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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

Maternal Characteristics: Their relationship
to social support and its effect on mother-
infant interactions

presented by
Lisa B. Cusick

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

MA degree in Child Deve10pment

 

 

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flMajor professora

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DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE

 

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MATERNAL CHARACTERISTICS: THEIR RELATIONSHIP TO SOCIAL SUPPORT
AND ITS EFFECT ON MOTHER-INFANT INTERACTIONS

By

Lisa B. Cusick

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Family and Child Ecology

1999

ABSTRACT
MATERNAL CHARACTERISTICS: THEIR RELATION TO SOCIAL SUPPORT
AND ITS EFFECT ON MOTHER-INFANT INTERACTIONS
By

Lisa B. Cusick

This study investigated how the amount of mothers’ perceived social support
differed as a function of maternal age, educational level, and marital status. Further, the
present research explored the relationship between the amount of perceived support for
mothers and the quality of mothers’ interactions with their infants. Data for this study
were taken from a local research component of a national longitudinal evaluation study of
Early Head Start and the sample consisted of 100 low income mothers. Analysis of
variance indicated a significant difference in perceived social support for younger and
older mothers. However, the amount of perceived support did not differ significantly as a
fimction of maternal marital status or education. Pearson correlations found no
significant relationship between maternal social support and quality of mother-infant
interactions. Results of the statistical analyses as well as the implications of the findings

are discussed.

Copyright by
Lisa B. Cusick
1999

Dedicated to the memory of my grandfather, James C. Roberts, and to

my great-grandfather, Lloyd H. Reed

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to thank the chair of my committee, Dr. Holly Brophy-Herb for her time,
comments, and flexibility throughout the writing of this thesis. I would also like to thank
Dr. Robert Griffore for his support and statistical guidance, and Dr. Robert Boger for
sharing his expertise in the area of social support and for the Maine lobster. I wish to
thank Laura Bracali for providing an emotional, supportive, enjoyable outlet when I
needed it most. I want to thank Denis Looney for the happiness he has brought me, for
his kind words, and for lending an ear when I really needed someone to listen. And
finally, I wish to express my thanks to Doug Todak for his friendship, encouragement
and, most importantly, his belief in my abilities.

This research was supported by grant #90YF0010, Pathways Project: Research
into Directions for Family Health and Service Use, from the Administration on Children,
Youth and Families, Department of Health and Human Services, Rachel F. Schiffman,

Ph.D., R.N., Principal Investigator, Michigan State University.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables
Introduction
1. Problem Statement
Conceptual/Operational Definitions
H. Review of the Literature
Transition to parenthood
Social support- .
Structurcpfths. support network ..
Maternal characteristics and gigglsupport. _.
Effects of social support on maternal stress
Socialsupport and parenting behaviors :
Current study
HI. Hypotheses
IV. Methods
Research design
Subjects
Sampling procedure and data collection
Instrumentation
Data Analysis
Results
VI. Discussion
Summary of findings
Implications for practitioners and researchers
Limitations and assumptions
VII. Appendix
VIH. References

 

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LIST OF TABLES

One-Way AN OVA for Maternal Age and Perceived Social Support
One-Way ANOVA for Marital Status and Perceived Social Support
One-Way ANOVA for Educational Level and Perceived Social Support

Correlations between Maternal Age, Marital Status, Education,
NCAST Scores, and Perceived Social Support

vii

17

18

19

20

INTRODUCTION

Numerous studies over the past twenty years have addressed issues of social
support and the ameliorative effects of social support on stressfiil life events (e.g., Cobb,
1976; Cohen & Wills, 1985; Gottlieb, 1985; Thoits, 1982). Specifically, many
researchers have studied mothers following the birth of a child, examining their support
networks and the relationship of these networks to the quality of mother-infant interaction
(e.g., Crockenberg, 1981; Crnic et al., 1984; Cutrona, 1984; Parks, Lenz, & Jenkins,
1992; Pascoe & Earp, 1984). These studies have shown that the birth of a child can bring
about changes and an increase in stress in the lives of family members (e.g., greater
financial expense, less time to spend alone, altered sleep patterns, additional household
and caretaking responsibilities) and that having a responsive support network may help
the mother through this major life transition. After studying new mothers and their
available support, researchers found that those who perceived their social support
network as adequate and less conflictual could find occasional, temporary relief from
child care responsibilities, household tasks, and additional stressors when they needed it
(e.g., Camp, Holman, & Ridgway, 1993; Colletta & Gregg, 1981; Cutrona, 1984). In
turn, this support tended to lead to increased quality of interactions between mothers and
their infants.

Much of the current social support literature has focused on the structural
characteristics of the maternal support network (e. g., size of network, density of network,
type of support provided) while neglecting the personal characteristics of the mother,

such as age, marital status, and educational level. Of the studies that do examine

maternal personal characteristics, the majority of attention has focused on the association
of maternal age to social network structure (e.g., Boger et al., 1986; Colletta, 1981;
Cooper, Dunst, & Vance, 1990; Garcia Coll et al., 1987; Richardson, Barbour, &
Bubenzer, 1995; Voight, Hans, & Bernstein, 1996). Other maternal personal
characteristics (e. g., educational level, marital status) may also play equally important
roles in determining mothers’ ability to develop and maintain resourcefiil support
networks. Furthermore, the age, educational level, and marital status of the mother could
increase the stressors brought about by the birth of a child. Ecologically, maternal
characteristics and social support networks play reciprocal, dynamic roles in the
parenting process over time. It is important to examine these variables, as they are in
continuous interaction with each other, and they help create the context in which mothers

and infants grow and develop.

Problem Statement

This study proposed to examine if the number of situations in which mothers
perceived they had access to social support varied as a function of maternal personal
characteristics and, in turn, if perceived maternal social support related to the quality of
the mother-infant relationship. Specifically, this study examined the relationship of
maternal age, educational level, and marital status on perceived maternal social support,
as well as the relationship between the amount of perceived maternal social support and

the quality of mother-infant interaction.

Conceptual and operational definitions

The dependent variable, mother-infant interaction, was conceptually defined as
the quality of maternal physical, emotional, and verbal warmth and responsivity to infant
cues. The definition of mother-infant interaction has been operationalized using the
Teaching Scale of the Nursing Child Assessment Satellite Training (NCAST). This scale
consists of six subscales in the areas of: Sensitivity to Cues, Response to Distress, Social-
Emotional Growth Fostering, Cognitive Growth Fostering (parenting subscales), and
Responsiveness to Parent and Child Clarity of Cues (infant subscales).

The first group of independent variables, maternal characteristics, was defined as
the age of the mother, the highest educational level the mother had completed, and the
marital status of the mother. This information was obtained through initial interviews
and surveys conducted by a local social service agency.

The second independent variable, perceived sacialprrugpQIL-Eivas defined as the
number of situations in which mothers perceive they have access to social support in
times of need. Interviews were conducted and mothers were asked Jquestionswon the
Maternal Social Support Survey (Appendix A). ’ For the purposes of the present study,
perceived social support was defined as feeling one has access to at least one person who
could lend assistance in the following situations: feelings of anxiety, emergency loans,
long-term child care, child care on short notice, important decisions, advice about a
child’s unusual behavior, advice about a child’s illness, food shopping, planning and
cooking meals, cleaning the house, handling the bills, and emotional support (e.g.,

comforting, talking, having fiin).

Review of Literature

flansition to Parenthood

Becoming a parent is a major life transition that frequently brings about
considerable change and stress in the lives of mothers and family members (Flowers,
Schneider, & Ludtke, 1996; Parks, Lenz, & Jenkins, 1992; Thomas et al., 1990). These
changes and stressors can include altered sleeping patterns, fatigue, less time for self,
greater financial expense, and additional household and caretaking responsibilities
(Parks, Lenz, & Jenkins, 1992). Furthermore, clusters of demographic characteristics of
the mother (i.e., young, single, low educational level) can make the birth of a child even
more of a stressfirl life event. These clusters may affect the quality of the nurturing
interactions between the mother and her infant (Boger, Richter, Kurnetz, & Haas, 1986;
Colletta & Gregg, 1981; Garcia Coll, Hoffman, & Oh, 1987; Garcia Coll et al., 1987;
Thomas et al., 1990). For example, an adolescent parent who may have limited material
support and possible inadequate knowledge of infant development (Field et al., 1980;
Garcia Coll et al., 1987; Reis, 1988) may have particular difficulty in coping with the
responsibilities of being a new mother (Boger et al., 1986). Moreover, adolescent
mothers are often single mothers and many single, adolescent mothers experience
extreme financial pressures. These pressures create situations in which mothers and their
babies are far more likely to live in poverty than are older, married mothers (Thomas et
al., 1990). In addition, young mothers often drop out of school and stay at home with
their babies, resulting in less educational attainment (Thomas et al., 1990). Garcia C011

and her colleagues (1987) also found that adolescent mothers, in general, tend to have

lower levels of education and lower family socioeconomic status (SES) than older
mothers. Older single parents, like adolescent mothers, ofien experience decreased
financial resources, chaotic or disorganized lives, increased daily stresses, and task
overloads (W einraub & Wolf, 1983). These mothers may also encounter time
constraints, reduced educational opportunities, and lower occupation status (Flowers,
Schneider, & Ludtke, 1996). Research has provided evidence that many new parents
experience shifts in the balance between life stresses and social support in adjusting to the
birth of a new baby (Cowan & Cowan, 1995).
Social Support
A number of studies over the past two decades have addressed issues “5391311,. \

./’ ”$711336de the effects that social support has on minimizing harmful impacts of StI'CSSfiJI

" life events (e.g., Cobb, 1976; Gottlieb, 1985). Sidney Cobb (1976), Jphn Cassel (1976)
and Gerald Caplan (1976) conducted considerable work on social support, laying the
groundwork for contemporary research in this area. Cobbudefined social support- as
information leading an individual to believe that he or she is cared for, loved, esteemed,
valued, and has membership in a network of communication and mutual obligation:
Furthermore, Cobb (1976) discussed social support as a mechanism which facilitates
adaptation to change, and he proposed that it is in moderating the effects of major life
transitions and of unexpected crises that the effects of social support should be found. He
concluded that adequate social support can protect peOple in crisis from various physical
and psychological disorders, presumably through the facilitation of coping and
adaptation. Similarly, Cassel (1976) argued that social support plays a key role in stress-

related disorders. He, like Cobb, viewed support as an important protective factor against

stressful experiences. Caplan (1976) also emphasized the importance of support systems
in protecting the well-being of individuals, as well as the importance of various different
types of support. I

This assistance that social support may provide individuals coping with major life
changes has also been termed the ‘buffering hypothesis’ (Cohen & Wills, 1985; Thoits,
1982). This hypothesis involves an interaction effect between the occurrence of events
and the presence of social support. Specifically, the development of a major life
transition should produce less distress for an individual if it occurs within the presence of
social support than if it occurs in the absence of social support (Thoits, 1982). Being
embedded in a social network that is responsive to stressfiil events may have benefical
effects on an individual’s well-being (Cohen & Wills, 1985). However, the effects of
social support may only be evident when high levels of stress are experienced. A study
of 30 two-parent families, examining stressful life events and social networks, found that
the effects of stress and social support were most apparent in those groups experiencing
the highest levels of stress, while these buffering effects were less pronounced when the
stress levels were lower (Roberts, 1989).

Social support theorists have continued to build upon the original social support
model proposed by Cobb (1976). Over time, studies have addressed the interactional
influences of the structure of support networks (e.g., size, density, diversity), the
availability of support, various types of support, and the relationship between major life

transitions (e.g., the birth of a child), psychological distress, and social support (see

Adamakos, et al., 1986; Crockenberg, 1981; Feiring et al., 1987; Levitt, Weber, & Clark,

1986; Nitz, Ketterlinus, & Brandt, 1995; Reece, 1993; Schilmoeller, Baranowski, &
Higgins, 1991; Unger & Wasserman, 1988; Voight, Hans, & Bernstein, 1996).
Structure of the Support Network

Stressful events and major life transitions may cause changes among an
individual’s social supports. Therefore, according to Thoits (1982), the structure of the
support network is an important dimension in determining the effectiveness of an
individual’s social support. Social support can be examined with respect to the structure
of anfindividual’s social network. Vaux (1988) points out that important structural
features include size (the number of individuals included in the social network) and
density (the interconnectedness of individuals in the social network). Vaux (1988) listed
five reasons why larger networks may provide more supportive behaviors than smaller
support networks: accessibility, stamina, expertise, information, and perspective.
Accessibility refers to how likely members are to receive help; specifically, the larger the
network, the easier it will be to contact someone in a time of need, whereas all members
of a smaller support network may be temporarily unavailable. If an individual has more
network members to call on, he or she is less likely to put too many excessive demands
on one particular person, and thus will possess considerably more stamina. A larger
support network is more likely to contain a member with specific expertise in a given
area (e.g., parenting, applying for a job, household tasks). Similarly, a larger network is
more likely to be an abundant source of information. Finally, when a problem or issue
arises, a larger network should provide a wider variety of perspectives. Overall, with
regard to network size, it appears as though larger support networks are more likely to

meet the diverse needs of individuals going through major life transitions.

Maternal Characteristics and Social Support

Much of the research to date has concentrated primarily on the structural
characteristics of the support network, placing less emphasis on the personal
characteristics of the individual needing the support. Social support is a complex,
ongoing, transactional process between the characteristics of the individual and the,
composition of that individual’s social network (Vaux, 1988),:7 Research examining
personal characteristics of individuals needing support has mainly focused on such
personal factors], as social skills, extroversion, and social attractiveness and has
demonstrated that these characteristics contribute to an individual’s ability to form and
maintain a support network (see Vaux, 1988). An individual with adequate personal
resources, for example, may be able to cope with stressors quite well independently and,
simultaneously, find him- or herself in a favorable position in the development and
maintenance of a large, resourceful network. Vaux (1988) points out, conversely, that an
individual with limited personal resources may face more intense stressors which he or
she is poorly equipped to handle, while having difficulty maintaining a small support
network In a similar vein, Younger (1991) suggested that the composition of one’s
social support network may be formed by one’s personality characteristics, and the ability
to utilize the strengths of others in dealing with stress, may also depend on an
individual’s personality characteristics.

Certain personal characteristics in certain contexts may play a role in determining
the amount and type of support an individual receives. For example, during a timepf
need, some members of a support network may recognize problems as they arise and

immediately provide assistance without hesitation. If, however, this does not occur, the

individual in need must actively seek out and request assistance from the network.
Furthermore, the person ‘ needing support .- must also decide what amount and kind of
support would be most helpful, as well as who the best person is to provide what is
needed (Vaux, 1988): - '

Other personal demographic characteristics such as education level, age,” and
marital'status may dramatically influence the success an individual experiences in
attempting to maximize support resources, however these personal characteristics have
been highly neglected in the literature. A study by Eckenrode (1983) found that women
of relatively high educational level obtained more support in dealing with life stressors.
Further, Riley and Eckenrode (1986) found that support mobilization (e. g., the average
number of persons helpful across numerous life events) was associated with less negative
affect in women with higher educational levels and greater family income. In contrast,
women with less education and lower family income had more negative affect. Women
with adequate educational and income resources were able to mobilize more support and
were better able to translate both network resources and psychological resources into
actual support. When this increase in support occurred, the women tended to exhibit less
negative affect (Riley & Eckenrode, 1986).

A limited number of studies have examined effects of age and marital status on
mothers’ ability to form and maintain adequate social support networks. One study by
Cmic and his colleagues (1984) found that certain demographic characteristics influenced
maternal perceptions of social support relationships. In their study of mothers ranging in
age from 16 to 38, mothers who were younger, unmarried, and receiving some sort of

public assistance were more likely to report greater stress and less social support.

 

Effects of Social Support on Maternal Stress

Research has indicated that the social support mothers receive may, in many
instances, reduce the amount of stress experienced in the parenting role. A study by
Camp, Holman, and Ridgway (1993) examined the relationship between stress and social
support in 62 adolescent mothers and found that after the mothers gave birth to their
infants, positive social support tended to be associated with fewer stressors. In a related
study, Colletta and Gregg (1981) interviewed 64 African American adolescent mothers;
Their results revealed that the amount of emotional stress experienced by those mothers
decreased as the levels of support and personal resources increased, supporting the
conclusion that social support for adolescent mothers tends to, be the single most
important predictor of the adolescent mother’s stress reaction (Colletta & Gregg, 1981).
Social Support and Larenting Behaviors

The influence of social support on the quality of interaction between mothers and
their infants has also been examined. In a study of 105 mother-infant pairs, Crnic and
colleagues (1983) uncovered a positive relationship between support from intimate
relationships and both parenting satisfaction and interactive behavior. Similarly, results
of a study done by Cooper, Dunst, and Vance (1990) showed significant effects of social
support on adolescent mothers’ styles of mother-infant interaction. Mothers displayed
significant increases in the frequency of contingent responses to their young children’s
behavior. In addition, they made more attempts to maintain the child’s ongoing play both
with animate and inanimate objects. Results of a study by Parks, Lenz, and Jenkins
(1992) revealed a positive relationship between social support and quality of stimulation

in the home environment for 6-month-old infants.

10

Investigating a sample of 50 adolescent mothers, Colletta (1981) found that

'F.._..___.__

variations in the amount, sources, and types ”of support affected the maternal behavior of

 

these mothers. Emotional support was most highly related to the adolescent’s maternal

_-,J

 

role behavior. Colletta noted that when young mothers feel alone during the stressful
transition to motherhood, and if they have no one to talk to about their frustrations, they
may direct those fiustrations in inappropriate ways toward their children. However,
when a particular mother is embedded in supportive social networks, she is “likely to
receive sufficient encouragement, reinforcement, and assistance to provide her with the
emotional resources to enable her to discharge her maternal role in a warm and loving
manner” (Colletta, 1981, p. 196).

In related work, Burchinal, Follmer, and Bryant (1996) looked at low-income

 

social networks was correlated with aspects of maternal caregiving behaviorand the
quality of stimulation in the home. Specifically, women with larger support networks
tended to provide more stimulating home environments. In addition, mothers with larger
support networks were more responsive, accepting, involved with, and less directive in
controlling their child’s behavior. These researchers suggested that a direct relationship
between maternal social networks and parenting may exist because, through contact with
a support network that lends advice and assistance with the responsibilities of
parenthood, mothers often develop feelings of competence and satisfaction with their

maternal roles (Burchinal, Follmer, & Bryant, 1996).

ll

The Current Study

This study explored demographic characteristics and social support networks of
mothers going through a major life transition. Specifically, mothers’ perceived social
support was examined to determine if it varied as a function of maternal age, educational
level, and marital status. Furthermore the number of situations in which mothers
perceive they had support was analyzed to determine its relationship to the quality of
mother-infant interactions.

Hypotheses

The overall purpose of this research was to look for a relationship between
maternal demographic characteristics (age, educational level, marital status) and the
number of situations in which mothers perceive they have support, as well as a
relationship between perceived maternal social support and the quality of mother-infant
interactions.

In order to accomplish these objectives, the following hypotheses were tested.

Hypothesis 1: The number of situations in which low income mothers perceive
they have at least one person to lend support varies as a firnction of age.

Hypothesis 2: The number of situations in which low income mothers perceive
they have at least one person to lend support varies as a function of marital status.

Hypothesis 3: The number of situations in which low income mothers perceive
they have at least one person to lend support varies as a fimction of educational level.

Hypothesis 4: There is a relationship between perceived maternal social support

and the quality of interactions between low income mothers and their infants.

12

Decision Rule: a decision rule with a chance probability of p 5 .05 will be used.
Methods

Regarch Desiga

This study is a descriptive, correlational investigation of the relationships between
maternal characteristics (age, educational level, marital status), maternal social support
and mother-infant interaction. Data for this study are taken from the local research
component of a national longitudinal evaluation study of Early Head Start (EHS).
S_ubie_cts

The subjects for the current study were 100 mothers, ranging in age from 15 to 38
years old, (M = 22.57, _S__I_)_ = 4.82). The majority of the sample were Caucasian (73%)
and African American (14%), while the remaining 13 percent reported their racial status
as Hispanic, Korean, Vietnamese, American Indian, Mexican, or Biracial. Sixty-five
percent of the mothers were single, 19 percent were married, and 16 percent were either
separated (4%) or divorced (12%). There was a wide variance in the mothers’ education
level. Four percent of mothers had less than a fifth grade education, 14 percent
completed ninth grade, 13 percent completed tenth grade, 11 percent completed eleventh
grade, and two percent completed twelfth grade without receiving a diploma. Thirty-
three percent of mothers graduated from high school, 22 percent attended some college
courses, and one percent had an Associate’s degree. All mothers in the sample had
incomes below the national poverty line.
Sampling Procedure and Data Collection

The sample for this secondary data analysis study represented a sub-sample of

low SES status families (and subsequent replacements) participating in a national,

l3

longitudinal evaluation of EHS. The research sample consisted of those families who (1)
have had a child born between 9/1/95 and 6/30/97 who is younger than 12 months of age,
(2) have not participated for 3 months or longer in the Comprehensive Child
Development Program in the past 5 years, (3) have not participated for 3 months or
longer in a Parent Child Center, Head Start, or a similar program in the past year, and (4)
meet federal definitions of families who fall below the 100 percent poverty line. Eligible
families were recruited through a local social service agency. Participating families were
randomly assigned into a participant group or a comparison group by Mathematica, an
independent research organization. Families in the participant group received services
from Early Head Start while families in the comparison group did not receive EHS
services but had access to other services offered by the community at large. For the
purpose of this study, no attempt to compare or contrast these groups drawn from the
same population was made. This study only examined the data collected for all families
(both participant and comparison) during an initial home visit at the time of the families’
enrollment.

Shortly after enrollment, a home visit was scheduled with each mother-infant pair
by a trained data collector from the research team. Data collection was carried out at
enrollment (or at the child’s age of 1 month if enrolled during pregnancy) and at 14, 24,
and 36 months of the child’s age. Some families were also visited when the child was 6
months of age. The estimated time for the home visit was 1 to 2 ‘/2 hours depending on
the extent of data collection. During the home visit, a trained data collector conducted an
interview with the mother about her perceived social support and observed the mother

interacting with her infant during a teaching episode. The mother was asked to select a

14

task, unfamiliar to her infant, from a list of age-appropriate tasks and was then asked to
teach the skill to her infant. Records (patient records and Head Start Family Information
System (HSFIS) forms) were reviewed to collect additional demographics, service
referral and use, and other pertinent data. Mothers received ten dollars as compensation.
Instrumentapion

Mothers completed a demographic questionnaire, answering questions about their
age, educational level, marital status, and annual income. Mothers also completed the
Maternal Social Support Survey (Appendix A). This 19-item scale contained questions
created by the research team designed to ascertain what types of situations mothers felt
they had access to social support. A reliability analysis conducted on the Maternal Social
Support Survey revealed a Cronbach alpha of .91 was found.

The dependent variable of mother-infant interaction was measured using the
Teaching Scale of the Nursing Child Assessment Satellite Training (NCAST). The
NCAST is a 73-item binary scale which is comprised of 4 parental subscales and 2 infant
subscales (Barnard, 1978; Sumner & Speitz, 1994) and yields a total interaction score
(sum of the scores on the subscales). The parental subscales are: Sensitivity to Cures,
which consists of 11 items (with a Cronbach’s alpha of .52); Response to Distress, 11
items (.80); Social-Emotional Growth Fostering, 11 items (.58) and Cognitive Growth
Fostering, 17 items (.78). The infant subscales are: Clarity of Cues and Responsiveness
to Caregivers. Thus, the total parent reliability score is .87, the total child score is .81,
and the overall total score is .87. The parent summary score has an excellent internal
consistency and a high test-retest reliability. Clinicians are trained to ensure an inter-rater

reliability of .85 or better, while researchers must attain an even higher inter-rater

15

reliability of .92; data collectors undergo considerable training to ensure this reliability

(Sumner & Speitz, 1994). The Teaching NCAST is regarded as a viable and respected

measurement instrument with mother-infant dyads, and has proven useful in screening for

dysfunctional interactions between high-risk infants and their mothers (F arel et al., 1991).
Data Analysis

The sample of 100 mothers in the current study was taken fiom the larger EHS
sample of 182 mothers. Of the original 182 cases, 45 cases were deleted due to missing
values for maternal age, 13 cases were deleted due to missing values for marital status,
and 2 cases were deleted due to missing values for maternal educational level. In
addition, 22 cases were dropped due to missing values for the NCAST and the Maternal
Social Support Survey.

For the purposes of statistical analyses, maternal age was dichotornized into
younger (ages 15-21) and older (22 or older) mothers. Fifty-three percent of mothers
were identified as younger, while 47 percent were considered older. Other studies on
adolescent and older mothers (i.e., Wasserman, Brunelli, & Rauh, 1990) have used
Similar age groupings to differentiate younger from older mothers. Maternal marital
status was also dichotomized, with 19 percent of mothers being married and 81 percent of
mothers either single, separated, or divorced. Maternal educational level was divided
into mothers who did not complete high school (44%) and mothers who completed high

school, had some college experience, or had a college degree (56%).

