELLINTHEIRHEARTS

Tfe most violent scee in any of ﬁe previons fonr revels
discussed is Moses Baum's nightmare in which his entire conmunity is
slaughtered by vegeful Christians. It is primarily individuals in
ﬁese nevels wfe actually suffer Gentile persecution, but in ﬁe
following nevels, all set before ﬁe 19th century, Moses's nightmare
is reality: wfele communities are threateed, attacked or destroyed.
Individual Jews facing coercion are net just menbers of a family, but
of an edangered community.

The Catastropfe at Eger A Narrative of ﬁe Sixteenﬁn Century:
September 22, 1854 to October 27, 1854 and Novenber 10, to December 1,
1854

m: Eger, Austria, rear ﬁe borders of Bavaria and Saxony,
1559.

Tfemes: Jewish belief in ﬁe Cabbalah is ridiculons and
debilitating; ﬁe only way to counter Caﬁelic tyranny is by force of
arms.
Characters: Hillel Oppenfeinn

Sannuel Oppenheim, uerchant, his faﬁer

Esther Loeve, Hillel's beloved

Jacob Loeve, fer broﬁer

David Loeve, ﬁeir uncle, Samuel Oppenfeim's
social rival

Dagobert Ernst, Hillel's Protestant fried

Laibish Baal Shem, David Loeve's mystical son

Marcus Lippold, Duke of Brandenburg's treaenrer

Zipporah Cofenn, Lippold's bride

Joseph Cohen, fer faﬁer, wealﬁny merchant

Count Turin, Eger's military connander

86

87

Eger in rerﬁnwest Bolemia was ﬁe closest town to Wise's native
village of Steingrub, and had already been mentioed in passing in

CnapterIofoeConvert. NearﬁeGermanborderardclosetoﬁe

 

meeting point of Bavaria and Saxony, Eger was ﬁe Imperial Army's
feadquarters during ﬁe Thirty Years' War (1618—1648); Wise sets the
revel in 1559.

In ﬁe revel's opening paragrapfns Wise describes Bger's
geographical setting, its history and its Jewish population, which
"feld ﬁere once a permanent position." Wise's story is based on "the
chronicles of ﬁe city," set at a time wfen ﬁe Pope has ordered
Hebrew andrabbinical booksburnedandsoonafterJewshadbeen
expelled from Bofemia for a year.

Joseph Cohen's house is alight with candles and filled wiﬁn music
and danncing. T'fe richly-costumed guests are ﬁere to celebrate ﬁe
Duke of Brandenburg's treasurer, highly esteemed Marcus Lippold,
marrying Cofen's daughter Zipporah ﬁe next day. After many years,
ﬁe celebration has brought together ﬁe town's two rival Jewish
families--ﬁe Oppenfeims and ﬁe Loeves. Lippold offers ﬁe security
of his Duke's realm sfeuld anti-Jewish hatred explode at E‘ger and ﬁnis
invitation is universally praised, except by youg Rabbi Laibish Baal
Sfem, David Loeve's son, wfe is steeped in Cabbalafn. Habitually
expressing himself in extravagant metapfer and propfecy, Laibisln
predicts ﬁnat angels will defed ﬁe Jews and defy ﬁe Pope, in
response to which "manny of ﬁe conpany conld net wiﬁnfeld a smile at

ﬁe heap of nernsennse."

88

In ﬁe next room Esﬁner Loeve, David Loeve's niece (and Laibish's
consinn), "a perfect oriental beauty of abont eighteen," is being eyed
by manly and intelligent Hillel Oppenfeinn and his German fried
Dagobert Ernst. In ﬁe danee figure, Hillel accidentally takes
E‘sﬁer‘s hand and asks if ﬁey are eemies; sfe replies, "Never."
Jacob Loeve, Esﬁner's bright and brilliant broﬁer, is ontraged by
ﬁeir toncfning and demands satisfaction; Dagobert offers to be
Hillel's secod but Esﬁer explains and drags her broﬁer innto ﬁe
next room, wfen buffoons, "wiﬁeut wfem re Jewish marriage was
celebrated," are singing sarcastic rhynes to annuse ﬁe conpany.

With much festivity, ﬁe wedding of Lippold and Zipporah takes
place ﬁe next day and E‘sﬁner swears eternnal love for Hillel. Tfe
buffoons rhyme about fer marrying Laibish and in areﬁer room sfe
embraces Hillel, swearing sfe will be his and ne oe else's. T'fey are
discovered by Jacob Loeve wfe draws his sword on ﬁe "seducer."
E‘sﬁer stops him and berates ﬁem both about ﬁe rivalry between ﬁeir
two families, wfese roots are several geerations old. Peace is
restored and Hillel and Jacob swear broﬁerfeod to reconcile ﬁeir
families; Esﬁer's nurse Deborah mistakes their manly enbrace for a
struggle. T'fe nurse's cries cause a melee which is feighteed by a
talmudic dispute between Laibish and an Oppenheim ﬁnat has erupted
into "utnnost confusion," wiﬁn arguments, oaﬁns, ﬁnreats, entreaties,
disputations, until "in a few minutes ﬁe wfele scee represented a
storm-tossed ocean of human beings wiﬁn excited passions." Tfe

officiating rabbi enters and sileee results wiﬁn terrible news from

Prague:

89

'...it is charged that we pray to Satan, and for the
misfortune of ﬁe Christians. Tfe priests and monks feld
great gaﬁerings, and preach log sermons again to excite
ﬁe populace against us. While in Italy ﬁey continue to
burnonrbooks, ﬁeEmperorhascommanded, thatallonr
prayerbooksbebroughttoViennainordertobeexamined'
(re. 13, p. 98).

In Ernst senior's garden near Eger, Dagobert learrns from a family
friend ﬁnat E‘ger's monks and priests are plotting soneﬁning against
ﬁe Jews and Protestants:

'Nocturnnal meetings are feld at ﬁe Franciscan convent

[sic], which are atteded by a desperate class of laymen;

ruined merchants, bankrupt mecfnannics, hungry quacks,

impoverisfed artists, retorions ruffianns, lazy jonrreymen

....who come night after night from the convent in a state

of intoxication, and intense excitement' (re. 14, p. 104).
Dagobert decides to find ont if Eger's auﬁerities are in league wiﬁn
ﬁe nncnks.

Jacob sarcastically observes Laibish "fealing" and felpirg
superstitions people with a fedgepodge of prayers and "idle
ceremonial." Laibish claims ﬁnat Jacob's frivolity and scoffing
prevent Esﬁer's loving hi_m_ and Laibish leads Jacob ont of Eger into
ﬁe countryside wfere fe prays ("magic ejaculations") so ﬁnat E'sﬁer
will love him. Returning to E'ger ﬁey find chaos in ﬁe Jewish
quarter: troops are statioedontsideﬁeLoevehouse. Dagobertis
ﬁereandasksEsﬁertomar-ryhim, butsferevealsferlove for
Hillel. When an army officer attenpts to rape Esﬁer, Dagobert kills
hinn, and with "loads of Hebrew books" is taken away by ﬁne
auﬁerities. Only by midnnight is order restored.

AsynagoguedebateinEgeroverwhatconrsetotakein
response to ﬁe Imperial command to collect Jewish books eds wiﬁn a

conpronise. Much respected Solonon Oppenfeim, wfese eldest son is the

9O

Emperor's bannker, will represent Eger's Jews in Prague, but ﬁe
conmuniw will also fast and say penitential psalms, as Laibish
advises. Hillel is informed at feme by his talkative servant Hayim in
an 9! temEre, Q! m speech ﬁnat Eger's Jews are gossiping abont
Esﬁer, claiming that sfe has had two Gentile lovers and disgraced ﬁne
Jewish community. Disguised as a doctor's assistant (because of
family rivalry), Jacob comes to ﬁnannk Hillel for his felp, but
Oppenfeim seniorinterruptsﬁeirembrace, conmandinganendtoﬁeir
friedslnip: "Fire and water may unite, " fe says, "but not an
Oppenfeim and a Loeve."

Hillel's lovesickness and jealonsy drive him to his bed wiﬁn a
violent fever which ﬁe doctor cannet explain; in his raving, Hillel
moans "of two lovers besides him," and "duels, murder, soldiers." In
a parody of cabalistic reasoning, Hayim decides that if his master is
in love it must be with his daughter, wfem fe ﬁninnks all men love.
TfeBaalShemhasunsuccessfullytriedtoconvineeEsﬁerﬁnatsfe
loveshim, andEsﬁerdisguisesferselfasannursetoseeHillel; fer
tears, embracesandkissesrestorehimtofealﬁnandhisfaﬁersets
off for Prague.

T'fe prayerbooks examined by ﬁe Emperor's officials are returned
and ﬁe Jews' innneceee is to be publicly declared in Imperial offices
and churcfes, as nothing was fond "to testify againnst ﬁe humanity
and loyalty of ﬁe Jews." Still, ﬁere is unrest and sons Jewish and
Protestant families leave Eger. David Loeve bitterly resents
Oppenfeim's role in Prague and berates Esﬁer for praising him; Jacob

swears ﬁnat fe will aid his sister if ﬁeir uele drives fer away.

91

(1e hundred and fifty youg Protestants and Jews meet in ﬁe forest
late at night to swear to defed ﬁemselves againnst attack by
Caﬁelics. Hillel has learned of ﬁe priests' "diabolical" plan to
kill Eger's Jews and Protestants from a priest-ridden woman wiﬁn
"degeerated passions"; Dagobert warns that "ﬁe priests are ounnning,
andﬁeirmans areasprofoudasﬁeir innstruments ofexecutionare
blind, fanatic, violent and blood-thirsty." Jacob tries to explain
ﬁe danger to Count Turin, wfe wants to knew why Jews and Protestants
donettnustﬁelmperial troopstodefedﬁemagainnstﬁe
Franeiscan—backed brigands. Enraged by Jacob's explanation, ﬁe Count
demands all weapons feld by Jews and Protestants to be delivered to
him. David Loeve announces that E‘sﬁer will marry his son Laibish
ﬁe following Saturday night wfeﬁer sfe wants to or net, because fe
has legal control over her. On ﬁe first day of Passover, Imperial
troops search Jewish and Protestant femes for weapons.

Catastropfe strikes, meanwhile, that Easter Saturday during a
glorions religions and civil procession from ﬁe Caﬁedral. Out of
ﬁe Franciscan convent ponr "a ﬁeusand infuriated ruffianns armed to
ﬁe teeth" wfe slaughter every Jew and Protestant in less ﬁnan an
hour:

Neiﬁerﬁeshrieksofﬁedying, nerﬁegroannsofﬁe
terrified survivors, reiﬁer ﬁe prayer of ﬁe innnecent and
unarmed, rer ﬁe silent petition of ﬁe dunb babe conld
arrestﬁefuryofﬁeassassins. Allandeachofﬁnemwere
murdered in cold blood. Large numbers of Jews of all ages
andsexesweredraggedintoanarrowalleyardﬁereﬁey
gerfmtortured and killed in ﬁe most cruel manuer (re. 20,

Solonon Oppenfeim returnns after ﬁe Imperial guards have regained

92

control of ﬁe city, and is reunited wiﬁn his son at ﬁe castle wfere
Count Turin blames himself for net having listeed to Jacob Loeve, and
connits suicide.

Hillel and his faﬁer find Esﬁer with ﬁe dying Dagobert, wfem
sfe saved, at ﬁe Ernsts' feme ontside Eger. With rain falling on the
blood-stained city, ﬁe murdered are being buried in mass graves.
Solonon declares ﬁnat he will have a hospital "for sick and wouded
soldiers" erected in the garden and named after Dagobert. Hillel and
Esﬁer are married and Dagobert's faﬁner resides wiﬁn Solonon;
"neiﬁer of ﬁe two ever smiled or laugfed again after this dreadful
event." Wise eds by saying that fe was well acquainted wiﬁn a mann

married to ﬁe "last daughter of ﬁe house in Eger."

Tfe Catastropfe at Eger is net only Wise's first historical

 

novel, it is also retable for his use of some local color, his
dwelling on Jewish ritual and use of comedy; his scaﬁning attack on
Crﬁedcan Judaism as represented by Laibisfn; and his uniting ﬁe Jewish
and Protestannt "cause." Wise describes buildings and streets in Eger
wiﬁn more detail ﬁnan fe had used hiﬁerto; after impressions of what

its fertile valley looks like, we are sfewn reminders of ﬁe past of
Eger's oee-proninent Jews in:

Tfescrollsofﬁelaw, asusedinﬁesynnagogues, preserved
at ﬁe city hall of Eger; ﬁe name of 'Jew's burial,‘ given
toadistrictinﬁnesuburbs; ﬁegravestoeswiﬁnI-ebrew
inscriptions constantly found in buildings, and dug up frou
ﬁe pavements; ﬁe buildings with ﬁe Hebrew inscription
overﬁedoor, supposedtohavebeenﬁeJewishcollege; ﬁe
synagogue, at ﬁe rear of ﬁe Frannciscan convent on Steiner
street; ﬁe name 'Jew-street,‘ which a finely built
ﬁeronghfare is still called (re. 12, p. 96).

More grim is Mordgassel (Murder alley), where ﬁe Jews are slaughtered

93

in Chapter VIII. Wise even retes typically local weaﬁer--ﬁe
November "sfnarp and bleak" breeze that is "very unpleasant in ﬁnat
region of Germany."
But Wise net only gives names of gates and streets to create
sixteenﬁn century Jewish reality, fe also lingers lovingly on Jewish
marriage rituals: ﬁe reading of prayers, ﬁe blessing pronounced
upon Zipporah, ﬁe gold-embroidered silk handkerchief sfe dons after
her hair is cut off, ﬁe candles carried by a fenale procession
singing a hymn, ﬁe bridal canepy, ﬁe singing and festivity, ﬁe
music and ﬁe traditional buffoons.
This positive portrayal sharply contrasts with Wise's
cfnaracterization of Laibish. In a footnete, Wise explains that a Baal
Sfem (Master of ﬁe Name), "claims a species of propfetical knewledge,
and intuitive perceptions beyond ﬁe usual requirements of ﬁe
geerality of mankind, speaking frequently in metapfer, and using
allegorical figures of speech from cabalistical works." This rete is
neutral eeugh, but wheever Laibish spins out his metapfers, everyoe
laughs, and Wise says that fe and all cabalists are ignerant of ﬁe
literature ﬁey quote. Threatening ﬁe Pope, for instannce, Laibish
says in part:
'Andﬁeconmandwillgoforth fromﬁeLord, toﬁesevenn
times seven myriads of ﬁe Angels of Destruction, to fly
ﬁnrongh ﬁnis neﬁer world, and bring deaﬁn to all ﬁe
eennies of ﬁe celestial Qneen, and to cfnange ﬁe fire into
water, and ﬁe water into fire, to change ﬁe river into a
sun, and ﬁe sun into a river' (re. 12, p. 96).

Laibish's ludicrons ontpourings are always acconpanied by "fantastical

gestures" and ﬁe Orﬁedcx Jews' swaying of ﬁe torso (shokelm, in

94

Yiddish). Reformers foud ﬁnis synagogue behavior perhaps more
distastefulﬁnanannyoﬁerﬁeycodemned. Laibishisnetonly
rfetorically and religionsly grotesque, he claims ﬁe ability to feal
and to solve mysteries, and seems most ridiculous in his ritual
attempting to make Esﬁer love him, which includes ﬁnreading a needle
withoeofferhairsandburyirgit.

ern Laibish is challeged by Jacob to use his powers to quell
ﬁe riot, Laibish's superstitions reliannce in prayers seems to be part
of a larger problem in Wise's view--fasting raﬁer ﬁnan fighting wfenn
attacked. If Laibish's speecfes were sferter (Wise says oe is taken
verbatim from a cabalistic sonrce), ﬁey might be funnier instead of
tiresome. Tfe same is also ﬁe case with Hillel's servant Hayim wfe
is clearly in ﬁe raﬁer grim revel to provide conic relief; wiﬁn
Esﬁer's nnurse Deborah fe rounds out ﬁe range of characters from
rabbinical eminenncetoservantanndﬁepreseeeofafoolishservant

and nurse feighten ﬁe very geeral resemblanee to Roneo and Juliet.

 

Tfe heroes of this revel are net only ﬁe Jewish Jacob and Hillel
but Dagobert, of ﬁe "Goﬁnic race," who may net win E‘sﬁer's hand, but
saves fer from rape and leads ﬁe secret self-defense organization.

He and all Protestants are presented as equally as ﬁnreateed by
Imperial and Church auﬁerity as ﬁe Jews, and in fact, all die in the
same massacre. Priests do net appear in person in £995, but fever
menacingly at ﬁe edge of ﬁe action, orcfestrating plots and
violeee. Wefearﬁnatmonksanndpriestsarereportedtobepreaching
against Jews in Chapter II; in Chapter III we learn ﬁey are plying
E‘ger's riffraff with wine; Wise retes ﬁnat priests are behind ﬁe

95

Imperial order to examine Jewish prayerbooks, and in Chapter V "any
unusualcometionamogﬁemcnksandﬁneirsupporters" creates fear.

A forcibly converted "Jew" at oe point describes ﬁe infamons
priests wfe treated him well until fe disagreed on religions
questions. Then ﬁey songht total control over him, drugged him wiﬁn
opium, imprisoed him for six monﬁns on bread and water until fe had
to relent and becone a priest: "My stregﬁn failed, my fealﬁn
declined, and re glimpse of fepe peetrated ﬁe darkness of my
prison." This unnnamed yonﬁn declares that priests are "cool and
calculated" and "care little abont a fnudred victims."

Tfe Church is clearly ﬁe Jews' bitter enemy, but in a more

eeonpassingwaythaninTheConvertwhereitspowerisrepresentedby

 

a fat Prior, his blackguards and a sfnadowy network of spies. Egg;
seems to have been popular, perhaps for its nere heroic portrayal of
Jewish behavior and its blacker painting of ﬁe Church. ern Wise
skipped an episode due to illness, fe neted, "We regret ﬁe delay
alﬁeugh entirely unavoidable, as ﬁe revel has already excited
considerable attention among onr readers, it certainnly treats of a
portion of onr chequered history that cannret fail to attract universal
interest" (Nov. 3, 1854).

Ronance, Philosophy and Cabalah, or, The Conflagration at
Frankfort c. t. M. A Narrative from ﬁe Beginning of ﬁe last
Centiry: July 13, 1855 to August 17, 1855, September 7 to October 12,
and November 16 to Jannuary 11, 1856.

Setting: Frannkfort, Germany, 1710.

Themes: When ignited, Jewish bravery cannet be defeated even by
ﬁe Irnquisition. Belief in Cabalah is net only debilitating, but
dangerons, andtrustinGodisworﬁnmoreﬁnanannyphilosophy.

 

 

96

Characters: Rabbi David Gruenfnut
Deborah, his daughter
Judah, his son
f'bses Kannn, Judah's fried, a cabalist

Itzig Kannn, his wealﬁny faﬁer
Samuel Kann, Itzig's nepfew

Dinah Cordoza

Mrs. Cordoza, her neﬁer

Elias Kulp, Frankfort's Parrnass
Samuel Eisenberg, Jewish leader
Rabbi Naphtali Cofenn, miracle worker
Jon-Jacob Scfnudt, pro-rector

Marcus Later, Jewish gossip

Dr. Sfeyer
Alvarez, Tfe Spanish Minister (also: Ambassador,

Count)
Engine, his daughter
Marquis Elpazo, fer husband
Count Stahlernberg, Austrian geeral.

Israel Knex retes in his brief study of Wise, ﬁnat given ﬁe
didactic aim of his fiction, Wise's "titles had to be abstract, else
ﬁere wonld be re uplifting and reble soud to ﬁem" (p. 96). But
Wise shrewdly added secodary titles ﬁnat were specific, which is
certainlyﬁecasewithﬁnisnevel. Itopensonﬁefirstnightcf
Passover in Frannkfort's Jewish quarter, which is equally reted for its
many "excellent sclelars" and its history of persecutions. Rabbi
David Gruenhut's hone, like all ﬁe oﬁers, rich and poor, is
celebrating "ﬁe first declaration of indepedennce." T'fe proceedings
aredescribedwiﬁnevenmoredetailthanﬁneweddingin
Emtastropfe at Eger, and Gruenfnut is praised for his "broad
principles and liberal sentiments...pious feart and enlighteed mind,
in ﬁe midst of superstition and panﬁeism, of ﬁe darkest bigotry and
“K381: criminal frivolity. "

SuperstitionappearsathisfeneinﬁeformofMosesKann,

beloved of Gruenhut's daughter Deborah, wfe feels Kann is lost to

97

cabalistic belief. Kannn is an "unfortunate lunatic," believing that
ﬁeextnaonpof wireinﬁnePassovermeal reallyigforﬁepropfet
Elijah and net, as ﬁe Rabbi insists, a signn of abudarnce. Moses Kannn
asserts that Erankfort's woder Rabbi, Naphtali Cofen, has that very
evening conversed wiﬁn Elijah. Judah has been goe ﬁnat evening,
helping a "mysterions person" to ﬁe fespital, and returns to ﬁe
fespitalonﬁnefirstdayof Passover, insteadoftosynagogue.

JudahardMoseswere ataninnﬁeprevionseveningfor"ﬁe
traveling poor," Jewish Schrerrers, a place ﬁnat fills Judah wiﬁn
contempt and shame at his own reaction to ﬁe poor Jews'
obsequionsness. Moses bronght him ﬁere to hear Polish Jews rave
abont ﬁe miracle-filled and angel-graced life of Rabbi Naphtali.
Meannwhile, groaning in aneﬁer rcon drew Judah's interest and fe
discovered ﬁe feverish yonng wonan fe later bronght to ﬁe
fespital, in ﬁe company of a majestic older woman wfe asked Judah
for help.

Judah feels "an inexplicable reverence for ﬁe unknewn and
mysterions wonan" (Dinnah) fe visits at ﬁe fespital, which inncreases
wfen sfe recovers. Wiﬁn "ﬁne most beautiful countenarnce Judah
imagined fe had ever seen, " sfe is also slender, sweet-voiced,
graceful, and "interesting due to her grief." Judah receives a
prayerbook front her wiﬁn ﬁe phrase "Forget us net, onr Faﬁer,"
marked for his attention. But a message innside convinces Judah that
sfe is married: ﬁe folded paper reads, "leave innstantly ﬁnis
country, my beloved. I am lost. Yonr unfortunate Gabriel."

Moses pleads with Deborah to leave fer fnonse of "sinners" and she

98

gives back his ring because fe has changed so much.
'...few pale, few suffering do yon look! Where once ﬁe
tintofyonﬁnandfealﬁncoloredﬁecfeeks, ﬁereisrew
ﬁe paleess of deaﬁn. Yonr eyes once fresh and lively, are
new dim and melanncfely. Gee ﬁe smiles of love and
kindnessplayedaroudyourlips, newﬁnereisnetraceof
ﬁem. OMoses, yonareserionslysickandﬁecauseofit
is yonr cabalistic studies. Give up ﬁnis infertile and
deadening ﬁeme. Live again in my love. Moses, for my
sake leave ﬁe conpanny of ﬁese wfe digyonrgrave, tearyou
from my hand, ruin you and kill you slowly' (vol. II, no. 4,
p. 25).

Dinah tells her story to Judah in ﬁe Jewish graveyard. Her
faﬁer, David Cordoza ("Gabriel" in ﬁe previons chapter), a high
official in Spain, was a Marrane (secret Jew) wfe had to flee ﬁe
Inquisition. In Viennna fe was recognized and betrayed by Alvarez, ﬁe
Spanish Ambassador; Dinnah and fer moﬁer fled to Frannkfort on foot.
Gntraged by ﬁnis story, Judah vows to go to Viennna; if fe fails to
free Mr. Cordoza he or ﬁe Ambassador will die. Judah eloquently
tells ﬁe wfele terrible tale to ﬁe Parnass, Elias Kulp, wfe decides
to sed a Jewish emissary to Vienna wiﬁn letters of recommedation to
felp free Cordcza. At ﬁe fespital Dinah gives Judah a diamod ring
with a forget—me-net design and fe decides that sfe loves him.

WhenJudahiscfesenbyﬁecogregational boardtoacconpany
Samuel Eisenberg to Vienrna, Dinah warns him ﬁnat "Viennna is a
dargerons place. T'fe priests are almighty ﬁere, and ﬁeir cruelty
and fanaticism are proverbial." Judah is also informed by a nameless
old man that it is too late to save Dinah's faﬁer. After Jews asked
ﬁe pro-rector of Frankfort's W, Jofnnn Jacob Schudt, for
letters to felp free Cordcza, Schudt warned ﬁe Inquisition, ﬁe old

men claims; Schudt is also working "incessantly" to convert Moses

99

Karnnn; after all, "there is but oe step from Cabalism [sic] to
Christianity."

Scfnudt and David Gruenfnut fiercely debate in ﬁe former's "large
and well-filled library" in ﬁne preseee of Moses Karnn. Schudt felds
ﬁnat Kann sfeuld convert because Christian dcchines are substanntiated
by Cabbalah; Gruenhut presses ﬁe pro-rector to answer'wfeﬁer ﬁese
doctrines are hue because ﬁey are found in Cabbalah? Each utterly
rejects ﬁe oﬁer's beliefs as nonsense while wild-eyed Moses Karnn
raves abont demons. Faced with a jeweled crucifix, Gruenhut denies
Jesus's divinity, a Jewish role in ﬁe Crucifixion, and Jewish
punishment by God, coeludirg:

'...wfe appointed yon onr judges? wfe made yon ﬁe

executors of God's wraﬁn? wfe gave yon a right to interfere

wiﬁn ﬁe divine judgment of ﬁe almighty? Are yon better

becauseyonhavemorepower? orareweworse, becausewe

are hampled upon by presunptuous uen?‘ (re. 9, p. 65)
Gossipy Marcus Later is meanwhile spreading rumors of Moses' impeding
conversion, and Mrs. Cordoza ferrets ont Dinnah's secret love for
Judah, which sfe forbids: "...my daughter must net feap disgrace upon
fer family, in becoming ﬁe wife of a nameless and insignificant
youth."

Tfe same mysterions old man wfe told Judah ﬁnat Cordoza was lost,
says Cordoza has been sent to Spain. Tfe griefstricken Parnass pleads
for someoe to go to Spain--where Jews are forbidden-~to save Cordcza,
and Samuel Ken is ﬁe only volunteer. ernn Rabbi Gruenhut consults
Dr. ShoyerabontMoses, feexplainsfewfesuccumbedtcCabbalah.

Mosesisayougman:

100

'wfese nervous system was not vigorons eeugh to bear
unharmed an intense and lasting excitement. But ﬁe
unfortunate fellow, surronnded by a credulons and
superstitions family, having cone in contact with onr
venerable Rabbi Naphtali Cohen, he was caused to believe in
ﬁe Cabalafn. T'fe irnquisitive youg man possessed of a light
and swift mind entered rapidly into ﬁe mysterions labyrinth
of that oriental ﬁecsopfny, and his nervons system suffered,

was impairedandbecame inncapableofbeingannylogera
useful and adequate vehicle of ﬁe mind....He new preteds
to be a propfet, is fanatical, intolerant and defunct for
all the joys which life offers to the young' (no. 10, pp.
73-4).
ThedcctorhasrefepeofMosesrecovering, butGruenhutinsistsﬁnat
philosophy and science are net ﬁe only sonrce of wisdom in ﬁnis case:
"God will felp yet."

In Viennna, Judah meets Engine, a woman whom he saved from
drowning two years before near Frankfort wfen fer boat capsized.
Judah had brought ﬁe wonan to sfelter and withheld his name; oee
again he refuses any reward for his action, ont of "unrelenting
magnanimiw." Judah and Samuel Eisenberg are well received by
Viennna's community as emissaries from Frankfort, but Judah finds ont
ﬁnat Cordoza was indeed given up to his enemy, ﬁe Spannish Ambassador.
Enraged, andmaddeedbyadreaminwhichheseesCordozaburningat
ﬁestake, Judahgains accesstoﬁeAmbassador, wfemfestabsaftera
brief shuggle. Dazed, bloodied, beaten, Judah is imprisoed "as an
infamons assasin [sic]."

Judah prondly admits to ﬁe Inquisition ﬁnat fe inteded to kill
ﬁe Ambassador if Cordoza could net be saved. In his cell, Judah
reflects ﬁnat ﬁere is justice only for Christians, but "ﬁe Jew must
perish in anguish and torment, and his beloved are left to lament

ﬁeir loss, to despair." Tfe woman Judah saved, Engine, is ﬁe

101

Spanish Ambassador's only daughter, and to fer faﬁer's terror, sfe
pleads for Judah's life. Her servant offers Judah a passport to
England and moey, but Judah refuses, and vows to kill Alvarez because
he must have revege.

Manny of Frankfort's Jews believe a rumor ﬁnat Judah felped
massacreﬁeentireSpanishlegationandhasalreadybeencodemnedto
be "torrninfonrpartsbyfonrferses." Dirnah's moﬁerpressesferto
marry a man of money and position--ﬁe Parnnass's son. Weeks of
prison leave Judah unshaken, convinced "of having performed a sacred
duty, ard...determined to die feroically." ern a monk cones to
preach salvation to him, Judah is appalled by his face full of
"bigohy, vileess, and cunningness," and launcfes this attack:

Yonr countenanee behays yonr low character. Did you serve
ﬁe Lord by ﬁe gratification of yonr sensual passion in
which yon indulged?-—by profaning His tabernacles with
hypocritical prayers and deceitful words? or did yon serve
Him with ﬁe cunningness andcfeat whichyonpracticedon
ignerant and credulons people? Ah, yon served Him by ﬁe
desecration of female chastity, virgin purity and
matrimonial fidelity! Please, pions man, inform me in which
vices did yon indulge nest freely, which are yonr favorite
crines?‘ (re. 14, p. 105)
Stricken, ﬁe monk cannet proceed as plannned, but wiﬁeut belligerance
tells Judah conversion will free him. Engine, wfe has continued
pleading wiﬁn her faﬁer for Judah's life, comes to his cell disguised
as a monk and also counsels an expedient conversion. Sfe nevingly
reminds him of all ﬁese wfe will suffer if fe dies, and ﬁnen, because
sfe admires his "feroic consistency," reveals ferself. Offering
moey, apassportandinshuctions, sfepresseshimtodonfermcnk's
disguise and flee. ern he refuses, sfe innsists fe kill fer because

sfeloveshimandconldretbearhisdeaﬁn.

