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1/99 animus-n14

EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF THE NATURAL CONVECT IVE TRANSFER
OF AIR THROUGH A COMPOSTING MEDIA

By

Andrew Charles Fogiel

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER IN SCIENCE

Department of Agricultural Engineering

1998

ABSTRACT
EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF THE NATURAL CONVECTIVE TRANSFER
OF AIR THROUGH A COMPOSTING MEDIA
By

Andrew Charles Fogiel

An experimental apparatus was developed capable of allowing the measurement
of airflow through a passively aerated composting media. The chamber was used to
verify that natural convection is the primary mechanism of aeration in such systems.
Measured air velocities were checked against models based on (1) Darcian flow through
a porous media, (2) process kinetics, and (3) air required to account for moisture lost
during the process. A stoichiometric oxygen demand model was applied to check the
oxygen content measurements against the estimated amount of carbon consumed during

the process.

Air velocities predicted using process kinetics were closest to measured air
velocities. This model and the moisture removal based model could only be applied to
stages of the composting process that were near or at steady-state. Darcian flow based
model underestimated the actual measured airflow and did not account for changes in
moisture, bulk density, and overall compost mass. The stoichiometric demand model
used roughly estimated oxygen needed to consume a known quantity of carbon was

comparable to levels measured during the process.

To my family.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Lord Creator certainly blessed my time with this research project and I have
countless individuals to thank. First and foremost I want to thank my committee
members for helping me get this thesis together. My Major Professor, Dr. Bob von
Bernuth, provided direction, support, and motivation to pull all the data together in a
matter of a few months. Dr. Fred Michel provided valuable insight and direction in how
to analyze and present the data. I especially want to thank Dr. Ted London for providing
me the initial opportunity to work in composting research and education, an area I feel I
have truly found my niche in, and for providing an immeasurable amount of moral and

spiritual support.

Additional thanks to Dr. Ajit Srivastiva, chair of the Department of Agricultural
Engineering, for the help he gave me to get all the right pieces in place. Dr. K.C. Das
guided me in the right direction from the start with the design of the experimental
chamber and for actually believing it might work. Dr. Dale Rozeboom and the MSU
Swine Teaching and Research Center manager Alan Snedegar were especially
cooperative in providing me the facility to conduct this research in. Richard Wolthuis
ensured I did not burn myself with the cutting torch, and always had a practical
suggestion whenever I was looking for one. The Michigan Composting Council provided
me the opportunity to work with the composting industry to better educate and build

understanding throughout the state of Michigan about the endless benefits of composting.

iv

 

 

Finally to my family in Delaware and in France, and my friends across the United
States, for always being there through the good, the bad, and the ugly. I am especially
grateful that my Mom was into backyard composting before I was born. Her support had
no boundaries even when the “chips” were down. My biggest criticand at the same time,
biggest supporter, has been and will always be my Dad. Although to him making a living
in composting just does not make any sense, he has never questioned and has always

encouraged my desire to excel as a researcher, teacher, pupil, and son.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Egg

List ofTables ....................... x
List of Figures ........................................................................................ xi
List of Symbols ..................................................................................... xiii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ......................................................... l
1.1 Overview of Composting ........................................................... 1

1.1.1 Definition .................................................................... 1
1.1.2 Critical Factors .............................................................. 2
1.2 Aeration ............................................................................... 2

1.3 Modeling .............................................................................. 3
CHAPTER 2: OBJECTIVES ............................................................... 4
CHAPTER3: LITERATUREREVIEW ........... 5
3.1 Overview of the Composting Process ............................................. 5

3.2 Microbiology of Composting ....................................................... 8

3.3 Composting Methods .............................................................. 10

3.3.1 Windrow Composting .................................................... 10

3.3.2 Passively Aerated Windrow Composting .............................. 12

3.4 Modeling .................................................................................... 13
3.4.1 Modeling Natural Convection Processes .............................. 14

3.4.2 Modeling Compost Aeration Based on Darcian
Flow Through a Porous Media ......................................... 15

vi

 

CHAPTER 4:

4.1

4.2

4.3

4.4

4.5

4.6

4.7

4.9

3.4.3 Modeling Compost Aeration Based on Compost Kinetics. . . . . . 18

3.4.4 Modeling Airflow Based On Moisture Removal ..................... 22
3.4.5 Modeling Aeration Based On Stoichiometn'c Demands ............. 24
Materials and Methodology ............................... ' ....................... 2 8
Experimental Requirements ...................................................... 28
Compost Experimental Design .................................................. 29
4.2.1 Compost Chamber ........................................................ 29
4.2.2 Sensor and Probe Location .............................................. 32
4.2.3 Compost Materials ........................................................ 33
Instrumentation ..................................................................... 35

4.3.1 Solomat MPM-4100 Environmental Monitoring System. . . . . . ......35

4.3.2 Campbell Scientific CR-21X datalogger .............................. 38
4.3.3 Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Gas Analysis ........................... 39
Compost Moisture Content ....................................................... 41
Compost Organic Matter Content ............................................... 42
Compost Mass and Moisture Balance ......................................... 43
Compost Permeability Measurement ........................................... 44
Predicting Velocity ............................................................... 46
4.9.1 Darcian Flow Based Model ............................................. 47
4.9.2 Process Kinetics Based Model .......................................... 49
4.9.3 Moisture Removal Based Model ....................................... 51

4.9.4 Predicting Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Content

and Aeration Requirement Based On A

vii

 

CHAPTER 5:

5.1

5.2

5.3

5.4

5.5

CHAPTER 6:

6.1

Simplified Stoichiometric Respiration Model ........................ 52

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS .......................................... 53
General Observations .............................................................. 53
Measured Data ........................ 54
5.2.1 Composting Trial Run 1 ................................................ 54
5.2.2 Composting Trial Run 3 — Initial Stage ............................... 58
5.2.3 Composting Trial Run 3 — After 1 Turn .............................. 64
5.2.4 Composting Trial Run 4 — Initial Stage ............................... 69
Permeability ........................................................................ 75
5.3.1 Composting Trial Run 3 — Following 1 Turn ......................... 75
5.3.2 Composting Trial Run 4 — Initial Stage ................................ 77
Decomposition Rate — Trial 4 ................................................... 78
Predicted Velocities ............................................................... 79
5.5.1 DarcianFlowModel........................................... ........... 80

5.5.1.1 Composting Trial Run 3 — Following 1 Turn ................ 80

5.5.1.2 Composting Trial Run 4 — Initial Phase ...................... 82
5.5.2 Process Temperature (Kinetics) Based Flow Model ................. 83
5.5.3 Moisture Removal Based Flow Model ................................ 84
5.5.4 Stoichiometric Demand ................................................. 85

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS .......................................... 87
Experimental Results Demand .................................................. 87
6.1.1 Composting Trial Run 1 ................................................ 87
6.1.2 Composting Trial Run 3: Initial Stage ................................ 87

viii

6.1.3 Composting Trial Run 3: Following 1 Turn ......................... 89

6.1.4 Composting Trial Run 4 ................................................. 93
6. 1.5 Compost Permeability ................................................... 98
6.1.6 Compost Decomposition Rate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..' ....................... 99
6.2 Assessment of Model Behavior and Characteristics ......................... 100
6.2.1 Darcian Flow Based Model ............................................ 100
6.2.2 Flow to Maintain Process Kinetics Model ........................... 103
6.2.3 Flow to Account For Moisture Removal Model ................... 104
6.2.4 Stoichiometric Respiration Balance .................................. 105
6.3 Comparison of Composting Model Results .................................. 106
CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSIONS ....................................................... 108
CHAPTER 8: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH .......... 109
APPENDICIES
APPENDIX A: Raw Data ...................................................... 114
APPENDIX B: Organic Matter Raw Data .................................... 200
APPENDIX C: Permeability Raw Data ....................................... 202
References .......................................................................................... 207

Table 3.1.

Table 5.1.

Table 5.2.

Table 5.3.

Table 5.4.

Table 5.5.

Table 5.6.

Table 5.7.

Table 5.8.

Table 5.9.

LIST OF TABLES

Description of primary microorganisms in composting (Rynk 1992) ...... 8
Summary of information and data collected during study .................. 55
Initial and “Final” Moisture Content of Compost — Trial 1 ................. 58

Moisture Content of Initial Compost Mixture and

Following Tuming— Trial 3 .............. 62

Moisture Content of Initial and Final Compost Mixture—
Trial 3, After 1 Turn ......... 64
Moisture Content, Bulk Density, Compost Mass,
and Water Mass of Initial Compost, Compost After 1 Turn,
and Final Compost Mixture— Trial 4 ............ 70
Permeability at Different Bulk Densities of
Hand Packed Cores- Trial 3 After 1 Turn ............. 76
Compost and Moisture Mass Balance, and Mass Ratio
For Trial 4 Compost Material ........... 78
Process Temperature Based Predicted Velocities and
Measured Velocities — Trial 4, Initial Phase .......... 84
Moisture Removal Based Predicted Velocities and

Measured Velocities — Trial 4, Initial Phase ....... 85

 

Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.2.

Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.2.
Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.2.

Figure 5.3.

Figure 5.4.

Figure 5.5.

Figure 5.6.

Figure 5.7.

Figure 5.8.

Figure 5.9.

Figure 5.10.

LIST OF FIGURES

Idealized Temperature Profile (adapated from Epstein, 1997) ............... 9

Schematic of the Chimney Affect (adapted from Haug 1993) ..............

Experimental passively aerated compost apparatus ...........................
Compost permeability apparatus ................................................
Compost Trial 1 Temperature Data (4:1 Dairy Manure to Leaf Mix).
Compost Trial 1 Lateral Temperature Distribution (0.3-m height).
Ambient Temperature, Oxygen Content, and Relative Humidity
Measurements — Trial 3, Initial Phase .........
Compost Temperature, Oxygen, and Inlet Air Velocity
Measurements — Trial 3, Initial Phase ........
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Measurements — Trial 3, Initial Phase.... ..
Volume of Compost — Trial 3, Initial Phase ...................................
Ambient Temperature and Relative Humidity Measurements —
Trial 3, After 1 Turn ............
Temperature, Oxygen, and Air Velocity Measurements —
Trial 3, After 1 Turn ..........
Volume of Compost — Trial 3, After 1 Turn ...................................
Ambient Temperature and Oxygen Content Measurements —

Trial 4, Initial Phase ............

xi

11

30

45

.56

.57

59

60

.63

63

65

66

68

69

Figure 5.11.

Figure 5.12.

Figure 5.13.

Figure 5.14.

Figure 5.15.

Figure 5.16.

Figure 5.17.

Figure 5.18.

Figure 6.1.

Compost Temperature, Oxygen and Air Velocity Measurements -

Trial 4, Initial Phase ............... 72
Volume of Compost — Trial 4, Initial Stage ................................... 74
Velocity And Pressure Drop Relationship Used For Determining
Permeability - Trial 3 After 1 Turn ........... 76
Velocity And Pressure Drop Relationship Used For Determining
Permeability - Trial 4, Initial Stage .......... 77
Decomposition Rate Curve - Trial 4, Initial Stage ........................... 79
Temperature and Predicted Air Velocities of Different Permeabilities —

Trial 3, After 1 Turn .............. 80
Darcian Predicted Air Velocities — Trial 3, After 1 Turn ................... 81
Darcian Predicted Air Velocities — Trial 4, Initial Phase .................... 82

Comparison of measured and predicted air velocities - Trial 4 ........... 107

xii

LIST OF SYMBOLS

A = cross sectional area of compost container, m2

Ar = content of argon = 0.009 (atmospheric)

cpa = specific heat of ambient air, kJ/kg

cv = specific heat of vapor for dew point temperatures, kJ/kg-K

C105. = mass of carbon lost, kg carbon

C02 = content of carbon dioxide measured (produced) in compost, %
CleqO,Ns - aHzO = organic matter

CtHuOvNw - cH20 = compost

dH20 = water evaporated

eHZO = water produced

b02 = oxygen consumed

g = acceleration of gravity, m2/sec

h; = heat of combustion of materials, kJ/kg

HAO = enthalpy of outlet air, kJ/kg

HA1 = enthalpy of inlet air, kJ/kg

k = rate of disappearance of dry matter (decomposition rate), day'l

K = permeability of the porous medium, In2
L = length of compost column, In

LV = latent heat of vaporization, kJ/kg

m(6) = dry mass of compost at time 6, kg

In.2 = equilibrium dry mass, kg

xiii

 

m0 = initial dry compost mass, kg

m(0) = dry mass of compost at time 0, kg

mR = compost mass ratio

M = mass of air required, kg dry air/kg dry compost
Mdc = mass of oven-dried compost and crucible, g
Mac = mass of ash and crucible, g

Mc = mass of crucible, g

MCwb = moisture content, wet basis, %

ch = mass of wet compost and container (pie plate), g
Mdc = mass of dry compost and container (pie plate), g
Mc = mass of container (pie plate), g

n = number of moles of air

N = content of nitrogen = 0.78 (atmospheric)

02 = content of oxygen measured in compost, %
OM0 = initial organic matter content, kg

OM(0) = organic matter at time 0, kg

OM = organic matter content, percent

AP = pressure drop across length L

P = pressure (assumed atmospheric) = 101.3 kPa
PAIR = atmospheric pressure, mm Hg

PVS = saturation water vapor pressure, mm Hg

q = volumetric air flow rate, m3/sec

Q(0) = total airflow at time 6, m3/day

xiv

R = universal gas constant

T = Temperature of air, K

AT = temperature difference between ambient air and compost air, °C
V= volume of air, m3
V: average velocity over time 0

was = saturated moisture content of air, kg/kg

wa= moisture content of air, dry basis, kg/kg

wak = moisture content of compost, dry basis, kg/kg

wako = initial moisture content of compost, wet weight basis, kg

wak(6) = moisture content of compost at time 6, wet weight basis, kg

W = amount of moisture removed over time 0, kg water/kg dry compost
6 = time, day

it: fluid viscosity, kg/m/s

1): specific volume of air, m3/kg

v = air velocity, m/s

pc = density of air in compost, kg/m3

pa = p = density of air, kg/m3

pa, = density of air at inlet, kg/ m3

o) = specific humidity, kg water/kg dry air

tom = specific humidity of exit air, kg water/kg dry air

(Dime; = specific humidity of inlet air, kg water/kg dry air

XV

 

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview of Composting

Composting has gained significant attention as a means of diverting a variety of
organic materials from the waste stream and recycling them into a finished product with
many benefits to the soil environment. Compost improves soil tilth, fertility, moisture
holding capacity, infiltration, resistance to erosion, and reduction in diseases. But many
challenges face the composting industry especially in dealing with the dynamics and
complexities associated with handling and processing large amounts of organic residuals.
These challenges are expected to only increase as a higher variety of organic materials

are diverted from landfills and recycled through composting.

1.1.1 Definition

There is no universally accepted definition for composting, but basically it is the
practice of controlling and optimizing a naturally occurring biological process in which
aerobic microorganisms decompose various organic materials to yield carbon dioxide
gas, heat, water, and a stable, soil-like product called humus, or compost. Understanding
the biological aspects of composting is beneficial for making sound management and

operational decisions in controlling and optimizing the composting process.

1‘“. T"

 

QLCritical Factors

Factors critical to managing the composting process include quality of the
feedstocks, moisture, aeration, and temperature. Optimizing the composting process
requires being able to control these critical factors as much as possible and is the
challenge to developing best management strategies. On-farm composting management
strategies are based largely on practical experience and relative to most other farming
practices have received little scientific study. There is a need for improved understanding
of the overall process on order that researchers can study ways of optimizing the overall

process.

1.2 Aeration

Aeration in naturally and passively aerated composting systems is assumed to
occur by convection (Lynch et al. 1995, Haug 1993). Researchers have observed and
reported compost mixtures that went anaerobic within hours of initial mixing and
following turning of the material (Luflcin et al. 1995, Haug 1993, Miller et a1. 1989). If
the compost mixture does not provide adequate aeration, the oxygen demand of aerobic
microorganisms is sufficient to deplete the oxygen resulting in increased anaerobic
microbial activity. Anaerobic activity leads to the production of a variety of odorous

compounds, and odor control is a significant management challenge.

Materials at the outer edge of a Windrow or pile decompose at a much slower rate
than materials within the Windrow or pile. Also, heterogeneity in moisture, temperature,

and oxygen concentration occur in piles. Turning the compost is necessary for mixing

the materials and for ensuring uniform decomposition. It is widely believed that turning

provides sufficient aeration for composting, but that is no longer the case.

There is a need to investigate methods that will improve aeration and at the same
time reduce the machinery needs and overall amount of energy input to the composting
process. Turning the compost often comes down to availability of time rather than trying

to optimally managing the process (Rynk 1992).

1.3 Modelirg

Scientifically based modeling and application to managing the composting
process has been mostly limited to forced aerated composting systems. Naturally aerated
composting which is most commonly used in on-farm composting situations has seen
limited application of modeling in improving the operation and management of the
process. Such models are difficult to nearly impossible to verify due to the fact that
lower than measurable air velocities are predicted to be entering a naturally aerated
composting medium (Lynch et al. 1995, Michel et al. 1995, Haug 1980 and 1993, Miller

et al. 1989).

The inability to measure and quantify the air velocity parameter alone has been
the hurdle in verifying process modeling of a naturally aerated composting process. Until
progress can be made in this area, improvements of how the composting process is
managed will continue to be done the way it has been done for thousands of years, by

trial and error.

CHAPTER 2

OBJECTIVES

. Develop an experimental apparatus capable of measuring airflow through a passively

aerated composting media.

. Verify that natural convection is the primary mechanism for aeration through a

passively aerated composting media.

CHAPTER 3

LITERATURE REVIEW

3.1 Overview of the Composting Process

Composting is the practice of managing and optimizing a naturally occurring
biological process in which aerobic microorganisms decompose organic materials to
yield carbon dioxide gas, heat, water, and a stable, soil-like product called humus, or
compost. If the process goes anaerobic, offensive odors are generated which can lead to
problems with neighboring communities. Understanding the composting process is very
important for making proper management decisions in ensuring odors are minimized, the

process is optimized, and resulting end product is of maximum quality.

In nature, dead plant and animal matter is decomposed slowly into humus
primarily by microorganisms that are widely distributed in the environment. ' The rate at
which these microorganisms decompose organic materials to humus depends on the
relative amounts of carbon and nitrogen in the material mix, the availability of oxygen,
environmental factors such as temperature and moisture, and on physical factors such as

particle size of the materials being consumed.

The overall objective in managing the composting process is to create and
maintain an optimal environment for specific microbial communities to decompose
organic matter as efficiently and as fast as possible. Management of the composting

process requires proper mixing of materials based on the ratio of carbon to nitrogen (C :N

‘3!- It}.

 

ratio) in the input materials, periodic monitoring of factors such as compost temperature,

moisture, and oxygen and/or carbon dioxide levels.

As aerobic decomposition occurs, carbon is lost as carbon dioxide gas, and
nitrogen is conserved. The higher rate of carbon loss results in a decrease of the C:N
ratio of the mixture. The volume of the composting material is reduced by 50 to 60%
while the weight is reduced by 40-80% mostly due to moisture loss (Rynk 1992). The
pH varies depending on feedstocks, but optimum decomposition by thermophilic bacteria
has been found to occur in mixtures with a pH range of 7.5 to 8.5 (Epstein 1997). Michel
et al. (1995) reported an increase of pH during composting of leaf, grass, and brush
mixtures, but pH can both increase and decrease during composting depending on the

feedstock mixture (Rynk 1992).

If oxygen is lacking during composting the process will go into anaerobic
decomposition, or fermentation. Aerobic decomposition converts organic matter into
carbon dioxide gas, water, and heat, while nitrogen is converted into nitrate. If the pH
rises above 7.5 to 8.0, ammonia will also be released. Anaerobic decomposition converts
organic matter into carbon dioxide gas, methane gas, various alcohol compounds, and
volatile fatty acids (VFA’s), nitrogen is converted to ammonia, and sulfur compounds are

converted to hydrogen sulfide gas.

Anaerobic zones will likely form in particles within well managed compost piles

or windrows (Atkinson et a1 1996, Hamelers 1993, Haug 1993). If the interstitial Oz

 

5'14:-

content falls below 5% the composting process will start to go anaerobic (Rynk 1992).
The VFA’s, ammonia, and hydrogen sulfide gas are all odorous products. The odors are
released when the windrows are turned and can create problems for a facility located near
commercial or residential areas. It is unreasonable to think composting can be conducted
without generating some odors. But these odors can be minimized through properly
mixing the feedstocks and managing to ensure that adequate aeration, moisture, and

temperature are maintained throughout the composting process.