16

Results

Hypothesis 1

The first hypothesis of the current study speculated that the number of situations
in which mothers perceived they had at least one person to provide support would vary
significantly on the basis of age. A one-way ANOVA was used to test this hypothesis,
with age (younger/older mothers) as the independent variable and the Maternal Social
Support Survey as the dependent variable. The mean Maternal Social Support Survey
scores for younger mothers M = 22.4, S_D = 6.6) differed significantly from older
mothers (M = 18.7, S_D = 8.2). Results of the ANOVA demonstrated a statistically
significant difference in perceived social support for younger and older mothers and are

presented in Table 1.

Table 1

One-Way ANOVA for Maternal Age and Perceived Social Support

 

AGE x SUPPORT Sum of Squares df F Probability
Between Groups 354.868 1 6.448 .013
Within Groups 5393.572 98

 

Hypothesis 2

To test hypothesis 2 that perceive maternal social support varies as a function of
marital status, another one-way AN OVA was performed. Maternal marital status
(married/unmarried) was the independent variable and the Maternal Social Support

Survey was the dependent variable. The demographic questionnaire used in the current

17

study did not uncover whether single mothers had a live in partner. The mean score on
the social support survey for the married mothers was 20.4 (SD = 8.6), while the mean
score for single mothers was 20.7 (S_D = 7.4). Results of the ANOVA showed no
significant difference in available social support for married and unmarried mothers. The

results are provided in Table 2.

Table 2
One-Way ANOVA for Mfltal Statusand Perceived Social Support

MARITAL x SUPPORT Sum of Squares df F Probability

 

Between Groups 1.994 1 .034 .854
Within Groups 5746.446 98

 

Hypothesis 3

A one-way AN OVA was run to test the hypothesis that perceived maternal social
support varied as a function of maternal educational level. Maternal educational level
(more educated/less educated) was the independent variable and the Maternal Social
Support Survey was the dependent variable. Mothers who did not graduate from high
school had a mean social support score of 20.3 (S_D = 8.1). Mothers who had higher
educational attainment had a mean social support score of 20.9 (S_D = 7.3). Results did
not show a significant difference in available social support for mothers of different

educational backgrounds. These results are found in Table 3.

l8

Table 3

One-Way ANOVA for Educational Level arid Perceived Social Support

 

EDUCATE x SUPPORT Sum of Squares df F Probability

 

Between Groups 10.442 1 .178 .674
Within Groups 5737.998 98

 

Hypothesis 4

The fourth hypothesis examined the relationship between mothers’ perceived
social support and the quality of interactions between mothers and their infants. Mothers’
scores on the Maternal Social Support Survey and the total score on the NCAST
Teaching measure were the variables used. A Pearson Correlation was performed to
determine if there was a relationship between the two variables, and no statistically
significant relationship was found (r = -.076, p = .453).

In an attempt to obtain more information about the current sample of mothers, the
researcher ran a Pearson correlation with each of the variables in the current study (Table
4). Results indicated strong correlations between marital status and age, as well as
between age and education. Findings also revealed a relationship between mothers’
grade level completed and total NCAST scores. Other correlations were not significant.
Future researchers should take into consideration the ways in which other variables might
impact mother-infant interaction. The researcher also ran additional statistical analyses,
reversing the independent and dependent variables, and no significant results were

obtained.

19

Table 4

Correlations between Maternal Age, Marital Status. Education NCAST Scoresrafi

Perceived Social Support

 

 

Variable 1 2 3 4 5

1. Age -- .396" .404“ .137 -.183
2. Marital Status -- .1 13 -.048 -.O64
3. Education -- .225 * .01 8
4. NCAST -- -.076

5. Social Support --

 

“Correlation significant at p 5 .01
*Correlation significant at p S .05
Discussion

S_Lflmary of findinga

This study examined the variance of perceived maternal social support as a
function of maternal age, educational level, and marital status. Furthermore, maternal
perception of support was examined in relation to the quality of interactions between
mothers and their infants. Based on evidence presented in the social support literature
(Crnic et al., 1984; Eckenrode, 1983; Riley & Eckenrode, 1986), the current study
hypothesized that the perceived maternal social support would vary based on maternal
characteristics (i.e., age, marital status, and educational level).

The results from this study found a significant difference between age of mothers

and the number of Situations in which they felt they had someone to lend them support.

20

Findings indicated that younger mothers (M = 22.4, S_D = 6.6) perceived support in a
greater number of situations than older mothers M = 18.7, SD = 8.2). A possible
explanation for this may be that younger mothers may feel they are more in need of social
support and therefore seek it out, whereas older mothers may be more mature and more
confident in their parenting roles. Also, younger mothers may be more likely to live with
their own mothers and other relatives, and these family members may be offering support
in response to what they perceive the young mother needs (Barratt et al., 1996;
Wasserman et al., 1990). Thus, these young mothers perceive that they do have someone
to lend support in a variety of areas.