102

Freed by Eugine, Judah--like "an innfuriated lion"--tries to kill
Alvarez, butsparesﬁneudefendedSpaniardaftersubduinghisarmed
servants, and returns to ﬁe prison[!]. He tells his entire story to
ﬁe enﬁnralled troops ﬁere wfe decide to send this "devil of a Jew"
off wiﬁn Count Stahlenberg's army feaded for embarkation at Venice to
figfnt against Frannce in Spain. At first objecting, Judah submits and
becones enﬁnusiastic:

fe remembered ﬁe valor of his aneestors, of Jonaﬁnan and
David, of ﬁe feroic Maccabees, ﬁe brave defenders of
Jerusalem and Bythan [Bar Kochba's last forhess], againnst
ﬁe overwfelmirg power of ﬁe Roman legions; ﬁe ﬁnought of
ﬁese ﬁeusards wfe suffered death with heroic determinnation
for ﬁeir faith, and his yonthful sentiments were innflanned
for his new career, and [ﬁe] future assumed a brighter
prospect before his imaginnation (re. 19, p. 153).
Eugine and fer hushed, T'fe Marquis Elpazo, wfe enters ﬁe revel at
ﬁnispcint, aresentbacktoSpainonﬁesameshipasJudah; Engine
attempts vegence on her "merciless" faﬁer by ﬁnrowing ferself
overboard.

Gn Tisfe B'Av (Tfe Ninth of A1), memorializing ﬁe deshuction of
ﬁe Tenple by ﬁe Romans, Samuel Eisenberg returrns to Frannkfcrt wiﬁn
news of Judah's bravery. No oe knews what has become of him, but
rumors spread that fe has eloped with Eugine. At ﬁe Jewish cemetery,
Dinah links all fer losses:

'...if we had not sustained that loss, we would yet be a
nation, indepedent, free and happy, and my faﬁer wonld net
have fallen a victim of fanaticism and cruelty; but alas,
sad is onr prospect, I have lost my Jerusalem, my Temple, my
faﬁer, ﬁe happiness of my heart....' (re. 20, p. 161).

RabbiNaphtaliCofen'shcusecatcfes fireandCohenandhis

cabalists write magic wordsonpapertoﬁnrowintoﬁefire, butit

103

egulfs ﬁe Jewish quarter anyway. T'fen ﬁe quarter's gates are
opeed:
soldiers and firemen wiﬁn ﬁeir apparatuses rusted in full
fury; but innstead of arresting ﬁe conflagration fnalf of
ﬁem broke into ﬁe feuses, pludered wferever annyﬁning was
tobefound, abusedardkickedintcﬁesheet wfemeverﬁey
metinﬁefeuses, andinafewfeurs, ﬁemisery, terror,
consternation and wretcfedness had reacfed ﬁe higfest pitch
(re. 21, p. 169).
Gnly ﬁe Jewish fespital survives ﬁe devastation ﬁnat leaves 6000
femeless. Gn ﬁe night of ﬁe fire, richly bejeweled Dinnah was
celebrating fer behoﬁnal to ﬁe Parress's son, before sfe went up to
ferrocmandgave waytoafitof madness, ravingabcutferlosses.
When her husband-to—be, Elias Kulp, attempts to rescue fer fron ﬁe
fire, in her insanity she ﬁnrows ferself ont ﬁe window to fer deaﬁn.
Hannkfort's Christians net only offer shelter to ﬁe displaced
Jews, butevenremoveﬁeircrossesandfelypicturesscasnetto
offed ﬁem, which Scfnudt and oﬁer priests codemrn. Rabbi Gruenfnut
draws important lessons from ﬁne disaster, which has net solely
"feaped misery and wretcfedness" on Rankfort's Jews:
'but befeld, it has exposed ﬁe impotence of imposters and
self-deceived cabalists. In vain ﬁe angels have been
conjured, and supposed rulers of ﬁe elements invoked. In
vainﬁeyhaveexhaustedﬁeiringenuityardartificial
delusions. T'fey stand ashamed and disgraced as oee did ﬁe
false propfnets on Mount Carmel. Befeld ﬁe ﬁnousards of
Israel cast ont of ﬁeir houses, and taken into ﬁe
habitation of Christians. Tfe old foes, fanaticism and
deeply rooted prejudices, hahed bitter and inveterated--
appeartohavevanisfedatoee, beforeﬁefire whichﬁe
Lord has kindled' (re. 22, p. 177).
T'fe fire has felped Moses Kann recover from "ﬁe impositions of
obscure fantasies" and he relates few he songht to hurl Rabbi Galen,

ﬁe "imposter," into ﬁe flames, but was feld back by Samuel Kann.

104

Tfere is much speculation abont Judah's fate, and Samuel Kann, wfe
speaks fluent Spanish, obtains a passport so ﬁnat fe can find Judah.

Saved from drowning, Engine tells fer husband Marquis Elpazo ﬁnat
sfehasneverlovedhimbecausefehasbeenreueretoferﬁnana
"haveling ccmparnion." She reveals ﬁnat sfe wisfed to die in ﬁe Main
River when fer boat overturned, and that sfe fell in love wiﬁn Judah
when fe saved fer:

'before me ﬁnere stood a youg giant, his black eyes were

fixed on me wiﬁn delight, his wfele countenance looked like
atriumpfnal sun, andhiswordswereﬁeangelicsorndscfa

higfer being' (re. 23, p. 185).

T'fe Marquis sfnareshisown secret, explaining whyfehasalways
been deliberately cold to her. At his faﬁer's deaﬁnbed, Elpazo
learned ﬁnat fe was ﬁe son of a secret Jew, wfese wife has died at
ﬁe Elpazo castle fleeing ﬁe Inquisition; fer "murderer" was Count
Alvarez. Tfne Marquis songht to deprive Eugine "of all joys of life,
all pleasures of love," but fe conld net hate fer even ﬁnough fe'd
sworn an oaﬁn of vegence. Tfe boating incident, fe adds, was his
attempttokillﬁetwoofﬁnem, butnewfeistriumpfnantbecause
Engine will eiﬁer pine away for love of Judah or marry ﬁe Jew and
disgrace fer faﬁer, Count Alvarez.

In Spain, Judah twice saves ﬁe Marquis' life in battle and rises
toﬁerankofcaptain, whileEuginefelpsrescueCordczaardsed
him to his family in Germanny. Judah is torn between Dinah—-wfem fe
believes is alive-and "reble, brilliant and high-minded Engine, wiﬁn
fer passionate affections, excellent virtues, lofty aspirations, and
incessant proves [sic] of fidelity and self-sacrifice." Engine
arrives to inform fer husband ﬁnat Cordoza is his faﬁer, confirming

105

it wiﬁn a portrait of his dead neﬁer wfem fe resembles.

Jindah attempts to convince Engine to reconcile wiﬁn Elpazo, but
sfeurgeshimtoeiﬁnercondemnhertoalivirgdeaﬁnasﬁeMarquis'
wife or tell ﬁe truth of his feart. They embrace and ﬁe Marquis
bids Judah take her as his wife. Judah pleads with newly-arrived
Samuel ﬁnat Euginne's "humanity, self-denial, affection and kirndness"
conld not exist in an "igneble feart":

'...if it is true that the religion of our fathers aims at
ﬁe making of good, pions and happy men; if religions object
is to ronse and cultivate ﬁe noblest affections of ﬁe
heart and ﬁe divine capacities of ﬁe mind; religion has
achieved its object in Eugine' (re. 24, p. 193).

Mosesrecountshisadventurestoﬁeeruenhuts, butfedcesret
knew if Judah survived a battle ﬁnat ﬁe Spannish lost. Marquis Elpazo
and ﬁe Cordozas arrive at the Gruenfnuts and Samuel Kannn accuses Mrs.
CordozaofdrivingDinahtoherdeaﬁn. Guardssurroudﬁefeusein
search of Eugine, wfe comes to beg Elpazo to felp her free Judah from
arrest for fer reported "abduction." Alvarez fol lows with his priest,
wfem Cordoza accuses of killing ﬁe Marquis's moﬁer and setting
Alvarez againnst him. Count Stahlenberg appears wiﬁn ﬁe valcrons
JudafnandordersAlvarezardﬁepriestarrestedforforgirgﬁe
Emperor's signature to the arrest order for Judah and Engine. Count
Alvarez kills ﬁe infannons priest, explainning "I was always uder ﬁe
conhol of ﬁe order to which he [ﬁe priest] beloged; and he was not
my priest but lord and master." Cordoza forgives Alvarez and Engine
rejoices in fer faﬁer's pardon.

Granted a coloelcy in ﬁe Imperial Guard and permission to marry

Engine, Judah debates ﬁe question of marrying a non-Jew wiﬁn his

106

faﬁer. Rabbi Gruenhut shesses ﬁe need for beloging to ﬁe
communiw: "we need ﬁe love and attachment of all onr sons, and
especially of ﬁose wfe are well grown." But Judah winns him over by
praising Engine's virtue and ﬁeir "platonic love" which is "net a
burning consuming fire [an unfortunate phrase given ﬁe mannrer of
Dinnah's death], but a light soft as ﬁe rays of ﬁe moon...Far from
actuating ﬁe passions it pacifies ﬁe storm-tossed feart, and
pervades ﬁe sonl wiﬁn an angelic quietude." Judah concludes ﬁnat
Engine is "a pions Jewess" for fer love of man and God, and wfnen Rabbi
GruenfnutkissesEugineandblessesher, sfeecfeestheBcckofRuﬁn
wiﬁn "Thy people are my people, and ﬁny God is my God." T'he
concluding lines of ﬁe revel relate ﬁnat Judah, believed to be a
convert, eventually becomes a geeral in ﬁe Dutch army. He emigrates
tcﬁeDutchWestIndiesasageeralgoverrer,hisdescedantstaking
ﬁenameLeonforﬁelioninhiscoatofarms (wearerettold

wfeﬁner ﬁey stay Jewish or net).

While Romance is Wise's logest revel to date, its ﬁemes,
villains and heroes are familiar oes, re-imagined fere and given uere
heatment and intensity. Gee again ﬁe Church and its minnions are
villainous; Jewish superstition is lamentable; a Reform vision of
Jewish religion and ritual is ﬁe only sane and safe oe;
cogregational shife is ludicrons and potentially dangerons. What is
nest new is ﬁe extremely positive view of intermarriage, ﬁe explicit
discussion of God's role in ﬁe history of ﬁe Jews, and ﬁe shegth

of its aptly-named fero, Judafn.

107

‘I‘ke Inquisition (always lower-case in ﬁe text), appears in
Romanee as a shadowy nemesis, ﬁnreatening, kidnapping annd imprisoning
its victims, but it is churchmen ﬁemselves, as ﬁe foul expression of
Church doctrine, ﬁnat are nest criminal. Count Alvarez is intemperate,
grasping, unforgiving and cruel, yet his priest end his priest's order
are really in control. Eugine annd her husband, for innstanee, were
sent off to Spain by ﬁe priest wiﬁeut Alvarez's knewledge or
permission. This same nameless priest does net l‘esitate at forging
ﬁeEmperor's sigrnature, butl'eisaparagonofvirtuecomparedtoﬁe
monk attempting to convert Judah in his Jail cell. That churchmen
seems a walking encyclopedia of vice, quailirg as Judah accuses him of
being steeped in hypocrisy annd sinn.

Wise mocked Christian doctrine in Tie Steemaker's Family as we

 

haveseen, andwrenﬁeministerandpriestinthatrevel werehard—
pressed ﬁey modulated from reasonable persuasion to Jew-hatred. ‘I‘re
same happens in Romance: when stymied, ﬁe Mum's pro—rector,
attempting to convert ﬁe cabalist Moses Kann erupts into condemnation
of ﬁe Jews: "yon are persecuted, hated and excluded on account of
your sirnfulness." Rabbi Gruenhut responds wiﬁn unfailing poise annd
reasonableess, pointing out that ﬁey have vastly different
coeeptions of God: "my God is merciful annd gracions. His punishment
extendsrettoﬁefourﬁngeneration, nerdoesitovertakeﬁesewte
love Him annd venerate His glorious name." Tfe pro-rector is
responsible for having Cordoza shipped from Vienna to Spain annd re
castigates Frankfort's citizens for helping ﬁe Jews after ﬁe fire.

While soldiers cause destruction in ﬁe fire, it is net Gentiles

108

ﬁemselvesrerewreareﬁeincarnationofevil, butﬁedoctrineﬁey

are taught ﬁnat perverts ﬁeir sympaﬁnies annd understanding.
Wise wrote in Reminiscences ﬁnat in America "No oe conld prevent

 

me from being as angry as I pleased," but his raneor abont Caﬁelicism
asdisplayedinthisnevel andoﬁersdidnetextendtobigotry
against Caﬁelics in America. Wise declined to print articles
supporting ﬁe Knew—Noﬁning Movement, for example, annd was
consistently opposed to its policy which te believed would eventually
harm Jews. He believed ﬁe Movement was unnpatriotically fannatical:
"do net so badly slannder annd outrage republicanism, as to tell us ﬁe
lowest and nest despicable passions of man, religions fanaticism and
intoleranee are necessary to guard republicanism" (Kornn, p. 69).
Bertram Korn has concluded ﬁnat ﬁese apparently few Jews wte
supported ﬁe Knew-Nothing Movement did so as a way of allying
ﬁemselves "with ﬁe dominannt Protestant forces" annd ﬁnus proving
ﬁemselves Good Americans. Anoﬁer reason was revege on ﬁe Church
for centuries of persecution annd a desire to prevent Caﬁelicism from
becoming America's dominant religion. Wiﬁn all ﬁnat, however, "ﬁe
great majority of recorded Jewish opinion on ﬁe merits of ﬁe Knew-
Noﬁning program was strongly in ﬁe negative" (Kornn, p. 65).
Christianswereofcoursenotﬁeonlyoes wrecouldbeswayed
into false beliefs and intolerance, as Moses Kann's case proves.
Seduced into ﬁe mysteries of Cabbalah, l'e has become, as Deborah
Gruenhut laments, net only wasted and depressed, but bigoted. All
Jews wredonetbelieveasredoesaresinnersinMoses'seyes, annd

deserve deaﬁn. Tfere is noﬁning romantic about his encomters wiﬁn

109

mysticism; it is all folly arnd deceit, arnd ﬁnus close to Christianity.
Moses annd Johnn Jacob Schudt both see Christian dogmas supported by
cabalistic writings, and ﬁe story of Rabbi Naphtali Ooten‘s life
bears a general resemblannce to ﬁnat of Jesus: his reuse was "filled
wiﬁn light" at his birﬁn, he was guarded by angels arnd could work
miracles. Ironically, oe of ﬁese miracles was stopping a fire,
which Cohen conld net do in Frankfort. While he and his supporters
attempt ﬁeir magic, more and more reuses burn--ﬁeugh opening ﬁe
gates earlier to let in ﬁe fire fighters would net have l'elped
eiﬁer.

All superstition, Christian arnd Jewish, enervates ﬁe mind; it is
religion purged of ﬁe miraculous that Wise commends: Reform Judaism
in oﬁer words. Elijah's cup at ﬁe Passover seder becomes a symbol
of God's abundanee, stripped of any supernatural taint. Aside from
that note, the opening chapter describes the Jewish quarter‘s
celebration of Passover in uneonditionally positive terns:

Everywindowof ﬁeirhousesservedasanoutlettoastream
of light, which appeared to circulate ﬁnrough all ﬁeir

houses, andvie inexcellency withﬁe silveryraysofﬁe
neon. Sogandpsalmodycomingfromﬁeproudmansionof

ﬁe rich, arnd ﬁe humble cottage of ﬁe poor, sounded
solemnly arnd melanctely ﬁnrough ﬁe silence of night. A
sacred halo appeared to embrace ﬁe wrele quarter undefiled
annd undisturbed by ﬁe interferenee of man (re. 1, p. 1).
Why is ﬁnis so? Because Passover here does net solely celebrate God's
bringing Israel ont of Egypt, but an event with meaning for ﬁe wtele
world: "ﬁe first declaration of independence." Frankfort's Jews are
ﬁnus celebrating a very American reliday in a way, annd ﬁnis broad view

of Judaism is ecleed in Judah's declaration late in ﬁe revel ﬁnat

110

EngineisJewishbecausestelovesmanandGod, andattemptstodo
good (which seems an ecre of Micah's "do justly and love mercy, and
walk hunnbly with ﬁny God"). For ﬁese We may have been uncomfortable
wiﬁn an interpretation of Judaism ﬁnat makes it sound like ﬁe--as yet
non-existent--Eﬁnical Onlture movement, ﬁe revel seens to inndicate
ﬁnat Engine will convert to Judaism. Of course Jews are more tolerant
thanCnristians: RabbiGruenhutassuresEuginethatstecanworship
her God as ste creoses.

Wise clearly differentiates between acceptable and inappropriate
or ontnneded beliefs. He retes ﬁnat Frankfort's Jews "must have
thought" ﬁnat God wonld intervene again to liberate ﬁem "from ﬁe
house of slavery, erected for ﬁem by priests annd lords, superstition
arnd violeee, ignerance arnd crudeess." Wise is net entirely
consistent, rewever, because Rabbi Gruenhut, ﬁe voice of reason annd
enlightenment annd apparently Wise's monﬁnpiece in ﬁe revel, innsists
thatGodwillrealMosesandsaveJudah, andﬁnatﬁefirewasGod's
doing to expose ﬁe cabalists.

All of Wise's yonng reroes to date have been reble, intelligent,
if not always hanndsome, but Judah's reroism outshines ﬁnat of his
predecessors. HesharesﬁenameofﬁeMaccabeanl'eroandﬁe
connection is made explicit when Judah is fired by ﬁe Maccabeans'
example on his way to battle. Fueled by ontrage over Cordoza's
imprisonment, 1e instantly decides to rescue him, kill ﬁe Spanish
Minister, ordietrying. Givenﬁechaneetoescapefromprison
offered by Eugine after his first assassination attempt, Judah

returns to complete his mission. He can subdue armed servants,

111

buthasnelearttoslaughteranunarmed man, Justasrewanted
necreditorreward forrescuingEuginefromdrownnirg. His
bravery annd leroism in ﬁe realm of action balance annd complete
Rabbi Gruenhut's intellectual bravery in standing up to ﬁe
cabalists annd ﬁe pro-rector, defying ignerance arnd hailing ﬁe
truﬁn of Judaism.

Wise left almost re papers at his death, so ﬁere is ne way of
knewingrewleplannedﬁnisnevel, but itseemstohaveundergoe
major changes in ﬁe writing. Tie move away from a strictly Jewish
focus is net at all implicit in ﬁe opening chapters, which resemble
previons nevels wiﬁn ﬁeir description of Jewish communiw life annd
ceremony. Inndeed, before Engine is introduced, it seems likely ﬁnat
Dinnah and Judah might have ended up married with ﬁe fire as a climax;
recouldhavereturredtorescuelrer. At somepoinntﬁeideaof
Judah's triumphing on a wider stage may have taken over annd ﬁe revel
enlarged in scope, ﬁeugh perhaps blurred in meannirg. Of conrse, Wise
may have simply been pressured to continue ﬁe revel because it was
popular, becausekehadto fill space, orboﬁn. But whatmadeWise
praise Judah's determination to marry a Gentile annd coeeive of
Judaism in such broad annd unnspecifically Jewish terms ﬁnat sre is
accepted as a Jew before she declares rer willingness to share Judah's
faith? Given the vitriol spewed at ﬁe monk annd ﬁe pro-rector, Rabbi
Gruenhut's assurannce to Eugine in ﬁe last chapter that sre may
worship Ier own God is a curions oe, especially siree ﬁe revel
praises Jewish solidarity in ﬁe face of persecution. It is oe ﬁning
toconmendChristiankindresstoJews, aneﬁertosupport

112

intermarriage .

Tl'e Wizard of ﬁe Forest: A Tale of ﬁe Thirty Years' War by the
auﬁer of ﬁne Last Struggle of ﬁe Nation, ﬁe First of ﬁe
Maccabees; annd oﬁer nevels: March 8, 1861 to June 28, 1861.

Setting : Prague and environs, 1638.

'ITemes: Jews, net Caﬁelics or Protestants have a true religion
of love, and despite Christian tyrannnny annd stupidity, Jews cannret only
triumph over ﬁeir foes, but show ﬁnem ﬁe light.

Characters: Emanuel Edeles, Jewish meistersinger

Charles von Breitenstein, his Hussite friend
Breitenstein' s faﬁer, ﬁe Knight

Amelia annd Elizabeth, his daughters

'I‘l'e Wizard of ﬁe Forest

Hannah, Ennnanuel's aunt

Reuben, l'er husbannd

Tfe Prioress

Caspar, ﬁe Wizard's fornner servant

Rebecca, a Jewish widow

 

 

Traveling to castle Breitenstein amid deep forests oe nneonlit
night are Charles von Breitenstein annd his compannion Emanuel Edeles, a
physician re met in Padua, wre feels himself "a stranger everywnere."
'I‘Iey are attacked by brigannds wrem ﬁe Merlin-like Wizard of ﬁe
Forest disperses wiﬁn fire annd spells. Safely at ﬁe castle, Gnarles
raves abont Emanuel's wisdom annd humannity to his Hussite faﬁer: "His
netto is, ﬁe world is my country annd love is my religion." Gypsy-
like in looks, Emanuel attracts Amelia Breitenstein by his melifluous
singing annd lute-playing, annd his appearannce.

Tre old Knight deeply suspects Emanuel's belief ﬁnat "love is ﬁe
wrele amonnt of revelation: annd philosophy is a deceptive meteor."
Edeles connters the Knight's belief in Hell annd a punishing God,
revealing himself to be a Jew, to Breitenstein's astonishment:

'...all ﬁe Jews I have ever seen were eiﬁer peddlars,
haberdashers, brokers, or l'erse dealers, and thou are a

student. ThouaJewandeatestofmyfood,drinkofmy
wine, and called ﬁe Christian a friend, must I net be

113

astonisfed' (vol. vii, re. 38, p. 297).

Edeles admits ﬁnat Jews have little love for Christians because
of centuries of persecution, annd wfen Breitenstein vows to save his
sonl from sin, Edeles dismisses ﬁnis vow alog wiﬁn Breitenstein's
claims ﬁnat ﬁe Jews are in a pitiable state:

'If we are punisfed for ﬁe sins of onr faﬁers, wfe will
punish yonr coming geerations for ﬁe wrongs conmitted on
us....Yon have re idea of ﬁe gratification which ﬁe Jew
derives from his own belief ﬁnat all religions arnd creeds
will fall, annd his will stannd. Yon cannet tell ﬁnat ﬁe Jew
is miserable. Tfere is a pride in him ﬁnat never fails to
give him new stregﬁn, a confideee which never wonld let
him sirnk, and ﬁe exalted, inspiring annd edifying nneral
conscieee to suffer on accomt of his love of truﬁn is of
itself a world of happiness of which yon have re idea' (re.
38, pp. 297-8).
Edeles' eloquent grief over ﬁe persistence of "ﬁe primitive serpent
[sic], prejudice, " neves Amelia to alter fer negative views of Jews.
Tfe Knight, fewever, forbids Amelia annd fer sister to talk to Edeles
aloe, which "rendered his companny only dearer to ﬁe girls." Wiﬁn
Charles away, Amelia annd Edeles reveal ﬁeir love for each oﬁer in
ﬁeforest. OonvincedthatJewsaresinnersandﬁnatEdelesisa
seducer, Breitenstein has Emanuel whipped, beaten arnd feunded fron ﬁe
castle. Bloodied annd betrayed, Edeles roars, "Is ﬁnis net ﬁe very
same diabolic piety which crusfed my aneestors for centuries to ﬁe
dust? ‘IfereisaGoduponﬁeirlips, andafellinﬁeirfearts."

Aloe in ﬁe forest, Edeles meets ﬁe grandiloquent Wizard, wfe
informs him ﬁnat Amelia is pinning away arnd will be immured in a
convent. Emanuel can rescue fer wiﬁn ﬁe felp of ﬁe forest brigannds,
wfese loyalty ﬁe Wizard commannds, but Edeles refuses to be involved

in bloodsfed. Returning to Breitenstein, Charles is outraged to fear

114

of his friend's expulsion. Tfe Wizard tells Edeles his story: He is
John, son of Adalbert von Breitenstein, a rakefell wfe used to runn
annek in Prague's Jewish quarter unntil fe met ﬁe deaﬁnly ill Zipporah,
fer sister annd blinnd father. He paid for a doctor annd Zipporah
recovered ﬁeugh sfe refused his gifts, annd fe decided to marry fer.
Jofnnn's faﬁer wonld net accept a Jewish daughter-inn-law arnd Johnn feped
to die in battle, but returning after six years, fonnd Zipporah
faiﬁnful annd ﬁey married, pretending sfe was a Protestant. Adalbert
wonld net acknewledge her or ﬁeir son, both of wfem disappeared.
Jofnnnvainlysearofed for ﬁem for twoyears, discoveringonhisreturn
that his consin (ﬁe current Knight) succeeded him as feir. Taking to
ﬁe forest, he became ﬁe Wizard, gaﬁering around him freebooters
escaping military service. He tells all ﬁnis because tfe ring Edeles
is wearing is Zipporah's--Emanuel must be his son!
Tfe Wizard wants Emanuel to reclaim ﬁe rights of Breitenstein.

They must ﬁerefore prove Emanuel is his son, and Emanuel must
distinguish himself publicly, which fe can only do as a Christian.
Emannuel refuses--"again ﬁe miserable prejudices of princes, priests
annd mobs!"--because fe conld never feel patriotic towards a conntry
wfere Jews "are treated as strangers annd pariahs." He also refuses to
make a name for hinnself as a military hero, because fe will net

'lead forth innecent men to die or be killed, annd warfare is

scientific murder on a grand scale for ﬁe gratification of

mighty men's ambition or private interest. My fnannd shall

not be with ﬁe wicked' (no. 42, p. 329).
Charles finnds Edeles annd ﬁey swear devotion to each other; ﬁe Wizard
offers Charles conmand of his "troops."

In a richly-ornamented Prague rnunnnery, ﬁe majestic Prioress net

115

only tells Amelia ﬁnat sfe is ﬁere for life, but reveals to fer ﬁe
depﬁn of prejudice annd misery sfe wonld feel as ﬁe wife of a Jew,
because pions men condemn Jews as unnbelieving "vipers," wfe "live only
to ripen for eternal damnation." With news of ﬁe Swedish army‘s
approach, a nnonk seeks to have ﬁe Prioress move fer convent's people
annd wealﬁn to safety, but sfe says ﬁnat would cause panic in Prague,
and ﬁnat God will protect ﬁne city's fortifications. ern sfe
afterwards gives two grateful rnunns passports annd men's clothing so
ﬁeycannreturntoﬁeirparents, we learnﬁnatﬁePrioressisin
contact wiﬁn ﬁe Swedes.

Seeking his nneﬁer, Emanuel finds fer sister Hannnnah in Prague,
wfe cannret explain Zipporah's disappearannce all ﬁese years before.
Hannah's husband Reuben suspects Emanuel and Hannnnah refuses taking
money from him. Sfe considers Emanuel an apostate, conntering his
plea for less prejudice againnst Christians:

"I'feir priests were afraid ﬁe simplicity of onr religion
unndermine ﬁeir artificial fabric of faith, ﬁeir prinees
dreaded onr sentiments of freedom, ﬁeir stupid nnebs envied
onr eergy, superiority and wealﬁn; ﬁerefore ﬁeir priests,
princes annd nebs erected ﬁe innsurmonnntable obstacle between
us end ﬁemselves. 'I’ney attempted at all times to crush,
silence, intimidate us by rude force, scorn, hatred and
persecution. 'I‘fey ﬁnrew us aside like ontworn garments and
wonnnded onr fearts by cold derision, persecution annd
heartless murder. Tfey bear ﬁe fault. Go to ﬁem annd
admonish them to be men' (no. 44, p. 346).

Tfe loss of her brother annd sister leaves Elizabeth ill annd ﬁe
doctor cannet felp, but fer nurse insists ﬁnat ﬁe Wizard cann. ern
fe arrives, ﬁnurndering at Breitenstein, weeping in ﬁe portrait
gallery, his preseee does inndeed revive ﬁe girl. Tfe frighteed

Knight wonders abont ﬁe Wizard's curse--"Wo to ﬁe servant of ﬁe

116

Lord wfe sacrifices his children to Moloch"--and asks his priest for
advice. But ﬁe priest will only read passages from Matﬁew wiﬁnout
comment, and Breitenstein interprets "if ﬁny riglnt eye offed ﬁee,
pluck it ont" as justifying his actions. He ends up considering
himself "a martyr of faiﬁn."

Wandering ﬁnrough Prague, Edeles is drawn to a shabbos service at
which a cogregant invites him feme to his family for a shabbos meal.
Edeles is struck by a family friend, ﬁe monrnful and interesting
matron Rebecca, and dreamily woders if sfe conld be his neﬁer.
Emannual and Charles plan to abduct Amelia from fer convent and seek
refuge with ﬁe Swedes. Asking Hannrnah's husband Reuben for felp,
Edeles offers 1000 guilders, but when Reuben tells his friends, they
agreethatEmanuel mustbeaspy, andadangertoﬁeJewishcommunity
becauseofhisplanns, decidingtoturnnhimovertoﬁeauﬁeritiesto
protect ﬁemselves.

