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[{‘Hnll'fix; " ‘33 RES; J" A .3: . 3%.: x ,“ 'V‘M‘c. w. i . i" a: m; Emiém F i: < . ‘ IV . A' ; ' r 5;"? ~ v , ~ul ‘ . p v i, r I.“ f,- : . _ 9 10-1 ., IIIIHIWIIIIHNINIHIINil/HIHIIHIHIIIHIHIIHIWM 565 509 f LIBRARY Michigan State University This is to certify that the dissertation entitled _ . The Perceptions of Heads of Departments in South African Black Secondary Schools Concerning Desired Leadership Behaviors and Needs for Inservice Education in Leadership Competencies: An Exploratory Study presented by Isabel Teresa M. Gabashane has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for ’ Ph.D. , Teacher Education degree in Major professor Ben A. Bohnhorst DateMM 9.9% [yf/ / W MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771 MSU LIBRARIES RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. * 0273 My» ». 32 9 M SEPOI‘SIm 242 fir’w THE PERCEPTIONS OF HEADS OF DEPARTMENTS IN SOUTH AFRICAN BLACK SECONDARY SCHOOLS CONCERNING DESIRED LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS AND NEEDS FOR INSERVICE EDUCATION IN LEADERSHIP COMPETENCIES: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY by Isabel Teresa M. Gabashane A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Teacher Education 1987 ABSTRACT THE PERCEPTIONS OF HEADS OF DEPARTMENTS IN SOUTH AFRICAN BLACK SECONDARY SCHOOLS CONCERNING DESIRED LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS AND NEEDS FOR INSERVICE EDUCATION IN LEADERSHIP COMPETENC‘IES: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY by Isabel Teresa M. Gabashane Purpose This study describes the perceived leadership inservice needs of newly appointed heads of departments in selected South African black secondary schools. It was the purpose of the study to determine the leadership orientations of these emerging leaders and their perceived leadership needs; and to determine whether or not their leadership orientations are related to their teaching experience, qualifications, curriculum evaluation experience, and location of schools (urban or non-urban). Methodology Respondents were South African black secondary school heads of departments in the Northern Transvaal Region. Of the 161 respondents, 119 were in urban-located schools and 42 in non-urban-located schools. Three instruments were used. The first was to elicit descriptive data regarding the length of time respondents had served as teachers and their academic and professional qualifications. The second was the Leadership Opinion Questionnaire (LOQ) by Fleishman (1969) which sought information for ascertaining the leadership Isabel Teresa \I. Gabashane orientations of respondents in terms of initiating structure and consideration. The third was to elicit inservice education needs in leadership skills. The 20 items reflected categories such as human relations, staff management, planning, administration, curriculum, and instruction. These skills were divided into task- and relations-oriented items. Findings Respondents indicated a strong need in all relations-oriented skills, especially those pertaining to teachers, rather than those dealing with students, curricula, and instruction. Heads of departments who scored high on consideration perceived stronger need in overall relations-oriented needs, and those high on initiating structure perceived stronger need in one specific relations-oriented need that dealt with professional growth plans. Both high consideration and high initiating structure groups indicated strong needs in one task-oriented need that dealt with instructional planning. Thirty percent of respondents scored high on both initiating structure and consideration (effective leaders), 30% scored high on one dimension and low on the other (less effective), and 3 96 scored low on both dimensions. No relationship was found between leadership orientations of respondents and their teaching experience, qualifications, and locations of schools. A significant relationship was indicated between initiating structure and curriculum evaluation experience. - Recommendations were made to introduce leadership programs for inservice and preservice education. DEDICATION - to the late Suzan Buys, my grandmother. A lady with a vision and a great educator who started it all. - to Bessie, my mother and a survivor, with an unbeatable sense of endurance and a source of strength. - to Hilary, my father, for his unending c00peration, patience, and encouragem ent. - to Peter, my brother, for his consideration, friendship, and assistance. To all of them for their tremendous sacrifice, support, and their expectations that provided the incentive to continue. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My appreciation goes to all the individuals without whose full support and participation in my academic career and research process, this project would not have been possible. A special thanks goes to Dr. Ben A. Bohnhorst, chair of my doctoral guidance committee, for his assistance, advice, and support throughout my course of study. I am also thankful to the members of my committee, Drs. Charles Blackman, Phillip A. Cusick, and George Ferree, for their interest, guidance, and encouragement during this project. I am appreciative of the following for facilitating my studies at Michigan State University and for the Opportunity to work for Urban Affairs Programs. Thanks to Dr. Joe T. Darden for the educational experiences I had as his graduate research assistant and for his interest and support; Dr. Cassandra A. Simmons for the advice, encouragement, and assistance she provided in my educational pursuits; and Dr. Robert L. Green for the concern, inspiration, and support he gave. I am indebted to the United Nations Educational and Training Programme for Southern Africa (UNETPSA) for advancing the necessary financial support and to the Urban Affairs Programs of Michigan State University for granting a graduate assistantship. Without the help of these institutions, my study in the United States of America would not have been possible. To Abdul Habib, I owe thanks for his assistance and preparation of data for computer processing and analysis. I am also grateful to Barbara Reeves for her dedication and expertise in typing this document. iii My deepest gratitude goes to the heads of departments who participated in the study by sacrificing their precious time to complete the questionnaires and give interviews. Special thanks to Bessie Motau who was always there to help in any way possible and whose love and friendship I cherish very much. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables viii List of Figures ' x CHAPTER I: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY I Introduction 1 Historical Background 2 Nationalist Government 4 Bantu Education 4 General Administration, Organization, and Control 5 Background of the Study 7 Statement of the Problem 12 Heads of Departments as Emerging Leaders _ 12 Purpose of the Study 13 Needs of the Study 13 Significance of the Study 16 Theoretical Framework 17 Research Questions 22 Basic Assumptions 23 Limitations and Delimitations 23 Definitions of Terms 2!; Overview of the Study 27 CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW 28 Introduction 23 Definition of Leadership 28 Leadership Effectiveness . 29 Dimensions of Leadership 39,. Research on Leadership in Education #0 Studies on Leadership Needs 47 Research on Urban-Rural Differences 53 Relevance of This Literature to the Purposes 57 Summary 58 CHAPTER III: DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 60 Introduction 60 Target POpulation 6O Setting 62 Sampling Procedures 67 Instrumentation 68 Interpretation of the LOQ 7O Validity and Reliability 73 Interpretation of the Leadership Inservice Needs Questionnaire 73 Interview Data 73 Development of the LOQ 7!; Pilot Test 75 Results of the Pilot Test 76 Distribution and Data Collection 76 Treatment and Analysis of Data 77 Limitation Associated with the Methodology 78 Summary 78 CHAPTER IV: TREATMENT AND ANALYSIS OF DATA 80 Description of Sample . 82 Important Leadership Needs as Perceived by Heads of Departments 85 Relations-Oriented Needs 85 Leadership Orientation 89 Relationship Between Leadership Orientation (Initiating Structure and Consideration) and Leadership Needs (Task-Oriented and Relations- Orientedl 91 Relationship Between Leadership Orientation of Heads of Departments and Their Teaching Experience 93 Relationship Between Leadership Orientation of Heads of Departments and Their Academic Qualifications 93 Relationship Between Leadership Orientation of Heads of Departments and Their Professional Qualifications 94 Relationship Between Leadership Orientation of Heads of Departments and Their,Curricu1um Evaluation Experience 95 Relationship Between Leadership Orientation of Heads of Departments and Locations of Schools 95 Differences in Leadership Needs Between Heads of Departments with Different Leadership Orientations 96 Opinions of Heads of Departments Regarding Their Personal and Professional Needs 103 Actual Experience of Heads of Departments as Leaders 105 Summary 107 vi CHAPTER. V: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 109 POpulation 109 Sample 109 Instrument 110 Statistical Methods Used to Analyze Data 110 Findings 111 Discussion and Conclusions ' 116 Observations, Reflections, and Remarks 126 Recommendations 130 Further Research 131 Appendices 132 Bibliography 1518 vii 3.1 3.2 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 LIST OF TABLES Northern Transvaal Region Schools and Target Population Black Township Classified According to Complexity of Functions Present Teaching Experience Academic Qualifications Professional Qualifications Curriculum Evaluation Experience Means and Standard Deviations of Relations-Oriented Needs Means and Standard Deviations of Task-Oriented Needs Means and Standard Deviations for Initiating Structure and Consideration Number of ReSpondents Classified as Having Low and High Scores on Initiating Structure and Consideration Classification of Respondents in Terms of Initiating Structure and Consideration Combinations of Initiating Structure and Consideration of the Respondents Correlation Coefficients and P-values for the Relationship Between Leadership Orientations and Needs Results of T-tests on Initiating Structure and Consideration Orientations According 'to Teaching Experience Results of T-tests on Initiating Structure and Consideration Orientations According to Academic Qualifications Results of T-tests on Differences Between Leaders Regarding Professional Qualifications with ReSpect to their Leader Orientations viii 61 64 83 34 34 85 86 88 89 90 90 90 91 93 94 94 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 4.25 4.26 Results of T-tests on Initiating Structure and Consideration Orientations According to Curriculum Evaluation Results of T-tests on Differences Between Leaders in Urban and Non-Urban Schools with Respect to Their Leadership Orientations Results of T-tests on the Differences Between Low and High Consideration Leaders with Respect to Their Relations- Orientation Needs Subgroup Means of Relations-Oriented Needs for Low and High Consideration Leaders Results of T-tests on the Differences Between Low and High Consideration Leaders with Respect to Their Task- Orientation Needs SubgrOUp Means of Task-Oriented Needs for Low and High Consideration Leaders Results of T-tests on the Differences Between Low and High Consideration Leaders with Respect to Their Relations- Orientation Needs Subgroup Means of Relations-Oriented Needs for Low and High Initiating Structure Leaders Results of T-tests on the Differences Between Low and High Initiating Structure Leaders with Respect to Their Relations-Orientati on Needs SubgrOUp Means of Task-Oriented Needs for Low and High Initiating Structure Leaders Responses and Frequencies of Needed Skills and Competencies of Heads of Departments Responses and Frequencies of Heads of Departments' Experiences ix 95 96 97 98 99 100 100 101 102 103 104 106 2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2 LIST OF FIGURES Managerial grid Effectiveness of leadership behavior grid Map of South Africa Map of Transvaal province 38 65 66 CHAPTER I OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY Introduction The school as a social structure has points at which it is in constant contact with other structures in society. The state has laws which affect education and provide facilities for its functions. Commerce, industry, and other professional bodies interact with education departments to ensure that learners will qualify for work that will benefit the community. Still, none of these organizations attempts to replace the school and its functions. This contact with its environment does not imply that the school is a structure without organization. In order to fulfill its purpose, the school must be an organized, functional unit, and successful achievement of its purpose depends mainly upon leadership. Beginning in 1981, a new group of leaders in South Africa was designated from among black educators by the appointment of heads of departments at secondary school levels. This group of emergent leaders is the primary focus of the present study, and the discussion which follows will set forth the purposes and procedures which will be used to study them. First, however, a brief historical background of black education in South Africa will be presented to provide a contextual backdrop of black education for the study. Then the organizational framework, within which the new department heads function, will be sketched. Some principles and prOpositions regarding what has come to be known about leadership will be cited, since this study rests on the basis of such ideas. Finally, the nature of the study itself will be sketched. Historical Background South Africa is divided into four provinces (states), namely the Cape Province, the Orange Free State, Transvaal, and Natal. Attempts at educating and introducing Christianity among the African tribes and slaves captured from a Portugese ship were made in the seventeenth century during the rule of the Dutch East India Company. Early in the nineteenth century, integrated schools were common in towns and villages of the Cape, most of them mission scho6ls. After the British occupied the Cape in 1806, teachers were brought from England, English became the medium of instruction, and an English system of education was introduced. New schools were formed for white and colored children. Free schools were established for the needy, and anyone could be admitted to these government schools, regardless of race. Slave owners were forced to send slave children to school for at least three days a week, a condition that was resented by the colonists because it resulted in the loss of child labor (Troup, 1976). With the emancipation of slaves in 1830, many former slaves, along with other indigenous peOple, spread over the Cape Colony, and there was an urgent need for more schools. It was during this part of the nineteenth century that an effort was made to provide education, resulting in the formation of a network of mission stations and schools in the Cape Colony and other parts of the country. The missionary societies involved in the effort were the Moravian, London, Flemish, Wesleyan, Berlin, Paris Evangelical, Glasgow Missions, Church Missionary Society, and American Board Mission (Behr, 1980). Missionaries continued without financial help from the government. The government, in turn, made little provision for Africans who could not afford to pay for available educational facilities. In 1839, a department of education was established, and mission schools fell under the charge of this department. It was decided that in 1841, the needy mission school should be given state aid. This pattern of support for African education continued until the 19505. Education was regarded by the newly appointed governor of the Cape, Sir George Grey, as . . . the most important factor in the peaceful subjugation of the African, and persuaded the British government to subsidize missionary institutions so that they could train Africans in industrial occupations and "fit them to act as interpreters, evangelists, and schoolmasters amongst their own people." (Behr, 1980, p. 160) The Cape Education Act of 1865 made it possible that there be aid for three types of schools: public, mission, and native. By the 18905, the education department began to discourage whites from attending mission schools, where fees were lower than at secular schools. With the development of industrialization, the government began to establish schools for whites. In 1905 the Cape School Board Act established separate public schools. Indians came to Natal in 1860 as laborers on sugar plantations. In 1875 the Indian Immigrant School Board was established, and the first school Opened in 1883. After the Anglo-Boer War of 1899, the Orange Free State and the Transvaal adopted the ideology of Christian national education as a means by which the Afrikaner (the Dutch-speaking, white South African) was to preserve his/her language and traditions. This was mainly a reaction against the British imposition of English values in schools. The four provinces had each developed an individual system of native education. By 1924, all provinces had separate primary courses and curricula for Africans, but the secondary school syllabus remained the same for all races. The Apprenticeship Act of 1922 stipulated a minimum educational qualification of eight years' schooling which restricted Africans and, to a lesser degree, Indians and coloreds from obtaining apprenticeships, while giving whites an opportunity in industry (Troup, I976). Nationalist Government In 1948, the Nationalists (the present government) came into power and in 1949 appointed the Eiselen Commission on Native Education (as education for blacks was then called). The aim of the commission was . . . to formulate principles and aims of education for natives as an independent race, in which their past and present, their inherent racial qualities, their distinctive characteristics and aptitudes and their needs under the ever—changing social conditions are taken into consideration . . . (Wilson 6c Thompson, 1971, p. 225) Bantu Education Blacks were then referred to as "bantu," and the Bantu Education Act of 1953 was formulated, mostly following the recommendations of the Eiselen Commission. The government's objection to the existing system of education was that the government provided funds, but had little control over Bantu education; there was much diversity in provincial control, and missions brought their way of conducting schools; schools were not related to the communities they served; and parents had little say in the running of schools. Mission schools were criticized by the Nationalist government because it was maintained that education offered to blacks was essentially European in nature. European was then used synonymously with "white." In June of 1954, Dr. Verwoerd, the Minister of Native Affairs, and later Prime Minister of South Africa, said the following. There is no place for him (the Bantu) in the European community above the level of certain forms of labor . . . . For that reason it is of no avail for him to receive a training which has as its aim adoption in the European community. Until now he has been subject to a school system which drew him away from his own community and misled him by showing him the green pastures of EurOpean society in which he is not allowed to graze. (Troup, 1976, p. 22) General Administration, Organization, and Control In 1958 a Department of Bantu Education, later renamed Department of Education and Training, was formed with its own minister. This department Operates in white areas through a regional organization which is further divided into inspection circuits. At the head of each region is a regional director with an inspector in charge of each inspection circuit. The minister, who is a member of Parliament, the regional directors, and the chief inspector for the circuit now referred to as deputy director are all white. The majority of schools are state-aided. Seventy-five percent of these are community schools which were formerly mission schools. Each community school has its own school committee with advisory functions. In cases where there are two or more schools in an area, a school board is formed, consisting of members of the various committees. A school committee may require parents to make contributions to school funds, to maintain school buildings and grounds. It gives advice to the school board on the functioning Of the school and is made up of members elected by parents. The school board is responsible for the allocation, control, and maintenance of school equipment; investigates complaints; and supervises the finances of school committees. The board also gives advice on future building programs. All members of school boards and school committees are black. Government schools include teacher-training institutions, vocational schools, and special schools. They are under direct control of the Department of Education and Training, and a number of white teachers are employed (Behr, 1980). With the introduction of the Bantu education system, mission schools were given the option of either handing control of schools to the government or having government subsidy withdrawn completely. Most of them closed down, having refused to relinquish control. The Catholics were determined to continue on their own without subsidy and were thus registered as private schools. Charts showing details of the organization of black education are in Appendix A. Currently, South Africa's system of education is divided into different education departments that serve the four distinct racial groups in the country, namely blacks, Asians, coloreds, and whites. Blacks are further divided into their different ethnic groups, and this classification gave rise to the homelands which are designated areas for the majority of blacks to live in, away from the industrial areas and main towns and cities. Those blacks who still reside in urban areas, as well as those in places which the government has not decided under which ethnic government they should fall, are governed by the central government. Management of education for blacks, therefore, is conducted from a number of departments. For blacks in the so-called "white areas," their education is controlled by the Department of Education and Training. There are also departments of education for various homelands. The following is a list of the areas falling under the Department of Education and Training (a central body). The whole area is divided into seven regions, and each has a regional director. 1. Northern Transvaal: station at Pretoria 2. Highveld: station at Springs 3. Natal: station at Pieterm aritzburg 4. Orange Vaal: station at Vereeniging 5. Cape: station at Port Elizabeth 6. Johannesburg: station at Johannesburg 7. Orange Free State: station at Bloemfontein In general it may be said that black education in South Africa was developed mainly by missionary organizations through the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, during which time blacks had become enslaved until emancipation in 1830. In the 20th century, governmental separation of black education from white education has become increasingly distinct, with encapsulating limits being rationalized by white leaders in such terms as those used by Verwoerd, quoted above. Today, there is a claim that Verwoerd's philosophy has been abandoned, but there is no integration. Concession has been given to let black students attend white universities in order to enroll for programs that are not offered in black universities. Students who wish to do so have to apply for permission from the government. Other than that, and a few Catholic (private) schools that admit black children on a limited basis, peOple are not free to enroll in any educational institution of their choice, whether they are black or white. The call for a single ministry of education has been denied, with the claim that there is a disparity in the academic qualifications of black and white teachers. "The present government remains ideologically committed to the principle of separate systems of education for each racial group" (The Study Commission on US. Policy Toward Southern Africa, 1981, p. 117). It is in this context that the decision occurred in 1980 to appoint department heads in black secondary schools. Background of the Study The structure and control Of individual education systems in South Africa (i.e., for blacks, Indians, coloreds, and whites) were generally patterned after those of most Western countries. Educational institutions are operated as modern organizations which are bureaucratic in nature. Bureaucracy is, in turn, characterized by principles of a hierarchy, a particular sphere of competence, Official functions ordered by rules, and management of the office based on written documents (Weber, 1984). Like any other complex organization, a school is divided into units and has members who each have assigned duties. Together, they must cooperate to keep the interrelated parts of the organization running smoothly and ensuring that the school achieves its goals. A principal's duties and responsibilities have become too numerous for one person to master because they range from school issues and problems to those of the community. The assistance of heads of departments has been sought to relieve principals of some responsibilities. This has led to heads of departments being given tasks that require a wide range of responsibilities, most of which are administrative rather than academic in nature. The Department of Education and Training (1980) (which is responsible for the education of blacks in South Africa) holds the. same view regarding the role of a head of department. It maintains that the head of a department in a school is actually referred to as the principal's right-hand person who is either responsible for subject guidance or helps the principal in the general 1 management of the school. It also states the following. By virtue of his office, the head of department is a senior staff member who, inter alia, assists the principal in guiding less experienced colleagues and providing in-service training with a view to the constant improvement of the standard of teaching. (p. 2) It concludes by saying, . . . in the professional field, the head of department is expected to play the parts of teacher, planner, guide, co-ordinator, and supervisor. (p. 4) These activities, as well as organizing and motivating teachers, among others, require leadership; therefore, a head of department's position calls for leadership ability. As Cawelti (1982) explained, leaders have ". . . to provide a sense of direction, to motivate others toward attainment of goals and to build consensus" (p. 325). Sergiovanni (1984) added to this notion of a head of department as a leader by stating the following. Modern Chairpersons have important leadership functions to perform, many of which have been abandoned by those in other roles and some of which are new to today's complex school. The chairperson's role is changing and leadership demands are increasing. (p. 3). As a leader, the head of department will need certain strategies that will ". . . facilitate the use of established procedures and structures to help the organization achieve its goals" (Owens, 1970, p. 127) and promote the accommodation of interests and input of teachers in the department. Most often heads of departments are former classroom teachers who have been promoted to this leadership position. Criteria for selecting these heads of “departments are level of qualification, experience in the teaching field, and performance on the job. Very little or nothing is done in terms of inservice education to prepare these emerging leaders for their newly acquired leadership positions. One of the five classes of human needs in Maslow's (1954) needs hierarchy is self-actualiz'ation which is a need for self-development. It is associated with the need for competence which, in turn, implies the ability to master a job, a quality that is most evident in adults (White, 1959). Heads of departments also show this self-actualizing need in carrying out their duties. It is evidenced as a need for professional deveIOpment and desire for perfection in their work for the benefit of the school and all involved. Literature on school leadership shows that heads of departments and other school administrators need leadership skills and competencies. Therefore, effective inservice education programs, when available, should prove to be 10 extremely valuable for heads of departments as emerging leaders. Cawelti (1982) observed that in recent years, schools have been pressured into improving their performance as social institutions. Emphasis on ". . . accountability laws, competency tests, mandates for equity and a more responsive curriculum, declining enrollments, lid bills on financing, and collective bargaining" (p. 324) has forced leaders in education to apply a management approach in operating schools. The ability to work towards efficiency and effectiveness of these schools requires administrators to be trained in planning, organizing, directing, and controlling. According to Cunningham (1985), in this ever-changing world, "proper" leadership can maintain stability and performance of educational institutions. Leaders in education need special skills, attitudes, knowledge, and understanding to prepare young peOple for an uncertain future. Instead of merely appointing people to occupy leadership positions, it is necessary to deveIOp leadership through "more organized and deliberate attempts" (Cunningham, 1985, p. 18) because there are elements of leadership that can be learned. In their surveys, Sange (1982), Jennerich (1981), and Weaver and Gordon (1979) report on the leadership skills and competencies in which heads of departments stated they needed the most help. Schools from which heads of departments were selected for the present study differed in their geographical location in South Africa. Some were in urban and others in non-urban locations. Sociologists maintain that there is a difference in the behavior of peOple in urban areas from those in rural areas. It is maintained that the difference in social structure has an influence on a person's cognitive process. Through the influence of cognition, different social structures facilitate predictable forms of behavior (Fisher, 1972). 11 According to Wirth (1938), urbanization is characterized by population size increase and density of settlement, both of which lead to social diversification of people (heterogeneity). There is a formal structure of relationships in urban society associated with impersonality and superficiality; as a result, urban residents become socially isolated. On the other hand, rural people maintain close and informal relationships. Davies' (1967, 1968) model of "South African urban hierarchy" was modified and used to classify selected South African black residential areas (referred to as "black townships"), wherein the schools used in this study were located. The result was that places that were not urban in character also did not qualify as rural, in terms of conventional rural functions, but emerged as rural service centers. Three categories of school locations emerged, namely major urban townships, medium urban townships, and rural service center townships. The details of classifying these places will be discussed in Chapter III, and the general terms "urban" and "non-urban" will hence be used to denote the locations of schools from which heads of departments have been selected in South Africa. A head of department's leadership orientation has an influence on the daily activities of teachers and students. In their study of Canadian public schools, Keeler and Andrews (1963) discovered that the leader behavior of principals (described in terms of consideration and structure) was significantly related to pupils' scores on examinations for the whole province. According to StOgdill (1973), it is important to note that not only does the behavior of teachers have a direct influence on the performance of students, but the leader behavior of principals also has a significant effect on student performance. He goes on to state that the leader behavior or leader orientations of heads of departments, like that of principals, would appear to be no exception in having an impact on students' learning. 12 To improve and maintain the smooth operation of a given department, the head of that department needs to create a working environment that will help to promote good and productive work to benefit the school and bring a sense of achievement and satisfaction to teachers and pupils. Statement of the Problem The creation of departmental units in South African black secondary schools is a recent modification to the organizational structure of the school.. The newly appointed heads of departments have been promoted from classroom teaching to their leadership positions. Most have little or no formally deveIOped leadership skills, and principals often seem to be too overburdened with responsibility to give them guidance. Inservice education programs have mainly emphasized the importance of systematic organization of subject content and instructional strategies. No preparatory or continuing courses on leadership, per se, had been offered until 1985 when a management workshop referred to as "Top-Down" was introduced. In view of this state of affairs, the present study will investigate the leadership orientations of heads of departments in selected South African black secondary schools and attempt to describe their leadership needs as pointed out by the heads of departments themselves. Heads of Departments as Emerging Leaders The positions of heads of departments in South African black secondary schools are fairly new, having been authorized in 1980 and actually created in 1981 to improve the operation of schools. To date, classroom teachers are promoted to fill available positions, and they are faced with the responsibility to start departments from scratch, without prior experience in administration or management. 13 Since schools have become complex organizations, central ministerial authorities found it necessary to introduce the system of heads of departments to perform some administrative duties. Additionally, it was expected that heads of departments would help principals carry out certain professional duties, mainly those related to more effective disciplinary controls over student bodies. Purpose of the Study The purposes of the study include the following: 1. to describe perceived leadership needs of the heads of departments in selected South African black secondary schools; 2. to ascertain the leadership orientations of these heads of departments, as emerging leaders;- 3. to examine the relationship between leadership orientations and perceived leadership needs of these emerging leaders; 4. to determine whether or not the leadership orientations of these heads of departments is related to teaching experience, qualifications, curriculum evaluation experience, and location of schools; and 5. to compare the described leadership orientations of these emerging leaders with their leadership needs. Needs of the Study Education, like all other social institutions in South Africa, is segregated along racial lines. The DeLange Commission, through the Human Sciences Research Council (1981), recommended that there be a single ministry of education to facilitate the creation of a much needed national educational policy that would promote "equal Opportunity" and "equal quality and standards" of education in South Africa. Most educators and certain organizations are concerned with the improvement of black education as well as committed to promote social justice. Among these educators are Bozzoli (1976) and Murphree (1976) who, together with the Education Commission of South African Institute of 14 Race Relations Report (1979), emphasized the importance of good quality and equal education for all in an integrated society. In addition to recommending an integrated system of education in South Africa, Murphree (1976) pointed out the importance of leadership skills deveIOped through education. He quoted Malherbe who explained the ageless association between education and leadership. Education for leaders should be our first objective amongst the non-Europeans. To spread mere literacy thinly amongst the masses is dangerous, unless it is accompanied by the training of truly educated leaders who can guide the masses . . . (p. 3). The necessity for leadership that will facilitate all qualified persons for positions to function in the different economic and social sectors of the nation was brought to light by Murphree: . . . education as training for leadership remains, therefore, a functional necessity for those committed to the deveIOpment of democratic institutions, and the fostering of such institutions in Africa will depend increasingly on an educated black leadership. Formal education appears to be a necessary component to the formation of such leadership . . . (p. 18) Ever since the creation of the new positions for heads of departments in black secondary schools in South Africa, the Department of Education and Training has provided inservice education programs for newly appointed heads of departments to improve their instructional competence as subject specialists. The aim was to promote their ability to guide teachers on how to implement given curriculum in various subject areas. The inservice education center issues lecture notes on various tOpics, including management functions; subject guidance with a view to overall control; the teaching of geography, science, English, Afrikaans, mathematics, etc.; the use of audiovisual aids; how to deal with extracurricular activities, etc. Administrative and professional duties are laid out in the lecture notes dealing with management functions. 15 Nowhere in these lecture notes is there mention or discussion of leadership skills, leader behavior, or leadership models to help the newly appointed heads of departments develop healthy working relationships with teachers in their departments. Only in 1985 was an initial series of a management program referred to as "Top Down" management, deveIOped by an industrial company, offered to heads of departments in schools. The success of this program in promoting the attainment of school goals and satisfying teachers' needs is yet to be tested or formally documented. In discussing problems of educational innovation in Africa, Thompson (1981) observed that a teacher requires ongoing inservice education and, . . . if his career prospers and he moves from the classroom to become a headmaster, an inspector, a tutor in a teacher’s college, a curriculum developer, an administrator or a planner, he will probably need a specialist training. But in practice such opportunities have been sadly under-deveIOped. (p. 167) Most organizations give recognition to and reward a productive member by promoting him/her to a higher new and unfamiliar level. So, too, the school rewards good and hard working teachers by promotion to the position of principal, head of department, or some other form Of leadership in some other branch of the educational system. Their hours of teaching are reduced or they are removed from the classroom where their performances were excellent and moved to positions for which they have not been trained. In like manner, heads of departments'in South African black secondary schools have been promoted from being classroom teachers to their new positions. The criteria for selection have mainly been the level of qualification, duration of service as a teacher, mastery of the subject matter in which the particular teacher is specializing, good conduct, and records of hard work. In addition, the Department of Education and Training (1983) summed up by stating, "School committees or boards of control and circuit inspectors must pay specific 16 attention to characteristics of leadership before making a recommendation" (p. 6). According to McLean (1980), most heads of departments have, in the past, learned required skills from experience. It is established that being a "good" teacher does not lead to being a "good" administrator. Even thOugh it is necessary to have peOple who showed good quality work as teachers to join the ranks of heads of departments, inservice education should be available to develop the many skills necessary to promote quality performance. Thompson (1981) expressed the same idea by stating the following. Of course administrators, inspectors, and others are needed, and of course we should see men of proved teaching ability in some of them, though we might well ask that they should be properly trained for the parts. (pp. 171-2) Significance of the Study Very little has yet been done in the field of leadership training for heads of departments in South African black secondary schools. Ascertaining leadership orientations will help to show whether heads of departments emphasize commitment to tasks that have to be carried out, emphasize their relationships with their subordinates, or both. It is assumed that lack of data regarding the leadership needs of heads of departments could be a handicap in deveIOping effective leadership education for heads of departments in black schools. It is therefore important to identify the needs of these emerging leaders, even better when those needs are expressed by the leaders themselves. Any discrepancies that may be shown in the leadership Orientations and needs of heads of departments would appear to have clear implications for inservice education programs. The present study may demonstrate whether or not there is a significant relationship between leadership orientations and teaching experience and teacher qualifications. The findings 17 may have implications for the process of selecting and promoting teachers to positions of heads of departments. Literature on the urban-rural continuum reveals that there exists a differential social organization, the impact of which results in patterns of behavior unique to the areas (Fisher, 1972). Any relationship revealed to exist between leadership orientation and school location (urban or non-urban) may help guide educational planners and program developers for inservice education regarding leaders' value systems, interests, and relationship patterns. Theoretical Framework Halpin (1966) maintained that a leader is one person in an organization who is given the responsibility to ensure that the organization achieves its purposes. As a leader of his/her work group, a person has an obligation to accommodate two basic group goals: 1. group achievement which is measured in terms of how well a group achieves the group's task; and 2. group maintenance measured by the degree to which a group remains cohesive. This could be judged in terms of morale, COOperation among group members in a working situation, and other descriptors of job satisfaction (p. 37). Stogdill (1973) also highlighted the same two qualities of leadership by explaining the following. The practicalities of organizational life suggest that a leader has a better chance of survival when he lets the followers know (I) that he identifies himself with the purpose of the organization and (2) that in doing so he is working for the welfare of the follower group. (p. 99) These two group goals, achievement and maintenance, were also identified and described by Cartwright and Zander (1968) who stated that the objectives of a group are encompassed by activities aimed at the attainment of established goals and activities aimed at the maintenance of the work group. Goal achievement involves encouraging commitment to goals, explaining issues, and initiating activities. Group maintenance implies promotion of friendly interpersonal relations, giving motivation, facilitating self-direction, and allowing communication. It was important to represent accurately and describe in detail the leader behaviors involved in attaining the group objectives. This was made possible by the Ohio State Research Board (1959) which identified two dimensions of leader behavior, namely initiating structure and consideration. Initiating structure refers to the leader's behavior in delineating the relationship between himself and members of the work-group, and in endeavoring to establish well—defined patterns of organization, channels of communication, and methods of procedure. Consideration refers to behavior indicative of friendship, mutual trust, respect, and warmth in the relationship between the leader and the members of his staff. (p. 4) In studying leader behavior, it was found that initiating structure and consideration were "separate and distinct dimensions" (Hersey dc Blanchard, 1982). Other researchers have also identified dimensions of leadership and have used various labels such as production-oriented and employee-oriented (Kahn, I956), concern for production and concern for people (Blake (St Mouton, 1978), goal achievement and group maintenance (Cartwright 6r Zander, I968), effectiveness and efficiency (Barnard, 1966), system orientation and person orientation (Brown, 1967), and nomothetic and ideographic (Getzels & Cuba, 1957). Halpin (1966) stated that "'effective' leaders are those who score high on both dimensions of leader behavior" (p. 40). Two dimensions of leader behavior, initiation of structure and consideration, will be used in the theoretical framework for the study. These dimensions appear to correspond to the two group objectives of achievement and maintenance, respectively. The theory that an effective head of department will 19 show both a high concern for performance and production (initiating structure) and for consideration for teachers (consideration) has been adopted. These major leader behavior dimensions were first evident in a study that Halpin and Winer conducted among air force crews in 1952. The instrument used in that study was an adapted form of the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) which was first developed by the Personnel Research Board at The Ohio State University under the direction of Hemphill (1950). The original LBDQ measured 10 dimensions of leader behavior, namely initiation, representation, fraternization, organization, domination, recognition, product emphasis, integration, communication down, and communication up. The questionnaire had 150 items, measuring each of the 10 dimensions with 15 items (Fleishman, 1973). At the same time that Halpin and Winer were working on their air force project, in 1951 Fleishman (1973) modified the LBDQ for industrial supervisors at International Harvester. The modified questionnaire developed into the Leadership Opinion Questionnaire (LOQ) which maintained the dimensions of initiation of structure and consideration. The instrument is administered to leaders themselves for their Opinions of how leaders should behave, and it will be used in the present study by administering it to heads of departments in South African black secondary schools. Since initiating structure and consideration behaviors are two separate dimensions, they may range from low to high in any person. The behavior of a leader could be described as any combination of both dimensions, namely: 1. high initiating structure/high consideration, 2. low initiating structure/high consideration, 3. high initiating structure/low consideration, and 4. low initiating structure/low consideration. 20 A leader's score places him/her in one of the four combinations. A leader scoring below the mean on initiating structure and above the mean on consideration would be placed in section two. For a leader whose scores are above the mean on initiating structure and below the mean on consideration, his/her place is in section three. A leader scoring low on both initiating structure and consideration would be placed in section four. Leaders who score high on both initiating structure and consideration (section one) are regarded as highly effective, and those scoring low on both dimensions (section four) "whose behavior is ordinarily accompanied by group chaos are characterized as most ineffective" (Halpin, 1966, p. 99). Leaders who scores place them in sections two and three are also ineffective because they emphasize one dimension at the expense of the other. To summarize, both group achievement and group maintenance are categories that are necessary for the smooth operation and cohesiveness of organizations. Other researchers have attached different labels to similar categories expressing similar ideas. The Leadership Opinion Questionnaire (LOQ) is the instrument that will be used in this study to ascertain the leadership orientations of heads of departments at South African black secondary schools. The instrument assesses two dimensions of leader behavior--initiating structure and consideration, which correspond to group achievement and group maintenance, respectively. A successful head of department should presumably perform high on both initiating structure and consideration. Rasmussen (1976) is of the opinion that teachers can be influenced by a leader's emphasis on performing tasks and his/her concern for their welfare. In turn, these teachers can be motivated towards greater performance than those teachers whose leaders show low activity orientation and low concern for their needs. A teacher's behavior also 21 has an influence on students' performance. A teacher's high performance standards and attention to students' needs will promote learning and hard work on the part of his/her students. The terms task-oriented and relations-oriented (Sergiovanni, 1984) will be used in this study. In addition to ascertaining the leadership orientations of heads of departments, the study will identify their leadership needs. A need .implies a lack of something, a gap that creates an imbalance in a unit which, in turn, can create a malfunctioning of the organization. Sergiovanni (1980) and Griffith (1979) confirm Halpin's (1966) assertion that an ineffective leader is one who scores low on one of the leadership dimensions and high on the other, and the most ineffective leader is one who scores low on both dimensions. Whenever one of these imbalances in a leader's behavior is identified, there seems to be a necessity to encourage this leader to develop an inclination toward the dimension wherein his/her score was low. Literature shows that general teaching experience, the number of years a person has spent in the teaching field, and a certain required level of qualification do not necessarily guarantee good leadership. Information on theories of leadership, models, and practical applications of various leadership skills are said to be necessary to improve a leader's performance (McLean, 1980). The researcher speculates that since the environment in which a person lives does, to a certain extent, influence his/her behavior, the geographical location Of a school may be associated with whether or not a head of department is more task- or relations-oriented. To see if the leadership orientations Of heads of departments is related to various variables, some research questions will be posed. 22 Research Questions In order to examine the relationship between the leadership orientations of heads of departments and teaching experience, level of qualification, and location of schools, and to compare leadership orientation with leadership needs, the following questions will be explored. I. What are the perceived leadership needs of heads of departments in selected South African black secondary schools? 2. What are the leadership orientations of these heads of departments? 3. Is there any significant relationship between initiating structure and consideration or between task-oriented and relations- oriented needs? 4. Do heads of departments with more teaching experience show higher or lower initiating structure/consideration than those with little experience? 5. DO heads of departments with a high level of academic qualification show higher or lower initiating structure/consideration than those with a low level of academic qualification? 6. Do heads of departments with a high level of professional qualification show a higher or lower level of initiating structure/consideration than those with a low level of professional qualification? 7. Do heads of departments who had curriculum evaluation experience show higher or lower initiating structure/consideration than those who had no curriculum evaluation experience? 8. Do heads of departments who work In schools located in urban areas show higher or lower initiating structure/consideration than those who work in non-urban areas? 9. Are the perceived leadership needs of heads of departments significantly related to their leadership orientations as assessed by initiating structure and consideration? 10. What are the opinions of heads of departments regarding their personal and professional needs? 11. What are the actual experiences of heads of departments as leaders? 23 Basic Assumptions The study is based on the following assumptions. 1. Heads of departments themselves are in good positions to identify their own needs, and their opinions can make a significant contribution to the development of valuable leadership programs. 2. Leadership orientations of heads of departments would be primarily initiating structure rather than consideration, given the tight and centralized control of education in South Africa. 3. The checks of reliability and validity made for this study of the LOQ, as adapted for use in black secondary schools in South Africa, are adequate to confirm the LOQs used in this study. Limitations and Delimitations Inherent in the design of the study are the following limitations and delimitations. l. The study is limited to heads of departments in black secondary schools in South Africa. Since this is a very special and recently created population, generalizations cannot be made beyond the group studied. 2. The instruments used were considered valid and acceptable to the intended study. ' On the other hand, inherent in them are basic limiting factors common to questionnaires, for example, the accuracy of the study is dependent on the authenticity of responses from participants. in most cases, respondents may not be honest when giving answers. 3. Since only a small portion of heads of departments (Northern Transvaal Region) was used, the findings need to be viewed with caution and conclusions restricted to heads of departments in the Transvaal. 4. Of the three questionnaires used in this study, the LOQ is the only standardized one. It may not be flexible enough and discriminating enough to render data that would reveal the answer to research questions. Nevertheless, it is widely used and is one of the most highly regarded instruments of its sort in the field. 24 Definitions of Terms Administrative duties: assisting with control of schemes of work and lesson unit preparation, guiding students in choosing subjects, assisting with maintaining good discipline, assisting with gathering and processing of statistics, drawing up schedules (Department of Education and Training, 1983). Asians: people of Oriental origin, that is, Indians and Chinese. Blacks: indigenous peeple of Africa or any whose origin is in Africa. Central government: used synonymously with "Department of Education and Training" which is a body controlling management of education of blacks in "white areas." Circuits: subdivisions of a region which can be compared to school districts. Each district is headed by an inspector with three or more assistant inspectors. These inspectors are employees of the central government. Coloreds: people of mixed racial origin. Competencies: descriptions of expected, needed, or yet-to-be demonstrated performance; the specification of anticipated behaviors, skills, knowledge, or attitudes, usually set forth as conditions for role fulfillment or as learning tasks to be performed (Dejnozka, l983l. Education: the total process developing human ability and behavior; the social process in which one achieves social competence and individual growth, carried on in selected, controlled setting which can be institutionalized as a school or college (Page 6: Thomas, 1977). Head of department: one who is partly a classroom teacher, partly a curriculum consultant, and partly an administrative assistant to the principal of his/her school (Callahan, 19713. Homelands: area allocated to each black ethnic group in South Africa so that they can ultimately form "independent nations" within South Africa. These 25 areas are mainly rural and constitute less than 13% of the total area of the country (Butler et al., 1977). Inservice education: a program of planned activities for incumbent employees to improve their on-the-job performance. Inservice programs in education are normally sponsored to bring about instructional improvement by (a) expanding teachers' knowledge, 0.)) improving individual teacher effectiveness, and (c) encouraging teachers to want to improve themselves (Pejnozka, 1983, p. 86). ' Inspecto : an official appointed to visit schools to ensure that reasonable standards are being maintained in terms of instruction, discipline of students, professional development of teachers, and the overall control and preservation of the school. Instructor: a teacher of crafts and psychomotor skills as in industrial training (Page 6c Thomas, 1977). LeadershiLbehavior: behavior exhibited by a leader while working with others in a formal organization. Students of leader behavior give particular attention to the nature and degree of influence being exercised (Dejnozka, 1983, p. 94). Leadership effectiveness: the extent to which the leader achieves objectives that are important to the department and school. Effectiveness will be the result of educational, organizational, supervisory, and administrative leadership (Sergiovanni, 1984). _l\'_ee_d_s_: the lack of something which, if present, would tend to further the welfare of the organization or of the species, or to facilitate its usual behavior; or the thing, activity, or condition (internal or external) that is lacking (English 6c English, 1958, p. 338). 26 Perception: the process by which a person obtains and interprets information from the environment, using any of the senses (sight, hearing, touch, etc.) (Rowntree, 1981). Professional duties: among others, subject guidance to teachers regarding content and methodology, interpretation and covering of syllabi, classroom v'isits, conducting departmental meetings, orientations of beginning teachers, and determining the need for and attending to the inservice training of teachers in his/her department (Department of Education and Training, 1983). Secondary school: a school offering a post-elementary school program; a generic term that includes middle schools, junior high schools, and senior high schools (Dejnozka, 1983). _S_15_i_l_1§: physical, mental, or social abilities that are learned through practice, repetition, and reflection and in which it is probably always possible for the person to improve (Rowntree, 1981). Teacher: 3 person who, because of rich experience or education or both in a given field, is able to contribute to the growth and development of other persons who come in contact with him/her. Training: systematic practice in the performance of a skill; a process of helping others to acquire skills and knowledge without reference to any greater framework of knowledge or understanding (Good, 1973). _W_hi_t_e_s_: people mainly of European descent, namely Dutch, French, German, Spanish, and British. White areas: the remaining 87% of land in South Africa (excluding homelands) which constitutes the important industrial heart of the country in terms of mines, industries, commercial farms, and ports. 27 Overview of the Study In Chapter 11, there will be a review of the literature and research in educational leadership, leadership needs, and behavior differences in urban and rural peeple. Chapter III will describe the methods and procedures used to conduct this study. Analysis of data and a report of the results will be in Chapter IV. Chapter V will give a summary of the data and a discussion of the implications of the findings of the study. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction In this chapter, there will be a look at the definition of leadership and the explanation of leader effectiveness. Dimensions of leadership will be discussed as will educational research in leadership. Finally, the concept of need, studies on leadership needs of heads of departments and other school administrators, and studies on urban-rural differences will be presented. Definition of Leadership T“(EESEEEQLfferent ways in WhiCh._1?§9€F_§l‘i.P.l‘..?