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THE EFFECT OF AGE, APTITUDE, AND GENDER ON THE
TEMPO PREFERENCES OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS

presented by
Michael K. Osborn

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THE EFFECT OF AGE, APTITUDE, AND GENDER ON THE TEMPO
PREFERENCES OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS

By
Michael K. Osborn

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF MUSIC
Department of Music Education

1999

ABSTRACT

THE EFFECT OF AGE APTITUDE AND GENDER ON THE TEMPO
PREFERENCES OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS

By

Michael K. Osborn

Music preference has received a great deal of study over the past several
decades. For this study the tempo subtest from Gordon’s Music Aptitude
Profile was used to determine tempo aptitude. A listening test (Tempo
Preference Listening Test) developed by the researcher was used to establish
preference levels. Both tests were administered to 422 band students in
grades 6-12 from three schools in a single school district. Results supported
previous research stating that students preferred music with fast tempos over
music performed at a slow tempo. The results also showed an increase in
preference for fast and slow tempos with increased age, an overall higher
preference for slow tempos among females over males, and a slight increase
in slow and fast tempo preference among subjects with higher levels of

tempo aptitude.

Copyright by
Michael Kevin Osborn
l 999

DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to my Mother, Nancy, who while unable to guide me
through this process directly on Earth, has provided me with her continued

love, support, and guidance from above.

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thank you to the faculty thesis committee Dr. Albert LeBlanc, chair; Dr.
Cynthia Taggart, and Dr. Bruce Taggart, for agreeing to see me through this
thesis process. Special thanks to Dr. LeBlanc for his guidance, expertise
and support as my graduate advisor and thesis committee chair. Thank you
to Malinda Matney for her friendship, support, and assistance as a perpetual
sounding board as well as proofreader, Rick Pethoud and Cheryl
Waldenmyer for the use of their valuable class time and support to make
this project a reality, Larissa (Bien) Miller for her long term friendship and
support in many ways, and my friends of Brothers of Kappa Kappa Psi and
Sisters of Tau Beta Sigma for their faith, tolerance and support.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................... ix
LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................... xi
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS ......................................... xii
CHAPTER 1:

INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 1
What Is Aptitude? ...................................................................................... 2
Why Test Aptitude? ................................................................................... 6
What Is Preference? ................................................................................... 7
Can Music Preferences Be Altered? ........................................................ 10
Affecting Music Preferences: Why is research important? .................... 15

CHAPTER 2:

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE .................................................... 19
Effect of Aptitude .................................................................................... 22
Effect of Age ............................................................................................ 24
Effect of Tempo ....................................................................................... 30
Effect of Tempo and Age ........................................................................ 32
Effect of Gender ...................................................................................... 35
Purpose and Problems ............................................................................. 36

CHAPTER 3:

METHOD ..................................................................................................... 38
Aptitude Test ........................................................................................... 4O
Preference Test ........................................................................................ 44
Test Administration ................................................................................. 60

CHAPTER 4:

RESULTS ..................................................................................................... 69
Subject Demographics ............................................................................. 69
Musical Background of Subjects ............................................................ 74
Test Reliability ........................................................................................ 75
Results of the Tempo Preference Listening Test .................................... 79

vi

Ranked Excerpts Results ......................................................................... 86

Results of the Tempo Subtest .................................................................. 89
Correlations ............................................................................................. 93
Effect of Age ............................................................................ 93
Effect of Tempo Perception Aptitude ...................................... 93
Effect of Gender ....................................................................... 94

CHAPTER 5:

CONCLUSION ............................................................................................. 95
Discussion of Key Findings .................................................................... 95
Implications for Future Research ............................................................ 98
Implications for Music Education ........................................................... 99

APPENDIX A

University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects

Approval ................................................................................................ 102

APPENDIX B

Informed Consent Letter ............................................................................. 104

APPENDIX C

Music Aptitude Profile Answer Sheet Page One ....................................... 106

APPENDIX D

Tempo Preference Listening Test Response Sheet .................................... 108

APPENDIX E

Discography of Excerpts Used in the Tempo Preference Listening Test.. 116

APPENDIX F
TPLT Musical Excerpts Professional Qualification Checklist .................. 120
APPENDIX G
TPLT Musical Excerpts Student Qualification Checklist .......................... 122
APPENDIX H
TPLT Recorded Instructions and Spoken Text .......................................... 124

vii

APPENDIX I

TPLT Retest Recorded Instructions and Spoken Text ............................... 129
APPENDIX J

TPLT Examples on Overhead Transparency ............................................. 133
APPENDIX K

TPLT II (retest) ........................................................................................... 135
REFERENCES ........................................................................................... 143

viii

Table 1:
Table 2:

Table 3:

Table 4:

Table 5:

Table 6:
Table 7:

Table 8:

Table 9:

Table 10:

Table 1 1:

Table 12:

Table 13:
Table 14:

LIST OF TABLES

Distribution of Subjects by Age

Reliability, Mean and Standard Deviation of the Music
Aptitude Profile, Tempo Subtest (Raw Score) (Gordon, 1995)
Excerpt Information from the Tempo Preference Listening Test
(TPLT)

Age, Number, and Percentage of Test Subjects

Grade, Number and Percentage of Test Subjects

Demographics by Age and Gender

Summary of Sample Size, and Reliability, by Grade for the
Tempo Subtest of the Music Aptitude Profile as reported by
Gordon (1995) and Osborn (1998)

Summary of Mean Score, and Standard Deviation, by Grade for
the Tempo Subtest of the Music Aptitude Profile as reported by
Gordon(1995) and Osborn (1998)

Summary of Mean Preference Scores for the TPLT by Excerpt,
Arranged in Order of Increasing Preference Score

Mean Preference and Standard Deviation by Age for Fast
Tempo Excerpts

Mean Preference and Standard Deviation by Age for Slow
Tempo Excerpts

Preference for the TPLT Fast Excerpts by Age and Gender
Preference for TPLT Slow Excerpts by Age and Gender
Summary of Means for Ranked Preference, Arranged in Order

of Increasing Preference Score

ix

Table 15:

Table 16:

Table 17:

Distribution of Raw Scores, Frequency and Percent of Test
Population for the Tempo Subtest for the Tempo Subtest of the
MAP

Summary of Sample Size, Mean Score, and Standard Deviation
by Grade from Osborn’s (1998) Testing

Summary of Sample Size, Mean Score, and Standard Deviation
by Grade Groups for Musically Select Subjects (Gordon, 1995)
and Test Subjects (Osborn, 1998)

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Overall Fast and Slow Preference by Age, from the TPLT

Figure 2 Male and Female, Fast and Slow Tempo Preferences by Age,
from the TPLT

xi

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

TPLT Tempo Preference Listening Test
MAP Music Aptitude Profile
BPM Beats Per Minute

xii

Effects of Age, Aptitude, and Gender on the Music Tempo Preferences
of Secondary School Students

Chapter One: Introduction

Music preference has received much attention from music and
psychological researchers over the past several decades. From its
beginnings in the realm of psychological studies to its present day
significance in educational research, this area of study has left a strong
impact on research and educational practices. As music educators continue
to look at ways in which to provide positive musical experiences to their
students, the importance of understanding preferences for different types of
music, as well as what influences these preference decisions, is paramount.
Knowledge of various aspects of music preference will assist teachers in
being able to be prepared to present lessons that will enhance student
enjoyment of various styles of music.

In an effort to discover the component parts of what creates music
preferences, this study focuses upon tempo preferences. Tempo is an area
that is mentioned by a number of researchers as a factor in music
preferences. Hevner (1937), Huebner (1976), Brown (1979), Wapnick
(1980), LeBlanc (1981), LeBlanc and Cote (1983), LeBlanc and McCrary
(1983), Madsen and Geringer (1986), Sims (1987), Flowers (1988),
LeBlanc, Colman, McCrary, Sherrill, and Malin (1988), Moskovitz (1992),
and Montgomery (1996) all discuss tempo and its effect on music
preferences. Radocy and Boyle (1988) state: “Reasons for individual music
preferences include musical characteristics such as tempo” (p. 244). While
it is generally agreed that tempo is a factor influencing music preferences, it

is not equally believed or understood whether the factor of tempo is also

affected by other factors, such as age, aptitude and gender. Therefore, this
study was designed to expand upon the existing body of literature by
exploring what effect age and tempo aptitude have on tempo preferences.
This study will focus on the effect of these variables among secondary
school students (grades 6-12). It is with this group in an educational setting
that knowledge regarding factors creating music preferences can be of much
value. It is in this setting that children are exposed to music and make life
long decisions regarding participation. This is also a time when we as
teachers have the ability to expose the wealth of human musical history to a
future generation, expanding on the experiences gained through the
elementary general music programs. Learning how effectively to provide
this educational affect to students is a prime reason to conduct research in
the area of music preferences.

Before discussing past research in the area of music and tempo
preferences as well as the method and results of this study, it is important to
define terms such as aptitude and preference. It is also important to discuss
further why it is that the study of music and tempo preferences is such an

important part of music research.

W

To attempt to define music aptitude is to learn one reason why
research in the area of music aptitude is so difficult; terminology and
concepts within this area are often used interchangeably or in conflict from
one expert to another. As far back as 1919, Seashore alludes to the modern
debate over the nature of aptitude using the terms “music talent” or
“capacity.” He related these terms to inborn traits and separated them from
ability, which is skill that is acquired through the use of capacity (p. 205).

Relatively modern researchers such as Lehman (1968), Gordon (1971), and
Radocy and Boyle (1988) agree that music aptitude encompasses an
individual’s innate capacity for music learning, augmented by
environmental influences outside formal education. These authors also
separate music aptitude from music achievement. Gordon adds that we can
expect everyone to have at least some music aptitude, which will remain
relatively stable after the middle elementary grades (p. 6). In this view,
aptitude is separate fiom achievement. Music aptitude is what you are
naturally given; music achievement is what you do with what you were
naturally given. In Gordon’s view, teachers play an important role in each
student’s music aptitude through the experiences they expose their students
to prior to the stabilization of their aptitude in the mid to late elementary
grades.

Other researchers have not been as clear in their distinction between
music aptitude and achievement. Lehman (1968) reports that music
aptitude is the potential for musical achievement (p. 8). This implies that
while innate music achievement is limited by aptitude (which relates
aptitude and achievement), aptitude includes what one is naturally given
that allows one to gain musical achievement. According to Lundin (1985),
one may fault the previous views of music aptitude, especially those of the
earliest researchers, because by saying aptitude is innate we do not define
what it (aptitude) actually is, just that it exists (p. 205). As reported by
Lundin, behaviorists would look at this problem by considering music
ability not to be a trait found in different degrees in individuals. Instead,
music ability would consist of “acquired interrelated behavior built up
through a process of interaction of individual organisms with musical

stimuli throughout one’s lifetime” (p. 214). It should be noted that while

Lundin makes a point of ensuring that we know that he is discussing ability
and not aptitude, he never does mention aptitude, which leads one to believe
that a behaviorist’s view does not separate the two. In Lundin’s model, a
teacher plays an integral part in aptitude development throughout education,
because aptitude development is the “end sum” of one’s musical
experiences. If the teacher is able to push students to a higher level of
achievement than their innate aptitude levels might otherwise indicate, their
aptitude has expanded. It should also be noted that according to Gordon
(1965), all aptitude tests are in part achievement tests. Through this Gordon
is saying that while music aptitude may not include musical achievement, it
may not be possible to test pure music aptitude because of the effects of
teaching on music achievement (p. 12).

This debate over the nature of music aptitude parallels the long
standing nature versus nurture debate in educational psychology. In this
debate, as in the music aptitude debate, psychologists examine whether
mental ability that is hereditary is susceptible to changes caused by one’s
environment (Garry & Kingsley, 1970; Notterman & Drewry, 1993). It is
interesting that while the debate among music researchers is fairly young
(since the 1960’s), the educational psychology debate has existed since the
first part of the 20th century. Kolesnik (1970) noted that the opposing
views regarding nature versus nurture, which were originally divided, have
moderated over time and that both sides have accepted that both heredity
(nature) and environment (nurture) have their roles and cannot usually be
separated (p. 69-70).

Not only does this lack of a clear and consistent definition hamper
aptitude research; it also creates confusion in the research. Terms such as

’9 66

“musicality, musical talent,” and “musical capacity” are interchanged

4

regularly with “music aptitude.” As with the definition of music aptitude,
there is disagreement regarding the degree of appropriate interchange
(Radocy and Boyle, 1988, p. 295). With this mix of terms, it is possible to
assume one is gaining knowledge of aptitude, while in fact one is studying
something else. LeBlanc, (1982) for example, uses “music ability” in his
interactive theory of music preference; however, he defines his use of
“music ability” in such a way as to agree with a definition of aptitude
provided by researchers such as Gordon.

In the manual to the Music Aptitude Profile, Gordon (1995) clarifies
his definition of music aptitude and the appearance of increased ability after
the stabilization of aptitude. In Gordon’s view, well balanced musical
experiences contribute to maintaining one’s level of developmental music
aptitude, or raising it back to its birth level, but no higher (p. 7).
Developmental music aptitude is one’s aptitude level during the stage of life
during which Gordon believes aptitude is developed, from birth through
around age nine. Lehman (1968) would say that one’s increased
achievement as a result of training is a demonstration of music ability that
can be either innate or acquired (p. 8). Inversely Gordon believes future
advances in music achievement are merely one’s progress in reaching
predestined potential as determined through innate aptitude.

To clarify matters for this study, Gordon’s definition of aptitude will
be used. This is done not to take sides in the debate but instead merely to
remain consistent with the creator of the sub test being used to determine a
student’s tempo aptitude. This definition regards aptitude as an innate trait
combined with environmental exposure, outside formal teaching, which

becomes unaffected by training at around age nine.

W

There is a much more focused view of aptitude when one reads
literature discussing the purpose of aptitude testing. Gordon (1968)
commented that a student’s aptitude was more important to music teachers
in their efforts to identify students who ought to be exposed to various
musical experiences than was general intelligence. Gordon (1971) also
establishes two formal reasons for testing aptitude: to evaluate students’
overall music aptitude, and to diagnose students’ specific strengths and
weaknesses (p. 47). These reasons assume that while each student has some
level of intelligence, each student likewise has a certain level of music
aptitude. Therefore, knowing which level a student is capable of attaining
can and should allow a teacher to gear his or her teaching to a student’s
specific abilities.

The above mentioned purposes of aptitude testing also state well the
importance of studying aptitude as it relates to tempo preferences. It is this
researcher’s opinion that the more we, as music educators, can learn
regarding several factors such as aptitude and its relation to music
preference decisions; the better we should be able engage and interest our
students in learning about music and in turn, the better able a teacher should
be to educate students musically. To ignore learning more about what
makes an individual enjoy music or prefer specific styles of music is also to
ignore a major educational opportunity. Likewise, it ignores an opportunity
to enhance musical experiences for students as well as to bring musical
enjoyment to a broader spectrum of society. Any casual conversation with
students who have dropped out of an instrumental music program

demonstrates the need for better understanding of the composition of an

individual’s music preferences; once peer pressure is removed as a
consideration for ending one’s musical instruction, it is common to hear
students state their dislike of the music involved in music class as reason to
select a different elective activity. To study the effect of aptitude on one’s
musical perceptions and the related preferences is also to study better
retention strategies and improve the educational opportunities for students

in a school setting.

Whatlflreference?

There are many terms used in discussions of music preference. This
is important because these terms, while related to each other, represent
different aspects of preference.

To prefer something, as defined by Random House Dictionary
(1987) is “to set or hold something before or above other persons or things
in estimation; like better; choose rather than...” (p. 1134). Preference is
defined as simply “ the act of preferring” (p. 1134). An explanation that
must be made here is that this definition “to prefer” does not mean to
absolutely prefer over all else. The purpose of this study is not to determine
who finds the selected style (tempos) of music to be their absolute favorite.
Instead, this study looks at the individuals’ acceptance (“favorable
reception; approval; favor [p. 8]), or tolerance, (“endure without
repugnance, to put up with” [p. 1491]); of tempos as they relate to music
outside the realm of commonly accepted popular music. In this study,
tolerance is measured for tempos relating to music mostly of the nineteenth
and twentieth centuries that conforms in general to the ideals of music’s

common practice period, defined as music following the harmonic tradition

generally associated with European influenced works written between the
years 1600 and 1900.

Lundin (1985) claims that when discussing preference one actually
deals with musical taste, which is a form of preferential response (p. 177).
Taste is defined as either “to enjoy or appreciate” or “ one’s personal
attitude or reaction toward an aesthetic phenomenon or social situation
regarded as good or bad” (Random House, p. 1455). Preferential response
is based on “ some characteristics of a stimulus and fimctions of the
response organism” (Lundin, p. 177). These characteristics then make up
what we like, in the case of music, to listen to or not listen to. Lundin also
notes that psychologists have researched this important aspect of musical
taste and the creation of one’s preferences (p. 177), denoting the
importance of study in this area. Abeles (1980), however, mentions that
taste is different from preference because taste equates to a long term
commitment to a broader group of objects or events; preference is a shorter
term, a more immediate choice within a set of possibilities (p. 106). Price
(1986) proposed a glossary of music terms related to the study of music
preferences. These proposed definitions were built upon definitions as
presented in the existing affective response research literature. In this
glossary preference is defined as “An act of choosing, esteeming, or giving
advantage to one thing over another” (p. 154). Appreciation is defined as
“Awareness of salient characteristics. May imply a deeper involvement,
understanding, and/or familiarity. Sometimes used to express a liking for or
deeming worthy as expressed by seeking more” (p. 152). Taste is defined
as “A person’s overall attitude toward a collective musical phenomena.
Long term commitment to musical preferences. A social matter that tends

to vary with varying groups of people, places, and times, and that gives the

impression that preference for one type of music is better than preference
for another” (p. 154). These meanings are consistent with the previously
stated definitions.

Likewise, one will often hear the terms “preference” and
“appreciation” used in the study of music preferences. Evans’ (1965) as
cited in Gordon, 1971, notes that appreciation depends more on musical
understanding than does preference. Gordon (1971) also mentions that
appreciation connotes both understanding and enjoyment (p. 115). This
dual nature of appreciation leads to much of what was said above about
taste and also correlates to the philosophy (Reimer 1989) that discusses
knowledge as a precursor to true liking. The aesthetic education philosophy
of music education, as discussed by Reimer, unites understanding and
enjoyment as related to each other. This is to say that it is only through an
understanding of the elements of music and how they interact with each
other that one truly appreciates a musical experience. Gordon (1971) states:
“Students learn to appreciate through the developmental process of learning
to understand music. As students achieve in music they continuously
develop an understanding of music. . . . this understanding, through
achievement, provides the readiness for music appreciation” (p. 115).
Likewise, Radocy and Boyle (1988) write that good music is good because
of inherent aspects of the musical stimulus. “In such a view there are
melodic, harmonic, rhythmic and formal ideals which are characteristics of
good even great music” (p. 244). However, in his study of the perception of
musical processes and the enjoyment of music, Duerksen (1968), found no
practical relationship between students’ preferences and their musical
understanding of the compositions. Regardless, the aesthetic education

view of music education and preference determination imply the

9

importance of music education experiences as a means of affecting music
preference decisions. This raises the questions of whether or not individual

music preferences can, or even should, be altered.

CanMusiaPreferencesBeAltered?

Can music preferences be influenced, changed, expanded, or taught?
Researchers such as Radocy and Boyle (1988) think music preferences can
be altered and a expansion of one’s listening habits is possible (p. 259).
While this belief may not be universally supported, music preference
research demonstrates many instances in which it is possible to influence
music preferences. Student knowledge, understanding, experience and
training; familiarity and repetition; teacher/adult/authority figure approval,
modeling and reinforcement; and peer influence are some research areas
that have yielded results in this area. Each of these variables as well as
others are discussed in LeBlanc’s (1982) Interactive Theory of Music
Preference. This theory, which is discussed in several places in the
following chapters, broke ground in music preference research by laying out
the factors that may affect individual music preference decisions. This
theory has been the foundation on which much of the past 15 years of music
preference research has been based.

As discussed earlier, those who ascribe to the aesthetic education
philosophy of music education believe that musical enjoyment is related to
one’s understanding, and that the more one knows and understands music,
the more one will like that music (Gordon 1971, Reimer 1989). Archibeque
(1966) examined the effect of studying twentieth century music on student’s
preferences for that type of music. The results demonstrated that students

who had studied contemporary music indicated a greater preference for

10

experimental sounding compositions than did their counterparts who had
not studied twentieth century music (p. 146). Williams (1972) notes a
strong consensus (although unproven empirically) that instruction in music
will alter students’ attitudes toward various musical styles (p. 362). A
similar belief is stated later in the results of his study (p. 369)

It may also be possible to enhance student musical preferences
through experience. In his Praxial philosophy of music education, Elliot
(1995) notes that music preferences interact with many musical dimensions,
among which are cultural-ideological considerations that include one’s
personal (non musical) experiences. He uses as an example the idea that
saying “I know what I like” most often means “I prefer musical works that
I believe to be consistent with my cultural-ideological values, affiliations
and beliefs” [experiences] (p. 195). Teaching within one’s experience is
one way to find and maintain musical preferences. It is better, however, to
look at the idea of expanding one’s experiences to expand one’s music
preferences. Abeles (1980) found that although the effect of short term
training on music preferences was not clear, long term training (experience)
may increase preferences for “classical” or “concert” music.

Repetition and familiarity with music are yet other ways that a
teacher can affect music preference. