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A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THO SETS OF EDUCATIONAL
POLICIES AND THEIR IMPACT ON EDUCATIONAL

DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN
By

Muhammad Nasim Gaisrani

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfiltment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
ColLege of Education

1984

ABSTRACT

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF Two SETS OF EDUCATIONAL
POLICIES AND THEIR IMPACT ON EDUCATIONAL
DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN
by

Muhammad Nasim Qaisrani

This study was undertaken as a historical inquiry into,
and comparative analysis of, the proposals of (a) Pakistan
Commission on National Education Policy (1959) and
(b) Pakistan Education Policy (1972) and their impact on
educational development in Pakistan. Both these policies
commonly subscribed (1) to universalize primary education
(2) to moderately expand secondary and higher education
(3) to increase enrollments in scientific and technical
subjects, and (4) to redistribute educational facilities
betweem male/female and among provinces.

To accomplish these goals, the Commission (1959)
involved the private sector more significantly and imposed
tuition fees. Education Policy (1972) nationalized the
private sector, made education free up to high school
levels and standardized tuition fees at higher levels.

This study attempted to assess and compare the impacts of
these two different policy approaches with the intention to
see whether one or the other approach appeared relatively

more effective.

Muhammad Nasim Qaisrani

The research methodology was essentially historical and
descriptive and consisted of three steps. First, the
researcher examined the educational policies, subsequent
devel0pment plans and described and assessed the outcomes
of each policy. Second, the results of both policies'
achievements were compared. Third, the differences in
achievements were explained and discussed with respect to
policy approaches.

The assessment and comparison of both policy approaches
provided the following results.

1. Primary education did deveLOp in both policy
periods but large scale quantitative shortfalls against the
set targets were observed in both cases.

2. Secondary education expanded faster during first
policy period, largely because of involvement of local
authorities and the private sector. Under Education Policy
(1972), nationalization and free education increased
government expenditures but did not help much to increase
further expansion and redistribution of educational
facilities.

3. College and university education expanded faster
than was expected and faster than was needed in both policy
periods. However, under EP (1972), the nationalization of

colleges and the establishment of a University Grants

Muhammad Nasim Qaisrani

Commission resulted in increased enrollments in scientific
and technical subjects. Also, better redistribution
occurred during EP (1972).

On the basis of these findings, it is recommended

1. Private sector, local authorities and local
communities become further involved in the deveLOpment of
primary and secondary education.

2. Government Should control higher education. In the
future, emphasis should be on qualitative improvement and
consolidation of existing facilities rather than further
expansion.

3. Tuition fees Should again be imposed at all
levels. Particularly at higher education levels, maximum
cost should be recovered from users. Hower, the poorer
sections of the society and backward areas should be

compensated with loans and scholarships.

DEDICATION

To my parents, Mrs. and Hagi Mehmood Khan Qaisrani, for
their prayers and sacrifices that laid the ground for this

work.

ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I express my gratitude and prayers to the Almighty, the
Benevolent, the Merciful, whose protection and affection I
seek and enjoy.

Professor Ben A. Bohnhorst, my academic advisor and
chairman of my dissertation committee, has been much more
than a teacher to me throughout my stay in the United
States. He is the one who significantly contributed to my
moral, intellectual and professional growth. His profound
regards for humanism have rendered everlasting impacts on
my mind. My heartiest and sincerest thanks to him.

Professors Cole Brembeck, Charles Blackman, Kenneth
Neff, and Scott Vaughn were helpful and considerate and I
thank them for their wise counsel and consideration.

I also thank my brothers, sister, nieces and nephew,
Muhammad Farooq Qaisrani in Pakistan, for their prayers,
love and support. Without their encouragement and
emotional endearment, this work could never be completed.

Finally, I am grateful to the University of Baluchistan
for granting me leave of absence and to the government of

Pakistan for her financial assistance.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

LIST OF FIGURES I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

Chapter

I.

II.

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Framework and Delimitation of the Study
Statement of Purposes and Objectives
Purposes . . . . . . . . . . .
Objectives . . . . . . . . . .
Importance of the Study . . . .
Method and Sources . . . . . . .
Definition of Basic Concepts and Terms
Overview of the Study . . . . .

EDUCATIONAL POLICY DEVELOPMENTS IN PAKISTAN .

The Muslim Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
British Education Policy . . . . . . . . . . .
New Concept of Education . . . . . . . . . . .
Hood Despatch of 1854 . . . . . . . . . . . .
Establishment of Formal System of Education
Administration and Management of Education .
Financing of Education . . . . . .
Training of Teachers . . . . . . . . . .
Establishment of Universities . .
Female Education . . . . . . . . . . . .

Indian Education Commission (1882) . . .
Evaluation of British Education Policies
Post Independence Policies . . . . . . . .
Pakistan National Education Conference,
PNEC (1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Commission on National Education, CNE (1959) .
Management of Education . . . . . . . .
PrOposals for New Education Policy, PEP (1969)
Education Policy (1972-1980) . . . . . . . . .
Summary of Post Independence Education Policies

iv

Page
viii

xii

18
20
21
24

25
26
27
27
27
29
31
33

35
39
42
46
47
S1

III.

IV.

METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN . . .

Methodology . . . . . . . .
PrObLem I I I I I I I I I I
ObjeCtives I I I I I I I I I

Assessment of Educational DeveLOpment

Expansion . . . . . . . .
Redistribution . . . . . .

Enrollment in Scientific and Technical

Subjects . . . . . . . .

Assessment of Primary Education

Assessment of Secondary Education

Assessment of Higher Education
Comparative Analysis of DeveLOpment

Sources of Data . . . . . .
Limitations . . . . . . . .

ASSESSMENT, COMPARISON AND ANALYSIS OF

DEVELOPMENT I I I I I I I

Primary Education . . . . .
Role of the Government . .
Role of the Local Bodies .
Role of the Private Sector

Distribution of Primary Education

Girls' Education . . . . .
Provincial Distribution .

Summary of Primary Education DeveLOpment

During CNE (1959) . . .

Education Policy (1972) and the DeveLOpment

of Primary Education . .

Distribution of Educational Facilities
Summary of Primary Education Development,

1972-1978 I I I I I I I

Comparison of Effectiveness of Two Policies

Expenditure Level . . . .
Distribution Level . . . .

Summary of Primary Education DevelOpments

Page
54

55
S6
57
58
58
58

S9
59
59
59
60
60
62

65

65
71
76
81
86
86
89

91

91
95

96
97
97
100
100

Page

Secondary Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

BaCkground I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 101
CNE (1959) and its Program of Secondary
Education DeveLOpment . . . . . . . . . 104

Second Five Year Plan, 1960-1965 . . . . . . . 105
Third Five Year Plan (1965-1970) . . . . . . . 106
CNE (1959) and DeveLOpment of Secondary

Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Middle School Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
High School Education . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Role of the Private Sector . . . . . . . . . . 111
Role of the Local Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Distribution of Secondary Education . . . . . 116
CNE (1959) and Summary of Secondary Edu uca ation
DeveLOpments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Middle Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
High Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Education Policy (1972) and DeveLOpme nt
of Secondary Education . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Middle Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
High Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Distribution of Secondary Education . . . . . 121
Comparison of Effectiveness of Two PO li c1eS . 123
Expenditure Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Expansion Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Distribution Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Summary of Secondary Education . . . . . . . . 127

College Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
CNE (1959) and DeveLOpment of College
Education . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Distribution of College Education . .
Female Education . . . . . . . . . . .
Education (1972) and DeveLOpment of Col

I I I I 130
le

Education I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 141
a

I I I 138
. . . 140

Distribution of College Education . . . . . 143
Development of Female Education . . . . . . 145
Enrollment in Scientific and Technical

College Level in Pakistan, 1970-1978 . . . . 146
Education Policy (1972) and Summary of

College Education DeveLOpment . . . . . . . 146
Comparison of Development . . . . . . . . . . 148
Women's Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Comparison of Enrollment in Scientific

and Technical Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Explanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Summary of College Education in Pakistan . . . 156

vi

University Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Commission on National Education and Program
for University Education Development . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Education Policy (1972) and University
Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Implementation of Policy and DeveLOpment of
University Education in Pakistan
(1970-1978) . . . . .
Pakistan Study Centres .
Centres of Excellence .

Area Study Centres . . . . . .
Establishment of New Universities.
Establishment of UGC . . . . . . . .
Expansion of the System . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary of University Education Development

From 1970 to 1978 . . . . . . . . . .
Comparison of Effectiveness of CNE (1959) and

EP (1972) and the Development of University

Education in Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary of University Education . . . . . . .

V. SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . .

Primary Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Problems Confronting the Expansion of
Primary Education in Pakistan . . . . . . .
Secondary Education . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Middle School Level . . .
High School . . . . .
Discussion . . . . . . .
College Education . . .
Discussion . . . . . . .
University Education . . . . . . .
Recommendations for Future Education
Policy DeveLOpments . . . . . . .

BIBLIOGRAPHY I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

vii

Page
157
157

159
167

168
168

170
170
170
171
171
172
172

174

175
176

178
180

182
186
187
189
191
192
193
195
196
196

200

10.

11.

12.

13.

LIST OF TABLES

Educational Heritage of Pakistan, 1947-1948 . .

Primary Education DeveLOpment Program
in Pakistan, 1960-1970 . . . . . . . . . . .

a(1). DeveLOpment Expenditure on Education in

Pakistan, Second Five Year Plan
(1960-1965) I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

a(2). Third Five Year Plan . . . . . . . . . .

b. Public Recurring Expenditure on Primary

Education in Pakistan, 1960-70 . . . . . . .

c. Budget Expenditure on Primary Education

in Pakistan, 1960-70 I I I I I I I I I I I I

Local Body Primary Schools in Selected Cities
Of Pakistan 1967 (X)I I I I I I I I I I I I I

Distribution of Management of Educational
Institutions in United India (1945-46) . . .

Distribution of Management of Educational
Institutions in Pakistan (1967-68) . . . . .

Private Primary Schools in Selected Cities

Of Pakistan’ 1967 (X) I I I I I I I I I I I I

Growth of Primary Education in Pakistan,
1960-1970 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

Growth of Female Primary Education in Pakistan,
1960-1970 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

Sex Specific Enrollment Ratios for Primary
Education in Pakistan, 1970-1971 . . . . . .

Primary School Enrollment Ratios in Provinces
and Pakistan, 1971-1972 I I I I I I I I I I I

Primary Education DeveLOpment Program
in Pakistan (1972-80) . . . . . . . . . . . .

Expenditure on Primary Education in Pakistan,
1970-78 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

viii

Page

34

70

72

72

73

73

80

82

83

84

85

88

89

90

93

94

14. Growth of Primary Education in Pakistan
1970-1978 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 94

15. Primary School Enrollment Ratios, Pakistan and
PrOVinCES’ 1977-1978 I I I I I I I I I I I I 95

16.
(1). Comparison of Expenditures on Primary
Education in Pakistan During CNE (1959)
and EP (1972) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

a. Development Expenditure . . . . . . . . . 97
b. Recurring Expenditure . . . . . . . . . . 97
C. Budget Expenditure on Primary Education . 98

17. Comparison of Growth Rates of Primary
Education in Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

18. Comparison of Primary School Enrollment Ratios
in Provinces and Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . 100

19.
a. Public DeveLOpment Expenditure on
Secondary Education, 1960-1970 . . . . . . . 107
b. Public Recurring Expenditure on Secondary
Education in Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . 107
c. Budget Expenditure on Secondary Education
in Pakistan I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 107
20.

a. Growth of Middle School Education
in Pakistan, 1960/61-1970/71 . . . . . . . . 109

b. Growth of High School Education
in Pakistan, 1960-1970 I I I I I I I I I I I 111

21. Distribution of Management of Secondary
Education in Pakistan, 1967 . . . . . . . . . 114

22. Location Of Private Managed High Schools
in Pakistan, 1967 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

23. Local Bodies Schools in Pakistan (1967) . . . . 115
24.

a. Enrollment Ratios at Secondary Level in
Pakistan and Provinces, 1970 . . . . . . . . 116

ix

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.
39.

40.

b. Enrollment Ratios of Boys and Girls

in Secondary Schools of Pakistan . . . .

Financial Performance of Secondary Education
System in Pakistan, 1970-78 . . . . . . . .

Development of Secondary Education in
Pakistan, 1970-1978 I I I I I I I I I I I I

Quantitative Expansion of High School
Education, 1970-1978 I I I I I I I I I I I

Enrollment Ratios in Secondary Education,
Pakistan and Provinces, 1977-78 . . . . . .

Enrollment Ratios of Boys and Girls in
Secondary Schools of Pakistan, 1977-78 . .

Comparison of Expenditure on Secondary
Education in Pakistan, 1960-70, 1970-1978 .

Comparative Growth Rates of Middle School
Education in Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . .

Comparison of Enrollment Ratios, Pakistan and
Provinces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Growth of College Education in Pakistan,
1947-1959 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

Public DeveLOpment Expenditures on College
Education in Pakistan,(1960-1970 . . . . .

Public Recurring Expenditures on College
Education in Pakistan, 1960-70 . . . . . .

Budget Expenditure on College Education
in P8k1$tan, 1960-70 I I I I I I I I I I I

Managementwise Growth of College Education
in Pakistan, 1970 I I I I I I I I I I I I I

Groupwise Enrollments in Colleges in Pakistan

Quantitative Expansion of College Education
in Pakistan, 1960-70 . . . . . . . . . . .

DeveLOpment Of College Education in Pakistan
and Provinces, 1960-1970 . . . . . . . . .

117

120

120

122

122

124

125

126

130

132

133

133

134

135

138

139

41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

51.

52.

S3.

54.

SS.

56.

57.

Distribution of College Education Between
Men/Women in Pakistan, 1970 . . . . . . . .

Public Expenditure on College Education in
Pakistan, 1970-78 I I I I I I I I I I I I I

Quantitative Expansion of College Education
in Pakistan, 1970-78 I I I I I I I I I I I

Growth of College Education in Pakistan
and Provinces, 1978 . . . . . . . . . . .

Distribution of College Education Between
Men/Women in Pakistan, 1978 . . . . . . . .

Enrollments in Various Groups of Studies at
College Level in Pakistan, 1976-1977 . . .

Comparison of Expenditures on College
Education I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

Comparison of College Education DeveLOpment .

Comparative DeveLOpment of College Education
in Provinces of Pakistan . . . . . . . . .

Comparison of women's Education DeveLOpment
in Both Policy Periods in Pakistan . . . .

Enrollments in Various Groups of Studies in
Colleges of Pakistan, 1960/70-1970/78 . . .

Student-Teacher Ratio in Government and
Private Colleges of Pakistan . . . . . . .

Expenditure on University Education in
Pakistan, 1960-70 . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Growth of University Education in Pakistan,
1960-70 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

Expenditure on University Education in
Pakistan, 1960-1970 I I I I I I I I I I I I

Growth of University Education in Pakistan
1970-78 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

Retention and Hastage in Classes I-V for the
Years 1962-1967 and 1972-1977 in Pakistan .

xi

Page

140

142

143

144

145

146

148

149

149

150

151

154

164

165

173

174

186

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

1. Structure of Formal Education System in
Pakistan I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

2. Educated Unemployed in Pakistan . . . . . . . 185

xii

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Eésksceyng

This study is a historical and comparative analysis of
two crucial sets of educational policy and subsequent
educational develOpment in Pakistan during the last two
decades. Efforts to implement the first policy were made
between 1960 and 1971. The second policy was put into
practice from 1971 to 1978. The explicit educational
policies for the purpose of this study are delineated in
the following key policy documents:

1. Commission on National Education, CNE (1959)1

2. Education Policy (1972-1980), EP (1972)2

Educational policies in Pakistan generally refer to
specification of aims, decisions on priorities, provision
for and management of educational facilities, and

allocation of finances.

1Government of Pakistan, 329223-21-the-£2:ei§§ien-en

895199§L_§gyggtjgg (Karachi, Pakistan: Government Printing
Press, 1961).

2Government of Pakistan. Ibs-§9222£ien-£9lisx.
1272-80 (IslamAbad, Pakistan: Ministry of Education, 1972).

These policies subscribed to several common goals but
adopted different approaches for their accomplishment. The
intent of this study is to assess and compare the differing
effects which the two approaches achieved.

It is accepted practice in Pakistan that the
determination of overall policy, goals and aims is a
function of the central government; managerial and
financial responsibility and authority are shared by
central and provincial governments. Provincial
governments, if they desire, can delegate some of their
responsibilities to local governing bodies and/or private
enterprise.

The Commission on National Education, CNE (1959), was
appointed by President Muhammad Ayub Khan in 1958 and its
prOposals remained in force until 1970-71. Education
Policy, EP (1972), was introduced by President Zulfikar Ali
Bhutto and guided the country's educational system until
1978. The policies generally agreed on four goals for
devel0ping the country's educational system.

1. Universalization of primary education,

2. Moderate expansion of secondary, college and
university education,

3. Increased emphasis on scientific and technical
subjects at college and university levels,

4. Equalizing access to educational Opportunities.
This means the redistribution of educational
facilities to men/women and among various
provinces.

In pursuing these goals, each policy adopted different
strategies which differ significantly from one another, as
described in detail in the second chapter and briefly
presented here.

The CNE (1959) encouraged the participation of the
private sector, local governing bodies and local
communities for the expansion of primary, secondary, and
college education. To enroll more students in scientific
and technical subjects, the commission's recommendation
concentrated on the Opening of residential type pilot and
comprehensive high schools and model colleges. To
redistribute educational facilities among various sections
of society, the commission pr0posed to give grants-in-aid
to poor communities and to hold government directly
responsible for educating backward areas and women. It
also recommended the charge of tuition fees at all levels
of education except at the primary level for girls and
underdevel0ped parts of the country.

Educational Policy, EP (1972), on the contrary,
nationalized the whole system of education and took the
responsibility of providing education relying on

governmental sources, rather than involving the private

sector and local governing bodies. It made education free
up to the high school level and standarized tuition fees1
at the college level. In addition, it promised the Opening
of new universities for better redistribution of higher
education. To develOp scientific and technical education,
it recommended the introduction of agro-technical and home
economics as compulsory subjects for boys and girls at the
high school level. In colleges, it promised to make
provision of professional courses and, in universities, the
establishment of centers Of excellence for various applied
sciences.

These two different approaches enjoyed a special
position in the history of educational develOpment in
Pakistan. They were prepared by elected, relatively
stable, political governments; they were presumed to be
vigorously implemented; and they both remained in force for
a considerable time period.

The focus Of this study is the comparative analysis of
the above-mentioned two crucial sets of educational
policies and their impact on the develOpment of education
in Pakistan between 1960 and 1978. More specifically, the

purpose is to describe the role of those methods Of each

1From 1960 to 1970, the tuition fee was uniform in
government colleges throughout the country. In
non-government colleges, it varied from institution to
institution. EP (1972) standarized tuition fees in all
colleges throughout the country.

 

H
(Inl‘

policy that either helped or hindered the achievement of
various goals of educational develOpment.
As Ayub Khan, the ex-president Of Pakistan, said:

If the past has not produced what was hOped for, no
good will come from blinking at that fact. Better far
to find out where the error was and how it can be
corrected. Some factors which led to unsatisfactory
performance were outside our control; others were well
within it. Both must be recognized as such, examined
carefully and assessed critically. Self-knowledge
remains for the nation, as for the individual, the
first step in wisdom.

It is hOped that this comparative analysis Of various
policy methods and their effectiveness will clarify
certain Of the shortcomings Of past approaches and will
help identify an alternate set Of methods which may be
more adequate and effective for the accomplishment of

Pakistan's educational goals in the future.

EI!!£!9I£-§DQ-2£Li!iI§IiQQ-91-£h£-§IQQZ
In order to understand the specific problem and purpose
of this study, the reader should understand what is
included in and what is excluded from the framework.
First of all, the focus is on general education from
primary through higher levels. The structure Of the formal
educational system in Pakistan is presented in Figure 1.

Horizontally through the center of the figure is a straight

‘Ayub Khan, 991sstixss-21-shs-§ssené-£ixs-!ses-£len
$12§Q:§§2, quoted in Albert Haterson, Elgggjgg_jg
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line leading from primary through figsrgrlsrgggrgg. It is
develOpments in this line which are studied here.
DeveLOpments in the branches above and below this central
stem are not included in this study.~

Secondly, the focus Of this study is on the particular
policies develOped and implemented between 1959 and 1978.
Earlier and later educational policies are mentioned as
precursive or subsequent policy statements, but are not
included in this study. Thirdly, as a further
clarification of the frameworks of this study, the reader
should recall that Pakistan was divided until 1971 between
East and Best Pakistan. The focus in this study is only on
developments in what was first Hest Pakistan and continues
as Pakistan to the present time. East Pakistan became
Bangladesh in 1971 and develOpments in that society are not
included here. The reader should be aware that until 1969
no separate provinces designated as such existed in the
west, but after the breakup of one-unit in 1969, four
provinces were designated, which now include Punjab, North
Hest Frontier Province (NUFP), Sind, and Baluchistan.

The Pakistan National Education Conference Policy
(PNEC, 1947) was develOped in November, 1947. The
recommendations of this conference were incorporated into
the first six-year educational develOpment plan for the
period 1952-1958. After one year Of implementation, the

plan was Officially drOpped. Then in 1955, the central

government included the 1947 PNEC prOposals in a new first
five-year national development plan for the period 1955-60.

The plan was prepared in 1955, the prime minister
approved it in 1956, and it actually went into Operation in
1957. In 1958, a new government came into power with the
result that the 1947 PNEC proposals were never vigorously
implemented. This policy is therefore not included in this
study.

The Commission on National Education (CNE) prepared its
prOposals in 1959 and they remained in force until 1971.
In 1969 new proposals for educational policy, PEP (1969),
were prepared but never implemented. Therefore, this
policy is not included in this study. An Education Policy,
(EP) was again formulated in 1972 and guided the country's
education until 1978. The present study deals with two
sets Of educational policies formulated in 1959 and 1972
and implemented from 1960 to 1978.

The National Education Policy (NEP), develOped in 1978,
is policy currently in force. It also is not the purpose
of this study to examine or evaluate this present existent

educational policy.

§seseesn3-91-32522sss-ené-Qeisssixss
Euteesss
The purposes for the present study are to describe,

assess and compare the CNE (1959) and EP (1972) educational

policies and subsequent performance of educational system

in Pakistan between 1960 to 1978 with regard to:

1. Universalization of primary education,

2. Quantitative expansion of secondary, college and
university education,

3. Redistribution of primary, secondary, college and
university education between

a. Hen/women,
b. Among provinces.

4. Enrollment in scientific and technical subjects at
college and university level of the general
educational system.

99122£ixss

There are three specific Objectives of this study.

1.

To describe the policies and assess their effects
on the develOpment of primary, secondary, college
and university education in terms Of
a. Quantitative expansion of each level of
education,
b. Redistribution of each level Of education
between men/women and among provinces,
c. Enrollment in scientific and technical

subjects at college and university level.

1O

2. To compare the development of primary, secondary,
college and university education in each policy
period with respect to

a. Quantitative expansion of each level of
education,

b. Redistribution of each level Of education
between men/women and among provinces,

c. Enrollment in scientific and technical
subjects at college and university level.

3. To analyze the differential effects of the policies
and on the basis Of this analysis make
recommendations for future educational policy

develOpments in Pakistan.

Iseectanss-91-ths-§tgéx

This study is concerned with a historical descriptive

analysis of various procedural trends which develOped in

educational policies in Pakistan and the types Of results

they produced. The purpose is to understand the past in

order to avoid the repetition Of mistakes in the future.

Robert Travers stated:

The amateur reformers in the field Of education would
probably drop most Of their plans for remodeling of
public education if they had a better understanding Of
the failures Of the past.

1Robert H- H- Travers, An-ln££992££ien-£2-§gwsesienel
grrh (4th Ed.) (New York: Macmillan Company, 1978), p.

11

In its assessment of the past, historical description
helps researchers to understand the present. According to
Lehman and Mehrens,

Historical research is concerned with determining,

evaluating and understanding the past, primarily for

the purpose Of clearer understanding of the present and
better understanding Of the future.

Borg and Gall stated:

Historical research in education is important for

several reasons. The findings of such research enable

educators to learn from past discoveries and mistakes,

to perceive needs for educational reforms, and to a

certain extent, to predict future trends2

In light of these remarks and considerations, it seems
reasonable to hope that this comparative analysis of
various educational policies and their effectiveness will
serve the following purposes:

1. Assessment Of effectiveness of various policy

methods applied to develOp education in Pakistan,

2. TO help policy makers become increasingly aware Of

the problems Of education in Pakistan,

3. Identification Of alternate methods to develOp

adequate education policies with more chances for

successful achievement of Pakistan's educational

goals.

Rinehart and Hinston, 1979), p. 31.

2Halter R. Borg and Meredith G. Gall, gguggrjggg;
Eggggrgr, (New York: Longman, 1979), p. 372.

12

It is further hOped that the conclusions and
recommendations made in this study will generate further
questions for research into education policy develOpment in

Pakistan in the future.

Estheé-sné-§eycsss
The study is carried out as a descriptive historical
inquiry into the differential effects Of two educational
policies in Pakistan. In order to determine the
comparative effectiveness of the policies, simple
statistical techniques, such as ratios, averages and
percentages are employed to compare various outcomes.
However, emphasis is on the presentation, description and
explanation Of various methods and their consequences.
This researcher has relied for primary data on historical
works and government of Pakistan documents. Every effort
was made to secure all necessary documents from Pakistan
through personal contacts and with the assistance of the
Pakistan Embassy, Hashington, D. C.
The primary sources used in this study include:
1. Education policies, education development plans
and evaluation reports published by the government
Of Pakistan.
2. Annual progress reports from central and

provincial Ministries of Education.

13

3. Educational statistics published by the Federal
Ministry of Education.

4. Reports Of international agencies, such as UNESO,
USAID, and the Horld Bank.

Secondary sources include:

1. Literature on Pakistan history, politics, economics
and other social sciences published by Pakistanis
and foreigners.

2. Articles from Pakistani newspapers, magazines and

journals.

221191:199-21-§esis-£29222£s-ené-ls£es

The following key terms are defined in the context in

which they are used in this dissertation:
1- §££9222:s-21-shs-szssse

There are three principal tiers of the educational
system in Pakistan, namely: primary education (I-V),
secondary education (VI-XII), and higher education
(XIII-XVI).

Primary education starts at age five plus and comprises
grades I-V.

Secondary education is divided into three stages.
Middle school education starts at age 10 plus and contains
grades VI-VIII. High school education starts at age 13
plus and contains grades Ix-X. Higher secondary consists

of grades XI and XII.

14

Higher education is divided into two stages of degree

(XIII-XIV) and post graduate education (XV-XVI).

2- Eigensies-21-Eéssetisn

Government funds. These include the amounts
spent by the central government, provincial
government and university grants commission
for various educational purposes.

Local funds. These include the amount of
money spent by local bodies, out of their
general funds or special tax levies, for
education.

Grants-in-aid. These grants are a
contribution in money or material goods by the
central government to provincial governments,
local bodies or private institutions. The
grantor can specify the purpose Of the grant:

(1) for specific types of expenditures, such
as construction Of school buildings,
furniture, libraries, laboratories, and
teacher's salaries,

(2) for Specific levels of education, such as
primary, secondary, college or
university,

(3) for specific types Of educational

expenses such as teacher education,

15

vocational education and science
education,

(4) for the education Of specific groups of
peOple, such as women/minorities and
backward areas,

(5) sometimes, the grantor does not define
the specific purpose Of the grant. Then
it is used by the recipient for any
purpose he likes.

d. Other expenditures.

(1) DeveLOpmental expenditures. These
include money spent on purchasing land
for schools, construction of buildings,
playgrounds, furniture, some categories
of library and laboratory equipment.

(2) Recurrent expenditures. These include
teacher's and staff salaries, maintenance
of school buildings, and other temporary
services provided to the students and

teachers.

9!§£!i£!-91-£h£-§£!92
This chapter has provided the background Of the study,
the problems to be investigated, the purposes Of the study

and the sources used in conducting it. Definitions of

16

basic concepts and terms used in the study have also been
presented.

In Chapter Two, an extensive description of education
policies is presented. In this chapter, emphasis is on
highlighting the variance between various educational
policies developed to structure the educational system at
various times in the history of educational develOpment in
Pakistan.

The methodology and limitations of the study are
presented in Chapter Three. The techniques used to
determine the comparative effectiveness and analysis of
various policies are explained. A policy's effectiveness,
however, may be influenced considerably by factors which
lie outside the scope of the educational planner. These
limiting factors are identified and listed in Chapter
Three.

Chapter Four is the nucleus of this study. In it, the
researcher responds to each Objective mentioned in Chapter
One by analysis Of the comparative effectiveness of
associated policies, according to methods which are
explained in Chapter Three.

In Chapter Five, a summary of the findings of the study
is presented and discussed. Conclusions are drawn,
recommendations are made for policy-making in the future,

and suggestions for further research are outlined.

CHAPTER II
EDUCATIONAL POLICY DEVELOPMENTS IN PAKISTAN

Educational policy develOpment in Pakistan can be
divided into five historical phases.

The first policy, PNEC (1947), was formulated in
November, 1947 and remained in effect until 1958. The
second policy, CNE (1959), was formulated in 1959 and its
recommendations remained in force until 1971. The third
policy, PEP (1969), was formulated in 1969 but never
implemented. The fourth policy, EP (1972), was prescribed
in 1971 and prevailed until 1978. The present policy, NEP
(1977), which is the fifth, was designed in 1977 and
currently guides the educational system.

The Object of this chapter is to describe the various
policies which have shaped the educational system in
Pakistan. It starts with a brief review Of education
policies during the Muslim and British periods before
Independence and then proceeds to a detailed explanation of
post-Independence policies.

Throughout this description, the intent is to highlight
the Objectives Of various policies and the procedures they

prescribed for the attainment Of educational Objectives.

17

18

Ihs-!2§lia-tssies

The areas now under the effective control of Pakistan
were predominantly Muslim-inhabited parts Of United India.

Before the establishment of British rule, the area had
a tradition of Islamic education. This educational system
and its institutional organization was based on three
principles. The first principle was that the acquisition
and dissemination of knowledge was a religious Obligation
and an act of worship. The second principle was that
educational institutions were autonomous and free from
governmental interference. Finally, as an autonomous
system free from governmental control, education was
financed by donations and private endowments. In some
cases, the government gave grants that helped maintain an
annual income for educational institutions. The function
of grantor and donors ended with the awarding of grants and
they could not influence the purpose of education or the
academic and administrative functions Of the institutions.
Education was divided in Eekteas, fleecessahs and 22:al-QLua
which were roughly equivalent to primary, secondary and
post-secondary or higher education.

Primary education was conducted in Makrggg where the
children were taught the basic tenets of Islam: reading and
writing Of Arabic and Persian, basic mathematics, history

and geography. This education was sufficient for

activities of daily living and for employment as lower

19

level public servants. Since Mgkrgbg were mostly conducted
by IEQEE (prayer leaders) in mosques, these institutions
were relatively inexpensive and common throughout the
country. As they were attended both by boys and girls,
literacy was widespread through a large prOportion Of the
pOpulation. Secondary education was conducted through
Mgdrgggghg. Curriculum in these institutions included
advanced learning in religion, particularly Islamic
jurisprudence, flggjrh, and secular subjects such as
philOSOphy, logic, mathematics, medicine, history and
geography. In some cases, instructions in crafts and
job-oriented skills were also provided. The graduates Of
Magrgssghg could be appointed (a) teachers in Mgkrgbg,
(b) Qarj (Justices) in courts, (c) practitioners of
medicine, or (d) Operators in private business. Higher
education was conducted through BQEQL-QL!! which was only
for advanced students who wanted to specialize in certain
specific branches of knowledge in Islam or in secular
subjects.

The enrollment in Mggrgssghg and gargl_glgg consisted
almost entirely of males because parents did not send their
daughters to co-educational institutions. Females were not
considered to need further education so no separate
facilities existed. The education of females was common at

the 5953!? level but very rare at higher levels.

20

Education at all levels was entirely free, no fees were
charged. On the contrary, students were also provided with
books, accomodation and food without charge.1I2I3I4 All
of this changed, however, with the establishment of British

rule in the eighteenth century.

B:iti§h-§§22etisa-32lisx

The British began coming to India early in the
seventeenth century as businessmen and traders and
established the East India Company. For almost one hundred
years they confined their attention to business and did not
interfere with local affairs. In the early eighteenth
century, they started taking an interest in politics and,
after a series of political conspiracies and battles, the
East India Company emerged as a political power in the late
18th century.5 In the early days Of her control, the
company's Officials tried to understand the indigenous

educational system. Some Officials, in their individual as

18. H. Jaffar, E9usstisa-in-!uslia-lngie, (Delhi,
India: Idarak-i-Adabiyat-i-Delli, 1936), Oriental Series
NO. 16.

lehtais Hussein Gureshi, Eggsstien-in-fie£i§£en,
(Karachi, Pakistan: Ma'aref Limited, 1975).

(Allahabad, India: Ramnayanlah Benimagho, 1965).

4J. P. Naik and Syed Nurullah, Higrgry_gj_§ggrgrjgg
in_;ggjg, 2nd ed. (Bombay, India: Macmillan Company, 1951).

5Brian Gardenov, §§§r_Iggjg_gggpgny, (London: Rupert
Hart Davis, 1971.)

21

well as Official capacities, made efforts to develOp that
educational system. In this regard, significant
contributions were the establishment Of gglrgt§g_!ggr§§§gh
for Muslims in 1781, Sanskrit College Banares for Hindus in
1792, and Fort Uilliam College at Calcutta in 1800.

The objectives of £2l22£t2-!aécsssah and Beastss
ggllggg were to preserve and promote the liberal knowledge
Of the East, particularly Muslim jurisprudence, Hindu law,
and Indian classical languages and literature. Fort
Hilliam College was established for British employees, to
make them conversant with traditions and culture Of India.
An associated Objective of this college was to develOp
Indian, modern and classical, language on modern scientific
grounds.1

This attitude Of patronage and sponsorship toward
Eastern knowledge did not persist for long. In 1813, the
East India Company dramatically changed the educational

policy with new concepts, purposes and methods.

In 1813, on the instruction Of the central government
in England, the East India Company Officially accepted
responsibility for education in India. In this regard,

education policy making processes confronted four issues.

1Said Ghalam Hustafa Shah. Lssasx-91-§£isains--b
E:isI-§dusetienel-aoé-£2It!cal-§9:xsx-91-9:itish-£2£s-in
India, (Karachi, Pakistan: Pak Publishers Limited, 1971).

22

1. Hhat should be the Object Of the policy--tO spread
Hestern knowledge or to preserve the Eastern
knowledge?

2. Hhat should be the medium of instruction--English,
Arabic, Sanskrit or modern Indian languages?

3. Hhat should be the agencies for the spread Of
education--the mission schools, the institutions
directly controlled by the company, or indigenous
schools conducted by Indians themselves?

4. Hhat should be the methods Of spreading
education--should government try to educate the
masses directly, or should it only educate a few
Indians and leave it to them to educate Others?
These issues remained under discussion for more than
two decades, when Lord Macauly, the British Educational
Commissioner in India, prepared his final report in 1835.

About the Eastern knowledge and indigenous system Of
education, he said: ”To continue this system tends not to
accelerate truth, but to delay the natural death of an
expiring error.”2

He prescribed the following objects Of educational

policy:

That the great Object of British government ought to be

the promotion Of European literature and sciences among

the natives of India; and that all the funds
apprOpriated for the purpose of education would be best
employed on English education alone. . . . He must at

present do our best to form a class Of educated peOple
who may be interpreters between us and the millions

p. 17.

(1781-1839) (Calcutta, India: Government Printing Press,
1920), p. 117.

23

whom we govern; a class of persons, Indian in
blood and color, but English in taste, in
Opinions, in morals, and intellect.1

About the expansion of education, he further explained,
in July, 1837: "Our object of education in India is not to
educate the masses but to create such groups which could
disseminate the acquired knowledge to Others."2

Macauly submitted his report on February 2, 1835, and
the government Of British India approved it on March 7,
1835, for implementation. In 1847, another stipulation was
added to this policy. This added stipulation put economic
value on British education.

In 1847, Lord Harding, the Governor General of British
India said, "Preference should be given in selection Of
candidates for public employment to those who have been
educated in the institutions (English schools) thus
established.”3 This decision created incentive for
British education and facilitated the decay of the already
degenerating indigenous educational system. Macauly's

report is considered the foundation for the establishment

Of British educational policies in India.

p. 116.

3J- A. Richer, §slsstiess-1cae-§éusetisaal-£ssete,
Part 2 (1839-1920)(Calcutta, India: Government Printing
Press, 1920), p. 364.

24

In 1854, the central government in England revised
educational policy in India. The Crown appointed Mr.
Charles Hood tO prepare a new policy. Hood reviewed the
principles evolved over the past decades and defined a
new comprehensive policy for the develOpment Of education

in India in the future.

The Hood report recommended more participation of the
government in the development Of education.

Among many Of subjects Of importance, none can have a
stronger claim to our attention than that Of
education. It is one Of our most sacred duties, to be
means as far as in us lies Of conferring upon the
natives Of India those best morals and material
blessings which flow from general diffusion of useful
knowledge, and which India may, under Providence,
derive from her connexion with England.1

About the aims Of education it said:

He have, moreover, always looked upon the encouragement
Of education as peculiarly important, because it is
calculated not only to produce a higher degree of
intellectual fitness, but to raise the moral character
of those who partake of its advantages and to supply
you with servants to whose probity you may with
increased confidence commit office Of trust. . . . He
must emphatically declare that the education which we
desire to see extended in India is that which has for
its Objects the diffusion Of the improved arts,
sciences, philosOphy and literature of EurOpe, in short
EurOpean knowledge.

In addition to specifying the aims Of education, Hood's

Dispatch made a number Of other significant recommendations

11bid, p. 364.
21bid., p. 365.

25

whose influence is still reflected by Pakistani's system of
education. These continuing influences include the
following:
Establishesot-9i-e-£9:asi-§zstsa-oi-§ggsstigo

Before the release of Hood's Dispatch, there were
schools and colleges but there was no academic or otherwise
Official definition of what school or college meant. This
report envisaged the provision of a network of graded
schools throughout India. By graded schools, it meant a
three tier plan with college and university at the tap,
high and middle schools in the middle, and indigenous
elementary schools at the bottom. In this way, for the
first time a formal education system was develOped in
India.1
Aéeinistretion-éné-!enessasnt-91-§§222tion

In order to co-ordinate the activities between
different schools and between schools and government, the
dispatch recommended the establishment Of a department Of
education in each province. This idea of a state
department Of education was another innovation in the
history of educational establishments in India. The
functions of this newly created department of education
were the following:

1. to advise the provincial governments on all
educational matters,

11bid., p. 377.

26

2. to administer the funds allocated to education by
central and provincial government, '-
3. to conduct certain educational institutions

directly under the authority Of the government,
4. to supervise and inspect the working Of those
educational institutions which apply to the
government for grants-in-aid or recognition,
5. to compile annual reports on the progress of

education within their jurisdiction along with
necessary statistics to improve and expand.

The dispatch recommended the institutionalization of
education under the government; it also suggested general
guidelines for financing, in the light of which each
provincial government was expected to frame its own rates
for grants-in-aid. Aid could be given to those
institutions which were prepared to accept the following
conditions:

1. To Observe the rules laid down by the government

and to remain prepared for inspection by inspectors
appointed by the government,

2. Possess good local management,

3. Impart good secular education and maintain
religious neutrality,

4. Levy feesé however small, to be paid by the
students.

The discussion Of the subject closed with the following

remarks:

11oid., pp. 378-381.

21pid., p. 381.

27

He look forward to the time when any government system

of education entirely provided by the government may be

discontinued, with gradual advance of grant-in-aid and

when many of the existing good institutions, especially

those of higher order may be safely closed or

transferred to management of local bodies under the

control of and aided by the state.1
Icainins-9i-lseshscs

Prior to Hood's report, there did not exist the concept
Of professionally trained teachers in India. This report
recommended the establishment of teacher-training
institutes in India and encouraged the appointment of
trained teachers in all types of schools.2
Esteolishasnt-21-!oixscsitiss

The dispatch recommended the establishment of three
universities in India to be Operated on the University Of
London model. The functions of these universities were to
conduct examinations and award degrees to successful
candidates Of affiliated schools and colleges.3
Esaals-§ggsatien

Prior to this report, female education was virtually
nonexistent in India. Though, in theory, the traditional

indigenous system provided rudimentary religious education

to girls, in practice it was rare.

1Ibid., p. 381.
21bid., p. 383.

31bidm’ pp. 371-374.

28

This dispatch officially recognized the importance of
women's education. In this regard, it said:

He have already Observed that schools for females are

included among those to which grants-in-aid may be

given; and we cannot refrain from expressing our
cordial sympathy with the efforts which are being made
in this direction.

This dispatch was a significant document in the history
of educational develOpment in India. Hhat went before led
up to it, what followed flowed from it. It established the
foundations of the formal educational system. It
introduced university education in India. It gave the
concept of teacher's training and suggestions about the
administration, management and supervision of education.

It laid down the grants-in-aid system. In addition, it
recommended the provision of education for women.

This dispatch laid down the foundations of education
policy in India which remained unchanged throughout the
British period. The next steps in the historical process
were not new policies but administrative and executive
orders which reviewed from time to time the priorities, the
methods Of control, or responded to new issues. The next
two significant administrative orders were the report Of

Indian Education Commission of 1882 and the Provincial

Autonomy Act of 1935.

1Ibid., p. 381.

29

Insisn-§éysation-seeaissi99-$1§§22

In 1882, the government of British India appointed the
Hunter Commission with the basic aim to review and evaluate
the performance of the educational system since 1854,
especially the progress Of primary education. However, the
commission's recommendation went beyond the limits of
primary education and discussed all levels.

The commission Observed the following priorities in the
educational system:

That every branch of knowledge can justly claim the
fostering care of state, it is desirable in the present
circumstances of the country, to declare the elementary
education of the masses, its provision, extension and
improvement to be that part of the educational system
to which the strenuous efforts should now be directed
in a still large measure than here to.1

The commission further suggested that:

Primary education be extended in backward districts,
especially in those inhabited mainly by aboriginal
races, by the instrumentality of the department pending
the creation of school boards, or by specially liberal
grants-in-aid to those who are willing to set up and
maintain schools.2

Hith regard to secondary and college education, the
commission stated:

It should mostly be provided on a grant-in-aid system
and that government should maintain only one efficient
high school in each district. The public funds of all
kinds, local, municipal and provincial should be
chargeable in an equitable prOportion for the support
Of girls as well as boys schools.

1Govern-ent of India, 822923-9I-In§isn-§gusesien
ggggjsgjgg,_1§§§ (Calcutta, India: Government Printing
Press) 1883, pp.

21bid., p. 586.

30

In regard to colleges, the rate of aid was to be

determined by the strength of staff, the expenditure on

its maintenance, the efficiency of the institution, and
the wants of the locality and provision for special
grants for building, equipment and library was to be
made.

Therefore, the main recommendations of this report were
emphasis on primary education, more facilities to backward
areas, and girls' education. It also recommended the
delegation of responsibilities to local bodies,
municipalities, and district boards. In addition, it
emphasized the grants-in-aid system and more participation
of the private sector.

After 1882, significant changes develOped in the
politics of India. The Indian National Congress emerged in
1885 and the Muslim League came into existence in 1906.
Both of these organizations started organizing peOple
against British imperialism. Now the demand of the peOple
was not merely more education, but more participation in
public affairs.

In 1921, the department of education was partially
transferred to provinces. Ultimately, in 1935 the British
government granted autonomy to provinces and as a result
the subject of education was completely transferred to the

provinces. These provinces were to be governed by the

local peOple.

11bid., pp. 477-478, 590.

31

The British took over the reSponsibility of providing
education to India in 1813 and handed it over to local
peOple partially in 1921 and completely in 1935. During
this time span of more than 100 years, the traditional
indigenous and autonomous educational system was
proselytized into a formal system under the direct control
of government. The basic purpose Of the new system was to
create a class of peOple well versed in British thought and
tradition, loyal to the government and fit for medium level
jobs in the law and order establishment.

In this new system, the medium of instruction was the
English language and curriculum was based on Macauly's
scheme of diffusion Of EurOpean literature and sciences
among the natives Of India. The institutions were managed
by the joint cOOperation of government, local bodies and
private public. All these institutions were Open to
everyone who could adjust himself with the curriculum
regardless of caste, creed or sex. It was in British time
that longstanding traditional inequality based on caste,
creed and sex was removed. The untouchables, the schedule
castes and women got access to knowledge. However, in this
one-way system, tuition fees were compulsory at all levels
of education and for everyone.

Since the bulk of the peOple were poor and could not

afford tuition fees, the educational system became

32

inegalitarian and turned to be a system for privileged
classes rather than masses.

The consequences of such a system, according to M. K.

Ghandi:

I say without fear Of my figures being challenged

successfully that today India is more illiterate than

fifty or hundred years ago, and so is Burma, because
the British administrators, when they came to India,
instead of taking hold of things as they were, began to
root them out.1

Though the British educational system was secular and

accessible to a limited class of peOple, it did have
certain good things which continue to benefit the Indian
and Pakistani peOple. Some of the positive contributions
of the British education policies are as follows:

1. The indigenous Muslim and Hindu educational system
in spite of all proclaimed good qualities was
inaccessible to schedule castes, untouchables and
women. The British introduced the concept of
equality of Opportunity regardless of caste, creed
and sex and in this way Opened the doors Of the
schools for the first time to depressed and
underprivileged groups.

2. Introduction of English, scientific method and
knowledge. Hhen the British arrived in India, the

'H- K. Ghandi, In:sznetional-éiieizs, Vol. x, 1931,
pp. 227, 734-735. Quoted in M. A. Aziz, "The Effects of
the Official Policy on the Development of Secondary
Education in Pakistan." Ph.D. dissertation, (Indiana
University: Bloomington, Indiana, 1963), p. 95.

33

intellectual life Of the society, both of Hindus
and Muslims, was in decay. The English language,
the EurOpean sciences and Hestern philosOphy
brought out the Indian mind from the "thraldom Of
old-world views" and laid down the foundations of
renaissance in modern life.1

3. India has always been a multicultural and
multilingual society without having any Ligggg
Irggrg. The English language bridged this gap and
still continues to be the social, academic and

political common language of India and Pakistan.

£2st-lodsesngsnss-fiolisiss

Hhen Pakistan came into existence in August 1947, there
were very limited educational facilities in this part of
the subcontinent. Part of the reason lay in the fact that
the Muslim community of India could not adjust to the
British secular educational system. Moreover, some of the
areas now in Pakistan were socially and economically the
most backward parts of United India.

The statistics of educational facilities available to

the 32.5 million pOpulation were as follows:

1Naik and Nurullah, Eistezx-21-égusatieo-in-Inéie,
PP-

Table 1

EDUCATIONAL HERITAGE OF PAKISTAN, 1947-1948

1- lsst-ané-nyasss-21-§2829I§ use E9530 Iota;
Primary schools 6864 1549 8413
Middle schools 2037 153 2190
High schools 334 64 398
Colleges 35 5 40

Universities (two, co-educational)

2. Enrollment (in thousands)

Primary schools 680.0 110.0 770.0
Middle schools 200.0 21.0 221.0
High schools 54.0 7.0 61.0
Colleges 12.4 1.1 13.5
Universities .588 .056 .644

3. Iggghjgg_§rg11 (in thousands)

Primary schools 15.4 2.4 17.8
Middle schools 11.2 .80 12.0
High schools 6.0 .80 6.8
Colleges NA NA NA
Universities NA NA NA

Source: Government of Pakistan, Egkj§;§g_§ggrgrjgg

Pakistan: Ministry of Education, Tables 1-3).

34

35

These statistics indicate that for approximately every
50,000 persons, there were twelve primary schools, three
middle schools, and one high school. Colleges were
extremely scarce. Most of them were situated in urban
areas. The majority of these institutions were in the
private sector, and had been owned and staffed by Hindus
who left for India between 1947 and 1951. For instance,
out of 150 faculty members of the Punjab University,
Lahore, 130 were non-Muslims who left for India.
Therefore, the immediate problem for the government of
Pakistan was not merely to expand the system, but to save
it from collapsing and give it a new direction consonant
with the country's ideological, cultural and economic needs
and aspirations.

In spite Of serious difficulties such as communal
riots, repatriation Of peOple between India and Pakistan
coupled with financial constraints and very weak
administrative machinery, the Government of Pakistan (GoP)
paid immediate attention to this important sector of
national develOpment and convened a national conference in
1947 to formulate a policy for educational develOpment in

the country.

Basis329-!93i282;-Egysa3199-998125socc-$£!§£.-12&ll
A Pakistan educational conference was called in Karachi

in November, 1947. Fazal Rahman, the Federal Minister of

36

Education, chaired this conference and the participants
included Officials of provincial and central ministries of
education, teachers, principals, vice chancellors,
religious leaders, and representatives of different
religious minorities. M. A. Jinnah, the governor-general
of Pakistan, in his message to the conference, expressed
national educational goals in the following words:

The importance of education and right type of
education, cannot be overemphasized. Under foreign
rule over a century, sufficient attention has not been
paid to the education of our people and if we are to
make a real, speedy and substantial progress we must
earnestly tackle this question and bring our
educational policy and program, on the lines suited to
the genius of our peOple, consonant with our history
and culture and having regards to the modern conditions
and vast develOpments that have taken place all over
the world. . . . There is no doubt that the future of
our state will and must depend on the type of education
we give to our children and the way in which we bring
them up as future citizens of Pakistan. Education does
not merely mean academic education. There is immediate
and urgent need for giving scientific and technical
education to our peOple in order to build up our future
economic life and to see that our peOple take to
science, commerce, trade and, particularly well planned
industries. He should not forget that we have to
compete with world which is moving very fast in this
direction. At the same time we have to build up the
character Of our future generation. He should try, by
sound education, to instill into them the highest sense
of honor, integrity, responsibility and selfless
service to the nation we have to see that they are
fully qualified and equipped to play their part in the
various branches of national life in a manner which
will do honor to Pakistan.1

1M. A. Jinnah, Proceedings of the Pakistan Education
Conference (Karachi, 1952, p. 5). Also cited in the First
Five Year Plan (1955-60). Government of Pakistan Printing
Press, p. 400.

37

The conference deliberated for four days and decided on
the following guidelines for educational policy develOpment
in Pakistan:

1. The system should be inspired by Islamic ideology,

emphasizing among its many characteristics those of

universal brotherhood, tolerance, and justice.

2. Education should be viewed as one of the
instruments for national develOpment.

3. Free and compulsory education for five years should
be introduced and should then gradually be
increased to eight years.

4. A committee was formed to determine an adequate
plan for secondary education.

5. A comprehensive scheme should be prepared for the
introduction and organization of technical
education. The formation of a council on technical
education was prOposed to deliberate on this issue.

6. The formation of a central advisory body of
education, to serve in the future as an education
policy-making authority, was prOposed.

Certain issues, such as medium of instruction, and the
distribution of powers and responsibilities between central
government and provincial governments were left undecided
until the formation Of a national constitution.

The recommendations of this conference were
incorporated into a six year national plan of educational

develOpment for Pakistan issued in 1952. This plan was

prepared by the Education Division of the Central

1M. Igbal, "DevelOpments in Education After
Independence Phase I 1947-1958." Quoted in M. Igbal,
Eggrgrjgg_jg_rgkj§rgn, 2nd edition, (Lahore, Pakistan: Aziz
Publishers, 1977), pp. 58-65.

38

Government in collaboration with provincial governments.
The plan set targets for various levels Of education and
threshed out the details into money, material and people.
Unfortunately, the plan was neither related to national
social and economic policies nor had any well-defined
constitutional support for implementation. Consequently,
this plan was officially dropped in 1953.

In 1956, nine years after the commencement of PNEC
(1947), a national constitution was approved and put into
practice. This constitution of 1956 envisioned a uniform
system of education throughout the country. It further
stipulated that GOP would make educational policy and
decide the methods for implementation. The PNEC (1947)
recommendations which were incorporated into a six-year
develOpment plan in 1952 and then drOpped in 1953, now were
supposed to be implementated according to the new
constitution. In 1955, GoP formulated a five-year
develOpment plan for the period 1955 and 1960. This plan
was supposed to go into Operation after the promulgation of
the new constitution. Actually, it was implemented in
1957. In 1958, a military government came into power and
abrogated the constitution Of 1956 and the develOpment plan
died down without formal announcement Of death.
Consequently, PNEC (1947) could never be implemented.