§_9¢en.defined. -_Accordin g to Wexley and Yukl (1977), ". . . leadershipwinvolves influencing people to exert more effort in some task or to change their behavior" (p. 143‘. Denmark/1983) “74H: web—w maintains that leadership should be viewed ". . . as an interactive process .-.... , MM ~ hm ”1.4.2,. between the individual and thecharacteristics of a given situation-reach ‘ ,7 .4) ”w t-_;,—A affecting the other. Leaders both influence and are influenced by their followers" (p. 74). To Hersey and Blanchard_(l982), leadership is ". . .7 the process of influencing the activities of an individual or a group in efforts toward goal achievement in agiven situation. In essence, leadership involves “accomplishing goalswwith and through people" (p. 84). To Terry (1960), "Leadership is the actiyity of influencing, people to, strive willingly for group objectives" (p. 493). According to Tannenbaum, Weschler, and Massarik (1961), leadershipis art". interpersonal influence exercised in,a situation and directed, ”throughmthe communication process, toward the attainment of a specialized goal or goals" 28 29 (p. 24). Koontz ahdflOfDonnell (19,59) stateflthat". 21.699???)in influeacing“ people to follow in the achievement of a. common‘goal'l'flIp.43,5). --.,L..§.S.",l.)" Fleishman (1973) maintains that .leadershipjs '7: - Cattsmetsrat {interesiwnal influence directed through the communication process toward theattainment of mM%,_h_—u_fi,__ _,_> .,-v .. some 8031,91: goals'"(p.. 3). What constantly comes to W913??? and iswstatedAirgquentlywby these authors is leadership as an "influence."andiafl"procfiesgs.g’g'_mInfluence implies an intewfésmssgwi>e091.e ,lassgm panied by an, 5211. .terationci‘n belied?“ Process impliehswactiflvit‘ies or a series of actions, leading towsome kind. ..of_.l,,r_§s,u_1_t. Leadvership,rtherefore, is not unidirectional, but involves interaction,_through communication, with followers in a given situation___where COOPCEQTEQUJS _ encaugged to” carry out activities that lead to the achievement of a common goal. Leadership Effectiveness Many authors have attempted to suggest waysof promoting leadership effectivenesskand a. number of them have, indifferent ways, explainedwhat -___-—-P-" '— leaderwsrhipwemffectiyeness_lis._ 3 Naylor, Pritchard, and Ilgen (1980) explained that when leadership is regarded as an influence process, leadership effectiveness implies the deggaeto _which a leader is able to influence his/her followersina ,k_;-»-.r "' 7 ,Js-P” manner that leadsto theacfcomplishment of the organization's,goals.w'l'_hey stated further that many factors other than leadership influencegrouphmember effectiveness. Factors within the-physical and technicalenvironments, together with the abilities of the subordinates have an impact on the group's effectiveness. 30 Wexley a_nd.Yuk1 (1977) stated that an effective leader ,0" administrator not only influences subordinates, but s/he also has the ability to ensure thatthey perform to their highest potential. Bass (1960) maintained that “effectiv.5:-1..¢nder:nig_,J<>_’C:=yr_$,Eton??? emanated- leadsiihéiz 311d ‘5 a sncssssfnl, resnonse and. the .591??? dinatfidnes Enni,ab..n¢.sagse s/hgfifltitatdggtgnésfinds it [evadinglllnisifi REEF???4.3,analseslst'§,haying not °QL¥__--E9§1’Fi.917...P.9_V"‘?",2 but @159. Persnnal..._nnwen In this situ‘a‘tien: the subordinate respects the, leader ”and is willing to COOperate, with], him/her, realigggwtnafiIlls. lender’s. request- is in 11.0? With some .of. the supprdinate's persenalmgeals. In essence, the subordinate sees these personal goals as being accom P11511393?) this _a.ctiViI;y.. According to Landy and Trumbo (1980), leader effectiveness describes the .4.‘ .7 ”I ,~- ' relationship between the “behavior and/or characteristicsof an individualin a leadership position and some kind of result that its—{valued by a group or organization. The common theme in these explanations is that effective leadershipinvolves a leader's ability to inculcate in subordinates a sense ”of commitment to the organization's goals, and promote enthusiasm for performing the duties that lead to the accomplishment of these goals. Dimensions of Leadership The trait approach to leadership assumes that‘certain peeple have inborn physical and personality traits that make them natural leaders. Leader eff ectiveness could not be correctly-m easured and reliably predicted from leader traits. The failure of this approach led to the study of leaderbehaviormwhich emphasized "what leaders do" instead of "what leaders “are." ,Leadeflrmbehayior is more directly eonnected with the process of. leadership and what is required for administrative positions. The behavioral approach promotes the idea of shared 31 leadership by several members and not necessarily a responsibility of one person. _’u".; Leadership functions and activities are countless; consequently, theupurpose of -w- a - fifl 4.. earlier research on leader behavior was to identify clear and meaningful behavior. categories or dimensions (Wexley 6c Yukl, 1977). Researchers who have examined the behavior linked with leadership mainly. ended up [with twodimensions, faéezggasrsz 9r 9at¢,s°ries=-..°.ne.sr°UPn°f behaviors centered eFQU'Tdfé‘FKYi-"S out tasks and one group associated with concern for peeple (Sergiovanni 6c Carver, 1980):. _. Halpin (1966) identified what he referred to as "two fundamental group goals" for which a leader should be responsible: 1. group achievement: evaluated according to how well the group achieves the group's given task; and 2. group maintenance: evaluated by the degree to which the group remains closely knit. This could be measured in terms of morale, cooperation among group members working together, and other indications of job satisfactions. (p. 37) Many other studies on leader behavior have identified the existence of categories that ~are similar to group achievement .and maintehance. Benne and Sheats (1948), maintain that members of the, organization {share in the responsibility of settinglthe goals and directing, resources to facilitatethe accomplismnentwof the organizational task. These activities which involve developing and maintaining group commitment to work and ensuring achievement ,_———.—.- —- fr—r of goals are mainly member functions. These member functions are relevant to the group task and to the funct1on1ng of the group as a unit and are arranged into \M__“ *mwf fi"L--L _ ”I mH‘_ two main groups namely (a) group task functions and (b) group building and s..._..—i_.~_...- -w- _r, maintenanflce functions. Group task functions are the duties of members related to the given _'__-'—'H‘- ,.- - r- .‘ ..‘ .c—-. functions of the organization. The aim of these roles is to coord1nate and enable _ -..——-—v - _.- .~ u“ ’\-...,1 the group to select and define a common problem and to find, discuss, and work 32 on solving the problem. Group building and maintenance functions are directed toward-the working of a group as a unit. They are of such a nature that they change or maintain the way the group works, strengthening, regulating, and promoting the group's cohesion. Most important is that maintenance functions are related to the emotional satisfaction of group members and are needed to develop and maintain group, community, and organizational life. Behavior of leaders, just like group functions, can be classified into two main dimensions, namely (a) task functions and (b) maintenance functions. The task functions of a leader, identified by Benne and Sheats, include: 1. initiating activity: suggesting new ideas to the group. It may mean considering a new goal or taking a different view of a problem and discussing'its solution. Again a leader may propose new ways for the group to get the job done; 2. seeking information: asking for explanations of facts associated with the problem at hand; 3. seeking opinions: asking for value clarifications regarding the activities of'the group or any suggestion made relating to the group's functions and purposes; 4. giving information: imparting knowledge or facts which the leader believes to be relevant and significant to the group's problem; 5. giving opinion: offering ideas in response to a suggestion on what s/he believes will be of benefit to the group. What is stressed here is the values that the group needs to abide by, not so much the relevant facts or information; 6. elaborating: using illustrations to explain the given suggestions, giving reasons for the suggestions and explaining how the suggested idea may be implemented by the group if it is accepted; 7. coordinating: explaining the relationships among differentideas, arranging and matching the activities of different group members or sub-groups; 8. orienting: keeping the group along the proper course which is defined by the common goals. Here the leader shows the group where it has deviated from the goals and inquiries about the direction of the group discussion; 33 9. evaluating: attributing the accomplishment of the group to certain standards of grouP activity in the context of the group task. Hence every suggestion may be evaluated in terms of its "logic," "practicality," "facts," or "procedure"; 10. emerging: encouraging the group to make a decision and stimulate the members to improve their performance; and 11. recording: writing down what the group discusses and the suggestions made for future reference. The maintenance functions of a leader include: 1. encouraging: giving praise where it is due; accommodating other members' contributions, ideas, and suggestions shows warmth and understanding toward group members; 2. harmonizirg: helping to resolve conflict between opposing parties and encouraging a reconciliation. As a facilitator in a discussion, a leader helps to clarify statements made by one party which may otherwise be misunderstood by an Opposing party, thus aggravating the conflict; 3. compromising: the leader's giving up his/her stand point for the sake of harmony when involved in a conflict situation. S/He may acknowledge the error and align him/herself with the group; 4. gatekeeping: ensuring that every participant gets a chance to contribute to the discussion, by suggesting and guiding the direction and tempo of the discussion to accommodate the less aggressive participant; 5. setting standards: the group's trying to live up to standards in its performance. These standards are also applied to evaluate the group's performance; 6. observing/commenting: recording the group's activities and procedures and using this information to evaluate the group's performance; and 7. following: supporting the ideas of others and moving along with the group. Task functions and maintenance functions match with Halpin's group achievement and group maintenance, respectively. Almost concurrently with an Ohio State University researcher's study of leader behavior, the University of Michigan's Survey Research Center arrived at two categories of leadership which they referred to as production-oriented 34 and employee-oriented. Like group maintenance, employee-oriented behavior implied having an interest in employees' personal needs, allowing a two-way communication, and being supportive. Production-oriented behavior includes planning, setting goals, issuing instructions, and stressing production (Reitz, 1981). The studies showed that these two leadership orientations “were two independent dimensions of leader behavior and not opposite ends of a single dimension. Kahn (1956) stated that research in tractor factories confirmed the results found in earlier studies. "The foremen with the best production records . . . were both production-centered and em ployee-centered“ (p. 45). Based on the collected findings at the Research Center for Group Dynamics, Cartwright and Zander (1968) described leadership with respect to two sets of group functions: 1. group maintenance, behavior that promotes motivation, provides encouragement, keeps interpersonal relations friendly, accommodates everyone's opinions, stimulate self-direction, and increases cooperation among members; and 2. goal achievement, behavior that encourages commitment to goals, initiates activities, develops a plan, gives information, explains issues, and evaluates the quality of the work done. Barnard (1966) addressed himself to the concepts of effectiveness and efficiency. Effectiveness refers to the achievement of the common purpose in cooperation, and it is impersonal in nature. Efficiency refers to the gratification of individual needs, and it is personal in nature. It is maintained that effectiveness and efficiency are two conditions that are responsible for maintaining an organization. Again effectiveness coincides with group achievement and efficiency with group maintenance. 35 Blake and Mouton (1978) also identified two dimensions in their "managerial grid" (see Figure 2.1). These were (a) concerns for production and (b) concern for peeple, and they resemble group achievement and group maintenance, respectively. Based on these dimensions are five different types of leadership located in four quadrants on the managerial grid. HIGH 9 1.9 9.9 8 Concern 7 Country Club Team for 6 1 People 5 5.5 ”._- ~— 4 Middle Road 3 2 Impoverished Task 1 LOW 1.1 9.1 l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LOW Concern for Production HIGH Figure 2.1. Managerial grid (Blake 6: Mouton, 1978). Concern for production is shown on the horizontal axis of the grid: The ninth point on the scale marks the maximum concern for production. A leader whose rating advances on the horizontal scale indicates a tendency to emphasize production. Concern for people is illustrated on the vertical axis. A leader whose rating progresses up the vertical axis shows s/he is more people-oriented. This axis also has a maximum nine-point scale. The five leadership styles on the grid may be explained by the following. 1.1 Impoverished management is shown on the lower left corner of the grid. Here the manager's performance is just enough to keep him/her in the organization. The concern for both production and pe0ple is minimal. 36 1.9 Country club management in the top left corner shows the lowest concern for production and the highest concern for people. 9.1 Authority and obedience (task) is located in the lower right- hand corner and denotes a high regard for production and a low regard for people. People comply through the manager's power and authority to maximize production. 5.5 Middle-of-the-road management is in the center of the grid. A way of balancing enough concern for production with a medium concern for people in the organization. 9.9 Team management appears at the upper right-hand corner of the grid. It denotes a high regard fOr both production and peOple. The approach emphasizes mutual understanding, commitment, and participation of leader and employee. Since it is goal-oriented, success in high quality and quantity of production will be attained when everyone concerned is actively involved in various processes of the organization. (Blake 6: Mouton, 1983, p. 130) The authors state the following, "The 9.9 approach is acknowledged by managers as the soundest way to achieve excellence. This conclusion has been verified from studies throughout the U.S. and around the world" (p.130). Along the same lines, Getzels and Cuba (1957) came up with two dimensions for social behavior. The "nomothetic" dimension concentrates on the activities of the institution, the role, and the role expectations. The duty of members is to perform according to the set rule, and the duty of the leader is to lay down the rules. The idiographic dimension stresses the needs of individuals, personality, and need-disposition. The idea is not to ensure achievement by demanding commitment to defined roles and institution rules, but to allow members to contribute in a way that is meaningful and relevant to them. Once again, the similarity between group achievement (nomothetic) and group maintenance (idiographic) dimensions stand out. Getzels and Cuba apprOpriately explained that 37 . . . the administrative process inevitably deals with the fulfillment of both nomothetic role expectations and idiographic need--dispositions while the goals of a particular social system are being achieved. (p. 430) Brown (1967) obtained standardized school scores of 170 administrators on the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ), using 12 dimensions of leader behavior. After the factor analysis of the 12 subscale distributions, two well-defined factors were evident. These were (a) system-oriented leadership, pertaining to an institutional factor which is "perceived leader behavior that responds to the needs of the school qua system"; and (b) person-oriented leadership, an interpersonal factor defined as "a measure of perceived behavior that responds to the needs of staff members qua persons" (p. 68). The most indepth program of research on leader behavior dimensions was carried out at The Ohio State University in the 19505. Leadership questionnaires were made up of many items, each dealing with a particular aspect of leader behavior. When responses were analyzed, it was evident that certain behavior items were answered in the same manner. Two main dimensions were isolated: (a) initiating structure and (b) consideration. Halpin and Winer (1952) identified these dimensions through air crew studies. "Initiating structure" coincides with group achievement which is task-oriented. It stresses the needs of the organization and spells out leaders’ behavior in relation to outlining, clarifying, and delineating leader-follower relationships; setting up clear organizational structures; and establishing communication channels and procedures for attaining the goals of the organization. "Consideration" describes the behavior of leaders that shows friendship, warmth, respect, and trust in associations with group members (Halpin, 1959). 38 Effective leaders are said to be those who score high on both dimensions of leader behavior. Effectiveness of leader behavior could be measured by a scheme that was created to show the various combinations of the two dimensions (see Figure 2.2). The dimensions of leader behavior are depicted in four quadrants distinguished by numerals. Low Consideration High Consideration High iniiiation High Initiation IV I CONSIDERATION III 11 Low Consideration High Consideration Low Initiation Low Initiation INITIATING STRUCTURE Figure 2.2. Effectiveness of leadership behavior grid (adapted from Halpin, 1966, p. 99). The leader described in quadrant l is considered most effective, while the leader in quadrant III is least effective. The leader in quadrant IV is mostly concerned with accomplishing the tasks of the organization, whereas the one in quadrant II is highly concerned with kindness and the welfare of employees to the neglect of the tasks of the organization. A feature worth noting about the initiating structure and consideration dimensions is that they are two separate and independent dimensions which may range from low to high in any person (Sergiovanni dc Carver, 1980). Leader behavior dimensions of initiating structure and consideration once again show 39 similarity with the previously discussed leadership behavior categories appearing in studies and related literature that came out before and after the Ohio State studies. As Halpin (1966) pulled this discussion of leader behavior dimensions and leader effectiveness together, he aptly explained the following. There is nothing especially novel about these two dimensions of leader behavior. The principles embodied in the concepts of initiating structure and consideration probably have always been used by effective leaders in guiding their behavior with group members, while the concepts themselves, with different labels perhaps, have been invoked frequently by philosophers and social scientists to explain leadership phenomena. Practical men know that the leader must lead--must initiate action and get things done. But because he must accomplish his purposes through other people, and without jeopardizing the intactness or integrity of the group, the skilled executive knows that he also must maintain good "hum an relations" if he is to succeed in furthering the purposes of the group. In short, if a leader . . . is to be successful, he must contribute to both major group objectives of goal achievement and group maintenance. (p. 87) One of the purposes of this study is to find out the leadership orientations of heads of departments in South African black secondary schools. That was done by means of the Leadership Opinion Questionnaire (LOQ) which assesses two dimensions of leader behavior, namely initiating structure and consideration, which match Halpin's (1966) group achievement and group maintenance, respectively. This discussion of leadership dimensions may provide background and shed more light on the examination of the leadership orientations of heads of departments. These leaders work in a school which is a formal organizational unit, and the departments of which they are in charge are organizational subunits. As units of organizations, departments accomplish tasks through their members who perform .a number of functions. According to Benne and Sheats (1948), these functions which involve develOping and maintaining group commitment to work and ensuring accomplishment of goals are mainly member roles. The head of a department as a leader, therefore, has a responsibility to 4O facilitate the performance of tasks and achievements of goals (group achievement) and show a concern for people as well as ensuring the cohesion of the group (group maintenance). Research on Leadership in Education Most studies in education have used either the various forms of the Leadership Behavior Description Questionnaire LBDQ or the Leadership Opinion Questionnaire (LOQ) to examine leader behavior using the dimensions initiating structure and consideration. The LBDQ is designed for the subordinate to describe how a superior behaves, and the LOQ is a self-report measure for the leader himself. The questionnaire asks the leader to indicate how he believes he should behave. Both these instruments have been used in different organizational situations, among them, industry and educational settings. The objectives of Bowman's (1975) study were to determine (a) elementary principals' predominant leadership style; (b) the predominant anticipated, self- identified leadership styles elementary school principals thought they would use in problem situations; (c) differences between elementary principals' self- perceived leadership styles and their anticipated self-perceived leadership styles used in problem situations; and (d) changes in the self-perceived leadership styles of principals in different situations. The LOQ was used to determine principals' self-perceived leadership styles, and the Principal Behavior Checklist (PBC) was used to determine principals' anticipated self—perceived leadership styles in problem situations and to determine likely occurrences of changes in leadership style responding to different situations. Three leadership styles-—democratic, autocratic, and transacti onal—were considered in the study. 41 .The outcomes of the study showed that the predominant self-perceived leadership style of the elementary principal as ascertained by consideration and structure of the LOQ leaned towards a democratic leadership style. The predominant anticipated self-perceived leadership style thought to be used in a problem situation showed to be a transactional leadership which is a balance between democratic and autocratic leadership styles. Data indicated that the leadership style of a principal changed from one problem situation to another, due to the influence of the problem situation on the leadership style. It was found that an elementary principal's self-perceived leadership style, differed from his anticipated self-perceived leadership style used in a problem situation. The LOO was administered to elementary and secondary school teachers by Landy and Landy (1978) to examine the effects of experience and level of grade assignment on teacher cognitive orientation. An analysis of variance test showed significant effects for level of grade assignment (p< .01) and experience (p<.001) on consideration. The grade level X experience interaction was not significant. There was no effect for instructional level, experience on initiating structure, or grade level X experience interaction. According to the authors, the results showed that the dimensions of initiating structure and consideration can be useful in describing the preferences of teachers in dealing with students. They also maintain that based on the results, the construct of leadership is valuable in describing variations in teacher style. Knight (1983) investigated a number of aspects of leadership behavior of higher education department heads. Ratings of department heads were obtained from 5500 faculty members in 458 departments at 65 colleges throughout the United States. The Departmental Evaluation of Chairperson Activities for 42 Development (DECAD) system was used, and the instrument also had 20 items from the LBDQ, Form XII. The fundamental question was, "Do the leadership abilities and behaviors subsumed under the constructs of initiating structure and consideration translate into perceived effectiveness of departmental Chairpersons/heads?" The answer to this was in the affirmative. Department Chairpersons were divided into separate groups of "high," "medium," and "loW" initiating structure and consideration, based on standard deviations from the two group names. The findings indicated that the most effective department Chairpersons were those who had "high" ratings on both initiating structure and consideration, while the least effective had "low" ratings . on both. These results proved to be consistent with the theory that an effective leader should have a high regard for people and their welfare and have a high sense of duty and push for production. Keating (1979) examined the relationship between a secondary school department head's perceived competence in the supervision of instruction and four selected factors: consideration (CON), initiating structure (IS), subject matter expertise (TES), and analytic interactive style (ANA). Two hypotheses were tested: (a) the four independent variables (CON, IS, T135, and ANA) tOgether will explain a significant proportion of variance in the dependent variable, perceived competence in the supervision of instruction; and (b) there will be a significant relationship between the perceived competence of a department head and each of the four independent variables, and each of these variables will contribute significantly to the multiple correlation with perceived competence (p < .05). 43 It was found that the four independent variables combined explained 81.3% of the variance in competence in supervision as perceived by the supervised, hence hypothesis (a) was confirmed. Hypothesis (b) was partly confirmed, as there was a significant relationship between perceived competency and CON, IS, and TES, and these variables did contribute significantly to multiple correlation. ANA was not significant. Rosen (1973) analyzed differences in empathy and opinions of leadership characteristics in terms of (a) school organizational level (elementary, junior high, and senior high school), (b) type of educator (teacher or principal), and (c) gender of educator. The Empathy Scale and LOQ were administered to 144 subjects. Analysis of variance and the Duncan Multiple Range Test were employed. There were significant differences for all main effects. Teachers' empathy was significantly higher at all levels than was principals'. Females scored significantly higher than males at all levels, and there were higher empathy scores that were significant for elementary educators (both teachers and principals) than for junior or senior high school teachers. All main effects showed significant differences for initiating structure scores. There were no significant overall differences between teachers and principals functioning at differing school organizational levels. Scores for males were significantly higher at all levels. Elementary educators' scores were significantly lower than those of junior and senior high school educators. Only school level and gender of educator showed statistical significance for consideration scores. Teachers at all levels scored significantly higher than principals at all levels for consideration. As a group, female teachers and principals scored significantly higher than their male counterparts as a group. 44 Teachers and principals at the elementary level scored significantly higher than their counterparts in senior high school. Capelle (1967) gave the LOO to 50 student leaders and 50 nonleaders. He found that leaders scored significantly higher than nonleaders on both consideration and initiating structure. In another study, Florestano (1971) gave the LOQ to former male college leaders. The initiating structure scale differentiated former college leaders from nonleaders; there was no significant difference on the consideration scale. Along the same line, DeJulio et a1. (1981) administered the LOQ to college leaders and nonleaders of both genders to examine its ability to discriminate leaders from an unchosen group of university students. This would ensure potential use of the LOQ in selecting paraprofessional student counselors. The study also investigated the LOQ performance of female leaders and nonleaders compared to that of males. There were significant differences between leader and nonleader groups for both consideration and structure through the analysis of variance. There was no significant correlation between the consideration and structure scores in leader (r=.01) and nonleader (r: .14) categories. There was no difference in the performance of males and females on the LOQ. Hence it is suitable for use with both sexes. The LOQ proved to be able to identify student leaders from nonleaders. The studies cited above are useful guides in identifying and selecting new leaders. A study by Sumrall (1976) investigated (a) a relationship between the leadership behavior of instructional supervisors and teacher job satisfaction, (b) if a difference existed between the leadership behavior of instructional supervisors as perceived by supervisors and teachers, and (c) existence of 45 differences among school districts from Average Daily Attendance Groups with respect to leadership behavior of supervisors and job satisfaction of leaders. The LOQ was administered to supervisors with the Supervisory Behavior Description (SBD) and Job Description Index (JDI) administered to teachers. On the SBD and LOQ, supervisors were found to be moderately high in consideration and moderately low in initiating structure. Teacher rating of supervisors was higher in consideration and lower in initiating structure, a rating which is different from what the supervisors gave themselves. There was a significant positive relationship between teachers' satisfaction with work, people, and supervision and consideration leader behavior. There was a significant negative relationship between teachers' satisfaction with peeple and supervision and initiating structure. These studies examined different kinds of relationships under various given circumstances. Some of them investigated leader behavior, as measured by initiating structure and consideration and its relationship with variables; for example, teacher job satisfaction, experience, gender, school grade level, etc. Most studies aimed at determining a type of leader behavior (rating according to consideration and initiating structure), leadership style, teacher orientation, and identification of emerging leaders by differentiating leaders from non-leaders. Based on some study results, there is speculation that the leadership dimensions of consideration and structure may be related to outcomes like student performance, achievement, and satisfaction in educational situations due to the prominent role of the teacher in the learning process (Landy 6: Landy, 1978). It should be noted that researchers have realized that leader effectiveness does not simply result from a leader's high ratings on both consideration and initiating structure (Kerr et al., 1974). Studies on initiating structure, 46 consideration, satisfaction and performance show some complicated interrelationships. For example, House, Filley, and Kerr (1971) examined the relationship between initiating structure and consideration and their relation to satisfaction of subordinates. They hypothesized that with low consideration, satisfaction would be negatively related to initiating structure. The result was that mean satisfaction scores increased as structure increased when consideration was high, but there was no definite pattern when consideration was low. Greene (1975) used a sample of 103 first—line managers in three different organizations to collect information. He obtained measures of subordinate performance from colleagues and job satisfaction from subordinates themselves. He obtained data on each of the variables for three consecutive months. As a result, he was able to identify interrelationships among variables. The outcome of the study was that leader consideration was responsible for subordinate satisfaction, but subordinate performance resulted in changes in emphasis on leader consideration or initiating structure. For leaders who were high on consideration, an increased stress on structure led to higher subordinate performance. These findings indicate that relationships between leader and subordinate behaviors are more complicated than was initially believed. Researchers began to question the general nature of the assumptions regarding effects of consideration and initiating structure (Kerr et al., 1974; Landy 6: Trumbo, 1980). There has since been an attempt to examine the conditions under which consideration is related to satisfaction and structure is related to performance. In other words, there has been a discovery of variables that moderates the relationship between leader behavior and organizational outcomes. The Ohio .State studies have been criticized for not accommodating situational variables. 47 Kerr et a1. (1974) have found that those associated with the Ohio State studies have mentioned the importance of situational variables in their writings. From the Ohio State studies, Kerr and associates identified variables that proved to influence the relationship between the independent variables of consideration and initiating structure and the dependent variables of satisfaction, morale, and performance. These moderate variables (or situational elements) were divided into three groups: 1. those associated with subordinates: experience, expertise, competence, knowledge of the job, level of current position, expectations regarding the leader, psychological aspects; 2. those associated with the supervisor: similarity of attitudes to those of higher management, similarity of behavior to those of higher management, and upward influence; and 3. those associated with the task: amount of physical danger, time urgency, rate of autonomy, job scope, allowed error rate, external stress, importance of work, meaningfulness of work, ambiguity. Except for two studies, all the studies discussed above examined different relationships in various situations. They do, however, tie in with the framework used in the present study because they examine leadership on the basis of the two leadership dimensions, initiating structure and consideration. Studies on Leadership Needs Maslow (1954) formulated a hierarchy of needs, and five classes of needs were identified: 1. physiological needs: these are the basic needs such as adequate ' food, water, shelter, sleep, and other physiological comforts. Once these needs are satisfied, a person is no longer preoccupied with them, but concentrates on another set of needs that are unsatisfied; 2. safety needs: these include protection from physical harm, poor health, economic disaster, and unexpected misfortune. In organizations, these fears are evident when members try to ensure job security or move toward greater financial support. Job security is done through tenure or long-term job contracts; 48 3. social needs: these are related to the inherent social nature of pe0ple and their need for companionship and interaction with other people for shared affection, growth, and support. In some instances, these social needs lead employees toward forming close relationships with others in the organization, resulting in an informal group (Wexley 6c Yukl, 1977.); 4. esteem needs: these involve the desire for respect, appreciation, recognition from both others and themselves for their talents and qualities. In an organization, these needs may be satisfied by colleagues, subordinates, and superiors who praise, recognize achievements and make individuals feel they are assets to their organizations (Maslow, 1954; Wexley 6c Yukl, 1977); 5. self-actualization needs: this is the top-most category of needs in the hierarchy. For our purpose this will form a basis for the discussion of the leadership needs of heads of departments who participated in this study. \laslow (1954) defined self-actualization needs as the "desire to become more and more of what one is, to become everything one is capable of becoming" (p. 92). Wexley and Yukl (1977) defined it as ". . . the need to grow and develop psychologically, to find one's identity and realize one’s potential" (p. 77). They explain further, "Self-actualization is a 'growth need' that is never completely satisfied. If a person is successfully fulfilled in one way, that individual will then seek other avenues of self-development and self—expression" (pp. 77-8). These needs depend on the importance of given circumstances, for example, the need to acquire new knowledge and understanding or to promote growth in all areas of living. Unlike the lower levels of needs in the hierarchy which seem to call for a remedy to correct a deficiency or stop the gap in people's lives, self- actualization calls for personal growth. Growth motivated people enjoy self- actualizing activities and tend to look out for more, but deficiency-motivated peOple use their energies to rid themselves of the motives and avoid self- actualizing activities (Seifert, 1983). 49 Hershey and Blanchard (1982) believe competence and achievement are motives that are related to self-actualization. They cite White (1959) who found that the need for competence was shown in adults who usually are eager for job mastery and professional growth. Heads of departments also show the need for professional development and perfection in carrying out their tasks for the good of the school. Studies and related literature show that heads of departments and other school administrators need leadership skills and competencies. The aim of the Instructional Leadership Project funded by the Maryland State Department of Education and the Anne Arundel County Public Schools was to improve instruction and minimize the occurrence .of student disruption by providing for the staff deveIOpment needs of secondary school educators (Sange, 1982). Principals, department Chairpersons, and teachers in Anne Arundel County, Maryland, were surveyed. There were discrepancies in their responses, but the main areas of concern were 1. helping teachers with planning, 2. aiding teachers in using a wide variety of teaching strategies, 3. planning and implementing inservice programs for departments, 4. using leadership and group dynamics skills to facilitate change and smooth operation of a department, and 5. helping teachers in working cooperatively to attain school and departmental goals. These leadership needs guided the project coordinators in developing a three-year program for administrators and other educational leaders. Snyder and Johnson (.1983) surveyed secondary school principals in a number of districts throughout the United States. The goal was to identify their administrative training needs which were divided into the following categories: 50 l. principalship (school leadership planning, organizing, motivating staff, and controlling school activities); 2. school as an ecological system (dealing with community, parents, federal, state); 3. creative problem solving; 4. planning for school growth (planning tasks, organizational analysis, and action planning factors); 5. staff deveIOpment; 6. collaborative long-range planning; and 7. personal awareness (issues associated with self-concept, administrative-style effectiveness, and how these factors influence work performance. The surveyed principals indicated that they needed training in all categories because these areas were regarded as essential to administrative success. The authors state that the study tends to confirm that principals regard instructional leadership activities as essential and see them as necessary elements for their own professional growth. A group. of 679 heads of academic departments in Australian colleges of advanced education was surveyed by Lonsdale and Bardsley (1982). The purpose of the study was to identify the range of administrative tasks carried out by heads of departments and to learn their professional deveIOpment needs. The outcome showed that the most commonly performed tasks were (a) budgeting and financial control, (b) student relations, (c) human relations and personal administration, (d) curriculum and instruction tasks, (e) personal/professional deveIOpment tasks, (f) internal administration tasks, and (g) maintenance of internal/external relationship tasks. The most important professional develOpment needs were (a) academic staff management, (b) planning innovation and evaluation of instructional programs and departmental activities, (c) personal development-—obtaining 51 feedback about department heads' own performance, ((1) using computer services for developmental management, (e) soliciting grant or outside funds for the department, and (f) general management and administrative skills. To meet the professional development needs, it was recommended that groups of colleges situated near one another should think of working'together. They should jointly amass resources to create workshOps or other activities dealing with locally relevant topics and those related to the particular needs of the college and its heads of departments. Jennerich (1981) surveyed 300 departmental chairpersons (of whom 213 responded) in four-year colleges and universities across the United States. This was an attempt to determine what skills department chairpersons regarded as important for performing their duties successfully. A list of 14 competencies was given and chairpersons had to rank them according to their Opinions of importance. The six competencies ranked at the highest levels were (a) character/integrity, (b) leadership ability, (c) interpersonal skills, (d) ability to communicate effectively, (e) decision making ability, and (f) organizational ability. In view of this, it was suggested that a form of administrative/managerial training or some kind of preparation be available to help appointed persons in the transition from faculty members to department chairpersons. Weaver and Gordon (1979) asked 79 secondary department heads to list responsibilities (a) they believed were most important in their positions and (b) they regarded in themselves as most competent in carrying out tasks. This way, according to the authors, it would be possible to identify the areas in which chairpersons have competency needs. Of six general areas of tasks, heads of departments chose "human relations," "educational planning," and "staff management" as most important in 52 their jobs. They selected the same areas as those they were least competent in. The mean difference between importance and competence was also greatest in the same three areas. "Human relations" showed a .38 difference, "educational planning" .26, and "staff management" .31. The other areas were "program management" at .01, "financial management" at .58, and "financial planning" at .07. Inservice experiences based on the identified task areas were suggested for heads of departments. It is evident that a head of department in a school plays a dual role, being both a classroom teacher and an administrator. With the latter role comes a wide range of responsibilities that require leadership. Literature shows that certain leadership skills are required by heads of departments; therefore, inservice education programs are indispensable for these leaders. A number of educators believe that leadership competencies can be learned to enable a leader to satisfy both the formal duties of schools and be attentive to the needs of teachers. Among those who confirm the possibility of acquiring leadership competencies and skills through learning was Sergiovanni (1984) who aptly explained the following. For some people leadership comes easily and naturally. But most peeple in positions of leadership are not born leaders. However, the skills and insights needed by an effective leader can be learned through training and experience. (p. 162) Discussing a curriculum for the preparation of secondary administrators at Southern Connecticut State College, Davis (1974) stated the following. Borrowing heavily from the behavioral sciences, our program was designed on the premise that effective leadership can be developed through education and training, that potential leaders can be taught to be democratic rather than autocratic in style. (p. 30) Jennerich (1981) summed up by declaring, . . . the author contends that some form of administrative/managerial training or preparation is necessary to aid the individual in the transition from faculty member to a department chairman. Not only would this aid the chairperson but also the department and the school or college of which he or she is a part. (p. 58) This discussion of the needs of leaders in education provides a background for another of the purposes of this study, a description of the leadership needs of heads of departments in selected black secondary schools in South Africa. Research on Urban-Rural Differences According to sociologists, there is a difference in the behavior of people residing in urban areas and that of people in rural areas. It is maintained that the structural differentiation has an influence on a person's cognitive process. Subsequently, through the mediating influence of cognition, different social structures promote predictable forms of behavior (Fisher, 1972). Urbanization is characterized by population size increase and density of settlement, all of which lead to social diversification of the people (heterogeneity). These three components help to explain the occurrence of structural differentiation, development of formal relationships and institutions, and anomilies associated with urban existence. For the individual, an urban setting is thought to produce high levels of nervous stimulation, psychological overload, and social isolation (Wirth, 1938). Comparing "rural" and "urban" to classifications "Gemeinschaft" and "Gesellschaft" means that a gradual movement from the former to the latter implies that as the environment becomes more differentiated, it, in turn, promotes personality differentiation. The differentiated environment together with the diversified interests of urban dwellers cause these people to move 54 through a wide range of roles with much more ease and regularity than the rural dweller (Miller 6c Crader, 1979). Wirth (1938) suggested that the movement from rural to urban environments results in one's experiencing a corresponding drOp in the importance of kinship, neighborhood, and informal relationships. The formal relationship structure associated with impersonality of an urban environment results in dwellers being socially isolated. Research in rural-urban comparison of leaders and leadership orientation is absent, but the following studies dealing with people in various occupations may illustrate the existence of differences in behavior, interests, and values among rural and urban residents. The impact of urban and rural residence on two dimensions of community satisfactory (economic and interpersonal) was examined by Miller and Crader (1979). It was found that a relationship existed between residence and these dimensions. Rural dwellers had the highest levels of interpersonal satisfaction, and urban individuals were inclined to have the lowest. The satisfaction of those dwellers from the urban-rural mix areas came between the two extremes. Economically, urban peOple were inclined to be more satisfied and rural dwellers were least economically satisfied. Rural-urban mix area people also fell between the two extremes. Controls for personal characteristics were applied; hence, the relationship was maintained. The outcomes of this study indicated the existence of the urban-rural difference in terms of two dimensions of community satisfaction, namely economic and interpersonal dimensions. School board members and superintendents in Illinois were surveyed by Everett and Sloan (1983). The survey was to determine the status of board member training and to compare the current status with earlier information. 55 Attention was paid to the level of training, concepts, and whether changes have really taken place. The study also investigated how small and rural schools were developing in the field of school board orientation and training. Respondents were divided into 47% urban/suburban and 5 % rural school districts. Results of the study indicated that 56% of the urban/suburban schools had an organized and systematic orientation and training program for newly appointed school board members. In rural school districts, fewer than half of the schools had programs for new board members, about 44%. There were no differences between the urban/suburban and rural districts regarding the existence of board policy requiring orientation of new board members and ongoing training programs. It was indicated that in both types of school districts, board members received orientation and training before election. Again, the majority of both urban/suburban and rural districts claim that board members received orientation and experiences after their first school board meeting. Conferences with superintendents provide the method most used by both districts to promote these learning experiences. The majority (57%) of both groups indicated that overall effectiveness and relevance of orientation and training should be emphasized. Except for differences in the provision of organized and systematic orientation and training programs for new board members, there were no other differences between urban/suburban and rural school districts in the responses of school board members and superintendents. DeLong (1984) compared the career orientations of rural and urban educators. The Career Orientation Inventory was administered to 377 urban teachers in the Salt Lake City area and to 153 rural educators in eastern-central Utah. There were strong similarities in the career orientations of both urban and rural educators. Both types of educators belonged to two separate groups-~one 56 that values managerial activities, autonomy, and variety, and the other that was more security and technically-oriented. Regoli and Poole (1980) conducted a study to test the theory that claims that role conflict hinders law enforcement agencies from operating effectively and that professionalization of the police may minimize role conflict. The police are expected to perform three important roles, namely "guardian-of—society," "peacekeeper," and "public servant" (p. 241). These and other increased demands placed on the police create role conflict, a situation that professionalization of the police occupation would reduce. Self-administered questionnaires were given to respondents in six law enforcement agencies to provide basic sociodemographic information. Three of the agencies were in rural locations, and the other three were part of the SMSA and, hence, were in urban locations. Professionalism was measured by a scale with the following dimensions: (a) use of a professional organization as a major referrent, (b) belief in public service, (c) belief in autonomy, (d) belief in self- regulation, and (e) sense of calling to the field. The results of the study supported the claim that a professional approach to the occupation reduces role conflict among the police. Both rural and urban police departments' showed the "belief in self-regulation" dimension. "Belief in public service" was shown to reduce conflict among police in rural police departments but not in urban ones. The authors explained that police in rural communities, areas usually small in size, have fewer occasions where they have to enforce the law. To them, their work accommodates community service functions; therefore, they are able to c0pe with role conflict situations. \leither "sense of calling to the field" or "belief in autonomy" showed significant relations to role conflict in rural police departments, but had strong effects on urban police agencies. Again, the authors explained that these 57 professionalism dimensions are not of major concern to rural police. There are fewer‘and less serious crimes in rural locations, and these police are more integrated into the community; consequently, they are better acquainted with local citizens and have greater informality and rapport. They are first regarded as community members and second as law enforcement officers. On the other hand, an urban police officer has fewer ties with local citizens and seldom identifies with his/her work assignment area. These conditions, together with heterogeneity of urban locations, tightly structured, formal, complex, and specialized police departments, all result in "autonomy" and "sense of calling to the field," creating role conflict for urban police officers. It is evident from these studies that the outcome did not always show a difference between urban and rural locations. Some significant similarities have been identified, an indication that urban and rural residents do share some beliefs and human needs. These are the kinds of findings that exist in the current literature, but it is not clear that these findings have any real bearing on the purpose of the current study or on the conditions that exist in the Transvaal where the study was conducted. Relevance of This Literature to the Purposes The discussion of urban-rural differences is related to one of the purposes of this study: to examine the relationship between leadership orientations of heads of departments and the location of schools (urban and non-urban, as discussed in Chapter II) in which they work. Different lifestyles, values, interests, and beliefs of the people in these two environments may be reflected in the leadership orientations of heads of departments who participated in this study. 58 Summary Effectiveness in leadership is what most persons concerned with organizational processes want to develop and maintain. Various explanations of leader effectiveness all emphasize a leader's need for the ability to foster subordinates' dedication to the goals of the organization. To achieve this, subordinates should be convinced that the activities of the organization are personally relevant and rewarding. An organization is made up of peeple whose activities and loyalty determine its success. Requirements for leadership are an understanding of and provision for two organizational features, one that concerns the growth and stability of the organization, and the other that concerns the welfare of members of the organization. Members of an organization need guidelines and structure for the attainment of goals; at the same time, their human nature demands that they be treated with warmth and respect. These two organizational features are important in leadership. To be effective, a leader has to strike a balance between promoting a sense of order for the achievement of goals and attending to personal needs of the members to maintain their enthusiasm while they carry out their tasks. The "task orientation" and "relations orientation" dimensions of leadership have been a recurring theme in literature, appearing under different labels. Some of these are concern for production and concern for people (Blake 6: Mouton, 1978), goal achievement and group maintenance (Cartwright 65 Zander, 1968), system orientation and person orientation (Brown, 1967), and others. Research on leadership in education examined leader behavior and its relationship to factors such as teacher experience, grade level assignment, and gender. There were expected and preferred leader orientations associated with 59 certain situational variables. There was also an attempt to distinguish between leaders and nonleaders in order to identify emerging leaders. In all these studies except two, the Leader Opinion Questionnaire (LOQ) was used; and it ascertains leadership by rating a leader on two dimensions, initiating structure and consideration. For both newly appointed leaders and leaders who have held the positions for some time, it is imperative that they learn and improve their leadership skills. Literature indicates that most educational leaders have identified the areas in which they are most incompetent; consequently, inservice education experiences have been suggested to improve and maintain leaders' knowledge and skills. The existence of rural-urban locations implies that there is a difference in behavior between rural and urban residents. The outcome of the studies reviewed did not indicate a difference in social orientations and behavioral characteristics in all cases, but they showed similarities in needs, interests, beliefs, and values. The methods and procedures used to conduct the present study are described in Chapter III. CHAPTER III DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Introduction Procedures used to address the exploratory research questions set out in Chapter I are outlined in the present chapter. The following tOpics are discussed: (a) description of the target population, (b) sampling procedures, (c) instrumentation, (d) pilot testing, (e) distribution and data collection, (f1 treatment and analysis of collected data, and (g) limitations of the methodology. Target Population This study is focused on heads of departments in South African black secondary schools located in the so—called "white areas" of that country. The so- called "homelands" are not involved in this study. The areas studied (which are referred to as "black townships") are divided into seven school regions, each headed by a regional director. Every region is, in turn, divided into a number of circuits (districts), with each having a chief inspector (positions recently term ed "deputy director") and two or three assistant inspectors. An inspector's role is to provide professional leadership to teachers and principals and to conduct performance appraisals. They are directly connected with the head office. Respondents for this study were selected from only one of the seven regions: Northern Transvaal Region which is divided into 10 circuits. Statistics from the Department of Education and Training (1985) show that the Northern Transvaal Region has 58 secondary schools, 256 heads of departments, 1261 teachers, and 48 inspectors, of whom 28 are inspectors of 60 61 schools, 10 are inspectors of education, and 10 are inspectors of psychological services. Table 3.1 shows the distribution of the target population according to their 10 circuits, the secondary schools they serve, and the teachers with whom they work . Table 3.1 Northern Transvaal Region Schools and Target Population Heads of Inspectors Circuits Schools Depts. Teachers A B _C_I Krugersdorp A. B. Phokompe 4 23 2 1 l Kagiso 6 28 Kgothalang 4 17 Mosupatsela 3 27 Phahama 6 27 Lichtenburg Bethel 4 30 3 1 l Ipelegeng 3 12 Moutse Dithamaga l 5 2 l l Kgagatlou 2 3 Kgothala 18 Mabake 3 11 Mahlakodishe l 2 Mohlabetsi 4 20 Mohlam me 4 l3 Pezunga 2 4 Refilwe 4 15 St. Joseph's 2 10 Thejane 2 10 Tlhakanang 3 10 Pietersburg Malebo 4 l6 3 l l Marumofase 4 12 Mathipa Makgatho l 3 Musina 3 13 Rivubye 2 8 Tshiawelo 2 8 V. P. Manthata 5 32 Vuxeni 2 7 Potchefstroom- Borakanelo 4 21 3 1 1 South Gatela Pele 4 13 Kanana 6 21 Matlosane 8 35 62 Table 3.1, continued Heads of Inspectors Circuits Schools Depts. Teachers A B e Potchefstroom- Badirile 5 20 3 1 1 North Wedela (5.5) 6 45 Mphe-Bana 2 6 Tlokwe 3 44 Pretoria East Izikhulu 7 27 3 l l J. Kekana 8 29 Jafta Mahlangu 6 22 Lehlabile 7 30 Mamelodi 5 44 Rethabile 9 24 Ribane-Laka 7 34 Tsako Thaba 8 31 Vlakfontein 8 54 Pretoria West David Helen Peta 4 27 3 l 1 Dr. W. F. Nkomo 4 35 Flavius Vlareka 6 30 Hofmeyr 4 29 Saulridge 6 27 Saulsville 29 Pretoria North Bothlabelo 4 12 3 l 1 Hlanganani 7 34 Lethabong 6 36 Mabogopedi 2 5 Soshanguwe 7 34 Wallmansthal 6 32 Central 6 31 Warm baths Bela-Bela 5 l6 3 1 1 KEY TO INSPECTORS: A : inspector of schools: overseas schools B = inspector of education: overseas education C = inspector of psychological services: overseas psychological sciences (Department of Education and Training, 1985) Setting The study was undertaken in black secondary schools located in the so- called "white areas" of the Northern Transvaal Region in the Republic of South 63 Africa. In addition to the homelands, these are areas where blacks are allowed to live in South Africa. Most "white areas" are near cities where blacks can rent or lease housing accommodations to be near their jobs. Some of these areas are urban while others, especially those away from cities, are non-urban in character. To classify the black residential localities in which surveyed schools were situated as either urban or non-urban, Davies' (1967, 1968) model of the "South African urban hierarchy" was modified and used. The main criterion used in classification was based on the central functions found in these places (Davies, 1967). The central functions are categorized as variates (functions of which more than one unit may be present in a place) and attributes (functions of which just a single unit may be available in a place). The variate and attribute index functions used in this study are similar to those used by Davies (1968) and, according to him, they are similar to those which are found in more complex, higher order centers. Since these functions differ in their order of importance, a weighted score value on a scale ranging from 1 to 20 was assigned to each function, and the sum of the weighted scores determined the centrality index of a place (Davies, 1967). The classification into urban and non-urban areas is based on this index rather than pepulation. The following is a list of the attribute and variate functions: Attribute Functions Variate Functions Black Administration Board Motor Garage General Dealer Stores Butcher Post Office Technical School Train Service Secondary School Bus Service Primary School Adult Education Center General Practitioner Clinic Cinema Church Hospital Hotel 64 The functions were categorized as administrative, commerce and business, education, social services, and transportation/communication (see Appendix B). To give an idea of the proximity of places to the nearest city or town, Appendix B also gives distances in miles. Due to the lack of availability of fully authenticated information on functions in black townships, estimates 'were used in this study. Table 3.2 presents a classification according to the total weighted scores which shows degree of complexity of the functions present in black townships. It also summarizes the information contained in Appendix B. Figure 3.1 is a map of South Africa showing the four provinces, namely Transvaal, Orange Free State, Natal, and Cape provinces. Figure 3.2 shows the Transvaal and places where the school circuits used in this study are located. Table 3.2 Black Township Classified According to Complexity of Functions Present Sum of Nearest City Weighted Scores or Town Major Urban Township Atteridgeville-Saulsville 125 Pretoria Soshaguwe 121 Pretoria Mamelodi 117 Pretoria Matlosane . 