Diffusion of oxygen plays a significant role in particle kinetics (Hamelers 1993).
Its role during the process is limited to supplying oxygen to particles provided sufficient
interstitial oxygen levels are maintained (Epstein 1997, Haug 1993, Miller et al. 1989).
The size of the particles play a significant role in the overall process kinetics (Haug

1993).

Particle sizes of 1.0 cm were predicted to have large diffusion resistances that
would result in the formation of anaerobic zones within the particle during the process
(Hamelers 1993, Haug 1993). Particle sizes on the order of 0.1 cm and lower were
predicted to be small enough that oxygen diffusion equals the rates of oxygen demand
(Haug 1993). But such small particle sizes would become a physically limiting factor for
supplying oxygen to a windrow or pile (Lynch et al. 1995, Haug 1993). Therefore, a
balance of particle size is required to meet the particle oxygen demand while providing

adequate pore space for aeration.

3; Microbiology of Composting

Composting is a process carried out primarily by microorganisms that decompose
organic materials. The major groups of microorganisms that are active during
composting are bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi. Each group has diverse members that
function under a variety of environmental conditions. A summary of these

microorganisms is given in Table 3.1.

Microbial groups are also classified based on the temperature ranges in which
they are active. Mesophilic microbes are active from 10°C to 50 °C, and thermophilic
microbes are active from 45 °C to 70 °C. Most organic matter breakdown occurs at
thermophilic temperatures, but microbial activity will rapidly decrease if temperatures

exceed 70 °C (Rynk 1992).

Table 3.1. Description of primary nucroorgamsms in composting (Rynk 1992)
Merobiafdroup ..... ,_ , _ A , . ,

a ...... . . . . . . ,_ .. . .,
BacterIa Microscopic organisms that are very SimplIstic and can exist in a

.....

Description .. 7

variety of forms and environmental conditions. Most numerous
group of microorganisms active during composting and generally
considered the fastest decomposer.

Fungi (molds) Larger than bacteria, more tolerant of low-moisture and low-pH
conditions, but less tolerant of low-oxygen conditions.
Decompose woody substances and other decay-resistant materials
better than bacteria.

Actinomycetes Similar in structure to fungi, but they are actually bacteria.
Primarily aerobic, more pronounced after easily degraded

compounds are gone and when moisture and temperature is low.

 

Temperature is one of the main indicators of microbial activity. A typical
temperature trend observed in a properly managed compost windrow over the first 50
days of composting is shown in Figure 3.1. Ranges in which mesophilic and
thermophilic microbes thrive are indicated. Bacteria flourish in the early stages of

composting consuming the easily degraded materials.

Fungi and actinomycetes become most active near the end of composting
consuming materials that are more difficult to consume. Bacteria will dominate
composting as long as conditions are favorable. Fungi gain an advantage at low pH,

while low-moisture favors both fungi and actinomycetes.

 

75

 

25

 

' A ..e _ 20

60 _.....

45

 

15

Temperature, °C

30

 

III-IIII- Oxygen, %

15

 

Anaerobic Microbes Activity Range

0 I l I I I 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

 

 

 

Days

 

 

 

Figure 3. 1. Idealized Temperature Profile (adapated from Epstein, 1997)

Optimum C:N ratios vary depending on the materials composted, but the

generally accepted range is 25:1 to 30:1 (Rynk 1992). The composting process can be

adversely affected if there is excessive or insufficient carbon or nitrogen.
Microorganisms utilize carbon for energy and growth and nitrogen is a vital source of

protein and essential for reproduction.

Moisture is important for the metabolic processes of the microbes. The generally
accepted range of moisture is 40-65 percent on a wet weight basis. The water provides
the medium required for chemical reactions and transport of nutrients. Excessive water
content is detrimental because it displaces air in the pore spaces of the composting

material leading to oxygen diffusional limitations and anaerobic conditions.

3.3 Composting Methods

A large portion of the scientific understanding of the compost process has come
from composting high-water content materials such as sewage sludge and certain manure
(Haug 1993). These materials are typically composted in enclosed or in-vessel systems
that allow near-complete control of moisture, aeration, and temperature. Enclosed
composting systems are typically expensive and unfeasible compared to windrow and
pile composting systems for applications where the volume of the materials are high, the

moisture contents are relatively low, and adequate land space is available.

3.3.1 Windrow Composting

One of the most common methods for on-farm composting is windrow
composting (Rynk 1992). In windrow composting, a raw mixture of organic materials is

placed in elongated, trapezoidal piles called windrows. Windrows with the proper

10

dimensions and structure are thought to aerate naturally by a chimney effect or
convection (Figure 3.2) where rising heat generated inside the pile draws in cooler air

from the bottom and sides of the windrow.

Turning windrows decreases particle size, releases carbon dioxide, and blends the
composting material to enhance uniform decomposition and weed seed kill. Until
recently, turning was also thought to be a significant source of oxygen during
composting. But researchers have found that a majority of the oxygen introduced at
turning is used by microbial respiration within only hours (Lufkin et al. 1995, Michel et
al. 1995). Therefore, the primary mechanism of oxygen transfer into windrows is

convection

 

The Chimney Affect

Heat from biological activity rises
drawing in air that provides
oxygen to microbes.

Compost Pile

Microbes decompose Cooler outside air

materials generating heat ____———-“

 

 

 

Figure 3. 2. Schematic of the Chimney Affect (adapted from Haug 1993)

11

lfl Pa_ssivelv Aerated Windrow Composting

An adaptation of the windrow method is called passively aerated windrow
composting. The experimental apparatus developed for and the overall scope of this study
was based on the passively aerated windrow and pile method described by Lynch et a1

(1995), and a low-velocity, forced aeration apparatus developed and used by Das et al.

(1997).

In passively aerated windrow composting, perforated pipes are inserted at specific
locations long the base of compost piles or windrows enhancing aeration through the
composting media. The windrows or piles are formed on a porous base such as gravel or
straw into which the pipes are inserted. Passively aerated windrow composting is
preferred when less turning is desired or when the feedstock materials are wetter than
desirable for windrow composting (greater than 65% wet weight moisture content).
However, the raw materials require more thorough initial mixing, and if ambient air is
relatively dry, conserving moisture during the process will become a management

challenge.

Sartaj et al. (1997) compared the performance of forced, passive, and natural
aeration methods for composting manure slunies. Passive aeration had a similar process
rate to forced aeration and both methods were quicker than the natural aeration method.
Passive aeration was found to provide adequate oxygen without adversely cooling the

process, involved less labor, and was more effective in conserving nitrogen than forced

12

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,...
HI"
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aeration. Passive aeration maintained high process temperatures (>55°C) longer than

both the forced and natural aeration methods.

Further understanding of naturally and passively aerated Windrow composting is
needed over a wider variety of feedstock materials and different mixtures. The use of
models in the design and engineering of these systems has been limited by the inability to
verify these models. This is primarily due to the inability to measure and quantify the
relatively low air velocities associated with natural convective airflow (Lynch et al.,

1995, Michel et al., 1995, Haug 1993, Keener et al., 1993, Miller et al., 1989).

3.4 Modelig

Several numerical models have been developed in order to better understand the
behavior of the composting process (Das et al. 1997; Strombaugh et al. 1996; Lynch et a1.
1995; Haug 1993; Hamelers 1993; Keener et al. 1993). With the exception of the Lynch
et a1. (1995) model, a majority of the models are based on forced aeration and not natural

convection.

Haug (1993) developed one of the most detailed computer simulation models of
the composting process, but is mostly limited to in-vessel systems in which moisture, air
and temperature can be controlled directly. These factors are nearly impossible to
manage with aeration windrow composting systems. But many of the fundamental
concepts of the aerobic composting process developed by Haug (1993) can be applied to

a naturally or passively aerated composting process.

13

3.4.1 Modeling Natural Convection Processes

Naturally and passively aerated windrow systems have been demonstrated to be
feasible, but the design and engineering procedures are not easily extended to different
pile configurations or mixtures of feedstock materials (Lynch et al. 1995; Haug 1993).
Unlike forced aeration systems, verifying models of the naturally and passively aerated
composting process has been difficult due to the low ventilation velocities predicted by
natural convection models (Lynch et al. 1995; Michel et al. 1995; Haug 1993; Miller et

al. 1989).

Aeration in windrow composting is one of the most important aspects and
challenges in properly managing the composting process and is also one of the least
understood. Aeration in passively and naturally aerated windrow composting is thought
to occur primarily through the natural connective movement of air caused by the heating
of the composting media. Haug (1980) developed a complicated hydraulic model to
simulate the process of natural ventilation in a composting media, but reported that it was

virtually impossible to develop an experiment to verify the natural ventilation process.

Researchers have only been able to imply that convection is the primary
mechanism by which oxygen is supplied into a naturally aerated composting (Michel et
al. 1995; Lynch et a1. 1995; Haug 1993; Miller et al. 1989; Ferrnor et al. 1985).
Verification of composting models has therefore been limited to systems employing

forced aeration.

14

Models published by Lynch et al. (1995), Haug (1993), and Keener et al. (1993)
were used to evaluate the data collected in this study and to verify that natural convection
was the primary mechanism of aeration. A simple stoichiometric model based on

respiration was developed and also used for data evaluation.

3.4.2 Modeling Compost Aeration B_a_sed on I;a_r§i_an Flow Through a Porous Media
Lynch et al. (1995) developed a model for passively aerated compost piles which
have porous pipes placed at the base to enhance aeration. The model follows the flow of
air first into and exiting the porous pipes, and second vertically through the compost pile
itself. The second part, airflow in the vertical direction, was the initial focus and

foundation of this study.

The Lynch et al. (1995) model is based on Darcy’s Law written as

v=-£-(AP;) (3.1)

u (L)
Where
v = air velocity
it = fluid viscosity
K = permeability of the porous medium
L = length of compost column

AP = pressure drop across length L

15

The pressure difference AP is the driving force of natural convection on and when
expressed in terms of difference in air densities between the heated compost air and the
cooler ambient air has the form

AP=(p-pc)gL ' (3.2)
Where
p = density of air entering the base of compost, leg/m3
pc = density of air in compost, kg/m3

g = acceleration of gravity, m2/sec

Lynch et a1. (1995) assumed the temperature of the compost (Tc) and
consequently pc are constant throughout the pile. Density of air can be estimated using

the Ideal Gas Law in the form

 

p = = (3.3)
v ,

Where

p = density of air, kg/m3

u= specific volume of air, m3/kg

P = pressure (assumed atmospheric) = 101.3 kPa

n = number of moles of air

R = universal gas constant = 8.3145 kPa - m3/ mol- K
T = Temperature of air, K

(add a subscript “c” to p and T terms to express compost air)

16

The effect of water vapor is significant to the difference in densities between
ambient air and air within the compost (Lynch et al. 1995). Bach et al. (1987) found that
air leaving compost piles is saturated when the compost is at a moisture content greater

than 50%, and is at 95% when compost moisture contents were in the range of 45 to 50%.

Haug (1993) and Hamelers (1993) assumed air exiting compost forced aeration
systems to be saturated which greatly simplified analytical and numerical modeling of the
aerobic composting process. Assuming air exiting a naturally aerated composting media

is saturated simplifies the estimation of exit air density from exit air temperature.

Air density can also be expressed as a function of oxygen and carbon dioxide
content through the universal gas constant R. Based on the standard chemical
composition of atmospheric air (W east 1982), R can be solved with the form

R_ 8.314
(Nx28+Arx40+0 x32+C0 x44
2 2

 

(3.4)

Where

R = universal gas constant, kPa - m3/ kg - K
N = content of nitrogen = 0.78 (atmospheric)
Ar = content of argon = 0.009 (atmospheric)
02 = content of oxygen measured in compost

C02 = content of carbon dioxide measured in compost

The permeability factor (K) can be obtained by“ measuring the pressure drop (AP)

across a length of a column (L) packed with compost, as a function of air velocity (v),

17

and rearranging Darcy's Law (Equation 1) to solve for K. Published information for

permeability (K) of various composting mixtures and how it is affected by factors such as

particle size, bulk density, and moisture content of the compost media is limited.

3.4.3 ModelinLCompost Aeration Based on Compost Kinetics

Keener et al. (1993) derived a complex set of analytical expressions that

demonstrate the interdependence between biological and physical factors. Equations are

developed based on energy and mass balances for a composting system. Modeling of the

compost process kinetics is limited to the first stage of composting which is the time

when substrate is most readily available for microbial decomposition.

The following assumptions were made in developing the equations:

1)

2)

3)
4)
5)

6)

Temperature of compost air equals temperature of compost material at a
given location,

Temperature of air leaving a control volume is temperature within the
volume,

No compost crosses the boundaries of the control volume,

Heat loss from system due to conduction and radiation is zero,

Compost mass is maintained at a moisture level > 45 percent, and

Air leaving system is saturated.

18

During the first stage of composting, the rate of biomass reduction was assumed

to be a first order reaction. This rate of disappearance equation is written as

dm (0)
7E—

: —k(m(9) —m,) (3.5)
Where

0 = time, day

m(6) = dry mass of compost at time 6, kg

me = equilibrium dry mass, kg

k = rate of disappearance of dry matter (decomposition rate), day'1

The dry equilibrium mass, me, represents the amount of materials which remain
after a long period of composting, typically taken at 6 months to 1 year and includes the
mass of both ash and organic matter. Decomposition of the organic matter by

microorganisms at this point is assumed to be limited.

The decomposition rate, k, can be derived from experimental data. If k is

constant, the solution of equation takes the form:

mR = m = -e"‘9 (3.6)
m0 _mC

Where
mR = compost mass ratio

m0 = initial dry compost mass, kg

19

The compost mass ratio is a dimensionless number used to describe how far the
process has advanced relative to the final equilibrium mass, me. Although published
information on values of k is limited, k varies greatly with different types of materials

(Keener et al. 1993).

Heat generated during composting was related to the enthalpies of air entering and
exiting the process under steady state conditions, and the heat generated by substances,
termed heat of combustion. Aeration becomes important in terms of maintaining process
temperatures. Without adequate aeration, the heat generated can accumulate and bring
process temperatures above optimal conditions (> 65 °C) and microbial activity will

rapidly decrease slowing the composting process.

Keener et al. (1993) developed an expression for the theoretical airflow rate
required for maintaining a constant temperature during the composting process. Based
on the energy balance at steady state conditions for a constant flow adiabatic process, the

theoretical air flow rate is given by

—khc

= (3.7)
[HAG—HA1]

 

4

Where

q = volumetric air flow rate, m3/sec

hc = heat of combustion of materials, kJ/kg
HAO = enthalpy of outlet air, kJ/kg

HA1: enthalpy of inlet air, kJ/kg

20

The expression in the denominator in equation 3.7 is the difference between inlet

and outlet air enthalpies, and is solved by

[HAO — HA1] = c... + (cvwa.c)AT+ L.(w. - w...) (3.8)
Where
cpa = specific heat of ambient air, kJ/kg
cv = specific heat of vapor for dew point temperatures, kJ/kg—K
was = saturated moisture content of air, kg/kg
AT = temperature difference between ambient air and compost air,
°C
Lv = latent heat of vaporization, kJ/kg
w, = moisture content of air, dry basis, kg/kg

wak = moisture content of compost, dry basis, kg/kg

Over a period of time 6, the total airflow can be calculated by

_ (m(9)-m«)q
Q(9)- p. (3.9)

Where
Q(0) = total airflow at time 6, m3/day

pa = air density, kg/ m3

21

3.4.4 Modeling Airflow Bfiased On Moisture Remova_l

Aeration requirements can be estimated from changes in mass and moisture over
the duration of the composting process. Haug (1993) summarizes the necessary
equations and approach required in estimating the quantity of air required for removing

specific quantities of water during the composting process.

Based on mass and moisture balance information, the amount of water to be

removed is simply

W = Wuko _ Wak(0)
mo m(0)

 

(3.10)

Where

W = amount of moisture removed over time 6, kg water/kg dry
compost

wakO = initial moisture content of compost, wet weight basis, kg
wak(6) = moisture content of compost at time 0, wet weight basis,
kg

m0 = initial dry compost mass, kg

m(6) = dry mass of compost at time 6, kg

Haug (1993) outlines the equations needed for determining the moisture carrying

caPacity of the inlet and compost air. The first step is determining the actual vapor

Pressure of the air based on temperature and relative humidity.

22

Saturated vapor pressure is calculated by the Antoine equation and has the form

log”, PVS = ‘2238

 

+8.896 (3.11)

Where
PVS = saturation water vapor pressure, mm Hg

T = temperature of air at inlet or exit, K

The exit air is assumed to be saturated (relative humidity is 100%), therefore the
actual vapor pressure (PV) equals the saturated vapor pressure (PVS) computed by
equation 3.11. For the inlet air, PV can be estimated by simply multiplying the PVS by

relative humidity.

The specific humidity of air is determined by

 

m = 18.015 PV (3.12)
28.96 (PAIR—PV)

Where
a) = specific humidity, kg water/kg dry air

PAIR = atmospheric pressure, mm Hg

The mass of air required for removing a given quantity of moisture is calculated by

W

M = ——
(0):in - (0mm)

(3.13)

Where

23

M = mass of air required, kg dry air/kg dry compost
(10cm: specific humidity of exit air, kg water/kg dry air

tome. = specific humidity of inlet air, kg water/kg dry air

The volume of air required to remove the moisture is

V:

 

M. [m(9)] (3.14)
pa.

Where

V= volume of air, In3

pa, = density of air at inlet, kg/ In3

An average velocity over a given period of the composting process can be

estimated by
v = — (3.15)

Where
v= average velocity over time 6

A = cross sectional area of compost container, In2

3.4.5 Modeling Aeration Based On Stoichiometric Demands
Wiley and Pierce (1955) described the aerobic composting process in terms of a

complex respiration equation. The equation allows for variations in the chemical

Composition of different initial and final compost mixtures.

24

The Wiley and Pierce respiration equation has the form

CquOrN: . QHZO + b02 3 CtHuOva . CHZO 'i' dHZO + €H20 '1' C02 (3.16)

Where

Cpl-IqOrNs - aH2O = organic matter

b02 = oxygen consumed

CtHuOVNw - cH2O = compost

dH2O = water evaporated

eH2O = water produced

CO2 = carbon dioxide produced

The small letters represent number of moles which changes for

different conditions and materials.

Since the chemical composition of the materials composted in this study were not
determined, equation 3.16 was simplified to a basic chemical expression of respiration in
order to evaluate the oxygen and carbon dioxide content data collected, and has the form

C+02—>C02 (3.17)

The amount of oxygen needed to satisfy the stoichiometric demand of the process
can be estimated based on equation 3.17 assuming that there is a 1:1 carbon to oxygen

conversion ratio (Epstein 1997).

The amount of carbon in organic matter is highly variable depending on it source

and can range from 0.2 to 0.6 kg of carbon in every kg of organic matter (Stevenson

25

1994). For this study, 0.54 kg of carbon in every kg of organic matter was used, and the
amount of carbon lost can be estimated by
C1... = 0.54[0M. —0M (9)] ' (3.18)
Where
C10,, = mass of carbon lost, kg carbon
OMO = initial organic matter content, kg
0M(0) = organic matter at time 6, kg

The organic matter, or volatile solids, as described by Michel et al. (1993) is

M —M
CM {ij100 (3.19)
Mdc —Mc

Where

OM = organic matter content, percent

Mdc = mass of oven-dried compost and crucible, g
Mac = mass of ash and crucible, g

MC = mass of crucible, g

Based on data presented by Sartaj et a1 (1997), Luflcin et al. (1995), Michel et al.
(1995), and Miller et al. (1989), naturally and passively aerated composting systems
typically experience an oxygen deficit within the first few days of initial mixing and
immediately following turning of the composting materials. The oxygen deficit is a
result of microbial respiration during decomposition, and the reduction in carbon during

this period occurs without the replenishment of oxygen (stoichiometric demand exceeds

26

aeration rate). In order to apply the stoichiometric model (Equation 3.17) to estimate the
amount of oxygen required by microbes to consume a known quantity of carbon, oxygen
cannot be replenished. Therefore, Equation 3.17 can only be applied to the reduction of

carbon to the point oxygen is depleted.

Once a minimum oxygen level is reached during a process, the carbon at that time
can be estimated by first estimating the mass of compost at the time using Equation 3.6.
The mass can be converted to organic matter and then to carbon using Equation 3.18.
The amount of carbon can be converted to equivalent moles, and using Equation 3.17, an
estimate of oxygen to account for the carbon can be made and compared to the minimum

oxygen level measured.