The present study failed to detect significant differences in perceived social
support between married and unmarried mothers. The marital status distribution in this
study was highly skewed with only 19 percent of the mothers being married and the
remaining 81 percent being unmarried. Limitations in the secondary data set did not
account for the number of married partners versus live-in partners. Conceivably, mothers
with live-in partners might receive the same type of support as married mothers living
with their spouses. Finally, the results did not support the hypothesis that perceived
support for mothers differed as a firnction of maternal education. Although the present
sample was relatively equally divided between mothers who did and did not complete
high school, it appears that failing to complete high school does not affect the number of
situations in which mothers have someone to lend assistance in times of need. Life
circumstances, such as where the mother lives, may be more salient to her perceived
social support than her educational status. Younger mothers with less educational

attainment may live with their family of origin and therefore have access to support in

21

various circumstances from their own mothers or other relatives. Other studies have
reported the relationship between living arrangements and access to social support. For
example, Wasserman and her colleagues (1990) examined 144 adolescent and 139 older
mothers and found that social support was related to living arrangements. They
concluded that mothers’ age and living arrangements play a role in defining the type and
amount of support she receives.

The current study also sought to replicate the findings of a large body of literature
demonstrating a link between maternal social support and the quality of mother-infant
interaction (e.g., Burchinal, Follmer, & Bryant, 1996; Colletta, 1981; Cooper, Dunst, &
Vance, 1990; Crnic et al., 1983; Park, Lenz, & Jenkins, 1992). However, no relationship
was found in the current study. Other studies have also failed to find a relationship
between social support and scores on parenting measures (i.e., Lamb & Elster, 1985;
Luster et al., 1996; Reis & Herz, 1987). Two conceptual models, which address the
complexity of social support and may help situate the findings of this research in a more
informative context, include Bronfenbrenner’s (1979; 1986) human ecological model and
Belsky’s (1984) model of parenting. Ecological theory views humans as both biological
and social beings in continuous interaction with their environment over time. Belsky’s
model presumes that parenting is directly influenced by parental characteristics, child
characteristics, and the broader social context in which the parent-child relationship is
embedded. Bronfenbrenner states that children in a family are affected not only by what
happens in environments where children spend their time, but also by those environments
in which their parents spend time (e.g., the parent’s social network). Bronfenbrenner also

stresses that the impact of the external environment on family processes is determined,

22

not only by the characteristics of the child, but also to an even larger extent, by the
characteristics of the parent. Ifthis theoretical framework is considered, the results of the
present study support the notion of the reciprocal interaction of these contextual aspects
of childrearing. The absence of single factors accounting for large portions of the
variance supports ecological thinking of complex family systems.

The social support process involves a transactional, reciprocal relationship
between an individual and his or her social network. This process takes place in
fluctuating, multidimensional contexts and is influenced by a variety of personal and
contextual factors (Boger & Smith, in press; Vaux, 1988). The ecological impact of
social support systems also extends to mothers’ parenting satisfaction and competence
(Crnic et al., 1984). In order to embrace an ecological view of this support process,
researchers should be mindful of not only the characteristics of the support network and
the demographic characteristics of the individuals interacting within that network but also
the interactions between all these characteristics.

In addition, other structural aspects (e.g., diversity, density, Size) of social support
should be considered in exploring the role of social support in parenting. In the present
study, constraints of data collection made structural aspects of the maternal social support
network impossible to determine. However, these remain important dimensions of social
support. Existing research has demonstrated advantages and disadvantages to larger,
diverse, high density social support networks for mothers with infants. Diversity,
density, and relationships within support networks provide considerable variety in the
levels of assistance those networks contribute to mothers. Vaux (1988) argues that many

of the advantages to a larger support network may depend on the diversity of the network

23

rather than its size. Diversity of information, opinion, or perspective is likely to be
associated with low-density support networks in which few members know one another.
He states that low-density diverse networks may have a more extensive advantage to
managing major life transitions: relationships with some friends may be allowed to fade,
while relationships with others are nurtured and developed. However, diverse low-
density social networks may enhance confirsion and conflict. A dense homogeneous
support network representing an undivided opinion may be most beneficial to an
individual experiencing a major life transition (Vaux, 1988). How often a dense,
homogeneous network with all members in agreement occurs, however, has not been
discussed.

McPherson and his colleagues (1992), on the other hand, state advantages to
diverse, high-density networks. Members of these networks are likely to share
information that can be transmitted through the network, since their contacts are also
interacting with each other. However, Hirsch (1980) discovered that high-density
networks may be more of a disadvantage. In dealing with a life transition, women with
dense networks in which family and friends tended to know each other reported more
psychological distress, poorer mood, and lower self-esteem than women with less dense
networks.

Clearly, social support is a complex construct embedded in dynamic contexts.
Multiple variables Should be considered in studying the role of social support in
parenting. Often more questions than answers are raised. For example, based on the
results of this study, the question arises whether it is more important to have a person to

provide a specific form of support (i.e., money, childcare, help in decision making) or to

24

have a larger, more dense support network. Larger numbers of people may result in more
opportunities for financial or child care assistance, but these relationships may also create
more conflicts or stresses (Cramere & McDonald, 1996; Nitz, Ketterlinus, & Brandt,
1995; Shinn, Lehmann, & Wong, 1984).
Impfilications formcfitioners aria Resegchers

The findings of the current study are helpful for those individuals working with
mothers and infants in various social settings. Social service workers and interventionists
must take care not to approach younger and older mothers, or less educated and more
educated mothers, assuming deficiencies in one group or the other. The results of this
study indicated that these differences were not significant and that parenting practices and
mother-infant interactions are the expression of many factors interacting simultaneously
over time. Future research should continue to examine how social support affects
mothers experiencing the transition to parenthood. Researchers investigating social
support should utilize a number of relevant, reliable measures in order to best capture the
many interrelated aspects of social support and mother-infant interaction. Defining social
support becomes increasingly more difficult when attempting to assess the differences
between perceived support and actual social support. Perceived social support may be
just as comforting to mothers as actual support; therefore, these perceptions should not be
discounted or dismissed in favor of an “objective” measure of social support collected by
an outside observer. Furthermore, from an ecological standpoint, social support is
subject to change over time and in evolving contexts. Social support measures may be

more sensitive to these changes if administered repeatedly over time.