117 Klerksdorp Medium Urban Township Tlokwe 101 Potchefstroom Kagiso 92 Randfontein .Vl ohlakeng . 72 Krugersdorp Rural Service Center Townships Bela-Bela 56 Warm baths lnderm aak 47 Pietersburg Vivo 47 Pietersburg Steilloop 47 Pietersburg Moutse . 46 Groblersdaal Swasreineke 46 Lichtenburg 65 cameo ce_ec_ \ \ —cucz a cesmum.~ Eogu \ ‘0 4r —mm>m:m.:. A_mm_ .wzgmz Loo :e> umuameov mu.gu< suzom Co as: macaw. amen emcego .J ._.m mgamva >15 3. / fl :0 v :emoo umuee_b< muew>oca mneu I. . ”1"“, 8n 0: 8. a 0 0n / \ . x / “(i/)6 .L It _ jr 66 Ammo. .cce__:a EoLC kuaeumv mu:_>oea .em>m:ech .~.m menu“; mczammecceoa mczamgmam_a mxozpmgmezm . Amexeo acoemxcm_x soocumamzomoa :_mu=ouu=em acocmcmmzcx menacmuzuzo. m maeoumea m sausage: z muouosoddx \Lx cm: 2: 2:2 on mm 9 mm ~\v ”Odd—._.— -lhll>. p up n q p o - a i 83...: 2: 2 on 2 o 2 ooo.ooo.e n. m_eum 67 Major urban townships and medium urban townships have more functions than rural service center townships which also do not qualify as rural areas. As explained in the Department of International Economic and Social Affairs Population Studies (1980), "Their functions are fewer than those of the major cities, but more numerous than those of typical villages where the predominant dedication is agriculture" (p. 4). In this study, major and medium urban townships are referred to as "urban" and rural service center townships are referred to as "non-urban" because they are neither urban nor rural in nature. Sampling Procedures A cross-sectional survey method was used. The aim was to describe leadership needs of heads of departments; ascertain their leadership orientations; and determine the relationship between those orientations and their leadership needs, teaching experience, academic and professional qualifications, and locations of schools (urban or non-urban) at a single time point. The cross- sectional method was suitable for the time limits within which the research was to be conducted. A stratified random sampling design was employed. In this sampling design, district assignment was chosen as a stratifying variable because there are schools situated in urban areas and in non-urban areas. It was the researcher's speculation that living in these different environments (districts) may result in differences in heads of departments' leadership orientations and leadership needs. Other variables that could be related to leadership orientation such as race and gender were not chosen for the following reasons. Rage was not chosen as a stratifying variable because schools in this study are all black secondary schools. Except for technical or vocational schools where there are some white teachers, two or three secondary schools combined 68 may have about six white heads of departments. All other heads of departments in the whole Northern Transvaal Region are black. That results in the population's being homogeneous in terms of race. Gender was not considered as a stratifying variable because there are few female heads of departments. If gender were to be included as a stratum in the sampling design, there would not have been an adequate proportion of female heads of departments. A total of 34 schools were selected from 58 secondary schools in the Northern Transvaal Region, of which 21 (60%) were selected from 35 schools located in urban environments and 13 (57%) were selected from 23 schools located in non-urban environments. A total of 180 heads of departments were given questionnaires to fill out, and 161 returned them. Of the 161 respondents, 119 (74%) were in urban-located schools, and 42 (26%) in non-urban-located schools. Instrumentation Data were collected by means of three questionnaires. The first sought information on the length of time respondents had served as teachers and their academic and professional qualifications. To ascertain heads of departments' leadership orientations, the Leadership Opinion Questionnaire (LOQ) by Fleishman (1969) was used. The questionnaire requires heads of departments to give their opinions on how a leader should behave. Very slight modifications have been made to items to replace words like "units" and "persons" with "departments" and "teachers," respectively. The questionnaire items tap intentions rather than actual behavior as observed by others, and there is an assumption that intentions are part of habitual patterns (Landy (‘C Landy, 1973). 69 The Leadership Opinion Questionnaire has two dimensions which are defined as follows: Consideration (C) reflects the extent to which an individual is likely to have a job relationship with subordinates characterized by mutual trust, respect for their ideas, consideration for their feelings, and a certain warmth between the individual and them. A high score is indicative of a climate of good rapport and two-way communication. A low score indicates the individual is likely to be more impersonal in relations with group members. Structure (5) reflects the extent to which an individual is likely to define and structure his or her own role and those of subordinates toward goal attainment. A high score on this dimension characterizes individuals who play a very active role in directing group activities through planning, communicating information, scheduling, criticizing, trying out new ideas, and so forth. A low score characterizes individuals who are likely to be relatively inactive in giving direction in these ways. (Fleishman, 1969, p. 1) The LOQ provides a means of measuring those two types of leader behavior. In this study, it was used to ascertain whether the leadership orientations of heads of departments were high or low on initiating structure or high or low on consideration. These two dimensions have been found to be independent of one another and "can be plotted on two separate axes, rather than a single continuum" (Hersey 6c Blanchard, 1933, p. 143). A head of department who is structure—oriented tends to set objectives for the department, divising formal plans, prescribing students' disciplinary measures, and rigidly defining teacher responsibilities and activities in the department. A consideration-oriented head of department is inclined to build and maintain a close working relationship with teachers, encouraging participation in decision making and designing tasks to suit individual tasks (Biggs et al., 1966). Halpin (1966), one of the original members of The Ohio State University staff who identified the two leader dimensions, maintained that "effective or desirable leader behavior is characterized by high scores on both initiating 70 structure and consideration. Conversely, ineffective or undesirable leadership behavior is marked by low scores on both dimensions" (p. 118). This implies, therefore, that for heads of departments to be good leaders, they must facilitate efforts both to accomplish school tasks (group achievement) and to offer an open and friendly working atmosphere in the department (group maintenance). Interpretation of the LOQ Since initiating structure and consideration behaviors are two separate dimensions, they may range from low to high in any person. The behavior of a leader could be described as any combination of both dimensions, namely, 1. high initiating structure/high consideration, 2. low initiating structure/high consideration, 3. high initiating structure/low consideration, and 4. low initiating structure/low consideration. Scores of the 161 respondents on the LOQ were calculated and averaged separately by each dimension of the LOO. Average scores on initiating structure and consideration were used as index scores. The LOO scores of respondents were compared to the index scores to determine the inclination of their leadership behavior. Based on the combinations of the two leadership dimensions given above, respondents who scored above the mean on both initiating structure and consideration were placed in section one. Those who scored below the mean on initiating structure and above the mean on consideration were in section two. Those who scored above the mean on initiating structure and below the mean on consideration were in section three. Those scoring low on both initiating structure and consideration were placed in section four. Attached to the LOQ was the third questionnaire which had 20 items and was used to elicit responses regarding heads of departments' perceptions of their 71 inservice education needs on issues and skills related to leadership. The terms "task-oriented" and "relations-oriented" were used in connection with this instrument. Ten of the 20 items reflected task-oriented leadership issues, and the other 10 reflected relations-oriented ones in order to coincide with the conceptual framework "group achievement" and "group maintenance," respectively. According to Sergiovanni and Elliot (1975) task-oriented leadership refers to "the extent to which the leader seems to show concern for, focuses on, or seems oriented toward getting work done or accomplishing tasks" and relations-oriented leadership refers to "the extent to which he seems to show concern for, focuses on, or seems oriented toward the needs or feelings of people and his relationships with them" (p. 101). The questionnaire was put together by the researcher after reviewing the literature. Essentially, the items were pulled from Sergiovanni (1984), Jennerich (1981), and only a couple from Lonsdale et a1. (1981). These items were combined and modified to suit the nature of the study in terms of the South African situation and to suit secondary school heads of departments. Categories such as human relations, staff management, educational planning, general administration, and curriculum and instruction were reflected in the 20 items. Items were randomly placed on the questionnaire. The following are task- oriented items: 2. inspiring and guiding others in teaching to meet the department's goals, 4. employing procedures for clarifying roles and for planning activities, 6. organizing the functions of the department effectively to achieve the objectives of the school, 7. establishing adequate control of the students, 10. resolving conflict between the welfare of the teachers and the upkeep (smooth running) of the school, 72 12. planning staff meetings, 13. chairing staff meetings, 14. promoting commitment to grOUp decisions, 16. applying decision making models, and 19. guiding the staff in instructional planning by using the adapted curricula. The relations-oriented items are the following: 1. recognizing the needs and aspirations of each staff member; 3. inspiring and guiding others in teaching to meet the department's goals; - 5. promoting good relationships and facilitating team work; 8. providing necessary disciplinary rules with help and COOperation of teachers, parents, and students; 9. resolving conflict situations with students, parents, and teachers; 11. supervising clinically (i.e., using observation data, various planning, and inservice experiences) to improve teacher behavior; 15. using models that identify conditions important to the building of self-actualization in the staff; 17. developing rational approaches to problem-solving processes with the participation of teachers; 18. adapting curricula to meet the needs of students; and 20. assisting a teacher in forming individual professional growth plans which aim at changing classroom practices. The means of the responses were interpreted as follows: 1 - 1. most needed 1.51 - 2.5 strong need 2.51 - 3.5 modest need 3.51 - 4.0 least needed An open-ended question was asked at the end of the questionnaire in order to find out, in greater anecdotal detail, the personal and professional needs of heads of departments. 73 Validity and Reliability For this questionnaire, face validity was SOUght by consulting with two experts on education in the Department of Educational Administration, one expert in curriculum and instruction, and one expert in educational research methods with special emphasis on development of questionnaires. This questionnaire has a Cronbach reliability of .82, and it was pilot tested among African students enrolled at Michigan State University. Interpretation of the Leadership Inservice Needs Questionnaire Responses to each competency need statement were tabulated in rank order according to means and standard deviations to show the relative perceived importance of selected skill areas. Answers to the open-ended question were classified into five categories: (a) educational planning skills, (b) curriculum and instruction, (c) personnel/professional deveIOpment, (d) team building and human relations, and (e) student relations and associated administrative tasks. Responses were arranged in a frequency table. Interview Data Fifteen heads of departments were randomly selected from the already- selected sample and were interviewed. Each interview focused on how heads of departments behave as leaders, what is expected of them, what the unique nature of their schools were, and some critical incidents with which they had to deal. Their responses were also classified into five categories: (a) staff management, (b) human relations and team work, (c) student motivation and discipline, (d) student grievances, and (e) limited resources. A frequency table of the responses was also constructed. 74 Development of the LOQ The initiating structure and consideration dimensions were first evident in the study that Halpin and \Viner conducted among air force crews in 1952. The instrument. used in that study was an adapted form of the Leader Behavior I‘escription Questionnaire (LBDQ) which was first developed by the Personnel Research Board at the Ohio State University under the direction of Hemphill (1950). The original LBDQ measured 10 dimensions of leader behavior, namely, initiation, representation, fraternization, organization, domination, rec0gnition, product emphasis, integration, communication down, and communication up. The questionnaire had 150 items measuring each of the 10 dimensions with 15 items (Fleishman, 1973). At the same time that Halpin and \Viner were working on their air force project in 1951, Fleishman (1973) modified the LBDQ for industrial supervisors at International Harvester. The modified questionnaire deveIOped into a Leadership Opinion Questionnaire (LOQ) which maintained the dimensions of initiation of structure and consideration. According to Fleishman (1957), an initial 110 item leadership Opinion questionnaire was given to a sample of 100 foremen, representing 17 different International Harvester company plants. Initially there were nine dimensions of leader behavior which were reduced to four factor-analytic dimensions. These were consideration, initiating structure, production emphasis, and social sensitivity. Of these, consideration and structure were the most important, as shown by the split-half reliability estimates of these major dimensions: consideration and structure were .69 and .73, respectively, which production emphasis and social sensitivity were .36 and .33, respectively. The LOQ was revised and criteria for choosing items for the revised questionnaire involved (a) the response distribution of the 1.00 gathered in the 75 pretest, and (b) the "factor loadings based on this industrial sample, of parallel items on the supervisory behavior description" (Fleishman, 1957, p. 121).. Twenty items were chosen in this way for the consideration category, and 20 for the initiating structure. The important feature of the questionnaire, according to the author (Fleishman, 1969), is that these two dimensions are independent of each other; and under many conditions, the correlations between scores for consideration and structure are close to zero. This is the result of a factor-analysis background of the questionnaire which uncovered the two patterns as independent. It is, in addition, a function of careful item analysis and selection. The estimated reliability of the LOQ, by split-half method for four groups, varies between .79 and .88 for initiating structure scores and .62 and .89 for consideration scores (Doppelt, 1965). Validity was assessed by correlating the LOQ scales with independent leadership measures such as peer ratings, merit rating by superiors, and performance reports by management. Certain significant validities have been obtained in some cases, and there has been a need fOr validation against more industrial criteria (Fleishman, 1957). Pilot Test The questionnaires were pilot tested among 10 African graduate students enrolled at Michigan State University. Of these, four were from South Africa, three from Nigeria, two from Ghana, and one from Botswana. Seven of the 10 were enrolled in the College of Education, one in the English Department, and two in the business school. All participants had taught school before. The reason for choosing respondents from Nigeria, Ghana, and Botswana is that all these countries follow a British system of education which, to some 76 extent, shares similarities with the one in South Africa because all these countries were once under British rule. The aims of the pilot study were to 1. estimate the average time it would take to respond to the questionnaire, 2. invite comments as to the clarity of the questionnaire items, and 3. identify items that may not be in concert with the South African style of educational control and supervision and, hence, may be misunderstood. Results of the Pilot Test First questionnaire (for descriptive data): Item (1): a category was added ("d) 15 or more years") Item (3): "B.Ed." was added to the category "Honor's degree." Second questionnaire (LOQ): For the purposes of clarity, certain words and phrases were replaced on items 8, 26, 32. Third questionnaire (leadership service needs): A phrase was added to item 10 to facilitate understanding. An open-ended item was added to give respondents an opportunity to express their inservice needs. The average time for responding to items on all three questionnaires was 28 minutes. The questionnaires were further pilot tested in South Africa among a sample of 15 heads of departments from the target population and were found to be suitable. Distribution and Data Collection Permission was sought and granted to conduct research in secondary schools falling under the Department of Education and Training in August- 77 September, 1985 (see Appendices C 6c D). The researcher travelled to all sampled schools and personally administered the questionnaires to selected heads of departments. Those who could not be available on a set date had the questionnaires mailed to them or given to their inspectors for distribution, and they were later mailed back to the researcher. The questionnaires were clipped tOgether and were accompanied by a letter of transmittal (see Appendix E) which I. explained the purpose of the research, 2. urged participants to respond to all items as truthfully and accurately as possible, and 3. assured respondents of their anonymity. Instructions were given to respondents as to how to answer, and examples were given for the descriptive questionnaire and the inservice needs questionnaires. Treatment and Analysis of Data. The data collected were entered using a batch entry terminal at the Michigan State University Computer Center, and the data analysis was done using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) Frequency, percentage, mean, and standard deviation were used to describe the leadership needs and orientations of respondents. The study sought to uncover relationships, if any existed. According to HoPkins and Glass (1978), "Correlation coefficients allow us to compare the strength and direction of association between different pairs of variables" (p.112). In addition to describing the needs and orientations of respondents, the purpose of the study was also to uncover and examine the relationships between leadership orientations and leadership needs of respondents. Since the Pearson's correlation coefficient is applied when variables are "expressed as continuous scores" (Borg 6: Call, 1979, p. l#88), it was used to examine those relationships. .78 T-tests were used to examine the differences in leadership needs between heads of departments with different leadership orientations. T-tests were also used to examine the differences between heads of departments regarding their teaching experience, academic and professional qualifications, experiences in curriculum evaluation, urban or non-urban locations of schools, and their leadership orientations. This technique seemed to be appropriate because a t- test is applied to find out if two means, pr0portions, or correlation coefficients differ significantly from each other (Borg or Call, 1979). Limitation Associated with the Methodology The three questionnaires used in this study have not been used in the South African education situation. Only the LOQ has been used in the South African mining industry in 1974. This study is focused on black heads of departments in the Northern Transvaal Region; therefore, the findings cannot be generalized to all black heads of departments in the country. Summary The procedures used to answer the exploratory questions asked in this study are outlined in this chapter. The pOpulation focused on was heads of departments in black secondary schools located in the Northern Transvaal Region of South Africa. A sample from the population was obtained through a stratified random sampling method, with district assignment chosen as a stratifying variable. Three questionnaires were used for the collection of data. One was designed to collect descriptive data, the second sought Opinions on the ideal leadership orientations of heads of departments, and the third sought information on the inservice education needs of heads of departments in some leadership competencies and skills. The questionnaires were pilot tested among African 79 students enrolled at Michigan State University and later through distribution to a selected sample in South Africa. Chapter IV deals with the treatment and analysis of data. CHAPTER IV TREATMENT AND ANALYSIS OF DATA The procedures and methodology used in this study were discussed in Chapter III. The purposes of the study were to describe the perceived leadership inservice needs of heads of departments in selected South African black secondary schools; to determine their leadership orientations and the relationship between leadership orientations, and perceived leadership needs of these emerging leaders; to determine whether or not their leadership orientations are related to their teaching experience, qualifications, curriculum evaluation experience, and location of schools (urban or non-urban); and to compare the leadership orientations of these leaders with their leadership needs. The following exploratory research questions are pursued in this chapter. 1. What are the perceived leadership needs of heads of departments in selected South African black secondary schools? 2. What are the leadership orientations of these heads of de partm ents? 3. Is there any significant relationship between initiating structure and consideration and/or between task-oriented and relations- oriented needs? 4. Do heads of departments with more teaching experience show higher or lower initiating structure/consideration than those with little experience? 5. Do heads of departments with a high level of academic qualification show higher or lower initiating structure/consideration than those with a low level of academic qualification? 30 10. ll. 81 Do heads of departments with a high level Of professional qualification show a higher or lower level of initiating structure/consideration than those with a low level of professional qualification” Do heads of departments who had curriculum evaluation experience show higher or lower initiating structure/consideration than those who had no curriculum evaluation experience? DO heads of departments who work in schools located in urban areas show higher or lower initiating structure/consideration than those who work in non-urban areas? Are the perceived leadership needs of heads Of departments significantly related to their leadership orientations as assessed by initiating structure and consideration? What are the Opinions of heads Of departments regarding their personal and professional needs? What are the actual experiences of heads Of departments as leaders? The following are the null hypotheses to be tested. l. i.\) There is no significant relationship between initiating structure and consideration or between task-oriented and relations- oriented needs. There is no significant difference regarding initiating structure/consideration between heads of departments with more teaching experience than those with less teaching experience. There is no significant difference in terms Of initiating structure/consideration between heads Of departments with higher levels Of academic qualifications than those with lower levels Of academic qualifications. There is no significant difference in terms Of initiating structure/consideration between heads Of departments with higher levels Of professional qualifications than those with lower levels Of professional qualifications. There is no significant difference in terms of initiating structure/consideration between heads Of departments with curriculum evaluation experience than those with no curriculum evaluation experience. There is no significant difference in terms Of initiating structure/consideration between heads of departments who work in schools located in urban areas than those who work in schools located in non-urban areas. 7. The perceived leadership needs of heads of departments are not significantly related to their leadership orientations, as assessed by initiating structure and consideration. Description Of Sample Information used in this study was Obtained from heads Of departments in selected black secondary schools in South Africa. These schools are in the Northern Transvaal Region which is divided into 10 circuits (school districts). Of the 265 heads Of departments in the Northern Transvaal Region, 180 were selected to respond to the distributed questionnaire, and 161 responded to the questionnaires and returned them. There is a total Of 58 secondary schools in the Northern Transvaal Region, and heads of departments who responded to the questionnaire were selected from 34 Of these schools, 21 Of which were located in urban environments and 13 located in non-urban areas. Of the 161 respondents, 119 (74%) were in urban- located schools, and 42 (2 %) were in non-urban-located schools. The first questionnaire required respondents (heads Of departments) to give information regarding their teaching experience, academic and professional qualifications, and curriculum evaluation experience. Teaching experience was assessed by the number of years each head Of department had been teaching. Forty-five (28%) of those surveyed had been teaching between zero and four years. Those falling in the category five-nine years of teaching experience numbered 66 (41%). Those in the category 10-14 years Of teaching were 27 in number (16.8%), and 23 (14.3%) were in the 15 or more years category. These results are depicted in Table 4.1. 83 Table 4.1 Teaching Experience Number Of Years _l\l Percentage 0-4 45 28.0 5-9 66 41.0 10-14 27 16.8 15 or more 23 14.3 TOTALS: 161 100.0 Academic qualifications of heads Of departments surveyed in this study ranged from junior certificate to honor's degree. These qualifications do not include being trained as teachers. Of the 161 heads of departments who participated in the study, 68.3% had matric certificates, 23.6% had Bachelors' degrees, 2.5% had honors' degrees, .6% completed the first year toward Bachelors' degrees, 1.9% completed two years towards Bachelors' degrees in arts or commerce, .6% had six university courses to their credit, 1. % completed eight or nine courses towards Bachelors' degrees, .6% had three Bachelors' degree courses, and .6% had junior certificates. Table 4.2 indicates the results Of the academic qualifications Of heads Of departments. Table 4.2 Academic Qualifications 84 Categories Junior certificate Matric Bachelor's degree Honors' degree/B.Ed. B.A. I B.A. II/B.Com. 11 Three university courses Six university courses Eight-nine university courses l2 110 38 Percentage .6 . 68.3 23.6 2.5 1.9 A teacher receives a professional teachers' completion Of the required teacher education programs. diploma after successful Results show that ,36.9% Of heads Of departments had Higher Primary Teachers' Diplomas, 40.1% had Junior Secondary Teachers' Diplomas, 10.2% had Secondary Teachers' Diplomas, 12.1% had University Education Diplomas, and .6% had "other" diplomas. Table 4.3 indicates the results in percentages. Table 4.3 Professional Qualifications Categories Higher Primary Teachers' Diploma Junior Secondary Teachers' Diploma Secondary Teachers' Diploma University Education D iplom a Other Percentage 36.9 40.1 10.2 12.1 .6 85 Of the 161 heads Of departments who participated in the study, 57.7% had some experience in curriculum evaluation, and 42.3% had no experience in curriculum evaluation. Table 4.4 Curriculum Evaluation Experience Categories N Percentages Had some experience 90 57.7 Had no experience 66 42.3 Important Leadership Needs as Perceived by Heads of Departments Perceived leader competency needs are measured by means of responses to the needs' questionnaire. Respondents were asked to rate their responses on a four-point scale on which one indicated "most needed," two "strong need," three "modest need," and four indicated "least needed." Responses to each ° competency statement by heads Of departments were tabulated in rank order according to means and standard deviations to show the importance Of selected skill areas. The lower means indicated strong needs while higher means indicated weak needs. The results are shown in Table 4.5. Relati ons—O ri ented N eeds None Of the relations-oriented needs were perceived as "most needed," "modest need," or "least needed." The results shown in Table 4.5 indicated that heads of departments perceived all Of the relations-oriented needs as "strong needs." The relations-oriented needs for the "strong need" category had the following priorities from "strongly needed" tO "less strongly needed": (a) 86 promoting gOOd relationships and facilitating team work, (b) providing necessary disciplinary rules with help; (c) providing ongoing orientation programs for new teachers; (d‘ resolving conflict situations with students, parents, and teachers; (e) adapting curricula tO meet the needs of students; (f) recognizing the needs and aspirations of each staff member; (g) developing rational apprOaches to problem-solving processes with the participation of teachers; (h) assisting a teacher in forming individual professional growth plans which aim at changing classroom practices; (1) supervising clinically (i.e., using Observation data, various planning, and inservice experiences) to improve teacher behavior; and (j) using models that identify conditions important to the building Of self- actualization in the staff. The means in Tables 4.5 and 4.6 correspond tO the scale of the inservice needs questionnaire: 1 : high mean, 4 = low mean. Table 4.5 Means and Standard Deviations of Relations—Oriented needs Scale 1 - 1.5 Most needed 1.51 - 2.5 Strong need 2.51 - 3.5 Modest need 3.51 - 4 0 Least need Relations-Oriented Needs StrongNeeds 5 Mean S.D. 1. Promoting good relationships and facilitating _ team work. 161 1.58 .79 2. Providing necessary disciplinary rules with help and cooperation Of teachers, parents, and students. 161 1.60 .81 3. Providing ongoing orientation programs fO new teachers. ' 161 1.74 .83 87 Table 4.5, continued 4. Resolving conflict situations with students, parents, and teachers. 161 1.78 .90 5. Adapting curricula to meet the needs of students. 161 1.89 .88 6. Recognizing the needs and aspirations Of each staff member. 161 1.91 1.01 7. Developing rational approaches tO problem- solving processes with the participation Of teachers. 161 1.74 .87 8. Assisting a teacher in forming individual professional growth plans which aim at changing classroom practices. 161 2.00 .89 9. Supervising clinically (i.e., using Observation data, various planning, and inservice experiences) to improve teacher behavior. 161 2.07 .89 10. Using models that identify conditions important to the building of self- actualization in the staff. 161 2.10 .91 TOTALS: 161 1.86 .49 Table 4.6 presents the priority of task-oriented needs as perceived by the heads of departments responding to this survey. 88 Table 4.6 Means and Standard Deviations Of Task-Oriented Needs Task-Oriented Needs Most Needed 2 Mean S.D. 1. Inspiring and guiding others in teaching , to meet the department's goals. 161 1.48 .70 Strong Need 1. Organizing the functions Of the department effectively to achieve the Objectives Of the school. 161 1.55 .76 2. Guiding the staff in instructional planning by using the adapted curricula. 161 1.77 .74 3. Resolving conflict between the welfare Of teachers and the Upkeep (smooth running.) Of the school. 161 1.78 .87 4. Establishing adequate control Of students. 161 1.83 .89 5. Employing procedures for clarifying roles and for planning activities. 161 1.91 .84 6. Applying decision-making models. 161 2.36 .92 Modest Need 1. Promoting commitment to group decisions. 161 2.52 .92 2. Chairing staff meetings. 161 2.56 1.01 3. Planning staff meetings. 161 2.61 .96 TOTALS: 161 2.04 .48 The results shown in Table 4.6 indicated that no task-oriented needs were perceived as "least needed." However, one of the needs, "to inspire and guide others in teaching to meet the department's goals," was perceived as "most needed." Respondents perceived six Of the task-oriented needs as "strong need": (a) organizing the function Of the department effectively to achieve the 89 Objectives of the school, (b) guiding the staff in instructional planning by using the adapted curricula, (c) resolving conflict between the welfare “of teachers and the upkeep (smooth running) of the school, (d) establishing adequate control of students, (e) employing procedures for clarifying roles and for planning activities, and (f) applying decision-making models. The following were perceived as "modest needs": (a) promoting commitment to group decisions, (b) chairing staff meetings, and (c) planning staff meetings.- In summary, the overall relations-oriented need (mean Of 1.86) was greater than the task-oriented need (mean of 2.04). Leadership Orientation The leadership orientations Of heads of departments were ascertained by means of two dimensions of the LOQ: (a) initiating structure and (b) consideration. Table 4.7 shows means and standard deviations regarding the initiating structure and consideration Of heads of departments. Table 4.7 Means and Standard Deviations for Initiating Structure and Consideration Orientation 2 Mean S.D. Initiating structure 161 1.96 .36 Consideration 161 2.30 .41 Table 4.8 shows the number Of respondents who scored below (low score) and above (high score) the mean on initiating structure and those who scored below and above the mean on consideration. 90 Table 4.8 Number Of Respondents Classified as Having Low and High Scores on Initiating Structure and Consideration Orientation Low High Total Initiating structure 87 74 n=16l Consideration 79 82 n=16l The classifications Of respondents in terms of initiating structure, consideration, and their combinations are shown in Tables 4.9 and 4.10. Table 4.9 Classification Of Respondents in Terms Of Initiating Structure and Consideration CONSIDERATION Low Hig Total High 20 54 n=74 INITIATING , Low 59 28 n=87 STRUCTURE Total 79 82 n=16l Table 4.10 Combinations Of Initiating Structure and Consideration Of the Respondents Classification 2 % 1. High consideration/high initiating structure 54 33.54 2. High consideration/low initiating structure 28 17.40 3. Low consideration/high initiating structure 20 12.42 4. Low consideration/low initiating structure 59 36.64 TOTALS: 161 100.00 91 The following explains the classifications depicted in Table 4.10. l. Leaders who perform high on consideration and initiating structure show effective leader behavior. They emphasize work and productivity, promote good human relations, and stimulate members towards greater efforts. 2. Those who score high on consideration and low on initiating structure are ineffective because they minimize the importance Of efficiency and productivity. 3. Those who score low on consideration and high on initiating structure are ineffective leaders for they emphasize work, efficiency, and productivity at the expense Of the general welfare Of the members Of their organization. 4. Those who score low on consideration and initiating structure show a lack of concern for tasks to be performed and a lack of concern for the welfare Of the organization's members. Therefore, they are the most ineffective leaders and can hardly be called leaders at all. According to the classifications of consideration and structure, the effectiveness Of leadership could be classified into three categories: (a) effective leadership for-high scores on both structure and consideration, (b) less effective leadership for either high score on structure and low score on consideration or low score on structure and high score on consideration, and (c) least effective leadership for low scores on both structure and consideration. According to this leadership classification, the results shown in Table 4.9 indicated that 54 heads of departments (3 96) were most effective leaders, 48 (30%) were less effective leaders, and 59 (36%) were least effective leaders. Relationship Between Leadership Orientations (Initiating Structure and Consideration) and Leadership Needs (Task—Oriented and Relations-Oriented) Pearson correlation coefficients and correlational tests were used tO examine the relationship between leadership orientations and needs. The coefficients and p—values are shown in Table 4.11. 92 Table 4.11 Correlation Coefficients and P-values for the Relationship Between Leadership Orientations and Needs Initiating Task-Oriented Structure Consideration Needs Initiating structure 1.000 Consideration .57 (.001***) 1.000 Task-oriented need - .23 (.002**) - .17 (.015*) 1.000 People-oriented need - .18 (.013*) - .17 (.018*) .78 (.001***) * significant at'x ‘5 .05 ** significant at~<' ii .01 *** significant at7< ,4, .001 Sample size for each coefficient = 161 Note: Negative correlations in this table are a function Of scoring procedures, e.g., a high rating of a task-oriented need received a low score. As shown in Table 4.11, there were linear relationships between leadership orientations and needs. The positive correlation between initiating structure and consideration indicated that the higher the initiating structure orientation of a leader, the higher would be his/her consideration orientation (similarly, lower scores would correlate with one another). Similar interpretation applies to the relationship between task- and relations-oriented needs: the stronger the perception for task-oriented needs, the stronger would be the perception for relations-oriented needs. It follows, then, that with the relationship between leadership orientations and needs, the higher the initiating structure/consideration orientation, the stronger would be the need for task- /relations-oriented needs. 93 Relationship Between Leadership Orientations Of Heads of Departments and Their Teaching Experience TO determine whether or not the leadership orientations of heads of departments are related to teaching experience, qualifications, and location of schools, t-tests were used to examine the differences in initiating structure and consideration orientations according to the above independent variables. The results failed to indicate that significant differences appear in the initiating structures and consideration orientations in the leadership Of heads of departments according tO their teaching experience. Table 4.12 presents the results Of the t-tests. Table 4.12 Results Of T-tests on Initiating Structure and Consideration Orientations According to Teaching Experience Experience I} Mean S.D. T-value p Initiating Structure 10 or more years 50 1.95 .34 - .63 .53 0 - 9 years 111 1.99 .40 Consideration 10 or more years 50 2.31 .41 .28 .78 0 - 9 years 111 2.29 .41 Relationship Between Leadership Orientations Of Heads of Departments and Their Academic Qualifications Table 4.13 presents the results of t-tests on structure and consideration orientations according to academic qualifications. The results failed to indicate that there were differences in the leadership of heads of departments according tO their academic qualifications. 94 Table 4.13 Results Of T-tests on Initiating Structure and Consideration Orientations According to Academic Qualifications Academic Qualifications Level [1 Mean S.D. T-value p Initiating Structure Graduates High 42 1.89 .31 - 1.51 .13 Non-graduates Low 119 1.99 .37. Consideration Graduates High 42 2.32 .45 .35 .73 Non-graduates Low 119 2.29 .39 Relationship Between Leadership Orientations Of Heads of Departments and Their Professional Qualifications Table 4.14 presents the results Of t-tests on initiating structure and consideration orientations according to professional qualifications. The results failed to indicate that there were differences in initiating structure and consideration orientations in the leadership of heads Of departments according to their professional qualifications. Table 4.14 Results Of T-tests on Differences Between Leaders Regarding Professional Qualifications with Respect to Their Leader Orientations Professional Qualifications Level 2 Mean S.D. T-value p Initiating Structure Secondary teacher and university diploma High 35 1.91 .25 - 1.02 .309 Higher primary and junior secondary diploma Low 121 1.98 .37 Consideration Secondary teacher and university diploma High 35 2.33 .37 .53 .59 Higher primary and junior secondary diploma Low 121 2.29 .39 95 Relationship Between Leadership Orientations of Heads of Departments and Their Curriculum Evaluation Experience T-tests were used to examine the differences in initiating structure and consideration orientations between teachers who had experience and those who had nO experience in curriculum evaluation. The results indicated that heads Of departments who had experience in curriculum evaluation were significantly higher on structure (pi .001). There was no indication Of significance in the difference between those with experience and those with no experience in curriculum evaluation on consideration (see Table 4.15). Table 4.15 Results of T-tests on Initiating Structure and Consideration Orientation According to Curriculum Evaluation Curriculum Evaluation 3 Mean S.D. T-value p Initiating Structure Experience 90 2.04 .38 3.27 .001*** NO-experience 66 1.86 .29 Consideration Experience 90 2.3.1 .45 .59 .56 NO experience 66 2.28 .35 *** Significant at Y i .001 Relationship Between Leadership Orientations of Heads Of Departments and Locations of Schools Table 4.16 presents the results Of t-tests on structure and consideration orientations according to locations Of schools (urban and non-urban). The results failed to indicate that there were differences in the initiating structure and consideration orientations in the leadership Of heads Of departments according to locations Of schools (urban and non-urban). 96 Table 4.16 Results Of T-tests on Differences Between Leaders in Urban and Non-Urban Schools with Respect to Their Leadership Orientations Location of Schools 31 Mean S.D. T-value p Initiating Structure Urban 119 1.93 .36 - 1.73 .085 Non-urban 42 2.04 .34 Consideration Urban 119 2.32 .43 - 1.08 .28 Non-urban 42 2.24 .35 Differences in Leadership Needs Between Heads of Departments with Different Leadership Orientations T-tests were used to examine if there were differences in needs between heads of departments with different leadership orientations. Needs were categorized into task-oriented needs and relations-oriented needs, while leadership orientations were categorized into high/low initiating structure and high/low consideration. The tests were carried out on each of the specific needs and also on overall needs. Table 4.17 displays the results of the t-tests on specific task—oriented needs and also on overall relations-needs according to consideration leadership orientation. The results indicated that five of the specific needs and the overall need were perceived as different between high- and low-consideration leaders. 97 Table 4.17 Results of T-tests on the Differences Between Low and High Consideration Leaders with Respect tO Their Relations-Orientation Needs lO. Relations-Oriented Need T-value Recognizing the needs and aspirations Of each staff member. 2.61 Providing ongoing orientation programs for new teachers. 2.03 Promoting gOOd relationships and facilitating team work. 0.17 Providing necessary disciplinary rules with help and cooperation Of teachers, parents, and students. 0.47 Resolving conflict situations with students, parents, and teachers. -0.15 Supervising clinically (i.e., using observation data, various planning, and inservice experiences) to improve teacher behavior. 0.82 Using models that identify conditions impor- tant to the building Of self-actualization in the staff. 2.13 Developing rational approaches to problem- solving processes with the participation Of teachers. 0.80 Adapting curricula to meet the needs Of students. 2.52 Assisting a teacher in performing individual professional growth plans which aim at changing classroom practices. 2.51 TOTALS: 2.59 * ** *** significant at°< significant atc>< ‘ .05 (two-tailed test) significant ato< .01 (two-tailed test) .001 (two-tailed test) 1AM! .010** .044* .861 .641 .883 .416 .035* .424 .013* .013* .011* 98 The subgroup means shown in Table 4.18 indicated that high-consideration leaders perceived stronger needs in the overall relations-oriented need and also in all the five specific needs: (a) recognizing the needs and aspirations of each member, (b) providing ongoing orientation programs for new teachers, (c) using models that identify conditions important to the building Of self-actualization in the staff, ((1) adapting curricula to meet the needs Of students, and (e) assisting teachers in forming individual professional growth plans which aim at changing classroom practices. Table 4.18 Subgroup Means of Relations-Oriented Needs for Low and High Consideration Leaders (p S .10) Relations-Oriented Need Consideration 3 Mean S.D. p 1. Recognizing the needs and aspirations of high 82 1.71 .94 .010** each member. low 79 2.11 1.05 2. Providing ongoing orien- tation programs for high 82 1.61 .78 .044* new teachers. low 79 1.87 .87 3. Using models that identify conditions important to the building of self-actualiza- high 82 1.95 .92 .035* tion in the staff. low 79 2.25 .88 4. Adapting curricula to meet high 82 1.72 .85 .013* the needs Of students. low 79 2.10 .88 5. Assisting teachers in form- ing individual professional growth plans which aim at changing classroom high 82 1.83 .81 .013* practices. low 79 2.18 .96 TOTALS: high 82 1.76 .45 .011* low 79 1.96 .50 * significant at D< 5 .05 (two-tailed test) ** significant at «=1 f .01 (two-tailed test) *** significant ator f .001 (two-tailed test) 99 Table 4.19 Results Of T-tests on the Differences Between Low and High Consideration Leaders with Respect to Their Task-Orientation Needs T ask-Orientation Needs Inspiring and guiding others in teaching how to meet the department's goals. 2. Employing procedures for clarifying roles and for planning activities. 3. Organizing the functions of the department effectively to achieve the Objectives Of the school. 4. Establishing adequate control Of students. 5. Resolving conflict between the welfare of teachers and the upkeep (smooth running) Of the school. 6. Planning staff meetings 7. Chairing staff meetings. 8. Promoting commitment to group decisions. 9. Applying decision-making models. 10. Guiding the staff in instructional planning by using the adapted curricula. TOTALS: ** significant at°< fi .01 T-value .39 1.67 1.32 .13 .97 1.54 1.69 2.66 1.86 .698 .096 .189 .896 .810 .335 .126 .092 .009** .065 The subgroup means shown in Table 4.20 indicated that high consideration leaders erceived stron need in one task-oriented need namel " uidin the P g 9 Y 8 8 staff in instructional planning by using the adapted curricula." 100 Table 4.20 Subgroup Means Of Task-Oriented Needs for Low and High Consideration Leaders (p f: .10) Task-Oriented Need Consideration 2 Mean S.D. p l. Employing procedures for clarifying roles and for planning high 82 1.80 .85 .096 activities. low 79 2.03 .82 2. Promoting commitment high 82 2.40 .97 .092 tO group decisions. low 79 2.65 .85 3. Guiding the staff in instructional planning by using the adapted high 82 1.62 .66 .009** curricula. low 79 1.92 .78 TOTALS: high 82 1.97 .48 .065 low 79 2.11 .48 ** Significant at or i .01. Table 4.21 Results Of T-tests on the Differences Between Low and High Initiating Structure Leaders with Respect to Their Relations-Orientation Needs Relations-O rientati on Needs T-value p 1. Recognizing the needs and aspirations Of each staff member. .64 .520 2. Providing an ongoing orientation program for new teachers. 1.08 .281 3. Promoting good relationships and facilitating team work. 1.25 .214 4. Providing necessary disciplinary rules with help and cooperation of teachers, parents, and students. .11 .909 5. Resolving conflict situations with students, parents, and teachers. 1.40 .162 6. Supervising clinically (i.e., using Observation data, various planning, and inservice experiences) to improve teacher behavior. .90 .370 101 Table 4.21, continued Relations-Orientation Needs 7. Using models that identify conditions important to the building of self- actualization in the staff. 8. Developing rational approaches tO problem-solving processes with the participation of teachers. 9. Adapting curricula to meet the needs Of students. 10. Assisting a teacher in forming individual professional growth plans which aim at changing classroom practices. TOTALS (Overall Relations-Oriented Need): ** significant at°< S .01 T-value .52 1.39 3.08 1.79 .647 .603 .166 .002** .076 The subgroup means shown in Table 4.22 indicated that the high initiating structure leaders perceived stronger need in one specific need, "assisting a teacher in forming individual professional growth plans which aim at changing classroom practices ." Table 4.22 Subgroup Means Of Relations-Oriented Needs for Low and High Initiating Structure Leaders (p f .10) Initiating Relations-Oriented Need Structure 2 Assisting a teacher in forming forming individual professional growth plans which aim at high 82 changing classroom practices. low 79 TOTALS: high 82 low 79 **Significant at °< f. .01. Mean S.D. .77 .76 2.19 95 1.76 .45 1.96 .50 .002** .076 overall 102 Table 4.23 Results of T-tests on the Differences Between Low and High Initiating Structure Leaders with Respect tO Their Task-Orientation Needs Task-Orientation Needs Inspiring and guiding others in teaching to meet the departm ent's goals. 2. Employing procedures for clarifying roles and for planning activities. 3. Organizing the functions Of the department effectively to achieve the objectives Of the school. 4. Establishing adequate control Of students. 5. Resolving conflict between the welfare of teachers and the upkeep (smooth running) of schools. 6. Planning staff meetings. 7. Chairing staff meetings. 8. Promoting commitment to group decisions. 9. Applying decision—making models. 10. Guiding the staff in instructional planning by using the adapted-curricula. TOTALS: *- significant at at E .05 T-val ue 1.79 .08 .81 .91 .99 .83 .84 .97 .46 1‘0 .40 1.70 .076 .935 .416 .364 .325 .409 .403 .334 .649 .018* .091 The subgroup means shown in Table 4.24 indicated that high initiating structure leaders perceived stronger need in one task-oriented need, namely guiding the staff in instructional planning by using the adapted curricula. 103 Table 4.24 Subgroup Means of Task-Oriented Needs for Low and High Initiating Structure Leaders (p f .10) Task-Oriented Need Structure _n_ Mean _S_._D_. p 1. Inspiring and guiding others in teaching to meet the department's goals. high 82 2.54 .93 .076 low 79 2.68 .99 2. Guiding the staff in instructional planning by using the adapted curricula. high 82 1.62 .66 .018* low 79 1.92 .78 TOTALS: - high 82 1.97 .48 .065 low 79 2.11 .68 *Significant at°< f .05 Opinions of Heads of Departments Regarding Their Personal and Professional Needs To find out Opinions of heads Of departments in their personal and professional needs, an Open-ended item was administered to respondents ("Please list other leadership functions wherein you feel heads Of departments need skills or competencies").. The needed skills and competencies were classified into five functions: (a) educational planning skills, (b) curriculum and instruction, (c) personnel/professional development, (d) team building and human relations, and (e) student relations and associated administrative tasks. The responses and frequencies are given in Table 4.25. 104 Table 4.25 Responses and Frequencies of Needed Skills and Competencies Of Heads Of De partm en ts Frequency Educational Planning Skills Ability to conduct meetings 2 Ability tO plan and prioritize 2 Ability to budget for a department and manage finances 2 Guidance in making decisions 1 Ability to divide time properly between administrative work and teaching Methods to evaluate teachers' work Curriculum and Instruction Motivation of students Identifying students' learning problems Guiding teachers in team teaching Vocational guidance of pupils o—y—ot—N Personnel/Professional DeveIOpment Identify teachers who lack enthusiasm and motivate them towards greater effort 3 Improve professional qualification 3 Develop and maintain exemplary behavior 3 Improve academic qualifications to meet technical demands in the profession 2 Guiding heads Of departments in COping with changes in education 1 Developing negotiating skills Team Building and Human Relations Heads Of departments and teachers in similar departments from different schools meet frequently tO discuss problems and issues regarding their subjects 4 Promoting and maintaining good relations between teachers and parents 2 Ability to communicate with superiors and subordinates 1 Student Relations and Associated Administrative Tasks Developing positive attitudes toward students 1 Dealing with the sociO-political role Of students 1 The results show that, according tO the frequency of responses, the following needed skills and competencies are listed according to their order Of importance: (3) encouraging heads of departments and teachers in similar departments from different schools tO meet frequently to discuss problems and 105 issues regarding their subjects, (b) identifying teachers who lack enthusiasm and motivating them towards greater effort, (c) improving professional qualifications, (d) developing and maintaining exemplary behavior, (e) having the ability to conduct meetings, (f) having the ability to plan and prioritize, (3) having the ability to budget for a department and manage finances, (h) motivating students, (1) improving academic qualifications to meet technical demands in the profession, (j) promoting and maintaining good relations between teachers and parents, (k) having guidance in making decisions, (1) having the ability to divide time properly between administrative work and teaching, (m) using methods to evaluate teachers' work, (n) identifying students' learning problems, (0) guiding teachers in team-teaching, (p) vocationally guiding pupils, (q) guiding heads Of departments in coping with changes in education, (r) developing negotiating skills, (5) having the ability to communicate with superiors and subordinates, (t) developing positive attitudes towards students, and (u) dealing with the sociO-political roles Of students. Actual Experience Of Heads Of Departments as Leaders A number Of heads Of departments were interviewed tO find out their experiences as leaders, i.e., their relationships with superiors and subordinates, critical incidents they had to deal with, the nature Of their schools, and what is expected Of them. These experiences were classified into five categories: (a) staff management, (b) human relations and team work, (c) student motivation and discipline, (d) student grievances, and (e) limited resources. The responses and frequencies are given in Table 4.26. 106 Table 4.26 Responses and Frequencies of Heads Of Departments’ Experiences Freggency Staff M ana gem ent Insubordination of teachers, especially in schools where there are more female heads Of departments; the general complaint was insubordination from male teachers 2 Certain teachers are good at and only interested in sports and not in classroom teaching 2 There is a shortage Of qualified teachers 2 Teachers regard a head Of department as a push-over 1 Hum an Relations and Team Work There is a poor relation between the principal and teachers 2 Lack Of communication between the principal and heads Of departments 2 Heads Of departments and teachers belong to a math committee in one part Of a school district, and they help one another as regards methods and strategies Of teaching the subject 1 Student Motivation and Discipline Department Of education is insensitive tO the problems faced by teachers in dealing with student discipline, and it expects miracles from teachers 2 Parents are not involved in the discipline Of kids at home, hence the school carries the burden alone 2 Students are not motivated 1 Student Grievances Incidents where students did not want tO be taught by a certain teacher 3 Limited Resources Lack of school facilities which lead tO congestion 2 The results indicate that, according to the frequency Of responses, the following actual experiences of heads of departments as leaders are listed according to their order of importance: (a) there are cases when students did not want to be taught by a certain teacher; (b) there is a general insubordination Of teachers. In a school where they have more female heads of departments, the complaint was Of insubordination by male teachers; (c) some teachers are found to be good at and only interested in sports and not classroom teaching; (d) there 107 is a shortage of qualified teachers; (e) there is a poor relationship between principals and teachers; (f) there is a lack Of communication between principals and heads of departments; (g) parents are not involved in the discipline Of kids at home, hence the school carries the burden alone; (h) the department Of education is insensitive to the problems faced by teachers in dealing with student discipline, and it expects miracles from teachers; (1) there is a lack of good facilities which leads to congestion; (j) teachers regard heads Of departments as pushovers. A frequently cited example is the reluctance Of most teachers to ask the principal's permission for time Off to attend to personal matters. They prefer to ask permission Of the department head while the principal is away on an errand or at a meeting, and they expect the department head to grant the permission; (k) heads Of departments and teachers belong tO math committees in one part Of a school district and they help one another regarding methods and strategies Of teaching the subject; and (1) students are not motivated. Summary In this chapter, a number Of procedures were used to answer the 11 exploratory research questions posed at the beginning of the chapter. Descriptive data were dealt with by means Of percentages. Means and standard deviations facilitated the tabulation in ranking order of the competency need statements. The mean scores of respondents on initiating structure and consideration were used as index scores with which the LOQ scores of respondents were compared to ascertain respondents' leadership orientations. The relationship between leadership orientation (measured by initiating structure and consideration) and leadership competency needs (which are classified as task-oriented and relations-oriented) was examined by means Of Pearson correlation coefficients. T-tests were used to examine the differences in 108 initiating structures and consideration orientations of heads Of departments and their teaching experiences, qualifications, and locations of schools. T-tests were also used to examine whether or not there were differences in needs between heads of departments with different leadership orientations. Responses to Open- ended questions on the leadership needs questionnaire and interview data were arranged in a frequency table. The final summary of findings, conclusions, and recommendations will be presented in Chapter V. CHAPTER v SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS The main features Of the research study, and conclusions and recommendations will be presented in this chapter. The purpose Of this study was to describe perceived leadership needs of heads of departments, as emerging leaders, to ascertain the leader orientations Of these emerging leaders; to determine whether or not the leadership orientations of these heads Of departments is related to teaching experiences, qualifications, and locations Of schools; to compare the described leadership orientations of these emerging leaders with their leadership needs; and to examine the relationship between initiating structure and consideration orientations. POpulation The target pOpulation Of this study consisted Of heads Of departments in black secondary schools of the Northern Transvaal Region in the Republic of South Africa. The region has 10 circuits (school districts). According to 1985 statistics, the Northern Transvaal Region has 58 secondary schools, with 256 heads of departments and 1261 teachers. Sample In all, there were 161 respondents in this study, Of whom 119 (74%) were in urban-located schools and 42 (26%) were in non-urban-located schools. The teaching experience of heads of departments was described in terms Of the number Of years an individual worked as a teacher. For 0-9 years’ teaching 109 110' experience, there were 111 respondents (69%), and for 10 or more years there were 50 (3 %) respondents. Qualifications Of respondents included academic and professional qualifications. Academic qualifications were divided into graduate and non-graduate categories. Of the 161 respondents in the sample, 42 (26%) were graduates and 119 (74%) were non-graduates. Professional qualifications were divided into (a) Secondary Teacher Diploma (University Education Diploma) and (b) Higher Primary Teacher Diploma (Junior Secondary Diploma). In the first category, there were 35 respondents (22%); in the second category were 121 respondents (78%). Ninety heads of departments (58%) had curriculum evaluation experience, and 66 (42%) had none. Instrument Information for the study was collected by means of three questionnaires. The first questionnaire was designed tO chart descriptive data regarding the numbers Of years heads of departments spent in the teaching field and their levels Of qualification. The second questionnaire asked for information that would help in ascertaining the leadership orientations of respondents, that is whether or not they were structure- (task) or consideration- (people) oriented. The third questionnaire was to elicit responses regarding respondents’ perceptions Of their inservice education needs. Statistical Methods Used to Analyze Data Frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations were used to describe the leadership needs and orientations of respondents. T-tests were used to examine the differences in needs between heads of departments with different leadership orientations. Leadership orientations were categorized as high/low initiating structure and high/low consideration. Leadership needs were also divided into relations-oriented and task—oriented needs. lll Findings This study revealed the following findings which will be discussed according to each research question. Research Question #1. What are the perceived leadership needs Of heads of departments in selected South African black secondary schools? Respondents perceived the overall relations-oriented need as greater than the overall task-oriented need. As for specific needs, all 10 selected relations- oriented needs were perceived as ”strong needs” by respondents. These were (a) promoting good relationships and facilitating team work; (b) providing necessary disciplinary rules with help and cooperation Of teachers, parents, and students; (c) providing ongoing orientation programs for new teachers; (d) resolving conflict situations with students, parents, and teachers; (e) adapting curricula to meet the needs of students; (f) recognizing the needs and aspirations of each Staff member; (g) developing rational approaches to problem-solving processes with the participation Of teachers; (h) assisting a teacher in forming individual professional growth plans which aim at changing classroom practices; (i) supervising clinically (i.e., using Observation data, various planning, and inservice experiences) to improve teacher behavior; and (j) using models that identify conditions important to the building Of self-actualization in the staff. Research Question #2. What are the leadership orientations of these heads Of departm en ts? Results indicated that 54 (34%) Of heads of departments scored high on both initiating structure and consideration and were regarded as most effective leaders. Forty-eight (30%) were less effective leaders because they either scored high on structure and low on consideration or low on structure and high on consideration. Fifty-nine (36%) scored low on both initiating structure and consideration and were regarded as least effective leaders. 112 Research Question #3. Is there any relationship between initiating structure and consideration and between task-oriented and relations- oriented needs? The positive correlation between structure and consideration indicated that the higher the structure orientation Of leaders, the higher would be their consideration orientation. Similar interpretation applies tO the relationship between task- and relations-orientation needs; the stronger the need for task- oriented needs, the stronger would be the need for relations-oriented needs. AS for the relationship between leadership orientations and needs, the higher the structure/consideration orientation, the stronger would be the need for task- /relations-oriented needs. Research Question #4. DO heads Of departments with more teaching experience show higher or lower initiating structure/consideration than those with little teaching experience? The study failed to indicate any differences in the initiating structure and consideration orientations of heads Of departments according tO their teaching experience. Research Question #5. DO heads of departments with high levels of academic qualifications show higher or lower initiating structures/consideration than those with low levels of academic qualification? The study failed to indicate any differences in the initiating structure and consideration orientations in the leadership Of heads Of departments according to their academic qualifications. Research Question #6. DO heads of departments with high levels of professional qualifications show higher or lower levels of initiating structure/consideration than those with low levels Of professional qualifications? 113 The study failed to indicate any differences in the initiating structure and consideration orientations in the leadership Of heads Of departments according to their professional qualifications. Research Question #7. DO heads Of departments who had curriculum evaluation experience show higher or lower initiating structures/ consideration than those who had no curriculum evaluation experience? The study indicated a significant relationship between initiating structure and experience in curriculum evaluation experience. Heads Of departments who had curriculum evaluation experience scored high on initiating structure. There were no differences found between those with experience and those with no experience in curriculum evaluation or consideration. Research Question #8. DO heads of departments who work in schools located in urban areas Show higher or lower initiating structures/consideration than those who work in schools located in non-urban areas? NO significant differences appear in the initiating structures and consideration in the leadership Of heads Of department according to locations Of schools (urban or non-urban) where they worked. Research @estion #9. Are the perceived overall and specific leadership needs Of heads Of departments significantly related to their leadership orientations as expressed by initiating structures and consideration? The high consideration leaders perceived stronger need in overall relations- oriented need and also in five specific needs: (a) recognizing the needs and aspirations Of each member, (b) providing ongoing orientation programs for new teachers, (c) using models that identify conditions important to the building of self—actualization in the staff, ((1) adapting curricula to meet the needs of students, and (e) assisting teachers in forming individual professional growth plans which aim at changing classroom practices. 114 These same high consideration leaders perceived strong needs in one task- oriented need, namely ”guiding the staff in instructional planning by using the adapted curricula." The high initiating structure leaders perceived stronger need in one specific relations-oriented need, "assisting a teacher in forming individual professional growth plans which aim at changing classroom practices." These same leaders perceived stronger need in one task-oriented need: "guiding the staff in instructional planning by using the adapted curricula." Research Question #10. What are the Opinions Of heads Of departments regarding their personal and professional needs? According to the frequency of responses, the following needed skills and competencies are listed according to their order of importance: (a) encouraging heads Of departments and teachers in similar departments from different schools to meet frequently to discuss problems and issues regarding their subjects, (b) identifying teachers who lack enthusiasm and motivating them towards greater effort, (c) improving professional qualifications, (d) develOping and maintaining exemplary behavior, (e) having the ability to conduct meetings, (f) having the ability to plan and prioritize, (3) having the ability to budgetfor a department and manage finances, (h) motivating students, (1) improving academic qualifications tO meet technical demands in the profession, (j) promoting and maintaining good relations between teachers and parents, (k) having guidance in making decisions, (1) having the ability to divide time properly between administrative work and teaching, (m) using methods to evaluate teachers’ work, (n) identifying students’ learning problems, (0) guiding teachers in team-teaching, (p) vocationally guiding pupils, (q) guiding heads of departments in coping with changes in education, (r) developing negotiating skills, (5) having the ability tO 115 Research Question #11. What are the actual experiences of heads Of departments as leaders? According to the frequency Of responses, the following actual experiences Of heads Of departments as leaders are listed according tO their order Of importance. 1. There are cases when students did not want to be taught by a certain teacher. 2. There is a general insubordination Of teachers. In a school where they have more female heads of departments, the complaint was Of insubordination by male teachers. 3. Some teachers are found to be good at and only interested in Sports and not classroom teaching. 4. There is a shortage Of qualified teachers. 5. There is a poor relationship between principals and teachers. 6. There is a lack of communication between principals and heads Of departments. 7. Parents are not involved in the discipline Of kids at home, hence the school carries the burden alone. 8. The department Of education is insensitive to the problems faced by teachers in dealing with student discipline, and it expects miracles from teachers. 9. There is a lack of good facilities which leads tO congestion. 10. Teachers regard heads Of departments as pushovers. A frequently cited example is the reluctance of most teachers to ask the principal’s permission for time Off to attend to personal matters. They prefer tO ask permission Of the department head while the principal is away on an errand or at a meeting, and they expect the department head to grant the permission. 11. Heads of departments and teachers belong tO math committees in one part of a school district and they help one another regarding methods and strategies of teaching the subject. 12. Students are not motivated. 11.6 Discussion and Conclusions This study used the theoretical framework that was Obtained from Halpin (1966). He was Of the Opinion that in an organization, a leader is the one who has the responsibility to ensure that an organization achieves its purposes. AS a leader of an organization, s/he has a duty to be committed to two fundamental organizational goals: (a) group achievement which is measured in terms of how well a group achieves its group’s tasks; and (b) group maintenance measured by the degree to which a group remains cohesive. This could be evaluated in terms of morale, cooperation among group members in a working situation, and Other pointers Of job satisfaction. Bearing this in mind, initiating structure and consideration dimensions were used in this study to ascertain the leadership orientations Of respondents since, in concept, initiating structure and consideration are synonymous with group achievement and group maintenance, respectively According to Halpin (1966), an effective leader scores higher on both initiating structure and consideration. The leadership inservice needs Of respondents were divided into task- oriented and relations-oriented needs. Having respondents rank these needs in order Of importance helped to indicate which of the needs are "strongly needed” tO improve respondents’ leadership role. 1. Heads Of departments who, as respondents, participated in this study perceived that there is a strong need among heads of departments for all the selected relations-oriented needs. They tended to rank highest the need for Skills that deal with building teacher self-actualization, clinical supervision, aiding teacher professional growth plans, problem-solving, and teacher guidance and promotion of their welfare. This outcome is in agreement with part Of the results Of the study by Jennerich (1981) wherein heads of departments rated 117 among the tOp five competency statements dealing with guiding, inspiring, and managing staff members (leadership ability); and accommodating the needs, desires, and aspirations Of each teacher (interpersonal skills). The outcome of this study also seems to agree with Weaver and Gordon’s (1979) study which showed that heads Of departments selected human relations and supervising in a clinical mode (as part of staffing management) as the most important task areas: Snyder and Johnson (1983) surveyed secondary school principals who stated among others that creative problem solving, personal awareness, and staff development were their administrative training needs. The lower five statements ranked by respondents deal with adaptation Of curricula, resolving conflict, provision of orientation programs, discipline Of students, gOOd relations, and team work. Respondents ranked the need for relations-oriented skills that pertain to teachers higher than those that deal with students, curricula, and instruction. As stated in Chapter 1, issues that deal with subject content and teaching strategies have been the focus Of inservice education for heads of departments. The results Of this study, regarding the leadership needs Of heads of departments, therefore, suggest that respondents are more concerned with the dynamics of leader-subordinate (head Of department-teacher) interaction, because the majority of them (66%) have never held leadership positions before. Respondents selected all 10 relations-oriented statements and indicated there is a strong need for professional development. Only six task-oriented statements were indicated as strong needs. Once again relations-oriented skills are part of the administrative skills that newly- appointed heads of departments seem to find to be useful in their jobs, but never regarded as necessary for ordinary classroom teaching positions. 118 2. Leadership orientations Of heads Of departments were ascertained by means of the initiating structure and consideration Of the LOQ. Thirty-four percent of respondents scored high on both initiating structure and consideration (effective leaders), 30% were less effective because they scored high on one dimension and low on the other, and 3 % were least effective due tO their low scores on both initiating structure and consideration. This outcome is consistent with that Of Knight’s (1983) study which classified the performance ratings Of department chairpersons into those with "high" ratings on both initiating structure and consideration who are said to be most effective chairpersons, those falling into the ”medium” category, and the least effective chairpersons who had ”low" ratings on both structure and consideration. The classification of these results is consistent with the quadrant scheme provided by Halpin (1966) to describe the orientations of leaders by means of initiating structure and consideration. High consideration-structure combination indicates effective leadership, high-low consideration/structure indicates ineffective leadership, and high consideration-structure combination indicates least effective leadership. 3. The study revealed a positive correlation between initiating structure and considera ' which indicated that the higher the initiating structure orientation Of leaders, the higher would be their consideration orientation. This is contrary to the theory stating that these two leadership dimensions are independent (Fleishman, 1960; Halpin, 1966). Weissenberg and Kavanaugh's (1972) review Of studies dealing with the relationship between consideration and initiating structure revealed that of 24 studies using the LOC, three showed significant positive correlations, five were significantly negative, and 16 were non- significant correlations. They explained that consideration and structure do Show a relationship in varying degrees across differing conditions. Gibb (1978) 119 also maintained that the occurrence Of a significant positive correlation between consideration and initiating structure indicates that ". . . under certain conditions common factors may affect both scores” (p. 1150). Kerr and Schriesheim (1974) were Of the same idea that knowledge of and concentration on situational variables in research may lead to the attainment Of more significant relationships. Fleishman (1973) explained that the issue Of dimension independence can be dealt with either conceptually or statistically. It is useful tO deal with the two dimensions as conceptually indeperident. Regarding statistical independence, even though correlations between dimensions may vary from negative tO positive due to factors in the Situation, ”. . . the distribution Of correlations between the dimensions averages close to zero for a large variety Of samples" (p. 40). The present study shows that there is also a positive correlation between task- and relations-oriented needs, indicating that the stronger the task-oriented need, the stronger would be the relations—oriented need of a department head. Regarding the relationship between leadership orientations and leadership needs, the results Show that the higher the initiating structure/consideration, the stronger the need for task—lrelations- oriented needs. It does seem that there is a general need for all the skills and competencies in both task-oriented and relations-oriented leadership. Since all the respondents in this study were heads Of departments who were newly-appointed to newly-created positions, their responses indicate an eagerness for the ability to plan activities, guide others, organize and set goals (task-orientation), and to be able tO communicate, reduce tension, promote mutual trust, assist professional growth (relations-orientation) for the benefit Of the school. The relationship between leadership orientations and needs showed that the higher the initiating structure/consideration, the stronger the need for task- 120 and relations-oriented needs. This indicates a tendency Of respondents to emphasize the improvement Of one leader dimension in which they are already strong, by requiring inservice education on skills that enhance the same dimension, instead of promoting skills for both leadership dimensions. This tendency may perpetuate an imbalance of having a leader being high on one dimension and low on the other. According to Halpin (1966) an effective leader should be strong in both initiating structure (task-oriented) and consideration (relations-oriented) dimensions. 4. Teaching experience is one of the bases for selection to the position Of head of department. This study did not indicate that there was a relationship between teaching experience and initiating structure and consideration orientation in the leadership of heads Of departments. Teaching experience is part Of the professional background that a head Of department needs tO fulfill professional duties, for example, coordinating learning activities, organizing teaching strategies, and helping with the professional guidance Of teachers. It has more to do with the education profession and little to do with the concept of leadership or whether or not one is a good leader. In the absence of leadership preparatory programs, heads Of departments seem to depend on chance in fulfilling their leadership obligations (Jennerich, 1981). As regards the relationship between teaching experience and leadership orientation, the results of this study are in conflict with those by Landy and Landy (1978). They found a significant relationship between consideration and teaching experience. Teachers showed more consideration in their first five years of teaching. They examined the relationship between grade level and initiating structure and consideration, as well as a relationship between teaching 121 experience and initiating structure and consideration. Scores for the lower grade levels were found to be higher on consideration. 5. The academic and professional qualifications are also requirements for a promotion to the position Of head Of department. The study revealed there was no relationship between the academic and professional qualifications Of heads Of departments and their initiating structure and consideration leadership orientation. Academic qualifications have more to do with one’s being a master in one's field, which is one of the prerequisites to being a leader in a given department. Once again, academic qualifications have very little to do with the concepts and theories Of leadership. Professional qualifications, on the other hand, form part Of the knowledge and skills necessary in the teaching profession, such as dealing with students, implementing the curriculum. Since professional qualifications imply having competencies in teaching methodology, they dO not embrace leadership knowledge and Skills. 6. There was a significant relationship between initiating structure and curriculum evaluation experience, but no relationship was indicated between consideration and curriculum evaluation experience. Heads of departments who had experience in curriculum evaluation scored high on initiating structure. This seems tO indicate that evaluating a curriculum involves organizing, developing criteria, arranging review sessions, and giving recommendations. These are all initiating structure related activities and curriculum evaluation is one Of the leadership skills that is necessary for the role of head Of department. Most Often evaluators work side by side as equals; and even though there may be a group leader, the usual superior-subordinate relationship is not prevalent. All energies Of evaluators are channelled into getting the work done within the given time limits. 122 Sergiovanni (1984) Classified activities into categories that he regarded as different, namely, educational leadership, administrative leadership, supervisory leadership, and organizational leadership. According to this classification, curriculum evaluation falls under educational leadership category. In view Of this, the implication seems tO be that those heads of departments who had experience in curriculum evaluation have, in a way, been involved in some form Of leadership activity that involves decision making, organization, and revision Of the curriculum; and these are related to the initiating structure dimension. 7. Of the 58 secondary schools in the Northern Transvaal Region, 35 were located in urban areas and 23 in non-urban areas. There was no relationship found between the initiating structure and consideration leadership orientations Of heads Of departments and locations Of schools (urban or non-urban) wherein they worked. Other studies that indicated there were no differences between urban and rural respondents did not deal with leadership orientation but dealt with other forms of behavior. They tend to compare with this study in terms Of inclinations and Opinions Of urban and rural respondents. DeLong (1984) found that there were strong similarities in the career orientations Of urban educators in the Salt Lake City area and those in the rural eastern central Utah. Both types Of educators belonged to two separate groups--one that values managerial activities, autonomy, and variety, and another more security and technically— oriented. There was also no difference between urban/suburban and rural districts regarding the existence of board policy requiring orientation Of new board members and ongoing training programs among school board members and superintendents in Illinois surveyed by Everett and Sloan (1983). The majority (57%) of both groups indicated that overall effectiveness and relevance of orientation and training should be emphasized. 123 Wirth (1938) maintained that the structural differences between urban and rural areas were reflected in the attitudes and behaviors Of the people residing in these areas. In the present study, the researcher speculated that if there are any differences in behavior between urban and non-urban dwellers, they would be reflected in their leadership orientations. The choice of the terms "urban” and "non-urban" is explained in Chapter III. The reason that, in this study, there were no differences between the leadership orientations of heads of departments working in schools located in urban and non-urban areas may be that non-urban areas are not truly rural but are Somewhere between urban and rural in character. These non—urban areas are not totally isolated from urban areas; in fact, there is a constant link between these areas through their individual dwellers, trade, and mass media. The constant contact that exists between urban and non-urban areas also exists between urban and rural areas, mainly through migration. This can better be explained by using urban and rural concepts. Migrants from rural to urban areas maintain ties with their roots; hence, the interests, beliefs, and values that shape their behaviors are not totally eroded by the urban way of life. As Gilbert and Gugler (1982) explain, "Though they are used to rural behavior and may well hold rural values, they are frequently aware of, and experienced in, urban ways" (p. 118). 