27

Chapter 4

Materials and Methodology

The study was conducted in the old Michigan State University Swine Facility.
Hogs were present in adjacent pens of the building for most of the study and may have
had some affect on ambient air conditions in the facility. However, the facility was

heated during the winter.

4.1 Experimental Requirements

A passively aerated composting windrow system was the focus of this study.
Although on-farm composting is typically done without enhancing aeration, passive
systems afford a better opportunity to study and obtain data on parameters important in

modeling a naturally aerated composting process.

Both Lynch et al. (1995) and Haug (1993) ran simulations on their respective
models and reported that the airflow rates created by natural convection were lower than
were measurable. The first objective of this study was to develop an apparatus fitted with
proper instrumentation that would allow for the continuous measurement of physical and
biological model parameters including airflow rates at very low velocities. The
temperature, oxygen and/or carbon dioxide content, of the compost air at different
heights, were monitored. The velocity, temperature, and oxygen content of air entering
the composting media were also monitored. A complete mass and moisture balance was

conducted for the fourth and final trial of the study.

28

4.2 Compost Experimentaflesign
42.1 Compost Charabg

The design of the apparatus used in this study and shown in figure 4.1 was designed to
mimic the internal part of a compost windrow or pile.. The experimental chamber design
was based on a forced aeration chamber constructed by Das et al. (1995). The principle
differences in design of the experimental chamber from the Das forced aeration chamber

were the lack of a blower pump at the inlet of the chamber and the top of the chamber

was open to ambient air.

The composting chamber was constructed from a 1.7-m long section of 0.6-m
diameter rigid plastic pipe manufactured and donated by Hancor, Inc. The base of the
chamber was constructed from a piece of steel grate overlain by a plastic mesh. The
grate was welded onto a steel stand 0.3 meter high. Measuring tape was mounted
vertically along the chamber wall with the zero mark starting at the top of the steel grate

base. The maximum depth compost could be piled in the chamber was 1.2 meter.

The measuring tape used to measure decrease in height could be read to :I:0.01—m
and translates to an accuracy of :I:0.003-m3 on a volumetric basis. Additional error must
be accounted for due to the fact the surface of the compost was rarely smooth on a lateral
basis and an estimate was made as to height. Most of the volume reduction occurred

from settling after material was added initially or after being mixed.

29

 

1.2m —

0.9 m —-

 

 

C
' """"""""""" er """""""""" ‘7

x = thermocouples used in trials 1 and 2

= thermocouples used in trials 3 and 4

W
----n
----n

*— 0.4m + 0.4m —*— 0.4m —-D

‘1
3‘ §

ss““‘.

K

-Maximum height
of compost

0.6 m inside

‘/ diameter

Hancor plastic
pipe

/L|

C0 2 and 0 2
sampling ports

 

0-6'“ -- --------- n———X‘ a /
=
M1
4““
“‘6‘”
0.3 m — * ——————— u_ _ _wf‘ n x
0.15 m — - ————————— u_ _ _x a
0m —— — — — — _ — — — - I 5cmPVCInletPipe
Steel Grate Plate (Base of Compost) K
Air Velocity

Monitoring Port

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 4. 1. Experimental passively aerated compost apparatus

30

 

No scientifically based recommendations could be found for sizing small-scale
naturally or passively aerated composting bins or chambers. The 0.6-m diameter of the
vessel was selected based primarily on availability of the material and was found to be
similar in diameter to composting bins available commercially fer backyard composting.
The 1.2-m maximum compost height of the vessel was selected based on design
recommendations for windrow heights used in dairy manure composting (Luflcin, 1996,

and Rynk, 1992).

A 5-cm inside diameter PVC pipe was inserted beneath the steel grate base of the
chamber to allow for ventilation of the bottom of the compost pile. The base made from
the steel grate stand formed a 0.3-m deep plenum beneath the compost. The PVC pipe
was fitted for a hole from which to make air velocity measurements. Two hot water

heater blankets were wrapped around the chamber to insulate the chamber.

The Darcian flow based model outlined by Lynch et al. (1995) was used to design
inlet pipe size for the experimental apparatus. Using the permeability given for a mixture
of one volume straw, one volume cow manure, two volumes horse manure, two volume
wood chips, the predicted velocity suggested that the inlet pipe should be 2.5-cm to 5-cm
in diameter. The 5-cm pipe was chosen because a 2.5-cm pipe could be inserted and used

instead if necessary.

31

4.2.2 Sensor and Probe Locamon

The location of the temperature type-K thermocouple sensors and gas sampling
ports are shown in figure 4.1. The gas sampling ports were not inserted until trials 3 and
4. Gas samples were initially to be collected by inserting a hellow steel tube into the
compost from the top down to the desired location for sampling. Concerns of disturbing
the composting process by creating macropores with repeated insertions of the sampling
tube led to the development of fixed gas sampling ports inserted diagonally down through

the side of the chamber as shown in Figure 4.1.

The procedure for placing the 8 temperature sensors was found to be inadequate
for the first 2 compost trials. The thermocouples were taped along the inside wall of the
compost chamber and a length was run from the wall to the center of the compost at
different heights. Settling made it difficult to assess the exact height of the thermocouple
relative to the base of the compost. Two additional thermocouples had been fixed to the
inner edge of the chamber at 0.3 meter off the bottom as shown in Figure 4.1. That

allowed for analysis of lateral temperature distribution at the height of the compost.

The limited data collected from trials 1 and 2 were used to evaluate sensor
location and led to the relocation of the temperature sensors for trials 3 and 4 to the
positions shown in Figure 4.1. The lateral distribution of the thermocouples was also
changed as shown in Figure 4.1, as was the manner by which the thermocouples were fed

into the compost.

32

For trials 3 and 4, the 8 type-K thermocouples were divided into 2 sets of 4 and
each set was taped together to form a strand. The end of each thermocouple was left
exposed along the length of the strands. The strands were fed down into the compost
from the top of the chamber. The strands were held in place by a wooden rod mounted
laterally across the top of the compost chamber and fixed in place once the
thermocouples were at the desired locations (figure 4.1). This prevented movement of

the thermocouples as the compost settled during the process.

4.2.3 Compost Mm

For trial 1, the compost was a 4:1 dairy manure to brown leaves mixture. The
dairy manure used was from tie-stall cows at the Michigan State University Dairy Farm
and contained some bedding straw. This mixture was selected in spite of
recommendations in Rynk (1992) in which low C:N ratios would likely result in rapid
self heating of the process and the process going anaerobic in a matter of hours or days.
The mixture was removed and mixed with more leaves to bring the ratio down to 2:1 for

trial 2.

One of the primary objectives of the first two trials was to see if the chamber was
big enough for the materials to reach and maintain optimal temperatures of 50°C to 60°C
and to evaluate where to locate the temperature sensors within the composting media.

Hence a mixture that was likely to heat up relatively quick was selected.

33

The compost produced in trials 3 and 4 was made from a 1:1 (volume basis) tie-
stall diary manure to pine wood chips mixture. The wood chips were selected as the
carbon source of the mixture because they are considered an excellent bulking agent.
Wood chips maintain their structure throughout the composting process, and that is
beneficial for aeration. Wood chips from shredded pallets were selected because of their

abundance and availability.

Raw materials composted were initially mixed in a 1 cubic yard drum before
being loaded into the compost chamber. Materials were loaded into the drum based on
the desired volumetric ratio of the mixture. Turning was accomplished by removing the
material with a pitchfork into the drum. Materials taken from different depths were

mixed thoroughly in the drums before being added back into the chamber.

In most applications of the finished compost the wood chips would have to be
screened out which brings up issues of how practical such a mixture would be on a larger
scale. Although pine does have a relatively fast rate of decomposition compared to other
woods (Haug 1993; Rynk 1992), visual inspection of presence and to the state of wood
chips remaining in the compost at the end of the composting process indicated that they
did not decompose significantly. However, the objective was to find a way to measure

natural airflow through a composting media and a highly porous mixture was desired.

34

4.3 In_strum_entation

Two systems were used to collect data on temperature, velocity, oxygen gas, and
carbon dioxide gas content. A Solomat MPM-4100 system was used to monitor the
velocity, temperature and relative humidity of air entering the‘chamber, as well as the
temperature of air at the surface of the compost material. A variety of probes were used
with the datalogger and are described ion more detail later. A CR21X datalogger was
used to monitor temperature with type-K thermocouples of compost air at various

locations and heights in the composting media.

An oxygen analyzer manufactured by Engineered Systems & Design, Inc. was
used to measure percent oxygen content of air extracted from the composting media at
different heights. A fluid analyzer manufactured by Bacharach was used to measure
percent carbon dioxide content of air extracted from the composting media at different

heights.

4.3.1 Solomat MPM-4100 Environmental Monitoring System

The Solomat MPM-4100 environmental monitoring system consisted of a
programmable datalogger which could be hooked directly to the serial port of an IBM-
compatible PC for downloading data as well as for programming the datalogger itself
using software provided with the Solomat system. A variety of sensors and probes were

used with the Solomat MPM-4100 system.

A Solomat 129MSX hot-wire anemometer was used to measure the air velocity

entering the compost chamber. The probe has a range of 0.10 to 12.00 m/s with a

35

repeatability error of :l:0.01 m/s, and was factory calibrated every 6 months of use. The
factory reported no deviation in calibration during the entire period of the study. The
datalogger was capable of making 2.5 velocity readings every second and was

programmed to average and write data to a file every hour.

A smoke gun was used to visually check for air flow into the inlet pipe when it
was detected in trial 3 after the first turn and also in trial 4. The hot-wire anemometer
was removed when the gun was used to prevent exposure of the sensitive instrument to

smoke.

A Solomat 355RHX relative humidity probe was used to measure both
temperature and relative humidity of the air entering the composting chamber. The probe
made relative humidity measurements with a polymer capacitor and a PthO platinum
electrode and had a range of 0 to 100% although the specifications stated there was a
potential for higher error at a relative humidity above 75%. The probe was placed in the
top 10 cm of the compost during trial 1 but condensation formed on the probe and
resulted in mostly erroneous readings. The probe was being serviced during trial 2 and

was not used again until trial 3.

The 355RHX probe was factory calibrated once a year and a kit provided by the
factory allowed for monthly calibration checks. No deviations were reported until
condensation on the polymer capacitor damaged the probe during the final trial run. The
relative humidity probe made 1.5 relative humidity and temperature readings per second,

and the readings were averaged and recorded on a hourly basis.

36

The Solomat PthO platinum temperature sensor built in and used with the
Solomat 355RHX relative humidity probe was calibrated at the factory at had a reported
error of :l:0.l °C. No deviations from the original calibration was reported even though
the humidity probe was damaged by extended exposure to condensation when it was
placed within the compost. The probe was placed at base of the inlet for trials 3 and 4

after being repaired.

A Solomat type-K (copper constantan) thermocouple was used to measure the
ambient air temperature during trial 1 and was moved to the compost surface for trials 3
and 4. The thermocouple had a range of —80°C to 1260°C with a repeatability error of
:0.2°C. The datalogger made 2.5 temperature readings per second, and the readings were

averaged and recorded on a hourly basis.

The Solomat MPM-4100 kit also included the 1201GSX carbon dioxide sensor
which had a range of 0 to 5000ppm (0 to 0.5% atmospheric). This range proved to be too
low for the probe when placed at the base of the compost pile. The carbon dioxide probe
was not used after the 1St trial as sporadic and extreme fluctuations in readings of ambient
air indicated the probe likely suffered damage from the continuous exposure to the high

concentrations of carbon dioxide gas in the compost air.

37

4.3.2 Campbell Scientific CR-21X datalogger

The 8 type-K thermocouples used to measure air in the compost at various
locations were connected to a Campbell Scientific CR-21X datalogger. The datalogger
also provided a reference temperature measured at the panel. Ambient air temperature
was monitored using a panel measurement made by the datalogger. This temperature was

frequently checked against a mercury thermometer placed nearby.

The CR21X recorded and converted voltages measured by the thermocouples into
temperatures. The type-K thermocouples used with the datalogger had a sensitivity of
:1:0.5°C. The factory set calibration value in the datalogger for the thermocouple was
checked against measurements made with a mercury thermometer at ambient air
conditions, in an ice water bath, and in a heated laboratory oven. No deviations beyond
the sensitivity of the probes were observed. Therefore, no changes were made to the

factory calibrations of either datalogger.

The datalogger was programmed to take a reading every 5 seconds and average
and record the readings at specified intervals. For the initial trial composting run, an
average was computed every 15 minutes but was changed to every half hour then again to
every hour as the rate of change in temperature was found not to be significant enough in
to warrant the collection of so many data points. For trials 3 and 4, temperature readings

were averaged every 3 hours.

38

4.3.3 Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Gas Analysis

Gas samples analyzed for both carbon dioxide and oxygen were collected by
manually pumping an aspirator bulb and extracting compost air through the sampling
tubes shown in Figure 4.1. The Bacharach system recommended pumping the aspirator
18 times while trial and error with the oxygen sensor found that readings usually leveled
off after 10 pumps and 15 pumps was used as protocol. Because of concern of removing
too much air during the composting process based on findings by Ferns (1987), gas
sampling was limited mainly to the oxygen sensor while carbon dioxide was sampled

whenever the oxygen content changed substantially from the previous reading.

The atmospheric content of oxygen and carbon dioxide gas in air with no water
vapor is 20.95% and 0.03%, respectively (Eagleman 1985). Oxygen content often varied
:t1% of the standard level and may have been a result of the enclosed environment where
there was respiration from hogs. The Bacharach analyzer did not detect carbon dioxide
gas in ambient air because it was not sensitive enough to record such low concentrations.
But when compost samples were taken and both gases were detected, the sum of both gas
contents was always reasonably close to the sum of the standard atmospheric content of

both gases (20.98%).

The Bacharach carbon dioxide gas sampling kit utilizes a reagent fluid called
Fyrite stored in a calibrated vessel. Gas is sampled from the composting media and
pumped into the vessel with the aspirator bulb. The active ingredient in Fyrite, potassium

hydroxide, absorbs carbon dioxide out of the sampled gas. The absorption results in the

39

 

expansion of the fluid into a burette with a range of 0% to 20%, with an accuracy of

:l:0.5%.

The Engineered Systems and Design Model 630 oxygen gas sampling sensor
utilizes a digital meter that measures and converts an electrode reading. The electrode
was fitted into a PVC chamber adapted to fit the same sampling tube used with the

Bacharach sampling kit. The sensor had a range of 0% to 100% with 3:0. 1% sensitivity.

Gas samples of the compost air were extracted and monitored for oxygen on a
daily basis following initial mixing and whenever the compost was turned. As soon as
oxygen concentrations showed any trend of leveling off, typically at 15% to 20%, the
sampling frequency was reduced to every 2-3 days in order to minimize the amount of air
removed from the relatively small mass of composting media. There was concern based
on research conducted by Ferns (1987) from removing carbon dioxide through gas
sampling could potentially benefit the aerobic microbes in a way that would not occur

with a full scale system.

Oxygen was selected as the gas to sample periodically based on the easy and
accuracy of obtaining a measurement. The Bacharach CO2 gas sampling kit utilized a
very caustic material that required careful handling and also had a lower level of accuracy
because it depended on eyeing a fluid level. The O2 apparatus utilized a digital meter and

sensor that was more accurate and also did not pose any health hazard.

40

 

4.4 Compost Moisture Content
Samples taken of the initial compost mixture from all trials and from different
depths when the compost was turned were analyzed for moisture content on a wet weight

basis using methods described by Rynk (1992).

Moisture contents were measured on triplicate compost subsamples of the initial
mixture of raw materials. The materials were mixed in a large drum before being added
to the chamber. Small portions of the material were taken from each batch mixed in the
drum. The composite sample was divided into the triplicate subsamples used in

determining moisture content.

Compost was removed from the chamber for turning and when a trial was over.
Material was removed at specific height intervals (0.3m to 0.6m) using a pitchfork and/or
shovel and loaded into the same large drum used for the initial mixing of the raw
materials. A sample was taken from the drum for each section of compost removed to

measure moisture content.

The wet compost samples were placed in steel pie plates and weighed using an
Ohaus laboratory scale accurate to $0.01g. The pic plates with the wet compost samples
were dried in a laboratory oven at 102°C for 48 hours. The samples were removed,
allowed to cool, and weighed. The steel plates were weighed before the wet compost

samples were added and after the dried samples were removed.

41

The moisture content (wet basis) is calculated by:

MC»: M x100 (4.1)
(Md. — M.) 4
Where
MCwb = moisture content, wet basis, percent
ch = mass of wet compost and container (pie plate), g

Mdc = mass of dry compost and container (pie plate), g

MC = mass of container (pie plate), g

4.5 Compost Organic Matter Content
Organic matter content was measured in samples taken of the initial compost
mixtures and on samples taken after the composting process had ceased for trials 3 and 4.

The organic matter, or volatile solids, of the samples was determined using methods

described by Michel et al. (1993).

Compost samples were placed in ceramic crucibles and weighed. The samples
were then dried in an oven at 102°C :l:2°C for 48 hours and reweighed. The dried
samples were burned at 550°C in a furnace until all material was white ash (2-3 hours).
The crucible and ash samples were removed, allowed to cool, and weighed. A Precision
Scientific oven was used to dry the samples, a K.H. Huppert electric furnace capable of
reaching 1000°C was used to burn the samples, and an Ohaus analytical scale accurate to

10.0001 g were used in this procedure.

42

4.6 Compost Mass and Moisture Rem

A compost mass balance was conducted on the materials composted in trial 4.
Based on the methodology to obtain moisture contents described in section 4.4, each
batch of materials mixed in the large bin prior to being added to the composting chamber
were weighed using an Ohaus scale capable of measuring up to 50kg with a sensitivity of
1:0.lkg. These are the same batches from which material was taken for moisture content
measurements and together this information was used to develop a mass and moisture

balance of the entire trial 4 composting process.

This same procedure was used when the compost was unpacked for turning and
when trial 4 was over. An additional measurement of compost mass and moisture
content was made one year after the trial had ceased. The information collected from the
mass and moisture balance was important for determining the rate of disappearance of
dry matter or decomposition rate (k) from Equation 3.5. The value k was used in
equation 3.6 to estimate the volumetric airflow rate required in order to maintain a

constant process temperature (Keener et al. 1993).

A complete mass balance was conducted during trial 4 in order to evaluate the
decomposition rate of the composting material and total mass of water removed.
Knowledge of both these parameters were required for the different models applied to
this compost process and system. As stated previously, the moisture content of the
compost material at turning was taken from the in-situ permeability core and was used to

estimate mass of water at each layer.

43

4.7 Compost Permeability Measurement

The compost permeability factor (K) of hand packed cores (trial 3) and one in-situ
core (trial 4) was measured based on the method described by Lynch et al. (1995). The
apparatus and instrumentation layout used to obtain K are shown in figure 4.2. The
chamber was packed to a length of 28.5 cm for K measurements made on material from
trial 3. Retaining plates shown in figure 4.2 were added for trial 4 and reduced the length

the compost was packed to 20.3 cm.

To measure permeability, a sample of the compost used in trial 3 was removed
from the top S-cm of the chamber prior to turning. A known amount of material was
packed into a 20-cm diameter core. Additional amounts were added in order to obtain a
permeability for different bulk densities. The methodology used was checked for
accuracy by making measurements on 2 cores packed to the same bulk density and

yielded identical results.

The core used in trial 3 was adapted for in-situ use in trial 4. The core was
removed when the trial 4 compost was turned, and weighed on the SO-kg scale before
permeability measurements were made. The material was then removed from the core,
mixed, and a subsample was taken to measure moisture content. This moisture content

was subsequently used as the moisture content of the entire compost mixture at turning.

44

 

20 cm diameter
schedule 80 PVC pipe

 

D

Top retaining plate

 

Solomat
MPMS 10e
datalogger
and 51 lLPX
pressure
differential
probe

 

Compost Media

 

 

 

 

 

   
  
 

 

28.5 cm(trial 3)
20.3 cm(trial 4)

 

Bottom retaining plate

 

 
 
 
 

Regulated air supply

 

 

 

Figure 4.2. Compost permeability apparatus

45

Air was supplied and regulated using a laboratory pressurized air source. A
Gilmont bubble air flow meter was used to measure the airflow rate entering the
permeability core. A Solomat MPMSlOe datalogger and a 511LPX differential pressure
probe with a range of :7000 Pa and a :03 Pa resolution was used to measure the pressure

drop across the length of the permeability core.

Permeability measurements were made on the 1:1 dairy manure to wood chip
mixtures used in trials 3 and 4 only. For trial 3, measurements were made on cores hand
packed to 3 different bulk densities. For trial 4, the core was placed on the steel plate
base of the chamber before material was added and removed when the material was

turned.

Retaining plates were added to top and bottom of the permeability core in trial 4.
This aided in minimizing disturbance of the material in the core during transport from the
swine facility to the MSU Agricultural Engineering Soil and Water laboratory where K
measurements were conducted. The top 2-cm of compost in the permeability core was
scraped off following removal of the core from the compost chamber. This helped
provide a smooth and relatively even surface for fitting the top retaining plate before

transport.
4.9 Predicting Velocity

In order to better interpret and understand the temperature, gas content, and air

velocity data collected, several models were used to predicted air flow rates and

46

requirements based on physical, biological, and chemical properties of the composting

process.

Passively aerated composting is not a steady—state process. But short periods of
the process were observed to be at relative steady states based on temperature data
collected in the experiment. This allowed for comparison between measured and
predicted instantaneous airflow based on mass and moisture changes throughout the

process, and the temperature maintained during the brief steady state period observed.

4.9.1 Darcian Flow Ba_sed Model

The Darcian flow equations used by Lynch et al. (1995) modeled lateral and
vertical flow through a porous media for a passively aerated composting windrow
system. For the compost chamber used in this study, flow into the compost chamber was
assumed to occur vertically upward because the side walls of the chamber would have
prevented any significant lateral movement. This simplified the problem and combining
Equations 3.1 and 3.2 resulted in an air velocity prediction equation applicable to this

study and has the form

_ K (10!» - p)g (4.3)

One of the first problems with using this model was the lack of any information
on what the bulk densities were of compost perrneabilities reported by Lynch et al.
(1995). For trial 3, permeability measurements were made on cores packed to 3 different

bulk densities. But the most accurate way of getting permeability would be to obtain in-

47

situ cores on which to conduct measurements on. That was accomplished in trial 4.
Permeability measurements made on both the packed and in-situ cores were based on

methods used by Lynch et al. (1995).

The density of air entering the chamber was estimated using the Ideal Gas Law
(Equation 3.3). The density of compost air was estimated using the Ideal Gas Law. Air
velocities were predicted and different assumptions were made of compost air vapor
content and gas composition in order to analyze their potential effect on airflow. The

assumptions made in predicting air velocity using Darcy’s Law were:

1) The compost air was assumed to be dry and the oxygen and carbon
dioxide contents were assumed to be at standard atmospheric
levels,

2) The compost air was assumed to be dry and the density was
adjusted based on measured temperature and oxygen contents, and

3) The compost air was assumed to be at saturation and the density

was adjusted to measured temperature and oxygen contents.

Assuming the compost air to be dry allowed for application of Darcy’s Law to
predict air velocities using just inlet and compost air temperature data. Research cited by
Bach et al. (1987) found that air leaving compost piles is saturated when compost

moisture contents are above 50% (wet weight basis), but airflow is responsible for

48

cooling heated air resulting in saturation. Therefore, without airflow, compost air may

not necessarily be saturated.

The compost air densities were determined at the layer of compost with the
highest temperature throughout the process (0.6 m). The temperature data was used to
estimate densities and develop predicted velocity curves for trials 3 and 4 based on the

assumptions listed above.

4.9.2 Process Kinetics Based Model

The equations developed and used by Keener et al. (1993) to predict air flow rates
required to maintain process temperatures in forced aerated systems were applied to the
passively aerated composting system used in this study. These equations are based on
process kinetics and are the same for both a forced and naturally aerated composting

process.

Mass balance data collected in trial 4 was used to derive a decomposition rate, k,
using equation 3.4. The k determined in trial 4 was used with the trial 3 data in
predicting air velocities for both trials based on maintaining a specific temperature using

equation 3.5 and 3.6.

The heat of combustion, he, used in equation 4.5, was not available for the dairy

manure and wood chip mixture used in the study. Published values of hc summarized in

Keener et a1. (1993) ranged from 19.0 MJ/kg to 24.7 MJ/kg for various materials. A

49

P‘s

 

value of 23 MJ/kg was used and based on the range of values reported for active
materials such as sludge (24.7 MJ/kg) as opposed to less active materials such as leaves

(22 MJ/kg).

The humidity probe failed during trial 4 and an ambient air relative humidity of
50% was used which was the approximate average observed during trial 3. Keener et al.
(1993) assumed the air exiting is saturated and that the temperature at the exit was the
design process temperature. These conditions did not appear to exist during any of the
trials. Therefore, the layer with the most frequently observed maximum temperature

during the process was used and the air at that layer was assumed to be at saturation.

Saturated air has been reported to occur in the compost just above the layer of
maximum temperature (Miller et al. 1989). This was based on the observation that the
compost was significantly wetter above the zone of maximum temperature. ‘ A similar
zone was also visually observed when unpacking the compost chamber for turning or

when the process was complete.

Predicted air velocities were computed based on the overall maximum
temperature measured during the composting and based on the compost surface
temperature. Keener et al. (1993) tabulated most of the thermodynamic properties of air

used in equations 3.5 and 3.6.

50

 

A process kinetics model was used for comparison against measured air velocities
at temperatures selected from regions where the process was occurring at a relative
steady state (compost temperature relatively steady). The predicted velocity represents
the airflow required to maintain a specific temperature during the process in order to

decompose the materials.

4.9.3 Moisture Removal Based Model

The moisture balance conducted in trial 4 allowed for the estimation of airflow
required to account for the moisture removed during the composting process. Haug
(1993) summarized the equations required to determine the water carrying capacity of the

air entering and leaving the composting process.

Data from trial 4 was used to evaluate the predicted air velocity required to
remove a known amount of water. Relative humidity of the inlet and exit air was
assumed to be 0% and 100%, respectively, for the same reasons described in section

4.9.2.

Predicted air velocities were computed using the same temperature data points
used in the process temperature and kinetics based predictions of air velocities. The
predicted values were compared to the actual air velocities measured same time the

temperature data used in the air velocity predictions was measured.

51

4.10 Predicting Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Content and Aegtion Requirement Based
On A Simplified Stoichiometric Respiration Model

A stoichiometric estimation of oxygen consumed and carbon dioxide released
based on a known amount of carbon was made using equation 3.15 and compared to the
measured oxygen and carbon dioxide content of trial 4. The amount of carbon consumed

was computed using equation 3.16.

In order to predict the amount of oxygen required by microbes for decomposing a
given amount of carbon, predictions were made when the lowest oxygen content was
measured. That was when the stoichiometric oxygen demand of the microbes was most
likely greater than the rate oxygen was replenished by aeration through the compost. The
carbon was estimated from the organic matter content. Since organic matter content was
measured on samples taken initially and when the process had ceased, the decomposition
rate (k) determined from the loss in compost mass was used to estimate organic matter

content at the time when the lowest oxygen content was measured.

52

 

CHAPTER 5

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

5. 1 Geprservations

Probe design and placement was experimental for trials 1 and 2, and changes
made for trials 3 and 4 were generally successful. Placing the temperature thermocouples
and gas sampling tubes in the composting media so that they did not change in height
significantly during composting was the primary concern. The relatively small volume of
the chamber also led to concern that inserting and removing probes would disturb the
mixture in terms of aeration and airflow. These factors led to fixing the temperature and

gas probes for trials 3 and 4.

There was concern over the effect the repeated extraction of compost air for
sampling carbon dioxide and oxygen gas content would have on the overall compost
process. Removing carbon dioxide evolved from microbial respiration could potentially
benefit the aerobic microbes compared to if the gas was left. Therefore, only oxygen gas

was regularly measured.

Another factor of concern during the study was that the chamber was adjacent to a
set of loading area doors that were not well insulated, and within 2 meters of a ceiling
heater vent. The composting chamber was open at the top to ambient air and any draft
especially of significantly warmer air could have an impact on the natural convective

aeration mechanism of the composting process.

53

5 .2 Measured Data

Table 5.1 summarizes the information and data collected and reported for each
composting trial. The raw data collected from trials 1, 3, and 4 is presented in Appendix
A. For trial 3, after the material was turned, and trial 4, only the temperature and oxygen

data collected and used in modeling is presented in the following sections.

5.2.1 Composting Trial Run 1

The objective of the first trial was to observe and evaluate the performance of the
overall experimental apparatus. A high nitrogen mixture was used in the initial runs with
the objective of creating a process that heated up quickly so that uncertainties with the
probe locations, sampling protocols, and the compost chamber itself could first be

addressed in relatively rapid manner.

The temperature trends shown in Figure 5.1 indicated the vessel was capable of
sustaining a composting process. The process reached temperatures above 70 °C within
two days indicating the chamber was of sufficient size to sustain composting. Although
no carbon dioxide or oxygen content measurements were made, the composting process
was producing very offensive odors after the second day. The trial was immediately
ceased and the mixture unpacked from the chamber. The trial 1 temperature
thermocouples placed above 0.3-m height settled substantially. One thermocouple were
stretched and damaged leading to a change in the method of thermocouple placement for

trials 3 and 4.

54

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 5.1. Summary of information and data collected during study

Trial Dates data Mixture used No.

no. recorded turns Parameters monitored

1 9/ 13/96 - 9/16/96 4:1 leaves to 0 Ambient air and compost
manure temperature, inlet air velocity,

moisture content

2 9/19/96 2:1 leaves to 0 None
manure*

3 9/30/96 ~12/4/96 1:1 wood 1 Height, ambient air and compost
chips to (10/ 15 temperature, inlet relative humidity
manure I96) and air velocity, compost carbon

dioxide and oxygen content,
moisture content

4 2/25/97 - 4/197 1:1 wood 0 Height, ambient air and compost
chips to temperature, inlet relative humidity
manure and air velocity, compost carbon

 

 

 

 

dioxide and oxygen content,

moisture content, mass, organic

matter

 

* trial 2 mixture made from mixing more leaves to trial 1 mixture

55

 

 

80
U 70
° 60
35’ 50
H
e 40
2'5
1% 30
g 20
P" 10

0

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Day

 

AAir IISurface -0cm +0.3m x0.6m 00.9m]

 

Figure 5.1: Compost Trial 1 Temperature Data (4:1 Dairy Manure to Leaf Mix)

A series of temperature readings were taken at 0.3-m above the base of the
compost in order to determine lateral distribution. This was accomplished by
strategically placing a total of three thermocouples at that layer: one at the center, and 2
located opposite of each other at the wall of the chamber. Referring to Figure 5.2, the
edges were substantially lower in temperature than the center of the compost, and this

was due to the chamber not being insulated.

The lateral temperature difference between the center and edge temperatures was
reduced some by adding the hot water heater insulation blanket, but for following trials, a
second insulation blanket was added in addition to the first in order to further minimize

heat loss through the outside wall of the chamber. It was concluded the best setup for

56

temperature measurements at 4 heights (0.15-m, 0.3-m, 0.6-m, and 0.9-m), and at 2
strategic lateral locations in each height to provide a means of checking lateral

temperature uniformity.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

80
m
U :4 “H“ “““ :5
° 8*
2 -
E
e
1..
0
a.
E
0
Pl .
sulatron blanket added
0
0 0.5 l 1 .5 2 2.5 3
Day

 

[D center X east + west I

 

Figure 5.2: Compost Trial 1 Lateral Temperature Distribution (0.3-m height)

The 355RHX humidity probe was placed in the top layer of the compost for the
1st trial, but the high moisture of the compost damaged the polymer capacitor used to
determine relative humidity and the probe was removed from within the compost and
placed on top of the compost column. The platinum temperature sensor was still

functional, so the surface temperature data was retained for analysis.

The wet weight basis moisture content of the initial mixture and of the mixture

sampled after it was unpacked 3 days later (“Final” mixture) are summarized in Table

57

5.2. Although the 1“ trial was terminated within 3 days of initial mixing, the moisture
content (wet weight basis) decreased 11.3%. The moisture was likely lost from rapid
evaporation caused by the high temperatures (in excessive of 70 °C) which were

observed by day 2 (Haug, 1993). There was a 33-cm drop in the compost height.

Table 5.2: Initial and “Final” Moisture Content of Compost - Trial 1.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Height, Initial Moisture Content, Height, Final Moisture Content,
cm percent (9/13/96) cm percent (9/16/96)
0-41 57.3 0—30 44.0
41-81 55.8 30-61 46.0
81-122 59.6 61-89 49.0
Average 57.6 Average 46.3

 

5.2.2 Commsting Trial Run 3 - Initial Stage

 

The 3rd trial run was conducted on a 1:1 mixture of dairy manure and pine wood
chips. The mixture was selected based on the general information Lynch et al. (1996)
published on mixtures used in passively aerated composting systems. Less wood chips
were used than typically recommended in other literature (Epstein 1997; Haug 1993;

Rynk 1992).

The intent of using less than recommended wood chips was to provide enough of
a bulking agent while not supplying too much available carbon. Decomposition of the
dairy manure would have to liberate enough heat to bring process temperatures up into
the optimal 55-60 °C range. This was the temperature range predicted to generate a

measurable airflow.

58

Ambient temperature, oxygen content, and relative humidity data are plotted in
Figure 5.3. The relative humidity in the facility varied greatly throughout the day and
almost directly with the temperature of the outside air. The heat was turned on during the
3'd day of the trial likely drying the air out even more. The oxygen did fluctuate at most
by slightly over 1%. There were no pigs present during this period and the changes in
ambient room oxygen did not seem to correlate with the ambient room temperature. The
source of the fluctuation could be sensor drift. Without air conditioning or

humidifiers/dehumidifiers, controlling relative humidity was impossible.

 

30 80
\
25 70 o
u R
o 20 60 b
a . Q
E 15 50 :2 2..
:3 10 40 E g,
8. 5 30 o E
E s O
13 0 20 g
- Q
5 10 m
-10 0

 

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 l4 16
Day

 

 

| a Facility Air Temp -- ._ Outside Temp x _ Inlet RH — . - Facility Air Oxygen l

 

Figure 5.3: Ambient Temperature, Oxygen Content and Relative Humidity

Measurements - Trial 3, Initial Phase.

Based on the literature available to date, the first direct measurement of airflow

through a naturally aerated composting process is shown in Figure 5.4. But the lack of

59

many data points did raise concern that it may have been an anomaly independent of the

composting process, such as disturbances from human activity.

 

  

 

 

 

u.
C
i

 

 

i. '1
' ‘ r.
‘0
‘A
4‘.
A
II
‘t
I
h
l
a
': A
I
‘b-
’

 

 

 

 

.h
C

 

 

 

Velocity, mls

 

 

Temperature, ° C /
Oxygen, %
8

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A...
20 F 9" ‘ “T" '==:-_-.~
1° I +
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Day
-—InletT x 0.3mT X 0.6mT A 0.9mT

 

 

-0— Plenum 02 + 0.3m 02 + 0.6m 02 + Velocity

 

Figure 5.4: Compost Temperature, Oxygen, and Inlet Air Velocity

Measurements - Trial 3, Initial Phase

The measured velocities occurred within an hour of the observed peak
temperature and the temperature differential between ambient air and compost air could
have driven the movement of air (convection). The temperature in the pile decreased
immediately after peaking, and it was concluded based on physical observation of the
material that the compost moisture content dropped below that needed to maintain the

process.

60

Oxygen contents shown in Figure 5.4 immediately decreased as compost
temperature increased. The oxygen content at 0.3-m reached 5%, the critical level below
which anaerobic activity begins to become a factor. But as quickly as the content
decreased there was an immediate increase the following measurement to levels slightly

higher than those measured at the start of the process as shown in Figure 5.4.

The sudden increase in oxygen occurred just prior to the first measured air
velocity. The increase in 02 content was more rapid than the rate of the initial decrease
which suggest that some degree of air flow must have occurred and that the measured air

velocity may be accurate.

The moisture contents of samples collected the initial mixture and when the
mixture was turned are summarized in Table 5.3. The compost of trial run 3 was turned
after the 15th day by extracting approximately 25-30 cm of material at a time using a
shovel and pitchfork. The initial moisture content was too low and would explain why

the process appeared to peak and suddenly slow as shown in Figure 5.4.

Water was added to the compost from the top using a commercially available
soaker hose. Temperatures immediately rose. Unfortunately, to avoid disturbing the
composting media, there was no means of measuring moisture content of the compost

after the water was added.

61

 

Table 5.3: Moisture Content of Initial Compost Mixture and Following
Turning- Trial 3

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Height, Initial Moisture Content, Height, Moisture Content of Turned
cm percent (9/30/96) cm Compost, percent (10/ 16/96)
0-41 42.9 0-41 35.6
41-81 39.8 41-61 32.6
81-122 44.4 61-91 41.3
91-105 41.0
Average 42.4 Average 37.6

 

Carbon Dioxide and oxygen contents were summed and are shown in Figure 5.5.
The sum was taken in order to make comparisons against the standard air content of the
sum of the two gases which is 20.98% (Eagleman 1985). The minimum sum observed
was 19% and the maximum was 22%. Sources of deviation from the standard content
could be from animal respiration or more likely from the fact that not all oxygen used in

microbial respiration is converted to carbon dioxide (Atlas et al. 1981).

The rate of volume decrease was compared with temperature at the 0.6-m height
(maximum process temperature) in Figure 5.6. The volume was reduced by
approximately 0.05 m3 in less than 16 days. A majority of reduction occurred from the
beginning up until the temperature peaked on day 3 at 52 °C. The reduction during this
period was likely due more to the initial settling of material than to microbial activity.

Volume reduction later in the process was due primarily from microbial activity.

When the process slowed and temperature decreased the volume leveled off as
Figure 5.6 shows. As soon as temperatures increased following the addition of water, the
volume decreased but at a slower rate. As soon as the temperatures started declining

again, the volume once again leveled off.

62

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Gas Content, %

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

— 0- 0.3m C02 - -B- - 0.6m C02 + 0.3m 02 + 0.6m 02
+0.3m sum --A-- 0.6m sum

 

 

 

Figure 5.5: Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Measurements - Trial 3, Initial Phase

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

60 0.4

E) 50 - 0.35
n

a 40 ° ‘ '5 2. 0.3 E
3 o“
E 30 0.25 5
E" 20 — --~~ 02 g
E: 10 0.15

0 ——+ 0.1

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Day

 

[mx 0.6mT -& m"3

 

Figure 5.6: Volume of Compost — Trial 3, Initial Phase

63

5.2.3 Commsting Trial Run 3 — After 1 Turn

The compost mixture was observed to be dry following extraction from the
chamber. Each layer extracted was sub-sampled for moisture content measurements and
then the layers were mixed with each other. Water was added to the compost during
mixing and then the compost was divided into three large drums. A sample was taken
from each drum for moisture content measurements before being dumped into the

chamber.

The moisture contents of the compost after water was added and when the
composting trial run had ended are summarized in Table 5.4. The top layers (30-61 cm
and 61-102 cm) had more water added than the bottom layer (0-30 cm) so that any excess
water would infiltrate down and contribute to the moisture of the lower layer. As can be
seen at the end of the trial run, the moisture contents in the top 2 layers decreased while

the bottom layer increased by the end of the process.

Table 5.4. Moisture Content of Initial and Final Compost Mixture— Trial 3,

 

 

 

 

After 1 Turn.
Height, Initial Moisture Content Height, Final Moisture Content,
cm (After Adding Water to cm percent (12/5/96)
Compost), percent (10/ 16/96)

0-30 62.4 0-30 65.4

30—61 69.3 30-61 66.4
61-102 70.0 61-79 51.8
Average 67 .2 Average 61 .2

 

 

 

 

 

Ambient temperature, oxygen, and relative humidity data are plotted in Figure
5.7. As with the initial stage of trial 3, the relative humidity in the facility varied greatly

throughout the day but did not respond with the outside temperature as directly for part of

the trial. Several pigs were brought into the facility starting on the 22nd day which is
when the trends between relative humidity and outside temperature began differing.
Respiration of the pigs may have added moisture to the air and reduced the affect outside
air was having on the relative humidity in the building. The ambient 02 content ranged
from 20.3 to 21.8 percent and variations did not correlate with changes in air temperature

and relative humidity.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

30 80
25 E 70 g
u 20 - “4 fi 60 «
o A“ x .2" o
g" 15 — A, x — 50 :5 bi
A E a
a IOJ —40 =3 8’0
8. F e
E 5 -30 g o
:1
r3 0 ——e~i**'—A“ °‘ “ - - 20 T“;
a:
-5 v v 10
-10 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Day

 

r4 Facility Air Temp —°—Outside Temp x InletRH --°---Facility Air OxygenJ

 

Figure 5.7. Ambient Temperature and Relative Humidity Measurements — Trial

3, After 1 Turn.

The temperature and oxygen measured in the inlet and 0.6-m layers, and the air
velocity entering the composting chamber are plotted in Figure 5.8. As with the initial

stage of trial 3, the temperature of the compost increased immediately and reached near

65

maximum temperature within the same period of just less than 4 days. But significant
airflow was detected for a much more extended period of time than during the initial
stage and before maximum temperatures were reached. The temperatures also were
maintained at or near the optimum range of 55-60 °C during the same period air velocity

was detected.

 

0.0012

C/

 

 

0.001

 

0.0008

 

 

0.0006

mXXXXX+ x

 

Oxygen, %

— 0.0004

Temperature, °
Velocity, mls

 

10 . 0.0002

 

 

 

 

 

10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Day

 

[—— lnlet X 0.6m +Plenum 02 “F- 0.6m 02 + Velocim

 

Figure 5.8: Temperature, Oxygen, and Air Velocity Measurements — Trial 3,

After 1 Turn.

The air velocity varied extensively throughout the period it was being detected.
The smoke gun was used for observation purposes when airflow was being measured and
also when it was not. The smoke gun clearly indicated flow into the inlet pipe when

airflow was being measured. On two occasions early in the process when airflow was not

66

being detected the smoke gun indicated there was flow coming out of the inlet pipe

possibly due to a carbon dioxide which is a denser gas than oxygen.

The oxygen content at 0.6-m height reached a minimum of 2% within the first 2
days of the process. This was also when the smoke gun indicated for the first time flow
coming out of the inlet. The low oxygen contents indicated that high carbon dioxide
contents could be the source of the back flow observed with the smoke gun. However,
several other checks with the smoke gun when no airflow was being measured did not

indicate further back flow.

A slight plateau in the temperature profile during the initial increase was
observed. It was at this plateau that oxygen contents were at their lowest levels, and
airflow was detected just after temperatures began increasing again. This is possibly
some type of breakthrough not found or reported in scientific publications and is yet

another phenomena worthy of further study.

The oxygen deficit observed early in the process began recovering as soon as
airflow was detected. The air velocity was measured for a considerable period of the
composting process. Both heights sampled within the compost and in the base plenum
had minimum oxygen contents of 15% maintained during and after the periods when
airflow was being detected. This data indicates that natural convection was the

mechanism for aeration during the passively aerated composting process.

67

Carbon dioxide measurements were made, but on a less frequent basis as the

oxygen probe was more accurate and measurements were easier to obtain. All carbon

dioxide measurements are in Appendix A.

The volume was reduced during the process by 0.06 m3, slightly higher than the

reduction observed over the initial phase of trial 3 (Figure 5.9). The volume reduction

occurred over a period of 48 days from the time the material was turned. The most

significant reduction occurred after the material was added to the chamber, and like the

initial phase of trial 3, the reduction was due to settling.

60

50

Temperature, °C
OJ
C

Figure 5.9:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

X
ifi—O~¢\ ‘%“*xxx
3 WM , 45..
x xxxx X
X X
10 20 30 4O 50 60 70
Day

 

x 0.6m +mA3"
l l

 

68

Volume of Compost - Trial 3, After 1 Turn.

0.4

0.35

0.3

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

3

m

Volume,

The most pronounced volume reduction through the rest of the process occurred
when temperatures were near the observed maximums indicating the reduction was due

from microbial activity.

5.2.4 Commsting Trial Run 4 - Initial Stage
A fresh mixture of 1:1 dairy manure to pine wood chips was used to see if the results
in trial 3 could be repeated. A thorough mass and moisture balance was conducted. The

ambient temperature and oxygen content measured in trial 4 are presented in Figure 5.10.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

25 .fi 22.5
20 ? 8 A 22 E
A A 0

g) 15 ‘1 A “SM 21-5 g
a“ “k A .5
a 10 j I 21 5
e r: ”‘1 /\ \ ‘5
g 5 i _ 205 5
a l: f” l ll] lr’f ~~-\.
0 0 \ “‘4‘, if s -~ ’A’ . 20 a
E“ ‘ \f’ W V e

-5 ‘ I x 19.5 O

-10 19

O 10 20 30 40
Day

 

A Facility Air Temp —._ Outside Temp - —o - - Facility Air Oxygen]

 

Figure 5.10: Ambient Temperature and Oxygen Content Measurements — Trial 4,

Initial Phase.

69

Pigs were present for the duration of the trial and may account for oxygen contents

that were consistently lower than the atmospheric standard of 20.95%. The exception

was a spike observed on day 6 and coincides with when the doors to the outside were

open for an extended period of time for cleaning purposes.

The moisture content, bulk density, and mass of dry compost, as well as mass of

water in the compost, are summarized in Table 5.5. A bulk density of 324 kg/m3 at the

61-97 cm layer was the highest measured and the overall bulk density increased

throughout the composting process which is consistent with Rynk (1992), Haug (1993),

Michel et al. (1995), and Epstein (1997). Initial moisture content was near the desired

starting level as opposed to trial 3 where the levels at the start were too dry.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 5.5. Moisture Content, Bulk Density, Compost Mass, and Water Mass of
Initial Compost, Compost After 1 Turn, and Final Compost Mixture-
Trial 4.
Moisture Bulk Dry
Content, Densit , Compost Mass of
Date Height, cm percent kg/m Mass, kg Water, kg

2/25/97 046 63.1 181.3 13.4 25.8
46-61 62.7 176.1 18.3 30.7
61-97 62.7 207.4 18.4 31.2
97-122 65.8 176.9 15.7 26.9
Total 63.9 185.2 65.9 1 14.6
4/1/97 0—46 236.9 12.3 14.4
46-61 271.7 12.1 14.2
61-76 324.3 14.4 16.9
76-94 174.7 23.3 27.3
Total 54.0 226.5 62.1 72.8
5/17/97 0-46 49.6 265.5 23.6 49.6
46-76 53.1 285.6 38.1 53.1
Total 51.3 277.5 61.7 51.3

6/14/98 46.7 61.4

 

 

 

 

 

 

70

 

The dry compost mass was used in evaluating the decomposition rate (k) used in the
Keener et a1. (1993) kinetics model. The water mass was used in predicting velocities
required to account for the moisture loss. These values and models will be discussed

later (see Section 5.4).

Compost temperature and oxygen, and air velocity are compared in Figure 5.11.
The compost process temperatures increased much slower than during trial 3. It took 16
days to reach the optimal temperature range of 55-60°C in trial 4 while it took less than 4

days during the initial phase and after the material was turned during trial 3.

The temperature of the air entering the compost chamber was 5-7°C cooler at the
beginning of trial 4 than in trial 3. This may have slowed the process some, but the lack
of chemical analysis of the raw materials limits the scope of conclusions that can be

drawn between differences in composting rates of trials 3 and 4.

The plateau in temperatures observed after the trial 3 material was turned was also
observed during trial 4. The plateau occurred the day after the trial 3 material was turned
while it took until day 6 for the plateau to occur in trial 4. The duration of the
temperature plateaus was longer than in trial 3 and this yielded an excellent opportunity

to study the plateau phenomena more closely.

71

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

60 0.0012
\

g2 50 0.001 ,,,
“ 9° 40 00008

E =" ' e:
a 8’2 30 0.0006 .g
In

a g 20 — 0.0004 7,
E 10 0.0002 >

0 0
25

 

 

I - Inlet X 0.6m +Plenum 02 +0.6m 02 1* Velocity]

 

Figure 5.11: Compost Temperature, Oxygen and Air Velocity Measurements -

Trial 4, Initial Phase.

Air velocity was measured 3 days after the temperatures began slowing rising from
the plateau levels. An oxygen deficit formed and was similar to trial 3 but at a much
slower rate. The oxygen deficit in trial 4 lasted for a longer duration than trial 3.
Comparison of air velocity and oxygen content in Figure 5.11 shows that air velocity was
not detected until a few days after the oxygen content had recovered from the initial
deficit. This indicates that undetectable airflow was likely occurring. The prolonged
oxygen deficit during trial 4, even after 3 separate gas samples were extracted, also
indicated that sampling was having a limited effect on the state of the composting

process.

72

Two smoke gun observations were made during that period where no air velocity
was being measured while 02 content was recovering from a deficit. Smoke was
observed being drawn into the inlet, and this verified that airflow was occurring but at

undetectable rates.

The first smoke gun observation made on day 7 resulted in an unexpected
observation. Smoke was briefly drawn into the inlet but then was pushed out. An
additional smoke sample resulted in the same behavior one half hour later. These smoke
observations were made when the lowest oxygen content was measured (0.9 percent).
This phenomena has not been previously reported and may be associated with the critical
aeration breakthrough theorized from the trial 3 data after the material was turned.
Further studies should be conducted to try and replicate this behavior and also look closer

at mixing of the oxygen and carbon dioxide in the inlet pipe.

The process temperatures, oxygen, and air velocities were detected to be at a
relatively steady state after peak temperatures were reached on day 15 continuing through
day 20. At this point the Solomat datalogger malfunctioned. This is very important in
applying some of the forced aeration based models such as the process kinetic based
(Keener et al. 1993), or predicting the air velocity required to account for the moisture

removed (Haug 1993).

The compost volume reduction (Figure 5.12) was 0.07 m3 over the 22 days data was

collected. Like in trial 3, settling accounted for the most significant reduction

73

immediately after material was added to the chamber. And like in trial 3, further volume

reduction was most pronounced when process temperatures were at their maximum (50-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

55°C).
60 0.4
("t
50 A 0.35 E
U 4:
° 8
T 40 \ — 0.3 a.
0

a O
a 30 0.25 U
'5 90-1
a. O
E 20 r 0.2 ‘9
o E
H .E’.
e
10 0.15 >

0 0.1

0 10 20 30 40
Day

 

| x 0.6m +mA3

 

Figure 5.12: Volume of Compost - Trial 4, Initial Stage.

Organic matter (volatile solids) measurements made on triplicate samples of the
initial and final compost mixtures were 68% and 49%, respectively. The results of the
individual samples are presented in Appendix B. The initial compost mixture had an
average standard deviation of 17%, while the final mixture had an average standard
deviation of 12%. A relatively small sample (approximately 4-5 g) was measured on a
scale accurate to :l:0.001 g. Both the initial and final mixtures had a high concentration of

wood chips, but the initial mixture had a higher degree of variation in particle size of the

74

raw manure and was a potential source of the higher standard deviation. The finished

compost was relatively fine and uniform with the exception of the wood chips.

5.3 Permeability

Permeabilities were determined on the compost materials used in both trials 3 and 4.
The permeability, K, was measured on hand packed compost for trial 3, after the material
was turned, while an in-situ core was obtained from trial 4. The raw data used to
determine K are presented in Appendix C. The perrneabilities obtained from trials 3 and
4 were used to analyze the affect bulk density has on air flow predictions using the

Darcian based flow model.

5.3.1 Comppsting Trial Run 3 - Following 1 Turn

The permeability of the compost material used in trial 3 was determined on 4
different dry weight bulk densities. The material was hand packed to the desired bulk
density, and the moisture content was 55%. Air was forced through the chamber from
the bottom and the pressure drop across the inlet and exhaust was measured. The airflow
rates were varied, and the resulting changes in pressure drop over the length of the core
were plotted in Figure 5.13. Bulk density had a dramatic on the slope of the curves. The

slope of the curves were used in determining K at each bulk density.

The resulting perrneabilities and their respective bulk densities for the hand

packed compost analyzed in trial 3 are reported in Table 5 .6.

75

0.035

 

0.03

 

0.025

 

0.02

 

0.015

4..-
“‘-

 

Velocity, mls

0.01

 

0.005

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

30

40 50

dP/L, Palm

60

70

 

[+ Bd=154 kg/m"3 -—-~- Bd=180 kg/m"3 + Bd=390 kg/m"3 —x— Bd=453 kg/mA3j

 

Figure 5.13: Velocity And Pressure Drop Relationship Used For Determining

Permeability - Trial 3 After 1 Turn

Values of K reported by Lynch et al. (1996) are within reasonable range of the

various K measurements made on the compost with different bulk densities. Since no

mixture similar to the mixture used in trials 3 and 4 was reported, and no bulk densities,

the bulk density of the compost in the chamber and the in-situ core were measured.

 

 

 

Table 5.6. Permeability at Different Bulk Densities of Hand Packed Cores- Trial

3 After 1 Turn

Bulk Density (kg/m3) 159 180 390 452
Permeability (m2) 9.66x10'9 5.34x10'9 2.17x10'9 1.73x10'9

 

 

 

 

 

 

76

5.3.2 Comppsting Trial Run 4 - Initial Stage

 

The permeability of the compost material used in trial 4 was determined from one
in-situ core placed on the base of the chamber before material was added. The
measurements were carried out on the core in the same manner as described in section

5.3.1 and the data used to determine K is plotted in Figure 14.

The resulting permeability of the in-situ core was determined from the slope of
the linear relationship in Figure 5.14, and was found to be K=3.23x10'9 m2. The bulk

density of the core was determined to be 217 kg/ m3 and had a moisture content of 54%.

0.0035

 

 

/9
0.003 /

0.0025 /

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

E
.. 0.002
0%.. /
8 0.0015
7. /
> 0.001 //
0.0005 we
0
0 5 10 15 20 25

dP/L, Palm

Figure 5.14: Velocity And Pressure Drop Relationship Used For Determining

Permeability - Trial 4, Initial Stage

77

5.4 Decomppsition Rate — Trial_4

The mass balance conducted during trial 4 allowed for the determination of the
decomposition rate (k) for the composted material. The value of k was important for
modeling air flow based on the Keener et al. (1993) process kinetics based model. Table
5.7 summarizes the dry mass of the compost and mass of water at different times
throughout the compost. The day 474 reading was made in order to provide the

equilibrium mass (me) required in determining k by equation 4.4.

Table 5.7. Compost and Moisture Mass Balance, and Mass Ratio For Trial 4

 

 

 

 

 

 

Compost Material
Day Dry Mass, kg Moisture Mass, kg Mass Ratio, kg/kg
0 m(0) mR
0 65.9 114.6 1
34.2 62.1 72.8 0.16
80.2 61.7 51.3 0.07
474 61.4 28.6 0

 

 

 

 

 

The mR relates the amount of decomposable material available relative to the me
of the compost. A majority of the decomposable dry mass was reduced by day 34.2. The

compost was in a finished state as defined by Rynk (1992) by day 80.2.

78

The decomposition rate (k) was determined by evaluating the exponential
relationship between time and mass ratio according to equation 4.4. The relationship is

shown in Figure 5.15 and the k was found to be —0.0361 kg/kg-day.

 

H
N

 

H

Mass Ratlo, kg/kg
O O
N 05
O

 

93
oo

\ y _ e-0.0361x

 

 

.9
.rs

 

 

 

 

O
—(
-—4
-
—1

20 40 6O 80 100

O

Day

Figure 5.15: Decomposition Rate Curve - Trial 4, Initial Stage

5.5 Predicted Velocities

Three different modeling approaches were used to analyze and compare the
measured and observed data. The Darcian flow based model used by Lynch et al. (1995)
was the only model developed based on a passively aerated composting system. The two
other models, predicting air flow to maintain process temperature (process kinetics

based), and predicting air flow to account for moisture removal, were originally

79

developed for analysis of forced-aeration composting systems where composting is

maintained as a steady state process.

5.5.1 Darcian Flow Model
5.5.1.1 Composting Trial Run 3 - Follovmg 1 Turn

Air velocities were predicted based on Darcy’s Law using the different
permeabilities (K) measured on the trial 3 cores packed at different bulk densities. The
inlet and compost air was assumed to be dry and oxygen and carbon dioxide levels
constant (first assumption listed in Section 4.9.1). The predicted air velocities using the

different K values are compared with measured air velocities in Figure 5.16.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

0.0012
+
,, 0.001 4; "
a -+ +++
+H- a. ++++

>1; 0.0008 al.-l- +a- *1-
§ 2’5: 4; it- + e +I- +

00006 V‘W'I -
0 [J ++L+\ 1+ *-
> 0m K J -\‘
.‘..'.' MAM “W r+ K‘
< .

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

+ measured velocity K=1.7E-09 m"2 ----- K=2.2E-09 m"2
--------- K=5.3E-09 m"2 ------ K=9.7E-09 m"2

 

 

 

Figure 5.16: Temperature and Predicted Air Velocities of Different Permeabilities

- Trial 3, After 1 Turn

80

The highest K produced the highest predicted velocities, but the highest K

(9.66x10‘9 m2) is higher than the value for relatively porous wood chips reported by
Lynch et al. (1995).

Predicted air velocity trends shown in Figure 5.17 were developed for each
assumption listed in Section 4.9.1 in order to make comparisons to measured air
velocities. The trial 3 packed core with a K of 5.34x10'9 m2 was used because it was
relatively close to the trial 4 in-situ core K and yielded velocity trends higher in

magnitude and more pronounced than trends developed with lower K’s (Figure 5.16).

 

 

  
  

 

1.2E-03 60

1.0E-03 50
v:

8.0E-04

 

8

Temperature, °C/
Oxygen, %

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1* Measured velocity

' ' " Predicted velocity (compost air:RH=0%, 02=2l%)
—Predicted velocity (compost air:RH=0%, 02 measured)

— —Predicted velocity (compost air:RH=100%, 02 measured)
X 0.6m Temp

—0—— 0.6m Oxygen

 

 

Figure 5.17: Darcian Predicted Air Velocities - Trial 3, After 1 Turn

81

5.5.1.2 Commsting Trial Run 4 — midwasp

Predicted air velocity trends were predicted based on the Darcian model and the
assumptions listed in Section 4.9. 1. The predicted trends are compared against each other
and with measured velocity in Figure 5.18. The K obtained frOm the in-situ core was
used in all predictions. The temperature and oxygen content of the compost air measured
at 0.6-m and used in predicting air velocity are also shown. The oxygen deficit in Figure
5.18 was where the largest difference occurred between the velocities predicted with

measured temperature and oxygen content, and the velocities predicted with just the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

temperature.
1215-03 60
1013-03 50
\
m 8.0E-04 40 in)
a ,e
5; 6.0E-04 30 I; a
on v... 0
§ 4013.04 20 5 5.
s = “O
2013-04 10 g
F-
0.0E+00 « 0
-2.0E-04 -10
0 5 10 15 20 25
Day

 

+ Measured velocity
----- Predicted velocity (compost air:RH=0%,02=21%)
Predicted velocity (compost air:RH=0%,O2 measured)
- - -Predicted velocity(compost air:RH=100%, 0@ measured)
-—*— 0.6m Temp
——0— 0.6m Oxygen

 

 

 

 

Figure 5.18: Darcian Predicted Air Velocities - Trial 4, Initial Phase

82

5.5.2 Process Temperature (Kinetics) Ba_sed Flow Model

Predicting air velocities based on maintaining a constant compost temperature
(equation 4.5) was conducted using only trial 4 data. Because of the difference in overall
process speed between trials 3 and 4 based on compost temperature data, the
decomposition rate (k) determined for trial 4 would likely be substantially lower than trial
3. Therefore, application of k in predicting air velocities using equation 4.5 was limited

to trial 4 only.

The kinetics based model developed by Keener et al. (1993) assumes that
composting occurs under steady state conditions observed with forced aeration systems
but not with naturally aerated systems. But temperature and gas concentration data from
trial 4 observed a period of relatively little change. Using temperatures recorded during
that period, air velocities were predicted and compared to velocities measured at the same

time the temperature was measured.

The predicted and measured velocities for selected temperatures from trial 4 are
summarized in Table 5.8. The model assumes that the air exiting the compost is
saturated and that the temperature at the surface was the temperature throughout the
compost. Because the data from this study shows that the temperature varies throughout
the compost, air velocities was predicted to maintain temperatures measured at both the
surface and where maximum temperatures most often occurred, at 0.6-m height. The

predicted velocities when temperature was taken from the 0.6 m height were very close to

83

measured velocities, and much closer than when temperature were taken from the

surface.

Table 5.8. Process Temperature Based Predicted Velocities and Measured

Velocities - Trial 4, Initial Phase

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Day Inlet Surface 0.6-m Measured Predicted Velocity Predicted Velocity
Temp Temp Temp Velocity, (temp taken at (temp taken at 0.6
°C °C °C m/s surface) , mls m) , m/s
12.95 13.5 41.3 50.6 3.47E-04 9.06E-04 5.37E-04
15.08 14.7 42.1 53.7 6.94E-04 10.10E-04 5.04E-04
16.30 15.3 40.8 55.0 4.86E-O4 10.60E-04 4.73E-04
19.08 18.5 39.6 56.6 6.94E-04 11.70E-04 4.31E-04
19.83 16.8 38.8 56.5 6.94E-04 12.20E-04 4.33E-04

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

5.5.3 Moisture Remova_lflpsed Flow Model

Air velocities based on moisture removal were predicted based on the trial 4
moisture and mass balance data. The model is based on the temperature data and the
water carrying capacity of air related to those temperatures. Air velocity is estimated
based on how much moisture is removed during the compost process. As with the
process temperature based model, the system must be at steady state for the model to

apply (Haug 1993).

84

The predicted velocities to remove the moisture lost during trial 4 are summarized
in Table 5.9. The predicted velocities were compared to the same measured velocities
used in the comparison of process temperature based predictions in Table 5.8. The
predicted velocities to account for the moisture lost during the trial 4 composting process

were the lowest of all the models analyzed.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 5.9. Moisture Removal Based Predicted Velocities and Measured
Velocities - Trial 4, Initial Phase

Day Inlet Surface 0.6-m Measured Predicted Velocity Predicted Velocity

Temp Temp Temp Velocity, (temp taken at (temp taken at 0.6
°C °C °C mls surface) , m/s m) , m/s
12.95 13.5 41.3 50.6 3.47E-04 2.26E-04 1.35E-04
15.08 14.7 42.1 53.7 6.94E-04 2.16E-04 1.14E-04
16.30 15.3 40.8 55.0 4.86E-04 2.25E-04 1.09E-04
19.08 18.5 39.6 56.6 6.94E-04 2.49E—04 0.97E-04
20 16.8 38.8 56.5 6.94E-04 2.61E-04 0.97E-04

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

5.6 Stoichiometric Demand

 

The oxygen and carbon dioxide content data was checked against the simplified
stoichiometric respiration model given in equation 4.15. At the time the lowest oxygen
was measured (0.9% on day 7), an estimation of oxygen consumed and carbon dioxide
liberated was made based on the reduction of carbon estimated from the organic matter

content measured in trial 4.

85

The initial organic matter measured in trial 4 of 68% decreased to 49% during the
composting process. Based on the decomposition rate (k) estimated from the dry mass
data, an estimate of dry compost was made at the time when the 10west oxygen content of
0.9% was measured at 0.6-m height. The average oxygen content of air sampled from the
compost material and chamber plenum was 6.2%. The plenum measurement was
included because it was the only representation of what the oxygen content was at the

base of the compost.

The estimated mass was used to estimate the amount of organic matter present.
From the organic matter, the amount of carbon was estimated based on the assumption
that there is 0.54 kg of carbon in 1 kg of OM. When the masses were converted to molar
equivalence and the O2 and the CO2 total were based on the standard atmospheric content
of 20.98%, an estimated 8.8% of oxygen was required to reduce consume the carbon, and

an estimated 12.2% of C02 were liberated, assuming that no airflow was occurring.

The stoichiometric demand model was simplified because the chemical makeup of
the compost was not known. The estimated oxygen compares (8.8%) well with the
average of the measured oxygen (6.2%), but in order to more accurately model oxygen
demand based on a stoichiometric balance equation, the exact composition of the

compost must be first determined.

86

CHAPTER 6
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

6.1 Experimental Results
6.1.1 Commsting Trial Run 1

The temperatures in trial 1 exceeded 70°C (Figure 5.1) and foul odors were
noticeable by day 2 indicating the system had gone anaerobic. This was likely a result of
the 4:1 dairy manure to leaf mixture made against the recommendations of Rynk (1992)
for diary manure. But the objective of using this mixture was to test the capability of the

chamber to initiate and maintain a composting process.

Insulating the chamber was very important in maintaining relatively even
temperature distribution laterally through the compost (Figure 5.2). One hot water
blanket was wrapped around the chamber during trial 1, and an additional hot water

blanket was wrapped around the chamber for trials 3 and 4.

6.1.2 Commsting Trial Run 3: Initial Stage

 

The highest compost temperatures were measured at the 0.6 m and 0.9 m height
(Figure 5.4) and exceeded 50°C 2 days after the materials were initially mixed.
Optimum composting process temperatures for naturally and passively aerated
composting systems are 50-60°C (Epstein 1997). Within 1 day of exceeding 50°C, the
temperatures at 0.6 m and 0.9 m decreased rapidly indicating the process was slowing.
This decrease in compost temperatures lagged by a 1 day a similar decrease in air

temperature measured at the chamber inlet. The decrease in compost temperature may

87

have resulted from a lack of sufficient moisture removed by natural convection rather

than the decrease in inlet air temperature.

An oxygen deficit had formed in the compost mixture by day 2 of the process
(Figure 5.4). But by day 3, the oxygen levels in the compost had recovered to levels
higher than measured when the compost materials were initially mixed and added to the
chamber. Air velocity was detected and measured twice within 5 hours of the peak
temperature measured at the 0.9-m height (58°C). The air velocity measurements also
occurred within 1 day of the recovery of oxygen measured in the compost. The oxygen
recovery observed 1 day prior to air velocity measurements indicates airflow, although

undetectable, was likely occurring from convection.

Airflow during composting removes heat and moisture from the composting
process, and if either becomes a limiting factor the process will slow (Epstein 1997; Haug
1993). Visual inspection of the material indicated the compost had dried substantially
since being added to the chamber. The increase in temperature of the compost increased
the water carrying capacity of the air, and airflow would have likely removed a

significant portion of that moisture.

Water was added on day 4 resulting in an immediate increase in compost

temperatures. Compost temperatures at the 0.6-m and 0.9-m height exceeded 50°C for

just over 3 days and then gradually decreased. The compost temperatures at 0.9-m height

88

were initially the highest measured in the compost, but after 6 days they were lower than

the temperatures measured at the 0.3-m and 0.6-m heights.

The wet weight moisture content of the compost material when sampled initially
and when removed for turning was 42% and 37%, respectively (Table 5.2). Moisture
contents (wet weight) needed to maintain optimal temperatures during composting range
from 55 to 69% (Epstein 1997). Therefore, it was concluded that moisture was the
limiting factor resulting in optimal temperatures being maintained only briefly during the

process.

From Figure 5.6, compost volume did not change between day 4 to 6, but after
day 6 the volume decreased which is when the compost temperature at the 0.9-m height
peaked and began decreasing. This suggests that the location of highest compost
temperatures and consequently highest biological activity changes as the overall volume

of compost decreased during the process.

6.1.3 Commsting Trial Run 3: Following 1 Turn

As discussed in Section 6.1.2, the temperature decrease during the initial phase of
trial 3 was not due to a deficiency in oxygen but more likely from a lack of adequate
moisture. Although water was added, the process had observed only a brief increase in
compost temperatures. The material was removed incrementally in order to get a

moisture content profile. The materials were mixed and water was added before being

89

 

put back in the chamber. This procedure constituted what is referred to as turning the

compost.

Recommended turning frequency of naturally aerated windrows and piles varies
greatly from practice to practice and from mixture to mixture (Michel et al. 1995). Rynk
(1992) recommended turning if temperatures decreased steadily over a period of days and
implied the temperature decrease is due to oxygen deficiency in the compost. Turning
would release carbon dioxide that built up from microbial respiration, but oxygen
introduced by turning is typically depleted in the matter of hours (Epstein 1997; Lynch et
a1. 1995; Michel et al 1995; Luflcin et al. 1995; Haug 1993; Miller et al. 1989). The
compost material was “turned” during trial 3 to determine the moisture content and not

because of a lack of oxygen.

The water added to the trial 3 compost material brought the moisture content up to
67% (Table 5.3), and was within the optimal range of 55 to 69% needed to achieve
optimal temperatures (Epstein 1997). As a result, maximum compost temperatures
occurred at the 0.6-m for the entire process. The 0.9-m thermocouples were exposed due
to the reduced volume and height of the compost mixture that occurred from both settling

and decomposition of materials and were thus not representative of the compost air.

Compost temperatures at the 0.6-m height of the turned material were maintained

above 50°C for 10 days (Figure 5.8), almost 8 days longer than when the compost raw

materials were initially mixed. The reason optimal process temperatures were maintained

90

for a longer duration after the material was turned was likely due to the higher moisture

content of the turned material.

As with the initial phase of trial, an oxygen deficit formed immediately after the
“turned” compost material was added to the chamber. However, the oxygen contents in
the compost fell below the critical 5% aerobic/anaerobic level which did not occur with

the deficit that formed during the initial phase of trial 3.

The recovery of oxygen was similar to the trial 3 initial phase recovery, and both
trends were similar to those reported by Sartaj et al. (1997) for passively aerated systems.
In fact, the oxygen recovery for both the initial phase and after the material was turned
occurred much quicker than the data reported by Sartaj et al. (1997) for forced aerated
systems. A temperature plateau occurred at about the same time the lowest oxygen
contents were measured (Figure 5.8). The plateau likely resulted from the low oxygen
levels (below 5%) which would have slowed microbial respiration thus reducing the
amount of heat added to the system. As with the initial phase, the oxygen recovery of the

turned compost was thought to result from airflow.

The first known measured air velocity through a passively aerated composting
media was made during the initial phase of trial 3, but on only two occasions. A
sustained measurement of airflow was made during trial 3 after the material was turned

(Figure 5.8). Airflow was detected just after compost oxygen contents began recovering

91

and temperature of the compost increased from the observed plateau. It is not certain

why airflow initiated when it did, but two possible reasons are explored.

Smoke gun observations made indicated that some mixing of air was occurring in
the inlet pipe just prior to measurable airflow. On two occasions the smoke was observed
to flow out of the inlet and may have been related to a release of accumulated carbon
dioxide gas as indicated by low oxygen contents measured in the plenum (Figure 5.8).
Carbon dioxide is denser than oxygen and any significant accumulation would likely vent
out of the bottom if a pathway were available. The inlet pipe would then serve as that

pathway.

Carbon dioxide venting out the inlet pipe would likely impede airflow. Venting
would likely reduce the carbon dioxide content in the compost to a point that it did not
impede airflow and allowed for increased microbial activity. The increased microbial

activity could have increased compost temperatures enough to initiate airflow.

Another reason possibly contributing to the breakthrough of airflow is moisture
reduction. The role of moisture in terms of when airflow broke through was thought to
be significant. But without actual measured values during the periods when air flow was
first detected, the affect cannot be accurately assessed but only implied. Das and Keener
(1995) reported that moisture contents above 60% had a clear influence on

compactability and air permeability of the compost media. As moisture contents dropped

92

below 60%, dramatic decreases in pressure drop across a column of compost were

reported which means there was less resistance to flow

The turned material added to the chamber had a moisture content of 67% (Table
5.4). The carrying capacity of the compost air increased with the temperature. Assuming
that some airflow was occurring below the detection level of the instrumentation, the
warmed air would have risen out of the chamber and removed some moisture from the
system. This could have led to a decrease to a critical level, perhaps the 60% cited by
Das and Keener (1995), resulting in the breakthrough of airflow, oxygen, and increase in

temperature.

Air velocity measurements did vary greatly during trial 3 after the material was
turned. Fluctuations in ambient air temperature and relative humidity (Figure 5.7) and
also to the air in the compost media itself would likely have an affect on‘the low order

magnitudes of velocity associated with passively composting systems.

6.1.4 Composting Trial Run 4

Maximum compost temperatures at the 0.6-m height were maintained above 50°C
for 9 days during the initial phase of trial 4 (Figure 5.11). Compost temperatures at 0.6-
m were above 55°C when data collection was ceased due to instrumentation problems.
The thermocouples at the 0.9-m height were exposed and are not presented. The initial
moisture content of the mixture was 64% (Table 5.4) and was within optimal ranges cited

by Epstein (1997) and Rynk (1992).

93

The process temperatures rose slower during trial 4 than during both phases of
trial 3. This was thought to be due to the state of the dairy manure when collected before
the trials. Dairy manure used in all trials of this study was taken from the MSU Dairy
Farm after having been stockpiled outside for approximately one week. The trial 3
manure was obtained in the late summer while the trial 4 manure was obtained in the
winter and under frozen conditions. The onset of decomposition would take longer with
the manure stockpiled under frozen conditions thus resulting in the slower increase in

process temperatures observed during trial 4.

The temperature plateau observed after the material was turned in trial 3 was also
observed during the initial phase of trial 4. The plateau in compost temperatures
observed during trial 4 occurred over a longer period of time (Figure 5.11) than in trial 3.
The reasons for this trend are best described by analyzing at the oxygen content,

temperature, and air velocity data simultaneously.

Figure 5.11 shows that air flow did not begin until 2 days after compost
temperatures began increasing from the plateau. During that plateau oxygen contents
fluctuated below the critical 5% level. Compost temperatures did not increase from the
plateau until 2 days after oxygen contents began recovering. Smoke gun observations
made during the oxygen deficit of trial 4 indicated some airflow was occurring into the

compost chamber at levels undetectable to the velocity probe. This verifies the

94

assumption made in Section 6.1.3 that airflow was occurring even though it was below

the detection limits of the instrumentation.

During trial 4, two smoke gun observations showed smoke being drawn in and
then pushed out on a repeated basis. Smoke was observed to flow out of the inlet pipe in
trial 3, but not on the repeated basis observed during trial 4. These observations were
made towards the end of the oxygen deficit (day 8 and 9) and just before compost
temperatures increased from the plateau. The fluctuations in smoke were thought to be
related to the build up and venting of carbon dioxide. The smoke gun observations did
show there was a great deal of fluctuations in the inlet air and could account for the high

degree of variations in measured air velocity.

Without continuous moisture content measurements an accurate assessment of
what factor(s) accounts most for the airflow breakthrough is not possible. However, the
fluctuation of oxygen in the compost observed during the oxygen deficit did not result in
fluctuations in temperature measured at the same times and heights as the oxygen
indicating that even if airflow was occurring, it was not enough to supply microbes and
significantly effect the biological activity. Venting of carbon dioxide inferred from the
oxygen measurements would not seem to be the main reason continuous airflow was
initiated. Therefore, changes in moisture content (reduction) as discussed in Section
6.1.3 were thought to be the main factor as to when continuous airflow broke through in

trial 4.

95

The rate of compost volume reduction for trial 4 (Figure 5.12) as measured by
changes in height of the compost surface was highest within the first 3 days after the
material was added. The same was observed for both phases of trial 3 (Figures 5.6 and
5.9). A majority of volume reduction in all cases was" likely due to settling.
Decomposition accounted for a much smaller decrease in compost volume for the

remainder of the composting process.

A mass balance was conducted for trial 4 (Table 5.6) and was very important in
modeling the composting process using process kinetic derived and moisture balance
derived expressions. Error associated with mass balance was minimized by the low
sensitivity of the scale used (:01 kg). Compost mass was weighed as individual layers
were added or removed when material was turned. The mass weighed included compost
material and moisture present. Dry compost mass was estimated by subtracting the
fraction of water estimated by multiplying the measured moisture content by the total
mass. One way to improve mass balance would be to set up the chamber on a scale and

conduct the composting process.

Dry weight bulk density was estimated for the overall compost mixture and at the
individual layers from which compost mass was weighed. Dry compost mass and mass
of water were both reduced most during the initial phase of composting. The reduction
was much less after the material was turned. Bulk density increased throughout the

composting process from 185 kg/m3 to 278 kg/m3.

96

The 61-76 cm layer had the highest bulk density when the material was removed
for turning. This is also the layer where highest temperatures were recorded during the
composting process. The highest temperatures would be associated with the highest level
of microbial activity and would have decomposed more material than at any other
location. Moisture would have likely condensed just above where highest temperatures
occurred. Therefore, there could have been higher moisture contents at that layer than at

any other location throughout the compost.

Organic matter (volatile solids) measurements were made on samples taken of the
initial and final compost of trial 4. Organic matter measurements had several potential
sources of error, the first being the relatively small amount of sample used in analysis
(approximately 5 grams). The presence of wood chips or pebbles could vary the weight
greatly. Great care was made in ensuring samples measured had the same relative
amount of wood chips present. Organic matter contents of the initial miXture and final
compost and reduction over the trial 4 period were within reason of values reported for

various materials by Epstein (1997), Michel et al. (1995), and Haug (1993).

Organic matter determinations do provide a rough estimate of biological activity,
but their overall application is limited because as Michel et al. (1995) noted it lacks
specificity and sensitivity. Materials readily metabolized, less readily metabolized, and
not metabolized during any reasonable composting process do not get separated during

organic matter testing.

97

6.1.5 Compost Permpallijy

Permeability was a relatively easy parameter to obtain and measured values were
comparable to those reported by Lynch et al. (1995). Published data on the
permeabilities of various materials and mixtures was found to be limited and no bulk
density or moisture content data was reported with the published values. Higher bulk
densities reduced the permeability (Table 5.6) which was expected, as permeability is a
measurement of pressure drop over a length of porous media at different velocities

(Equation 3.1).

The in-situ core obtained from trial 4 had a measured permeability and bulk
density that was within the same range when compared to the various permeabilities
measured on cores hand packed to different bulk densities in trial 3. The moisture
content which was hypothesized to be one of the main factors of when measurable air
flow would occur was relatively the same for the hand packed cores measured during trial
3 and the in-situ core from trial 4. Changes in the permeability factor therefore could
only be attributed to changes in bulk density. Studying the affect moisture content has on
permeability could possibly allow a means to better evaluate how moisture content

affects overall airflow through a composting media.

Hand packed cores would be sufficient for evaluating permeability as long as they
are packed to a bulk density representative of actual composting conditions. The method
is a quick and easy means of obtaining data needed for evaluating and predicting airflow

through a composting media based on Darcian flow. Future research efforts should

98

include the development of an expression that accounts for bulk density and moisture
content when determining permeability in order to improve the accuracy of predicting

airflow through a composting media using the Darcian model.

6.1.6 Compost Decomposition Rapq

Decomposition rate (k) was evaluated using the approach presented by Keener et
al. (1993) for deriving an expression from experimental data. The resulting k was within
the range reported for sludges and cage layer manure mixed with corn cobs (Keener et al.
1993). The expression for k also allowed for estimating the mass of material at any time

of the composting process.

The compost mixture used in trial 4 was the same as in trial 3 but the
decomposition rate (k) determined from trial 4 could not be applied for trial 3. There
were significantly different trends in temperature and oxygen content overtime observed,
especially at the initial phase of composting that would have likely resulted in a much

different k for trial 3.

The trial 4 compost temperatures took longer to rise than the temperatures for
both phases of trial 3. Therefore, the decomposition rate should be determined on a case
by case basis because even similar materials and mixtures decompose at different rates
depending on a variety of factors including how the materials were handled prior to

composting as well as changes in ambient conditions during composting.

99

6.2 Assessment of Model Behavior and Characteristics

All models analyzed assumed that temperature was uniform throughout the
composting media. But this has been shown to be otherwise with data. Design
temperatures used in modeling are picked within the 50°C to 60°C optimal range (Lynch
et al. 1995; Haug 1993; Keener et al. 1993). Further development of more dynamic
models has been limited due to the inability to verify passively or naturally aerated
composting process models, so assuming uniform temperature was necessary in order to
make a general assessment as to whether the magnitudes of the actual air velocities

measured made sense or not.

6.2.1 Darcian Flow Based Model

Air velocities were predicted using Darcy’s Law for three different assumed
conditions of the compost air (Section 4.9.1) and compared to air velocities measured in
trial 3, after the material was turned (Figure 5.17), and trial 4 (Figure 5.18). Velocities
were also predicted using the trial 3 data (after material was turned) for the different

permeabilities measured from the trial 3 material (Figure 5.16).

The predicted air velocities based on Darcy’s Law were found to consistently
underestimate measured air velocities for both trials. However, the Darcian model
allowed for predicting air velocities for periods when no air velocity was measured.
There were several smoke gun observations made indicating airflow was occurring

although no air velocities were being measured.

100

Comparing the predicted velocities of the different permeabilities (Figure 5.16),
the highest permeability value obtained from the core packed to the lowest bulk density
resulted in the highest predicted air velocity values. These highest predicted velocities
were still lower than measured indicating that Darcian based flow model underestimated
measured air velocities. This discrepancy becomes an issue in the overall efficiency of

design and management of larger passively aerated windrows or piles.

The trends of all the predicted velocities in trial 3 after the material was turned
matched the trends of the measured air velocities over time. The similarity between
predicted and measured air velocity trends is the strongest indication that the measured
air velocity was dependent on temperature and was a result of a natural convective

driving force.

The velocity trends predicted for the different assumptions madeof the compost
air in trial 3 (after material turned) were similar. The largest difference between the
predicted values was slightly more than 0.0002 m/s (Figure 5.17) on day 2 which is when
the lowest oxygen content measurement was made. Both velocities predicted using the
oxygen data observed a decrease in air velocity from day 1 to 2 as a result of the oxygen
deficit. The velocity predicted with oxygen assumed to be at 21% increased over that

same interval.

The most significant result from the trial 3 predicted velocities was that the

highest velocities occurred when the compost air was assumed to be saturated, and

101

compost air density was computed using measured temperature and oxygen content data.
Air leaving compost piles can be assumed to be saturated when the compost is at a
moisture content greater than 50%, and at 95% when compost moisture contents were in
the range of 45 to 50% (Bach et al. 1987). Therefore, assuming the compost air to be
saturated was the more accurate way of predicting air velocity. The reason compost air
was assumed to be dry is because it simplifies the air density computation based on the
Ideal Gas Law (Equation 3.3) as atmospheric pressure (101.3 kPa) can be assumed. The
pressure of the air becomes a function of temperature when the air is assumed to be

saturated (Weast 1982).

Trial 4 data collection had ceased just as the composting process had reached
optimal temperatures. No trends were observed between the predicted velocity and
measured velocity for this brief period of time, at least none as obvious as in trial 3. As
with the Darcian based predicted velocities from the trial 3 data, trial 4 predicted

velocities were lower than a majority of measured air velocities.

An interesting trend was observed from predicting velocity assuming the compost
air was dry and air density was computed using temperature and oxygen data (Figure
5.18). Between day 5 and 7, the predicted air velocity trend fluctuated between very low
positive and negative values, and this was the same time smoke was observed to flow into
and out from the inlet pipe. Assuming compost air was dry when predicting air velocities
based on compost air temperature and oxygen data provided an explanation for the

phenomena observed with the smoke.

102

Based on the positive and negative predicted velocity fluctuation observed in trial
4, it may be more accurate to assume the compost air is closer to the humidity of the
incoming air when velocities were predicted to be less than 0.0001 mls (Figure 5.18).
Ambient air was assumed to be dry when predicting Darcian based air velocities for both
trials 3 and 4. Predicted velocity trends when compost air was assumed to be saturated
were higher than the two velocity trends predicted assuming compost air was assumed to
be dry for both trials. Therefore, assuming compost air is saturated should be limited to
periods where flow moves heated air through cooler regions of the compost resulting in

an increase of the humidity of the air.

p.2_.2 Flow to Maplpain Process Kinetics Model

Air velocities required to maintain specific temperatures based on process kinetics
were predicted for a limited number of data points in trial 4 (Table 5.8). The model
developed by Keener et al. (1993) was for designing and managing forced aeration vessel
systems where maintaining constant temperature is desired. Airflow is required not only

for microbial respiration, but also for removing excessive heat evolved from respiration.

Applying this model to a passively aerated system required a period where the
process was at or near steady state. For trial 4, the process was assumed to be at or near a
steady state process starting at day 13. The model also assumed the air at the exit was

saturated and was at the same temperature as the compost.

103

Velocities were predicted for temperatures measured at both the surface and at
0.6-m height where maximum compost temperature was most frequently measured. The
assumption of saturated air could be inaccurate for both locations as the top 2-3 cm of
compost were observed to be very dry relative to the rest of the compost, and air would
likely be at or near the most vaporized state at the highest temperature. The model
application is also limited to a steady state composting process. Therefore, a limited
period of trial 4 was assumed to be at steady state based on nearly steady process

temperatures measured after day 13.

Predicted velocities were very close to measured velocities when the 0.6-m height
maximum temperature was used instead of the surface temperature. The velocity
required for maintaining constant compost process temperature decreased as the design
temperature increased. Maintaining lower temperatures would require more air to

remove larger amounts of heat than at higher temperatures.

6.2.3 Flow to Account For Moisture Removal Model

Predicted velocities based on the moisture removed were done using the same
temperature data points measured at the surface and at the 0.6-m height for predicting
velocities to maintain design process temperatures (Table 5.9). The overall predicted
velocities to remove moisture using both surface and 0.6 m height temperatures were
much lower than measured and predicted velocities required for constant process

temperature (Table 5.8).

104

More air flow was predicted when the compost temperature was taken at the
surface which makes sense as the surface temperatures which were consistently cooler
than the temperatures at 0.6 m height would carry less water and require more airflow to
remove equal amounts of water. Epstein (1997) and Haug (1993) both stated that more
air was required to remove heat and maintain process temperature than was required to
remove moisture as the heated compost air has a very high water carrying capacity

compared to the much cooler ambient air.

6.2.4 Stoichiometric Respiration Balm

A final check of the data collected was made through comparing the O2 and CO2
contents measured with contents predicted using a simple stoichiometric respiration
equation. Predictions were based on assuming that the carbon in organic matter was
consumed at a rate that could be predicted using the decomposition rate (k) expression

developed from the mass balance data.

The lowest level of 02 measured during the deficit observed in trial 4 was
checked. The carbon consumed since the beginning of the process to the time the lowest
02 was measured was predicted using the expression developed for k and converted to an
equivalent molar mass. Molar mass equivalents were then computed for both 02 and
CO2. Based on the atmospheric content of the sum of O2 and CO2 gas (20.98%), the 02

content required by the aerobic microbes to consume the carbon was estimated to be

105

8.8% and the CO2 content was estimated to be 12.2%. The average of the different 02

contents measured in the compost at the time of lowest overall 02 measured was 6.2%.

In order to more accurately model 02 and CO2 based on stoichiometric demand,
the exact composition of the compost mixture would need to be determined and a more
accurate prediction of carbon consumed would need to be developed. However, based on
the wide range of 02 content observed when the lowest 02 content was measured (0.9%
to 13%), the check did serve to further strengthen confidence in the data collected during

the study, mainly trials 3 and 4.

6.3 Comparison of Composting Model Results

All velocities measured and predicted by Darcy’s, the process kinetics model, and
the moisture removal model are compared in Figure 6.1. Compost air was assumed to be
at saturation and inlet air was assumed to be dry for all predicted velocities. The Darcian
velocity was based on measured temperature and oxygen contents at the 0.6-m height.
Measured velocities were higher than predicted velocities except on day 13 the velocity

predicted to maintain the compost at 50°C was the highest.

The relatively low order of magnitude in velocities both measured and predicted
raised concerns about the environment in which the study was conducted. Disturbances
and possible effects to ambient air properties of the facility from human and animal

activity as well as the ventilation system could have effected the air velocity measured at

106

the inlet of the chamber. These disturbances could account for the consistent variation in

measured air velocity.

8.0E-04
7.0E-04
6.0E-04
5.0E—04 ,
4.0E-04 -
3.0E—04 ~
2.0E-04 ,
1.0E-04 e
0.0E+00 -

 

0.6m Tc 0.6m T, ’ 0.6m T, 0.6m T, 0.6m T,
=51°C =54°Cl =55°C =57°C =57°C

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Velocity, m/s

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Day

 

IE1 Measured Darcian I Process Moisture ’

 

Figure 6.1 Comparison of measured and predicted air velocities - Trial 4.

107

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSIONS

The experimental apparatus designed and developed for this study was capable of
sustaining a passively aerated composting process and allowed for successful
measurement of airflow through an inlet pipe placed beneath the base of the

composting media.

Air velocity measured through the inlet pipe of the experimental apparatus was
driven by natural convection. No other driving force could account for the
interaction observed between measured air flow, temperature, and 02 gas content.
Air velocities were measured as the temperature differential between ambient air
and compost air grew, and was associated with oxygen recoveries from deficits
observed shortly after composting began. This breakthrough trend was observed

in trials 3 and 4.

Measured air velocities was compared to predicted by a Darcian flow based
model, a process kinetics based model, and a moisture removal based model. The
Darcian model expresses the driving force between compost and ambient air
temperatures in terms of air densities and consistently underestimated measured
air velocities. The trends observed between measured and predicted air velocities,

especially in trial 3 after the material was turned, were very similar to trends in

108

compost temperature and that is the strongest indication that natural convection

was the primary aeration mechanism.

Results indicate that compost aeration by natural convection is a more complex
phenomenon than simple Darcian flow. Accumulation of carbon dioxide affects
the density of compost gas while temperature increases reduces the density of the
interstitial gas. Flow by natural convection only proceeds once the compost gas

density is less than the ambient gas.

Placing a pipe at the base of a compost pile or windrow may serve as a vent for
carbon dioxide gas that builds up from aerobic respiration. The strongest
indication came from observing smoke flow into and out of the inlet of the
chamber at the time oxygen deficits in the compost were measured during trial 3,
after the material was turned, and trial 4. Carbon dioxide build up was the only
explanation since compost temperatures were higher than inlet temperatures

suggesting that airflow should occur only into the inlet of the chamber.

Air velocities predicted to maintain temperatures based on process kinetics were
the closest to measured air velocity but only during periods where the process was
observed to be at near steady state (after day 13). The process kinetics model
assumes air exiting the compost was at saturation and was the same temperature
as highest temperature in the composting media. The height where maximum

temperature was recorded was used as the process temperature to model airflow.

109

The air at that height was assumed to be at saturation. Based on the relatively
small magnitude of air velocities associated with this system, these assumptions

proved to be acceptable.

Air velocities predicted to account for the reduction in moisture measured in trial
4 underestimated actual air velocities measured as was expected based on
literature by Epstein (1997) and Haug (1993). As with the process kinetic based
model, the moisture removal predictions applied only during steady state

conditions.

A very simplified stoichiometric equation based on respiration was developed to
compare 02 and CO2 contents based on a time dependent estimate of carbon
consumed during the compost process. Predicted 02 contents were reasonably
close to the average 02 contents measured during the O2 deficit of trial 4. A more
accurate stoichiometric balance would require that the specific chemical

composition of the compost mixture be known which was not tested in this study.

110

CHAPTER 8

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

Now that a methodology has been developed which allows for the continuous
monitoring of airflow through a passively aerated composting media, more
statistically based research should be conducted. Manufacturing another chamber

so that identical mixtures could be composted simultaneously would be in order.

More accurate and dynamic models need to be developed that account for
variations in temperature, gas content, moisture, and bulk density typical to

passively and naturally aerated composting systems.

Further studies should be conducted on the permeability factor used in predicting
air velocity using the Darcian flow based model. Developing a permeability
relationship that included moisture and bulk density parameters would likely
bring predicted air velocities closer to measured velocities. Once a more accurate
Darcian flow based model is developed, the behavior during the periods of
composting where flow was likely occurring but at undetectable rates could better

be analyzed.

A method for measuring compost moisture content in-situ should be developed so
that the effect moisture has on the airflow breakthrough observed in trials 3 and 4

can be studied more thoroughly. Current technologies such as moisture blocks

lll

and TDR (time domain reflectrometry) probes were found by researchers to be

adversely affected by high salt concentrations typical of most manure wastes.

The temperature plateau phenomena should be studied closer as this seems to be a

critical point at which the composting process is starting to go anaerobic.

More detailed analysis of gas mixing in the inlet pipe should be conducted by
continuously monitoring both oxygen and carbon dioxide contents in the inlet. In
necessary, a larger diameter inlet should be used although this may reduce the air
velocities to lower than detectable magnitudes. This would allow for probe

placement at the top and bottom of the inlet pipe.

Cost analysis comparison should be made between the type of mixture used in
this study (dairy manure with wood chips) and more conventional mixtures such
as bedding straw and manure. The mixture used in trials 3 and 4 of this study
would not be practical in most on-farm applications because screening would be
necessary to remove the wood chips. But the fact that the material would likely

require less turning may offset the cost of screening the material.

112

APPENDICIES

113

APPENDIX A

RAW DATA

114

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

115

 

 

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Mixture: 4 parts cow manure with bedding to 1 part leaves

Date: 9/1 3/96
Descriptior Initial moisture content of raw material mixture

Wet Wt + ' Dry Wt. + ' Tin Wt Moisture Content

Sample (9) (g) (9) Wet Basis, %
0 in - 16 in 278 202.4 146 57.27273
16 in - 32 i 284 208.3 148.36 55.8095

32 in - 48 i 302.4 210.4 148.12 59.63184

Date: 9/16/96
Descriptior Moisture content of compost sampled during turning

Wet Wt + ‘ Dry Wt. + 'Tin Wt Moisture Content

Sample (9) (g) (9) Wet Basis, %
0 in - 12 in 281.8 222 146 44.03535
12 in - 24 i 276.4 217.5 148.36 46.00125
24 in - 35 i 291 221 148.12 48.99216

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E.EN
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Nv

 

cod Ea3 3 33333
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dona3 Ea3d33d3
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dduE3 Ea3o33d3
dduE3 Ea3d33d3
ddnv3 Ea3d33d3
dduE3 Ea3d33d3
dduN3 Ea3d33d3
do”: Ea3d33d3
ddd3 Ea3d33d3
ddua Ea3d33d3
dduE Ea3d33d3
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ddnE Ea3d33d3
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ddnm Ea3d33d3
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ddu3 Ea3d33d3
ddd Ea3d33o3
COHEN Ea3a3d3
dduNN Ea3a303
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ddnE3 Ea3a3d3
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131

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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aEua Ea3N3303
aEHE Ea3N3303
aEH3. Ea3N3303
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aEHN Ea3N3303
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aEuEN Ea333303
aEHNN Ea333303
aEH3N Ea333303
aEuON Ea333303
aEHa3 Ea333303
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aEH3t3 Ea333303
aEHE3 Ea333303
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aEuv3 Ea333303
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aEHN3 Ea333303
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132

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

E.EN

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aEna3 Ea3E3303
aEnE3 Ea3E3303
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aEnE3 Ea3E3303
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aEHE3 Ea3N3303
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aEd3 Ea3N3303

 

 

133

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EEN

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aEHE Ea3E3303
aEuv Ea3E3303
aEuE Ea3E3303
aEnN Ea3E3303
aEH3 Ea3E3303
aEnO Ea3E3303
aEHEN Ea3v3303
aEnNN Ea3v3303
aEH3N Ea3v3303
aEdN Ea33303
aEUa3 Ea33303
aEHE3 Ea3v3303
aEn3t3 Ea3v3303
aEHE3 Ea3v3303
aEHE3 Ea3v3303
aEHv3 Ea3v3303
aEuE3 Ea3v3303
aEuN3 Ea3v3303
aEn33 Ea3v3303
aEd3 Ea3v3303
aEua Ea3v3303
aEuE Ea3v3303
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aEuv Ea3v3303
aEHE Ea33303
aEuN Ea3v3303

 

 

aEn3 Ea3v3303
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aEUEN Ea3E3303
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aEu3N Ea3E3303
aEdN Ea3E3303

 

134

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

a.NN EN —a.vN
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adN

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aNd3 Ea33.3303

aEHa Ea33.3303
aNua Ea33t3303
aEnE Ea33.3303
aNnE Ea33l3303
aEH3. Ea33.3303
aNu3. Ea33.3303
aEHE Ea303303
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aEnE Ea303303
aNHE Ea33.3303
aEnv Ea33.3303
aNUv Ea33.3303
aEHE Ea303303
aNuE Ea3033d3
aEnN Ea33t3303
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aEn3 Ea33t33o3
aNu3 Ea33.3303
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aEHEN Ea3E3303
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aEn3N Ea3E3303
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aEdN Ea3E3303
aEH33 Ea3E3303

 

aEuO3 Ea3E3303
aEua Ea3E3303
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aEHE Ea3E3303

 

135

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

E.EN

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aEua3 Ea303303
aNna3 Ea33.3303
aEUE3 Ea33.3303
aNHE3 Ea33.3303
aEu3.3 Ea303303
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aEHE3 Ea33.3303
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aEHE3 Ea303303
aNuE3 Ea303303
aEnv3 Ea303303
aNnv3 Ea303303
aEHE3 Ea33.3303
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136

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

E.3N

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adv
Edv
3dv
EaE
E.aE
E.EE

E.EE

 

a.3.E

v.3.E

3.EE

E.EE

E.EE

N.EE

EE

E.vE

EvE

E.vE

E.vE

3.vE

a.EE

3..EE

E.EE

E.EE

3.EE

 

E.NE

YEE _E.EE

E.EE

EE

E.vE

v.vE

vE

E.EE

YEE

N.EE

3.EE

EE

a.NE

ENE

E.NE

E.NE

 

E.NE

E.a3

E.a3

Ya3

E.a3

E.a3

E.a3

a.a3

E.EE _ON

3 .ON

NdN

NdN

3 .ON

NdN

E .ON

E .ON

E.ON

 

N.3N

COOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

E.3.E
v.3.E
3.E

E.3.E
E.3.E
N.3.E
3.3.E
E.EE
E.EE
EE

EEE
E.aE
E.EE
E .EE
adv
E.3v
N.Nv
Ev

3.Ev
N.vv
3.Ev
va
E.Ev
E.Ev
E.Ev
N.3.v
Ev

YNE
E.OE
YOE
EOE
NE

N.EE

 

N.EE

E.a3
Ea3
Ea3
Ea3
E.a3
Ea3
E.a3
Ea3
E.a3

3dN
NdN
Ea3
3 .ON
E.ON
E.ON
E.ON
E.ON
adN
E.ON
EON
adN
3N

EON
NdN
E.ON
E.ON

3N
E.ON
adN
3N
3.3N
E.3N

 

N.EN
3.EN
3.EN
3.EN
3.EN
3.EN
3.EN
3.EN
3.EN
3.EN
EN

3.EN
3.EN
3.EN
N.EN
N.EN
E.EN
YEN
E.EN
N.EN
N.EN
3.EN
N.EN
EN

EN

3.EN
N.EN
E.3.N
N. 3N
3N

3N

E. 3N
E.3N

 

a.3N

EE

 

aNnON Ea3E3303
aEua3 Ea3E3303
aNna3 Ea3E3303
aEHE3 Ea3E3303
aNHE3 Ea3E3303
aEu3.3 Ea3E3303
aNK3 Ea3E3303
aEuE3 Ea3E3303
aNuE3 Ea3E3303
aEuE3 Ea3E3303
aNnE3 Ea3E3303
aEuv3 Ea3E3303
aNnv3 Ea3E3303
aEuE3 Ea3E3303
aNnE3 Ea3E3303
aEHN3 Ea3E3303
aNuN3 Ea3E3303
aEn33 Ea3E3303
aNu33 Ea3E3303
aEd3 Ea3E 3303
aNd3 Ea3E3303
aEua Ea3E3303
aNua Ea3E3303
aEUE Ea3E3303
jaNuE Ea3E3303
aEK Ea3E3303
aNK Ea3E3303
aEUE Ea3E3303
aNuE Ea3E3303
aEHE Ea3E3303
aNHE Ea3E3303
aEnv Ea3E3303
aNuv Ea3E3303
aEuE Ea3E3303

 

 

137

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

0% 0%
0% 0%
0% 0%
0% 0%
0% 0%
0% 0%
0% 0%
0% 0%
0% 0%
0% 0%
0% %

0% 0%
0% 0%
0% 0%
0% 0%
0% 0%
230%

a.vE

 

—a.3v —a.NN

 

E.3v ENN
3.3v E.NN
3.dv EN

Ndv E.EN
EaE E.EN
3.aE EEN
E.EE E.EN
ENE vN

3.3.E E.vN
YEE EN

E.EE E.vN
E.EE E.NN
a.vE E3N
E.vE E.3N
v.vE E.3N
N.vE E.3N

 

E.3.v
E.3.v
a.Ev
YEv
Ev

E.Ev
N.Ev
Evv
v.vv
vv

E.Ev
E.Ev
Ev

E.Nv
E.Nv
YNv

YNv

 

E.vv

a.Ev

E.Ev

N.Ev

E.Nv

E.Nv

E.3v

N.3v

EOv

3 .Ov

E.aE

aE

YEE

EE

E.3.E

3.3.E

E.EE

 

Edv

Edv

Edv

vdv

Ndv

a.aE

EaE

YaE

aE

EEE

E.EE

E.3.E

YEE

3.E

E.EE

E.EE

a.EE

 

E.E3

E.E3

N.E3

N.E3

E.E3

YE3

E.E3

EE3

E.E3

a.E3

a.E3

a.E3

a3

a3

N.a3

N.a3

N.a3

 

N3d
33d
33d
33d
33d
33d
33d
33d
3d

3d

33d
33d
EOd

"I"!
O0

 

OCCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

E.NE
3.vE
N.EE
E.EE
N.EE
3.vE
E.vE
v.vE
a.vE
YEE
EE

YEE
YEE
E.EE

E.EE
EEE
3.E

ESE
E.3.E
E.3.E
v.3.E
N.EE
E.EE
N.EE
E.EE
N.EE
E.EE
EEE
EE

a.EE
v.3.E
E.3.E
N.3.E

 

E.a3
E.a3
3.a3
a3

E.E3
E.E3
EE3
EE3
E.E3
E.E3
E.E3
EE3
EE3
E.E3
E.E3
a3

3.a3
E.a3
E.a3
v.a3
v.a3
v.a3
v.a3
v.a3
v.a3
v.a3
v.a3
E.a3
E.a3
E.a3
E.a3
Ea3
Ea3
E.a3

 

EaN
E.aN
YaN
N.aN
3.aN
aN

a.EN
a.EN
aN

a.EN
EEN
a.EN
EEN
EEN
E.EN
E.EN
YEN
YEN
E.EN
E.EN
YaN
YaN
E.aN
3.aN
E.EN
E3.N
N.EN
EEN
E.EN
E.EN
E.EN
E.EN
N.EN
N.EN

 

EE

 

aNuE3 Ea3a3303
aEuN3 Ea3a3303
aNnN3 Ea3a3303
aEn33 Ea3a3303
aNn33 Ea3a3303
aEd3 Ea3a3303
aNuO3 Ea3a3303
aEua Ea3a3303
aNna Ea3a3303
aEnE Ea3a3303
aNHE Ea3a3303
aEK Ea3a3303
aNK Ea3a3303
aEUE Ea3a3303
aNHE Ea3a3303
aEuE Ea3a3303
aNnE Ea3a3303
aEuv Ea3a3303
aNHv Ea3a3303
aEuE Ea3a3303
aNUE Ea3a3303
aEnN Ea3a3303
aNuN Ea3a3303
aEH3 Ea3a3303
aNu3 Ea3a3303
aEHO Ea3a3303
aNd Ea3a3303
aEnEN Ea3E3303
aNHEN Ea3E3303
aEHNN Ea3E3303
aNnNN Ea3E3303
aEu3N Ea3E3303

 

aNn3N Ea3E3303
aEdN Ea3E33d3

 

138

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

_2
3.EN
N.EN
N.EN
YEN
E.EN
N.EN
E.EN
E.EN
a.EN
EEN
3.EN
a.vN
E.vN
E.vN

a.EN

 

EEN

EvE

E.vE

E.vE

vE

3..EE .