The martial law administrator who headed the new

government in his first press conference defined three

39

immediate tasks that would have to be undertaken on a
priority basis; namely, land reforms, refugee settlement,
and educational reforms.1 Consequently, he appointed a

commission on national education in 1958.

Commission-en-!ati982I_§992etion-££!§.-12§22

On December 30, 1958, on the direction of the martial
law administrator, the Ministry of Education, Government of
Pakistan, was notified of the formation Of a commission,
its purpose and scOpe. The preamble to the resolution
creating the commission stated:

Hhereas the existing educational system of Pakistan is

not adequate to meet the needs and requirements Of the

nation, it has become necessary to set up a competent
body to review, in consonance with the aspiration of
the peOple and socio-economic structure of the country,
the educational system and to recommend apprOpriate
measures for its re-orientation and reorganization for
the purpose Of ensuring an integrated and balanced
develOpment Of education in various stages.

The commission was given a free and wide scope. The
terms of reference included all aspects of primary
education, secondary education, college education,
university education, professional education, adult

education, and the status Of religion, military training

and physical education in the national educational system.

1Muhammad Ayub Khan, friends, no; Masters, (Karachi,

Pakistan: Oxford University Press, 1967), pp. 98-100.

2Ministry Of Education Resolution
NO. F-16-9158-E-III, Karachi, 30 December, 1958. Quoted in

40

The commission was asked specifically to consider the
problems related to the financing and management Of
education, women's education, equality of educational
Opportunity and the role of education in the national
social and economic develOpment.

The martial law administrator inaugurated the
commission on January 5, 1959. Soon after inauguration,
the commission started its work and made arrangements for
eliciting public opinion. The commission visited selected
educational institutions in the country, interviewed peOple
associated with the education department and in order to
know the Opinion of the masses, a comprehensive
questionnaire covering all aspects of education was
published in national newspapers and distributed to the
peOple. The commission took eight months to complete its
report. The report was presented to the president on
August 26, 1959. Soon after its receipt, the president
appointed a subcommittee to examine the recommendations
made by the commission. The subcommittee deliberated on
each item and after three months, reported to the
president. The report in its entirety was accepted by the
Government of Pakistan in February, 1960. The report
recommended the following objectives of the educational
system:

1. It must preserve the Islamic way of life. The

spiritual value of Islam combined with freedom,

integrity and tolerance should be the ideology to
inspire our educational system.

41

2. Education should be viewed as productive activity
and as an investment in human resources essential
for the develOpment of a progressive and prosperous
welfare state.

3. An educational system is a part of the concept of
social justice and its benefits and Opportunities
must be available to all--a target for the
achievement of that should be set up and all
efforts bent towards that goal.

4. The development of a good educational system will
require the maximum possible financial support from
government, local bodies, the community and
students and parents.

The commission did not set the physical targets for
various levels of education, but it recommended the
following order of priority:

1. Compulsory education at the elementary stage is
indispensable for skilled manpower and intelligent
citizenry. This target should be achieved within
ten years for the age group 6-11 and within another
five years for the age group 11-14.

2. Secondary education should be diversified. In high
schools, students should be encouraged to
specialize in science, mathematics, and home
economics groups.

3. In the case of higher education, three objectives
should be accomplished at one and the same time.

a. The range of educational courses should be
expanded.

b. Large numbers of students should be admitted.

c. Quality of education must be maintained and
further improved.

'Governoent of Pakistan, Sesaissien-99-!25199§l
Education, pp. 10-13.

21bid., pp. 170, 118-120, 15.

42

For the attainment of these Objectives, the commission

recommended the following methods.

Bansssasnt-oi-§sssstien

1.

Central government should take the responsibility
for Opening primary schools, high schools and
colleges in centrally administered areas and in
tribal areas of Pakistan.

Government primary schools should be managed by the
community. The basic philosophy in this
arrangement is that peOple should have a sense of
ownership Of the school and assist in its financial
affairs.

Local bodies should manage their primary school,
high school and colleges in their areas of
jurisdiction.

Private organizations, individuals, communities,
welfare organizations and other agencies can Open
and manage their own schools, but these schools
must be registered with the government department
Of education.

In the case of secondary education, private
schools, in addition to registering with the
government department of education, must also
register with autonomous boards of education. The

functions Of these boards are to approve courses of

43

study, conduct examinations, and award diplomas and

certificates to qualified students.

6. Private colleges should have an independent board

Of governors made up of reputable persons drawn

from the community in which they exist. These

colleges must be registered with provincial

departments of education and with the university in

whose jurisdiction they fall.1

Einsnsins-91-fisysssiso

1. Primary Education

The federal government should share
develOpmental expenditures and provincial
governments should pay recurring expenditures.
If any community, in rural as well as urban
areas, provides land, buildings and furniture,
the provincial government should pay teacher's
salary and other maintenance expenses.
Municipal committees, town corporations, and
local councils should Open schools and bear
all expenses for the running and maintenance
of these schools. They can recover part of

the expenses by levying an educational tax or

1Government of Pakistan, Esmai§s199-99-!etisnsl
ggggarjpg, pp. 315-321, 333-340, 169-185, 111-147, 15-16.

44

through charging tuition fees. In case of
hardship, the government should give
grants-in-aid to these schools.

Private individuals or groups should Open
schools and recover whole or part of the
expenses through tuition fees. The
government may give grants-in-aid to

privately managed schools.

2. Secondary Education

The develOpmental expenditure for secondary
schools should be shared by federal
government and provincial governments.
Provincial governments should pay the
recurring expenditures. Part Of the
recurring expenditures can be recovered
through tuition fees.

The private sector should Open secondary
schools and can recover 60 percent Of the
expenses from tuition fees; the remainder
should be shared equally by provincial
governments and management.

The federal government should take
responsibility for scholarships and other

financial assistance to students.

45

3. College Education

a. Federal government should share development
expenditure with provincial governments and
provincial governments should bear recurring
expenses. Part of the expenses can be
recovered through tuition fees.

b. Municipal committees and town corporations
should open colleges and make their own
decisions about the arrangements of finances.

c. The private sector should Open colleges. They
can recover their expenses through tuition
fees. The amount Of tuition fees should be
decided by college management. Government's
approval is not needed to decide the amount Of
tuition fees. The government may give
grants-in-aid to registered and recognized
institutions.

4. University education is the exclusive
responsibility of the government and the government
should discharge her responsibility through a
university grants commission.1

The Planning Commission of Pakistan which coordinates

the development activities of all departments in the
country, incorporated the Commission on National Education

1Government of Pakistan, Somaissisn-oo-!asional
ggggarign, pp. 333-340, 169-185, 111-147, 15-16, 245-250.

46

Policy into Second and Third Five Year national development
plans for the years 1960 to 1965 and 1965 to 1970
respectively. Therefore this policy remained under
effective implementation for ten years.

In 1969, President Muhammad Ayub Khan relinquished
power and resigned. He was followed by a military
government. This new government develOped certain new
prOposals for the development of education in the country

in 1969.

2592252;s-I9L-uss-Esssstion-£2lisx.-£§£-$12822
This new policy suggested the following aims of
educational system in the country.

1. To impart a common set of cultural values based on
the precepts of Islam,

2. To create a literate society,

3. To attach a high priority to the development of
analytical skills,

4. To attract some of the best talents of the country
in the teaching profession,

5. To use education as a source of national
integration.

To facilitate these Objectives, the policy recommended
the following changes in the structure Of the educational
System in the country.

1. Integration Of Islamic Madrassahs into the normal
national system,

2. Integration of primary and middle schools into
elementary schools.

47

3. Reorganization of secondary education to make it a
terminal stage,

4. Decentralization of educational administration.1

These proposals were incorporated into the Fourth Five
Year Plan for the years 1970 to 1975. But in 1970, the
country passed through political crisis. In December 1969,
general elections were held in the country. Regional
political parties won the election. The Pakistan PeOple's
Party won the majority of the Parliament seats in Hest
Pakistan and the Pakistan Aggmj ngggg succeeded in East
Pakistan. These parties could not reach a consensus on
national issues and ultimately civil war started in the
country. East Pakistan separated and became Bangladesh.
Under these circumstances, PEP (1969) could never be

implemented.

£9922:199-22Iisx-$1222:12§91
The Pakistan PeOple's Party won the majority Of seats
in the general election held in December, 1970. In her
election manifesto, the party promised:

Education will be free up to matriculation and primary
education will be compulsory and free. More secondary

1Government of Pakistan, Ihs-flss-fiswss£ien-EQIi£x-91
rhg_figggrggggr_gr_fgkj§rgg (Islamabad, Pakistan: Ministry
of Education, 1970).

48

schools will be established. . . . Mathematics will be
accorded the place of honor and will be taught by more
scientific modern methods. Universities have to be
organized. . . . The students and teachers must work in
full academic freedom.

The party came into power in December, 1971.
Mr. Zulfikar Ali Bhutto assumed the office of the head of
state. Immediately after assuming office, the new
administration called a conference Of representatives of
teachers' and students' associations, vice-chancellors of
the universities, Officials of federal and provincial
ministries of education, and elected representatives of the
peOple to deliberate on problems facing the national
educational system. After three months Of discussion, the
new Education Policy was formulated. The president
described the following objectives of the new policy:
1. Ensuring the preservation, promotion and practice
of the basic ideology of Pakistan and making it a
code of individual and national life.

2. Building up national cohesion by promoting social
and cultural harmony compatible with our basic
ideology through the conscious use of educational
process.

3. Building up and nurturing the total personality of
the individual, dynamic, creative and capable of
facing the truth as it emerges from the Objective
study Of reality: an individual able to comprehend

fully the nature Of technical and social change and
having deep concern for the improvement Of society.

1Pakistan PeOple's Party Election Manifesto. Quoted
in M. Igbal, Eggrgrjgg_jg_ggkj§rgg, (Lahore, Pakistan: Aziz
Publishers, 1977), p. 80.

10.

49

Mobilizing the youth for leadership roles through
participation in programmes of social service and
environmental improvement, and by inculcating in
them the dignity of labour.

Eradicating illiteracy within the shortest
possible time through universalisation of
elementary education and a massive adult education
programme.

Equalising access to education through provision
of special facilities for women, under-privileged
groups and mentally-retarded and
physically-handicapped children and adults in all
areas in general and the backward areas in
particular.

Designing curricula relevant to the nation's
changing social and economic needs compatible with
our basic ideology and providing a massive shift
from general education to more purposeful
agro-technical education.

Providing a comprehensive program of studies
through the integration Of general and technical
education and by keeping options Open for transfer
from one course of study to another.

Insuring active participation of teachers,
students and representatives of parents and the
community at large in educational affairs; and

Generally promoting the welfare, dignity and sense
Of responsibility of teachers and students.1

In order to achieve these Objectives, the Policy made

the following suggestions:

1.

Government should spend at least 4 percent Of GNP

on education,

‘Abdul Hafeez Pirzada, nationaiisati28-21-92Ilssss-
Quoted in H. M. Zaki, Egg_gr_!j§gry, (Islamabad, Pakistan:
Ministry Of Education and Provincial Coordination, 1972),

p. 5.

9.

10.

11.

SO

Nationalization Of all privately managed primary
schools, high schools and colleges, except
institutions managed by non-Muslims, non-Pakistani
nationals,

Making education free up to the high school level,
Standardizing tuition fees at the college level,
Provision Of free textbooks at the primary level
and cheaper textbooks at the college and university
level,

Substantial increases in scholarships and
interest-free loans,

All developmental expenditures at primary,
secondary and college levels should be provided by
central government and all recurring expenditures
at these levels should be provided by provincial
governments,

A University Grants Commission should be
established,

Agra-technical education should be compulsory from
grade 6-10. The federal government should provide
funds for that purpose,

Technical and commercial courses should be offered
in all undergraduate colleges,

Examinations should be abolished until the 9th
grade. The quality Of education should be improved

by providing free textbooks, writing materials,

51

audio-visual aids and better libraries and
laboratories,

12. At the university level, internal evaluation
systems should be introduced. Professional
councils such as the Pakistan Medical Councils,
Pakistan Engineering Councils, Pakistan
Agricultural Councils and Others should supervise
academic standards at the college and university
level,

13. Public councils at district, provincial and central
levels should be formed to supervise the
implementation of educational policy.

The above policy remained in force until 1978, when the
present government came into power. This government
announced a new National Education Policy, NEP (1978),
which is the fifth policy in the historical process of
educational policy development in Pakistan. Since the
Constitution is presently in abeyance, there is no uniform
course of action in carrying out national policies. It is
premature, therefore, to examine or evaluate the present

policy.

§seee:z-21-£923-Ingsesngsnse Education Eelisiss

A review of educational policies in Pakistan indicates

that

52

1. In the post independence period, five educational
policies have been formulated. The latest policy,
NEP (1977), is presently in force. Two policies,
i.e., PNE (1947) and PEP (1969) were never
vigorously implemented. The remaining two
policies, CNE (1959) and EP (1972), were
implemented for a considerable time period with
full political backing.

2. These two policies, by and large, have the
following common aims for the educational system in
Pakistan:

a. Universalization of primary education,

b. A moderate expansion of secondary education,
college education and higher education,

c. Fair distribution of educational facilities
between men/women and between provinces and
administrative units,

d. Increased emphasis on scientific and technical
subjects.

Out of the five policies formulated to achieve these
goals, CNE (1959), encouraged the participation of the
private sector, local bodies and local communities for the
expansion of primary, secondary, and higher education. To
enroll more students in scientific and technical subjects,
the commission's recommendation concentrated on Opening

multipurpose and comprehensive high schools and model

53

colleges. To distribute educational facilities among
various sections Of society, the commission prOposed more
scholarships to students; to give grants-in-aid to poor
communities and hold the government directly responsible
for the education of backward areas and women.

Educational Policy, 1972, on the contrary, nationalized
the whole system of education and the responsibility of
providing education rested with governmental sources,
rather than involving the private sector. In order to
distribute education, it made education free up to the high
school level, reduced tuition fees at the college level and
continued the previous government's policy of awarding
scholarships. In addition, it promised the Opening of new
universities for better distribution of higher education.
To develOp scientific and technical education, it
recommended the introduction of agro-technical and home
economics as compulsory subjects for boys and girls at the
high school level. In colleges, it made the provision Of
professional courses and, in universities, established the
centers of excellence for various applied sciences.

Hhat the impact has been of these two different
approaches on the develOpment of education in Pakistan is
the main theme of this study. Chapter III presents the
methods applied to understand this impact, and Chapter IV
prepares the assessment, comparison and analysis of the
above-mentioned policies and their impact on the

develOpment of education in Pakistan.

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY AND LIMITATIONS

A general background of the study, the need for it, its
Objectives and importance were described in the first
chapter. It was indicated that the concern of the study
would be an historical and comparative analysis of CNE
(1959) and EP (1972) and their influence on the develOpment
of education in Pakistan from 1960 to 1978. A
recapitulation of pre-Independence policies during Muslim
and British periods and a detailed description of
post-Independence policies were presented in the second
chapter. The overall conclusion reached there was that two
policies of the post-Independence periods, i.e., Commission
on National Education, CNE (1959), and Education Policy, EP
(1972), subscribed to common goals but adOpted different
approaches for their accomplishment. Moreover, the
policies in question enjoyed a special position in the
history of educational develOpment in Pakistan because they
were prepared by elected stable political governments and
remained in force for considerable time periods.

The present study concentrated on an historical and

comparative analysis of these policies and subsequent

54

55

performance of the educational system in Pakistan. In this
chapter, the method and procedure used in conducting this

study are presented.

ustnsssiesz

The method used in the pursuit of this inquiry was that
of a historical descriptive case study. It was historical
because the approaches, events and policies studied and
analysed occurred in the past. It was descriptive because
the level of explanation was geared to achieving an
understanding of policy methods and their outcomes. It was
a case study because the research concentrated specifically
on the history of educational develOpment in Pakistan.

This methodology involved the following steps:

1. Identification of the problem.

2. Specification of Objectives.

3. Assessment of educational develOpment.

4. Comparative analysis of develOpment.

5. Sources of data.

6. Drawing up of conclusions and recommendations.

56

DevelOpment of the methodology for this study includes

elements, ideas and suggestion found in other relevant

research studies.1I2,3

EcseIss
The problem for the present study was to describe,
assess and compare the CNE (1959) and EP (1972) educational
policies and subsequent performance of educational system
in Pakistan between 1960 and 1978 with regard to the:
1. Universalization of primary education,
2. Expansion Of secondary, college and university
education,
3. Redistribution of primary, secondary, college and
university education between
a. men/women,
b. among provinces.
4. Enrollment in scientific and technical subjects at
college and university level of the general

educational system.

1A. S. Adesina, "An Analysis Of Nigeria's Educational
Plans and Actual DevelOpment Between 1945 and 1970" (Ph.D.
dissertation, Columbia University, 1974.)

2J- P. Naik, £931sx-sag-zs£19£aanss-i9-199199

ied Publishers, 1975).

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57

In Operational terms:

Rggjgrrjbgrjgg means removal of existing disparities in
the distribution Of educational institutions, enrollments
and teachers between men/women, and among provinces.

Increased enrollments in scientific and technical

humanities at college and university levels of the general

education system.

There were three objectives of this study.

1. To describe the policies and assess their effects
on the develOpment of primary, secondary, college
and university education in terms Of

a. Quantitative expansion of each level of
education,

b. Distribution of each level Of education
between men/women and among provinces,

c. Enrollment in scientific and technical
subjects at college and university level.

2. To compare the develOpment of primary, secondary,
college and university education in each policy

period with respect to

58

a. Quantitative expansion of each level of
education,
b. Distribution of each level of education among
men/women and among provinces,
c. Enrollment in scientific and technical
subjects at college and university level.
To analyze the differential effects Of the policies
and on the basis of this analysis make
recommendation for future educational policy

develOpments in Pakistan.

Assessasst-91-Essss31982l-asxslsoasnt

It has already been described that prOposals of CNE

(1959) were implemented from 1960 to 1970/71 and that of EP

(1972) from 1971/72 until 1978. Simple statistical

techniques such as annual growth rates, averages and ratios

were calculated to assess the developments of various

levels of education in both policy periods. The assessment

of the performance of educational system in both policies

was made as follows:

1.

grpgggjgg. Average annual growth rates of
institutions, enrollments and teachers were
calculated in both policy periods.
Redistribution. The ratios of educational

facilities available to various segments Of society

I).

59

such as men/women and among provinces were assessed
at the terminal year Of each policy period.

3- Encelissn£-in-ssisatiiis-eng-tsshniseL-ssbisets-
Enrollment ratios in scientific and technical
subjects at college and university level were also
determined, using the terminal year Of each policy
period.

The develOpments in each level of education during both
policy periods were assessed separately.
Assessesat-91-E:iascx-§éssasien

The develOpment of primary education was assessed at
two levels:

1. Expansion in educational facilities,

2. The redistribution of expanded facilities.
Asssssasat-91-§sssnés:z-§dusstiso

Secondary education comprises two stages:

1. Middle school,

2. High school.

Therefore, develOpments at each stage were assessed
separately during each policy period. These included:

1. Expansion of educational facilities,

2. Redistribution Of expanded educational facilities.

Higher education consists Of two stages:

1. College stage.

2. University stage.

60

The developments at each stage were assessed separately
at three levels:

1. Expansion Of each level of education,

2. Redistribution of each level of education,

3. Enrollments in scientific and technical subjects.

Ssaeecstixs-énelxsis-21-esxslsossnt

Developments at each level of education in both policy
periods were compared. The comparison included:

1. Expenditure on each level of education in both

policy periods,

2. Quantitative expansion of each level of education
in both policy periods,

3. Redistribution of each level of education in both
policy periods,

4. The ratios of enrollments in scientific and
technical subjects at college and university at the
terminal year Of both policy periods.

The differential performance of the educational system
in both policy periods are presented in tables. As a final
analytic step, the differences in the develOpment Of
various levels Of education are discussed with respect to

differences in policy approaches.

§sstsss-91-eate
The materials from which data were derived for this

analysis came primarily from several sources.

61

Literature on the history of education in
pre-partitioned India consisted of official
documents prepared by the government of British
India and works done by British, Indian and
Pakistani scholars on the subject of education.
This literature was reviewed primarily for the
purpose of gaining insights into the historical
develOpment of the educational system during the
Muslim and British periods.

Educational policy documents by the governments Of
Pakistan were reviewed to determine the aims of
the educational system suggested by various
policies and the methods prescribed by those
policies to achieve the suggested goals.

Planning Commission of Pakistan documents
encompassing the two policy periods from 1960 to
1978 were examined to determine how various policy
concepts, purposes and suggestions were translated
in money, materials and physical targets for
various levels of education.

Evaluation reports of the above mentioned
commission were extensively reviewed to determine
the performance of the educational system during
each policy period.

Data on enrollments, institutions, teachers and

expenditures were drawn from statistical reports

62

from federal and provincial ministries of education
and federal bureau Of statistics.

6. Publications of international agencies such as
UNESCO and the Horld Bank served several purposes;
first, to get information which was not available
in Pakistani documents, and second, to get
comparative information about education in third

world countries.

Lisiiaiisas

The purposes of this study are modest purposes--simply
to examine and compare the data of results at the end
points of two different periods of educational planning in
Pakistan's history to see the extent to which these
planning efforts may have succeeded or may have fallen
short Of their stated goals. Also, since the two planning
efforts represented two quite different policy approaches
to education and develOpment, the results are compared to
see, if possible, whether one or the other policy approach
appeared relatively more effective.

As the data reveal, educational development did in fact
occur between 1960-1978 in Pakistan. The data also reveal
that both planning efforts in fact fell short Of some of
their stated goals while achieving and exceeding others.
There are many reasons why educational planning in a given

society may fall short of its goals. Factors which clearly

63

strongly influence outcomes in most societies, and which

are typically more potent than recommendations Of the

educational commission in determining ultimate decisions,

include the following at least.

1.

£9L£HE§L-I§E£Q£§- Societies which have
longstanding customs against inclinations to give
formal education to females are likely to move
slowly in changing this custom, even though a
government Objective may be clearly stated in this
regard.

grggggjg_rggrgr§. The demands for scarce funds are
typically clamorous in most societies and there are
usually fewer funds to go around than are
requested. A well-intended goal may be missed
because of lack of resources to reach it.
BQLiEiEéi-I§££2£§- Politics is the art of the
possible. Clearly, it is Often a lot easier to
express and promise noble goals at the outset of a
program than in practice it may prove to be
possible to deliver by the end Of a five-year plan.
§9212L-IEEIQEE- Human groupings have a way of
differentially distributing power among their
memberships, and the more socially powerful groups

typically possess and maintain economic and

political advantage for themselves. The less

64

advantaged may be allowed to progress so long as
the more advantaged do not become threatened.

The above factors Obviously are present in their own
peculiar form in Pakistan, and obviously these factors
Operated during 1960 to 1978. It is not, however, the
purpose of this study to engage in cultural, economic,
political, or social analysis, to try to explain in such
terms, the varying educational develOpment outcomes of
CNE (1959) and EP (1972). No doubt each and all of these
powerful factors did influence the outcomes.

But in a given society, such factors over relatively
stable periods tend to Operate with relatively constant
degrees Of influence and in relatively typical ways. Hhat
was different in Pakistan between 1960 and 1978 were the
two policy approaches represented by CNE (1959) and
EP (1972). The question here is did these policy
differences make any discernible differences in the actual
educational develOpments which occurred? And can they be
explained in terms Of the differences in the policy
approach?

Using the above methods, and with the above limitations
in mind, the next chapter sets forth the findings on

educational develOpment in Pakistan between 1960-1978.

CHAPTER IV

ASSESSMENT, COMPARISON AND ANALYSIS OF DEVELOPMENT

There are four objectives in this chapter. First, to
describe the role of various agencies which participated in
the process of various levels of educational development.
Second, to assess the develOpments in each policy period.
Third, to compare the effectiveness of the two policies.
Finally, the differences in achievements are analyzed and
explained with regard to differences in the policy

approaches.

Eciaecx-§ssseiisn

The provision of universal primary education has been
the central Objective of all educational policies almost
since the country was founded in 1947. Indeed, it is
embedded in the very genesis of the Islamic ideology Of the
country that basic education be provided to all citizens.

Although, on the eve of independence, Pakistan was
faced with colossal problems, administrative machinery was
weak. Millions of refugees coming from India had to be
settled down. The internal political situation was not
stable. The inherited educational infrastructure was

moribund. Financial resources were scarce. Qualified

65

66

teachers were in short supply. But in spite Of these
tremendous difficulties, the government of Pakistan paid
immediate attention to this sector Of national

development. Hithin four years of the establishment of the
country, the central government of Pakistan started looking
forward to universalize primary education. Since as a past
legal tradition, finances for primary education were shared
by the central and provincial governments, both these
agencies agreed to discharge their responsibilities. In
1951, at the time of preparing a first six-year educational
development plan for the years 1952-1958, the provincial
government of Sind, including centrally administered areas
Of Karachi, the government Of East Bengal (which was
renamed East Pakistan in 1956 and is now Bangladesh)
decided to universalize primary education within ten

years. The governments Of Punjab, Baluchistan and NHFP set
a target for 20 years.1 This plan was implemented in

1952, but it could not work and was officially drOpped in
1953. Nevertheless, the aim of universal primary education
remained as a cherished goal in the minds of the federal
and provincial governments. In 1956, the Parliament Of

Pakistan approved the national constitution and accepted

1Government of Pakistan, §ir_1gar NarjonaL_glgg_gr

Karachi: Government Printing Press, 1956), p. 369.

67

the provision of universal primary education as a
constitutional Obligation. The relevant article of the

constitution states:

The state shall endeavor to

8. Promote with special care the educational and
economic interest of the peOple of special areas,
backward classes, and schedule costs,

b. Remove illiteracy and provide free and compulsory
primary education within minimum possible period,

c. Enable peOple Of different areas, through
education, training, agricultural and industrial
develOpment and other methods to participate fully
in all forms of national activities, including
employment in the services of Pakistan . . .