8. The relationship between the perceived leadership needs Of heads of departments and their leadership orientations as assessed by consideration and initiating structure indicated that those leaders who were high on consideration perceived stronger need in overall relations-oriented needs and also in five specific needs that deal with aspirations Of teachers, orientation Of new teachers, deveIOpment Of teacher self-actualization, adaptation Of curricula, and 124 teacher professional growth plans. The same leaders perceived stronger need in one task-oriented need. Leaders who were high on initiating structure perceived stronger need in one specific relations-oriented need that deals with professional growth plans. The same leaders perceived stronger need in one task-oriented need that deals with assisting teachers in instructional planning. There is strong need for relations-oriented needs perceived by both high initiating structure and consideration leaders. This is an indication that due to lack Of leadership preparatory programs, newly-appointed heads of departments may have mainly emulated their superiors and other leaders who have been authoritarian or task-oriented in working with subordinates. As McLean (1980) stated, ". . . the majority Of department chairmen are totally lacking in preparation. Most of us have learned from experience" (p. 5). Since the newly elected heads Of departments surveyed in this study seem to have not had enough experience in leadership activities tO draw from, they, in most cases, may depend on chance when carrying out their leadership responsibilities. Opinions Of heads Of departments regarding their personal and professional needs were drawn from responses to Open-ended questions at the end of the leadership inservice needs questionnaire. The most frequently stated areas in which they needed help were team building, human relations, and personnel/professional development. Other needed skills cover almost all leadership functions necessary in education. They are classified under educational planning skills, curriculum and instruction, and student relations and related administrative tasks. They include among others, planning, budgeting decision making, evaluating teachers, motivating students, team teaching, communication, and student learning problems. 125 The fact that heads Of departments stated needs in most areas that deal with administrative tasks and general leadership functions is a further indication that heads of departments recognize their shortcomings and, therefore, feel the need to master skills associated with administration, supervision, and management of staff. The actual experiences of heads Of departments as leaders were Obtained through interviews. Frequently stated incidents were the problem Of students refusing to be taught by a certain teacher. Other issues concerned a shortage of qualified teachers, insubordination of male teachers towards female heads of departments, poor relationships between teachers and principals, and lack Of communication between heads of departments and principals. All those who deal with students at the school building level feel the burden Of student discipline is left to schools. Parents are usually not involved, and there is a feeling that authorities at departments Of education are insensitive to discipline problems school personnel face, while blaming them for student misdemeanors and expecting them tO do the impossible with these kids. The rejection Of a teacher by students may be triggered by a couple of situations. First Of all, students at the secondary school level are independent thinkers and can have legitimate grievances. A teacher who is not adequately prepared for his/her lessons will be confronted by dissatisfied students, especially those who are eager to learn. On the other hand, students can conspire against a hard working teacher who, according to them, gives a lot Of exercises and homework and is too strict. A persistent student discipline problem may be due tO the use of punishment as the only method Of correcting student misbehavior and can result in students becoming insensitive to it. Teachers, heads of departments, and 126 principals do seem to be left alone to battle with the problem Of discipline in schools. They feel that neither parents nor authorities at head Offices ever appreciate their efforts in maintaining discipline, but instead continue tO criticize and blame them for the continuation of the problem. The head Office is always aloof and only gives directives, the parents are usually relieved that kids are Off their hands for the day, and teachers try to impart knowledge as well as deal with teenagers who have different personalities and home backgrounds. Good leadership does include words and gestures Of praise and encouragement, and even principals, heads of departments, and teachers need some form Of appreciation from both parents and authorities to encourage them to promote and maintain their commitment to education. TO summarize, the findings Of this study suggest that there is a need for heads Of departments in South African black secondary schools to be competent in both task- and relations-oriented functions Of their leadership positions. Teaching experience and academic and professional qualifications are necessary professional qualities tO be considered in the selection Of a head of department, but they do not guarantee good leadership. The findings Of this study indicated no relationship among these three qualities and the leadership orientations of heads of departments. As Jennerich (1981)-explained, "A competent scholar is not necessarily a competent administrator because competencies required for one are not necessarily the same competencies required for the other" (p. 56). Observations, Reflections, and Remarks In this day and age, most educational institutions, businesses, and Other organizations follow the principles of bureaucracy. AS a former colony of Great Britain, South Africa has inherited Western types Of organizations which are bureaucratic in nature. In modern times, therefore, in societies with degrees of 127 development such as South Africa has achieved, middle management people (like heads of departments) who work in bureaucratic institutions such as black secondary schools in South Africa, tend to think alike everywhere in the world. Mouton and Blake (1970) collected data from among higher and middle ranking managers Of business, industry, and government organizations from different countries, namely, the United States, Canada, Great Britain, South Africa, Australia, Japan, Spanish-speaking South America, and the Middle East. The authors found a striking similarity in the human managerial values, attitudes, activities, and action among these nations. Managers across countries agreed that the "9.9" management style (maximum concern for both production and people) was ideal for their organization. This uniformity in response across countries may have been influenced by managers' participation in a series of GRID seminars that took place before the study was conducted. There were differences, however, in the self-descriptions of these managers. Actual behavior styles of managers from Japan and South America showed a 9.1 management style (more concern for production than for people) and 5.5 (middle Of the road), more typical of the Middle East. The authors noted that the actual approaches to management appeared tO be very similar in organizations Operating in countries with an English heritage and language. (TO some extent, South Africa shares these features.) In the self—descriptions of actual behavior styles, unlike the Middle East and South America, the largest percentage Of managers in English-Speaking countries preferred a 9.9 managerial approach to their Operations. The LOQ or its modified form has been used widely. Studies in leadership using the two dimensions Of initiating structure and consideration have been conducted in different countries. In most cases the outcome indicated that "the leadership pattern which combines higher consideration and initiating structure 128 is likely to Optimize a number of effectiveness criteria for a variety of supervisory jobs” (Fleishman 6t Simmons, 1970, p. 171). Twenty years later in Germany, Tscheulin (1973) attempted to replicate the findings of The Ohio State University study. When leader behavior was ascertained among industrial supervisors, the factors that came forth were initiating structure and consideration. In determining which leadership pattern would promote employee productivity and morale among supervisors in a Japanese coal mine, Misumi and Taraki (1965) found that a high initiating structure and a high consideration leadership pattern promoted and facilitated greater productivity and high morale among employees. Fleishman and Simmons (1970) indicated that the effectiveness of Israeli supervisors was positively related to their initiating structure and consideration. The LBDQ was used by Sara (1981) to compare leader behaviors of school principals in four developing countries in Asia and Africa, and the study centered around the universality Of leader behavior. Degrees Of similarities in the way leaders behave in different cultures, led tentatively to the conclusion that cultural (extra-organizational) variables appear to be of little significance in the way leaders behave and to the study Of leadership. In other words, it might be possible to conclude that irrespective of cultural factors a person is regarded as a leader if s/he behaves in a manner that facilitates establishment and achievement Of goals and his/her behavior enhances individual welfare, group maintenance, and cohesiveness. The results Of the studies using the LOO (using initiating structure and consideration dimensions to describe a leadership pattern) may be due to the fact that the LOQ is itself an instrument that generates the same results wherever it is used. As a result when one uses the LOQ in places like black secondary schools in South Africa, one obtains the same results even though the situation is 129 altogether different. It may be that the LOQ is not as discriminating and sensitive and as responsive an instrument as it needs to be, in order to give us refined information. If it is true that the middle level managers in bureaucratic institutions in modern times all think alike, then the LOQ is showing that difference, and it is not an artifact. A further indication that middle level managers tend to think alike in bureaucratic institutions is evidenced in the outcome of the following studies. Responses from heads of departments in black secondary schools in South Africa who participated in the present study, in terms Of their leadership inservice needs, were not very different from those Of the heads of departments, principals, and other administrators who participated in American and Australian studies. Heads of departments in South African black secondary schools indicated that their leadership inservice needs are clinical supervision, facilitating teacher professional growth plans, problem-solving, leader guidance, discipline Of students, building good relations, and team work, to name a few. Of the American studies discussed in Chapter II, Weaver and Gordon's (1979) study indicated that heads Of departments reflected staffing management (which is a general function Of human relations) and supervising in a clinical mode were the areas in which they needed help. In their survey Of secondary school principals, Snyder and Johnson (1983) found that participants stated that creative problem-solving, personal awareness, and staff development, among others, were important administrative training needs. An Australian study conducted by Lonsdale and Bardsley (1982) indicated that heads Of departments in colleges Of advanced education pointed out that providing leadership and guidance, motivating staff, evaluating staff, disciplinary procedures, counseling and advising staff, and encouraging the professional 130 development Of staff were the professional development needs most important to them. Recommendations 1. The findings in this study indicated that 30% Of heads of departments scored in the category "less effective leadership” and 36% fell in the category "least effective leadership." Inservice education programs targeted for these groups dealing with leadership theories, principles, and other leadership issues may need to be considered. 2. The study also indicated that all respondents indicated that there is a "strong need” in all relations-oriented skills. This finding could be helpful in guiding inservice program planners to pay special attention in designing leadership courses and workshops that emphasize relations-oriented leadership issues. 3. It may prove tO be helpful to involve heads Of departments in the planning Of inservice. programs because they are the ones who are likely to best know what they need. It will help to realize that what staff development personnel regard as important may not necessarily be relevant to recipients of the program. 4. A needs assessment survey is essential to help identify areas in which heads of departments feel they need the most help. 5. Teacher training colleges and education departments in universities may consider the inclusion of leadership courses in their programs. In that way, new teachers in the field may know some theories and principles Of leadership that 131 could prove tO be an asset later on when they are promoted to levels Of principal, head of department, or supervisor. 6. Heads of departments need tO be encouraged to share their experiences as leaders with Others, through professional journals, conventions, and conferences. Among Others, tOpics Of discussion may include interaction with subordinates and superiors, problems, and solutions. Further Research Further research on heads of departments in South African black schools may be undertaken to: l. examine the leadership orientations and leadership inservice needs Of male and female heads of departments, 2. examine how principals, supervisors, and teachers perceive heads Of departments’ leadership orientations to be (initiating structure or consideration), and 3. compare heads Of departments’ leadership orientations with teacher job satisfaction and student achievement scores. 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Z 25.0.3.2 530.53: :50m 3:... 50:: 3.3523 53.35.33 3.333.. 00.55.05. .333. .33.: 3.50 5 50:33.... 53:53 c30...:< :50m 3...: 50:: 353.0... 3:36.333: .30.?33. 0.3. .3025 30: £53 .5: 3530 32:3 .333: 0. 3533.2. 8.: 3.00:0... 535.5 .3: 3.09.0.9. 53.5003m 6: 3.00:0... 535.5 .3: «.003... 53:5003m 8: 3.00:0... 535.5 .3: 3.00:0..." 53.5003m . 8: 3.00:0... 535.5 .3: 3.00:0... 53.5003 2:: 3.00:3 535.5 .3: 200:0... 53.5003. 6: A200:0... 535.5 .3: 3.00:0... 53.5003m 2: 3.33.0 .3530 2: 3.5.... 3.330 .3530 2: 335% 53.2 .2: 3.33.0 .3330 2: 335% 53.2 .2: 3.33.0 .3330 2: 3w33w 55.2 .2: 3.33.0 .3330 2: 35.... 3.3.0 .3330 amFZmU m0~>zmm A K a n .:. 0.33535. 5.53335 33 u .p 3.3: 3.3: 53:53... APPENDIX C 1526D Spartan Village Michigan State University East Lansing, MI 48823 June 27, 1985 Mr. P. G. H. Felstead Regional l‘irector Private Pag X100 Pretoria Dear Sir, May I, at the outset, introduce myself as Isabel Gabashane. I am a former teacher at Hofmeyr High School in Atteridgeville and currently studying for a Ph.D. degree in Curriculum and Instruction at Michigan State University in the USA. I am currently preparing to write my dissertation, and the study focuses on heads of departments in our secondary schools, their perceptions on leadership, and their training needs in certain leadership competencies. My intention is to collect data by means of a questionnaire from selected secondary schools in circuits within the Northern Transvaal Region during July and August, 1985. In view of this, I would, therefore, like to apply for permission to distribute questionnaires among our heads of departments in the selected schools. The questionnaire and proposal are still to be approved by my academic committee. and, thereafter, a letter of transmittal from my academic advisor will be sent to you. I realize that you and everybody in the education department are very busy; therefore, I would like to hand deliver and administer the questionnaire to selected heads of departments. Please find enclosed a short background information sheet on the purpose of the study. Hoping that my application will meet with your favourable consideration, 1 thank you in advance. Yours faithfully, Isabel Gabashane 137 138 l526D Spartan Village Michigan State University East Lansing, MI ‘#8823 August 2, 1985 Mr. P. G. H. Felstead Regional Director Private Pag X100 Pretoria Dear Sir, I have just sent the requested copy of the questionnaire to be distributed among secondary school heads of departments to your office. Since I will be in South Africa shortly, please send letters and information to: Miss Isabel Gabashane P. O. Box 51 Hammanskraal 0400 I will be in South Africa until September 20, 1985. Thanking you, I am Yours faithfully, Isabel Gabashane APPENDIX D OOIET 230 (hi , \ I or SOUTH AFRICA REPUBUEK VAN SU'D AFR'KA I. REPUBL C By beontwoording meld In reply please quote Telegramadres ‘. .. .. " Telegraphic address f ‘MFUNDO No.. Navrae l, Enquiries I DEPARTEMENT VAN 0Noenwvs EN OPLEIDING T¢'°'°°" } (on) 2l-784I/2/3/4 DEPARTMENT or EDUCATION AND TRAINING Telephone Noord-Transvaalstreek Adresseer alle briewe aan die Streekdirekteur Northern Transvaal Region All communications to be addressed to the Regional Director Privaatsak } XIOO Private Bag Pretoria 000! 1526 Spartan Village Michigan State University East Lansing MICHIGAN 48823 1985-07-09 Miss Isabel Gabashane I received your application of 27 June 1985. Will you please send a copy of the questionnaire to me for my information. I will also appreciate it if you could send met the names of the selected schools. Circuit offices must give permission before any research can take place in their respective circuits. , ~ //// A “mg mg EDUCATION AND TRAINING NORTHERN TRANSVAAL REGION 0255A/mp 139 8l'l72889 I; H) REPUBLIFK VAN Sl_llD-AFRIKA Verw. Nr./Ref. No. II NAVRAE/ENQUIRIES: “3 - HEYNS Tel. No. 2301 Fat: PRINCIPAL HIIANGANANI LETHABONG SO SHANGU'VE WALLMANSTHAII l_ . MISS GABASI-IANE G.P.-S. (F-B) Pl'l‘lll'lllC ’7F SOUTH AFRICA KANTOOR VAN DIE—OFFICE OF THE ‘PRETORIA NORTH CIRCUIT PRIVATE BAG X15 SOSHANGUVE 0152 1985 - 08 - 26 Miss Gabashane is doing research and has been granted permission by the Regional Director to visit your school in connection with it. Please give her the necessary assistance. CIRCUIT INSPECTOR : PRETORIA NORTH CIRCUIT APPENDIX E MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF EDUCATION ° DEPARTMENT (H Ti.“ ”H! l-‘lll'( .\l'l()\' EAST IANSINU 0 MICIIKIAN 0 488144054 August 5, l985 l526D Spartan Village Michigan State University East Lansing, MI 48823 USA Heads of Departments Northern Transvaal Region Head Office, Praetoria, SA Dear Head of Department: An effort is being undertaken to better understand the leadership training needs of heads of departments in our secondary schools. I am a doctoral student in Teacher Education wishing to study the leadership experiences of secondary school heads of departments in the circuits in the Northern Transvaal Region. I believe the results of this study will be helpful to your professional development staff in identifying training opportunities and will also help heads of departments to develop the kinds of leadership skills that are associated with high performance. This research will also be a valuable addition to educational studies focusing on school leadership. You are one of a number of heads of departments being asked to give some insight into this subject. Realizing that you are a busy person, it would be greatly appreciated if you would complete the attached questionnaire, which will take 28 minutes of your valuable time. Please be assured that your responses will be kept strictly confidential and will have no bearing upon your job. Your name is not required anywhere on this questionnaire and your name will never be linked to your responses. Thank you in advance for your time and cooperation. Respectfully, flZ/Q/ Isabel Gabashane Endorsed by: /&4L 4: M/MML Ben A. Bohnhorst, Professor Academic Advisor . 141 MSU is on Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 142 GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS There are Iflfigg attached questionnaires. The first is designed to elicit your responses regarding your professional background and experiences prior to and during your assignment as a head of depart- ment in a secondary school. The second questionnaire seeks your opinion regarding how a head of department should act in a leadership position. The third questionnaire requires responses regarding the impor- tance of leadership competencies and inservice needs in some or all areas represented in the items depending on your perception of the needs. Your answers will be kept confidential and your name is not requested. Please read each item carefully before you respond. Thank you in advance for your cooperation. 143 QUESTIONNAIRE l INSTRUCTIONS: The following questions are concerned with background information « regarding your teaching experience and your level of educationi[// Please respond by placing a check mark in the appropriate box or filling in the blank. EXAMPLE: Are you currently furthering your studies? E] Yes E] No l. How many years of teaching experience did you have prior to becoming a head of department? (Please check one.) D 0 - 4 years C] 5 - 9 years [j 10 - l4 years E] l5 or more years QOUD’ 2. Have you every had an opportunity to have input into the evaluation of curricula in your school? ' E] Yes E] No 3. What were your professional qualifications during your last assignment as a classroom teacher? C] Higher Primary Teachers' Diploma E] Junior Secondary Teachers' Diploma E] Secondary Teachers' Diploma E] University Education Diploma D Other (please specify) 4. What were your academic qualifications during your last assignment as a classroom teacher? I: Matric CI Bachelor's degree [:1 Honor's degree/B.Ed. [j Master's degree C] Other (please specify) 144 QUESTIONNAIRE 2’ LEADERSHIP OPINION QUESTIONNAIRE INSTRUCTIONS: For each item, choose the alternative which most nearly expresses your opinion on how frequently you SHOULD do what is described by that item. Always indicate what you, as a head of department, sincerely believe to be the desirable way to act. Please remember--there are no right or wrong answers to these questions. Different heads of departments have different experiences, and we are interested only in your opinions. Answer the items by marking an "X" in the box before the alternative that best expresses your feeling about the item. MARK ONLY ONE alternative for each item. If you wish to change your answer, draw a circle around your first "X" and mark a new "X" in the appropriate box. I. Put the welfare of your department above the welfare of any teacher in it. 2. Give in to your sub- ordinates in discus- sions with them. 3. Encourage teachers in your department to do extra school work. 4. Try out your new ideas in the department. 5. Support what teachers under you do. 6. Criticize poor work. 7. Ask for more than the teachers under you can accomplish. 8. Refuse to compromise on a point. 9. Insist that teachers under you follow to the letter those standard routines handed down to you. 10. Help teachers under you with their personal problems. CJEICIEJE] CJCIEIEJEJ [JCJEJEJE] EJEJCICI 1145 0 Always D Often CI Occasionally D Seldom 0 Never 0 Often a Fairly often 0 Occasionally D Once in a while a Very seldom C] A great deal D Fairly often 0 To some degree I: Once in a while CI Very seldom El Often a Fairly often :1 Occasionally DOnce in a while Cl Very seldom 0 Always l3 Often a Occasionally Cl Seldom D Never 0 Always Often Occasionally Seldom Never Often Fairly often Occasionally Once in a while Very seldom Always Often Occasionally Seldom Never Always Often Occasionally Seldom Never Often Fairly often Occasionally Once in a while Very seldom EJEICJCJE] ll. Be slow to adept new ideas. l2. Get the approval of teachers under you on important matters before going ahead. 13. Resist changes in ways of doing things 14. Assign teachers under you to particular tasks. l5. Speak in a manner not to be questioned. l6. Stress importance of being ahead of other departments. 17. Criticize a specific act rather than a particular member of your department. l8. Let the teachers under you do their work the way they think is best. 19. Do personal favors for teachers under you. 20. Emphasize meeting of deadlines. 0 Always D Often I: Occasionally I: Once in a while :1 Very seldom 0 Always D Often I: Occasionally a Seldom :1 Never a A great deal a Fairly much a To some degree a Comparatively little Not at all Always Often Occasionally Seldom Never Always Often. Occasionally Seldom Never A great deal Fairly much To some degree Comparatively little Not at all Always Often Occasionally Seldom Never Always Often Occasionally Seldom Never Often Fairly often Occasionally Once in a while Very seldom A great deal Fairly much To some degree Comparatively little Not at all C] EICICJEI [JEICIEJCJ [ICICIEICI EIEICICIEI [J CIEJCJEJ [JCICICJIJ [JCJEJEJEJ I] 2|. Insist that you be informed on decisions made by teachers under you. 22. Offer new approaches to problems. 23. Treat all teachers under you as your equals. 24. Be willing to make changes. 25. Talk about how much should be done. 26. . Wait for teachers in your department to stimulate new ideas. 27. Rule with an iron hand. 28. Reject suggestions for change. 29. Change-the duties of teachers under you without first talking it over with them. 30. Decide in detail what shall be done and how it shall be done by the teachers under you. [JEJEICIEJ CIEJEIEJC] CIEJCIEIE] CJCIEJCJCI CIEIEJEJE] El EIEICJE] CJEICICJCI CIEIEICIEJ CJCICJEJEJ [JCJCJEJIJ 1J46 Always Often Occasionally Seldom Never Often Fairly often Occasionally Once in a while Very seldom Always Often Occasionally Seldom Never Always Often Occasionally Seldom Never A great deal Fairly much To some degree Comparatively little Not at all Always Often Occasionally Seldom Never Always Often Occasionally Seldom Never Always Often Occasionally Seldom Never Often Fairly often Occasionally Once in a while Very seldom Always Often Occasionally Seldom Never 31. See to it that teachers under you are working up to capacity. 32. Protect the interest of teachers under you, even though it makes you unpopular with others. 33. Put suggestions made by teachers in the depart- ment into operation. 34. . Refuse to explain your actions. 35. Ask for sacrifices from teachers under you for the good of your entire department. 36. Act without consulting teachers under you. 37. "Nag" teachers under you for greater effort. 38. Insist that everything be done your way. 39. Encourage.slow-working teachers in your department to work harder. 40. Meet with teachers in your department at certain regularly scheduled times. EJEIEJEJCJ CJCICICJCJ CJEIEIEIEI [J EIEJEJIJ CIEJEICJCJ CIEIEJCJEJ CJCIEJEJE] CJEJCICJC] CJCICJCIEJ EJtJCJClc] Always Often Occasionally Seldom Never Always Often Occasionally Seldom Never Often Fairly often Occasionally Once in a while Very seldom Often Fairly often Occasionally Once in a while Very seldom Often Fairly often Occasionally Once in a while Very seldom Often Fairly often Occasionally Once in a while Very seldom A great deal Fairly much To some degree Comparatively little Not at all Always Often Occasionally Seldom Never Often Fairly often Occasionally Once in a while Very seldom Always Often Occasionallv Seldom Never 147 QUESTIONNAIRE 3 INSTRUCTIONS: The statements in this section reflect areas which are generally viewed as essential leadership competencies for heads of departments. In- service education for heads of departments may be necessary in some or all of these competencies for effective leader behavior. Please indicate the degree to which you perceive a NEED for inservice education for heads of departments in the following competencies by circling pg; of the four alternatives for each item. The alternatives represented by numbers are as follows: Most needed Strong need = Modest need #NNA = Least needed EXAMPLE: Heads of departments need inservice education in: ‘8 8 '8 '8 1:: U Q) Q) 0) cu ‘3 C C»: a, C. = 2‘ i; .6 H O Q) V) m 5— ‘U (U o +9 ,O O z m E _l --Motivating departmental staff. G) 2 3 4 --Preparing reports on departmental activities. 1 2 (:) 4 l/Id . T3' ‘0 ‘U 13 OJ OJ 0) Q) ‘U 'U Q) Q) Q) Q) C C Q) g c: M r; T c «a a Heads of departments need inservice education in: In" E 3 ‘9: . . . . $2 in” a 3 l. recognizing the needs and aspirations of each staff member. 1 Z 3 4 2. inspiring and guiding others in teaching to meet the department's goals. I 2 3 4 3. providing an ongoing orientation program for new teachers. l 2 3 4 4. employing procedures for clarifying roles and for planning activities. l 2 3 4 5. promoting good relationships and facilitating team work. I 2 3 4 6. organizing the functions of the department effectively to achieve the objectives of the school. l 2 3 4 7. establishing adequate control of the students. I 2 3 4 8. providing necessary disciplinary rules with help and cooperation of teachers, parents, and students. l 2 , 3 4 9. resolving conflict situations with students, parents, and teachers. l 2 3 4 l0. resolving conflict between the welfare of the teachers and the upkeep (smooth running) of the school. I 2 3 4 ll. supervising clinically (i.e., using observation data, various planning, and inservice experiences) to improve teacher behavior. l 2 3 4 12. planning staff meetings. 1 2 3 4 l3. chairing staff meetings. I 2 3 4 l4. promoting commitment to group decisions. 1 z 3 4 l5. Using models that identify conditions important to the building of self-actualization in the staff. l 2 3 4 l6. applying decision-making models. I 2 3 4 l7. developing rational approaches to problem-solving processes with the participation of teachers. 1 2 3 4 18. adapting curricula to meet the needs of students. 1 2 3 4 l9. guiding the staff in instructional planning by using the adapted curricula. l 2 3 4 20. assisting a teacher in forming individual professional growth plans which aim at changing classroom practices. I 2 3 4 Please list other leadership functions wherein you feel heads of departments need skills or competencies. Thank you very much for your time and resoonses. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY A Report of the Education Commission of the South African Institute of Race Relations (1979), in John A. Marcum: Education, Race and Social Change in South Africa, University of California Press, Berkeley, Los Angeles, 1982. Barnard, Chester I. 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