Amelia is completely unnwilling to go to confession because sfe
(1368 net believe in the "artificial fabrication of priests":

'IogenonghhaveIpatientlylistenedtoﬁeirsermonsof
love, while ﬁey treat me as an object of hatred. Dog
eeughdidIfearﬁempreachofamoﬁerofGod, a
crucified God, God wfe died and was buried, when ﬁere is re
God in ﬁeir actions, words or ﬁeugfnts' (re. 47, p. 369).
Tfe Prioress stresses ﬁe Church's power--"As far as ﬁe cross reigrns
ﬁere is re scope for arguments"--but Amelia is firm. When Amelia
departs, asecretdooradmitsRebecea, wfebegsforfelptofnave
Emannuel freed from prison. Tfe Prioress ardferfnusbandwere
Zipporah'sbestfriendsandyearsagoalsohadason. Years ago, on

ﬁe way to Castle Breitenstein at Jofnnn von Breitenstein's [ﬁe

117

Wizard's] written request, ﬁeir coach was stopped, Rebecca's fnusband
killed and ﬁe two cfnildren taken away. Zipporah was placed in a
convent, Rebecca jailed and tortured. Recovering from her ordeal only
years later, Rebeccacouldretfindfersonorobtainjustice.
Zipporah was baptized and contempt for fer oppressors fueled her
diligent study of Christianity. Brilliant and beautiful, sfe became
powerful, rising as high as a woman conld in Bofemia. Commander of
Prague's priests, Zipporah has aceomplisfed part of fer revege:

"They crusfed ﬁe humble Jew and new I am ﬁeir despot."

Tfe night before, Emanuel fonnd ont that Amelia and Zipporah were
in ﬁe convent opposite Clnarles's lodgings (Cnnarles had had him taken
from ﬁe guard house). His sonrce of information was ﬁe Wizard's old
servant, Caspar, wfeconldretbetemptedtotalkbymoey, crswayed
by feeling, but was scared into confessing wfnen Emanuel ﬁnreateed to
summon denons. 'I'fen Emanuel is discovered seding a message to
Amelia and is taken off to an Inquisition jail cell where Breitenstein
has been placed as a feretic.

In ﬁe Jewish quarter, Charles asks Rebecca for felp in releasing
Amelia and finds ont Emanuel is imprisoed with ﬁe Knigfnt, wfese
wealﬁn and lack of protection (Charles led ﬁe brigands into ﬁe army)
had attracted his eemies. Charles seeks access to Emannuel and his
faﬁer at ﬁe Strafefer Convent (which is ﬁe Prior's lair in
Tfe Convent), but is denied and warned to stay away. He returns wiﬁn
500 troops and opens every cell:

Out came ﬁe old men with ghastly visages, yonng men reduced

to skeletons, insane women, sick and declining yonﬁns, all
classes of unnfnappy wretcfes inearcerated in behalf of ﬁe

 

118

religion of love (re. 49, p. 385).
Emanuel and Breitenstein are net amog ﬁem, fewever, and in a stand-
off wiﬁn a military commander and civil auﬁerities, ﬁe Wizard
appears to much cfeering from ﬁe brigands, advising Charles to seize
control of ﬁe heavily fortified, well—stocked and strategically
important convent.

Tfe Prioress connnsels ﬁe monks felding Emannuel and ﬁe Knight to
give ﬁe prisoers opium and bring ﬁem to her convent wfere ﬁey will
net be songht for. At a hearing, Emanuel preacfes a God of love (wfem
Christians have "misunderstood and misrepresented"), wfe will save
ﬁem, and envisions a glorions future:

"Tfe day will come...wfen ﬁe nations will be fealed of
ﬁeir madness, fealed by self-inflicted lasfes, ﬁeir
priests and despots will be shaken off like dust, ﬁe cfnainns
will break, crowns, scepters, ﬁnroes and churcfes will be
crusfed into fragments, and upon ﬁese ruins freedom, trnnﬁn
and justice will unnfurl ﬁe glorions banner of fnumanity, and
ﬁe God of love will reign in everlasting justice' (no. 50,
p. 393).
At ﬁnis same fearing Breitenstein reeunees his Christian beliefs
while Edeles stands firm and accuses his judges of being "priests of
Baal." Blindfolded, ﬁe two men are led to a carriage and are taken
to a "subterranean chapel" wfere a priest tries to convert ﬁem.
Afterameal, Emannnal realizes ﬁnatﬁeyhavebeendruggedand
adminnisters himself an antidote, which as a doctor, fe has handy.
Coffinsarebronghtandﬁeconscions Edeles issubduedbysixarmed
nnen.

Disguised as a Dominican, ﬁe Prioress visits Emanuel and ﬁe

Knnight, but Ennannuel will net talk to "him" and Emarnuel's threats make

ﬁePrioressrevealheridentity. Onarlesandhismenarrivewithﬁe

119

Wizard, wfe fnas learned ﬁe full story of Rebecca's abduction from
Caspar: ﬁeplot was arrangedbyﬁecurrentKnightZSyearsagowfe
supplied ﬁe (forged) letter summoning Zipporah to ﬁe castle. It is
explained ﬁnat Charles is Zipporah's son, and Emanmel is Rebecca's.
Troopsarrivetoarrestcnarlesardhismenatﬁeprison, butﬁe
Swedish army begins attacking Prague and ﬁe Jewish quarter suffers
feavy damage and loss of life in ﬁe subsequent siege. Tfe Prioress
knews ﬁe Swedish commander and has all nuns and priests expelled from
ﬁe city and ﬁeir wealth confiscated. Under Swedish escort, the
Prioress, Emanuel and ﬁe Breitensteins leave for Castle Breitenstein
and find Amelia ﬁere (Elizabeth has since died). Everyoe lives in
peace at ﬁe ruined castle which Onarles inferits, and though Emannuel
and Amelia cannet legally marry sfe innspires his sog writing and ﬁe

Wizard stops believing in his own magic.

More so ﬁnan previons nevels, m ridicules Protestantism,
here represented by Breitenstein wfe is obsessed by ﬁe Bible and
denies the validity of any but the "Words of God." Tfe Knight
vigorously enforces ﬁe sabbaﬁn, wearing slippers on Sunday, for
inetanee, becauseputtingonbcotswonldbemanuallabcr, and

prohibiting any speech but prayer. One servant comically gets aronnd
ﬁnis lastrestrictionbyfallingtohiskneesinﬁekitchenard

"praying" for food to assuage his hunger. 'I‘feronghly imbued wiﬁn
stories from ﬁe Bible, ﬁe Knight chides his daughter as "obstinate
Vashti, disobedient Dinah wfe brings sfname on ﬁe house of Jacob," but

for contenporary Jews fe has only pity and contempt.

120

Tfe Wizard has so nnuch local influeee because Breitenstein's
servants are just as credulons as ﬁeir master. Wise vaguely attempts
to explain ﬁe Wizard's "powers" by refereees to electricity and a

cameraobscura,buthispresencefadesafterﬁeopeningchaptersand

 

atﬁeedfe is portrayedasnelogeravictimofhisown
impositions--much like Frank L. Baum's Wizard of Oz. Fear of denenns
is a weapon both ﬁe Wizard and Edeles cann use, fewever, to elicit
infornnation from ﬁe superstitions. Tfere is net mucfn differeee,
ultimately, between ﬁeir magic tricks and enpty threats and Prague's
priests being hidden to make fely statues "weep" blood to manipulate
ﬁe populace-except that ﬁe Wizard and Emarnuel are on ﬁe side of
justice.

Tfe Wizard's virtual disappearannce from ﬁe middle of ﬁe revel
that bears his name and his fairly unimportant role wfen fe returns is
alsolinnkedwithachangeinsiyleandfocus. Afirstﬁerevelseems
set a few centuries before ﬁe seventeenth, wiﬁn its castle, dense

forest, lute-playing mysterions meistersinger, knight and fair

 

daughters, faithful conrades, brigands, ﬁee's and ﬁeu's, and Merlin—
like figure. It reads almost like a pasticfe of a medieval romannce.
And while Emanuel Edeles' name seems Jewish ﬁere is re specifically
Jewish content unntil fe reveals his background to ﬁe Knnight. 'Ihat
content takes over as Emanuel, expelled from ﬁe castle, learns fe is
ﬁe Wizard's son and ﬁe son of a Jewish neﬁer (apparently his foster
parents were Jews), and ﬁen nere familiar elements enter ﬁe story.
'I'fere is pressure to convert, neckery of Christianity (ﬁe "religion

of love"), and violent attacks on Christian hypocrisy in ﬁe treatment

121

of Jews. Did Wise's readers feel uneomfortable wiﬁn what seemed a
raﬁer "gcyish" revel and ask for someﬁning nere like previons oes,
or did Wise himself tire of his literary coeeit and switch to nere
familiar fictional territory after a few chapters?

Set primarily in a non-Jewish milieu, ﬁe novel does net target
Jewish superstition or criticize arny negative Jewish characteristics;
ﬁere is re community squabbling, for innstanee, re gossips or fools.
Tfe assault is unrelenting, fewever, on Christian persecution. As we
have seen, Emannuel charges Cfnristians with having perverted a God of
Love into oe of vegeance, wfese primary target is always ﬁe Jews.
He tells Breitenstein:

'We suffer net for onr sins, but for yonrs. It is ﬁe
struggle of light and darkness, of truth and fiction, as old
as mankind. We have broughtycuﬁetruﬁnandycuwanted
ﬁe error' (re. 38, p. 297).
0e by oe, characters in ﬁe revel ecfe ﬁese geeral sentiments.
Forced into a convent, Amelia wfe has already found her faﬁer's
religion deadening, and had changed her critical opinion of Jews--
reacts wiﬁn contempt towards priests: "Log enough have I seen ﬁem
kneel before croses, images, and smile at ﬁeir own folly." Hannrnah
takes up ﬁe refrain wfenn sfe blames Christian intoleranee and
persecution for building walls between ﬁe religions, and even
Breitenstein comes to change his convictions. In prison fe decides
ﬁnat his religions obduracy led to oe daughter's deaﬁn, ﬁe oﬁer's
deaﬁn-in-life, and a son's despair, and fe can cfnallerge ﬁe
Inquisition seeking his recantation:

‘I changed my mind on ﬁe religion of my faﬁer....I have
discarded all additional doctrines of all Onristian sects

122

ardbelieveinoeGodofLove, wfeismyRockardSavior,

new and forever. Amen' (re. 50, p. 393).
Tfe Knight eds up feeling so spiritually close to Enamel ﬁnat fe
adoptsﬁeyonngmaninnﬁelastchapter. WithBreitenstein
regeerated and forgiving, he, Charles, Amelia, Enannuel, Rebecca,
Zipporah and ﬁe Wizard can all live togeﬁer as "oe family, oe
feart, and oe sonl."

WisehasprevionslyhadJews forcedtobeC’nristiansuseﬁeir

special knewledge against ﬁeir oppressors. In his first revel, rage
at persecution led oe forcibly converted Jew to become a police spy,

aneﬁerwasforcedintoﬁepriesﬁeodianeCatasizopfeatEger.

 

Tfe first capitalizedonhis positiontoaidMosesBaumandensurean
escape to America; ﬁe secod used his knewledge of priestly cunning
to warn Eger's Protestant-Jewish underground. In ﬁnis revel, ﬁe
kidnappedardconvertedPrioressgoesevenfurtfer. Robbedoffer
child, fer family, and fer religion, sfe turns rage and contempt into
a drive for revege that is so skillfully coeealed sfe is universally
admiredardrespectedbyPrague'snunsandpriestswfemsfecontrols
and eventually fnumiliates and despoils. Her triumph adds even nere
weight to ﬁe indictment againnst Christian hypocrisy. If so manny
monks, priestsandnunscanbe fooledintobelievingﬁnatsfeis
devont, few many of ﬁem are hypocritical too?
Thoughadoctor(ardMosesBaumwasoetoo), Enannnelisret
quite Wise's typical fero. Some of his poetic effusions grace ﬁe
text, and his singing and lute—playing make him Wise's first really
"artistic" protagonist. His poetry is a great resonrce, ﬁe narrator

tells us, because it gives him "a world in his own bosom, a world full

123

of consolation, satisfaction and happiness to recompense him for ﬁe

intensity and vefemeee which causes him ﬁnonsardfold to feel every

slight pain" (ﬁnis sonnnds like a distillation of many of Wise's own

comments on his sensitivity in Reminiscennces). Emannuel is also

 

physically unlike his predecessors, wiﬁn a beard, and log hair--in

oﬁer words, "genius with all its externnal peculiarities." In

response to ﬁese peculiarities, Elizabeﬁn dismisses him as a gypsy,

while admiring Amelia finds him "an apostle of ﬁe Muses."

Emarnuel is re less adamant than arny oﬁer Wise fero tempted to

convert for expediency, but his refusal to lead troops is new--after

all, Judah in ﬁe previons revel discussed was a military fero——and

seems netivated by events ontside ﬁe revel. Days before ﬁe chapter

appeared in which Emanuel codennnns slaughter, ﬁe Confederates fired

on Fort Sumter and Emanuel's "my hard shall net be wiﬁn ﬁe wicked" is

very close to sentiments in ﬁet same issue's editorial, "Sileee, Our

Policy" :

Tfe excitement runns high, veryhigh, wfereverweturnnonr
eyes. 'Ifey say civil war is commenced. We are ﬁe servant
of peace, net of war. Hiﬁerto we sometimes ﬁeught fit to
say soneﬁning on public affairs, and it was onr ardent hope
to assist ﬁese wfe wisfed to prevent civil war; but we
wasted onr words. What can we say now? Shall we lament and
weep like Jeremiahoverastate ofﬁningstoosadard
ﬁnreatening to be looked upon wiﬁn indiffereee? We wonld
only be laugfed at in ﬁnis state of excitenent and
passionate agitation, or probably abused for discouraging
ﬁe sentiment. Or should we cfecse sides wiﬁn oe of ﬁe
parties? We cannet, net only because we abfer ﬁe idea of
war, but also we have dear friends and near relations,
beloved breﬁnren and kinsmen, in eiﬁer section of ﬁe
connntny, thatonrfeartbleedsonﬁninnkirgofﬁeir
distress, of ﬁe misery ﬁnat might befal [sic] ﬁem.

Tferefore sileee must heeeforth be our policy, sileee on
all ﬁe questions of ﬁe day, until a spirit of conciliation

124

sfnall moveﬁefeartsofﬁemillionstoabetter
understanding of ﬁe blessings of peace, freedom, and unnion.
Till ﬁnen we might stop publishing 'I'ne Israelite if onr
frieds say so, or continnue as usual, if we are patronized
as feretofore. But we sfnall be obliged to abstain entirely
from all andeverycommentaryonﬁeoddoccurreeesofﬁe

day.

Inwritingtheselireswefeelasscrrowfuland
disfearteed as we only oee before felt--on leaving onr
native conntry. Tfelandofonrcfeiceardadoprtionﬁnusin
a destructive comnetion is much nere ﬁnan common misery to
us. Still, ﬁe will of onr God be doe!

 

The Civil War ﬁnus makes a first brief appearance in Wise's
fiction; rear ﬁe end of ﬁe War it will play a much more prominent

role. It is re exaggeration to say ﬁnat ‘Ife Rabbi of Bacferach fairly

 

bursts wiﬁn refereees to ﬁe war and contemporary coditions: poor
geeralship and official corruption net ﬁe least of ﬁese, as we
shall see below.

The Rabbi of Bacferach, an Anti-Romantic Ronaree by ﬁe American
Jewish Novelist: September 2, 1864 to February 3, 1865.
Setting : mid-15ﬁn century Bacferach and Hankfort, Germany
Themes: Christian treacfery will stop at reﬁning when Jews are
its victims, but Christian superstition can be used to ontwit ﬁe
oppressors. Contemporary Americann coditions of cruelty and
corruption find parallels to ﬁe lSﬁn century Germarny.
Characters: Abraham, Rabbi of Bacferach
Sarah, his wife
Gfeetle, his niece
David Raphael, doctor, Gfeetle's betroﬁed
Hans Sturmbach, Baron
Peter Anselm, priest, Sturnnnbach's fried
A Christian sfeenaker
Dumb William, his son
Schnapper-Elle, Jewish inn-keeper in Frankfort
Tfe Bisfep of Bacferach
chnn of Basle, Franciscan, his friend

 

 

 

From ﬁe first cfnapter ﬁnis revel is quite unlike any of ﬁe revels
discussed ﬁnus far. 'I'fe narrative is frequently broken by direct

125

addressestothereader, sarcasticasidesoncontemporaryissnes, and
meditations on ﬁe nature of women and mankind in geeral. Qnetation
can only suggest ﬁe ricfnness of contemporary refereees in ﬁnis
revel.

Tfe German city of Bacferacfn was net always "decayed and
dilapidated" with "teeﬁnless battlements and blind watchtowers"--but
was a bustling, rich town originally fonnded by ﬁe Romans. Drurnken
pater Anselm and Baron Hans Strumbach are part of the city's intense
hierarchical power struggle in which each class is "continually
striving after superiority." Tfe knights and rebles sped most of
ﬁeir time eating, plundering, and whipping ﬁeir dogs and servants.
Tfe priests fall midway between nobles and citizens--in ignerance:

In solemn darkness and with a fely mien ﬁey swayed a
powerful scepter, and apparently obedient to all ﬁey ruled
all, and fasting two days weekly ﬁeir bellies increased in
circumferece and ﬁeir faces in scarlet hue. Hearing so
manny confessions of so numerous sinnners, ﬁey, of conrse,
knew best all ﬁe ways and means to a lucrative life, and
walked in humble obedience before ﬁe Lord (vol. 11, re. 10,
p. 81).
After abusirgapoorsfeemakerwfeisrushingﬁnronghﬁestreetsin
search of medical felp for his wife, Sturmbach reveals to Annselm ﬁnat
fe is in love wiﬁn two Jewish wonen--ﬁe Rabbi's wife and fer niece--
boﬁn of wfem fe vows to enjoy. Togeﬁer Annselm and Sturmbach plot to
create a pogrom, during which ﬁe Baron can kidnnap ﬁe women, for
which Anselm will grannt him absolution in advance.

Tfe Rabbi of Bacferach, his wife Sarah and Geetle, ﬁeir niece,
live in Bacferach's Getto, which like all gfettos was as much "Bazaar
and Wall Street of Enrope" as "center of domestic affection, fraternal

urnion, and unmsual pie " and repository of centuries of great Jewish

126

literature. This essay on ﬁe Jewish gfetto abruptly shifts centuries
at a nnumber of points wfen Wise retes ﬁnat printers were "as scarce
ﬁen, as fnoest men in Washington"; that medicines were not war
contraband or books, periodicals and newspapers articles of trade;
that cannnerns were net used or knewn, ner were "Manufactured teeﬁn,
hair, paint for ladies and fops, wooden legs and arms, patent
medicines, pions tracts, and cfeap diplomas for doctors and
professors." In passing, Wise also attacks ﬁe abolitionist Parson
Brownlee, and ﬁe writers Sylvannus Cobb and Farnnny Fern wfe wonld boﬁn
"write much better stories" if ﬁey were acquainted wiﬁn real Jews.
Such Jews are ﬁe loving Rabbi Abrafnam and his cfnaritable wife Sarah,
wfe joke abont ﬁeir scriptural namesakes. Tfeir good fnuner is shared
by Gfeetle, cfeerily contemplating fer betrothal ﬁnat night to ﬁe
physician David Raphael.

Wise dilates on ﬁe medical profession, which fe considers "a
necessary evil" at best. Raphael is respected by all Bacferach's
citizens, fewever, at a time wfenn ﬁe "worst evils which physicians
counteract are superstition and ignorance." Redfeaded David is net
at all prepossessirg, but believed to have great skill, and even
magical powers; it is his bedside manner that effects cures, net
his krewledge (his name slyly suggests ﬁnis: "Raphael" is Hebrew
for "God will heel" or "God is a healer").

'me betnoﬁnal festivities are described wiﬁn unnusual detail for

Wise; asforinnstance, ﬁewonensurronndinngeetlewfewear

gold lace caps glittering like so many stars, feavy silk
dresses of gay colors with large flowers of silver and gold

ﬁnreads interwoven, gold chains, pearls, corals, and

127

Prussian amber adjusted tastefully around lily necks and
arms, andcoveringfeavirgbosomsurdergrenadinebodies
wiﬁn golden buckles, dianends glittering on little ronnd
fingers, white silk slippers pointed at ﬁe toe, trimmed
with gold and saphires [sic] (re. 17, p. 89).
Tfe jocular festivities, during which David sings wiﬁn marnful "sonl
and sentiment," are interrupted by ﬁe sfeemaker ﬁnat Annselm and
Sturmbach had abused, and David instantly follows to ﬁe man's ailing
wife wfese inflammation of ﬁe lungs fe is able to treat.

Pater Anselm agrees to create "confusion, terror, dismay, and
despair" so ﬁnat Hans can abduct Sarah and Gfeetle wfem ﬁe priest can
convert and baptize--but fe must have moey first. Hans and oﬁer
drurnken knights at an inn later swap boasts and gfest stories, and
attack ﬁe Emperor. Tfey mock Frederic III for his military failures
against ﬁe Turks. Wise compares ﬁe Emperor to Lincoln and finds
both historical periods similar:

Pope Pions II's agents and fely peddlars, ﬁey say, did
just as lucrative a business in selling inndulgeees for ﬁe
living and ﬁe dead, for sirns committed or to be committed
hereafter, as ﬁe custom-house and revenue officers, post
commanders, contractors, quartermasters and ﬁe geerals of
Uncle Sam, wiﬁn ﬁe slight difference ﬁnat ﬁe former sold
irdulgeces for a trifle and ﬁe latter charge awful prices
for ﬁeir permits, acceptances, rations net delivered, and
medicines not bought (no. 13, p. 113).

Purim festivities give Sturmbach ﬁe opportunity to join ﬁe
oﬁer masked and clowning visitors at ﬁe Rabbi's fnonse where he
professes his love for Gheetle. Sfe teases in response, ﬁninking it
is only David. Sturmbach returnns unmasked, gets drunk and acts "as
coarsely, as his nature was," drawing his sword on David Raphael, and
is ﬁnrown ont of ﬁe feuse. Rabbi Abraham warns David ﬁnat Sturmbach
has evil intentions.

128

Tfe Purim story is retold for ﬁe revel's "kind reader," but it
is net ﬁe Book of Esﬁer's version (46). Wise interweaves ﬁe
traditional story with contemporary refereees, attacks ﬁe President,
restrictions on civil riglnts, politicians and anti-Jewish agitation,
comparing Afesuerus to Lincoln, ﬁe former having less trouble
reigrning "over 127 provinces as Abraham Lincoln has by governning 23
states." Afnasuerus's courtiers are officers, wire pullers, and
newspaper reporters "wfe kneel in ﬁe dust before him." Afnasuerus
imprisons his wife Vashti because "ﬁe writ of habeus corpus was
suspeded"; ﬁne traditional drowning out of Haman's name at Purim wfen
ﬁeBookofE‘sﬁerisreadis"asdisagreeableaneiseasﬁepaid
clanerers at a political meeting"; Jews are ordered slaughtered
because of interfering with "cotton speculators."

Foaming wiﬁn rage, Sturnmbacfn can "only thinnk of blocdsfed and
vegece" after being kicked ont of ﬁe Rabbi's feme, but fe is
dissuaded by Annselm from acting prenaturely when he can get "tenfold
revege" later. Arnselm explains to Rabbi Abraham ﬁnat Sturmbach is
tooashamedardstrickenbyhisbehaviortopersonallybeg
forgiveess. Though Rabbi Abrafnam is forgiving, fe suspects Annselm as
much as David does: "ﬁnis pater has net an hoest feaﬁnre in his
wine-colored face, his looks are urnsteady, and his voice is faltering,
as if fe was afraid of giving utterance to his ﬁnoughts." David does
net sleep ﬁnat night, dwelling on "ﬁe misery and affliction" Jews
have continually suffered.

Annselm and Sturmbach plan to use Abraham's writings againnst him.

129

Anselm will claim ﬁnat in translation, ﬁe Rabbi's books advise:
'ﬁe Jews to desecrate fests, spit on crosses, poison ﬁe
wells from which Christians drink, bring ﬁe black deaﬁn and
pestilence upon us by ﬁeir enchantnnents in connection with
ﬁe devil, cfeat, impoverish [sic], and degrade us; fere it is in
black and white that he [ﬁe rabbi] says "Jesus of Nazareﬁn
was a bastard and his neﬁer an adulteress'” (re. 5, p. 93).
Anselm forces Sturmbach to pledge him 1000 guilders "of ﬁe spoil";
ﬁnese "denons in human form," "benighted wiﬁn fannatacisnm and prejudice
plannred rebellion againnst God and his laws."

By ﬁe first night of Passover ﬁe plotters have "spread
malicions slander and kindled ﬁe fire of fanaticism in ﬁe dark
recesses of ignerance and crime" unntil Bacferach is "as dense and
impregrnated with rascality as ﬁe New York Herald and ﬁe streets of
Washington." Tfe sfeemaker wfese wife David cured warns ﬁe Rabbi
ﬁnat his life is in danger, but ﬁe Rabbi vows, "I shall net flee like
acoward, beforeIseeﬁedanger." 'I'fnisseemstobearefereeeto
Lincoln. Soon after ﬁe First Inaugural adoress, Tfe Israelite
"publisfed a bitterly partisan letter from a correspodent in New
York...brardirg Lincoln a coward for his trip by stealﬁn from
Harrisburg to Washington" (Kern, p. 134).

Havdalah (ﬁe service marking ﬁe end of ﬁe Sabbaﬁn), ﬁe

 

PassoverplateardﬁebeginningofﬁeSederaredescribedinsome
detail andinresponsetoﬁetraditional calltoﬁefnurgrytocome
celebrate, two strangers join ﬁe Rabbi. He discovers ﬁey have
placed a dead infant under ﬁe table, and fe manages to flee wiﬁn
Sarah to ﬁe river wfere William, ﬁe sfeemaker's deaf and dumb son,

has been ready with a boat in anticipation of just such danger. Rabbi

130

Abraham believes he is ﬁe only target and ﬁe Jews will be safe
wiﬁnouthispresece. AwomanrunrningthroghBacferachcryingfor
fer lost child incites a riot which ﬁe Burgomeister and ﬁe Bisfep
attempt to quell; ﬁe dead cfnild is "fonrd" by Sturnmbach and ruffians
and fe abducts Geetle; David faces down ﬁe neb, blanming Sturnnbach
and accusing him of attempting to steal ﬁe people's "municipal
riglnts" under cover of disorder. David and twelve Jewish festages are
taken into custody.

Wiﬁn terror still reigning in ﬁe gfetto, David vows to report
his suspicions of Sturmbach, but his fellow prisoers urge caution--
ﬁeughreoekrews fewtoproveﬁeirinnneceee. Tfesfeenakertells
David ﬁnat Rabbi Abraham and his wife are safe, but fe doesnn't knew
Geetle's wfereabonts. Tfe seder of liberty and love interrupted by
"bloodﬁnirsty and greedy lusts," is continued in prison: "ﬁneir
voices re-ecfeed from ﬁe low arch of ﬁe prison sonnded ontside like
sogs from ﬁe grave; but to [ﬁe festages] it sonnded like
consolation and satisfaction." Well taken care of in Sturmbach's
forest castle, grief-numbed Gfeetle is told ﬁnat all of Bacferach's
Jews are dead, and her tears are "net ﬁe first and net ﬁe last which
suffering fearts, tormented by vile oppressors, wept." Traveling down
ﬁe peaceful Rhine to Frarnkfort, meanwhile, Sarah is lost in idyllic
childfeod memeries of Sabbaﬁn, Succotfn and fer early love for Abraham.

Bustling Frankfort amazes Sarah, and ﬁe narrative is rich with
descriptions of different sorts of pecple--doctors, soldiers, fecing
masters, loose women, priests--and costumes, like ﬁese of ﬁe yonng

nenwfe

131

wore impertirent feaﬁers on ﬁe small black caps like an
inclined plain, and silk cloaks of variegated colors, mestly
greenonoeside, andredonﬁeoﬁer, orsoipedlikeﬁe
rainbow (re. 18, p. 137).
Tfe Rabbi and his wife, wfe have traveled on a feliday only because
of danger, obtain entrance into ﬁe Ghetto and attend services at ﬁe
sfnul. When called to ﬁe Torah, Abrafnam recites the traditional
ﬁnannksgivirg blessing for ﬁese wfe have escaped danger (which Wise
translates as "praised be ﬁe Lord wfe haﬁn doe me all ﬁnat is
900d"). calling forﬁn ﬁe cogregational response. Listening to
gossip up in ﬁe wonen's gallery, Sarah faints at fer husband's
"unnmistakable expression of a great danger just passed ﬁnrcugh" and
all ﬁeir news spreads ﬁnrough ﬁe Gfetto "log before ﬁe close of
ﬁe synagogal service."

Staying at Schapper-Elle's inn, ﬁe Rabbi tells his story to the
ferrified crowds seeking infornmation, wfe spread it even furﬁer,
asking for help from ﬁe community's rabbis and elders. 'I'fe rabbi
createsadifferentkindofstirwfenfeinnvitesadirty, raggedbut
reble-looking man to dine wiﬁn him and his wife. Later, ﬁe rabbi
joins Frarnkfort's rabbis in ﬁeir goﬁnic hall teeming wiﬁn law
codices, ﬁe product of Jewish history and genius "in connntries
perfectly lawless." The rabbis

looked as veerable and dignified as ﬁe Senate of ﬁe
UnitedStatesdidtwodeceniums ago; andﬁeycurgerportion
of ﬁe assembly were as lively, restless and loud as ﬁe -
lower Honse of Cogress, wfen Alexander Sfert delivered his
seccesion [sic] speech (re. 19, p. 146).
'I'fe rabbis agree ﬁnat someoe must go to Bacferach to investigate,
beforeﬁeEnperorcanbeaskedtointervee, but "wfesfnouldgotoa

city where an infuriated populace plurders and murders, and fell has

132

spit ont its worst demons--avarice, fanaticism, and bloodﬁnirst?" Tfe
pauper of ﬁe innnn volurnteers, proving ﬁe Rabbi's belief in his
rebility, and making oﬁers suspect ﬁnat fe is really ﬁe Propfet
Elijah.