Considering the problems involved in the
universalization of primary education and elimination of
illiteracy, these were essentially long-term goals to be
achieved and the constitution carefully used the wording of
"minimum possible period" instead of specifying an exact
time period. However, the promulgation Of the constitution
and the preparation of the first five-year develOpment plan
(1955-1960) occurred simultaneously. The plan interpreted
the constitutional directive of "within minimum possible
period" in the following way:

The universalization Of primary education is a major
goal of national planning. Very great Obstacles will

have to be overcome in reaching this goal . . . clearly
sometime will be required to train teachers, construct

1Government of Pakistan, Sensiiisiisnsi-essuesnis,
X9L:-3r (Ministry Of Law and Parliamentary Affairs,

Karachi: Government Printing Press, 1964), p. 197.

68

buildings and develOp financial resources that will be
needed. Nevertheless, steady progress can and should
be made and we have provided for this in the
develOpment plan. Looking beyond the present plan
period, while no precise estimates can be made, we
believe the country may reasonably hOpe to achieve a
universal system of free and compulsory primary
education in about 20 years.

The plan lagged behind schedule two years, went into
Operation in 1957, and supposedly remained under
implementation until 1959. From 1955 to 1958, Pakistan
passed through a series of internal political crises.
There was no strong stable central government. Various
political parties came into power, ruled for a while and
left the Office for a new party.2 Therefore,
implementation of the plan took place under the hands of
bureaucratic machinery. The educational system expanded
during the tenure of the first five year plan, but the

accomplishments in the field of primary education were

disappointing.

Four thousand primary schools were prOposed

to be set up, but actual achievement was 2400, a failure of

40 percent. Thirty-five thousand teachers were prOposed to

be produced, but actual output was 8300, a failure of 73
percent. Enrollments could not increase substantially.

the end of the plan period, 36 percent of the children of

‘Govern-ent of Pakistan. Ibs-£icsi-£ixs-!sec-£ien
(1955-60) (Planning Board, Karachi: Government Printing
Pl‘ess, 1956), pp. 403-404.

Zkarl Vorys, Eeiitisei-isxsisoasnts-i
1
I

Eeiissen.
(PW'inceton: Princeton University Press 5.)

D-
96

69

primary age group were enrolled in schools against the
target Of 52 percent.1 In the background of this
situation, the Commission on National Education (1959)
started its work. In its recommendations, the commission

reiterated:

He believe that the time has come for us to accept
the implementation of universal compulsory education as
a part of our national policy and for fixing a target
date for this implementation, whatever be the
difficulties and problems involved. He believe that
our first goal should be to make eight years schooling
compulsory within fifteen years.

For the achievement of these objectives, the commission
suggested that central government, provincial governments,
local bodies, local communities and private groups should
work together. Central government was to provide
develOpmental expenditure. The recurring expenditure which
included teacher's salary and other maintenance
expenditures were to be borne by the provincial
governments. The local communities and parents were asked
to provide land and building for the schools. The
commission encouraged the local bodies and private sector
tc: assist the government in the expansion of primary
education. The commission's recommendations were

1°flcorporated in the second and third five year plans for

ieovernnent of Pakistan. Ihs-§sssns-Eixs-!sec-2isn
(1955-60) (Planning Commission, Karachi: Government
PP'inting Press, 1965), pp. 403-404

2Govern-em of Pakistan, seeaissiso-sn-!aiisnsi
Esssatigg (1959), pp. 171-172.

70

the periods 1960 to 1965 and from 1965 to 1970. It was

envisaged that 1.2 million new children would be enrolled

in the schools during 1960-1965. This would increase the

participation rate from 36 percent existing in 1960 to

56 percent in 1965 and the addition of 2.5 million new

children during 1965 to 1970 would increase the

participation rate above 85 percent.

The complete planning program is presented in Table 2.

Table 2
PRIMARY EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM IN PAKISTAN
1960 - 1970
Expected Expected Expected
Benchmark Increase Increase Achievment
1299191 liéQzéé 1292:29 in-1219
Enrollments 1.89 mill 1.20 mill 2.50 mill 5.59 mill
(362)* (562) (851)
Schools 18,000 15,200 40,500 73,700
Teachers 44,800 35,000 100,000 179,800
Sources:

Government of
(1960-1965), pp.
Government of
(1 965-1970), pp.

Pakistan, Ins-§ssené-£ixs-!ss£-2ien
341-342.

Pakistan. Ihi£§-£i!s-!se£-2ien
193-194.

*Figures in parentheses indicate enrollment ratios.

These targets were to be achieved with the joint efforts of

cerItral government, provincial government, local bodies,

u>¢=al communities and private sector as recommended by the

coImiission.

71

Bois-2i-ihs-fiexscaesni

The central government of Pakistan promised to provide
78 million Rupees during the second five-year plan and 200
million Rupees during the third five-year plan. The
provincial government prOposed to increase 108 million
rupees in recurring expenditures during the second
five-year plan and a further increase of 315 million rupees
during the third five-year plan. In addition, provincial
governments had to deal with local bodies and the private
sector. This dealing was a two-way business. The
government was to provide grants-in-aid to less resourceful
local bodies and private schools and, wherever possible,
these institutions were to rely on tuition fees and other
local resources. The review of planning commission
documents indicates that the government expected 16 percent
assistance in develOpmental expenditures from the private
sector for the overall educational system, but nothing for
the develOpment of primary education.1 This means that
the government was conscious of her own responsibilities
and did not intend to depend upon the assistance of the
private sector. However, it is understood that legally the
private sector could work and her contributions were always
welcome. Government did expect that wherever possible,
free land, school buildings and furniture would be

1Government of Pakistan, "Private Expenditure on
Education". Cited in Ihg-§grggg_§jyg_1ggr_grgg (1960-65),
p. 353.

72

available from local communities. Tables 3a, 3b, and 3c
indicate the financial performance of the system furing the

second and third five year plans.

Table 3a (1)

DEVELOPMENT EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN
(in millions)

SECOND FIVE YEAR PLAN

1960-1965

PrOposed Actual Percentage

£10202: Qiiiiseiisa Qiiiisaiien
Primary education 78.0 19 24.35
Secondary education 96.4 95 100.00
Teacher education 17.4 18 100.00
College education 17.0 68 400.00
University education 47.5 59 125.00
Others 110.0 -- ---
TOTAL 357.3 463 132.50

Sources: 1. Government of Pakistan, Ihg_§grggd_fjgg_1§§r
.Elgg (1960-1965), pp. 353-354.

2. Government of Pakistan, Ihg_§jrrh_§jgg_1§§r
.Elgg (1983-1988), Tables B.8.1, B.8.2, pp. 549-550.

Table 3a (2)

THIRD FIVE YEAR PLAN

1965-1970

PrOposed Actual Percentage

Einaass Qiiiiseiisn Qiiiiseiien
Pf‘imary education 200.0 25 12.50
se‘ctondary education 305.0 129 42.29
Teacher education 78.0 15 19.23
Col lege education 45.0 65 142.20
UMversity education 110.0 59 53.63

soLlrces: 1. Government of Pakistan, Ihg_1hjrg_§jgg_rg§r
Eiag (1965-1970), pp. 214-215.

2. Government of Pakistan, Ihg_§jrrh_fjgg_1ggr
Elan (1983-1988), Tables b.8.1, B.8.2, pp. 540-550.

1960-65
1965-70

TOTAL

Sources:

73

Table 3b
PUBLIC RECURRING EXPENDITURE ON PRIMARY

EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN (in millions)
1960-1970

Total Recurring Recurring Expenditure

Expenditure on Primary

90-§dyseiisn Esyssiisn Es§s§h飧
1139.9 473.7 41.55
1794.4 801.9 44.68
2954.3 1274.8 43.14

(1947-1979), (Islamabad: Ministry of Education, 1979), pp.

8-9.

Table 3c presents government expenditure on primary

education as a part of the national education budget that

includes both develOpment and recurring expenditures.

Table 3c

BUDGET EXPENDITURE ON PRIMARY EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN

Igars

1 960-1965
1 965-1970

TOTAL

sOurce:

1960-1970 (in millions)

Total Primary Share of Primary Education
Education Education as Percentage
22992: 999923 ei-§syseii90-fissssi
1662.6 492.7 29.63
2594.5 826.9 31.86
4257.1 1319.6 30.99

Government of Pakistan, Egkj§r§g_§gurgrjgg

§£atistics (1947-1979), pp. 8-9.

74

These tables present a clear dichotomy among the
recommendations of CNE (1959), and the role Of the
government of Pakistan in the implementation Of education
policy. These data appear to support the following
generalizations:

1. Table 3a indicates that in the Second Five Year
Plan (1960-1965), primary education was not given
apprOpriate importance in the allocation of
develOpment funds. It was not tOp priority. It
was seriously undersupported in the process of
implementation. Only 24 percent of the allocated
money was utilized, while in the case Of secondary,
college and university education, full funds were
utilized and in some cases the level of utilization
was more than allocated funds. For example,
spendings on college education went up 400 percent
and in the case Of primary education, they were
down 78 percent.

2. Table 3a (2) indicates that in the Third Five Year
Plan (1965-1970), again primary education is the
least supported in the process of implementation.
Only 12.5 percent of allocated funds were
utilized. The second undersupported sector was
teacher education. In fact, teacher education is

closely associated with primary education.

 

75

The shortage of trained teachers directly affects
the develOpment of primary education.

3. Table 3b, recurring expenditure, means teacher
salaries and other maintenance expenditures.
Primary education constitutes more than 85 percent
of the total educational enterprise but its share
in recurring expenditures is 43.14 percent. For
further clarification of this point, it is pointed
out that most Of the primary schools were in the
government sector. Excluding private secondary and
college education, primary education constituted
more than 90 percent of the education sector, but
its share in recurring expenditures is only 43.35
percent. This point is further discussed in the
following paragraph.

4. In the budget expenditure which constitutes
combined recurring and develOpment expenditure
combined as shown in Table 3c, primary education
does not appear to have been given due importance.
In fact, the Second Five Year Plan promised to
spend 56 percent of the education budget on primary
education.1 But actual spending barely exceeded

--
~----------------

'Ada- Carle. Eisnnins-19:-§syseii99-i0-£skisiao.
é‘iambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1966),
- 112.

76

30 percent. In most of the third world countries, more
than 50 percent of the education budget is spent on primary
education, but in the case ofPakistan, during the period
1960-1970, approximately 30.99 percent of the education
budget was spent on primary education. It is clear that
the central government of Pakistan and provincial
government of Hest Pakistan were not able fully to heed the
recommendations of CNE (1959).
Bsis-si-ihs-ssssi-§29is§

During the pre-partition times, the British Officials
created municipal administrations, primarily for the
purpose Of sanitation, roads, lighting and health. In the
beginning, these municipalities had nothing to do with
education and could not legally incur any expenditures for
educational purposes. It was in the late 19th century that
they were permitted to assign funds for education, but it
was not Obligatory on them to incur such expenditures nor
was any minimum contribution to education prescribed by
law. In 1882, two important events occurred. The first
was the resolution on local self-government issued by the
government of British India and the second was the Indian
Education Commission of 1882. These two events influenced
the educational develOpment in several ways.1

1Madhuri R. Shah, "Local Authorities and Education."
In s. N. Hukerjee (99-). Adminisiseii90-21-§gysaii90-i0
Iggjg (Baroda, India: Acharya Book Depot, 1962),
pp. 101-124.

77

1. In the urban areas, municipal committees were
compelled by law to contribute to educational
expenditures.

2. In rural areas, the income from local taxes came to
form local funds. A local fund could be used for
educational purposes. This fund was accumulated at
the district level. District boards/committees
made up Of public representatives and government
officials could make their own plans for the
develOpment of education in rural areas.

3. The Indian Education Commission also recommended
that local bodies should be given an effective
voice in the administration of primary schools.1
From 1882 until the partition of United India,
local bodies made a significant contribution for
the expansion Of primary education. In 1945, on
all India basis, nearly half of the primary schools
were managed by local bodies. Therefore, after the
creation of Pakistan, local bodies continued to
participate in the process of educational
development. From 1947 to 1959, the major portion
of primary education in Pakistan was in the control
of district boards in rural areas and municipal
committees/corporations in the urban areas. In

‘Govern-ent of India, 3202:3-91-38:-Ingian-issssii20
gggrjsgjgg (1882), pp. 586-587.

78

1960-1961, primary schools administered by local
bodies constituted 52.28 percent of the total
educational enterprise while 38.90 percent were
managed by the government and the remaining 6.80
percent were in the private sector.1 However,

this prOportion declined in the years ahead. In
1958, teachers working under local bodyies demanded
that their services be governmentalized.2

In Pakistan, peOple prefer to work for the government
rather than for local bodies or private organizations. The
government provides job security, good salaries, pensions
and other fringe benefits.

In some parts of the country, local bodies did not have
enough tax resources and thus were not financially strong.
Therefore, they paid less wages to the teachers than the
government rates. In some cases, local bodies under
financial constraints could close down schools and
terminate teacher services.

Moreover, the provincial department Of education had
its own problems with these schools. The role of the
provincial department of education was limited to the

1H. M. Zaki and M. Sarwar Khan, Egkj§3§9_§ggrgrigg

Iggg§_$12791, (Islamabad: Central Bureau of Education,
1970), p. 34.

2Dawn E. Jones and Rodney H. Jones, "Nationalizing
Education in Pakistan: Teachers' Association and the
People's Party,” in EQSiIi£-éII§i£§ 4 (Hinter, 1977-78)
No. 4, pp. 581-603.

79

inspection and supervision of schools. All other powers Of
administration, management, teacher's appointments and
promotions were in the control of local authorities. The
District Deputy Commissioner was the chief administrator,
while elected representatives of the peOple served as
members on the management committee. The Commission on
National Education did not like this dual administration
and argued that this situation was causing internal
inefficiency in the school system. The commission
appreciated the services of local bodies and suggested that
administrative procedures should be made simple and
efficient by bringing the peOple, education department and
local body administration together. It further recommended
that teacher salaries be brought up to par with government
scales.1 The government did not pay heed to the
commission's recommendation and administrative procedures
were not simplified. Teachers' salaries were not enhanced
according to government scales. The teachers again went on
strike in 1962.

The government, disturbed with teacher's strikes,
ignored the CNE (1959)'s suggestion and provincialized
local bodies schools working in rural areas in 1962, but
permitted the maintainance of schools in urban areas. The
government succumbed to teachers' demands and made

'Govern-ent of Pakistan. ssaaissi90-90-!eiiensi
Eggrgrjgg‘ (1959). Pp. 184-185.

80

administrative and political decision rather than solving
the problem on rational technical grounds as envisaged by
CNE (1959).

Consequently, local body schools disappeared in rural
areas but continued to work in urban areas. In 1966-1967,

the share Of these schools at the national level was as

follows:
Government schools 93 2
Local bodies schools 3 2
Private schools __4_§
TOTAL 100 Z

Source: Compiled from Zaki and Khan, figrjsrgg_§ggggrign
Igggr, 1970, p. 34.

However, in urban areas, they constituted a
significant share. Table 4 presents the share of local

body schools in urban areas.

Table 4
LOCAL BODY PRIMARY SCHOOL IN SELECTED CITIES OF PAKISTAN
1967 (1)
Local Body Government Private
§£DQQL§ §£899L§ §§££Q£ IQIQL
Rawalpindi 39.65 23.41 36.93 100
Lahore 28.28 29.20 42.51 100
Hyderabad 33.33 35.68 30.98 100

Source: Institute of Education and Research, grgrjgrjggr
E:oiiis-9i-§ssseii90-in-Essi-Eakisis0I (Planning
Commission, Research Study No. 14, Islamabad, Pakistan,
1967), pp. 11-12.

81

This discussion leads to two conclusions:

1. Local bodies have the potential to help in the
develOpment of primary education as they did from
1947 to 1961,

2. Government did not follow the CNE (1959)
recommendations and by making the adminstrative
decisions, it did make a tendency to cripple the
functioning of local bodies.

Ibs-52is-21-its-£cixais-§sst2c

In pre-partition days, religious bodies, welfare
organizations, and philanthrOpic peOple took great interest
in providing educational facilities to the masses. In the
pre-partition days, these agencies came forward in a
reaction to secular education provided by the British
administration. In 1921, the government Of British India
decided to decentralize civil administration in the
country. One aspect of this decentralization was that
provinces were made responsible for providing education and
other social services but they could not levy taxes.
Therefore, provincial governments could not supply
education according to demand. As a result of this
imbalance in supply and demand, private organizations,
either on a philanthrOpic basis or with commercial motives,
established schools.

Moreover, in the 1920s and 1930s, the concept of

separate Muslim and Hindu nationalism develOped in Indian

82

politics. One of the consequences of this change was that
both communities took an interest in the establishment of
private schools. These are the main reasons that before
1947, the larger number of primary schools were in the
private sector, while government owned a very small
share.1

Table 5 presents the distribution of educational

institutions in United India.

Table 5

DISTRIBUTION OF MANAGEMENT OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
IN UNITED INDIA, 1945-1946 (1)

Private Local

82232: Basics ésxscnesci
Primary Schools 42.64 53.23 4.50
Middle Schools 47.09 50.24 2.65
High Schools 82.73 8.09 9.18

Compiled from S. M. Qureshi, ”Private Agencies in
Education." In S. N. Mukerji (ed.), Aggjgjsrrgrjgg_gr
Eggrgrigg_jg_;ggjg, (Baroda, India: Acharya Book Depot,
1962), p. 169.

Note: These statistics are on all-India basis for the
years 1945/46. Geographical changes, as a result of the
partition Of the subcontinent, make it impossible to present
figures for the areas now under the effective control of
Pakistan. However, these statistics do indicate a general
trend prevalent in pre-partition India.

These figures indicate that in the pre-partition times
42.64 percent of the total primary schools were in the

1M. A. Qureshi, "Private Agencies in Education.” In
8. H. Mukerji (ed-)- AgeinisiLesion-21-§ssssii20-in-Insie,
(Baroda, India: Acharya Book Depot, 1962), pp. 125-140.

83

private sector. The share of private middle schools and
high schools is greater. This tradition did not continue
after the creation of Pakistan. The private sector did
exist, but it shifted its activities towards higher
education. Table 6 presents the contribution of the private

sector in the develOpment of primary education in Pakistan.

Table 6

DISTRIBUTION OF MANAGEMENT OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
IN PAKISTAN, 1967-1968

Private Local Government

issiec 999125 ishesis
Primary Schools 4 X 2.79% 93.18%
Middle Schools 10.30 2.08 87.60
High Schools 39.65 25.64 34.71
Colleges 50.78 6.20 43.62

Source: Zaki and Khan. BasisIsn-§ésseiiso-I9923, 1970.
Tables 1.4, 1.8, 1.12, 2.3

Figures before partition and after partition differ on
priorities. During pre-partition days, the private sector
played a significant role in the develOpment of primary
education, but after partition it shifted its emphasis to
higher education. The possible reasons for this change in
priority could be that from a commercial point Of view,
primary education is not a profitable enterprise. Since
government schools charged very small tuition fees, parents

preferred to send their children to government schools or

84

local body schools. Especially the rural pOpulation which
is comparatively poor cannot afford education unless it is
subsidized by the government.

Nevertheless, the private sector significantly
contributed to the develOpment of primary education in
urban areas. Table 7 indicates that in big cities like
Karachi, Lahore, Rawalpindi and Hyderabad, more than
one-third of the primary schools were maintained by the

private sector.

Table 7

PRIVATE PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN SELECTED CITIES
OF PAKISTAN, 1967 (X)

Local Private

§9¥§£DESDI EQQIEE §£E£9£

Rawalpindi 23.41 39.65 36.93
Lahore 29.20 28.28 42.51
Hyderabad 35.68 33.33 30.98

Source: Institute Of Education and Research,
§£§Ii§£122$-EIQIIL2-QI-§Q!EQIIQD-iD-!2§I-E§§i§IEQr p. 12.

This means that the private sector flourished in big
cities where peOple could afford and school could collect
tuition fees. CNE (1959) urged the government to give
grants-in-aid to private primary schools, but there is no
evidence that government ever aided private primary
schools. In this way, one major previous source for the
develOpment of primary education was curtailed because of

the ways in which government policies were implemented.

85

The CNE (1959)'s recommendations remained in force until
1970. Table 8 presents the growth of primary education in

Pakistan between 1960-1970.

Table 8
GROHTH OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN
1960-1970
Instiisiisas Encsiiasnis Issshscs
1960/61 20,909 2,060,000 50,000
1961/62 24,930 2,270,000 54,800
1962/63 28,338 2,490,000 63,000
1963/64 30,950 2,750,000 69,800
1964/65 32,589 3,050,000 75,900
1965166 32,930 3,160,000 74,900
1966/67 34,678 3,380,000 80,000
1967/68 36,453 3,750,000 83,600
1968/69 38,870 3,830,000 88,000
1969/70 41,290 3,910,000 92,000
1970/71 43,710 3,960,000 96,300
Source: Government of Pakistan, Paki§r§g_§ggrarjgg

§£é£i§£i£§r (1947-1979), Tables 1-3, pp. 2-7.

These tables show that institutions increased at the

rate of 7.75 percent per year.
schools were Opened each year.
rate of 6.82 percent per year.
additional children enrolled each year.

increased 6.72 percent per year.

An average of 2,280 new
Enrollment increased at the
An average of 190,000

Number of teachers

Student-teacher ratio

remained approximately 1:40 as an average throughout this

period.

This develOpment is far less than recommended by

(INE (1959) and planned and projected in the Second and

‘Third Five Year Plans.

According to the Planning

86

Commission, the enrollment ratios should have been close to
85 percent but actual achievement is 45 percent. This
short fall of targets is a measure of the extent to which
the recommendations of CNE (1959) were not strictly
implemented.

21§ICIEEIIQD-9I-EIIEQEZ-§§E£§£190

Equal distribution of state-sponsored social facilities
including education has been another objective of the
government of Pakistan.

The National Constitution gives clear directions to the
state that special peOples and backward areas should be not
only treated equally, but should be treated affirmatively
and fairly. This means that the government should bring
backward peOple up to par with the advanced sections of
society by taking special measures.

The CNE (1959) accepted this constitutional directive
and stated that as a matter of policy, education is a part
Of the concept of social justice. Its fruits and benefits
should be provided equally to men/women, between provinces
and regions, and between rural and urban peOple.
Gisis-§9222ii90

Historically, the education Of girls has been ignored
in Pakistan. The reasons lay with the facts that, firstly,
in the pre-partition days, the educational system was male

(dominated. And secondly, the social atmosphere was not

87

conducive for women's education. But with the attainment
of independence, the education of girls became a
fundamental objective in the domain of all educational
policies. CNE (1959) strongly recommended that educational
facilities for girls be in every respect equal to those
provided to boys. It further suggested that basic grades
of primary teaching both in boy's and girl's schools be
assigned to women teachers.

The second five-year plan promised to provide greater
opportunities to girls in primary education. The third
five-year plan devoted a whole section on female
education. This plan recommended that primary education
should be absolutely free for girls. In addition, the plan
appealed to the intellectuals to create awareness about the
importance of girl's education in society, to women's
organizations to cOOperate with the government, and to
women to come forward and work as teachers in the primary
schools.

The growth of female educational during 1960-1970 is

presented in Table 9.

Table 9
GROHTH OF FEMALE PRIMARY EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN,
1980 - 1970
Insiiisiisns Eocsiissnis Iseshscs
1960/61 4,057 43,000 10,000
1981/82 5,350 48,000 11,100
1982/83 8,715 53,000 13,300
1983/84 7,418 57,000 14,800
1984/85 8,021 70,000 18,700
1985/88 8,272 75,000 17,400
1988/87 8,535 79,000 18,300
1967/68 9,324 99,000 20,300
1968/69 10,250 101,000 22,500
1989/70 11,170 103,000 25,000
1970/71 12,097 104,000 27,200

88

Source: Government of Pakistan, Egkjgrgg_§ggrgrjgg
Srgrjgrjgs (1947-1979), Tables 1-3.

This table indicates that female's rate of growth was
12.83 percent. 804 new schools Opened each year.
Enrollments increased 9.53 percent per year. 61,000 girls
enrolled each year. Teachers increased 10.90 percent per
year. Overall increase was 1,720 teachers per year.

It is evident that, to some extent, disparities reduced
in the provision of education to boys and girls. The
annual rate of increase was higher for girl's education as
compared to national norms. But on the basis of data, it
cannot be generalized that significant changes occurred in
CNE's tenure of implementation. There are only marginal

differences in growth rates between boys and girls. These

89

differences could also be attributed to the possibility
that parents might have taken more interest in the
education of their daughters or demography might have
pressured on more enrollments. There were still
disparities in enrollment ratios as is presented in Table
10.

Table 10

SEX SPECIFIC ENROLLMENT RATIO FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION
IN PAKISTAN, 1970-71

Male 60.6%
Female 22.8
Both 42.4

Source: Musharaf Ali et al., §ggrgr_A§§g§§rggr_gr
ggurgrjgg_jr_ggkj§r§g, (Islamabad: Ministry of Education,
1974), p. 50.

Thus it is Obvious that CNE (1959) could not reduce
altogether the disparities between boys and girls.
Ersxinsisi-2isIIiEinsn

Since independence, the provinces have undergone
various changes in terms of their administrative control.
From 1947 to 1955, all provinces had their Own political
and administrative structures. In 1956, all the provinces
in the western part Of the country were merged into one
province named Hest Pakistan. The eastern wing Of the
country was given the name of East Pakistan. Both the
provinces had their own governors, council of ministers,
legislature, and a separate ministry of education. In

order to run the administration effectively, the department

of education was divided into five regional directorates of

90

education. The ex-Baluchistan province was assigned to the
directorate of education, Quetta, and the ex-Northwest
Frontier Province was in the control of the directorate of
education, Peshawar. Hhile Punjab province, being much
larger in population, was divided into two regional
directorates of Lahore and Rawalpindi. Similarly, Sind was
divided into two regional directorates of Karachi and
Hyderabad. Hest Pakistan continued to exist and operate
until 1969 when it was dismembered and all the provinces
were reinstated to their original status. For the purpose
of this study, these changes do not matter significantly
since in terms Of educational planning, the area under the
influence of regions or provinces is almost the same with
some very minor changes. Therefore in this study, the
distribution Of primary education facilities are discussed
under the title of provinces.