E.EE

E.NE

N.NE

E3E

E.3E

E.OE

E.OE

E.av

E.av

E.Ev

 

E.OE

vdE

E.OE

NdE

OE

a.av

Eav

 

E.Ev

3.vv vN

0% 0%
0%
% 0%
% L0%
0% 0%
0% 0%
0% 0%
0% 0%
0%
0% %
0% 0%
% 0%
0% 0%

YNv E.EN

 

 

N.Nv 3.EN

E.NE

ENE

YNE

N.NE

NE

E.3E

E.3E

N.3E

EN jadE

E.OE

NdE

E.av

E.av

ENv _a.EN .av

E.Ev

 

N.Ev

EEv

EEv

YvN _E.NE .E.Ev

E.Ev

E.Ev

E.Ev

YEv

E.Ev

N.Ev

Ev

a.Ev

EEv

E.Ev

E.Ev

3.Ev

E.vv

 

N.3v

N.3v

E.3v

E.3v

E.3v

N.3v

N.3v

N.3v

N.3v

N.3v

N.3v

N.3v

N.3v

3.3v

3v

adv

 

0% 30%

3.E3

N.E3

N.E3

E.E3

E.E3

YE3

E.E3

EE3

E.E3

EE3

EE3

EE3

EE3

E.E3

E.E3

E.E3

 

YE3

N3 .O
3 3d
3d
NOd
3d
NOd

 

3d
8d
3 3d

3d
33d
33d
3d
3d
5
3d
33d
3d
3d
3d
bod
33d
3d

33d
33d
33d
33d
3d
3d
3d
3d

 

 

0% 30%
0% 02
0% 02
0% 02
0% 02
0% 0e
0% 02
0% 02
% 0e
0% 0e
0% 02
0% 02
0% 02
0% 02
0% 02
% 0e
0% 02
0% 0e
% 02
0% 0e
0% 0%
0% 02
0% 02
0% 0e
0% 02
% 02
0% 02
0% 0e
0% 02
0% 0e
0% 02
0% 02
0% 0e
0% 02

 

EE

EE

3.EE
EE

a.vE
E.vE
E.vE
E.vE
E.vE
EvE
EvE
EvE
E.vE
E.vE
E.vE
E.vE
N.vE
3.vE
a.EE
vE

EEE
E.EE
3.EE
a.NE
E.NE
NE

E.3E
3 . 3 E
adE
E.OE
E.OE
YOE

 

OE
OE

EE

 

aNuE Ea3ON303
aEuE Ea3ON303
aNnE Ea3ON303
aEnv Ea3ON303
aNuv Ea3ON303
aEuE Ea3ON303
aNHE Ea3ON303
aEuN Ea3ON303
aNnN Ea3ON303
aEn3 Ea3ON303
aNn3 Ea3ON303
aE d Ea3ON303
aNd Ea3ON303
aEuEN Ea3a3303
aNnEN Ea3a3303
aEHNN Ea3a3303
aNHNN Ea3a3303
aEH3N Ea3a3303
aNH3N Ea3a3303
aEdN Ea3a3303
aNdN Ea3a3303
aEua3 Ea3a3303

 

aNua3 Ea3a3303
aEuE3 Ea3a3303
aNuE3 Ea3a3303
aE“: Ea3a3303
aNH: Ea3a3303
aEnE3 Ea3a3303
aNHE3 Ea3a3303
aEuE3 Ea3a3303

 

aNHE3 Ea3a3303
aEuv3 Ea3a3303
aNuv3 Ea3a3303
aEHE3 Ea3a3303

 

139

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

N.EN

E.EN

E.EN

E.EN

E.EN

E.EN

EN

3.EN

E.EN

N.EN

EN

E.EN

EEN

E.EN

E.EN

 

EN

E.EE

3..EE

3..EE

3..EE

E.EE

E.EE

E.EE

E.EE

E.EE

E.EE

E.EE

YEE

E.EE

N.EE

3.EE

a.vE

 

N.3E

N.3E

3.3E

3.3E

3.3E

3E

3E

adE

adE

adE

E.OE

E.OE

EOE

EOE

 

E.OE

0% _0%

E.vv

E.vv

v.vv

va

E.vv

E.vv

E.vv

N.vv

N.vv

N.vv

N.vv

3.vv

3.vv

3.vv

 

3.vv

 

 

0% 0%
0% 0%
0% 0%
0% 0%
0% 0%
0% 0%
0% 0%
0% 0%
0% 0%
% 0%
0% 0%
0% 0%
% 0%
0% 0%
0% %

0% _0%

v.3.v

E.3.v

N.Ev

N.3.v

3.0v

3.3.v

0v

a.Ev

a.Ev

E.Ev

E.Ev

E.Ev

EEv

EEv

EEv

EEv

 

3..3v

E.3v

E.3v

E.3v

Y3v

Y3v

E.3v

E.3v

E.3v

N.3v

N.3v

N.3v

3.3v

N.3v

N.3v

 

0:. .02

N.a3

N.a3

3.a3

3.a3

a3

E.E3

EE3

E.E3

YE3

E.E3

N.E3

3.E3

E3

3.E3

 

3.E3

O E.vv
3d E.vv
N3d E.vv
33d a.3v
EOd E.3v
3d adv
3d E.3v
3d N.Nv
3d .a.Ev

 

a.Ev
E.Ev
a.Ev
E.av
vdE
OE

OE

E.av
E.av
E.av
Eav
Od 3.av
a.Ev
N.Ev
E.3.v
E.Ev
3.Ev
YEv
33d N.Ev
3d E.vv
33d vv

3d E.Ev
33d E.Nv
33d N.Nv

 

OOWOOOOOOOOOOO

006—:
O O

 

 

33d E.3v

E.ON
ON

v.a3
ON

E.ON
E.ON
E.ON
E.ON
E.ON
E.ON
E.ON
EON
E.ON
E.ON
E.ON
E.ON
YON
E .ON
E.ON
NdN
3dN
ON

ON

E.a3
Ea3
E.a3
E.a3
E.a3
3.a3
3.a3
3.a3
3.a3

a3
_2

 

 

Evv
E.vv
v.vv
a.aE
3.EE
E.EE
3.EE
N.EE
E.EE
N.EE
N.EE
EE

EE

3.EE
EE

YEE
EE

3.EE
3.EE
3.EE
EE

a.3.E
a.3.E
E3.E
E.3.E
N.EE
EEE
a.EE
E.EE
3.EE

 

a.EE
EEE
E.EE
E.EE

EE

 

EEHEN Ea3ON303
ENHEN Ea3ON303
EEHNN Ea3ON303
aEn3N Ea3ON303
aNH 3N Ea3ON303
aEdN Ea3ON303
aNdN Ea3ON303
aEna3 Ea3ON303
aNHa3 Ea3ON303
aEHE3 Ea3ON303
aNuE3 Ea3ON303
aEH3.3 Ea3ON303
aNHE Ea3ON303
aEUE3 Ea3ON303
aNuE3 Ea3ON303
aEuE 3 Ea3ON303
aNHE 3 Ea3ON303
aEn3 Ea3ON303
aNHv3 Ea3ON303
aEHE3 Ea3ON303
aNHE3 Ea3ON303
aEHN3 Ea3ON303
aNuN3 Ea3ON303
aEU33 Ea3ON303
aNH33 Ea3ON303
aEd3 Ea3dN303
aNHO3 Ea3ON303
aEua Ea3ON303

aNua Ea3ON303

aEUE Ea3ON303

aNHE Ea3ON303

 

aEuh Ea3ON303
aNu3. Ea3ON303
aEuE Ea30N303

 

140

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

YEN

N.EN

N.EN

E.EN

3.EN

 

 

N.EE .E.3E
E.EE E.3E
E.EE E.3E
E.EE Y3E
E.EE E.3E

 

 

E.Ev .a.EN
3.Ev E.EN
Ev a.EN
a.vv E.EN
Evv a.EN

 

3.EE

N.EE

N.EE

E.EE

YEE

 

ENv

Ehv

E.3.v

ENv

 

E.Nv

E.Nv

YNv

N.Nv

Nv

 

E.a3

E.a3

v.a3

E.a3

E.a3

 

.OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

.—
O

EOd

3d
3d
3d

3d

3d
3d
3d
3d
3d
3d
3d
3d

 

Y3E
E3E
E.OE
E.3E
E.3E

 

3 . 3N
3 .3N
3 .3N
3 .3N
3 .3 N
3N

3N

3N

3N

adN
E.ON
E.ON
EON
EON
E .ON
YON
E .ON
E .ON
E .ON
E.ON
E.ON
E.ON
de
E.ON
de
YON
E.ON
YON
E .ON
YON
E.ON
E.ON
E.ON
E.ON

 

E.Ev
E.Ev
E.Ev
EEv
EEv
EEv

N.vv
N.vv
E.vv
E.vv
E.vv
v.vv
E.vv
E.vv
E.vv
E.vv
E.vv
a.vv
a.vv
Ev

Ev

Ev

3.Ev
Ev

Ev

3.Ev
Ev

E.vv
Ev

E.vv
Ev

E.vv
E.vv

 

EEHE3 Ea33N303
ENHE3 Ea33N303
EEHE3 Ea33N303
ENUE3 Ea33N303
EEuv3 Ea33N303
ENH3 Ea33N303
EEUE3 Ea33N303
ENUE3 Ea33N303
EEHN3 Ea33N303
ENHN3 Ea33N303
EEN: Ea33N303
ENH33 Ea33N303
EEUO3 Ea33N303
ENUO3 Ea33N303
EEua Ea33N303
ENHa Ea33N303
EEUE Ea33N303
ENHE Ea33N303
EEK Ea33N303
ENK Ea33N303
EEUE Ea33N303
ENHE Ea33N303
EEHE Ea33N303
ENHE Ea33N303
EEuv Ea33N303
ENHv Ea33N303
EEHE Ea33N303
ENHE Ea33N303
EEUN Ea33N303
ENHN Ea33N303
EE3 Ea33N303
ENH3 Ea33N303
EEHO Ea33N303
ENHO Ea33N303

 

 

 

141

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

E.EN

E.EN

E.EN

E.EN

E.EN

N.EN

 

EE

EE

3.EE

 

 

0% %

0% 0%
0% 30%
% 0%
0% 0%
0% 0%

 

E.EN

E.EN

YEN

YEN

E.EN

E.EN

 

EE

EE

EE

3.EE

3.EE

3.EE

 

E.Ev

YEv

YEv

E.Ev

N.Ev

3.Ev

 

EEv

0% 3

E.Ev

YEv .

N.Ev .

O
N

ON

a.a3

O
N

O
N

 

 

3.Ev _ON

EEv
E.Ev
a.3.v
E.Ev
N.Ev
3.Ev
N.Ev
YEv
YEv
N.Ev
E.Ev
E.Ev
E.Ev
E.Ev
a.3.v
N.Ev
E.Ev
YEv
E.av
EEv
YEv
3.av
E.Ev
Ev

EKv
E.3.v
E.3.v
3.Ev
E.av
a.Ev

 

O—jOOOOOOOOOOO—jOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOOO

OE

Yav
3dE
3.3E

3N
3N
3N
3N
3N
3N
3N
3N
3N
3N
E.ON
3N
3N
3N
3N
3N
3N
3N
3N
3N
3N
3N
3N
3N
3N
3N
3.3N
3N
3N
3.3N
3.3N
3.3N
3.3N

 

3.3N

ENv
ENv
ENv
E.Nv
ENv
ENv
ENv
ENv
E.Nv
E.Nv
a.Nv
a.Nv
a.Nv
E.Nv
ENv
ENv
ENv
E.Nv
E.Nv
ENv
a.Nv
E.Nv
E.Nv
ENv
E.Nv
a.Nv
a.Nv
a.Nv
Ev

3.Ev
3.Ev
3.Ev
N.Ev

 

E.Ev

 

EEua Ea3NN303
ENna EaxNN303
EEUE Ea3NN303
ENHE Ea3NN303
EEK Ea3NN303
ENK Ea3NN303
EEuE Ea3NN303
ENHE Ea3NN303
EEHE Ea3NN303
ENHE Ea3NN303
EEuv Ea3NN303
ENnv Ea3NN303
EEHE Ea3NN303
ENHE Ea3NN303
EEHN Ea3NN303
ENHN Ea3NN303
EE3 Ea3NN303
ENH3 Ea3NN303
EE d Ea3NN303
ENHO Ea3NN303
EEHEN Ea33N303
ENHEN Ea33N303
EEHNN Ea33N303
ENUNN Ea33N303
EEH3N Ea33N303
ENH3N Ea33N303
EEdN Ea33N303
ENHON Ea33N303
EEHa3 Ea33N303
ENHa3 Ea33N303
EEUE3 Ea33N303
ENUE3 Ea33N303
EEK3 Ea33N303

 

ENK3 Ea33N303

 

142

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

vN

E.EN

vN

N.EN

YEN

N.EN

 

E.EE

E.EE

E.EE

N.EE

3.EE

EE

 

E.EE

3.EE

EE

E.NE

ENE

E.NE

 

3.Ev

3.Ev

3.Ev

3.Ev

3.Ev

Ev

 

E.EN

EEN

a.EN

a.vN

EN

EEN

 

E.EE

E.EE

YEE

E.EE

N.EE

3.EE

 

E.Ev

E.Ev

E.Ev

EEv

E.Ev

E.Ev

 

EEv

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179

Michigan State University - Compost Aeration Experiment: Trial #3, moisture contents

Andrew Fogiel
Mixture: 1 part cow manure, 1 part wood chips
Date: 9/30/96
Description: Initial moisture content of raw material mixture
Wet Wt + Dry Wt. +
Tin Wt Tin Wt Tin Wt Moisture Content
Sample (g) (g) (g) Wet Basis, %
0 in - 16 in 278.52 221.7 146.1 42.91
16 in - 32 in 268.56 220.8 148.5 39.78
32 in - 48 in 303.39 234.5 148.3 44.42
Date: 10/16/96
Description: Moisture content of compost sampled during turning
Wet Wt + Dry Wt. +
Tin Wt Tin Wt Tin Wt Moisture Content
Sample (g) (g) (g) Wet Basis, %
0 in - 16 in 341.6 271.9 145.9 35.62
16in - 24 in 298.9 249.8 148.3 32.60
24 in - 36 in 315.8 246.5 148 41.30
36 in - 41.5 ir 512.6 450.7 361.8 41.05
Date: 10/16/96
Description: Moisture content of mixed compost with water added
Wet Wt + Dry Wt. +
Tin Wt Tin Wt Tin Wt Moisture Content
Sample (g) (g) (g) Wet Basis, %
0 in - 12 in 456.2 262.6 145.9 62.39
12 in - 24 in 396.7 224.6 148.3 69.28
24 in - 40 in 454.6 240 148 69.99
Date: 12/5/96
Description: Moisture content of compost sampled during turning
Wet Wt + T Dry Wt. + 'I Tin Wt Moisture Content
Sample (g) (g) (g) Wet Basis, %
0 in - 12 in 456.7 255 148.3 65.40
12 in - 24 in 472.1 255.6 145.9 66.37
24 in - 31 in 441.8 289.5 148 51.84

180

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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I97

Michigan State University - Compost Aeration Experiment: Trial #4, Bulk Density
Andrew Fogiel
Mixture: 1 part cow manure, 1 part wood chips

Total Mass and Bulk Density of raw materials

Date: 2/25/97

Weight of drum = 17.8 lb
Total mass: 397 lb
Total mass: 180.24 kg
Area chamber: 0.2917 m"2

Length chambem 1.2192 111
Volume chmabe1= 0.3557 m"3

Density: 506.77 kg/m"3
Total Mass and Bulk Density of composting material
Date: 4/1/97
Layer Layer Layer
Thickness Volume Bulk Density
Height(in) (m) (m"3) Wt(lb) Wt(kg) (kg/m"3)
30"-37" 0.1778 0.0519 76.6 34.776 670.492
24"-30" 0.1524 0.0445 75.6 34.322 772.028
18"-24" 0.1524 0.0445 87 39.498 888.445
0"-18" 0.4572 0.1334 136.8 62.107 465.668

Total Bulk Density: 622.66 kg/m"3

198

Michigan State University - Compost Aeration Experiment: Trial #4, Moisture

Andrew Fogiel
Mixture: 1 part cow manure, 1 part wood chips

Moisture content: Raw Materials

2125/97
Tin# ID# Tin Wt. (g) Wet Wt (g) Dry Wt (g) MC(%)
Bl 0"-12" 148.33 425.3 250.43 63.136802
2 l3"-38" 148.37 517.6 286.21 62.668256
1 38"-48" 145.92 406.9 235.29 65.755997

Moisture Content: Permeability Material
4/1/97
Tin# ID# Tin Wt. (g) Wet Wt (g) Dry Wt (g) MC(%)
Bl 0"-18" 148.36 305 220.46 53.970889

199

 

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APPENDIX B

ORGANIC MATTER RAW DATA

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LIST OF REFERENCES

207

REFERENCES

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Bach, P.D., K. Nakasaki, M. Shoda, and H. Kubota. 1987. Thermal balance in
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Eagleman, J .R. 1995. Meteorology: The Atmosphere in Action. Wadsworth Publishing
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Hamelers, H.V.M. 1993. A theoretical model of composting kinetics. Proceedings of the
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Haug, RT. 1993. The Practical Handbook of Compost Engineering. Lewis Publishers,
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Rynk, R. (ed.) 1992. On farm composting handbook. NRAES-54. Northeast Regional

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Stevenson, E]. 1994. Humus chemistry: Genesis, composition, reactions. 2"d edition.
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Stombaugh, DR, and SE. Nokes. 1996. Development of a biologically based aerobic
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Weast, R.C. (ed.) 1982. CRC handbook of chemistry and physics. CRC Press, Inc.,
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Wiley, J.S., and G.W. Pierce. 1955. A preliminary study of high rate composting.
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