Told ﬁnat ﬁe forests are being combed by Bacferach's citizens
seeking escaped Jews, Gfeetle is even mere afraid and isolated,
plagued by visions of ﬁne massacre. "Sfe dreamed of deaﬁn and
destructionandwakingsfeconldthinkonlyofdeceasedfriedsard
slaughtered compannions." Pater Arnselm bids fer to trust Sturmbach,
wfese good looks and attractive cloﬁes do please fer, but wfese
manner sfe finds more and more repellent. Anselm presses fer to
consider conversion and ﬁe powerful position of a reble's wife, but
G’feetle is revolted:

'I wonld prefer being an humble Jewess amog my equals to

beingﬁeladyofaﬁnousandhapless slaves. Tfeseﬁnousand

serfs were net born to be ﬁe reble lady's footstool, as

littleindeedasﬁeJewwasset intoﬁeworldtobeﬁe

object of scorn and pity. My uncle taught me to be

beevclent to all, and govern noe' (re. 20, p. 153).
Angered, Annselm accuses Sturmbach of ruining ﬁeir plot by attacking
ﬁe Gfetto too early, and demands money, which Sturmbach will only pay
wfnen he gets "ﬁe Jewess re. 2," later adding David Raphael's corpse
aspartofﬁebargain. AnebinBacferachmeanwhileseekstofree
Raphael because ﬁe people need his medical skills, and fe is carried
off from prison "in a sort of triumphal procession."

Grateful for David having saved his wife, ﬁe sfeemaker reveals
ﬁnat it was Jofnnn from Basle, a Franciscan, wfe urged people to free

ﬁe doctor. 'I'fe sfeemaker praises Gfeetle and Sarah's charity to his

133

family--food, moey, cloﬁes--and David is net at all surprised by
ﬁeir kindness or by Sturmbach's plotting because "ﬁe eemies of ﬁe
Jews at all times were rude and feartless barbarians, or refined,
cunning and remorseless demagogues." Returning to ﬁe prison, after
"atteding faiﬁnfully to all ﬁe patients wfe had been waiting for
him," David urges a reward of 1000 ducats be offered by ﬁe Jews to
find ont wfese child was killed, since re oe can identify it. 'I'fe
Bisfep makes clear to David ﬁe power struggle between ﬁe city of
Frannkfort and ﬁe krnights wfe seek to curtail munnicipal rights: "ﬁe
Jews and ﬁeir wealﬁn were exposed to renorseless ruffianns to attain
ﬁe...extension of power." Tfe Bisfep also asks David if fe cen
determineﬁemannnerofﬁeinfant'sdeathardﬁenatureofﬁe
wounds, an idea suggested by Rabbi Abraham in a letter.

Because Gfeetle will net talk or eat, Annselm and Sturnmbach plan
to head off ﬁe rumered offer of 1000 ducats by forcibly baptizing
fer, marryingfertoHansandclaimingsfescughtboﬁn. Nooecann
controvert ﬁeir story, ﬁe Pater gloats: "ﬁey are Jews after all,
and we are Christians." Gneetle resists Hans' eloquent pleas "for a
brilliant future," feeling "intimidated, almost ferrified in his
preseee," declaring ﬁnat sfe will never feel joy again. Sfe is
unnswayed by Sturmbach's offer of ricfes, jewels, cloﬁes, prestige--
and himself:

'No more!‘ Gfeetle interrupted. Sfe rose and assumed ﬁe
attitude of a commanding and angry Goddess, fer pale creeks
colored; fereyesdartedforﬁnpeetrating locks. Likea
higfer being, ﬁe timorous maiden stood before ﬁe
astonisfed Hans. Sfe had lifted up fer right hand, and
commanded, in an alnest manly voice: 'No more!....I will

raﬁerdieaﬁeusanddeaﬁnsthanwedoeofﬁemurderers
of my lamented frieds....Many of yon have killed, murdered

134

in cold blood, slatghtered ﬁe innnecent Jews of Bacferach
and I sfeuld wed ﬁe C1nristian?....I hate ﬁe murderers of

my people!‘ (re. 22, p. 170)

SonghtinBacferachasﬁeinfant's murderer, ﬁeRabbiturnns
himself intoﬁeConrnt of Wurtemburg, netinanappealtojustice,
which"wasanappealtoﬁewindatﬁesedaysofrudeandbrutal
force," but to ﬁe Connnt's "knewn clemency." Tfe Conrnt eggests ﬁnat
ﬁe dead child can be "made" to speak its killer's name, ﬁnus clearing
ﬁe Rabbi. "Stories of this kind were told and believed by illiterate
men, and were used by persons of higfer standing...for ﬁe advantage
or disadvantage of ﬁe communnity." Schapper—Elle has meanwhile been
spreading honrly news about ﬁe wfele situation, wiﬁnort, fewever,
forcing on fer public "all ﬁe eermities of modern newspapers
begotten by ingenions feroes of ﬁe quill for electioeering

David's suggestion of a reward is dismissed by Bacferach's Jews
astoogreatasum, butyonngermeneagerly agreetoarnnﬁemselves in
defense againnst furﬁer ontrages. Tfe sfeemaker's son, Dumb William,
bringsalettertoFrankfortreportirgﬁnatonlytwoJews diedinﬁe
riotandSarahsedsbackalettertoDavidsharingfersuspicionsof
Sturmbach, and bids William observe ﬁe knnight and discover Geetle's
wfereabonts. Sturmbach ﬁnrasfes William for following him ﬁnrough ﬁe
streetsardispummeledandscratcfedsobadlyﬁnat all Bacferach
fears of it and assumes, because William is so peaceable, ﬁnat "ﬁe
knight must be guilty of some hideons crime." Fear of exposure pusfes
AnselmtosuggestﬁnatoefestageJewbetortnneduntilfeconfemes
killing ﬁe child: "One Jew burnt and ﬁe wfele matter is settled."

135

And because popular opinion is turnnirg towards ﬁe Jews, Sturmbach
mustmarryG'eetleandﬁenplaceferinaconventwferesfecannetbe
reacfed by ﬁe Jews.

ernn Hans offers to take Gfeetle to Bacferach for new cloﬁes,
sfeseesﬁnisasferonlycharceofescapirgﬁeimpregnablecastle
and planns to seek refuge wiﬁn relatives in Coblenz if sfe can flee.
In ﬁe guise of offering ﬁem a blessing of safe travel (and ﬁere is

such a blessing in Jewish tradition: tfilat ha-derech), Arnselm

 

marries ﬁem. Geetle has re comprefennsion of Latin and suspects
reﬁning. David is "stupified" and "crusfed" to fear that Geetle has
married ﬁe knight, wodering if sfe conld have been dazzled by
wealﬁn, position, and Hans' "beauties." Hans and Anselm are arrested
for kidnnapping by ﬁe Connt of Wurtemburg's guards, but Gfeetle is
innaccesible to ﬁe Jews in ﬁe convent of St. Ursula.

Gfeetle is as unnlike ﬁe ugly, mannish rnunns as "a lamb amog a
fend of wolves," but despite "ﬁe crosses, crucifixes, sculpﬁnres and
pictures of saints and patrons," sfe initially thinks ﬁnat sfe is in
some sort of "inn for travelling females." Overjoyed in ﬁe nerning
to view Bacferach from fer windows, sfe resists a call to ﬁe chapel:
"...I cannret pray with yon to ﬁe saints, patrons, or ﬁe mctfer of
God, I am a Jewess wfe prays to God only." Gfeetle denies being Hans'
wife or baptized as "oe wicked mass of falsefeod." Her growing
despair is conntered, fewever, by David's appearance with Faﬁer John
at night, disguised as a monk. David reveals his identity, and ﬁnat
heruncleandauntarealive, onlyafterbeingsureﬁnatsfehasbeen

deceived by Annselm and Sturmbach into believing him dead. John

136

promisestodowhatfecanforher.

While ﬁe Imperial judge and commissioer sent from Frankfort to
determine ﬁe fate of ﬁe twelve Jewish festages are at first tempted
to find ﬁem innnecent, fearing ﬁnat 100 ducats will be ﬁeirs, Annselm
protectshimselfardHans (wfehasbeenconfinedtohiscastle)by
telling ﬁe investigators more can be bilked from ﬁe Jews. While
David is cleared, ﬁe festages are net, and fe oce again
unsuccessfully presses for a reward to be offered. Because David is
atteding Sturmbach's ill moﬁer, Faﬁer Jofnrn urges him to appeal to
fer husband, but David knews ﬁnat ﬁnis knight wants to use ﬁe Jews
againnstﬁecityardrefuses. TfeBisfepinsistsGeetlemusthavea
fearing, at whichfeordersfertoremaininﬁeconvent forsix
monﬁns seeing only Jofnnn, wfe will be her "spiritual advisor," and a
physician (David, of conrse). Gfeetle's charm and renewed high
spirits are meanwhile making fer ﬁe convent's favorite, ﬁeugh ﬁne
Bisfep's decision displeases her.

TfeBisfep causes asensationbycodemnirgﬁemob, annreurcirg
ﬁnat fe had fonrd reﬁning objectionable in Rabbi Abraham's books, and
that an examinnation revealed ﬁe infant was dead two days before it
was fonrd, and wounded after its deaﬁn. All good Christians, he
declares, sfeuld seek ﬁe child's real murderers. Tfe imperial
representatives obtain a confession from oe of ﬁe Jewish festages
ﬁnrongh torture, but an old beggar claims he is ﬁe murderer,and is
ﬁnrown into prison. All this "unnnnatural excitement, " described to
Rabbi Abraham in a letter from David, brings him back to Bacferach

which is under curfew and patrolled by armed guards.

137

Tfe arrestedoldbeggarturnnsonttobeFaﬁerJohnindisguise,
andfeconfessesinﬁenextchaptertoaninveteratehatredofJews:
'ForyearsIﬁnirstedafteranopportunitytohmztﬁem, to
adnnirnister a crushing blow on ﬁeir feade...I was pregrnant
with evil a wfele lifetime wiﬁeut finding a proper place to
give birﬁn to it' (re. 29, p. 226).
John claims ﬁnat fe is behind every stage of ﬁe plot, ﬁeugh new fe
is repentent. When fe and David are aloe, fewever, Johrn swears him
to sileee and makes a secod, "real" confession ﬁnat reduces David to
tears. Jofnnn's reading of Jewish literature and history led him to
adnire:
'ﬁe fortitude, ﬁe neral conrage, ﬁe tenacity, ﬁe feoric
resignation, ﬁe indestructable confidece, ﬁe
uneoditional fidelity, ﬁe incomparable character which ﬁe
Hebrew people exhibited a ﬁeusand times in joy or
affliction, in spite of a wfele world given to prejudice,
superstition, ignerance and hatred. Thousand times I wept
fet tears over the misery and affliction of
Israel....Tfeusand times I ﬁeught of meanns to make
atonement for ﬁe wickedness of fnumanity' (re. 29, p. 226).
TfeonlywaytosaveBacharach's Jews, Jofnrn says, istodie forﬁem.
RumorsspreadﬁnatﬁeRabbi arrivedinBacferachon"ﬁechariot
of ﬁe storm" to speak to ﬁe dead child's spirit which accused its
realmurderers. EyewiﬁessestestifytoﬁestcryﬁnatDavidandﬁe
Rabbihavespread, ardclaimtohaveseenﬁetwoslainJews'gfests
at St. Ursula's. Terror results when St. Mary's picture disappears
from ﬁe convent and appears at ﬁe Jews' gravesites (William and his
faﬁer were responsible). David visits ﬁe "ill" Gfeetle at St.
Ursula's and hints at fer coming release while brave Sarah sets off
aloe after ﬁe Rabbi, "a dangerous enterprise in ﬁese days of
barbaroushabits," andHans andAneelmarearrested. Wiﬁnﬁetown

ablazeinrunersandreportsof"allsortsofdemonsandsigneinﬁe

138

streets," Hans and Annselm are sent off to Frarnkfort for befeading,
Jofnnn and ﬁe Jewish festages are released and G’reetle freed.

Order, law and security were restored and Master David Raphael
married Gfeetle. What more do yon want to knew? Dumb William
didnetlearrntospeak. Tfesfeemakerwasneunkrewnprince.
'I'feMonkJohnardﬁeBisfepwerenesecretJews. Tfereisre
romance in ﬁe anti-ronantic Rabbi of Bacferach, except ﬁnat
Master David Raphael married Gfeetle, and a fine wedding it was
(re. 32, p. 251).

Wise wrote in Reminisceces ﬁnat fe continnually strtggled againnst

 

writing works ﬁnat were "too sarcastic and satirical" (p. 333). If
that is true, feseemstohave lostﬁestruggleinﬁnisnevel wfere
fe sharply criticizes ﬁe government, politicians, jonrnnalists,
writers, women's shallowness and ﬁe very temper of ﬁe time. That
appears to be wfny he calls ﬁe book an "anti-romantic Romance," ﬁeugh
it might just as well be subtitled "Tfe Rabbi of Cincinnati" because
Wise's opinions are at least a ﬁnird of ﬁe revel's content, end
integral to its purpose.

Because so mucfnof ﬁe revel referstoﬁeAmericanCivil Waror
war-related coditions, it is worﬁn summarizing Wise's stance ontside
ofﬁenevel. HewasaPeaceDenecratopposedtoextreme
abolitionists end extreme secessionists. While net in favor of
slavery, fe'nenrersnnpporteditasareasonforgoingtowarwiﬁnﬁe
Sonﬁn," and was "ferrified at ﬁe ﬁnonght of a reopeed slave-trade"
(Kornn, p. 128). He hated Abolitionists for fonr geeral reasons:
ﬁey were fanatics breeding destruction; as ministers, many abused
ﬁeir office; ﬁey lacked coeern for oﬁer minerities; they songht to
make ﬁe United States a Christian nation. Wise supported war efforts

in a "mild fasfni ": his "interest in and sympaﬁny for sontfern Jewry

139

remained steadfast."

Wiseprotestedagainnst ﬁebanoncirculationofrewspapersto
ﬁe Sonﬁn and vigoronsly attacked ﬁe ontbreak of anti-Jewish libels
on boﬁn sides: "ﬁe war new raging has developed an intensity of
maliceﬁnatbordersuponﬁedarkestdaysofsuperstitionandﬁe
Spanish innquisition." Jews were accused of "draft-(bdging, ﬁe
purchase of officer commissions, war profiteering, bribery, smuggling
and black-marketing, speculation at ﬁe expense of ﬁe goverrnment, and
marry oﬁer types of fonl disloyalty" (Korn, p. 143). Wise publisfed
attacks to expose ﬁe falsity of ﬁese cfnarges, believing ﬁem to be a
"smoke-screen, to draw attention away from ﬁe activities of ﬁe
financiers, profiteers, incompetent and dishonest office-folders, and
bribe-taking politicians" (Korn, p. 145).

Ingeeral terms, Wise stroglyattacksﬁnrongfentﬁenevelﬁn
nature of man, wfnom fe accuses in Chapter III of spilling "nere blood
then tigers and hyenas drirnk." What causes such violeee? "Pharntasms
which ﬁey call hoer, patriotism, religion and justice...Selfish
interestsardbrutal passionsassumingﬁegarbof fairnesstodeceive
ﬁecryirgconsciece." Morebloodhasbeensfedsiree 1800, Wise
says, "than me any previous Gamay and-upmiwices.
superstitions, crimes and vices, live and sway a demtic scepter over
mankind." It is an age of "ﬁe nest disasterous rebellions"
ﬁnrougfnout Enrope and Asia, while in America, "ﬁe nest sanguinary
combat is raged, ﬁeusands of champions sanctify ﬁe soil wiﬁn ﬁeir
gore." Butﬁeworldisnetbyanymeansplurgedintoneurningover
this devastation-dummy and entertairnment are more popular ﬁnan ever:

140

'We are philosophers, we knew new to live and enjoy ﬁe
charms of life; we do net care for [a] nmndred ﬁeusand
slain persons annd legions of imprisoed festages. Three
deers for modern enlightenment and high-toed levity. If
weprcgressinﬁnis fineartaswedid, wewillchangeonr

custom. wnen a relative or friend dies, we will
dress him in costly attire, place him in a golden coffin in
ﬁecenterofahall, daneeandsingall nightanndbnryﬁe
deadinﬁen'eming. Thenﬁeopenhouse, ﬁevisitcrs, ﬁe
parties, picnics, excursions, all in state and gala, must
follow in regular routine of ﬁe b33333. We will cone so
far that good—natured fellows will hang ﬁemselves, Just to
give ﬁeir friends an occasion for festivities, exhibition
of dresses, Jewelries, carriages annd parlors. Hurrah for
progressandgreenbacks! Theyareﬁeunreedemable
redeemers of all ﬁe world, and ne Jew will crucify ﬁem'
(re. 24, p. 185).

Wise lambastes "speculators" and "contractors" end all wle profit
from ﬁe war many times in Bacherach, in passing end in some cases

specifically. Bacterach's burgomeister, for instannce, "after l'elding

 

his office for twenty years was net able to build as costly a private
residence" as Cincinnati's custons officer "after being in office oe
or two years." Politicians come unnder attack net only for being liars
annd corrupt, but boring as well. Journalists are re better. Tfey
will say alnest anything "for electioeering purposes" and overwfelm
ﬁeir readers wiﬁn tripe: "what Jeff Davis's coachman, an intelligent
contraband, a reliable gentlenan, an officer from ﬁe front, a lady
fugitive, a deserter or somebody else said, was going to say or net
Noeof Wise'sprevionsnarrativesisaspersonalcrpunctuated
bysomanyaddressestohis "fair"cr"kind" readeranndtrannsitions
annd coelusions like "Well ﬁen, having introduced to you ﬁe
principal actorsinourstory, youmustallowﬁemnewtodrcpﬁe
curtain, it being 3 PM." Initially ﬁese intrusions seems to slow

141 .

ﬁestorydcwn, orevensupersedeit, butﬁefurtheroereads, ﬁe
nere contemporary barbarism annd ﬁnat of fifteenﬁn century Bacterach
seemanalcgous, certainlyasJewsareconcerned. Inbothcases, ﬁey
areﬁevictims of ﬁepowerful wleuseﬁnenfcrﬁeirownends. In
Jewish tradition, Haman, ﬁe villain of ﬁe Purim story, is net just
an inndividual, but a type or symbol of all Jew-haters, all plotters
annd murderers. Wise in his own way is making a similar historical
connection, but his intent is also to focus on inndividual villainy
directedagainnstﬁeJews. 'Ihatisclearfromﬁeveryfirstchapter.
Wise has geerally stewn his priestly annd oﬁer villainns in relation
to Jewish characters, ﬁnat is, as seen by Jews or from a Jewish
perspective. But here, ﬁe reble Hans Sturmbach and Pater Anselm,
are center stage, preening, ckunken, vicious, hypocritical from ﬁe
first chapter.

This is Wise's first revel in which ﬁe villains appear before
ﬁelerces, andﬁeirplct is alsoﬁenestvicionsofﬁe'enemiesof
Israel," involving as it does net only a pogrom, but ﬁe abduction of
twp women, which later develops into ﬁe nere familiar forced
baptism--but stays surprising wiﬁn ﬁe marriage. Wise is also far
nere specific in creating Hans Sturmbach, wle is a dim-witted, single—
minnded, voluptuary, ﬁe vegeful and boastful representative of his
despicable class. And Jews are net ﬁe only oes terrified by
Christian persecution. Faﬁer John is Wise's most reble Christian
clnaracter, wle believes ﬁnat 1e must sacrifice his life in personal
atoement for ﬁe sins committed against ﬁe Jews. Reading of John's
growing love annd respect for Jewish teroism annd integrity, oe alnest

142

expecte him to seek conversionubut ﬁnat might have been too
"romantic" for this anti-Romantic revel.
If Christians are geerally nere barbaric in ﬁnis revel, nere
contemptuous of human life, ﬁey are also nere superstitions, annd
disgustingly so for David Raphael. When re first attends Geetle in
ﬁe convent, his light referees to a curative "magic spell" excites
ﬁe nuns wle eagerly press him for it. 'I'Ie townsfolk for ﬁeir part:
believe any runner that is spread with ﬁe kelp of a few gold coinns and
can quickly be manipulated into a frenzy of superstition, seeing
gtestsandvisioneverywnereﬁeylook. 'I'teneblesarejustbrutish
arnd ignerant, trading gfest stories over ﬁeir beer. Tie Jews in ﬁnis
nevelareabcvesuchnensenseanndevenabitreluctanttcplayonﬁe
townspeople's credulity, but it works, David has to admit, when "ﬁe
rabbi outpriests ﬁe pries . "
Wise is net just critical of Christian belief in ﬁe
supernnatural, his description of St. Ursula's nuns is highly
sarcastic:
Tfere was a group of nuns about [Geetle], some of which
covered ﬁe surplus of rear unnder a wide black cloak, oﬁers
pinned ﬁeir shawls right unnder ﬁe chin, to hide forty per
centpremiumofneckandﬁnreat, threecfﬁemhadfoureyes
net to see ﬁe vannities of ﬁe world, oe was sonewhat lame
annd traveled through ﬁnis vale of woe with ﬁe aid of a
crutch, annd ﬁe rest bore a strog similaritytobeardless
men...except ﬁese wne were actually blessed wiﬁn a
considerable portion of beard (re. 26, p. 201).

By comparison, of course, Gteetle, wle is very like oﬁer Wisean

heroines, isevennerecharmingandfresh, andsleisequallyas

rescluteindefyingﬁesewnetemptandoppressher. Wisecommends

Ierlneroicfidelitytoterfaiﬁn, butsteishisfirstreroinetobe

143

swayed by a villainn. "Hans was a fine specimen of a Teutonic

knigh " annd his cloﬁes are described in great detail, from ostrich-
plumed hat to "leavy silver spurs." Despite her love for ﬁe less
dramatic David, Gteetle's "eyes were governed by ﬁe geeral laws of
feminine vision, " which laws David suspects fer of obeying when re
briefly ﬁninnks sfe has married Hans freely.

In ﬁe same chapter describing Gteetle's weakness for a fine
figure annd beautiful cloﬁes, Wise expresses a deeper misogynism,
declaring ﬁnat for wonen, being aloe is "an impossibility end a
torment" ﬁnat leads to all sorts of frivolities, including reading
"ﬁne novels in ﬁe New York 'Weeklies,‘ because ﬁey can put up with
alnest any sort of company." Are ﬁe emphasis on cloﬁning, ﬁe
"explanations" of Jewish life, annd ﬁe occasional slighting refereees
to women's deficiencies a sign that Wise was nere directly appealing
toafemale audieeeﬁnanbeforenorﬁnatleresentedhavingtodosc?
After all, Gleetle may be Ieroic, but sne is net particularly bright,
lessso, infact, ﬁnanpreviousreroines. WhyelsewouldWisehave
ternetrealize ﬁnat ste was inaconventwlenﬁerealizationseems
so obvions and would actually Ieighten ﬁe situation, when rer net
malizing serves little dramatic function but only makes ler seem
somewhat dim? Why else bid his readers to nedel ﬁemselves after
Queen E‘sﬁer--wre was surely net a focl--and condemnn a contemporary
taste for entertainment that is an expression, primarily, of wonen's
activities?

Wise net only stews us Gteetle's frailties, but sate up aneﬁer

uedel: Sarah, wle is ﬁe most loving annd affectionate wife Wise has

144

created. Geerally what nelds Wise's sponses togeﬁer is ﬁeir
children, but ﬁe Rabbi andhis wife seembounndbyrespectandlove
ﬁet does net preclude teasing. Tfere are ecrees of Wise's own

relationship with his wife. Througlmt Reminisceees, Wise records

 

net having shared his troubles wiﬁn fer, to avoid causing rer grief.

In Bacherach, Sarah does net fully appreciate ﬁe depﬁns of ﬁe danger
steanndherhusbandhaveescaped, despiteﬁeirleadlogflighttoﬁe
river, until ﬁeyareinshul. SarahandAbraham arecousinns, aswere

Wise annd his wife, wle appears in Reminiscenees much like Sarah: an

 

ideal lelpmate. We do, newever, get past ﬁe image annd enter her
experience in a way that is unnusual for Wise's nevels. Sarah has a
strikingreverieassne floats dcwnﬁeRhinetoFrankfort, inwhich
ste remembers favorite fairytale figures, "stories of bewitcted
prineesses, singing trees, glass palaces annd golden bridges." Annd she
remembers her faﬁer on Shabbos, little Abraham slewing off his
knewledge of Torah, sharing Succoﬁn wiﬁn him, imagining terself ﬁenn
in Jerusalem's Temple court with fer faﬁer annd all Mr friends.
Ttere is a melannclely sweetness to ﬁe details that makes ﬁe

reverie intensely personal annd affecting. Women may be idle or too
easily swayed by appearannces like Gteetle, but ﬁey cann be as heroic
assteisinsubduingl-Iansbyherrnetoricandbearing, asQneen
Esﬁerisinsavinglerpeople, asSarahisinsettingoffafter
Abraham "wiﬁn a firmness, determination, conscioneess of stregth annd

pride," determined to "live or die wiﬁn her husband."

What sort of world is created in ﬁese eight nevels? Tle

145

Christian world is a cruel oe, despite instanees of kindness, even on

alargescaleasinFrankfcrtafterﬁefireinRomanee, Philosophy

 

and Cabalah. Annd there is soneﬁning barbaric, fannatical annd almost

 

crazed abont ﬁe relentless persecution Christians innflict on Jews.
Tleefforttoconvertﬁemseenslessanactof mercyﬁnannaformof
extermination. Throngteut ﬁe nevels, churchmen annd oﬁer villains
grownereandneremonstrons, culminatinginPaterAnselmand
Sturmbach wle coolly plan abduction, rape, murder as if it is ﬁeir
r_igm_ttodcso, agilitgednretien. PerhapsWise'spoint isjust
ﬁnat; in Europe, in Christian societies, Jews are coupleme at ﬁe
mercy of ﬁeir Crnristian masters annd ﬁe religions-political structure
inwhichﬁeyarealways atﬁebottcm. Ttenevelsthusseemstohave
asubtext: "ItisnetlikethisinAmerica, sobeﬁnannkful, ontbeon
guard, remember new we have suffered."

Countering literary traditions ﬁnat present a "predominanntly
unfavorable image of ﬁe Jew as ﬁe figure of ﬁe conning pawnnbrcker
or merchant" (Steinberg, p. 225), Wise's feroes annd reroines are
alnest unnfailingly reble, geerous, kinnd, annd brave. 'Iteir characters
are "presented in terms of an idealized anewer to implied derogation, "
(Steinberg, p. 267), counter-stereotypes, in oﬁer words. Jews are by
re means saintly, ﬁey have ﬁeir share of fools annd gossips like ﬁe
much-ﬁnrasned Marcus Later annd power-seekers like ﬁe Parnass in

The Sleemaker's Family wfe cause inndividual pain annd cogregational

 

strife, and are often superstitions annd religiously backward. Yet for
all ﬁese negative characteristics ﬁey are net as sunk in
backwardness annd superstition as ﬁe Christians, end ﬁey ultimately

146

have re power to deter ﬁe "better" Jews from ﬁeir paﬁns. At ﬁeir

nest "primitive," ﬁese miner Jewish characters areclcse to

Christians-~30 ﬁnat even ﬁeir failings seen a product of oppression.
Wiseat firstseemstccondennangerinresponsetoﬁnat

oppression. 0onpare, fcrinstanee,ﬁespyinTre0onvert, wreseens

 

driven, to ﬁe cooler Moses Baum. But by Tfe Wizard of ﬁe Forest,

 

seven years later, ﬁe Jewish Prioress is a reroine for having bided
her time annd ﬁen triumphed over all of Prague's nnuns annd priests.
Revegeinﬁnatnevelisverysweetinndeed. Asﬁeangergrowsfrom
nevel to revel, so does ﬁe focus on Christian villainy. Wise's first

villain, ﬁe Prior in The Convent, does net even appear until ﬁe

 

fonrﬁn chapter of ﬁe five—part nevel end is raﬁer shadowy compared

to Sturmbach annd Anselm in The Rabbi of Bacferach wle are riotonsly

 

central to that revel's first chapter annd delineated wiﬁn far nere
inndividual annd social detail.

Nothing proves ﬁe Jews' conrage annd integrity nere than ﬁeir
resistingintensepressuretoconvert. MosesBaumisﬁesolelero
wl'e gives up his religion (which 1e unnderstcod poorly anyway), even
temporarily. A11 ﬁe cﬁner major characters will defy imprisonment
anndterrorinwhat is almostatype—scee. Amonk, anEmpercr, a
priest or Minister connsels or ﬁnreatens, end a solitary Jew defies
ﬁe hypocrisy, ﬁe fear, the blanndishments. It is net stubbornness
that fuels ﬁe Jewish rejection of conversion, but neral annd eﬁnical
superiority: being right. A "conversion scene" appears at least oee

ifnotnereinalnestallofﬁenevels, and'I'neJewishHeroineisin

 

fact a series of variations on ﬁnat heroic ﬁeme. Not surprisingly,

147

Wise stews himself in Reminiscences as tempted to convert. Before

 

Wise's cogregational trouble in Albanny boiled over, Wise says New
York State's chief justice urged him to convert, which 1e conld do
wiﬁn "great pomp," annd be reborn "at ﬁe lead of a rich cogregation
which will consider itself fortunate in possessing such a prominent
apostate" (p. 119). While defeats have previonsly made Wise consider
oﬁer careers, like ﬁe law or medicine, conversion is ont of ﬁe
question:
'HadIbeenwillingtotakesuchastep, Iconldhavedoeit
in Austria, end to much better advantage [re replied]; but
IcametoAmericainordertobeabletoliveasafreeman
in accordanee with my convictions' (p. 119).
Itisasceewcrthyofoeofhisnevels, anndapagelaterWise
reminnds his readers ﬁnat with missionaries swarming through America in

1849, ﬁe Jews were a "relpless multitude."

CHAPTERFWR

FOR GD AND ISRAEL

In Reminiscences, Wise quite understanndably says a great deal

 

more about his three nevels set in Aneient Israel than his oﬁer
fiction. They are his logest works annd were apparently popular
enough for two to be reprinted in book form from ﬁe pages of

Tle Israelite (using ﬁe same plates): The Combat of ﬁe People

 

(1859) annd The First of the Maccabees (1860). Wise mentioed raising

 

subscriptions to ﬁe logest of ﬁe ﬁnrse, The Last Struggle of ﬁe
Na_t_i§ (see Appendix A), but it never saw independent publication,
perhaps because of its great legﬁn.

TleJewishpsople inﬁeseﬁnreenevels are annyﬁningbuta
"lelpless multitude" as ﬁey rise in rebellion against ﬁe Ronan and

Syrian Empires. Wise writes in Reminisceees ﬁnat le returned from a

 

trip to St. Lonis, Chicago annd Milwaukee in August 1856 wiﬁn sketcles
for ﬁese ﬁnres nevels. But ﬁe dramatic possibilities of ﬁess
subjectshadoccurredtohimasfarbackas1853. Inﬁeintroduction
to History of ﬁne Israelite Nation Wise refers to Israel‘s struggle
againnst foreign dominnation. First ﬁe "lion of Judah" rose to vannquish
Syrian amiss, ﬁnen it fonght Rone's "gigantic power" unntil ﬁe Jews
were "crusled, but net annnnihilated" (m, vi-vii). Annd as we have
seeninC’napterTwo, whenJudahGruenhutinRonance issent offto

war, leis innspirsdbyﬁeleroismofﬁeMaccabessandﬁedsfsnders

148

149

of Beﬁnan (i.e.: Bethar, Bar Kochba's last strogleld).

Wise saidﬁnathisaim inwritingﬁeseﬁnreenevslswas"to
familiarize ﬁe reading public with ﬁe brilliant periods of Jewish
historyinfictional form, inordsrtoappealbyﬁnismsanstoﬁe
growing yonth so as to awaken in ﬁem Jewish patriotism"
(Reminisceees, p. 332). In ﬁess periods, oppression against ﬁe

 

Jews that le treated elsewhere as an inndividual's or conmunity's
problen is here set on a national stage. Tle Jewish m figlnt
against being stripped of ﬁneir religions, cultural annd social identity.
Jewish characters in ﬁe nevels dramatize varions responses to ﬁe
overwlelming pressure at times of national crisis: outright

resistanes, neutrality, acconmodation, annd treaclery. Tle action is
thus net simply on ﬁe battlefields--ﬁe war lers is a continued

kulturkampf. Log history-crammed moelogues annd sslf- j ustifying

 

soliloquies seem at times to take ﬁe place of action, but are really
integral to it.
Because ﬁe plots are so complex ﬁey will be summarized more

geerally ﬁnan heretofore in ﬁe following discussions.

'I'le Last Struggl_e of the Nation, or Rabbi Akiba annd His Tine, A
Historical Novel fron the Second Century, by ﬁe Anerican Jewish
Novelist: August 22, 1856 ﬁeugh January 29, 1859, with many breaks.

Settﬂg' : 'I'le Gallilse annd Bar chlnba's leme of Bsﬁnar (placed by
Wise on ﬁe Mediterranean, ﬁnrongh contemporary sclelarship puts it 11
miles sonﬁnwest of Jerusalem), 132-135 Oomncn Era.

Themes: 'I‘le Jewish warriors are able to defeat ﬁe Romans net
simply ﬁnrough force of arms but because God is on ﬁeir side. Jews
arefarsupericrinjusticeandhumanitytoﬁebrutal Ronanns. Log
past any armed struggle or national Jewish state, ﬁe spirit of
Israe1--God's laws--wi11 live on in ﬁe world, carried by ﬁe Jews.

Characters: Rabbi Akiba, ﬁe era's greatest tsacler

Hannah, his daughter
Bar Kochba (Cochba in ﬁe text), "Messiah-prince

 

 

 

 

150

of Israel"

Abigail, his wife

Ruth, ﬁeir daughter (also: Beruriah)

Mair, brilliant student, in love wiﬁn Ruth

Elisha ben Abua (or: Acler), Traitor

Sanbslat, Samaritan warrior annd traitor

Tunis Rufus, Palestine's military connnander

Tunius Rufus, geeral, his broﬁer

Tfe successful revolt against Ronan rule ledbySimonBarKochba

("son of ﬁe star") in 132 C.E. establisled an independent state for
two years. Its catastrophic deniss bronght over half a million Jewish
deaﬁns, Hadrian's prohibition of Judaism annd ﬁe banning of Jews fron
Jerusalen, wlese Tenple site was plowed unnder. Torah study was
forbidden annd punnishable by deaﬁn, annd "Judea lay in ruins, its
population alnest annnnihilated by ﬁe war annd wlelssals enslavsment
which followed" (47). This profonnnd catastropl'e marked a shift from

armed struggle to coeentrating on ﬁe spiritual survival of Judaism.

Bar Kochba, a gigantic, brave annd wise warrior, "ﬁe terror of
his enemies" is proclaimed Messiah by Rabbi Akiba at a secret
gaﬁering of Israel's sages, wle swear allegiance to ﬁe rebellion.
Because Akiba is ﬁe connntry's greatest tsacler, his proclamation is
electrifying. Akiba goes on to enflame crowds against ﬁe Ronanns by
reminnding ﬁem of Rone's recent bloodcurdling atrocities againet ﬁe
Jews participating in ﬁe Diapsora revolts of 112-115, annd ﬁe
Emperor's broken pronise to rebuild ﬁe Temple.

In ﬁe first battle, Akiba's wife Abigail, in men's cloﬁning annd
armor, is victorions annd becomes a commander. Not all voices and arms

are raised against Rona, lewever. Rabbi Elisha ben Abua lelds ﬁnat

151

ﬁe "earﬁn is given to Rome...ne nation can successfully resist ﬁeir

power." Mair, a pupil of his and Akiba's agrees. A brilliannt sclelar

in Latin annd Greek as well as in Torah, Mair cannret figlnt:
‘Israel's nationality is lost, ﬁe Ronanns have dissolved it.
Our spiritual treasures only are onrs, only ﬁess we can
save. If you fight, ﬁeusannds and miriads [sic] will be
killed, oﬁers made miserable; but yon cannet save ﬁe
nationality of Israel' (vol. III, ne. 8, p. 58).
'God entrusted to onr care ﬁe law, His sacred will, end
gave a lannd to or forefaﬁers, ﬁnat we should study ﬁe
law, appreciate it, and go forth annd teach it to ﬁe world.
'I'letimehascone forustogofcrﬁnandteachﬁe
idolatrcus nations ﬁe words of onr God; we needed [sic] ne
logsr a home and aparticular conntry; we shonldgo forﬁn
to make ﬁe world onr leme, gain mankind for onr sacred
treasures' (no. 12, p. 89).

Such views make Bar Kochba refuse Mair as Ruth's suitor. Tle two
lovers swear an oaﬁn of fidelity annyway, and Ruﬁn frees Mair when ﬁe
rebels place him unnder protective custody. Taken prisoer by ﬁe
Ronanns, Mair faces Geeral Tunis Rufus like an angry proplet, urging
ﬁeRonanstoabandonﬁeattempttccrushIsrael. Romewill winin
any case, so clemency new would create good feeling amog ﬁe Jews
raﬁer than deepen ﬁeir hatred of ﬁe Ronanns. Mair's pride,
rebility, descent from Nero end his perfect Latin make ﬁe geeral
want to take him to Rome as his scribe, but Mair refuses.

AlsoinﬁeRomancampisoechair'stsaclers, Elishaben
Abua, wle has becone a traitor. 'Ile Jews call ﬁe Rabbi "Acler"
("oﬁer") in signn of his treaclery. Ben Abua's great love for Mair
will bring even more suspicion on ﬁe student's lead. Though Mair
setsfiretoﬁeRonantentsduringaJewish attack, turningﬁetids
of battle, le is still suspected by ﬁe Jews for his stannd againnst ﬁe

rebellion, and sent off to an ascetic sect in ﬁe Galilee after

152

eloquently asserting ﬁnat Rone "cannret be defeated in its present
zeniﬁnofpower" andﬁnat"ﬁereismoreleroisminforhearanesﬁnan
inwarfare," evenwarnning against ﬁe restoration of ﬁe nmarchy.

Mair at first finnds some confort in ﬁe wilderness life of dennial
anndspiritual studyandstrivingpracticedbyﬁeascstics. His joy
in ﬁe monntain folks' simplicity turns to ecstasy wlnen Ruﬁn reacles
himﬁersanddreamsofﬁemjoiningﬁesleplerdsandsleplerdssses.
"In ﬁe enbrace of Ruﬁn ﬁere was for Mair a world wiﬁnout cares, life
wiﬁeut tronble, and joy, pure annd unnadulterated."

Defending himself against charges of treaclery to ﬁe victorions
BarKochba, Mairentreatsandﬁenordersﬁegeneralnettosuccumb
to ﬁe seductions of power annd becone Israel‘s ruler. Mair rises to
ﬁe leights of oratory in ﬁnis confrontation, proplesying national
disaster despite ﬁe present success:

'Beleld! before my eye, ﬁe future of Israel stannds black
wiﬁn monrning annd affliction; its garments spotted wiﬁn ﬁe
blood of onr slain lerces....I beleld ﬁe Roman triumphing
malicionsly over ﬁe daughter of Zion; beleld le crusles lner
scull [sic] here, ﬁers 1e fetters her arms, chainns ler
feet, drags ler into ﬁe land of woe annd misery. Wo! wo!
sleblesds fromaﬁeusanndwonnnds; wo! wo! slesigleand
suffersinvain, herstregthisbroken, ﬁepaleessof
deaﬁn disfigures her conntenanee, ﬁe heart is sore....Wo!
wol' (no. 43, p. 338).

After two years of inndependeee, ﬁe new Jewish state faces ﬁe
amassingofRomanarmies from all overI-hnropeanndbeyondﬁe
Euphrates. Thongh ﬁe first battle is won by Mair's friend Bar Drona,
ﬁe odds are terrible. Mair has meanwhile rejected ﬁe mystical
doctrines of ﬁe ascetic sect wiﬁnont raneor, but still will net

fight. His visions of disaster inntensify, but le beginns to see much

153

more clearly ﬁnat Israel will survive:
'Provideee, kind annd benign, has clesen [us] to promulgate
ﬁe doctrine of salvation amog all nations annd togues, annd
ne earﬁnly power can set at naught ﬁe conneils [sic] of ﬁe
A1mighty....Israel's nationality is ﬁe mere enbsllishment
of its mission; ﬁe slell of ﬁe kernel....'Ihis inleritanee
will unndermine ﬁe altar of ﬁe leaﬁnens, will overthrow
ﬁeir Gods and ﬁeir tenplss. On ﬁe shattered fragments of
idols and imperial ﬁnroes Israel's divine banner will float
inﬁeair, anndinnviteﬁenationstofraternizeinﬁe
light of truth, unnder ﬁe protective wings of justice,
before the eternal ch' (vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 1-2).

Overleard uttering such sentiments near a mass meeting, Mair is
publicly accused of treason annd almost stoed to deaﬁn, but Rabbi
AkibasavssMairandsendshimbacktoﬁeGalilee. Captursdby
Ronanns oes again, Mair impresses ﬁe Proconsul, Tunius Rufus, with
his bearing and becomes part of his houseeld. Mair will tutor
Rufus's daughter Domitilla in "ﬁe language, history, religion,
custons annd usages" of ﬁe Jews because sle has "a particular reason
to desire after ﬁnat knewledge." Mair discovers Donitilla is actually
his sister, annd ﬁey flee ﬁe Ronan camp for ﬁe monntains.

Donitilla explainns ﬁere ﬁnat sle learned to see ler faﬁer as cruel
because "his gods are revegeful, despotic annd mercilessl":
'[Mair] convinesd me of ﬁe folly annd crime of Ronann
paganism, tauglnt me ﬁe beauties of virtue, pnrity annd
piety, caused me to condemnn all ﬁnat is low, vicions, vulgar
or impions' (re. 10, p. 57).

BarKochbaisstill innspiredbyacauseﬁnatis largerﬁnanﬁnat
of ﬁe Jews. Israel's victory over Roms will avegs "ﬁe bloody
wrongs Rome has inflicted upon innnecent and liberty-loving nations."
Realizing that military defeat is certain, Akiba gaﬁers Israel's
greatest teaclers annd students to plan ﬁe nation's spiritual

survival. 'I'oguardagainstﬁecomingdisaster,Akibaurgeswider

154

transmission of Judaism's sacred writings annd ﬁe ordinnation of more
rabbis: "'IleLightmustbeputintoalantsrn, anndﬁnismustbe
enveloped into a thick cloak...that it be not quench " (no. 18, p.
97). Mair's responsibility inn ﬁese lneroic efforts is to "abstract
from ﬁe existing traditions annd ﬁe manuscripts, ﬁe geeral ﬁeories
of [Israel's religions] laws annd usages."

Mair objects to any continued military struggle-"let ﬁe
blocdsled be stoppsd"--but Akiba, wle respects Mair's "tremendous annd
truﬁnful onens," enplains ﬁnat ﬁe Jews cannnnot be convinesd to give up
Lnntilﬁneyaredefeated. CaptursdbyﬁeRonannsafterprayingfcrﬁe
last time at ﬁe Temple ruinns, Akiba is forced to watch as six great
rabbis are brutally executed annd re faces his own terrible death
calmly. Mair is exhalted to tear ﬁnat Akiba's last words were ﬁe
Shena ("Hear, 0 Israel ...").

Through conplicatsd plots, ﬁe Samaritan Sanbslat (oes Bar
Kochba's steward) has made ﬁe Msssiah-prines suspect Abigail, Ruﬁn,
annd Beﬁnar's spiritual leader, Rabbi Eliezsr, of ﬁesclery. Bar
Kochba kills ﬁe Rabbi, and ﬁe disease—ridden, famine-reduced
garrisontakesthisasaterribleonenbscaussEliezsrhadbeconsa
talismanic figure of lepe for ﬁe troops. In flames annd great
slaughter, ﬁe weakeed city falls, annd Bar Kochba and Abigail dis
amidﬁegeeraldestruction. TakenprisoerbyﬁeRomans, Ruﬁn
kills Sanbslatanndisgiventoﬁeslavetraders. SleissavedbyBar
DronapretendingtobsaGrsekandreunitsd with MairinnﬁeGalilee,
Israel's least devastated region. Mair will becone ﬁe "most
celebrated sage of his time" (all annonymous opinions in ﬁe Mishnah

155

arsattributsdtoﬁnisgreatpreaclerofﬁesscondcenbnry) anndhis
wife will be renewed for her learning as well. Amid ineoeeivable
disaster, ﬁere is triumnin, Mair sees:

Israel is free, and ne chains can enslave it. Israel is

free...and goes forth to redsen mannkinnd, to bring to all
truﬁn, justice, liberty annd love (re. 30, p. 33).

ms is Wise's logest annd most ambitions nevel, giving him
unparalleled scope for developing new annd familiar ﬁemes. Gee
again, ﬁe Jews are far superior to ﬁeir eemies, ﬁe Ronanns in ﬁnis
case. Rabbi Gruenlnut's faiﬁn in God's intervention (in Ronaree) lere
beconesﬁeurgentandsustainingfaiﬁnofanentirepsople. Whatis
new is ﬁe persistent message of Israel's glorions mission in ﬁe
world end the propletic voice with which Mair articulates ﬁnat
vision.

Tle Jews had good cause to hate ﬁe nation ﬁnat had controlled or
occupied ﬁeir land for two centuries. 'I‘le Ronanns dsfiled and ruined
ﬁe Tenple and dsspoilsd ﬁe comtryside. They glorified war, a value
conpletsly inimical to ﬁe Jewish tradition. Annd "Ronann culture was
disfigured by degrading slavery, infanticide, lnumann sacrifice,
judicial torture, cruelty to animals-~features which had been banisled
fronn Jewish culture" (48). Thronghout ﬁe nevel, ﬁe Ronanns are
invidionsly conpared to ﬁe Jews.

Oaﬁnsplayanimportantpartinﬁnatconparison. Earlyinﬁe
book, after Bar Kochba is displeased by Mair's refusal to fight ﬁe
Ronanns (quoted above), ﬁe warrior innvolves his daughter Ruﬁn in an

oaﬁn. Prior to ﬁe battle to onst Beﬁnar's Roman garrison, Bar Kochba

156

vows ﬁnat Ruﬁn will marry ﬁe day's greatest lero. His wife Abigail
takesﬁnathoer, arndsoBarKochbasettlesonﬁenextbravest
warrior wle is unfortunately in love wiﬁn aneﬁer woman annd declines.
Tle oaﬁn will cause Bar Kochba, his wife annd daughter a great misery,
but he will net go back on his word--as a man, a Jew, end a priree.

To most Ronanns, lewsver, an oath is judged merely by sxpsdieey.
EmperorHadrianabsolves twoRomancommarnders wl'e swore inatrnesret
to reenter ﬁe field against ﬁe Israelites. 'I're oaﬁn may have saved
ﬁeir lives, but it is irnvalid, because Hadrian declares it so.

Arabbi accusesﬁeRomansofhaving"nocharacter, re
prineiples, and re geerosity," annd ﬁnat condemnation sclees ﬁnrogh
ﬁe revel. Bar Kochba deeunees "a haughty, avaricions and despotic
Rome, wle knews neiﬁer justice, boner, ner humanity." Defeating
such a base eemy will be a triumpln for all "innnecent arnd liberty-
loving nations." Compared to Jewish laws which are "ﬁe rays from ﬁe
light of justice," Roman laws "are compacts of convsniees, arnd
dictations of Power" ﬁnat beefit only ﬁe patrician class.

Nowlere is ﬁe differeee between ﬁe two people clearer ﬁnan in
ﬁeir treatment of prisoners-of—war, wlem ﬁe Romanns rontinely
slauglnter by ﬁe ﬁncusarnds. A Jewish commander is driven wild by ﬁnis
butchery:

'We [ﬁe Israelites] have treated onr prisoers wiﬁn
justice, kindness and humanity; we never use onr swords
against ﬁe defenseless: but ﬁney...have re pity for ﬁe
learylead, nemercyforﬁefseble, nerespsctforﬁe
great and excellent, in ﬁeir estimation we are all dogs,
wild beasts wle must be hunted down, frogs, mice arnd

serpants [sic], which must be trampled upon' (vol. 4, re.
23, p. 177).

157

When Bar Kochba releases some prisoers le declares (sonewhat
wistfully) "Let [ﬁem] gobacktoﬁeirhomesandsayﬁeyfonnda
just end humane people." Israel is ﬁe work of God, "annd Rome stannds
onﬁepowercfﬁesverd,"AkibatellsﬁeRomanProconsul.

Tle nevel is net so claustroplebic as to omit ﬁe Romanns' views
of ﬁeir Israelite foes. Jewish resistance strikes ﬁe Ronanns as
foolish end pernicions, and ﬁeir religions defiaree curions to ﬁe
point of being maddening. 'I'le cultural disparities offer oe anmusirg
eeonnter. Tunnius Rufus's spoiled daughter Domitilla sulkily nags lner
faﬁer to let her see a captured Jew (Mair) because "it wonld be a
shame for me [to] return to Rome wiﬁnout having seen ﬁe different
racesofﬁebarbariarns." AndRufus is astonisledtolearﬁnatﬁe
Jews are led annd innspirsd by a woman: Akiba. "If he is a man why is
1e net called Akibus, like a man?"

Thatisoeofﬁe few comictonclesinabockwlessdsfiantand
monrnful toe is set in Akiba's chilling inndictment of Ronann
slauglntsr, rape, annd ireaclery ﬁnat spans two chapters. His catalogue
of "diabolical crimes...Satanic atrocity" is obvionsly in part a

history lesson for readers of 'Ile Israelite, but it also ably serves

 

as a breaﬁntaking call to arms. Tle Israelites did net join in ﬁe
Diaspora rebellions Akiba refers to. Scholars leld ﬁnat Bar Koclea's
messianic war enjoyed massive national support because ﬁe Jews
ﬁncught that ﬁe biblical paradigm of sin, punishment, destruction,
suffering, atoement and reconciliation was abont to be fulfilled by
victory over Rome (49).

Mairdcesnotsharsthisvisionandhismonntingdespairisﬁe

158

revel's most gripping motif. At first Mair's donbts abont Jewish
triumpharesseninﬁecontextofhisloveforRuﬁn. Hecannnet
amroach ler faﬁer because of his dissident views arnd Bar Kochba does
indeedrejecthim. ButasﬁerevelprogressesMair'swcsﬁanscends
his inndividual fats. Criticized annd suspected by all but ﬁe ascetic
Jews wle slelters him, Mair flirts wiﬁn wiﬁndrawal from active life.
'Ihavebutoelepe, oeetoco-operatewiﬁnmybreﬁnrenin
maintaining annd preserving ﬁe sacred innleritanes of Israel,
arndincarryingont its divine missionamogﬁenationson
Earth, as God promised our faﬁer Abraham, "And ﬁere slell
be blessed ﬁnrough ﬁes all ﬁe families of ﬁe earﬁn'" (re.
24, p. 180).
No oe believes ﬁnat failure is possible even ﬁnough ”ﬁe Jews were
unnrealistic to dream of freeing ﬁenmselves from ﬁe all-powerful Roman
war—machine" (Maccoby, p. 53) end Mair's leps is for a log tinme a
solitary vision.
BarKochbaisconvireedﬁnat"Durirgﬁetwocenturiesofour
struggle againnst ﬁe Roman beast of prey, we never occupied a position
more favorable ﬁnan we do new"--but 1e is clearly wrong when Jerusalem
is retaken arnd Mair, wiﬁn "so manny annd so ardent friends anmog all
classes of Jews, " is gruesomely right. Unfortunately, until Rabbi
Akiba gaﬁers ﬁe nations' great sclelars annd rabbis to plan spiritual
survival, Mair is just a voice crying in ﬁe wilderness, overwlelmed,
grief—stricken by ﬁe darkness of his own visions, which have ﬁe

flavor of Lamentations. Like proplets before him, Mair is unnafraid of

 

ﬁepowerfulandcanimpressbothBarKochbaandRomangeeralswiﬁn

his deep-felt eloqueee.
Mair is clearly Wise's spokesman in the book. While this sage is

159

commonly referred to as "Meir" elsewlere, Wise spells ﬁe name wiﬁn an
"a" which makes it nere closely resemble his own middle name, Mayer.
Mair's vision of Israel's mission in ﬁe world is also Wise's. Mair's
metapler of kernel vs. husk was a starndard oe wiﬁn advocates of
Reform Judaism. It referred to ﬁe "orien " manifestations of
Judaism Reformers felt obscured Judaism's core of ideals. Oﬁer
charactersinﬁereveluseﬁemetaplerof kernel arndhuskbsfcre
Mair transmutes it into a more exhalted image at ﬁe revel's end.
Lamenting ﬁe ineoeeivable destruction annd devastation, Mair vaunnts
Israel's urnrivalled stannd against Rome annd bursts into an inspired
vision of Israel's ultimate triumph: "Tle body fell," le exclaims
again and again, but "ﬁe spirit is free!"

Mair's dissent ﬁnrough ﬁe book is leroic, annd despite his
monrntirg despair, his Latin lsarnning, annd his descent from Nero, le
neverevenconsidersgoingovertoﬁeRomsnside. TunisRufus's
offertotakehimtoRomeasascribeisreminiscentofallﬁe
seduction-conversion scees in Wise's fiction, annd Mair's response is
typical:

'Neverl'Mairroared; 'Icarnretserveﬁeeemyofmy
people. Here I starnd before yon chained, miserable,
wretcled, end I am but ﬁe meanest son of my nation--yst
lear it, Roman Proconsul....Tleu art ﬁe eemy of my people,
ﬁe fiend of justice annd equity: kill me, but I cannret
serve ﬁee' (vol. 3, re. 15, p. 114).

Heroism is by re means limited to ﬁe men in m, rietorical
or martial. In battle, Abigail's sword "fell reavy and destructive
uponﬁeenemies, [and] struckpanicintoﬁeheartsofﬁebravest,
arnd ﬁey fled on perceiving ler." Her gentle loving daughter, Ruﬁn, wle
logs for ﬁe life of a peaceful sleplerdess in ﬁe monntains, is re

160

less valiannt ﬁnan ler moﬁer in ﬁe siege of Beﬁnar. Her bravery
excites "ﬁe admiration of ﬁe warriors" annd remarkable deeds are
performed by women and men. But SMle's women defend ﬁenmsslves
moreoftenagainstrapsthananyoﬁerdargerorassault. Inawelter
of subplots, Akiba's daughter Hannnnah is pursued by ﬁe traitorons and
ugly Elisha ben Abua wle twice tries to rape ler. Leah, a

warrior's wife, lelds off a roomful of drunnken, lustful Roman soldiers
with a sword, and Ruth kills ﬁe Samaritan traitor Sannbslat when l'e
finally gets ler in his clutcles near ﬁe end of ﬁe revel.

Raps is also a national humiliation. Rabbi Akiba brings it up
constantly in his dernuneiation of Roman barbarity. Annd indeed Tunnis
Rufus ﬁnreatens Abigail wiﬁn rape wlnen sle is his prisoer at oe
point:

"Thou shalt pay for ﬁe outragsons conduct of ﬁny
husband....I will as soon as ﬁe attack is over, expose ﬁes
toﬁelustsofﬁesoldierswleshallabussﬁesaslogas
a spark of life animates ﬁny frame; ﬁen I will send ﬁny
naked body to ﬁe slave, wlem ﬁeu callest ﬁny husbannd'
(vol. 3, no. 28, p. 213).
Raps is more than oes ﬁe expression of Mair's worst fears for Ruﬁn
when ﬁey are separated: "Yesterday ﬁe favorite of leross, a leroine
herself, to day [sic] a slave wiﬁnout volition, subject probably to
ﬁe brutal propensities of a voluptuous master." Wiﬁn ﬁnis piling up
of fears, attemptsdrapesonallﬁeleroinss(andevenoeyonng
Jewish spy disguised as a woman!), and denunnciation of past
violations, raps becomes a terrible metapfer for ﬁe fate of Israel,
which is consistently called "ﬁe daughter of Zion." Mair's

proplecies are steeped in ﬁe language of violation annd ﬁe situation

161

ofvioleesandcoercionWisehascreatedinoﬁernevelsgains anew
magnitude and power here.

Perhaps to balares ﬁe violeee, love assumes nere importares
ﬁnan in previons nnovels. 'Ilers are several romantic conples annd Mair
arnd Ruﬁn's love especially is snnronnded by elements of ﬁe pastoral:
warbling birds, sheplerds and sheplerdesses, little lambs. All ﬁe
lovely women are described as having "fairy forms" and fairy is ﬁe
consistent adjective to describe anything sweet, delightful, or
feminine. Ruﬁn lerself is ﬁe apoﬁeosis of grace: "Wiﬁn ﬁe
swiftness of a youﬁnful gazelle ﬁe fairy form moved reiselessly
ﬁnrongh ﬁe winding walks, her feet tonching but slightly ﬁe leaves
onﬁeground." Inabrief introductiontoﬁenevel (sssAppedixA)
Wisenetsdit wonld net onlyprssent greatcharactersfromhistcryarnd
do ﬁem justice, but also "romantic occurreees and high-minded
females." "'I'le ladies" were ﬁerefore bidden to prepare ﬁemsslves
"for a grand fete...a characteristic novel."

Tle nevel is indeed characteristic of Wise, wiﬁn marny familiar elements.
Tley inelude misunderstanding parents; separated lovers: snarling
villains; secret passages; drugging: hidden identities (a lelpful
sheplerd is discovered to be Mair's grandfaﬁer, for instanee); and
disguised identities--men as women, women as men, Jews as Greets. But
all ﬁese elements are subordinnated to ﬁe revel's emotional and
ﬁennatic richness, and seem less contrived than elsswlers in Wise's
fiction.

Abraham Steinberg mistakenly calls We log and drawn-ant.

Tle revel's weakness is net its legﬁn but its language. Tlee's and

162

ﬁeu's clutter ﬁe dialogue, occasionally producing togue-twisters
like "'I’rnou better bridlest ﬁny infarmons togus, and innsultsst net
ﬁese men." Perhaps because ﬁey are great historical figures, many
ofﬁeclnaractersspsakabontﬁemselvssinﬁeﬁnirdpsrsonand
addressoﬁersﬁnatway. HereisoeofBarKochba'srebukestohis
wife:

'Abigail, ﬁe ambitions and leroic wife of Bar Cochba, is
unnhappy. He has realized all ler wisles, has slain ﬁe
eemy, avegedﬁebloodofleraneestorsonoverhsaring
Rome, elevated ler to ﬁe pinnnacle of glory and boner, to
ﬁneleadofafreeardgreatnation, yetsleisunhappy'
(vol. 3, re. 38, p. 298).

In a revel attempting to humanize great military and religions figures
of an age wiﬁnout its Josephus, such language tends to distares ﬁese

characters from ﬁe reader--as if ﬁney were memorializing ﬁnensslves

asﬁeyspoke.

Tfe Combat of ﬁe People: 0r Hillel arnd Herod. A Historical
Romance of ﬁe time of Herod I. By ﬁe American Jewish Novelist:
September 17, 1858 to April 22, 1859 (50).

Setting: Herod's conrt at Jerusalem, Jericle.

Themes: Tle Jewish people cannet log conrntenanee Roman-backed
injusticsandtyranny. Dutyandhoerareimportanttoallreal Jews.

Characters: Hillel, ﬁe era's greatest sage, Pharises reted

for his lenient interpretations of Torah
Simon, his son (alias Aurion, Essee physiciann)
Herod, Rone's client-king of Israel
Sabion, his Sadducss nninnister
Helen, Sabion's daughter, in love wiﬁn Sinon
Marianne, Herod's Queen
Salome, Herod's sister
Alexandra, ler neﬁer
Shamai, sags reted for strict Torah
interpretations, Hillel's Sadducss "ri "

 

 

 

 

This revel's plot is perhaps Wise's nest convoluted and difficult

to decipler. It is linked first to international tensions and

163

scleming innvolving Rome and Egypt (which controls Jericle in ﬁe
revel). Herod's conrt is a tangle of intrigues ﬁnat involve
assassination attempts, poisonings, abductions, attempted raps, false
conversions, coeealed identities. Tle national context is "hatred
and bitterness" between pro-Herodian Sadducees, wle ﬁnought ﬁey were
"acting in ﬁe best interests of ﬁe Jewish people," and ﬁe
Pharisees.

At a time when "Blood, assassination and violees cry from
every corner" of Israel, plots are afoot to rise up againnst Herod's
rule. Simon ben Hillel is part of ﬁe secret group, Sons of ﬁe
Servants of Solomon, ﬁnat meets in a hidden chamber under ﬁe
Temple. He has vowed to kill ﬁe vicions Sabion (a leader of ﬁe
Saduccess wle have sworn allegiance to Herod), wle is served by a
"ruthless and reckless band of spies and assassins." But le is
also in love with Sabion's daughter, wle swears to die or prevent
the murder of ler faﬁner.

Despite ﬁe pressure to revolt, Hillel, "ﬁe man of a ﬁeusand
virtues," first conreels restraint:

'Monrn over ﬁe dead, console ﬁe bereft parents, and return
each to his house, God will judge and punnish ﬁe guilty.
Wait, my people, wait patiently unntil ﬁe day of divine
vegearescomes, ﬁnenﬁewicksdwillbspunisled, anndﬁe
righteons will be triumphant' (p. 34).
Shanmai, "ﬁe mighty antagonist of Hillel and his scleol," also
connsels againnst violence, despite Herod's cruelty because Herod has
maintained peace for Israel, which is beginnnning to prosper againn.
WorshipgoesoninﬁeTemple, andsagesarefrestoteachianricle,

ﬁerefors Shamai urges "Let every political ambition slumber...ard

164

let us wait patiently for ﬁe lelp of God. "
ButatameetingofﬁeSanledrininJericle(Herodhasapuppet

Sanledrin backing him up in Jerusalem), Hillel changes his mind. He
becomes ontraged cataloguing Herod's crimes against ﬁe law, his
murders, and his attempts to Hellenize Israel: "I see deaﬁn, blood,
destruction." Hillel's son Simon tries to avert bloodsled by gaining
accesstoHerod'sconrt, disguisedasanFsseephysician. Herodis
impressed with "ﬁe exquisite beauty of ﬁe yonng man, his open, manly
and intelligent conrntenanee, his firm and peetrating look, and his
prod and firm bear ." Simon (alias Aurion) beginns a oe-man
campaignn to urge Herod to ease ﬁe Israelites' suffering--his weapon
will be unrelenting truﬁn. His faﬁer does net approve of ﬁe
deception, lewsver reble its purpose:

'Disguise andcurnningareﬁecrutclesofbaseessonwhich

ﬁe vile man, for a while, passes throngh ﬁe world, until

ﬁeybreak, andleliesprostratedinﬁedust. Butvirtue

makesreuseofﬁesecrutcles, nercanﬁemanwiﬁnsonnd
limbs advantageonsly handle ﬁe support of ﬁe lame....Cast

awayﬁedisguiseardﬁemask' (p. 77).
Hillel predicts that Simon's attempt to save Israel by "saving" Herod
will fail, but Simon cannet turn back from his mission.

Herod is attracted to Simon's lnoesty, but resists attributing
any reble qualities to ﬁe people le rules: "This treaclerons and
malignnant race must be ruled with an iron hand. Blood and terror only
canbedﬁeirproudnecksandmakeﬁemsubmittolawandcrdsr."
Herodis movedeeughbySimon—Aurionto sedﬁeyorﬁntodistribute
alms after a devastating earﬁnquake, but re oe can believe Herod
conld be ﬁnat kind, and anti-Herodian feeling paradoxically spreads

with ﬁe charity.

165

Tle rebels demand ﬁnat Herod exile his sycoplnants and spies,
establish a new and truly indepedent Sannleﬁin wiﬁn Hillel at its
lead, and permit freedom of speech, writing and expression. Herod is
ticked into believing ﬁe ex-king Hyrcan, deaf and doddsring, is a
ﬁnreattohisreign, andhasﬁeSanledrintryHyrcanonpsrjured
testimonyardorderhisexecution. 'I'hisactsparksﬁerevoltﬁnat

forces Herod from Jerusalem on Passover.

Tle revel bears some geeral resemblanes to Sm
particularly in its central contrast of Romans (and Ronanizsd Jews)
with Jews. As a client-king of Rome's, Herod was hanmstrung by having
tokeep'hiskingdomingoodorderandloyal toRome," aswell as
"ready to repulse any attacks from Rome's eemies on ﬁe borders of
ﬁe Empire" (Maccoby, p. 31). 'I'hcugh le rebuilt ﬁe Temple, making it
oe of ﬁe wonders of ﬁe world, and champioed Judaism's antiquity
andpurity, lewasnotHerodﬁeGreatbutHerodﬁeWickedtoﬁe
Jews. Tleyhatsdhim formurderingsomanyprominent sages and
members of ﬁe Hamsoean dyrnasty; for his ubiquitous spies; his
Hellenizing; his ecoemic favoritism of pagan over Jewish towns in
Israel. Herod's misrule is ﬁe main cause of Jewish rebellion in a
conntry overwlelmed by duplicity and wickedness. In a brief respite
fromﬁecorruprtandconfusirgconrt, Simonisstruckbyhisconntry's
tragic situation, while musing over a picturesque view. He cries:

'God! mustﬁnisbsautiful lardbsﬁepreyofravensﬁnat
feed on onr living bodies? So beautiful a land, and so

misrulsdbyadespotichandnsofineaconntry,ardso

exposedtoasystemofespionags,suchasGodhasnot
destinedittobear. Landofmyfaﬁers, gravesofonr

166

proplets, I feel yonr woe, I weep yonr tears' (p. 116).
While ﬁe novel's title links Herod with Hillel ("What a
contrast!" Simon exclaims at oe point), Simon's fiery lnoesty and
integrity are ﬁe real counterweight to ﬁe King's villainny. In his
role as an Essee physician, Simon consistently, in Hamlet's phrase,
"speaks daggers" to ﬁe king wle welcomes ﬁe change from geeral
sycophanncy, but is finally too cruel, too "Roman" to be swayed by
Simon's rietoric. For his part, Sinmon cannret be swayed by Herod's
power. Late in ﬁe revel ﬁe King offers to make him Jerusalem's
goverrer, after which "ﬁe way to ﬁe higlest dignnity of ﬁe state is
open and leveled." Like Wise's oﬁer leroes offered power or freedom
in exchange for ﬁeir integrity, Simon refuses:
'I am well satisfied wiﬁn what I am....I wonld net for any
price in ﬁe world be an officer in a state built upon ﬁe
murdered bodies of innnecent men, cemented wiﬁn ﬁe blood of
itsbestcitizens, cursedbyﬁe ﬁnousardwidows and
orphans, hated by its patriots, and feared, dreaded by its
ownKinng" (p. 119).

Hillel may be presented as ﬁe sonl of patieee and piety, but his

role in ﬁe nevel is circumscribed compared to his son's rebellion and

accepting ﬁe Sanledrin's leadership at ﬁe end.

Wise makes interesting use of a fanmons Talmudic anecdote
comparing ﬁe moderate Hillel with ﬁe more rigid Shammai, boﬁn of
wlem led "scleols" of followers. Clasles between ﬁe two scleols were
"often extremely leated and sometimes even violent," but boﬁn "fell
within ﬁe traditionally accepted framework of Jnndaisrm" (51). A
Gentileissaidtohaveapproacledbothsagesaskingtobstaughtall
of Torah while le stood on oe leg. Shanmmai angrily sent ﬁe mann off,

but Hillel's response was "Do not unto oﬁers ﬁnat which yon wonld net

167

haveﬁemdountoyon. ThatisﬁeentireTorah: ﬁerestis
commentary. Nowgoandstudy." IngoJEatﬁesamestorytakesplacs
wiﬁnannunexpectedtwist. TlerudeandobnexionsGentileseeking
kneweldge of Judaism is actually an assassin hired by Sabion to kill
Hillel, arnd ﬁnis Greek is overwlelmsd by ﬁe kind sage, calling
Hillel a "reble, geerous demi-God." Hillel's humility, wisdom and
hard work, ﬁnus win a convert to Judaism. Hillel is elsewlere
reported in ﬁe Talmud to have settled a question of ceremonial law
elders conld net decide by leaving ﬁe decision to the people--and in
m Hillel is equally as trusting of ﬁe Jews. This trust makes a
vividcontrast withHerodwl'e rulssbyterrorandhasne faiﬁn
whatsoever in his subjects.

Herod's villainy wonld net operate as smooﬁnly wiﬁnort ﬁe
cynical Sabion, a rich Sadduces wiﬁn a phalanx of spies "wle lurk in
darkplacesandlistenaftereverysecretword, toprovidsﬁe
scaffold with new victims, ﬁe prisons wiﬁn afflicted leans, to bring
misery to peacable families." He dismisses his danghter Helen's
coeern over ﬁe regime's death toll as over-sensitivity and plots at
varions points against Simon, Salome, his own daughter, ﬁe ex-king
and even Herod. Completely amoral, le is at home in Herod's conrt
becauseﬁeKirg'hasanexcussforeverycrimsifﬁeperpstratcris
a useful innstrunment." Tle corrnnption and cruelty of ﬁnis phil-Roman
conrtisalmostdizzyingandcanbestbetypifiedbySalome. Atoe
point, sle plots to have Helen raped so ﬁnat Simon will reject ﬁe
disleneredgirl. Earlyinﬁerevel, slehasayonngman, Buruclnben
Menahem, puttodsathbscausslewouldretyieldtolerssductions.

168

Burucln is Mariamre's supporter, so ﬁe deaﬁn satisfies Salome's
wondedprideandherlust forpoweroverﬁeQueen.
Inconﬁrasttoﬁelayersof schemingardhypocrisyisﬁevalue
of oe's oaﬁn and ﬁe importares of duty-~for Jews. Tle revel's reble
characters frequently discuss ﬁeir duty and ﬁeir vows. Simon and
Helen are separated by conflicting duties—-his to kill Sabion because
lehasswornto, lersasadaughtertoprotectherfaﬁernematter
what kind of man re is. When Helen offers to flee wiﬁn Simon from
Israel and ﬁnis murky situation, le cannret be tempted:
'I dare net leave my conrntry....Wleever deserts his people
in days of affliction, slell net beleld Israel's salvation.
Icarnret, Idarenot leavethisunnhappyland, eventosave
my life, not even for ﬁe prize of ﬁe unnutterable harpiness
smiling in yonr embrace' (p. 8).
When Queen Mariamre's neﬁer Alexandra tries to convines ﬁe log-
suffering wife to escape Herod's grasp, Marianmre puts hoer first:
"If I must die, I shall die worﬁny of ﬁe last daughter of ﬁe
Asmoeans [sic], consoled and sustained by a stainless conscieee."
Such a deaﬁn would be innfinitely preferable to "living covered with
shame."
Tle revel ﬁnus pivots on a running comparison between lener and
pragmatism, truﬁn and treachery, cruelty and kirndness--between Romann
versus Jewish values--again reinforcing oe of ﬁe major ﬁemes of

Struggle. Combat assunmes ﬁe nature of an exteded and sometimes

 

desultory debate, broken by colorful and somber religions processions,
an earthquake, swordplay, ﬁnreats and plots, and a great deal of
ﬁeatrical behavior by especially Herod. When angered or surprised,
1e foams at ﬁe month, raves, rolls his eyes, pulls his beard, beats

169

his clest, roars, storms abont, gnashee his teeth, cleeles his fists
and becomes lost to communication. This extravaganes permeates Wise's

last revel set in Ancient Israel discussed below.

The First of ﬁe Maccabees. By ﬁe Auﬁer of "Tle Last Struggle
of ﬁe Nation, " "Tle Combat of ﬁe People," "Tle Sleenaker's Family, "
etc., etc.i etc.,: November 11, 1859 to April 6, 1860, April 20,
1860 to August 10, 1860.

Setting: Israel under Greek-Syrian (Seleucid) control, circa 168
Before ﬁe Comm Era, and Damasons, Syria.

Themes: Victory for ﬁe oppressed Jews will be a triumph for all
wle love justice. Judaism is a religion of humanity.

Characters: Mataﬁnia, priest

Miriam, his wife

Jonaﬁnan ("Tle Eagle"), ﬁeir son

Judah ("'I'le Lion"), ﬁeir son

Merelaus, plnil—Hellee high priest

Iphigee, his daughter

Jose ben Joezer, priest, lead of ﬁe Sanledrin
Amram, Jew of rich Hellenic family

Rebecca, Mataﬁnia's daughter, Amram's beloved
Aleynes, Menelaus's "favorite"

Ptolemy, Syrian goverrer

 

 

 

If we pictures oe of Israel's darkest periods, ﬁnis nevel
highlights oe of ﬁe grandest. Tle Maccabean-lsd Jews revolted
against Greek-Syrian rule because of Temple desecrations ("ﬁe
abomination of desolation") and ﬁe Syrian King's rescinding of ﬁe
laws of Moses. Rites like circumcision were banned and made capitol
offenses; Jews had to worslnip Greek gods, which included sacrificing
and eating pigs--ﬁe detestable symbol of paganism for ﬁe Jews.
Tleir successful revolt created ﬁe Hasnmoean dynasty ﬁnat ruled
Israel for almost two hundred years.

Tlenevel opensin"an ageof misery" wiﬁnacalltoarmswlen
news of Syrian carnage, desecration and massacres in Jerusalem reacles

Mataﬁnia's monntain lens in Modain

170

wlere devont patriotism, a zealons love of liberty and
irdepedeee, and an indestrnnctible attachment to ﬁe
national laws, religion and rights of Israel, inspired every
learttobravery, steeledﬁemanlyarmstoleroism, and
excited every breast to acts of valor and vegeanee, in
behalf of liberty and indepedenee (p. 3).
MataﬁniaandhissonsareinspiredbyﬁetaleofHannahandlerseven
sonswleallacceptmartyrdom raﬁerﬁnanpayhomagetoPagangods.
Amid ﬁe marshaling of warriors, rich Annranm, wlese Hellenist faﬁer
was a fried of King Antiochus, cannret fight. He swore a deaﬁnbsd
oaﬁntohisfaﬁerrettotakeuparmsagainstﬁeSyrianKirg's
troops. Mataﬁnia's dauglnter Rebecca rejects his love because of
his lack of leroism: "An Asmoean woman marries a lero only."

Fronﬁefirstdsstructionofapaganaltar, ﬁecryis"Let
Israel be free oes more." Mataﬁnia is unnrelenting in his demands to
drive ont ﬁe Syriarns end apostates, and destroy all pagan "temples,
altars, statues, and idols."

In Jerusalem, which has become a "polluted, abandoed city,"
Jonaﬁnan falls afonl of Aspasia, a "lubric" and "contemptible" woman
smitten by his physical beauty wle reveals that his beloved Iplnigee
is in a temple of Venus. Loyal to ler faﬁer Meelaus, ﬁe high
priest, Iphigee protests ﬁnat sle is net a worshig of Venus, but
simply an admirer of ﬁe Greeks' personification of beauty. Venus is
justalovelyideatoher, butJonaﬁnandisabusesleroflerretions
ﬁnatservingasevenafigureleadhighpriestessdossnetconflict
wiﬁn ler duties as a Jew.

Enﬁnusiasm monnts daily for ﬁe Maccabean cause and every battle

isretjustprscedsdbyconncilsofwarbutstirrirgprcplecissand

171

psalms sung en masse: "Almost every man was gifted wiﬁn ﬁe spirit
of proplecy, or at least with ﬁe genius of poetry, to sing or dent
new psalms." Disguised as a fool, meanwhile, Amram innstalls hinmself
atﬁehighpriest'sconrtwlerelecanspyonMeelausandﬁe
treaclerons Aleynes wle becomes a donble and even triple agent in
ﬁnisbook. Anmram also confrontsAspasia, warrningherﬁnatleknews
wlere her abducted child is and that it will be killed if sle harms
Iplnigens or Jonaﬁnan.

Inresponsetogrowirgrebsl successes, ﬁeSyriansdecreseven
harsler penalties against ﬁe Jews: simply m of Israel's
religion, laws or customs will be punishable by deaﬁn. But ﬁeusands
mere flock to ﬁe Maccabees:

Everywlerepropletsrossandpredictedﬁeedof
oppression. Signswereseeninleavenandexpoundedasﬁe
revealing finger of God, ﬁnat victory and triumpln was
csrtainn. Peasants and slepherds eiﬁer proplesized or took
uparms, arnykindﬁeyconldfind, andsingingpsalmsor
shouting sogs of victory ﬁey followed ﬁe victorions
barnrer of ﬁe great [Judah] Maccabse (pp. 71-72).
After a truce parley in which Jonaﬁnan tells ﬁe Syrianns that ﬁe
revoltcarnretbssuppressedbecauseﬁeJewsandﬁeiridealsare
inseparable, Syrian goals change. Victory will re logsr be enough;
new ﬁey wannt annihilation of ﬁe Jews. All cities are to be razed,
all resisting Jews killed or enslaved: "Tle orders are to extinguish
entirely ﬁe nation, language, religion, laws, customs,
, habits...every trace or mark of Israel" (p. 89).

JosebenJoezer, savsdfromexscutionbyJonaﬁnaninadaring

raid, isgivenﬁechareeofaddressirghiscausetoptolemyin

Damascus. Tlesagspresentsﬁecaseforjusticsandfreedomforﬁe

172

Jews, while ﬁe phil-Hellee Aleymos necks Judaism for its "old
superstitions," "stringent laws, " and "nerbid coeeption of justice
which equalizes all men, ﬁe king and ﬁe beggar, gives power to nere
arnd anarchy to all." Ben Joezer argues ﬁnat Judaism is net exclusive
orrigid, ﬁnatitisopsntoall inelinedtodogoodandﬁnatﬁe
practice of its laws is humane and geerons.
TleMaccabeancampaignspreadsacrossﬁeJordanardﬁennears
Jerusalem, unnstoppable because ﬁe Greeks use strategy but ﬁe Jews
are divinely innspired wlen ﬁey fight. After Jerusalem is retaken,
ﬁe novel eds with ﬁe Temple's redsdication, wlese sacred implements
havebeenguardedbyagrcupcallsdﬁeSonsofﬁeServantsof

Solomon. Iplnigee and Jonaﬁnan are married.

'IhonghMaccabeeshasmerebattlesceesﬁnaanmgatadhingeson
each successive military victory, it is in many respects almost a twin
of ﬁet revel (and boﬁn of conrse are spin-offs of M13). Like
_Com_ba_t, ﬁnis nevel champions duty and makes Israel's struggle a
unniversal fight for liberty. There are martial leroes and religions
oes, foaming and sclneming villains like Aleynes and Aspasia, and a
Jew acting as voice of conscieee for a misguided ruler, Amram. Tle
occupying power is presented as cruel and debaucled and ﬁe Jews
represent freedom and humanity. Tle clnief differeee is ﬁe character
of Meelaus, wle is villaineus but more and more in conflict over ﬁe
paﬁn of accommodation le has clesen. Women also play a lesser role in
ﬁnis nevel. Rebecca fights in only oe battle when Judah orders her

to be "a virtuons woman and re warrior" and Iplnigee is little mere

173

than a pawn in oﬁer people's stratagems.

Early in ﬁe novel, ﬁe sage Jose ben Joezer, unnafraid of deaﬁn,
urges Jonaﬁnan net to forget ﬁet it "is better to die content [having
doeoe's duty] ﬁnanlivstobstorturedbyaguiltycoeciees." He
has done his duty by resisting ﬁe imposition of paganism, ﬁerefore
"Let each do his duty and Israel will live again." Jonaﬁnan goes on
to urge Iplnigee to turn against ler faﬁer, Meelaus, because le has
betrayed Israel: "No man must sacrifice his mannleod on ﬁe altar of
vile expedieey: le must do right in ﬁe sight of God and Israel,
careless of all consequeees" (p. 23). Iplnigee is ultimately swayed
torejsctﬁehighpriestandherco-optationbyﬁeGreeks: "'Ibhave
doe onr duty signnifiss to have lived." Ironically, ﬁe Greek general
Appolonions also praises duty: "To reduce [ﬁe Hebrews] to obsdieee
by any means is onr great duty....Terror must reignn...and dismay
restrain ﬁnem."

Jewish duty transceds upleldirg ﬁe indepedenee and purity of
Israel's religion and laws. Tle fight againnst ﬁe Greeks is in a very
real way a global conflict and net just "for God and Israel." Sages
annd warriors alike proclaim ﬁnat ﬁe Jews are standard bearers of
truﬁnandjustice. Seekinganedtoﬁeconflict, JosebenJoezer
tells Ptolemy:

'We guard ﬁe heavenly fire for all marnkind, which Antiochus
Epiphares [ﬁe Syrian King] wisles to extinguish forever.
God, truﬁn, justice and liberty are ﬁe sacred leritage,
over which to watch God appointed us--Not for us aloe but
for all mankind....Upon onr mountains ﬁe redeemers stand

andwiﬁnﬁeunfailirgpowsrofﬁeﬁnundsrﬁeycallﬁe
nations fromdarknesstolight, fromerrortotruth, from

despotism to justice and liberty' (p. 142).
Tle future of mannkind is at stake, Judah Maccabse asserts: "Shall

174

Greece or Palestine impress ler spirit on humanity?"

"Expediency" is at ﬁe center of charges leveled against Greek
culture. TleughﬁeGreeksmaybsrefinedardpcssesssdofagreat
literature, ﬁeir God is expsdisrey, "and selfishness is ﬁe only
motive of ﬁeir actions....Morals, lenesty, uprightness and truﬁn
arewordsusedonlytodsceive." Tlesedebaucledpagannsarealso
foolishly superstitions, but ﬁe good and bad in ﬁeir cultnnre is
lepelessly entangled. In a rare nement of honesty, Aspasia
explains ﬁe pernicions impact of Greek culture on Jews like
lerself:

'...with ﬁe ﬁeaters, gymnrnasiums and games, we learned
also ﬁe corruption, ﬁe impurity, and immorality of Grecian
society...onr stringent and strict morals were a matter of
ridicule to ﬁe witty and enlighteed...” chastity was
ﬁe object of scornmcorruption is universal' (pp. 25-26).
Not only are Jewish values necked, but Jewish resistanes to a superior
culture and superior military might brands ﬁem as lunnatics (Abraham
Steinnberg notes ﬁnis view was characteristic of ﬁe l9ﬁn century's
Christian biblical revels). Meelaus shares this coeeption of Jewish
resistanes, butleisnetascruelasHerod; ﬁerebelliondeeply
troubles him: "my leart bleeds wlen I think of ﬁe bloodsled and
lerrorﬁnataresuretocomeovermypeople." AndMeelauseventries
to convines ﬁe rebels ﬁnat ﬁneir cause is lepeless. He sees Israel's
survivalasaquestionof waitingoutﬁestormandhisstaresﬁnus
somewhat resembles Hillel's before le is galvanized into resistanes in
_go_m_b_e_nt. Meelaus's love for his daughter Iplnigee humanizes ﬁe
highpriest, especially wlen he thinks sle will fall victim to oe of

Aspasia's plots, but his despair never approacles ﬁe level of Mair's

175

because Meelaus enjoys his power.

Perhaps because ﬁnis revel features Wise's most heroic figures,
ﬁe dialogue is frequently more elevated and formal ﬁnan in ﬁe oﬁer
two nevels set in Israel. At Mataﬁnia's deaﬁnbsd, for enample, his
wife Miriam cries "Dis net, hero Mataﬁnia!" annd sle calls him Faﬁer
Mataﬁnia before ﬁnat. 'I'le following exchange between Amram and

Rebecca is typical of ﬁe nevel at its stateliest:

‘Be of good conrage, my belcved,‘ le respodsd, 'I am re
Helenist. '

'Thank leaven le is re Helenist,‘ ﬁe damsel exclaimed
enﬁnusiastically' (p. 14).

Tle martial events also animate ﬁe way in which characters speak--
ﬁey "vocifera ," "roar," "exclaim," "implore," "admonish," "cry" and

"ejaculate. "

Tlerwsinﬁessnevelsarefarmorsedangsredthanﬁessin
Wise's l9ﬁn and oﬁer pre-l9ﬁn century fiction. Tley face ruthless
eenmiss wle are so powerful ﬁey seem to represent vast, faceless and
innimical prinnciples of history. And ﬁeir attempts to wipe Israel's
name "from ﬁe remenclature of ﬁe nations" are chilling and very
modern-sording. Submission is net eeugh for Rome and Syria--ﬁeugh
even ﬁnat is too much for most of ﬁe Jews. Tle spine of Jewish
resistanes, its laws, must be broken.

Wise is net of conrse making an argument for ﬁe conservative
"sanetification" of tradition. It is ﬁe spirit of Judaism, its
idsalsﬁnatlepraises, andinﬁesslnistoricalnevelslehasanoﬁer

opporwnitytolinnkJudaismwiﬁnAmerica. Wehavsssenindnapter

176

Three lew Passover, stripped of ﬁe miraculons, becomes a very
American leliday, celebrating ”ﬁe first declaration of irndepedeee."

In Struggle, Combat and Maccabees, Wise makes arguments le wonld

 

always make in The Israelite, associating "ﬁe struggle for Jewish

 

riglnts with ﬁe struggle for hunman rights, and boﬁn wiﬁn ﬁe
prineiples and postulates of ﬁe Declaration of Indepedeee and ﬁe
Constitution" (Knex, p. 89). In this connection Wise is following his
model, ﬁe German legislator Gabriel Riesser, wle consistently lirnked
freedom for German Jews with freedom for a_l; Germarns (53). At ﬁe end
of m, Wise convineirgly grafts onto Rabbi Akiba's vision of
Israel's survival ﬁe 19th century Reform Judaism vision of Israel-in-
ﬁe-world. Tle revel's emotional power makes ﬁnis propagardistic leap
inspiring and net specions.
Wise considered "ﬁe Armerican Jewish Novelist" to be an expert
historian, and ﬁe revels are certainly loaded with historical facts
and events, sometimes to ﬁe exclusion of clarity. Though set in
Aneient Israel, Wise creates ﬁese settings oes again in only ﬁe
most geeralized ways. Tlere are rooms decorated in "oriental
spledor," ﬁnat are described at ﬁneir most specifically as follows:
a low sofa [rested] on a silk carpet feavily interwoven
wiﬁn gold and silver, under a canopy leld by ﬁe festoons,
of a golden eagle, and decorated wiﬁn gold embroidered
flowers, fringes and leavy tassels, all of which were
reflected tenfold by ﬁe metallic mirror which covered ﬁe
walls, richly ornamented wiﬁn glittering nesaics (Macabees,
p. 101) .

Perhaps appealing to "lady readers," costumes receive a bit nere

attentionﬁnaninoﬁernevels, describsdinﬁemanrerqnetedabove.

WiseretesinReminiscencesthathewascarefultoputsomeofﬁe

 

177

historical characters' own words into ﬁe novels, but occasional
anchronisms creep into ﬁe fiction: a Roman sitting on his "easy

chair" or a Jew not wishing to "ﬁnrow pearls before swine."

Tle characters appearing in Wise's first novel reappeared in
ﬁese nnovels with not a great deal of variation, except ﬁnat ﬁeir
context gives ﬁeir actions greater resonance. Tle villaire, for
innstanee, plot at more ﬁnan a riot or a rape: ﬁe destruction of
citiesandﬁerapeofanation. 'I‘Ieheroesresistnotjust
conversion but ﬁne destruction of their people. And those heroes face
danger at times from being misunderstood by ﬁe Jews ﬁemselves; Amram
and Mair are boﬁn almost killed because Jews suspect ﬁem of
ﬁeaclery. Tlewomeninﬁesenovelshaveachancetoprove
ﬁemselves possessed of more reroic virtues ﬁnan patience or a gift
for bold rtetoric. Abigail and Ruth join ﬁe battle wiﬁn ﬁeir men
againstﬁeRomans; HannahandLeahareunafraidoftakingupswords
to defend ﬁemselves. But such boldness puts ﬁese women under more
risk, annd ﬁe possibility of rape inherent in all ﬁe abductions annd
ﬁnreats of oﬁer novels is nere a brutal reality, ﬁnough nere takes
place onstage.

Moses Baum's decision to convert to Christianity and ﬁnus
accommodate himself to his society hurt his family and endangered
his life at oe point, but accommodation to ﬁe eemy in ﬁese ﬁnree
novels is plain treadery, or has ﬁe effect of it. Meelaus may
hope ﬁnat some sort of reasonable relationship can be worked out

between Jews and ﬁeir rulers, but that is not possible, given ﬁe

178

Jews' resistance end its maddening effect on ﬁe Greeks and ﬁe
Romans. During ﬁe appearannce of Struggle in The Israelite, Wise
was also joining ﬁe protest against ﬁe treaty between Switzerland
annd ﬁe United States that guaranteed Swiss anti-semitism. His
call to American Jews to protest in mass meetings has all ﬁe fire
of ﬁnat novel, as if ﬁe ﬁnreat were ﬁe same.

Wise made his greatest claims for ﬁese ﬁnree nevels as a group,
andnewas right aboutoneofﬁem, S_t£ugg_le_, asweshallseeinnﬁe

next chapter.

WION

I-THE WELS AS LITERATURE

Wise's novels fit into ﬁe Antebellum category of ﬁe "advocacy
novel, " oe that made ﬁe case for social or religions reform.
Critics objected to such nnovels as hybrids whose "argumentation out
across and spoiled ﬁe story" (Baym, p. 215), however popular they

were. Ore typical critic complained in Literary World (1847) ﬁnat

 

preachingraﬁerﬁnanpracticeseemstobeﬁemaniaofﬁe
day...[but] ﬁe vocations of ﬁe novelist annd ﬁe polemic
aresoatvariance, ﬁnatitisnottobeexpectedﬁnatﬁey
caneverbeunitedinoeperson, andwedowishﬁnose
excellent people who ﬁninnk ﬁney can make ﬁe world better by
ﬁe inculcation of doctrine, wonld offer it pure, leaving
ﬁe personal application to ﬁe sagacity of ﬁe reader;
while ﬁe few who are gifted with ﬁe power of interesting
ﬁe imagination annd ﬁe heart by ﬁe delineation of
character, may safely be trusted to draw pictures of real
life, from which ﬁe most obtuse reader can divine aburndant
lessons of virtue and religion, if re chooses (Baym, pp.
217—218).

Wise's rnovels did advocate Reform Judaism, sometimes as specifically

as praising a certain composer's liturgical music (and introducing music
itself into ﬁe service was of conrse a reform). Wise's feroes are ﬁe
explicators of Reform in its battle againnst backwardress. Simeon in

Tie Shoemaker's Family cries out for synagogue worship ﬁnat is not

 

just modernized, but meaningful and understandable for ﬁe
cogregation. Rabbi Gruenhut challeges Moses Kannn's traditional
interpretation of Passover in Ronaree, Philosophy and Cabalah. But
ﬁe chief target of Wise‘s Ieroes' rtetoric is Christian oppression,

179

12

Be

DI

180

and Rabbi Gruenhut as well as oﬁers majestically rebuke Christian
laymen annd priests for their inveterate Jew-hatred. At ﬁe center of
such confrontations between Jewish hero annd Christian villain is ﬁe
question of guilt. Christian claims ﬁnat ﬁe Jews' degraded state in
history is God's punnishment for ﬁe crucifixion of Jesus are cut to
pieces. Rabbi Gruenhut annd oﬁers maintain that ﬁe _iregl guilt
belogs to ﬁe Christians for ﬁeir relentless persecution of ﬁe

Jews. Even simple Gteetle in The Rabbi of Bacherach becomes heroic

 

when sfe denounces Hans Sturmbach as a Jew-killer.

Wise's advocacy was often more geeral end by implication. Tfe
more unpleasant Jewish characters (who appear peripherally or in
subplots in his fiction) are pictured as wedded to ﬁe past,
superstitions, mystical, knee-deep in cogregational chicanery, or
simply foolish or gossipy. Those traits are never associated wiﬁn
reform-minded characters by Wise. Tfe unpleasant Jewish characters
seemtojustifyinabroadwayarationalapproachtoJudaism. Wise's
modeinpresentingﬁnesecharactersissatire, butnoeofﬁenovels
iseesentiallysatiricalintoe. Thronghontﬁenovelsﬁerearea
numberof minorcharacters whoseemtoexistonlytocausetronbleby
gossiping, annd to be ﬁnrashed by more commendable characters. 'ne
fools are almost like ﬁe wasps and hollow—eyed poodles of Wise's epic
dream quoted in Chapter One: a terrible nuisarnce, but ultimately
powerless. Wise's biggest fools are ﬁe religions oes like Laibish

Baal Shem in Tle Castatrophe at Eger whose religions beliefs are

 

presented as a jumble of babbling visions annd ludicrons acts. While

ﬁe more sophisticated Jews in that nnovel laugh at Laibish, simpler

181

Jews come to him for reeling arnd advice. Wise's worst fool is Rabbi

Cohen in Romance, Philosophy and Cabalah who attempts to put ont ﬁe

 

gletto's fire by tossing bits of paper wiﬁn magical spells on ﬁem
into ﬁe flames.

What comes across most stroglytoamodernreaderisWise's deep
end abiding anger at Gentile, arnd mostly Roman Caﬁnclic, oppressions.
Perhapslererewasmostintnnnewiﬁnhisaudience. Forfirst
generation German Jews, ﬁe memory of European anti-semitism wonld
have been made more vivid by ﬁe contrast wiﬁn ﬁeir present American
freedom. 'I'reangeroonrsingﬁnronghﬁesemvelsﬁnatburstsontin

tirades like Hannah's in The Wizard of the Forest may accomt for ﬁe

 

"astonishing popularity" his novels are vaguely credited wiﬁn by
Israel Knox and James Heller. Baym suggests ﬁnat "a partisan,
quarrelsome spirit" might inndeed have been ﬁe strogest attraction of
religions advocacy nnovels (p. 219).

How can oe summarize ﬁe characteristics of this fiction as
literature? Wise's characters are geerally oe—dimensional
representations of traits or ideas; ﬁe plots are sometimes wildly
complicated wiﬁn unbelievable twists, and often involving hidden
identities; ﬁe writing is geerally undistinguisted in terms of
style. Tnere are simple sentences, an overall lack of metaphor annd
simile, frequent unnidiomatic expressions and a limited vocabulary;
settingiscreatedintermsasgeeralasﬁnoseusedtocreateﬁe
characters.

Wise's greatest limitation is in writing believable or at least

interesting characters. His heroes, teroines, villainns annd fools are

182

all very much variations of a type, wiﬁn standard repertoires of
action annd dialogue. His heroines pledge ﬁeir undying love, like

Molly in Resignation annd Fideliiy, swear allegiance to ﬁeir faiﬁn as

 

Plnoebe does in Tfe Jewish Heroine, boldly resist ﬁeir oppressors like

 

Gtettle in Tle Rabbi of Bacherachnbut resemble oe annoﬁer so closely

 

ﬁey are all but interchangeable. Even when Abigail arnd Ruth in
'Ine Last Struggle of ﬁe Nation fight ﬁe Romans, ﬁey do nnot break

 

ont of ﬁe conventional mold. Battle does not distinguish ﬁem annd
Ruth is even more delicate annd womanly ﬁnan l'er fictional cloes--a
"fairy form."

Tfeir opposites, like Salome in The Combat of ﬁe People, have

 

ﬁnree defining characteristics: hunger for power, lustfulnness, and a
badtemper whichis triggeredwheneiﬁerofﬁefirsttwodesiresis
ﬁnwarted. If ﬁe heroines cut ﬁnrough dissimulation wiﬁn ﬁeir sharp
rretoric, ﬁe female villains radiate a kind of sensual dishonesty--
ﬁey are "lubric" annd "serpants" annd "scorpions." But while Wise's
heroinesaredefinedbyﬁemenﬁeyareinlovewiﬁnandareof
secondary importance, ﬁe female villainns may rely on men to
instrumentalize ﬁeir scremes but are more fully created (see Part
II).

Wise's villains seek absolute power over Jews, are maddeed when
ﬁeycannnnotobtainit, reducedtofoamingandraging. Allﬁe

plotting of men like Tle Convert's Prior or ﬁe Hellenist Sabion in

 

TreCombatofﬁnePeopleseemasﬁeatricalasﬁel'eroismofﬁeir

 

connterparts, ﬁe Judah Gruenhuts arnd Jonaﬁnans. One of Wise's most

interesting heroes is his least typical, Simeon in 'Ine Shoemaker's

 

183

Emily, whoexpressesrealpainanndrealfeeling. Pressingfora
synagoguerecanbelieve in, tealsorevealsﬁetormentofbeing
physically unattractive, moody, and ridiculed for being a redtead.
Tfe emotional quality of his dialogue in ﬁnat nnovel is snrprising, as
if a different writer had taken over. In only oe of Wise's nnovels is

ﬁnat kinnd of depth of feeling sustained, The Last Struﬂle of ﬁe

 

m, discussed below.

Considering ﬁnat Wise had only spoken English for six or seven
years, his nnovels are surprisingly clear and readable on ﬁe most
basic level. Tfe syntax is rarely complex and ﬁere is never a
straining after refined, polysyllabic "Victorian" diction.
Unidiomatic expressions occur throughout, as oe might expect, but
ﬁere is no way of knowing ﬁe typesetter's role in ﬁese gaffes
(commas annd semicolons are often used interchangeably, for inetance).
Characters geerally look "on" oe annoﬁer's faces raﬁer ﬁnan "at"
ﬁem or "ﬁnrust" looks "on" oe annoﬁer, or look "in" conntenances
ﬁnat can sometimes be "muscular." Characters driven almost to madness
"lose the use of" their "brains" or are "sick in the brains."
"Cowardly" always appears as "cowardish" annd "bloodﬁnirstiness" as
"blocdﬁnirst," "lubricions" as "lubric." Adjectives like "manly" annd
"friendly" are sometimes used as adverbs: "ﬁey were received very
friendly." Nonns occasionally have articles as ﬁey wonld be more

likely to in German; "such an insolence" (eine Schweinerie, perhaps?).

 

Tre high serionsness of ﬁe nnovels occasionally backfires because of
awkward usage:

'I cannret go from here,’ Aaron cried, 'my Ieart is fettered
to ﬁnis soil.’

184

'Annd ﬁny blood will surely crimson it ere log, ' Mataﬁnia
said, indignnantly. 'I bid ﬁee go. If ﬁnou refusest arnd
ﬁe embittered men kill ﬁee, thy blood falls on ﬁny own
tead.‘ ('I're First of ﬁe Maccabees, p. 10).
That lastﬁnreat is certainlyanunusualoe, asisAaron's imagery.
A striking characteristic of Wise's prose is ﬁe lack of variety
inhis vocabulary, duenodoubttohisbeinganon-nativespeaker.
Adjectives are often repeated in ﬁe same paragraph, possibly wiﬁn ﬁe
intent of emphasis, but ﬁe effect is flatness instead. In

'ne Combat of ﬁe People, for innstanee, "Toward morning ﬁe Queen's

 

disease became alarming" is followed two sentences later by "The
physicians said ﬁe disease of ﬁe Queen was alarming..." Many such
examples can be fonnd throughout ﬁe fiction.

By and large, Wise's prose is net at all "unreadable," simply
bland, serviceable. There are few images beyond the most obvions oes
of villains being called ravens, snakes, hyenas, scorpions, and leroes
compared to lions or eagles. Tle most vivid turn of phrase is Simon's
comment to Salome ﬁnat jealonsy is a snake eating "its own excrement."

But simplicity does have its power, however, as in ﬁe opening
description of a snow-covered town in 'I're Shoemaker's Family where ﬁe
unadorned prose seems appropriate to ﬁe images it is creating:

Thegronndcraﬂedunchrﬁe footsteps of ﬁe few human
beings who ventured to walk aronnnd ﬁe village. Tfe snow,
lately fallen, was driven abont by a strog winnd, filling up
each footstep as soon as ﬁe traveler had passed (vol. I,
no. 26, p. 201).

If Wise's style is quite simple, his plots sometimes verge on
inncderennce, annd frequently pivot on unbelievable acts. Romance,

Philosophy annd Cabalah is a prime example. Tfere are points in ﬁe

 

185

nevel where even an attentive reader will wonder what exactly is going
onorwhyacharacteris actuallysomeoeelse. 'IleCordozasfor
instanee, turn ont to be ﬁe De Solis family, alﬁncugh it is unclear
what purpose ﬁe change serves. It leaves Wise calling Mrs. Corrbza
"Pseudo Mrs. Cordoza" afterwards.

Judah's decision in ﬁnat revel to kill ﬁe Spanish Ambassador—-
confusingly also called Connt, Minister annd Alvarez--may be motivated
(stretching oe's imagination considerably) by onﬁ‘age at ﬁe
Jewish condition, end by his love for Dinnah. But his return to prison
after his second attempt at assassination, his refusal to kill ﬁe
Ambassadorbecauseheisunnarmed, arndhis refusaltoescapewtente
can, completely lack credibility. His return seems forced by ﬁe
crnnrning plot which is abont to spit him ont in ﬁe direction of
Spairn. Also highly improbable are ﬁe relationships between Simon and

Herod in Combat of ﬁe People annd Amram and Meelaus in Tre First

 

of ﬁe Maccabees. Perhaps Wise meant to stew Herod's human side, ont

 

ﬁe King's patience for Simon's moral restoring, which begins to seem
self-righteons, is greater ﬁnan oe wonld reasonably expect from a
murderons tyrant. Tle same is true for Amram spinnning cynical jingles
at Meelaus, but his situation is even more unnlikely. We are asked to
believe ﬁnat he can fool Sabion annd Salome wre have seen him as Amram,
by contorting his face to look "idiotic" annd walking ﬁnat way as well.
Despite all ﬁese glaring weaknesses, Wise did produce oe nevel
that does net deserve obscurity, 'ne Last Struggle of ﬁe Nation. It
has its share of shallow characterizations, solecisms, unbelievable
coincidences, buttranscendsﬁemfortworeasons. First, ﬁereis

186

ﬁe historical situation, ﬁe most ennﬁnralling Wise crese. Tne Jews'
surprising victories against an overwhelming oppoent annd ﬁe
subsequent collapse and extirpation of ﬁe last inndependent Jewish
state are completely compelling annd made more so by Mair. Like his
people in ﬁe log runn, re is powerless to change events annd naturally
eeughdriventoabelievableandmovingdespair. Treemotionsinthis
nevel are geeral 1y not melodramatic but cogruent wiﬁn ﬁe siﬁnations
that give rise to ﬁem. It is a deeply felt book, wiﬁn scees ﬁnat
linger in oe's imagination net for ﬁeir extravagance, but ﬁeir
simplicity. Ge such scee is Akiba's last visit to ﬁe ruins of ﬁe
Temple, wfere re has pretended to be from "Hispania" because Jews are
forbidden ﬁe site. His grief at ﬁe destruction of Israel erupts:
"Go, myGod, letme livenelogersinncemyeyeshaveseenﬁny
glorions name blasptemed in ﬁnine own house!" Discovered by Roman
soldiers, 1e recovers himself annd faces ﬁem calmly: "Why do yon
tesitate...are yon afraid of an old annd defenseless man? Romans, do
yonr du . "

Because we are sympaﬁetically involved wiﬁn Akiba annd Mair,
ﬁeir burning vision of an Israel rising from defeat annd disaster to
innstruct annd liberate ﬁe world does net feel like repellent
propagannda. This vision is Wise's own, and is perenasive due to

Strugqle's geeral excellence in comparison to Wise's cﬁer fiction.

 

As Robert Glennn Wright has pointed ont in discussing l9ﬁn cenonry
Social Christian Fiction, "ﬁe better a given nevel [of ﬁnis type] was
in a literary sense, ﬁe better it was as propagannda for ﬁe auﬁer's

ﬁesis" (53). Considering few much and rew positively Wise wrote

187

abont Tle Last Struggle of ﬁe Nation (see Appendix A), an additional

 

sonrce of ﬁe curions ambivaleee abont his fiction seems clear.
Israel Knex maintainns ﬁnat Wise inexcusably ignered ﬁe innadequacy of
his fiction (Knox, p. 99). But it seems more likely ﬁnat Wise d_ig
realize ﬁnat Me was a rider, more meanningful and more
successful workthanhis oﬁer nevels wrenne lookedbackonhis
fictionwritingcareer. Howﬁenconldtehavebeenanyﬁningbut
ambivalent when ﬁe quality of his novels was so uneven?

Tfere is ne way of determining l'ew much impact any of Wise's
ﬁeseshadﬁnroughﬁemediumof fictionandsales figures ofhistwo
published revels are unfortunately unnavailable. But ﬁe impact on
Wise's critics annd biograpters has been clearer, as demonstrated in
Gnapter Ge. Their geeral ly negative annd dismissive judgments,
mediated by Wise's own ambiguons praise and disparagement, are
certainly substantiated to some extent if we look at ﬁe revels as
literature. But ﬁeir lack of literary excelleee or even competence
(wiﬁn ﬁe exception of ME) does net mean ﬁnat ﬁeir content
shonld be ignered. And part of ﬁnat content, ﬁe attack on Gentiles,
is strangely familiar. In pondering why Portney's Complaint was such
a controversial book, Philip Roﬁn concluded

'...going wild in public is ﬁe last ﬁning in ﬁe world ﬁnat
a Jew is expected to do--by himself, by his family, by his
fellow Jews, and by ﬁe larger community of Christians wlese
tolerance for him is often tenuous to begin with...'(54).

InasenseWisewasgoingwildagainstChristiannsand
Christianity, freetobeas"angryasleliked" at averytenuons
historical moment for American Jews: ﬁe great Protestant Revival of

ﬁe 18403 and 18503 with its attendant missionary societies annd

188

conversionist literature. Jewish spokesmen for ﬁe interests annd
rights of American Jews were sometimes defensive in "ﬁeir desire to
legitimize Jewish beloging in ﬁe Gentile world" (Cohen, p. 118). A
widespread Jewish anger, for example, in response to ﬁe many
Thanksgiving Day proclamations by governers and mayors asserting ﬁe
United States was Christian stewed "new inncreasingly defensive ﬁe
JewshadgrowninresponsetoﬁeprotestantCrusadeandtoﬁe
growing popularity of ﬁe concept of a Christian nation" (Cohen, p.
74). Sunnday laws that restricted Jewish ecoemic activity and state
restraints on Jewish office relding were also targets of Jewish
criticism. Perhaps it is really ﬁe anger in his nevels ﬁnat made
Wise and later writers dismiss or ignere his fiction. More enccessful
and more establisred Jews--ineluding Wise--might have been embarrassed

by his earlier tirades annd contempt.

III-WISE'S m0 IMAGINATIG‘J

Wise's nevels may be viewed as advocacy revels in a geeral
sense, but ﬁere is a specific genre ﬁey resemble more closely, arnd
surprisingly--ﬁe Goﬁnic Novel. Not only does his fiction teem wiﬁn
typical Gothic parapternalia, its very core is Gothic. At ﬁe center
of ﬁe Goﬁnic mode is ﬁe image of man as victim (55) annd "endless
persecution" (56) is a hallmark of ﬁe genre. Almost every oe of
Wise's revels creates, dramatizes, and embellisnes ﬁe situation of
persecution, wreﬁer of inndividual Jews, communnities or ﬁe Jewish
nation itself. Richard Chase has stewn l'ew Charles Brockden Brown

"naturalized ﬁe Goﬁnic" by staging it "in ﬁe American connntryside"

189

(57). Wise makes re such trannsposition, perhaps because America was
too foreign annd ﬁe Ennrope 1e had left too conveniently frightening.
Devotees of ﬁe Gothic may object to ﬁe above classification.
Afterall, wlere isﬁesinequanonofﬁeGoﬁnicnevel, ﬁeGothic
castle:
...that formidable ruin...phantasmagorically shifting its
ontline as ever new vaults extend ﬁeir labyrinﬁns, scee of
solitary wanderings, cut off from light annd human contact,
of unnfamiliar menace annd ﬁe terror of ﬁe living dead (58).
That "passive agent of terror" (Varma, p.19) does appear in Wise's
fiction but almost always in an attenuated form, chiefly because
setting is so geeralized in his fiction as to often be nerexistent.

Still, castles do appear in curions places-~Simeon Brauer lives in a

"Goﬁnic" oe in The Steemaker's Family, annd Sabion has oe in

 

Tle Combat of the People. Wren Helen is sequestered in fer faﬁer's

 

"connntry estate," his reme is more ﬁnan once called ﬁe "castle in the
forest." Begging to be released, sle conld be any Goﬁnic l'eroine. In
ﬁe following passage ﬁere is re sense whatsoever ﬁnat ste is a Jew
in Israel of ﬁe first century Before Common Era.
'Why should I be...buried alive in ﬁnis loely forest,
wrereﬁehonrsgrowintoyearsandﬁedaysappearto
last an eternity? Why must I be separated from all wre
aredeartomyneart, anndpine awayinﬁnisdark
grove...where I see but strange annd suspicions
comtenances, and every oe regards me wiﬁn a watchful
eye?‘ (pp. 96-7).
Ste conld just as easily be Anne Radcliffe's distressed Emily St.
Aubert as Sabion's daughter.
WtereoewonldexpectWisetousewordslike fortrew, castle
substitutes, a glaring annachronism at first glanee, but a clue to ﬁe

Goﬁnic influence on his work. Wise's first nevel, Tre Convert, is

190

transparently Gothic, but net until its fonrﬁn annd penultimate
chapter. Trere we meet ﬁe Prior, Moses Baum's patron annd persecutor
at ﬁe gigantic Stralref Convent:

Gn leaving ﬁe reception room, a narrow end somewhat dark

passage, guarded by a wrele company of petrified
saints...led to a...large goﬁnic hall wiﬁn narrow end high

bow-windows....Ccstly paintings by ﬁe hannds of ﬁe first
masters graced ﬁe ancient walls. Tle ﬁnick silk tapestry
curtains were peetrated by just sufficient light to give to
ﬁe hall a subdued mellow, yet gloomy appearanee (vol. 1,
re. 4, p. 25).
This same hall, it will be remembered from Chapter Two, has a secret
panel ﬁnat admits ﬁnree of ﬁe Prior's myrmidons. Tle key word in ﬁe
passage is "gloomy. " Gloom is "ﬁe characteristic atmosplere of ﬁe
Gothic novel which containns elements directly associated with Gothic
architecture: castles, convents, subterranean vaults, grated dungeons
and ruined piles" (Varma, p. 17).
Tfere are "castles," secret chambers, end passages in ﬁe ﬁnree

major nevels set in Israel, annd also in Tle Catastrople at Fger,

 

The Convent, Tle Steenaker's Famil , Tfe Rabbi of Baderach,

 

Ronaree, Philosophy annd Cabalah and The Wizard of ﬁe Forest.

 

 

Admittedly, Wise does net often use ﬁnem to great effect, or even to
especially Gothic effect. Tfe secret chambers unnder ﬁe Temple in
Jerusalem where rebel groups meet are ﬁe scees of oaﬁns, sword
waving, complex nnumerological passwords, arnd debates over ﬁe future
conrseofactionagainstHerod, orﬁeGreeks. 'I'teyaresplaslesof
Goﬁnic color.

But Wise does employ his castles and dungeons for a typically
Gothic purpose--ﬁe imprisonment of reble heroes annd pure neroines.

191

Pfeebe's situation in Tfe Jewish Heroine reonrs in a number of ﬁe

 

nevels and is typical. Flight, imprisonment annd persecution of ﬁe
neroine, a carryover from ﬁe sentimental nevel as Leslie Fiedler
points ont (59), is aneﬁer key compoent of Goﬁnic nevels. Sulanmith

inn Tfe Sleemaker's Familjz is abducted to a "castle" arnd escapes into

 

some vague Polish "forest," only to be captured annd ﬁnen tormented by
Freiberg's lies. While ﬁe teroine's plight is central to ﬁe Goﬁnic
revel, in Wise's fiction ﬁe feroes geerally take center stage. His
oe-dimensional reroinee are so weakly inndividuated because ﬁeir
Goﬁnic connterweights--ﬁe villains--are deprived of significant
treatment. Tle power annd attractions of darloess annd villainny fuel
ﬁe excitement of Goﬁnics, but Wise obvionsly cannnet present his
villains as attractive or compelling. To do so wonld underont his
propagandistic aim of exposing annd attacking Gentile cruelty annd
hypocrisy.

Wise seems to have been conscionsly avoiding ﬁe creation of
magnetic villains. Tfe only comment in ﬁe nevel on ﬁe nature of
fiction addresses ﬁnis point, end is made by Wise's spokesman in

Tte Steemaker's Family, Simeon. Asked why re dislikes a book of

 

E‘ugee Sue's being read by oe of ﬁe Katz'--Sue was an "immense best
seller" in ﬁe mid-18405 [Harap, p. 110] )--Simeon says, "I hate all
books inwhichhumannatureismisrepresented, andcrimesexceeding
human infirmity are unncovered to onr view, in a mannner [ﬁnat excites]
ﬁe minnd to imitate ﬁnem." But Simeon will only say ﬁnat re likes
"good" books when pressed (Vol. I, no. 26, p. 201).

Simeon's beloved Sulamiﬁn is net ﬁe only teroine of Wise's to

192

flee or contemplate flight annd ﬁe villainns ﬁese women flee are
typically Gothic monks and priests. Devendra Varma says ﬁe villain
is ﬁe Goﬁnic novel's "active agent of terrormborn as adjunnct to
ﬁe ruineus castle...to frighten ﬁe Ieroines, to pursue ﬁenm ﬁnrongh
ﬁevaultsandlabyrinthsofﬁecastle, toharassﬁenmateveryturn"
(Varma, p. 17). Tle Gothic castle has been seen to funnction as a
symbol of dread, but for Wise setting is so weak a fictional element
ﬁnatdreadexists interpersonallymoreﬁnanthronghﬁeatmosptere.
HisheroinesareharassedtoabandonJudaismbymonksendpriests,
Pater Annselm cozening Gleetle in Tle Rabbi of Bacterach for instannce,

 

or ﬁe Moslems ﬁnreatening Preebe. Oﬁer Goﬁnic elements are ﬁe

preseee of ﬁe Inquisition (as in Radcliffe's Tfe Italian or

 

Maturin's Melmoth ﬁe Wanderer) which Judah Gruenhut battles in

 

Romance, Philosophy and Cabalah, annd ﬁe ineest motif end an explained

 

gfest in Tte Steemaker's Family.

 

In considering foreign influeees on ﬁe English Goﬁnic, Montague
Summers lists some of ﬁe contributing elements discussed above as
fonnnd in German romannces of ﬁe late 18ﬁn century. Otters are "ﬁe
wicked rival" [of ﬁe leroinne], a malignnant annd licentions woman of
qualitywl'euponbeingrejectedbyﬁereroinvolveshimﬁnronghler
acts in tronble and captivity" (60). That description fits two of

Wise's more striking characters, Salome in Tfe Combat of ﬁe People

 

annd Aspasia in The First of ﬁe Maccabees. Salome is attracted to ﬁe

 

hanndsome Simon ben Hillel annd attempts to use fer "beguiling annd
lubric arts" to win him for ter "sensual propensities." Ge of her

meﬁeds is to pretend a desire for repenteee, discerning ﬁnat Simon's

193

ruling passion is moral uplift: "He shall have it as often as 1e
pleases, end I will climb up ﬁe wl'ele ladder of Jacob, if I can reach
him." Later, spurned, sle will plot--amog oﬁer ﬁnings--to have
Helen raped so ﬁnat Simon will quit loving ﬁe girl.

Aspasia is even more "lubric," bringing Jonaﬁnan to fer
Temple of Venus after having sensually admired ﬁe hanndsome yonﬁn
from afar. Ste offers hinm ﬁe position of honsereld steward, annd
ferself, but 1e despises her and ﬁe vision of power sle l'elds ont.
Wielder of "poison annd hellish devices, " sle plots to keep him end
his beloved Iphigee separated-er to kill ﬁem, and ends in
foaming madness and suicide. Boﬁn women are partially motivated by
ﬁe need to finnd annd protect ﬁeir lost illigitinmate children end are
in a sense fallen women. Aspasia has clearly been overwfelmed by
Greekonlture(whichevenattractsﬁepurelphigee) anndﬁnongh
enplaining Ier villainny ﬁnis way to Jonathan is of conrse self-
serving, steisinpartavictim ofﬁekulturkanmpfbetween Israel annd
ﬁe Hellenistic world.

If Wise's nevels are full of Gothic characters, devices annd
motifs, ﬁe natural question is, are ﬁney good Gothic nevels?
Unfortunately, ﬁey are net. Wise never creates ﬁe brooding
suggestive atmosplere essential to a Gothic, which relies so Ieavily
on setting. Nor is ﬁere sufficient suspense, mystery or terror. Max
May's biography of Wise claims ﬁnat Wise read Schiller annd Goeﬁe,
becoming "absorbed in ﬁe best German literature of ﬁe day" (May, p.
29). Perhaps ﬁen ﬁe weakness of Wise's Goﬁnic elements is nine in

part to his influence by German writers like E.T.A. Hoffman for whom,

194

"castles annd moats end twilight, so much a staple of ﬁe traditional
Goﬁnic nevel, were irrelevant or inciden " (61).

Tle nightmare lanndscape ﬁnrongh which ﬁe Goﬁnic leroine flees
"ﬁe perils of ﬁe past" has been transmuted by Wise to ﬁe Jews'
historic lanndscapes of persecution. Annd ﬁe role of ﬁe persecuted
reroine has been given to ﬁe Jewish people. That his imagination is
essentially Goﬁnic or influeeed by ﬁe Gothic is clear in ﬁe
disparity between what Wise says abont his fiction end what his
fiction says abont his fiction. He may have intended to create a new
Jewish conscionsness annd stir Jewish patriotisnm (see Chapter Ge) but
with few exceptions what he creates is fear of ﬁe recent and distant
past in which Jews were victims of abduction, imprisonment, coercion,
murder, rape, massacres and annnihilation. It is as if his fiction is
fighting ﬁe murderous crowds surging ﬁnrough Germany annd Austria in
ﬁe Hep! Hep! Riots during ﬁe year of his birth.

Though Wise's nevels are never set in America ﬁey are profoundly
Americann in a way D. H. Lawrence describes: "in ﬁe progressive
AmericanConscionsnessﬁerehasbeenﬁeoedominant desire, todc
away with ﬁe old thing" (62). Wise's first independent published
work was a fiery lecture entitled "The End of Popes, Nobles, annd
Kings" which vaunts ﬁe principle of progress and castigates ﬁe
Gmnrch for ﬁe slavery it created. Tle lecture ends wiﬁn an oratorial
trumpet blast: "Progress, ne Auﬁerity! Literatnme! Geeral
Education! Liberty! Victory and Humanity!" Lawrence retes,
rewever, ﬁnat shonting abont freedom is actually "a rattling of

chains" (p. 12).

195

Before ﬁe Civil War Wise agitated ceaselessly for all ﬁe signs
of union ﬁnat were eventually created after ﬁe war: a cogregational
unnion, a rabbinical college annd union of rabbis. But re was "so
wrapped up in his zeal for activiiy' (Korn, p. 38) that he did net
realize America's Jews were more interested ﬁenn in establishing
ﬁenmselves, are at most, as cogregations. Questions of national
Jewish organization were simply net pertinent to ﬁeir daily lives:
"ﬁey were too unsettled, too ine-nperienced, annd too leterogeneons"
(Colen, p. 117). Here again Wise was intensely Americann. A belief in
dynamic and immediate change was at ﬁe core of social reform
movements of ﬁe era, which were determined "to make American society

over ﬁnrough ﬁe power of education" (63). For Wise, 'I’ne Israelite's

 

primary role was teaching Jews end non-Jews abont Judaisnm annd Reform
(Cohen, p. 141) .

Wise's self-supplied title of "American Jewish Novelist" may
strike us as quaint today, especially wlen major nevelists like Roﬁn
and Malanmud have songht to be considered "American." Tie attempt to
create an American Jewish literature did innaugurate a successful annd
influential newspaper, but was oﬁerwise unnsuccessful. Set against
his oﬁer activities before ﬁe Civil War, ﬁnis attempt fits wiﬁn the
geeral failure annd setbacks he annd oﬁer Jewish leaders suffered.
But Wise's fiction-writing is a fascinating episode in his career and
in American-Jewish history neneﬁeless, annd part of an unnrelenting
attempt to fight Antebellum Jewish apaﬁny. As Bertram Kcrn has
movingly documented, ﬁe period saw high rates of intermarriage, low

religions identification annd "no general popular demand for strog

196

Jewish leadership." Yet Wise annd oﬁer leaders "took it upon
ﬁenmselves to do battle wiﬁn ﬁe forces of dissolution" end his

fiction in The Israelite was oe weapon in that battle.

 

NOTES

(1) Some of ﬁe fiction is book legﬁn, some closer to what we
wonld call nevella-lengﬁn, end a few of ﬁne nevels are really ﬁe
legﬁn of stert stories. Most of ﬁe critics, annd Wise himself, call
ﬁe fiction "novels" annd I shall do ﬁe same for ﬁe convenience of
ﬁe reader.

(2) Aryeh Rubinstein, "Issac Mayer Wise: A New Appraisal,"

Jewish Social Studies 39, re. 1-2 (Winter-Spring), p. 53.

 

(3) Lucy S. Dawidowicz, "wnen Reform Was Yonng," Commentary 42

 

(July 1966) p. 63. Review of James G. Heller's Isaac M_.Wise: His

 

Life, Work annd Tneught (New York: Tne Union of American Hebrew

 

Cogregations, 1964).
(4) Abraham Steinnberg, Diss. Tle Unniversity of Michigan, 1954.

(5) See for instance Leon A. Jick, The Americanization 9; the;

 

m 1820-1870 (Hanever, New Hampshire: University Press of New
England, 1976), pp. 217-218.
(6) Heller, p. 705.

(7) "Autobiography annd ﬁe American Myth," American Quarterly,

 

vol. xvii, no. 3 (Fall, 1965), pp. 501-519.

(8) Isaac Mayer Wise, Reminiscences, 1901 ed. David Philipson

 

(Reprint New York: Arne Press, 1973), p. 314.

(9) Naphtali B. Rubinger, "Dismissal in Albany, " American Jewish

 

Arohives, November 1972, p. 314.

197

198

(10) David Philipson end Louis Grossman, Selected Writing g

 

Isaac Mayer Wise (Reprint New York: Arne Press end ﬁe New York

 

Times, 1963), p. 375.
(11) Dena Wilensky, From Sinnai E Cinncinnati (New York:

 

 

Renaissence Book Company, 1937).

 

 

(12) "Isaac Mayer Wise" in Tie Papers 5; Isaac Mayer Wise, _a_

Guide _to_ the Microfilm Edition (n.p.: Bell & Howell annd ﬁe American

 

Jewish Archives, 1981), p. 14. This guide inncludes Wise's
autobiographical "World of My Books, " two important articles by Jacob
Rader Marcus end an article assessing Wise's ﬁeology. Future
references to articles collected nere will be to "Guide."

(13) Bertram Wallace Kcrnn, Eventful Years end Experieees

 

(Cinncinnnnati: American Jewish Archives, 1954), p. 125.

(14) Max B. May, Isaac Mayer Wise. Tfe Fonnnder of American

 

Judaism (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1916), p. 195.

(15) "Pioeers of American Jewish Defense," Anmerican Jewish

 

Archives, November 1977, p. 150.

(16) Nina Baym, Novels, Readers and Reviewersi Responses _t_o

 

Fiction _in Antebellum America (Iﬁnaca: Cornell University Press,

 

1984), p. 31.

(17) Carl Bode, ed. Midcentury America, Life E _ﬁ_e 1850s

 

(Carbondale: Sonﬁern Illineis University Press, 1972), p. 126.

Literature (Philadelphia: Tle Jewish Publication Society, 1974), p.

 

251 .

(19) Vol. I, no. I, p. 4. Baym points out that the terms "novel"

199

end ""romeee were used interchangeably end quite idiosynncratically in
ﬁe Antebellum period.

(20) Published in Leipzig end Berlin from 1837-1922, this German-
Jewish jonrnnal champioed moderate Reform, Jewish emancipation, annd
closer ties wiﬁn non-Jews.

(21) September 1847, quoted in S.D. Temkin, "Isaac Mayer Wise,
1819-1875," Diss. Hebrew Union College, 1964, p. 164.

(22) Tfe sole writer I have fonnnd wl'e makes eny claims for Wise's
liturgical poetry is Abraham Cronbach, "Tfe Spront ﬁnat Grew,"

American Jewish Archives, vol. xxvii, ne. 1 (April, 1975).

 

(23) See, for instance, Martin Ryback, "Tle East-West Gxnflict in

American Reform Judaism, " American Jewish Archives, vol. iv, ne. 1,

 

(Jenuary 1952) end Maxwell Whiteman, "Isaac Leeser end ﬁe Jews of

Philadelphia, " Publications 9f ﬁe American Jewish Historical Society,

 

 

vol. XLVIII, no. 4 (June, 1959).
(24) Julian Barres (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1985), p. 33.

(25) Solomon B. Freetef, intro. to David Philipson's T're Reform

 

Movement in Judaism, revised (New York: KTAV Publishing House, Inc.:
1967), pp. xi-xii.

(26) Tle official position of Reform in America until 1937
rejected Mosaic laws ﬁnat were net appropriate for "modern
civilization" end eny national identity for Jews, considering Judaism
to be "a progressive religion, ever striving to be in accord with ﬁe
postulates of reason."

(27) It began appearing a year after The Israelite.

 

(28) Temkin, p. 3.

200

(29) Tle Jewish Heroine appeared in volume I of Tie Israelite

 

 

directly after Wise's Tfe Convert from August 18 ﬁnrough September 22,

 

1854. It is subtitled, "Translated from ﬁe Spanish" and listed as
Wise's work, that is, a trenslation, oe assumes, by May end Heller.
While Wise mentioed expecting translations from German end French
(which appeared in oﬁer jonrnals) re never mentions Spanish
literature as a sonrce annd none of his biograpl‘ers credit him wiﬁn
knewledgefoﬁeleguage. It is safetoassumeﬁeworkishisin
entirety.

(30) Marc Lee Raphael, Profiles i_n_ American Judaism (San

 

Franncisco: Harper and Row Publisters, Inc: 1984), p. 14.
(31) Quoted in Roger B. Rollin, "Against Evaluation: Tie Role of

ﬁe Critic of Popular Culture, " inn Theories arnd Meﬁedologies gr:

 

Popular Culture, eds. Ray B. Browne, Sam Groog, Jr., Larry Lanndrum,

 

np., n.d., p. 359.

(32) Steinberg, p. 257.
(33) Ag Yesterday When I: 1

Past (Cinncinnnnati: Isaac M. Wise

 

Temple, 1942) p. 73.
(34) Wise wrote two German plays which were serialized in ﬁg

Deborah; oe was published in Cinncinnnnait in 1858: Die Maskierte

 

Liebhaber.

(35) Heller has "steaming" for "foaming" annd speculates ﬁnat ﬁe
German for foam (Schaunm) is its root, but ﬁe newspaper page clearly
reads " foaming."

(36) Selected Writings, p. 169.

 

(37) Henry L. Feingold, _A Midrash 9n_n American Jewish History

 

201

(Albany: State University of New York Press, 1982), p. 28.

(38) Nina Baym, Woman's Fiction: A Guide _t__o_ Novels by _ag abont

 

Women _i_r_n America, 1820-1870 (Iﬁnaca: Cornell Universiw Press, 1978),

 

p. 17.
(39) Lorman Rater, "Conversion of ﬁe Jews end Pro-Civil War

Reform," American Quarterly, Vol. xii, Spring 1961, re. 1, pp. 43—55.

 

(40) Isaac Mayer Wise, (New York: J. Muhlhaeuser, 1852).

(41) Wise retes ﬁnat "old Jews" believed spirits conld enter a
houseIeld if ﬁe Mezuzah scroll, which anmog oﬁer biblical verses
blesses ﬁese entering and leaving, was defective (En_sn_n_l) in some way.

(42) [43233511, p. 61.

(43) Wise's Tle Essence o_f Judaism appeared in 1861 and was

 

revised annd reissued in 1868.
(44) Eleoere 0. Sterling, "Anti-Jewish Riots in Germany in 1819:

A Displacement of Social Protest, " Historia Judaica, vol. xii, April

 

1950, Part 1. Sterling retes ﬁnat "Hep" has been varionsly defined:

an acronym for Jerusalem is lost (Hierosolyma est perdita, a

 

Crusader's chant); Frenconian goaﬁerds' call to ﬁeir goats; an
abbreviation for "Hebraer", an acronym for Haman, Esau end Pharoah,
eemies of ﬁe Jews).

(45) "Dismissal in Albeny."

(46) TTeBookofE‘sﬁner, setduringﬁereignofﬁePersianKing
Ahasuerus, tells new ﬁe Jewish Qneen saves ler people from ﬁe threat
of ennihilation by interceding wiﬁn ﬁe King.

(47) Cecil Roth, Histogy 9g _th_e_ Jews (New York: Sclecken Press,

1973), p. 115

202

(48) Hyam Maccoby, Revolution in Judaea (New York: Taplinger

 

Publishing Co., Inc, 1980), p. 52.

(49) Jacob Weusner, Anncient Israel After Catastrople

 

(Onarlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1983), p. 15.
(50) Citations from ﬁnisnevelanndﬁenextwillbefromﬁebock

versions, identical to ﬁese appearing in The Israelite, for ﬁe

 

reader's convenience.

(51) Adin Steinsaltz, The Essential Talmud, trans. Chaya Galai,

 

(New York: Bantam Books, 1977), pp. 25-26.

(52) See Moshe Rinett, "Gabriel Riesser, Fighter for Jewish
Emencipation," LBIYB, VII, 1962, pp. 11-38.

(53) Robert Glennn Wright, "Tle Social Christian Novel in ﬁe
Gilded Age," Diss. George Washington Unniversity, 1968.

(54) Philip Roth, Reading Myself end Others (Farrar, Staus and
Giroux, 1975), p. 222.

(55) G.R. T‘nempson, ed. Tle Gothic Imagi_nation: Essays _in_n Qa_rk_
Romanticisnm (Washington State Unniversity Press, 1974), p. 7.

(56) Eire Railo, Tfe Haunted Castle: A Study 9f ﬁe Elements 9f

 

English Romanticism (New York: E.P. Dutton & Cb, 1923), p. 43.
(57) Richard Chase, The American Novel and Its Tradition
(Garden City, New York: Donbleday Anncrer Books, 1957), p. 36.

(58) Devendra Varma, The Gothic Flame (New York: Russell &

 

Russell, 1966), p. xiii.

(59) Leslie Fiedler, Love annd Death i_n ﬁe American Novel

 

 

(Iondon: Grenada Publishing, Ltd., 1970), p. 120.

(60) Montague Summers, Tfe Gothic Quest: A H_i_sgy 91: ﬁe Goﬁnic

 

 

203

w (New York: Russell & Russell, Innc., 1964), p. 129.

(61) Leonard J. Kent and Knight, Elizabeth C., eds. and trans.
211% of E.T.A. Hoffman (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press,
1972), p. xv.

(62) D.H. Lawrence, Studies _i_g Classic American Literature
(New York: Penguin Books, 1977), p. 14.

(63) John L. Thomas, "Romantic Reform in Anmerica, 1815—1865,"

American Quarterly, vol. xvii Winter 1965, no. 4, p. 79.

APPENDICES

AppendixA:

WiseonTneLastStrnggle
ofﬁeNation

 

 

Tle Israelite, August 8, 1856:

 

Such will be ﬁe title of ﬁe next originnal nevel, written for
ﬁe Israelite, ﬁe first chapter of which will appear as soon as
ﬁe auﬁer returns from his jonrrey.

This nevel treats on a period of Jewish history: viz, fifty
years after ﬁe destruction of ﬁe second temple, when Hadrian
adminnistered ﬁe final blow to ﬁe political eristeee of Israel,
anndis richnotonlyofﬁegreatestcharactersendmesteminent
reroismendactsofunprecededconrageendofbravery, butalso
of romantic occurrences annd high-minded females. This, annd ﬁe
fact of its acting in ﬁe Orient, give ﬁe annﬁer a wide scope,
netonlytobringallhishistorical geniusandknewledge, but
alsohisphantasyarndpoetical talentstobearonit.

Noperiodinﬁehistoryofenynationwasmeresadly
neglected end more unnscrupulonsly misrepresented ﬁnan ﬁe above--
Christian historiens, partly unnacquainted with ﬁe original
sonrces end partly misled by religions considerations, failed
entirely in reproducing this sad, yet glorions epoch of Jewish
history, annd ﬁe Jewish historians are too pedantic to be
original. wrehasrepresentedtousintruthﬁecharacterofa
Bar Kochba, Rabbi Akibah, Rabbi Jeleshuah, Isnmael ben Nantes,
Rabbi Tarphon, BenSoma, BenAsai, orevenAcher, TurnusRuphus?
Noe. This piece of work was spared for onr revelist, annd we
have re donbt re will do it justice.

Tle peculiar romantic of oriental antiquity, ﬁe fairy forms
of ﬁe daughters of Zion, ﬁe eminennce and intensity of oriental
passions, ﬁe attractive simplicity of ﬁeir habits end living,
end ﬁeir capability of self-denial end self-sacrifice are rich
materials to surprise, emuse and to instruct ﬁe reader. Let,
ﬁerefore, ﬁe ladies prepare for a grand fete, ﬁey will be
offered a characteristic nevel, such as only ﬁe Jewish revelist

who is a ﬁerongh historian, can produce.

Welepetoseeﬁeauﬁerreturntoﬁniscitywithinﬁe
nextforthnight, inordertobeenabledtopleaseonrmnmerons
readersendpatrons, meanwhile we mustbegﬁemtoreadﬁe
useful articles of ﬁe Israelite end postpoe ﬁeir curiosity for
twoorﬁnreeweeks.

204

5..

Tfe Israelite, May 15, 1857:

 

Volume II. Sole PreparetoryRemarks.

Tfe firstvolume ofﬁnishistorical nevel havingbeensokinndly
receivedbyourreaders, bothinAmericaandEurope, webegin
todayto layﬁesecondvolume beforeonrkinndreaderswiﬁnﬁe
hope of giving ﬁenm ﬁnat satisfaction which we cann afford to give
ﬁereader. We alsotakeﬁnisopportunnityof informingonr
friendsﬁnatthisnevel willbepublistedinbookform assoonas
practicable; ﬁese wne wish to subscribe for it will please send
us ﬁeir names.

TheAnnthor

Tfe Israelite, November 13, 1857:

 

'Tte Last Struggle of ﬁe Nation,‘ ﬁe unnusually interesting
Novel, which is geerally fonnnd on ﬁnis page, has been omitted
thisweek, onaccomtofﬁecontimnedabseeeofﬁeFditorin
ﬁe East. It will be resumed on his return--perhaps in ﬁe
next number. Meanwhile, we introduce, in its stead, ﬁne

interesting 'Editorial correspondence-«No. III,‘ which we hope
will satisfy onr numerous readers.

The Israelite, January 28, 1858, ﬁe revel's conclusion:

 

Noﬁningmoreremainstobesaidthantotakeleaveofﬁe
readers. IwishIhadsatisfiedﬁemaswell Idesiredtodo;
butitappearSIamnetagoodhandforromanticcomposition. my
intentionwasgood: Todojusticetoaperiodofreroesand
martyrs,ashistoryhasnctasecondtos!ew,wasmyintention;
forﬁesemenhavebeenabusedendmisrepresentedbyalmostevery
historian (especially by Dr. Jost) end ﬁeological writer. World
toGodmypenwasgcodeeughtodepictﬁesemeninﬁeirtrue
greatness, ﬁnat ﬁe shame be expunged, which prejudice, malice or
servility has leaped on ﬁe tombs of onr faﬁers.

AndsoIpartfromﬁereaders, beggingﬁemtokeepmyl'eroes
andreroinnesisgoodmemory; also while beggingﬁeirindulgeee
formnyinabilities, requestingﬁemnettoforgetﬁeauﬁerwne
hasdoehisbesttodojusticetohisoffendedeeestry.

IseacM.Wise

205

Reminsceees, 1875 (trens. 1901):

 

I returned to Cinncinnnnati in ﬁe middle of August [1856]....I had
bronght back wiﬁn me sketcles for ﬁnree nevels, which I developed
later annd publisted in ﬁe Israelite. Tle first, which began to
appear in ﬁe issue of Argust 29th, was entitled, "Tle Last
Struggle of ﬁe Nation; or, Rabbi Akiba annd His Time." Tle
leading characters were Bar Kokhba end Rabbi! Aqiba, end ﬁeir
most prominent contemporaries. I introduced ﬁe yonng Rabbi Meir
in ﬁe role of ﬁe lover: Acter, ﬁe traitorons Samaritans,
TurnusRufus, andseveraloﬁnerRomansfurnishedﬁedarkerside
ofﬁepicture. Ihadtoinnventﬁefemalecharacters. Ihave
BarKokhbaaneroicwife, endintroducedBeruriahasterfoster-
daughter. Ste was, as may be imagined, Meir's beloved. I gave
Rabbi Aqiba also a Ieroic daughter, wle spurns ﬁe love of Acler,
end drives hinm to despair.

I included wiﬁnin ﬁese ontlines all ﬁe historical events from
ﬁebeginningofﬁerevolutiontoﬁefall ofBeﬁnaranndﬁe
flightofMeirtoﬁeEast. Iputintoﬁemonﬁnsofﬁe
prominent Tanaim ﬁneir own words and ideas, as reported in ﬁe
Talmud and Midrash. I described as faiﬁnfully as possible ﬁe
customs, habits, views, ﬁe patriotism, ﬁe leroism, ﬁe
victories end defeats, ﬁe joys and sufferings of ﬁnat period of
storm annd stress. I had in mind ﬁe twofold object of awakening
once again Jewish patriotism, end of popularizing an inmportant
portion of Jewish literature.

Tfe selection was fortunate, for Rabbi Aqiba, his contemporaries,
end his pupils were ﬁe nest exalted examples of rabbinical
wisdom. Tney were unexcelled in neral depth end spiritual
evaluation. Anabundanceoftruﬁnsandnebledeeds, suchasare
reportedfrom ﬁnat tinme, iswell adaptedtoinstilrespectannd
aronseeagernesstoknewallﬁnereistoknewofﬁeperiod.
That epoch, so rich in achievements, was well suited to furnish
enpression to glowing enﬁnusiasm and fiery patriotisnm. The
acconnt of new ﬁe Jewish people arose, new it struggled even
unnto deaﬁn against all-powerful Rome, new it fonght heroically
endfinnallysuoonmbed, mustaronseeveryreader. Wteeverhasa
spark of Jewish feeling must be deeply thrilled by ﬁese great
deeds. Yes, ﬁe selection was forturnate, I mused. I grew
enﬁnusiastic, I rejoiced, I wept while writing. Being in ﬁe
company of ﬁese heroes, I often forgot ﬁe present. Thousands,
as I knew well, read ﬁe nevel eagerly, end it left a deep
impression on ﬁeusands. Tle fact that ﬁe classical figures
were Jews and net Greeks, or at least Romans, displeased some
critics. Tle anti-Talmudical agitators were chagrined at seeing
prominentTalmudistsappearinsopopularagarb. Butﬁerevel
was readmore widelythananythinghadeverbeenreadinAmerioan
Jewish circles.

206

Tle oﬁer two historical nevels were elaborated later. Tle oe
was entitled 'Tl‘e Combat of ﬁe People; or Hillel annd Herod.‘ In
ﬁnis nevel Hillel, his son Simon, and ﬁeir rabbinnical
contemporarires, Herod, his relatives and his conriers appeared
as ﬁe characters. Tfe oﬁer was entitled, "Tre First of ﬁe
Maccabees," annd treated ﬁe period from ﬁe arousal of ﬁe Jewish
peoplebyﬁeAsmoneanandhissonstoﬁere—dedicationofﬁe
temple at Jerusalem. Jose ben Joezer was made oe of ﬁe
prirncipal characters. Both nevels were written alog sinmilar
linesasﬁefirst. Iemstillofﬁeconvictionﬁnatﬁese
nevels, annd ﬁese written later by Nathan Mayer annd H. H. Moos,
netonlyestablisledendlentprosperitytoﬁelsraeliteandﬁe
Deborahbutﬁnatﬁneyhadatellinginflueeeonﬁnonsanndsof
readersinﬁewayofarousingpatriotismendadasirefor
Jewish learning. Trey ﬁnus accomplisl'ed ﬁeir purpose fully,
alﬁeughIneverhadannyambitiontobecomerenewnedasa
revelist. Thousands of copies of ﬁe last-named stories were
sold in a second edition.

207

AmendixB: ALittleBdnemian

 

Thisnovelraninﬁnreeparts(someextendingovermoreﬁnanoe
issue) from October 29 ﬁnrongh December 3, 1880, end while it is
unlike eny of Wise's oﬁner nevels, it bears a strog resemblence to
Henry James's "Daisy Miller." That tale appeared in 1878 end was, as
is well known, a literary sensation. James' tale was immediately
pirated in New York end Boston, selling twenty ﬁeusannd copies in a
few weeks when Harper's publisned it as a pamphlet (1). Like ﬁe
James story, A Little Bohemian is abont an innnecent, fresh girl,

 

English in ﬁnis case, wne eventually dies after social ostraciem.

Meeting Daisy Browne at witty, sharp-togued Lady Belminster's
(reminiscent of Jemes's Mrs. Costello), Annnesley is of two minds abont
thegirl--issleinnecentornet? Herfaﬁerisabonnnder, andste
calls ferself a Bdemian because ﬁey are much travelled annd very
poor: "we have ne conntry...we are wenderers on ﬁe face of ﬁe
earth." Annesley falls in love end marries fer, but all Creamshire
society turns "ﬁeir backs on her" annd sfe is not welcome despite
Annesley's attempts to launnch her in conntry society. T'rere is some
suspicion abont fer wfen a woman claims ﬁnat sle saw a lovely sixteen-
year—old newlywed like Daisy five years ago on a Onennel crossing.

Annesley's great friend Jack Gnarteris returnns from abroad
married and onts Daisy at a charity bazaar. Daisy is ﬁnus forced to
reveal to her husband ﬁnat in France, Charteris's disreputable

208

broﬁer, ﬁe current Lord Hazlewocd, fed and sreltered rer when rer
faﬁer was broke, end sent Ier to safety in England. Jack Gnarteris
fonnnd Daisy annd his broﬁer at dinnner end believed ﬁey were married-—
or worse. Hazelwood tells Annesley ﬁe sanme story, but when l'e
overcomes his shame to beg Daisy‘s forgiveess for donbting ler, sle
hasalreadydrownedterself, leavinghim endCreamshire society
guilty.

Tfequestionofinnnecenceasweighedbyanobserver, endﬁe
heroine'sfirstnanmeanndcommonsecondnamearenetﬁeonly
similarities wiﬁn James' tale. Both girls are described to similar
effect (ﬁe James quotation is first):

"...sle gradually gave him more of ﬁe beefit of Ier
glannce; annd ﬁnen 1e saw ﬁnat this glannce was perfectly
direct and unshrinking. It was net, fewever, what wonld
have been called an immodest glence, for ﬁe yonng girl's
eyes were singularly hoest annd fresh" (2).
"Whenforﬁefirsttimesteturnslerprettyblueeyesend
l'erattentiononhim, andﬁeughﬁereisnetaparticleof
shynessinlermennerandbearing, Iediscoversinamoment

ﬁnat ﬁere is net an atom of...under-bred coquetry"
(A Little Bohemian, Part I).

 

Like James's Daisy, ﬁe little Botemian is fresh, pretty, frank,
uneonventionalandinasenseisolated fromﬁeparentsteseemsto
care abont. Annesley's puzzlement over wreﬁer sle is as innnecent as
sle seems resolves, newever, in his marrying her despite Daisy‘s hints
of some secret inrerpast thatlemightdisapproveof. Wrenhis
disapproval does come, it is as complete as Winterbonrne's when re
decides ﬁnat Daisy Miller "was a yonng lady wnem a gentleman need no
logerbeatpainstorespect" (p. 190). Pressedtorespondtoter
confession, Annnesley sends his wife away: "I do not believe yon. I

209

shonld be a fool if I did. Go!" Rejected, Daisy drownns ferself end
ner body is discovered by moonlight; Daisy Miller catcnes ler fatal
fever in ﬁe moonlit Coliseum.

A11 ﬁese similarities--end meny oﬁers——point to a clear
inspiration by James's slert story, but ﬁe auﬁership is not so
clear. Writing in 1900, Lonis Grossnmann listed six of Wise's nevels
end mentioed ﬁnat oﬁers appeared in "ﬁe early volumes of _T!_ne
Israelite," which wonld hardly innclude volume 27. Jones Heller does
attribute ﬁe story to Wise, but wiﬁn no doonmentation as to his

sonrce. After 1856, wfen Wise subtitled Tle Last Struggle of ﬁe

 

Nation as "By ﬁe American Jewish Novelist" annd his name appeared at
its end, all his subsequent nevels bear ﬁnat designation, or are

listed as being by ﬁe auﬁer of nevels ﬁnat do. A Little Botemian

 

has re such attribution, ner does it have a scintilla of Jewish
content. It is possible that Wise was so impressed by "Daisy Miller"
that re songht to emulate its achievement-but why set ﬁe story in
Englend, whichredidnetknew, andwhypassupﬁeogportuniwto
make Daisy Browne's secret a Jewish parent, especially when such
secrets are a staple of his fiction. Given Wise's ﬁemes, ﬁnis story
of English connntry snebbery seems an unnlikely subject for him to
cfecse, especially at a time when 1e had net written eny fiction for
sixteen years.

Tre writing itself is mostly in ﬁe present tense which Wise
never uses as a dominant mode. Its focus on characters' ostensible
wittiness end annalysis of ﬁeir feelings bears re resemblence

whatsoever to his oﬁner fiction. Consider ﬁnis passage:

210

Herhusband,comirginaminuteortwolater,standslooking
critically end admiringly. Eyes annd month are a great deal
graverendmoresorrowfulthanﬁeeyesendmonﬁnofﬁe
younggirlwnehaddressedherselfinl'ercl'eapwhitegown
to go to Lady Belminster's garden-party ayear end a half
ago. Buttedoesnetseeﬁnat. Hehasperhapsgrownused
toﬁechange. Heonlyseesthatsleisverybeautiful,end
some of ﬁe old pride of possession, ﬁe lover-like
tenderness of manner, ﬁnat have been obliterated, or at eny
rate,ﬁnrnnstintoﬁebackgronndbyﬁetronblesand
enneyancesofﬁepastmonﬁns,stirinhimafresh.

TnerhyﬁnmsofﬁeproseandﬁevocabularyseemquiteunlikeWise's,
ﬁeughagain it mustbe admitted ﬁnatﬁesixteenyears separating

ﬁnis story and Tfe Rabbi of Bacherach might acconnt for ﬁe change.

 

Given Wise's ambivalent attitude towards his fiction as expressed in

Reminniscences only five years before, enonymons publication,

 

especially of a "ten-Jewish" piece, seems a possibility. But given
also his emphasis on creating positive Jewish portraits in his fiction

A Little Bohemian is net very likely by Wise. There is unfortunately

 

ne way of determining what sonrces Heller had to attribute ﬁnis story
that a writer like Grossman, wre knew Wise, did net. Perhaps ﬁe
title ﬁnrew Heller off, end re did net actually read ﬁe piece. In

any event, I anm net convinced that A Little Bolemian was written by

 

Wise, but in ﬁe absence of definite proof to ﬁe contrary, end
because Wise's primary biograpner does list it as Wise's, I innclude it

nere.

(1) Leon Edel, Henry James (Harper end Row, Publisters: New York,
1985), p. 216.

 

(2) Henry James, Selected Stert Stories, ed. Michael Swan (Peguin
Books, 1973: Hamoxismrth, England), p. 140.

 

211

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