Primary school enrollment ratios at the end of

CNE (1959) period of enactment are presented in Table 11.

Table 11

PRIMARY SCHOOL ENROLLMENT RATIOS IN PROVINCES
AND PAKISTAN, 1971-1972 (in thousands)

Enrollment

Ezsxinss Escsisiioc Eazsiiasni Basis
Punjab 8,098 2,895.0 44.2
Sind 2,289 910.1 39.8
NHFP 1,377 872.4 48.8
Baluchistan 397 87.2 22.0
Pakistan 10,159 4,384.7 48.0

Source: Government of Pakistan, rgkjstagrggugggjgg

91

These statistics indicate that three provinces, Punjab,
Sind and NHFP are close to national norms and Baluchistan
was lagging behind. However, pOpulation density in
Baluchistan is much less than the other provinces. This
factor might have impeded develOpment but even then the

differences were much less than equitable.

§9232I1-91-Eci82Iz-§gssaiisn-isxsisoasni-iscios-£!§-i12§2
Primary education did develOp to some extent during the
CNE (1959) period to 1970. It is clear, however, that the
efforts did not succeed at primary level as CNE (1959) had
envisioned. The policy approach entailed support from
local and private sectors but during the period this form
Of support shifted away from primary schooling toward
higher levels or away from rural toward urban schooling.
CNE (1959) was also able to achieve only a modest
reapportioning Of schooling between boys and girls. The
next section of this study looks at EP (1972) outcomes with

respect to these same categories.

Esssaii90-E9iisx-312222-209-502-2922L923sni

In 1972, some of the problems in primary education
were:
1. In the past, national develOpment plans had not
succeeded in giving high enough priority to primary

education,

92

Only 45 percent of the children in the primary age
group were enrolled. This means 55 percent of the
children were out of the schools,

Educational Opportunities were not equally
available throughout the country. Remote areas
such as Baluchistan had limited educational
facilities and lower proportion Of girls were

enrolled.

Education Policy was formulated in March, 1972. Some

of the salient features of this policy regarding primary

education were:

1.

Making education free up to the high school level.
The main objective of this decision was to make
education accessible for all.

Nationalization Of all educational institutions,
excluding those managed by non-Muslim,
non-Pakistani nationals.

Provision of free books, writing materials and, in
some cases, free uniforms to poor students.
Automatic promotion up to the ninth grade.
Improvement in teacher's salaries and service
conditions.

Increased participation of female teachers at the
primary school level.

Introduction of a double shift system wherever

possible.

93

Table 12 presents the targets set for the achievement

of universal primary education.

Table 12

PRIMARY EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM IN PAKISTAN

1972-1980
PrOposed
Enrollments Percentage of Enrollments Percentage
10-1222 Ass-§5922 in-12§9 Qi-iss-§2292
Boys 3.5 mill 70% 5.8 mill 100%
Girls 1.1 25 3.8 70
TOTAL 4.6 45 9.6 85

Source: Government of Pakistan, Egurgrjggrggrjry
(1972-80), p. 5.

This policy was put into Operation for the period
1972-1978.

Since funding was to be the exclusive responsibility of
the government, therefore it promised tO substantially
increase the funds for primary education. During this
period, which constitutes 1970-1978, the government's
allocation increased to 444 million for the develOpment of
primary education. This amount was 12.89 percent Of the
total education develOpment budget. The complete budget is

presented in Table 13.

94

Table 13

EXPENDITURE ON PRIMARY EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN
1970-1978 (in millions)

Total EIi!§£Z-§é!S§IiQD Percentass

Education
DeveLOpment

Expenditure 3442 444 12.89
Recurring

Expenditure 10146.3 4107.3 40.48
TOTAL 13588.3 4551.3 33.49

Source: Government of Pakistan, ggurgrjgg_§rgrj§rjr§
(1947-1979), pp. 8-9.

The develOpment of education that took place is

presented in Table 14.

Table 14
GROHTH or PRIMARY EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN
1970-1978
Enrollment
insiiigiisns Enseiissnis Basis 12228225
1970/71 43,710 3,980,000 451
1971/72 45,854 ' 4,210,000 105,700
1972/73 49,580 4,480,000 108,800
1973/74 50,574 4,810,000 115,700
1974/75 51,744 4,980,000 125,500
1975176 52,800 5,240,000 130,300
1976/77 53,182 5,530,000 133,300
1977/78 53,853 8,050,000 54: 135,300

Source: Government Of Pakistan, Egkj§r§g_§ggrgrjgg
itsiisiiss. pp. 2-7.

Table 14 indicates that institutions increased at the
rate of 3 percent per year. Enrollment increased at the

rate of 6.25 percent per year. Teachers increased at the

95

rate of 5.10 percent per year. Students-teacher ratio is
approximately 1:40. 1,450 new schools opened each year.
Average annual increase was 298,571 students per year.
The policy had prOposed that by 1979, 85 percent students
would be enrolled in primary schools but actual enrollment
ratios in 1977-78 were 54 percent. Enrollment ratios were
73 and 33 percent for boys and girls. This means the
government failed to provide universal primary education as
it promised.
iisisibsii90-91-§susaiionsi-Essiiiiiss

The education policy, EP (1972), stressed the
distribution of educational facilities among boys and girls
and among various provinces Of the country. The picture of
growth in primary education in various provinces and among

sexes is presented in Table 15.

Table 15

PRIMARY SCHOOL ENROLLMENT RATIO, PAKISTAN AND PROVINCES

1977-1978
2591105: uais Esaais 1958i
Punjab 71% 39% 56%
Sind 80 35 S9
Baluchistan 50 11 32
NHFP 84 18 52
Federal Territories 50 7 34
Pakistan 73 33 54

Source: M. L. Qureshi, "Universalization of Primary
Edueation in Pakistan: Pilot Primary Project," Egkjgsgn
Esssat

96

The table indicates that there were still disparities

among sexes. For example, at the national level,

participation rate for boys was 73 percent while in case of

females, it was 33 percent. In case of regions, NHFP is on

the tap and Baluchistan and the Federal Territories are

lagging behind and far below the national levels.

§geae:x-21-2:i2251-599293199-2sxsleeasns.-1212:122§

1.

Government failed to provide universal primary

education as it promised. The enrollment ratios were 54
percent only.

Government spent 12.89 percent of the total

education develOpment budget on primary education. The
recurring expenditures included 40.48 percent of the budget
for education. Development expenditures and recurring
expenditures combined were approximately 33.49 percent of
the national education budget.

There were still disparities among sexes and

provinces. At national level the enrollment ratio among
boys and girls were 73 and 33 respectively. In the case of
the provinces, Sind had enrollment ratios of 59 percent,
Punjab 56 percent, NHFP 52 percent and Baluchistan 32
percent against the nationwide enrollment ratios of 54

percent.

97

9922231220-91-§Iisssixsns§§-21-I!2-Eelisis§

This comparison is made at two levels:

1. Expenditure level. This level constitutes
comparison of development expenditures, recurring
expenditures and then combined expenditures. Table 16a, b,
c presents the comparison of expenditures in both policy

periods.

Table 16a

CONPARISON OF EXPENDITURES ON PRINARY EDUCATION
IN PAKISTAN DURING CNE (1959), AND EP (1972)

22!sleeesnt-£3220913229-10-513L120§

Expenditure on Expenditure on
Egysasien Eriaacx-§992asien 2222903292
cue (1959)
1960-1970 1026 44 4.28
E? (1972)

1970-1978 3442 444 12.89
Table 16b
£229:Li09-E32209:£222-$in-aillieesz
Expenditure on Expenditure on

Egusasien Eciaasx-§gysasien Esrssesaas
cue (1959)
1960-1970 2930.3 1190.6 40.63
E? (1972)

1970-1978 10146.3 4107.3 40.48

98

Table 16c
Combined Tables 16a and 16b

E2992£-§6220915922-90-Eci02:x-§gusatien-£10-21Ll19022

Education Budget for

9299:; Ecieacx-§92223190 2222:0329:
cue (1959)
1960-1970 3956.3 1234.6 31.29
59 (1972)
1970-1978 13588.3 4551.3 33.49

The only apparent difference in the two policy periods
with respect to financial support is a difference in
develOpment expenditures. The difference in develOpment
expenditure could be attributed to the difference in policy
approach. The Commission on National Education recommended
the participation of local communities, local bodies, and
private sector in the develOpment of primary education.
These agencies supported the government in providing
develOpment-oriented commodities such as land, building and
furniture. This assistance helped the government to keep
develOpment expenditure low. In second policy period,
government was to buy land, build buildings and provide
furniture for the schools. In addition, the government
promised to provide free writing material and textbooks to
students. This was an additional burden on federal
government. Because of these reasons, develOpment

expenditure went up.

99

Though the expenditure went up, it produced no clearly
positive results in increasing the rates of expansion of

education, as is shown in Table 17.

Table 17

COMPARISON OF GROHTH RATES OF PRIMARY EDUCATION
IN PAKISTAN

105313231202 Encellasnss 1:220:25
cue (1959)
1960-1970 7.75: 6.582 6.72%
59 (1972)
1970-1978 3.00 6.25 5.10

This table shows that in spite of spending more money
on development expenditure, the growth rate in the number
of institutions did not increase during EP (1972) but in
fact decreased from 7.75 percent to 3 percent.
As the above Table 17 shows that there is a decrease in
growth rates of institutions but growth rates in
enrollments are approximately the same in both policy
periods. There could be two reasons for these differences.
1. Education Policy (1972) recommended the double shift
system in primary schools. Therefore, the best utilization
of available schools might have resulted in keeping the .
enrollment ratios high without increasing school buildings.
2. EP (1972) promised to abolish tuition fees, provide

free textbooks and writing material, and automatic

100

promotion in primary schools. These factors could have
helped in maintaining enrollment increase ratios.
212321923190-Lsxsl

Table 18 compares the enrollment ratios in various

provinces of Pakistan at the terminal year of each policy

period.

Table 18

COMPARISON OF PRIMARY SCHOOL ENROLLMENT RATIOS
IN PROVINCES AND PAKISTAN

12ZQ£Zl lEZZLZé
Baluchistan 22% 32%
NHFP 48 52
Punjab 44 S6
Sind 39 59
Pakistan 46 54

Explgggtjgg: This table does not lead to any
generalization. Probably Sind and Punjab benefited most
from double shift system and free tuition fees. However,
the relative disparities in both policy periods appear to

remain essentially unchanged.

§9£0§£X-QI-EIIEQEZ-§QE£§IIQD-2£!SLQEE£0£§

The above tables display the effects of each policy
planning period on primary education between 1960-1978.
The next section discusses develOpments at the secondary

level.

101

§ssengécx-§§ysa£ign

103290025190

Secondary education in Pakistan comprises three stages;
middle school stage from classes VI to VIII, high school
stage consisting of classes IX to X; and intermediate or
higher secondary stage comprising classes XI and XII.
Instructions in classes VI to VIII are provided in middle
schools and high school building while classes IX and X are
held exclusively in high school building. Intermediate or
higher secondary education is provided in intermediate or
degree colleges. Therefore, this stage is discussed under
the section ggllggg_§ggg§tigg. The present discussion
concentrates on middle and high school stages. However,
secondary education in Pakistan compositely forms class VI
to VIII, IX to X and XI to XII. Historically, these three
stages have also maintained a separate identity. Middle
school education is a stage that comes next to primary
education. High school stage is a type of education that
produces the bulk of trained or informed citizens needed in
various walks of life. Most of the students after
completing this stage go directly to primary teachers'
training schools, technical training centers, business,
industry, agriculture and government. Intermediate or
higher secondary education is a king of education that

prepares students for advanced education in professional

fields and universities.

102

Therefore, secondary education in Pakistan serves three
purposes: (a) it receives and accommodates children coming
from primary schools; (b) serves as a terminal stage after
which students join different activities in the society and
(c) finally it may serve as a stepping stone for higher
education.

These three different conceptions about the functions
of secondary education, during various periods in history,
affected the process of planning and patterns of growth of
various stages. During British periods, secondary
education was geared towards higher education. This
conception led to more emphasis on high school and
intermediate education and neglected middle school
education. After independence, the repatriation of Hindus
and British to India and England created a vacuum in white
collar jobs. This factor further created a demand for high
school and intermediate education leading to higher
education. During the first eight years of independence
(1947-1955), high school and intermediate education
expanded enormously. High schools increased from 408 to
747, arts and science colleges from 40 to 77 while middle
schools decreased from 2,190 in 1947/48 to 1,517 in
1955.1 The First Five Year Plan (1955-1960) criticized

this situation.

~-----—-----—------

1
Government of Pakistan, E99225190-§£é£i§£isé
(1947/48-1972/73), Table 1.

103

There has been unbalanced growth of secondary
education after independence. The activities of
private religious organizations and local bodies have
been concentrated in urban areas. As a result high
schools are not distributed geographically, with rural
areas being largely neglected. The disprOportionately
small number of girls must be attributed in some
measures to the same cause.

The plan suggested to make primary education a base for
the entire structure of secondary and higher education. It
proposed a balanced develOpment of primary, middle, high
school, intermediate and higher education. The purpose was
to give an apprOpriate place to middle school education in
the domain of secondary education.

It has been mentioned elsewhere that the First Five
Year Plan was never vigorously implemented. But the
achievements in the field of secondary education were more
than were planned. Many factors contributed towards this
develOpment. Government's inability to provide
satisfactory and sufficient education encouraged the
private sector. A variety of education became available in
the market. For the elites, there were English medium
public schools, and for the common people, there were
ordinary schools running on commercial and/or philanthropic

2

bases. Consequently, a large number of schools

mushroomed without adequate preparations. In 1958, 707

1
Government of Pakistan, Ihs-£i£§£-fii!s-le§£-filén
(1955-1960), p. 408.
2
Government of Pakistan, Ihe-§sseng-fiive-122:-El20
(1960-1965), pp. 341-343.

104

schools in the Lahore region were surveyed to assess the
quality of their staff. The data received from 629 schools
showed that 19 had no graduate teacher on their staff, 177
had only one trained graduate teacher each, and 129 had two
graduate teachers each. Very few of these schools had
science teachers while science was being taught in high

1
schools.

£u§-£12222-209-i£§-Ecosc§m-91-§s2909acz
£90223120-22223200s05

In a preliminary analysis of secondary education
existing in 1959/60, the commission noted:

There is no doubt that as a consequence of unplanned
expansion without adequate funds, the system of
secondary education has virtually collapsed.
Overcrowded classes, teachers without adequate
qualifications, inadequate materials and unsatisfactory
buildings . . . these are the things that characterize
our present secondary education.

In order to remedy the deficiencies and rebuild the
system, the commission drew up a scheme. The prOposed
scheme consisted of the following suggestions:

1. Privately Operated schools should be registered
with government and required to provide adequate
facilities in the way of teachers, buildings and
equipment.

Government of Pakistan, £9001§§i§0-90-fl§£i90§£

105

Boards of intermediate and secondary education
should rigidly follow and enforce the rules for the
recognition of private schools.

The existing substandard schools should be
rehabilitated. Government, local bodies and
private agencies should undertake a program of
rehabilitation.

Access to secondary education should be equalized.
Increased emphasis should be placed on scientific

1
and technical subject.

Following the report of CNE (1959), the Planning

Commission of Pakistan figured out a program of develOpment

which was incorporated in the Second and Third Five Year

Plans.

§22909-Eivs-!s§c-fll202-12égzliéé

1.

Improvement of existing secondary schools by
bringing their accommodation equipment, libraries,
and instruction up to a reasonable standard.
Encouragement should be given to the development of
secondary schools of the residential type.
Upgrading of 600 primary schools to middle schools,
103 middle schools to high schools, and

establishment of 160 new high schools.

Ibidm’ pp- 139-143.

 

106

4. Enrollment of 230,000 new students in middle and
high schools.1
101:9-Eive-!eer-filen-£12§§:12292
1. Upgrading of 2,000 primary schools to middle
schools and 100 middle schools to high schools.
2. Establishment of 100 new high schools, 50 in the
private sector and 50 in the government sector.
3. Establishment of 40 new high schools.2
According to CNE (1959)'s recommendations, the federal
government, provincial government, local bodies and private
agencies were to cOOperate for the achievement of the
objectives outlined in the Second and Third Five Year
Plans. Federal government was to provide development
expenditures, and provincial government was to provide
recurring expenditures. Local bodies and private
institutions were to rely on their own resources and in
case of financial constraints, the provincial government
was to provide them grants-in-aid.

The financial performance of the system during

1960-1970 is presented in Tables 19a, b, and c.

1
Government of Pakistan, Ins-§esené-£ive-xsac-zlan
(1960-65), pp. 195-198.
2
Government of Pakistan, Ihs-Ihi£§-Eixe-Ie§£-Elen
(1965-70>, pp. 342-343.

107

Table 19a

PUBLIC DEVELOPMENT EXPENDITURE 0N SECONDARY EDUCATION
1960-1970 (in millions)

Budget for
DeveLOpment Secondary Percentage of
Geese: Eéysesien £02-599923
1960-65 463 95 20.5 2
1965-70 563 129 22.91
TOTAL 1,026 224 21.83

Source: Government of Pakistan, Egtj§t§g_§gut§tjgg
§t§tj§tjt§ (1947-1979), pp. 8-9.

Table 19b

PUBLIC RECURRING EXPENDITURE ON SECONDARY EDUCATION
IN PAKISTAN (in millions)

Total Education Secondary Percentage of

Eyéset Egysasien 302-999923
1960-65 1,135.9 197.5 17.38
1965-70 1,794.4 339.6 18.92
TOTAL 2,930.3 537.1 18.32

Source: Government of Pakistan, Egtj§t§g_§gutgtjgg
§t§tj§tjt§ (1947-1979), pp. 8-9.

Table 19c

BUDGET EXPENDITURE ON SECONDARY EDUCATION
IN PAKISTAN (in millions)

Total Education Allocation for Percentage of
Eyéset §2290922x-§§2293190 the-§yéset

1960-7O 2,956.3 761.1 19.34

108

These expenditures include grants to local bodies and
private schools. The government of Pakistan never granted
develOpment funds to local bodies or private schools.
However, provincial government out of recurring
expenditures granted approximately 10 to 15 percent of the

1
recurring budget to non-government schools.

£H§-£12§22-909-Beveiepment-9i-§esengecx-§§9£eti90

In 1947, there were approximately 2,190 middle schools
in the country with total enrollment of 221,000 students.
From 1947 to 1955, the number of middle schools decreased
to 1,517. The First Five Year Plan suggested that within
the domain of secondary education, middle school education
be given tOp priority and provided throughout the country.
From 1955 to 1960, the number of middle schools slightly
increased to 1,974 but the schools were still less than the
inherited stock of 2,190 in 1947. The Commission on
National Education suggested that middle schools should be
adequately increased so that they could accommodate the
children coming from primary schools. The Second Five Year
Plan recommended the upgrading of 600 primary schools into
middle schools and improvement of 200 existing middle

Charles Benson, E10202e-91-§gyse£i20:--Icainins-eng
Belated-§e£vise§_in-the-220Li2-§es£9£ (Planning Commission,
Research Study No. 3)(Karachi: Government Printing Press,
1970), pp. 12-13.

109

schools. During the plan period approximately 625 new
middle schools were established against the target of 600.
The Third Five Year Plan proposed the upgrading of
2,000 primary schools into middle schools. However, this
plan could not produce significant results and 851 primary

schools were upgraded against the target of 2,000.

Table 20a
GROHTH 0F MIDDLE SCHOOL EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN
1960/61-1970/71

Inetitytiene EnceLLmenté 12920905
1960/61 1,798 449,000 14,400
1961/62 2,011 461,000 16,700
1962/63 2,237 491,000 18,700
1963/64 2,379 576,000 19,600
1964/65 2,701 624,000 22,100
1965/66 2,785 689,000 23,100
1966/67 2,970 763,000 25,200
1967/68 3,018 793,000 26,100
1968169 3,290 846,000 28,800
1969/70 3,560 899,000 31,500
1970/71 3,822 933,000 34,200
Source: Government of Pakistan, Egtj§t99_§gut§tjgg

§t§tj§tjt§ (1947-1979), pp. 1-6.

Table 20 shows that average annual growth rate in

institutions was 7.20 percent per year.
two new schools Opened per year.
6.98 percent per year.
students enrolled each year.

percent per year.

were hired each year.

Two hundred and
Enrollments increased

In absolute figures, 48,400 new

Teachers increased 6.20

In absolute figures, 1,980 new teachers

110

flish-§£heel-§éusetien

In 1947, there were 408 high schools in the country.
Hithin 13 years of independence, their number increased
three times. In 1960/61, there were 1,172 high schools in
the country. The Commission on National Education noted
that this rapid multiplication in numbers has taken place
at the cost of quality. The commission suggested that, in
terms of quality, secondary education was moribund and it
should be saved from collapsing. The Second Five Year Plan
proposed the rehabilitation of the existing schools and
moderate expansion as its central objectives. In terms of
quantity, the plan prOposed the establishment of 263 new
high schools throughout the entire period Of five years.
During the plan period, 600 schools were improved and 450
new high schools Opened against the target of 263. The
Third Five Year Plan (1965-70) prOposed further addition of
240 high schools. Forty schools were supposed to serve as
comprehensive and pilot and the remaining 200 as general
high schools. During this period 375 new schools were
established against the target of 240.

Table 20b presents the growth of high school education

from 1960 to 1970.

111

Table 20b
GROHTH OF HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN,
1960-1970
Institytiens Encelimente Isasbscé
1960/61 1,172 160,000 20,000
1961/62 1,300 161,000 21,500
1962/63 1,349 209,000 23,000
1963/64 1,459 217,000 25,000
1965/66 1,658 244,000 28,400
1966/67 1,776 273,000 31,600
1967/68 1,827 275,000 33,400
1968/69 1,910 296,000 34,500
1969/70 1,995 337,000 35,500
1970/71 2,063 339,000 36,400

Source: Government of Pakistan, Egtj§t§g_§gutgtjgg
§t§tj§tjt§ (1947-1979), pp. 1-7.

Table 20b shows that average growth rates in
educational institutions is 5.81 percent per year.
Eighty-nine high schools Opened per year. Average annual
increase in enrollment was 8.08 percent per year. 17,800
students enrolled each year. Average annual growth rate in
teachers was 6.61 percent per year. 1,640 teachers were
hired per year.

This develOpment of secondary education was assessed by
the private sector and local authorities. In the following
pages, the role Of each agency is described separately.
82L:-91-the-£civess-§est9£

There were four types of private educational

institutions working in the country.

112

BEI!§£S-E!PL1£-§£DQQL§- During the British period, the
government created public schools for the education of the
children of elite groups. The chief college, Lahore, and
some public schools in Murree, Islamabad belonged to this
category. Most Of these schools were wholly or
substantially financed by the government. These schools
offered a superior standard of education but were
inaccessible to the poor of society. The existence of
these schools, their admission policies and academic
programs were criticized from time to time by students,
unions and the private public at large. The government
spent much more money on these institutions than on other
typical schools. In 1967, the Commission on Student's
Problems criticized their existence as unconstitutional
because they were violating the concept of equality of
citizens. Therefore, the Education Policy of 1972 said:
These institutions have played their part well in the
social order which created them. It is unthinkable to
permit such institutions where access to knowledge and
culture depended on any consideration other than
merit.
Uggjggg_§th99t§. These institutions did not get any
financial assistance from the government. These were
managed either by welfare organizations and trusts or by
well-to-do classes or communities. They depended on their

Government of Pakistan, Eggtgtign_flgtj§x
(1972-1978), p. 4.

113

own financial resources and charged tuition fees. These
schools were managed by individuals or organizations.
Mostly their source of income was tuition fees from
students. These institutions were mostly located in big
cities. Their standard of education, quality of staff, and
other educational facilities remained always of good
standard.

Igtamjt_fl§gt§§§§h. These are the traditional Islamic
institutions, having their own admission policies,
curriculum and administrative setup. Here education is
free. Their main source of income is charity and
assistance provided by the peOple. These institutions are
concentrated in rural areas and they are not counted in the
educational statistics.

Ei§§190§£2-§2099i§- These are English medium schools run
by Pakistanis and foreign Christian missionaries. Included
in this category were international schools.

All these above-mentioned schools except Islamic
schools and international schools, in the department of
education's account were classed as private schools. They
helped in the development of the country's educational

system and their contributions are presented in Table 21.

 

114

Table 21

DISTRIBUTION OF MANAGEMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
IN PAKISTAN, 1967

Private Local Body Government

§2099l§ §2099L§ §9099L§ IeteL
Middle Schools 306 62 2,602 2,970
High Schools 706 414 644 1,764

Source: Zaki and Khan, Ea£i§320-§92293190-lnéez,
pp. 38-42.

These figures indicate that private middle schools
constituted 10.30 percent Of the total schools and high
schools constituted 40 percent Of the total schools.

Table 22 presents the location of private schools in
various cities of Pakistan. Middle schools were scattered
throughout the country. High schools tend to concentrate

in big cities.

Table 22

LOCATION OF PRIVATE MANAGED HIGH SCHOOLS
IN PAKISTAN, 1967

Total Private Percentage of

BSQiQOé flisb-§2099L §2099L Ecivate_§sbeel§
Lahore 541 230 42.51%
Rawalpindi 444 164 40
Hyderabad 255 79 31

Karachi 263 193 73.38
Quetta 50 11 22
Pakistan 1,764 706 40.02

Source: Pakistan Education Index, pp. 38-42.

 

 

115

It is clear that the share of private high schools in
Lahore was 42.51 percent, Rawalpindi 40 percent, Hyderabad
31 percent, Karachi 73.38 percent and Ouetta 22 percent.
The interior regions of the country, particularly rural
areas, did not have private schools.
3929-91-209-2229l-§99199

The Commission on National Education recommended that
local bodies should participate in the process of
educational development in the country. These authorities
could charge tuition fees, could levy special tax for
education and could spend money from their general funds.
In some cases, they were entitled for grants-in-aid from
the government. However, they were required to provide
adequate educational facilities with equality of
Opportunity among men and women and by establishing schools

at suitable geographical places. The share of local bodies

is presented in Table 23.