25

Limitations and assumptions

1. The results of this study are only generalizable to primarily Caucasian, low
income, Midwestern mothers and their infants.

2. This study does not utilize a longitudinal design. A longitudinal assessment
of maternal characteristics, maternal social support, and mother-infant interactions would
allow researchers to examine the relationships between these variables over time.

3. The subjects in this study were selected from an ongoing evaluation. These
mothers’ willingness to participate in this research may differentiate them from other
mothers with Similar characteristics who chose not to participate.

4. This study assumes that mothers are honest when answering questions about
themselves or their infants on a given measure.

5. This study assumes that less intrusive, less controlling, and positive styles of

parenting are characterized as more optimal.

26

Appendix

27

Appendix A

28

Appendix A

Maternal Social Support Survey

Now I have a few questions about the amount of help available to you. I am going to

describe some situations. For each situation, I will ask about the help you could receive.

1. Imagine you have a personal problem and are feeling nervous, anxious, or
depressed. Is there someone you can confide in when you are feeling nervous,

anxious, or depressed?

Yes .......... 01
No ........... 00
2. Next, you need to borrow $100 for an emergency. Is there someone you could

turn to for a $100 emergency loan?

Yes .......... 01
No ........... 00
3. You have a broken leg and will be laid up for three months to heal. Is there

someone you could turn to who would be able to help care for your child(ren) on
a regular basis for these three months?

Yes .......... 01

29

No ........... 00

Something has come up and you must go out unexpectedly during the hours you
usually take care of your children. For one reason or another you cannot take the
children with you. Is there someone who would be willing to babysit for a few
hours on short notice?

Yes .......... 01

No ........... 00

Often people rely on the judgement of someone they know in making important
decisions about their lives. Is there someone whose opinion you consider
seriously in making an important decision?

Yes .......... 01

No ........... 00

After months of sleeping through the night, your child has started waking up
every morning at 3 AM. When (he/she) wakes up, (he/she) seems terribly
fiightened. Even after you have picked (him/her) up, (he/she) starts to scream if
you try to put (him/her) down again. Is there someone who you could turn to for
advice about this?

Yes .......... 01

NO ........... 00

30

7. It is about 6 RM. and your child seems sick. You took (his/her) temperature and
(he/she) is running a fever of 105 degrees. Your doctor’s office has closed, and
you are trying to decide if you should get emergency care for your child. Is there
someone who you could turn to for advice about this?

Yes .......... 01

No ........... 00

The next questions are about how you solve problems and who you turn to for help.

8. Is there someone who you can count on to help you with food shopping?
Yes, all or most of the time .......... 02
Yes, sometimes ........................ 01
No ....................................... 00
9. Is there someone who you can count on to help you with planning and cooking
meals?
Yes, all or most of the time .......... 02
Yes, sometimes ........................ 01
No ....................................... 00

10. Is there someone who you can count on to help you with cleaning the house?
Yes, all or most of the time .......... 02

Yes, sometimes ........................ 01

31

No ....................................... 00

11. Is there someone who you can count on to help you with handling the bills?
Yes, all or most of the time .......... 02
Yes, sometimes ........................ 01
No ....................................... 00

12. Is there someone who you can count on to help you with deciding how the money

should be spent?

Yes, all or most of the time .......... 02
Yes, sometimes ........................ 01
No ....................................... 00
13. IS there someone who you can count on to help you with taking care of your
child/children?
Yes, all or most of the time .......... 02
Yes, sometimes ........................ 01
No ....................................... 00

14. Is there someone who you can count on to comfort you when you are sad?

Yes, all or most of the time .......... 02
Yes, sometimes ........................ 01
No ....................................... 00

32

15. Is there someone who you can count on to take care of you when you are sick?

Yes, all or most of the time .......... 02
Yes, sometimes ........................ 01
No ....................................... 00
16. Is there someone who you can count on to have fun with?
Yes, all or most of the time .......... 02
Yes, sometimes ........................ 01
No ....................................... 00

17. Is there someone who you can count on to talk with you about things that upset

you?
Yes, all or most of the time .......... 02
Yes, sometimes ........................ 01
No ....................................... 00
18. Is there someone who you can count on to talk with you about your private
feelings?
Yes, all or most of the time .......... 02
Yes, sometimes ........................ 01
No ....................................... 00

33

19. Is there someone who you can count on to tell you that you are okay the way you

are?
Yes, all or most of the time .......... 02
Yes, sometimes ........................ 01
No ....................................... 00

34

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35

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