Table 23

LOCAL BODIES SCHOOLS IN PAKISTAN (1967)

Total Local Body
§20292 920922 2922902999
Middle School 2,970 62 2.08
High School 1,764 414 23.46

source: Zaki and Khan, E9219290-299292190-I0993 (1970),
Tables 1.8, 1.12, pp. 38, 42.

 

116

It is clear from the above statistics that local bodies
maintained a small number of middle schools but their share
in high schools is 23.46 percent. These schools were
mostly in medium level towns of Punjab and Sind province.
219221202190-91-992909921-290292190

Fair distribution of secondary education has been
another important Objective of CNE (1959). Tables 24a and
b present the pOpulation, enrollments and enrollment ratios

among various provinces and sexes in Pakistan.

Table 24a

ENROLLMENT RATIOS AT SECONDARY LEVEL
IN PAKISTAN AND PROVINCES, 1970
(in thousands)

Age Group

19:12 2929192190 2029110902 2029110902-392199
Baluchistan 137 16.8 12.26%
NHFP 484 137.2 28.4
Punjab 2,167 656.8 30.3
Sind 830 185.1 22.3
Pakistan 3,618 . 995.9 27.52
13:11

Baluchistan 91 5.7 6.2
NHFP 323 43.2 13.4
Punjab 1,453 275.3 18.9
Sind 557 82.0 14.7
Pakistan 2,424 406.2 16.8

Source: Government of Pakistan, Egtj§t§g_§gut§tjgg
Statjgtjtg (1947/48-1972/73), Table 16.

117

Table 24b

ENROLLMENT RATIOS OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN
SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF PAKISTAN

29x2 21212 19291
Middle School Stage 40.9% 11.7% 27.50%
High School Stage 25.0 6.8 16.8

Source: Compiled from Government of Pakistan, Egtjgtgg
292292190-§29219212§ (1947-1972), Table 16-

Tables 24a and b show that in the case of middle
schools there were still disparities among provinces and
sexes. At the national level, the enrollment ratio was
27.52 percent, but Sind and Baluchistan were far behind.

In the case of sexes, boys represented 40.4 percent and
girls represented only 11.7 percent. Similarly, in the
case of high schools, at the national level, the enrollment
ratio was 16.8 percent but Baluchistan represented 6.2
percent only. Here Sind is close to the national norm. In
the case of sexes, boys represented 25 percent and girls

represented only 6.8 percent only.

202-112222-909-§900922-91-§9220992z-§99292190-292912209029
1. Mjggtg_§thggt§. Average annual enrollment growth

rate was 7.20 percent per year. Two hundred and

two new schools Opened each year.

 

 

118

2. Enrollments increased 6.98 percent per year. In
absolute figures, 48,400 new students enrolled each
year.

3. Teachers increased 8.27 percent per year. In
absolute figures, 1,980 new teachers were appointed
each year.

4. Educational facilities were unevenly distributed.
DiSparities persisted among provinces as well as
between boys and girls.

5. High_§th99t§. Average annual growth rate is 5.47
percent per year. Ninety schools Opened per year.

6. Average annual increase in enrollments was 6.96
percent per year. In absolute figures, 17,600 new
students enrolled each year.

7. Average annual growth rate in teachers was 6.641
percent per year. One hundred sixty-four teachers
were hired each year.

8. Geographical distribution of schools did not
improve. There was a disparity in enrollment
ratios among various provinces and between sexes.

299292190-39112x-$12221-909-29291920902-91-§9290992x
299292120

The main principles of the second policy period are

described in the second chapter. The salient features

regarding secondary education were:

119

1. All private and local bodies schools were taken
over by the government. On 1 October 1974,
secondary education came under the complete control
of the government.

2. Education became free until Grade X and all forms
Of tuition fees were abolished.

3. Annual examinations from Grades I to IX were also
replaced with automatic promotion.

According to EP (1972), the government was responsible

for providing all kinds of expenditures. The financial

performance of the system is presented in Table 25.

Table 25

FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION SYSTEM
IN PAKISTAN, 1970-1978 (in millions)

19291 992909922 2922902999
DeveLOpment Budget 3,442 542 15.74
Recurring Budget 10,146.3 1,692.6 16.68
TOTAL ____________________
13,588.3 2,234.6 16.44

Source: Government of Pakistan, Egtj§t§g_§gut§tjgg
§£§£i§£i£§ (1947-1979), pp. 8-9.

Tables 26 and 27 present the develOpment of middle
school and high school education in Pakistan from 1970 to

1978.

Table 26

DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN

1970-1978

Quantitative Expansion of Middle School Education

jQ_E§§j§t§g (1978-1980), p. 32.

109212921909 2029110902 19920929
1971/72 4,110 963,072 36,000
1972/73 4,406 1,041,140 41,400
1973/74 4,586 1,097,140 41,900
1974/75 4,713 1,200,427 43,500
1975/76 4,783 1,296,461 46,400
1976/77 4,990 1,400,189 46,000
1977/78 5,026 1,510,383 48,400

Source: Government of Pakistan, Qgggtgpmggt_gt-§gut§tjgg

Table 27
QUANTITATIVE EXPANSION OF HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION
1970-1978
109212921909 20291109029 19920929
1971/72 2,247 366,000 37,900
1972/73 2,498 390,000 40,700
1973/74 2,742 418,000 45,300
1974/75 2,898 462,000 51,100
1975/76 3,047 493,000 55,700
1976/77 3,214 509,000 59,600
1977/78 3,258 522,000 60,800
Source: Government Of Pakistan, Egtjgtagtgggtgtjgn

§t§tj§tjt§ (1947-1979), pp. 2-7.

120

121

Mjggtg_§th99t§. Institutions increased 3.27 percent
per year. 130 new schools Opened per year. Enrollment
increased 7.12 percent per year. In absolute number 76,901
new students enrolled each year. Teachers increased 4.71
percent per year. In absolute numbers 1,771 teachers
increased each year.

High_§th99t§. Enrollment increased by 5.90 percent per
year. Actual increase was 22,285 per year. Institutions
increased 5.41 percent per year. In absolute terms, 138
schools Opened per year. Teachers increased 7.52 percent
per year. 372 teachers were hired each year.
919221992190-92-§92909921-299292190

Education Policy (1972) laid much emphasis on equal
distribution of educational facilities among various
sections of society. Tables 28 and 29 present the

enrollment ratios in various provinces and among men and

women a

Table 28

ENROLLMENT RATIOS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION,
PAKISTAN AND PROVINCES, 1977-1978

29192019290 0--2 290190 21-9 29119290
Enrollment ratios
In Middle School
Grades 6-8,
Age 10-12 9.50 19.44 25.9 23.06 22.99

Enrollment ratios

In High School

Grades 9-10,

Age 13-14 5.17 12.14 15.82 15.86 14.35

Sources: Enrollments compiled from Government of Pakistan,
29119290-299292190-2292192129 (1947-1979), pp. 31, 40-
POpulation (projected) in Government of Pakistan, Egtjgtgg
299292190-§292192129 (1947-1972), Part IX-

Table 29

ENROLLMENT RATIOS OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS
OF PAKISTAN, 1977-1978

2929 21219 19291
Middle School 28.40 11.60 21.89
High School 21.17 6.83 14.35

Source: Compiled from Government of Pakistan, £§§j§t§9_
299292190-§292192129 (1947-1979)-

122

123

2909921990-92-2229221990999-91-I99-29112199

CNE (1959) and EP (1972) both agreed on the following
Objectives in the develOpment of secondary education.

1. Quantitative expansion of the system.

2. Equal distribution of educational facilities
between men and women and among various regions of the
country.

In order to achieve these objectives

1. CNE (1959) encouraged the participation of the
private sector, local bodies and the direct participation
of the government.

2. It also permitted to charge tuition fees from
students. EP (1972), on the contrary, nationalized the
whole educational enterprise, made government exclusively
responsible for providing education to the peOple,
abolished all kinds of tuition fees and made education
free.

CNE (1959) remained in force from 1960 to 1970 and EP
(1972) remained in force from 1971/72 to 1977/78. The
comparative effectiveness of both policies is prepared at
four levels.

1. Etpgggjtgtg_tgggt. From 1960 to 1971, the
government spent 224 million Rupees on secondary education
develOpment out of its total educational develOpment budget

of 1,026 millions. On recurring side, 537.1 million Rupees

124

were spent on secondary education out of total recurring

budget Of 2,930.3 million Rupees.

From 1971 to 1978,

government spent 542 million on secondary education

development out of total development budget of 3,442

million.

On recurring side, 1,692.6 million Rupees were

spent out of total budget Of 10,164.3 million Rupees.

Table 30 presents the expenditure on secondary

education in both policy periods.

Table 30

COMPARISON OF EXPENDITURE ON SECONDARY EDUCATION
IN PAKISTAN (in millions)

Development Expenditure
Recurring Expenditure

TOTAL

DeveLOpment Expenditure
Recurring Expenditure

TOTAL

1960-1970

Total
22990912929

1970-1978

Total
22990912929

3,442
10,146.3

13,588.3

Secondary
Education

Secondary
Education

542
1,692.1

2,234.1

18.33

16.67

These tables indicate that on budget level, there is a
difference of 3 percent. EP (1972) spent 16.44 percent of
the education budget on secondary education while CNE
(1959) spent 19.23 percent.

229909190-29991
Table 31 presents the comparative picture of

develOpment in each policy period.

Table 31

COMPARATIVE GROHTH RATES OF MIDDLE SCHOOL EDUCATION
IN PAKISTAN

Institutions Enrollments Teachers

CNE (1959)

1960-1970 7.20% 6.98% 6.20%
E? (1972)

1970-1978 3.27 7.12 4.71

COMPARATIVE GROHTH RATES OF HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION
IN PAKISTAN

CNE (1959)
1960-1970 5.81% 8.08 6.61
EP (1972)
1970-1978 5.41 5.90 7.52

In the case of high schools, both policy periods show

the same performance level.

125

126

Distribution Level

Table 32 presents a comparison of the distribution of

secondary education in both policy periods.

Table 32

COMPARISON OF ENROLLMENT RATIOS

PAKISTAN AND PROVINCES

Middle Schools

1221222
Baluchistan 12.3
NHFP 28.4
Punjab 30.3
Sind 22.3
Pakistan 27.5

High Schools

1221222
Baluchistan 6.2
NHFP 13.4
Punjab 18.9
Sind 14.7
Pakistan 16.8

gtptgggtjgg. Table 30 indicates during CNE (1959),

19.23 percent of the education budget was spent on

secondary education develOpment.

include expenditure in the private sector.
policy period, secondary education got 16.44 percent of the
develOpment budget. The effect of these differences in

expenditure is reflected in the growth rates presented in

Table 31.

9.5
19.44
25.90
23.06
22.99

1977/78

5.17
12.14
15.82
15.86
14.35

This amount does not

In the second

127

1. The table indicates that the growth rate in middle
school institutions was 3.27 percent during EP (1972) as
compared to 7.20 percent in CNE (1959)'s tenure of
implementation. But in spite of differences in
institutions, growth rates of enrollments in middle schools
are approximately the same in both policy periods. The
possible reason for this phenomenon could be the abolishing
of tuition fees in middle schools.

2. In the case Of high schools, growth rates in
institutions, enrollments and teachers are approximately
the same in both policy periods. Table 32 presents a
somewhat confusing picture. The enrollment ratios in both
middle school level and high school level went down in the
second policy period. The possible reasons could be (a)
pOpulation growth rate has continuously been increasing at
the rate of 3 percent since 1961. In 1961, it was
envisaged that pOpulation growth would go down to 2.6
percent. But actually, throughout the 1960s, the growth
rate remained constant at 3 percent; (b) children born in
the 19603 arrived in secondary school age group in the
1970s. This factor might have influenced the enrollment

ratios in the 19705.

290092z-91-29290992x-299292190
Table 30 depicts the financial differences in the

implementation of the two policy approaches and Tables 31

128

and 32 display the differing impacts on the develOpment of
secondary education in Pakistan from 1960 to 1978. It
becomes clear that nationalization and making this level of
education free did not produce favorable outcomes. The
next section discusses the impact of the two policies on

the develOpment of college education in Pakistan.

2911999-299292190

2921929909

College education in Pakistan consists of two stages.
The first stage comprises grades XI and XII and is called
intermediate or higher secondary education. The next stage
contains grades XIII-XIV and is called the degree stage or
B.A., B. Sc. (Baccalaureate Of Arts or Science).
Instructions in grades XI and XII are provided in
intermediate colleges. Courses in B.A., B. Sc. are Offered
in degree colleges. Some of the degree colleges have
intermediate or postgraduate education wings in their
buildings. Boards of intermediate and secondary education
deal with academic programs of intermediate education.
They prepare curriculum, prescribe textbooks, conduct
examinations and award diplomas to qualified students.
Similarly, universities discharge the same responsibilities

for degree and postgraduate education.

129

The government of Pakistan, in terms of planning,
management and financing, considers college education as
one integral unit.

In 1947-48, there were 40 colleges in the country.
Twenty-five of these were managed by the government and 15
were in the private sector. Hithin eight years of
independence, their number grew to the tune of 77 and
enrollments increased almost four times from 13.3 thousand
in 1947-48 to 43 thousand in 1954-55. This develOpment was
by and large quantitative. The First Five Year Plan
(1955-60) criticized this multiplication in numbers. It
urged the improvement in curriculum and consolidation of
existing facilities rather than further expansion.1 The
plan's prOposals could not change the behavior of the
system. Quantitative expansion continued and 50 more
colleges were founded. The curriculum, libraries,
laboratories and other academic facilities did not improve
and no improvement took place in the geographical
distribution of educational facilities.2 The growth of
college education between the period 1947-1959 is presented

in Table 33.

1Government of Pakistan, fijt§t_fjgg_1gg;_gtgg
(1955-60), pp.

2Government of Pakistan, §gtggg_fjgg_tggt_gtgg

130

Table 33
GROHTH OF COLLEGE EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN
1947-1959
Private Government

1292 29112929 29112929 19291
1947 15 25 40
1955 31 46 77
1959 57 69 126

Source: Zaki and Khan. 29019290-299992190-10922 (1970),
p. 84.

Table 33 indicates the rapid expansion of colleges both
in the private as well as in the public sector. The First
Five Year Plan had categorically announced the
consolidation of the existing facilities. It has been
discussed in the previous section that during the First
Five Year Plan growth in primary and middle school
education never reached the set targets but college
education expanded without any prOposed plan for
expansion. Probably social and political pressures
facilitated this expansion, but the colleges established
without planning lacked adequate facilities. Against this
background, the Commission on National Education prepared

its prOposals.

CNE (1959) criticized the unplanned expansion of
callege education which took place in the post-independence
Period. The commission observed:

Since independence education at higher level in
Pakistan has expanded enormously. New colleges Opened

131

and existing ones expanded without adequate
facilities. This largely unplanned expansion has been
at the expense of quality, which has deteriorated
disastrously; it is imperative that this trend be
reversed.

The commission made several suggestions for the
improvement of college education in the country. These

suggestions include:

1. College education in Pakistan must perform three
tasks and they must be accomplished at one and the
same time.

a. Range of educational courses must be extended,
b. Quality of education must be improved,
c. Large number of students must be catered for.

2. NO new college, in government as well as in the
private sector, be allowed to function unless it
has adequate resources in terms of teachers,
libraries, laboratories and buildings.

3. The extremely important position of private
colleges must be recognized and government should
give adequate grants, provided they maintain
quality of education and offer courses in
scientific and technical subjects.

4. Equality of opportunity must be maintained.

The commission's recommendations were incorporated into
the Second and Third Five Year Plans for the periods
19150-1970. The Second Five Year Plan (1960-65) proposed
tire improvement of existing colleges as its central
0tijective and extension of Bachelor degree course from two
t<> three years. The Third Five Year Plan (1965-70) again

'9”iterated the improvement of existing colleges,

-
~ ~----------------

1Government of Pakistan, £900199190-90-!9219091
39292190, 0. 16.

132

enlargement of curriculum, increased enrollments in
scientific and technical subjects, and prOposed the
establishment of 75 new colleges.

According to CNE (1959) recommendations, federal
government, provincial government and the private sector
were to cOOperate for the achievement of the
above-mentioned objectives.

Federal government provided develOpment expenditures
and provincial government arranged for recurring
expenditures. The private sector largely depended on its
own resources and got some assistance from the government.
The financial performance of the system during 1960-1970 is

presented in Table 34.

Table 34

PUBLIC DEVELOPMENT EXPENDITURES ON COLLEGE EDUCATION
IN PAKISTAN, 1960-1970 (in millions)

Education Budget For
22991920202-299922 2911299-299292190 2222202992
1960-1965 463 68 14.63
1965-70 563 64 11.63
TOTAL 1026 132 12.86

Source: Government of Pakistan, Egtj§t§g_§ggtttjgg
§tatistics (1947-1979), pp. 8-9.

133

Table 35

PUBLIC RECURRING EXPENDITURES ON COLLEGE EDUCATION
IN PAKISTAN, 1960-1970 (in millions)

Recurring Expenditure Recurring Expenditure

90-299292190 90-2911292-299292190 2222202992
1960-65 1135.9 99.3 8.74
1965-70 1794.4 148.5 8.27
TOTAL 2930.3 247.8 8.45

Source: Government of Pakistan, Egtj§t§g_§ggtgtjgg
§tgtj§tjt§ (1947-1979), pp. 8-9.

Combined Table 34 and Table 35 make the budget
expenditure on education.

Table 36 presents the budget expenditure on college
education as a part of the national education budget in

Pakistan from 1960 to 1970.

Table 36

BUDGET EXPENDITURES ON COLLEGE EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN,
1960-1970 (in millions)

Budget Expenditure College Education
On Education 299922 2222202992

3956.3 379.8 9.59

134
Out of these 379.8 million Rupees college education
budget, government gave some grants to private colleges.
This grant never exceeded 10-15 percent of the college
education budget.1 However, this smallness of grant did
not affect the growth of private colleges as is presented

in Table 37.

Table 37

MANAGEMENTHISE GROHTH OF COLLEGE EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN
1970

2219922-29112999 2999200202-29112999 19291

1947 15 25 40
1955 31 46 77
1959 S7 69 126
1965 120 105 225
1970 175 114 289

Source: Zaki and Khan, 29219290-299292190-10922 (1970),
p. 84.

This table indicates that after 1959, colleges
increased and growth was comparatively higher in the
private sector. The government established 55 colleges and
118 were Opened in the private sector.

The Planning Commission of Pakistan had proposed in the
Second and Third Five Year Plans improvement of quality,
increased enrollment in scientific and technical subjects

and establishment of 75 new colleges in the country. The

135

total expansion at the end of the planning periods was 55
colleges in the government sector and 118 colleges in the
private sector. Thus, overall quantitative expansion was
173 as against the targets of 75. However, the other two
objectives, that of increased enrollments in scientific and
technical subjects and equality, did not improve. The
deterioration in standards, unbalanced enrollment in
different subjects and inequality in Opportunities
continued. Table 38 presents comparative enrollments in
scientific and technical subjects during the period under

study.

Table 38

GROUPHISE ENROLLMENTS IN COLLEGES OF PAKISTAN

2219922 2992200202

Intermediate

Arts 64% 54%

Science 36 46
Degree

Arts 86 70

Science 14 30
Postgraduate

Arts 100 89

Science 0 11

Source: H. M. Zaki's "Inevability of Nationalization" in
H. M. Zaki's §9g_91_gj§gty, (Islamabad: Ministry of
Education and Provincial Coordination, 1972), p. 47.

In addition to this disprOportionate representation in

arts subject, private colleges tended to be concentrated in

big cities where large numbers of students could become

136

available. In Karachi, 83 percent of the total colleges
belonged to the private sector. In Lahore, Hyderabad and
Rawalpindi the private colleges contributed over 70 percent
while the whole province of Baluchistan did not have a
single private college. NHFP had only one private
college.1.

It is alleged that some of the private colleges came
into existence as commercial enterprises. They charged
heavy tuition fees, provided unsatisfactory educational
facilities, and paid less wages to the teachers.

The Commission on Student Problems and Helfare (1966)
observed,

The position in most of the private colleges, other
than those run by Christian missionary societies, is
much worse. The teachers are poorly paid. They have
no service conditions, no security of services and no
incentive for good work, although, the institutions
that employ them have huge student enrollment and a
large income from fees. These institutions . . . run
on commercial basis with an eye to earning profits for
the management. . . .

In Karachi we visited a mammoth multi-purpose
institution called the Islamia College which under one
roof dispenses instructions from kindergarten to the
graduation level. Apart from spacious classrooms and
laboratories we found little or no common facilities in
this institution for students. Its library was merely
an apology for one recreational facilities did not
exist . . .

1Dawn E. Jones and Rodney H. Jones, ”Private Power
and Educational Politics in Pakistan" (Occasional Paper
No. 6. University of Texas at Austin, Center for Asian
Studies, 1978), pp. 6-8.

137

The founder of the college, himself an uneducated

person was also its de facto chief administrative

head.1

The Hest Pakistan Committee on the Administration of
privately-managed Colleges (1967) reported

In one (private) college the committee noted that while

the number of students on roll was 500, those who were

actually present were about 50. Further examination of

the record revealed that students were marked present

even when they did not attend the college.

This discussion indicates that the recommendations of
CNE (1959) and prOposals of Second and Third Five Year Plan
could not keep the develOpment of private colleges on
track.

Table 39 presents the joint contribution of government
and private sector in the develOpment of college education

in Pakistan between 1960 and 1970 when CNE (1959)'s

recommendations were in force.

Eggptgg§_ggg_!gttgtg (Karachi?-MiHi§tFy-OT-E8u832ion,
1966), p. 45.

2Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Education.

138

Table 39

QUANTITATIVE EXPANSION OF COLLEGE EDUCATION
IN PAKISTAN (1960-1970)

109212921909 2029110202 19920229
1292:1222
1960761 131 71,000 N.A.
1961762 146 71,900 N.A.
1962/63 159 94,100 N.A.
1963764 190 118,700 4,938
1964765 225 127,200 5,432
1965766 228 139,300 5,711
1966767 258 147,900 6,049
1967/68 251 153,300 6,208
1068769 270 159,000 7,080
1969770 290 175,000 7,950

Source: Government of Pakistan, Egtj§t§g_§ggtgtjgg
§t§tj§tjt§ (1947-1979), pp. 8-9.

These figures indicate that number of institutions
increased at the rate of 9.38 percent per year. In
absolute numbers 16 new colleges Opened each year.
Enrollment increased 11 percent per year. Approximately
10,000 new students joined colleges each year. Teachers
increased 7.56 percent per year. Four hundred new teachers
were recruited each year.

In the case of primary and secondary education, the
enrollment ratios of men/women and among provinces were
prepared and compared with national norms. But in the case
of college education, data are inadequate and make it

impossible to prepare and compare enrollment ratios.

139

Therefore, for this level of education, college education
in various provinces is calculated as a share in college at
the national level at the terminal year of each policy
period.

Table 40 presents the provinces' share in college

education in 1970.

Table 40

DEVELOPMENT OF COLLEGE EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN
AND PROVINCES, 1960-70

Institutions Enrotlmentg Iggthgtg

Baluchistan 9 2,710 264
NHFP 37 16,339. 946
Punjab 154 107,363 4,905
Sind 112 71,994 2,640
Central

Government 2 806 68
Pakistan 314 199,212 8,823

Source: Government of Pakistan, ggtj§tgg_§ggtgtjgg

This table indicates that Baluchistan had 2.88 percent
of institutions, 1.36 percent of enrollments and 3 percent
of the teachers. NHFP had 11.78 percent of the
institutions, 8.20 percent of the enrollments and
10.72percent of the teachers. Sind had 35.66 percent of
the institutions, 36.13 percent of enrollments and 30
percent of teaching staff. Punjab had 40.04 percent of the
institutions, 53.89 percent of enrollments and 55.59

percent of teaching staff.

140

It seems clear that Punjab and Sind had far the greater
share of institutions and enrollments than Baluchistan and
NHFP.

120912-299292190

The participation of females in college education is
extremely important. Overall, women's involvement in the
public sector labor force in Pakistan is extremely low, but
they have some representation in the medical and teaching
professions. College education is a prerequisite for these
professions. Increased enrollments of women at this level
of education would increase their participation in the
labor force and ultimately accelerate the growth Of girls'
primary and secondary education.

Table 41 presents the representation of girls in

college education in Pakistan from 1960 to 1970.

Table 41

DISTRIBUTION OF COLLEGE EDUCATION BETUEEN MEN/HOMEN
IN PAKISTAN (1970)

1299291 1292299 1292220

Institutions

Men 75% 74% 71%

Homen 25 26 29
Enrollments

Men 83 80 74

Homen 17 20 26
Teachers

Men -- 73 70

Homen -- 27 30

Source: Compiled from Pakistan Education Statistics
(1947/48-1972), Table 5 (1-3).

141

Table 41 indicates that women's education improved only

marginally from 1960 to 1970.

EP (1972) made three important recommendations for the
develOpment of college education. These recommendations
included:

1. Nationalization of all private colleges,

2. Standardization of tuition fees in all colleges,

3. Increased emphasis on scientific and technical
subjects.

This policy was implemented soon after the announcement
in March 1972. On September 1, 1972, one hundred and
seventy-five private colleges were nationalized. In
addition, tuition fees in these colleges were also
standardized and reduced to government level. Government
took over the responsibility of financing college
education.

The financial performance of the system is presented in

Table 42.

142

Table 42
PUBLIC EXPENDITURE ON COLLEGE EDUCATION
IN PAKISTAN, 1970-1978
(in millions)

Total Education

22220912922 2211292-299222120
DevelOpment
Expenditure 3442.0 3740
Recurring
Expenditure 10146.3 1313.59
Total Education
Budget 13588.3 1687.59

As a result of implementation of this policy, the

following develOpment took place.

d 10)
O 1:?
i In!
N H
U'l "D

12.94

12.41

143

Table 43
QUANTITATIVE EXPANSION or COLLEGE EDUCATION
1970-1978
109212921209 20291199029 12920229
1971772 338 186,600 8,313
1972773 334 186,400 8,346
1973774 354 194,800 8,990
1974775 361 208,200 9,635
1975776 404 211,500 11,313
1976777 433 222,700 11,834
1977778 455 229,000 12,371

Source: Government of Pakistan, ggtj§t§g_§ggtgtjgg
§tgtj§tics (1947-1979), pp. 2-7.

These figures indicate that during 1970-781
institutions increased by 4.63 percent per year,
enrollments increased by 2.50 percent, and teachers
increased by 6.30 percent.

He have already noted that during CNE (1959) tenure,
college education expanded but some parts of the country
were poorly supplied with college facilities. In fact, the
most important aims of EP (1972) were to streamline
education in general and particularly college education in
such a way that it benefits all geographical parts of the
country and all sections of society.

Table 44 presents the position of college education in
various provinces of Pakistan at the terminal year of the

policy, 1978.

144

Table 44

GROHTH OF COLLEGE EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN
AND PROVINCES, 1978

Institutions ggtgttgggtg Teachers

Baluchistan 28 3,724 583
NHFP 69 16,906 1,256
Punjab 211 114,343 6,587
Sind 134 92,553 3,520
Centre 13 1,503 425
Pakistan 455 229,029 12,371

Source: Government of Pakistan, Egtjgtg9_§ggtgtjgg
§t§tj§tjt§ (1947-1979), Tables 41, 42 and 43, pp. 71-73.

Centre includes federally administered tribal areas,
federally administered northern areas and federal capitol
area of Islamabad.

This table indicates that institutions were distributed
as 6.15 percent in Baluchistan, 15.16 percent in NHFP,
46.37 percent in Punjab and 29.45 percent in Sind. In the
case of enrollments Baluchistan's share was 1.62 percent,
NHFP's share was 7.38 percent, Punjab's share was 50
percent and Sind's, 40.41 percent.

This means that the distribution of institutions is
fairly close to the pOpulation distribution among provinces
of Pakistan. But enrollment distributions, though
improved, were still concentrated in Sind and Punjab.

There could be two possible reasons. NHFP and Baluchistan
have more area and less pOpulation while Punjab and Sind

have more pOpulation but less area. This pOpulation

14S

density might have affected enrollment ratios. For
example, the table indicates that in Baluchistan, the
student-institution ratio is 133 to 1, in centrally
administered areas the ratio is 115 students per college.
Punjab had a student-institution ratio of 541 students per
college. The second reason could be that standardization
of tuitions in private colleges might have helped those
areas where private colleges were concentrated. These
areas were exclusively in Punjab and Sind. However, it can
be stated that overall distribution of college education
improved.
22921220202-22-229912-299292190

Table 45 presents the distribution of college education

among men/women in 1978 in Pakistan.

Table 45

DISTRIBUTION OF COLLEGE EDUCATION BETHEEN MEN/UOMEN
IN PAKISTAN (1978)

1292222 1222222

Institutions

Men 71% 732

Uomen 29 27
Enrollments

Men 74 69

Homen 26 31
Teachers

Men 70 72

Homen 30 28

Source: Government of Pakistan, ggtj§t§g_§gggggjgg
§2§Ij§tjt§ (1947-1979), pp. 2—7.

146

This table indicates that there did not appear to be
any significant change in the pattern of distribution of
college education facilities among men and women. In spite
of marginal differences in teaching staff and institutions,

there is some notable improvement in enrollments.

One of the objectives of Education Policy 1972-80 was
to increase enrollments in scientific subjects. Table 46

presents the enrollment in various groups of study in 1978.

Table 46

ENROLLMENTS IN VARIOUS GROUPS OF STUDIES AT COLLEGE LEVEL
IN PAKISTAN (1976-77)

2212022 0909012129 22002229
Intermediate 41 52 7
Degree 24 67 9
Post graduate 27 72 -

Source: Government of Pakistan, ggtj§t§g_§ggtgtjgg
§tttj§tjt§ (1947-1979), pp. 93-95.

This table indicates that in 1978, enrollments in
scientific and technical subjects improved.

Egytgtion Policy 1972 and Summary of Cottggg Edgtgtjgg

1- 22220912922-
a. From 1970 to 1978 government of Pakistan spent

444 million Rupees as develOpment expenditure

147

on college education. Provincial government

spent 1313.3 million Rupees as recurring

expenditure. These expenditures combined were

12.41 percent of the total education budget.
2- 222909190-92-2911292-299292120-

a. Institutions increased at the rate of 4.63
percent per year.

b. Enrollments increased at the rate of 2.50
percent per year.

c. Teachers increased at the rate of 6.30 percent
per year.

3- 222020-91-2211299-299292190-10-229910229-

a. Rate of growth in backward provinces was far
greater than the national norms. This means
that to some extent disparities were reduced,
for example, Baluchistan and NHFP.

4- 2022110202-10-9212021212-909-222129912091-99012229-

a. At intermediate level, 48 percent students
enrolled in scientific and professional
subjects while 52 percent enrollments were in
humanities groups.

b. At bachelor level 33 percent students enrolled
in scientific and professional courses while

67 percent enrolled in humanities groups.

148

c. At postgraduate level, the ratio between
science and arts groups was 28 and 72 percent
respectively.

2902921920-92-22921920202

The basic difference in the approach of the two

policies regarding college education were that:

1. CNE (1959) encouraged the participation of the
private sector in the develOpment of college
education and authorized the management to charge
tuition fees in order to meet expenses.

2. EP (1972) nationalized the private colleges and
brought them under the government control. It
standardized the tuition fees in all colleges'
according to the rates prevalent in government
colleges. The differing impacts of the two
policies are prepared at four levels.

1- 2202921920-22-22220912922
Table 47 indicates the comparative performance of the

financial system in both policy periods.

Table 47

COMPARISON OF EXPENDITURE ON COLLEGE EDUCATION
(in millions)

Education Budget on
299992 2211299-299292120 2922202999
CNE (1959)
1960-1970 2956.3 379.8 9.59
29 (1972)

1970-1978 13588.3 1687.59 12.41

149

This table indicates that during the second policy period,
the share of college education in national education budget
increased.
2- 2202921920-22-222909190

Table 48 presents the rate of growth in the expansion

of college education in the two policy periods.

Table 48

COMPARISON OF COLLEGE EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT

109212921209 20291102029 19920229
CNE (1959)
1960-1970 9.38 8.82 7.56
EP (1972)
1970—1978 4.63 2.50 6.30

This table indicates that expansion rates went down in the

second policy period.

3- 2202921920-21-219221292120-22-2211292-299292120
Table 49 presents the develOpment of colleges at the

tErminal year of both policy periods.

Table 49

COMPARATIVE DEVELOPMENT OF COLLEGE EDUCATION
IN PROVINCES OF PAKISTAN

1222 2222202999 1222 2222202992

Baluchistan 9 2.88 28 6.33
NHFP 37 11.85 69 15.61
Punjab 154 49.35 211 47.73
Sind 112 35.89 134 30.31

Pakistan 312 100.00 442 100.00

150

This table indicates that during CNE (1959) the rate of
growth of college education was higher in Punjab and Sind,
while during EP (1972) the rates were higher in Baluchistan
and NHFP.

9902019-299292120

Table 50 presents the growth of women's education in

both policy periods.

Table 50

COMPARISON OF HOMEN'S EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT
IN BOTH POLICY PERIODS IN PAKISTAN

1292222 1222229

Institutions

Men 71X 73X

Homen 29 27
Enrollments

Men 74 69

Homen 26 31
Teachers

Men 70 72

Homen 30 28

This table indicates that there was no significant
Citange in the pattern of distribution of college education
facilities among men/women. There are marginal differences
irl teaching staff and institutions but there are some
nOticeable improvements in women's enrollments in the

second policy period.

151
2202921920-22-20221109029-10-2212021112-909-122001291
29212229

It was pointed out that in the first policy period, the
private colleges were dominated by liberal arts groups
while the government colleges had better facilities for
science education. After the nationalization, further
improvement took place in science education. Table 51
presents the comparative enrollments in scientific subjects

in the two policy periods.

Table 51

ENROLLMENTS IN VARIOUS GROUPS OF STUDIES IN
COLLEGES OF PAKISTAN, 1960/70-1970/78

Private Government Government

2911292 2911292 2911292

Intermediate

Arts 642 54% 52%

Science 36 46 48
Degree

Arts 86 70 67

Science 14 30 33
Postgraduate

Arts 100 89 72

Science 0 11 28

This table indicates that during the Education Policy
(1972) enrollments in scientific and technical subjects
improved.

The comparison of the two policies' performances
indicates that they produced differing impacts. These

differences may possibly be explained as follows:

152

22219092190

1.

Table 47 indicates that during CNE (1959)
Government of Pakistan spent 9.59 percent of the
education budget on college education. Tables 34
and 35 indicated that approximately 35 percent of
this budget was spent on develOpmental expenditure
and 65 percent on recurring expenditure. During EP
(1972) Government of Pakistan spent 12.41 percent
of the education budget on college education. Table
42 indicates that 22 percent of the budget was
spent on development expenditure and 78 percent on
recurring expenditure.
Table 48 presents the comparative rate of growth in
the expansion of college education in the two
policy periods. It becomes obvious from the table
that rate of growth went down in second policy
period.
Table 49 indicates that

a. During CNE (1959) the rates of growth were

higher in Punjab and Sind.
b. During EP (1972) growth rates were higher in
NHFP and Baluchistan.

Table 51 indicates that enrollments in scientific
and technical subjects were higher during EP (1972)

than CNE (1959).

153

The difference in achievements in two policy periods

might be explained with respect to differences in policy

approaches.

1.

Nationalization of 175 private colleges in second
policy period increased government expenditures.
The reason is that between 1960 to 1970 the private
managements built buildings and paid teachers'
salaries. In second policy period, the private
college teachers' services were governmentalized.
Since teachers' salaries are paid from recurring
expenditure, therefore in second policy period
recurring expenditures increased.

It is interesting to note in Table 48 that after
standardization of tuition fees and
governmentalization of private colleges, the rates
of growth went down in second policy period. There
could be three reasons for these differences.

a. In the first policy period, larger expansion
was in private sector. Since private
colleges' main source of income was tuition
fees, therefore they enrolled as much students
as they could enroll. In search for more
students they did not care students-teacher

ratio or students-institution ratio.

154

Table 52 presents comparative student-teacher ratio in

private and government colleges during 1960 to 1970.

Table 52

STUDENT-TEACHER RATIO IN GOVERNMENT AND
PRIVATE COLLEGES OF PAKISTAN

Number of Number of Number of Teacher-student

0909920202 109212921209 12920229 22999029 29212

Government 114 3208 71479 22.3
Private 118 2644 89334 33.8
TOTAL 232 5952 160813 27.01

Source: Compiled from H. M. Zaki, §9g_gt_fij§gty, p. 44.

This table indicates that teacher-student ratio
was higher in private colleges as compared to
government colleges. In the second policy
period, Table 43 shows that the teacher-student
ratio remained approximately 1 to 20. This
could be one of the reasons that rate of growth
in enrollments went down in second policy
period.

b. Government's grant to private colleges was tied
to enrollments. In order to receive grants,
sometimes private colleges exaggerated their
enrollments by forgery of the college record as
was reported by Hest Pakistan Committee on the
Administration of Private Colleges and quoted on

page 137 of this dissertation.

155

c. During EP (1972) rate of growth of institution
was higher in Baluchistan and NHFP as
presented in Table 49. These areas are not
densely pOpulated. In Baluchistan
student-institution ratio was 100 to 1.
Therefore, enrollments at national level did
not show any significant increase.

Table 49 indicates that during CNE (1959)
disparities increased among the provinces.
Baluchistan and NHFP had limited educational
facilities, less than their pOpulation ratios.
This disparity was mainly created because of
private sector. After 1972 when system was
nationalized, the government was in a better
position to distribute educational facilities.
This is the main reason that after 1972 the
backward provinces of Baluchistan and NHFP
benefited from expanded educational facilities.
Table 50 indicates that women's representation in
both policy periods remained the same. In fact,
the problems of women's education in Pakistan lie
out of the educational system.

Table 51 indicates that during EP (1972) enrollment
in scientific and technical subjects improved.
This is mainly because of governmentalization of

private colleges.

156

Both policies had two Objectives in developing college
education in Pakistan.

1. College education must perform three tasks and they

must be accomplished at one and the same time:
a. The range of educational courses must be
extended,
b. The quality of education must be improved, and
c. The number of students must be increased.

2. Equality of educational Opportunity between the

sexes and among provinces must be maintained.

CNE (1959) involved the private sector and government
in the achievement of these targets. The government spent
9.59 percent of the education budget from 1960 to 1970 on
college education. Out of this budget, the government gave
some grants to private colleges, but 80 to 90 percent of
the college education budget was spent on its own colleges.

In 1971, there were 289 colleges in the country; 175 of
these colleges were in the private sector and 114 were
managed and administered by the government. Private
colleges were clustered in big cities, particularly in
urban areas of Sind and Punjab. As a result, facilities
were unevenly distributed among provinces. In addition,

private colleges indiscriminately enrolled students in

157

liberal arts groups. In 1972, after nationalization, the
patterns of distribution of college education among
provinces improved. There were significant improvements in

enrollments in scientific and technical subjects.

9019929122-299292120
2922922909

General universities in Pakistan are modeled on the
pattern of the University of London. They are teaching and
affiliating institutions. Teaching is done in university's
own department and in constituent affiliate colleges.
University academic councils, made up of university
teachers, college principals and a few other experts
control, regulate and coordinate instructions at the
undergraduate was well as at the graduate level.

In terms of administration, vice-chancellor, an
appointee of the government, is the chief academic and
executive Officer of the university. In 1947, there was
one university, the Punjab University, Lahore, in the
country. The Sind University was in the process of making
and it started functioning in 1948. The Peshawar
University came into existence in 1950 and the Karachi
University was founded in 1951. Thus, within four years of
independence, Pakistan had four universities. These
universities were established without having adequate
financial and human resources. The First Five Year Plan

criticized this rapid unplanned expansion. It noted,

158

”Many university departments are mere skeletons; no
provision exists for research in education; failures have
increased ominously."1 The Plan prOposed the

consolidation and improvement of existing facilities as its
chief concern. In addition, it prOposed the formation of a
central authority to coordinate the university education at
national level.

In fact, in 1948, the Government of Pakistan had set up
an interuniversity board for this purpose. At the time of
creation, the responsibilities of this board include
(a) the exchange Of academic information, (b) exchange of
faculty and students among the universities, and (c) to
help the universities in their develOpmental activities.

In its organization, the board was an association of
vice-chancellors without having formal head or permanent
head office. The first five year plan prOposed to
strengthen this board by granting it administrative,
academic and financial powers and finally to convert it
into a national autonomous planning body for higher
education in the country.

It has already been mentioned elsewhere, that first
five year plan could never be implemented. So no
significant change occurred in university education in
Pakistan. The university departments remained mere

1The First Five Year Plan (1955-1961).

159

skeletons, standards of education remained low and
interuniversity board continued to be a powerless debating
society.

Hith this heritage, the Commission on National
Education prepared its program for university education
development.

2200199190-20-09219091-299292120-909-2229290-222-9019229122
299292190-22921290202

The CNE (1959) made four important recommendations
regarding the develOpment of university education. These
include

1. Emphasis on qualitative improvement rather than on
quantitative expansion,

2. Increased stress on scientific and technical
subjects rather than on humanities and liberal art
groups,

3. Government should be responsible for financing
university educatiOn,

4. Creation of University Grants Commission (UGC).
There were two purposes to create this commission.

a. To protect the universities from governmental
interference,

b. To guide and control the universities in the
direction of their develOpment and correlation of their

efforts.

160

To improve the quality of education, the commission
recommended that

1. Bachelor degree course be extended from two years
to three years so that universities receive
qualified students,

2. External system of examination should be changed
and instead a combination of external and internal
system of evaluation be introduced.

The first prOposal was approved by the government and
implemented.1 After one year of implementation, various
groups started agitation against this reorganized program.
Students were of the Opinion that one-year extension in
program means one-year delay in getting jobs. Parents were
against having to bear the burden of the expenditure on the
education of their wards for one additional year. The
other element which resisted this change was the private
colleges. Private colleges did not have enough physical,
financial and human resources to carry on this change.
Ultimately, the Government of Pakistan conceded to
agitator's demand and withdrew her decision.

The external system of examination was another issue

the commission discussed in detail. Actually, this system

1Ishtiag Hussain Qureshi, "Educational Policies in
F’akistan." In Ishtiag Hussain Qureshi, Pertptttjyg§_gt

i£§l'. and Pakistan, (Karachi: Ma'aref Limited, 1979),

161

of examination was a British legacy. The PNEC 1947 and the
first five-year plan raised objections against its
validity, but no improvement took place.1

The CNE (1959) observed

It is responsible for many of the weakness in our
educational system. For many of the students, the
examination has become to be more important than the
acquisition of knowledge. Teachers have taught only
the basic minimum of what was required by the syllabus
and have substituted cramming for education . . . The
emphasis has been on successful retention of some facts
about a subject for a brief period rather than on the
more arduous but rewarding aim of mastering a subject,
understanding its basic principles, and learning how to
apply this understanding to real situations.
Examinations have come to dominate higher education,
and the examining function of the university has
dangerously overshadowed those of teaching and
research. Moreover, as internal examinations have at
present no value, the external examination is the
exclusive preoccupation of the student and he does not
feel under strong pressure to attend lectures or to
secure his teachers guidance personally or in the
tutorial groups. ‘

The commission suggested a combination of internal and
external examination. According to this arrangement, the
examinations were to be conducted at two stages. At the
first stage, teachers were asked to constantly evaluate and
record student's performance on monthly basis throughout
academic program. At the end of the program, university
should conduct public comprehensive examination. Degrees

1Government of Pakistan, fjt§t_ijt_lggt_gtgg
(1955-1960), pp. 436-438.

2Government of Pakistan, 2900199190-90-!9219091
29929tign (1959), pp. 23-25.

162

were to be awarded on the basis of performance in both
examinations.1 This decision was also implemented.

In Pakistan, a diploma or a certificate is held in high
prestige and is the magic passport to government
employment. Hhen the course instructors were authorized to
evaluate the students, a wrong kind of practice started in
internal evaluation. Corruption, favoritism, victimization
and cooking of results became common in educational
institutions.2 Students union, the general public and
different organizations protested against internal
examination. Ultimately, the commission on student's
problems (1967) recommended to do away with internal
examinations because of gross abuse by many individuals and
institutions.3

The other important suggestion of CNE (1959) was
increased enrollment in scientific and technical subjects.
The second five year plan (1960-65) made the improvement
and enhancement of scientific and technical education in
general universities as its central Objectives.‘ The

1Ioid., pp. 23-25.

lehtaig Hussain Qureshi, 299292190-10-29219290,
pp. 246-247.

3Government of Pakistan, 2900199190-90-229920291

‘Govern-ent of Pakistan, 102-222209-2199-1292-2190
(1960-1965), pp. 348-349.

163

third five year plan (1965-70) prOposed that major efforts
be directed towards improving and expanding facilities for
teaching of scientific disciplines.1

Both plans envisaged upgrading of teacher's
qualifications, the construction of libraries,
laboratories, study rooms for teachers, and other essential
buildings on campus. The second five year plan prOposed
the establishment of a central university in federal
capital, Islamabad. The University of Islamabad (renamed
as Quaid-i-Azam University in 1976) was founded in 1965.
This university is unitary and does not have affiliated
colleges.

The central and provincial governments both were
generous in providing expenditures to the universities.
Table 53 presents the expenditure on university education

in Pakistan during 1960 to 1970.

1Government of Pakistan, Ihjtg_£jyg_lggt_£tgg
(1960-1965), pp. 204-206.

Table 53

EXPENDITURES ON UNIVERSITY EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN
1960-1970 (in millions)

a. Total DevelOpment Expenditures on Education 1026.6
DevelOpment Expenditures on University Education 118.0
Percentage of University Expenditures to

Total Expenditure 11.50%
b. Total Recurring Expenditures on Education 2930.3
Recurring Expenditures on University Education 384.8

Source: Government Of Pakistan, Ettj§t§9_§gutttjgg
§tgtj§tjt§ (1947-1979), pp. 8-9.

As a result of these grants there was unprecedented
expansion in university education. New buildings were
constructed, better and adequate lecture rooms and
facilities were provided to students. New departments were
created and enrollments increased substantially. Table 54
presents the growth of university education from 1960 to

1970.

164

Table 54

GROHTH OF UNIVERSITY EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN
1960-1970

12291 0229 2212022 22002229 299292120 22022
1960 1261 68.35 27.00 4 -- 0.65
1961 1932 67.00 27.50 2.63 2.74 --
1962 2348 69.29 25.85 1.40 2.93 --
1963 2863 71.21 23.12 -- 5 --
1964 3824 65.14 27.64 2.98 3.68 --
1965 4550 65.84 24.46 3.14 6 --
1966 5879 70.06 23.59 2.65 3.60 --
1967 5812 70.02 22.14 3.42 4.07 --
1968 6110 68.19 23.20 3.01 5.09 --
1969 8261 75.40 17.37 3.00 4.00 --
1970 7147 70.81 20.48 3.16 5.26 --
Source: Government of Pakistan, Egtj§t§g_§ggtgtjgg

§tgtj§tjt§ (1947-1972), Table 64.

These figures indicate that enrollments increased 22.90
percent per year. Arts group dominated the university
enrollments and no significant change took place throughout
the ten-year period. On average, 70 percent students were
enrolled in arts groups, 23.65 percent in humanities, 4.50
percent in education, 3 percent in commerce and the
remaining students were enrolled in unspecified subjects
such as home economics, law, etc.

There could be various reasons for the expansion of
liberal arts education.

The Commission on Students Problems (1967) noted the
Rather

duplication of departments in the universities.

than being creative and innovative, universities were

165

166

imitating one another and establishing the parallel
departments. This duplication was mostly in liberal
arts.1 The other reasons, for the non-expansion of
science education could be the incapacity of the labor
market to absorb science graduates. Probably the
Commission on National Education emphasized science
education, per se, rather than doing extensive survey of
the labor market or exchanging views with national social
and economic planners. In the early 1970s there was a
great increase in the unemployment of scientifically and
technically qualified peOple. The unemployment rate is
claimed to be 52 percent for science degree holders, 44
percent for technical graduates and 31 percent for Masters
degree holder in economics and commerce.2 Dr. M. Hag,
the chief economist, Planning Commission of Pakistan,
admits that during 1960s in the formulation of five year
plans. . . . a chapter on employment strategy was added at
the end to round off the plans to make them look complete
and respectable and hardly an integral part of the growth
strategy or policy framework.

Perhaps here is a place where contacts and

communications between educational system, national social

2J. Henry Korson, "Bhutto's Educational Reforms." In
J- Henry Korson, 29022022292x-22201209-22-29219290-
(Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1974), p. 128.

167

and economic planning and employment market could be
beneficial.

The fourth recommendations of CNE (1959) was creation
of University Grants Commission. This prOposal was
approved by the government. The second and third five year
plan categorically advised the government for the creation
Of UGC. But this prOposal was never materialized.
Therefore from 1960 to 1970, universities of Pakistan
remained isolated from each other. Moreover these
universities were clustered in certain geographical areas
of the country. Therefore, geographical uneven
distribution of higher education could be another
consequence of this period.

During 1960-1970, university education expanded
enormously in Pakistan. There was a record expansion rate
of 22.70 percent. The enrollments increased in traditional
disciplines of liberal arts group. Supplies of science
graduates were smaller, but even then science graduates
remained unemployed and there seems to be a lack of
coordination between educational system and national social
and economic planning. Finally, university education
facilities were unevenly distributed among various

geographical regions.

168

299292190-221122-112221-909-901922912x-299292120
2922922909

In 1969, political government in Pakistan failed and
the army took over power. In 1970, general elections were
held in the country. All regional political parties won
the election. This led to serious political crisis at the
national level. In 1971, civil war started in the country
and, as a result, East Pakistan separated and became an
independent state of Bangladesh.

During the political crisis period, the educational
system came under serious criticism from several quarters.
Some of the major objections raised against it were,

1. It has failed to provide national integrations,

It has failed to accelerate economic develOpment,

It has created inequality in the society,

8‘ U N
a

. The academic standards are abysmally low.
Therefore Education Policy (1972) was prepared under this
context. Its program for university education included
1. Establishment of Pakistan Studies Centres. These
centres were prOposed to be established for
promoting national cohesion and integration. The
focus of these centres is to conduct research and
offer courses at undergraduate level on
subcultures, languages and literatures Of various

regions in the country.

6.

169

Establishment of area study centres. These centres
were prOposed to conduct research and provide
instructions on various contemporary international
societies which have vital importance for Pakistan.
Establishment of centres of excellence. The
purpose of these centres was to make Pakistan
self-sufficient in high-level manpower in various
applied sciences.
Establishment of new universities. The purpose for
the establishment of new universities was better
distribution of educational facilities among
various geographical regions Of the country.
Improvement in curriculum and examination system.
Establishment of National Book foundation. The
purpose of this foundation was to provide books on
cheap prices to students.
Increased enrollment in scientific and technical
subjects in all general universities of Pakistan.
Establishment of University Grants Commission
(UGC). There were three basic purposes in the
establishment of UGC.

a. To coordinate the program of various

universities in such a way as to avoid

unnecessary duplication and waste,

170

b. To serve as a buffer agency between the
government bureaucracy and university
administration.

c. To assess the financial needs of the
universities so that apprOpriate funds be
allocated to them.

10212020292120-92-221122-909-22991920202-21-201922912x

Soon after the announcement, the policy prOposals were
implemented.
29219290-2299129-2202299

In order to enhance national integration, the Pakistan
studies centres were set up in five universities of
Pakistan. These universities include Baluchistan, Karachi,
Peshawar, Sind and Punjab. A national institute of
Pakistan studies was also set up in Quaid-i-Azam University
at Islamabad.
2202229-92-2222112022

In order to minimize reliance on other countries and to
produce locally tOp expertise and leadership to initiate
and accelerate the process of socio-economic develOpment,

the following five centres were set up in various general

universities of Pakistan.

2019229121 21219-91-22221911992120
Baluchistan Mineralogy

Karachi Marine Biology
Peshawar Geol09y

Punjab Solid State Physics

Sind Analytical Chemistry

171

0229-2299x-2202229

For research and advance studies of contemporary
societies, particularly of vital importance to Pakistan six
area study centres have been established in general

universities as follows:

2019229122 0229-2299x-220222

Baluchistan Middle East and Arab
Countries

Islamabad Africa, North and South
America

Karachi EurOpe

Peshawar Central Asia, USSR

Punjab South Asia

Sind Far East and South East
Asia

2929211900202-91-!20-901922912199

From 1970 to 1978, five new general universities were
established in the country. These include:

1. Gomal University, D. I. Khan, NHFP.

2. Multan University, Multan, Punjab.

3. Islamia University Bahawalpur, Punjab.

4. Baluchistan University, Quetta, Baluchistanx

S. PeOple's Open University, Islamabad. This

university is now renamed as Allama Igbal

University.

‘*This university was formally approved in 1970, but
Starr‘ized working in 1971772.

172

2929211900202-91-922

Hith a view to coordinate the program of the
universities for greater national develOpment and to ensure
an easy flow of public funds for this purpose, the UGC was
set up in July 1973. It acts as a buffer agency between
government and the universities. Its most important
functions is to coordinate the developmental activities of
the universities.

The University Grants Commission supervises academic
standards, curriculum develOpment, examination system and
research activities of all the universities throughout the
country.
222909120-21-209-2x9220

From 1970 to 1978 the number of general universities
increased in Pakistan. Until 1970, there were only five
universities in the country. In 1977/78 their numbers
increased to eight. As a creation of these new
universities, expenditures went up. Table 55 presents the

expenditure on university education in Pakistan from 1970

to 1978.

Table 55

EXPENDITURE ON UNIVERSITY EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN
1960*1970 (in millions)

a. Total DevelOpment on Expenditure Education 3,442
DevelOpment Expenditure on University Education 359
Percentage of University Expenditure 10.42%

b. Total recurring Expenditure on Education 10,146.3
Recurring Expenditure on University Education 2,714.6
Percentage of University Expenditure 26.752

Source: Government of Pakistan, Pgtjgtgg_§ggtgtjgg
2292192129, pp. 8-9.

Since 5 new universities were Opened, therefore
expenditure on construction of buildings, setting of new
laboratories, libraries, recruitment of new staff had to go
up. But the establishment of UGC, reduced to some extent
duplication of departments. Probably, the new universities
concentrated on scientific and technical subjects. In this
way the enrollments pattern in scientific and other
professional subjects improved. Table 56 presents the
quantitative expansion in enrollments in various fields of

study from 1970 to 1978.

173

Table 56

GROHTH 0F UNIVERSITY EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN
1970-1978

Enrollments at M.A. Level by Field of Study

Total Atts Science Commerce Education

1970/71 12626 42.28 43.95 5.54 8.21 --
1971/72 12827 41.63 46.48 5.25 6.62 --
1972/73 13149 43.54 45.64 3.85 6.34 0.61
1973174 14031 42.76 42.54 6.99 7.29 0.39
1974/75 15483 45.64 44.78 3.89 6.27

1975176 16467 45.81 42.46 5.27 5.94 0.50

1976/78: Data not available
Source: Government of Pakistan, Egtj§t§g_§ggtgtjgg
§tttj§tjt§, 1970-1976, pp. 96-97. Government of Pakistan,
29219290-299292190-2292192129, 1947-1974, PP- 155-156-

This table indicates that university education expanded
as usual but during this period the enrollments
substantially increased in scientific and professional

subjects.

Sun-arr of Universitz E99292190.22921220202.2290.1222.22

This description indicates that for the first time the
concept of university education got full recognization in
Pakistan. Establishment of Pakistan study centres, area
study centres, and centres of excellence indicate healthy
trend in the development of university education in
Pakistan. Establishment of new universities in various
interior parts of the country help decreased disparities

among various geographical regions. The creation of

174

175

University Grants Commission has helped in better planning

and development of higher education. In addition pattern

of enrollments in scientific and technical subjects

substantially improved.

2902921990-22-2212221920299-92-202-212221-909-22-212221-909
202-22921920202-91-2019229122-299292190-10-29219290

CNE (1959) made three prOposals for the develOpment of

university education in Pakistan. These prOposals include

1.
2.

3.

In

Enhancement of academic standards,
Increased enrollments in scientific and technical
subjects,

Establishment of University Grants Commission.

fact, these suggestions were not new. The First

Five Year Plan had already made these suggestions in 1955.

Moreover, these suggestions could not be implemented.

1.

New system of examination failed because of
corruption on teachers' side.

Extension of degree program from two to three years
could not take place because of students' agitation
and non-cOOperation of private colleges.
Enrollments in scientific and technical subjects
did not increase.

Government did not take interest in the

establishment of University Grants Commission.

During the Education Policy (1972) most of the

suggestions were implemented.

176

1. University Grants Commission came into existence.
This autonomous organization has helped in better
planning and develOpment of university education in
the country.

2. Geographical distribution of higher education has
improved. Now every province has sufficient
universities for its need.

3. Centres of excellence in various applied
disciplines were established.

4. Enrollment in scientific and technical subjects
improved.

5. Establishment of Pakistan study centres and area
study centres would be helpful in the national
integration and as well as in international
understanding.

From 1960 to 1970 university education expanded
enormously in Pakistan. There was a record expansion of
22.70 percent in enrollment. The enrollments increased in
traditional disciplines of liberal arts groups. No
improvement could take place in academic standards.

From 1970 to 1980, university education further
expanded. Number of universities increased from five to
ten. Most Of the new universities were established in
interior regions of the country. This helped the better

geographical distribution Of higher education in Pakistan.

177

Moreover, the establishment of University Grants
Commission, helped in better planning and develOpment of
higher education. Enrollments in scientific and technical
subjects increased. Centres of excellence are also helping

in making higher level manpower needs of the country.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This study was undertaken as a historical inquiry into,
and comparative analysis of, the prOposals of the
Commission on National Education, CNE (1959) and Education
Policy, EP (1972) and the subsequent performance of the
educational system in Pakistan.

A review of literature on education policy developments
in Pakistan indicated that the policies in question
subscribed to four common goals for develOping the
country's educational system.

1. Universalization of primary education,

2. Moderate expansion of secondary, college and

university education,

3. Equalizing access to educational Opportunities,
thus reducing disparities in the provision of
educational facilities between men and women and
among the various provinces.

4. Increased emphasis on scientific and technical
education at the college and university level.

In pursuing these goals, however, the policies adOpted

different approaches. CNE (1959) emphasized the role of
the private sector, local governing bodies, local

communities and federal and provincial governments for the

178

179

accomplishment of these goals over the period 1960 to

1971. It also imposed tuition fees at all levels of
education, except education for girls and in underdeveloped
areas at the primary school level. From 1971/72 to
1977/78, Education Policy, EP (1972) nationalized the whole
system of education and gave the national government the
responsibility of providing education through its sources
rather than involving the private sector and local
governing bodies. It made education free up to high school
level and standardized tuition fees in colleges. It also
abolished annual examinations and introduced automatic
promotion up to the 9th grade.

The researcher described, assessed and compared the
performance of the educational system during each policy
period. The purpose was to analyze the differing effects
of the policies and, on the basis of this analysis, make
recommendations for future education policy in Pakistan.
The study was carried out as historical descriptive case
study. Simple statistical techniques such as growth rates,
averages and percentages were used to assess the
performance of educational system in each policy period.

To determine the comparative effectiveness at expansion
level,

1. Growth rates, or quantitative expansion of the

system, in each policy period were compared,

180

2. To determine distribution of educational
facilities:

a. enrollment ratios for both boys and girls in
the terminal year of each policy were compared
with national norms,

b. enrollment ratios at each provincial level were
compared with national norms in the terminal
year of each policy.

3. Enrollments in scientific and technical subjects at
the college and university level were compared at
the terminal year of each policy period.

The differences in the achievement of goals were

analyzed with respect to differences in policy approach.

221092x_299292120

The study revealed the following results.

In 1960, at the national level, primary school
enrollment ratios were 36 percent. CNE (1959) prOposed to
enroll 85 percent of the primary age group children by
1970. This target was to be achieved through the
COOperation of the Government of Pakistan, local governing
bodies, local communities and the private sector. The
Government of Pakistan set this target in theory but
ignored it in practice, as it failed to allocate enough
funds for primary education. The limited allocations made

in national develOpment plans were further reduced during

181

implementation. Thus, from 1960 to 1970, primary education
got only 4.26 percent of the educational develOpment funds
and 30 percent of the national education budget. The
private sector, local bodies and local communities showed
good potential to contribute but the Government of Pakistan
did not exploit these helping hands very well. As a
result, non-government participation was reduced from 52
percent in 1960 to 7 percent in 1967/68. Non-government
schools survived only in urban areas such as Lahore,
Karachi, Rawalpindi and Hyderabad. From 1960 to 1970,
annual growth in primary school's institutions, enrollments
and teachers was 7.75 percent, 6.58 percent and 6.72
percent, respectively. In 1970/71, in the terminal year of
the policy period, only 45 percent of primary age children
were enrolled nationwide against the target of 85 percent.
These enrollments were unevenly distributed between boys
and girls and among provinces. Boys constituted 60 percent
and girls constituted 20 percent. In the provinces,
enrollment ratios were 22 percent in Baluchistan, 39
percent in Sind, 46 percent in NHFP and 48 percent in
Punjab.

These findings indicate that the system did not expand
quantitatively and disparities persisted in educational
facilities between the sexes and among the provinces.

In March 1972, New Education Policy, EP (1972), vowed

to enroll 100 percent of the boys and 70 percent of the

182

girls of primary age by 1979. Thus, 85 percent enrollment
targets were to be achieved by 1979. To accomplish this
objective, the policy (a) nationalized non-government
primary schools, (b) abolished tuition fees, (c) eliminated
examinations and possibly introduced a double shift system
in some primary schools.

From 1970 to 1978, the government spent 12.8 percent of
the education development budget and 32 percent of the
total education budget on primary education. Annual growth
rates for institutions, enrollments and teachers were
3 percent, 6.25 percent and 5.10 percent, respectively. In
1978, enrollment ratios at the national level were 54
percent against the target of 85 percent in 1979. Boys'
enrollment ratios were 71 percent and girls' constituted 33
percent.

In the provinces, Baluchistan had enrollment ratios of
32 percent, Sind 59 percent, Punjab 56 percent and NHFP 52
percent. These figures indicate that this policy also
failed to universalize primary education and to reduce
disparities.

22221909-29022202109-202-222909120-22-2210922
Education in Pakistan

The history of primary education planning in Pakistan
is a history of goal setting rather than successful

achievement of goals. There might be a number of factors;

social, political, economic, cultural and religious,

183

impeding the realization of goals but some of these do
become obvious in this study, while the existence of others
can be inferred. The PNEC (1949), CNE (1959), PEP (1969)
and EP (1972) and the subsequent develOpment plans all
promised to substantially increase funds for primary
education but none of them could keep its promises. The
implementation of policies and plans has been markedly
different than the original policies' thinkings. Probably,
many different powerful forces in the society constrained
the process of implementation. The Fifth Five Year Plan
(1978-1983), hinting toward these forces, pointed out

In the present arrangement, it would not be easy to

implement the policy of giving highest priority to

primary education. The pOpulation coming from the
well-to-do and educated sections of society is
generally for expansion of higher education. Demands
for the expansion of primary education, on the other
hand, are not made forcefully since the underprivileged
persons 'adversely affected' by lack of education are,
very often, not conscious of their deprivation.
The plan has rightly identified the major obstacle in the
expansion of primary education. The tOp-heavy pyramidical
shape of the educational system is obvious proof of this
phenomenon.

Seventy-five percent of Pakistan's pOpulation lives in
rural areas. Rural children help their parents in
agriculture and other related jobs. By attending schools,
they incur opportunity cost, and primary education has low

Government of Pakistan, 102-21120-2122-1292-E192
(1978-1983), p. 478.

184

rates of long-term of return for them. In the last two
decades, the highest rate of unemployment was among primary
school graduates. Figure 2 presents the level of
unemployment among various levels of graduates. Since the
rate of return is very low, rural children cannot sacrifice
Opportunity cost for useless primary education.

The rate of pOpulation growth is very high in
Pakistan. POpulation has constantly grown at the rate of 3
percent or more since 1960. In 1960, the Planning
Commission of Pakistan stipulated that it would go down to
2.5 percent but actually no change occurred. Similarly, in
the 19705 the same rate of growth continued. As a result,
large numbers of children are entering every year in the
school age group. CNE (1959) and EP (1972) and subsequent
development plans did not take this phenomenon into
account. Unless pOpulation growth is controlled,
universalization of primary education in Pakistan is indeed
likely remain a difficult task to achieve.

Social attitude of the peOple is another factor which
is a hindrance in the process of primary education
development. Female students constitute approximately half
Of the pOpulation but their participation rates are low.

It is not only the lack of provision of schools or teachers

for girls but lack of interest of parents. For example, in

185

Figure 2. Educated Unemployed in Pakistan

   
  
 
 
 

25
Illiterate

Primary

Secondary

[33500

20

 

Higher

IS

10

Source: John Simmons (ed.). The Education Dilemma (Oxford

Pergamon Press, 1980), p. 33.

Note: "Primary" is defined as passing 5 grades.
"Secondary," 12 grades. "Higher," 16 to 18 grades.

2. "Survey results," (from which data is derived) are not
official and several problems with the data make them not

fully reliable.

186

NHFP 84 percent male children were enrolled in primary
schools while enrollment ratios for females were only 18
percent.

DrOpout rates remained high throughout the last two

decades as is reported in Table 57.

Table 57

RETENTION AND HASTAGE IN CLASSES I-V FOR THE YEARS
1962-1967 AND 1972-1977 IN PAKISTAN

202211090292-22999-1 202211090292-22999-2
1962-67 100 49.38
1973-78 100 54.00

Computed from Institute of Education and Research, ggtt
29119290-22921921291-2292119, Table 6, D- 15; Government of
Pakistan, 29219290-299292120-2292192129 1947-1979. Table
15, p. 26.

Both the policies appeared to be about the same in not

being able to control this drOpout factor.

222909922-299292120
CNE (1959) and EP (1972) had the following common
objectives for the develOpment of secondary education in
Pakistan:
1. Quantitative expansion,
2. Equalized distribution of educational facilities
between the sexes and among provinces. In order to

achieve these goals,

187

a. CNE (1959) involved the private sector, local
governing bodies and the national government in
providing education. It also permitted the
charging of tuition fees,

b. EP (1972) centralized the secondary education
system under the national government and made
education free for everyone.

From 1960 to 1970, the government of Pakistan spent
19.23 percent of the education budget on secondary
education. This does not include non-governmental
contributions but does include grants-in-aid to private
schools.

Assessment and comparison of secondary education was
done at two levels, i.e., the middle school and the high

school levels.

019919-220991-29921

From 1960 to 1970, at the middle school level, the rate
of growth in institutions, enrollments and teachers was
7.20 percent, 6.98 percent, and 8.27 percent per year,
respectively. In 1967, there were 2970 middle schools in
the country, 368 private schools and the rest managed by
the government.

In 1970, the enrollment ratios nationally, at the

middle school level, in grades 6-8 for the age group 10-12,

were 27.52 percent, enrollment ratios for boys being 40.9

188

percent and for girls 11.7 percent. In the provinces,
enrollment ratios were 12.3 percent in Baluchistan, 22.3
percent in Sind, 28.4 percent in NHFP and 30.3 percent in
Punjab.

In 1972, the middle schools were nationalized and
education became free. From 1970 to 1978, annual growth
rates in institutions, enrollments and teachers were 3.27
percent, 7.12 percent and 4.71 percent, respectively.
Enrollment ratios at the national level were 21.64
percent. Boys constituted 28.40 percent, and girls 11.60
percent. In the provinces, enrollment ratios were 9.50
percent in Baluchistan, 19.44 percent in NHFP, 25.94
percent in Punjab and 23.94 percent in Sind. These data
suggests that when education became free and
governmentalized,

1. Annual growth rates in institutions, enrollments

and teachers decreased,

2. Enrollment ratios at national level declined from
27.52 in 1970 to 21.64 percent in 1978,

3. Boys' enrollment ratios decreased from 40.9 percent
in 1970 to 28.40 percent in 1978. Girls'
enrollment ratios decreased from 11.7 percent in
1970 to 11.60 percent in 1978,

4. At the provincial level, enrollment ratios in
Baluchistan drOpped from 12.3 percent in 1971/72 to

9.5 percent in 1978, NHFP drOpped from 28.4 percent

189

to 19.44 percent. Punjab had enrollment ratios of 30.3
percent in 1971 and these ratios went down to 25.96 percent
in 1977/78. There was a marginal increase in Sind from
22.3 percent in 1971/72 to 23.94 percent in 1977/78.

It was concluded that nationalization of middle school
education and making it free proved to be
counterproductive. Growth rates in institutions,
enrollments and teachers went down. Consequently,
enrollment ratios at the national level decreased.
Disparities between the sexes and among provinces

increased.

0190-220991

From 1960 to 1970, the annual rates of growth in high
school institutions, enrollment and teachers were 5.47
percent, 6.96 percent and 6.61 percent respectively. In
1967, there 1,764 high schools in Pakistan; 23.46 percent
of these schools were managed by local governing bodies,
40.02 percent were administered by the private sector. The
remaining 36.52 percent were government schools.

In 1970/71, high school enrollment ratios at the
national level were 16.8 percent. Boys constituted 25
percent and girls constituted 6.8 percent. Among the
provinces, Baluchistan had enrollment ratios of 6.2
percent, NHFP 13.4 percent, Punjab 18.9 percent and Sind

had enrollment ratios of 14.7 percent.

190

EP (1972) was aimed at increasing enrollment ratios and
decreasing disparities. For this purpose, it nationalized
non-government schools and abolished tuition fees. From
1970 to 1978, the rate of increase in institutions,
enrollments and teachers was 5.41 percent, 5.90 percent and
7.5 percent, respectively. In 1977/78, the enrollment
ratios at the national level were 14.35 percent as against
16.8 percent in 1971/72. Boys' enrollment ratios decreased
from 25 percent to 21.17 percent and girls' from 11.6
percent to 6.83 percent. At the provincial level,
enrollment ratios in Baluchistan went down from 6.2 percent
to 5.17 percent; in NHFP, from 13.4 percent to 12.14
percent; in Punjab from 18.9 percent to 15.82 percent.
There was some marginal improvement in Sind, where
enrollment ratios increased from 14.7 percent in 1971/72 to
15.86 percent in 1977/78.

These findings lead to the conclusion that
nationalization of schools and free education increased
government expenditure. Instead of proposed quantitative
expansion and reduction of diSparities, however, growth
rates and enrollment ratios declined and diSparities
widened.

Free education helped those areas which had enough

schools. For instance, enrollment ratios increased in

191

Sind. In Baluchistan, however, there were a limited number
of schools and many peOple lacked access to education.

Therefore, free education there did not enhance enrollment.

2192999190

CNE (1959) recommended the charging of tuition fees in
both government and private schools. Government in its own
schools kept tuition fees low but allowed the local bodies
and private sector to recover 60 percent of the recurring
expenditure from tuition fees. EP (1972) argued that poor
people cannot afford tuition fees and in this way they
remain deprived of education. Moreover, private education
creates inequality among society. Therefore, it decided to
nationalize private education and make it free for
everyone.

But the findings of this study are quite contradictory
to the claims of the policy. Table 32 presents the
comparison of enrollment ratios in both policy periods. It
is evident that in the second policy period (a) enrollment
ratios went down, and (b) disparities increased.

Enrollment ratios went down because government failed to
increase budget and build new schools. The disparities
increased. Enrollment ratios went down 3 percent in

Baluchistan, 9 percent in NHFP, and 5 percent in Punjab but

growth rate increased by 1.90 percent in Sind.

192

The reason lay with the fact that nationalization of
schools and free education helped only those segments of
society who already had school buildings. NHFP and
Baluchistan did not have private schools. They had a
limited number of high schools. Therefore, peOple
belonging to these areas availed limited facilities.

Therefore, the only beneficiaries of nationalization of
education and free education were private school teachers

and urban areas where private schools existed.

2911992-299292120

Both policies had two objectives in develOping college
education in Pakistan.

1. College education must perform three tasks and they

must be accomplished at one and the same time:
a. The range of educational courses must be
extended,
b. The quality of education must be improved, and
c. The number of students must be increased.

2. Equality of educational Opportunity between the

sexes and among provinces must be maintained.

CNE (1959) involved the private sector and government
in the achievement of these targets. The government spent
9.59 percent of the education budget from 1960 to 1970 on
college education. Out of this budget, the government gave
some grants to private colleges but 80 to 90 percent of the

college education budget was spent on its own colleges.

193

In 1970, there were 289 colleges in Pakistan; 175 of
these colleges were in the private sector and 114 were
managed and administered by the government. Private
colleges were clustered in big cities, particularly in
urban areas of Sind and Punjab. As a result, facilities
were unevenly distributed among provinces. In addition,
private colleges indiscriminately enrolled students in
liberal arts groups. In 1972, after nationalization, the
patterns of distribution of college education among
provinces improved. There were significant improvements in

enrollment in scientific and technical subjects.

2192999120

In both policy periods, college education expanded
quantitatively beyond expectations. During CNE (1959) 75
colleges were prOposed to be established but actual
increase was 173 colleges. During EP (1972) which remained
in force for 7 years, 117 new colleges opened as is
presented in Table 43. This quantitative expansion was not
desired in both policy periods.

1. In fact, college education in the past has expanded
on slaughtering the funds reserved for primary and
secondary education.

2. In the first policy period, the colleges were

dominated by students offering courses in humanities and

liberal arts group. Particularly, private colleges had

194

limited facilities for science education. This
overemphasis on liberal arts groups causes two problems.

1. Hastage of resources on unnecessary education.

2. Pressure on labor market.

Economic Survey of Pakistan (1978/79) pointed out

Higher levels of general education are suited to white

collar jobs which are, however, limited in scOpe. In a

situation like this when the educated find that they

are neither employable nor equipped for

self-employment, they are forced to continue schooling

until they climb up another step in the ladder or drOp

out in sheer exhaustion. This results in deterioration

of educational standards, wastage of resources, loss of

productive time and yet they are confronted with the

same situation of uncertainty in the employment

market.

3.Unfair distribution of college education creates
moral, political and social problems. EP (1972) succeeded
to minimize disparities. At present, all provinces of
Pakistan have adequate college education facilities. None
of the provinces need more colleges. Therefore, government
should have full control over college education and private

sector should be totally banned, otherwise problems of

inequalities in Opportunities would again arise.

Government of Pakistan, 22902012-292992-21-29219290
(1978-1979) (Islamabad: Finance Division, 1978/79), p. 5.

195

901992912z-299292190

From 1960 to 1970, university education expanded
enormously in Pakistan. There was a record expansion of
22.7 percent in enrollment. The enrollments increased in
traditional disciplines of liberal arts groups. No
improvement took place in academic standards. From 1970 to
1980, university education further expanded. The number of
universities increased from five to ten. Most of the new
universities were established in interior regions of the
country. This helped the better geographical distribution
of higher education in Pakistan. Moreover, the
establishment of University Grants Commission helped in
better planning and development of higher education.
Enrollments in scientific and technical subjects
increased. Centres of excellence are also helping in
making higher manpower needs of the country.

At present, there are 12 general universities in the
country. Baluchistan has one university, NHFP has two,
Punjab three and Sind has two. One university is in Azad
Kashmir and three universities are managed by the central
government. These is no reason to Open more universities.
Instead, qualitative improvement should be the chief
objective in university education. In addition, university

education must follow the manpower needs of the country.

196

292200909921909-222-292929-299292190

291122-229912202029

1. The present study reveals that herculean efforts
are needed to universalize primary education in Pakistan.
There are three kinds of universalization of primary
education.

a. Universalization of schools,

b. Universalization of enrollments,

c. Universalization of retentions.1

In the past two decades, the government of Pakistan
tried to universalize primary schools. Since buildings are
expensive to build, government could not succeed in
building enough schools for boys and girls. It is
suggested that government should utilize the existing
school buildings apprOpriately. In the urban areas, a
double shift system should be introduced in boys' and
girls' schools. In the rural areas, girls should be taught
in the first shift and boys in the second shift. This
arrangement would also help to bring those boys into the
schools who cannot afford daytime in the schools.

2. Funds for primary education should be increased and

the government should take care that they are not

Nachikela Publications, 1968), pp. 46-47.

197

curtailed or transferred to other sectors in the process of
implementation. This may be done by introducing legal
reforms in the accounting section of the Planning
Commission of Pakistan and the Ministry of Education.

3. The government should again encourage the
participation of the private sector and local governments
in the expansion of primary education. However,
precautions should be taken to assure that teachers are
apprOpriately paid and provided adequate service
facilities.

4. High rates of drOpout were observed in both policy
periods. Efforts should be made to retain the students by
providing free text books, writing materials and recreation
facilities.

5. Curriculum at primary schools should be made
functional so that rate of return to school graduates is
increased.

6. Girls' participation has been low in both policy
periods. Some of the reasons for low participation rates
for girls could be parents' indifferent attitudes towards
girls' education. Measures should be taken to motivate the
parents to sent their doughters to schools.

7. The participation of local bodies and the private
sector should again be invited in the develOpment of
secondary education. Government should give grants-in-aid

to these schools.

198

8. All non-government secondary schools should be
registered with the government. Strict rules and
regulations should be enforced so that these schools
(a) pay adequate wages to teachers, (b) maintain good
academic standards, and (c) are not converted to commercial
enterprises.

9. Tuition fees should be reinstated in secondary
schools. At least 60 percent of expenditures should be
recovered through tuition. However, loans and scholarships
should be awarded to needy and competent students.

10. General expansion in college education should be
frozen for at least five years. Expansion in enrollment
should be allowed for women and those in rural areas.

11. Private colleges should be completely banned.

12. Facilities in existing colleges should be improved
and maximally utilized.

13. At present, there are 12 general universities in
the country. Baluchistan has one university, NHFP has two,
Punjab three, and Sind has two universities. One
university is in Azad Kashmir and three universities are
managed by the central government. There is no reason to

Open more universities. Instead, qualitative improvement

199

should be the chief objective in university education. In
addition, tuition fees should be substantially increased.
Universities should generate revenue for themselves. The
increase of tuition fees at the university level will serve
two purposes; (a) reduction in social demand, (b)
universities will not consume the education budget which is

much needed for pirmary and secondary education.

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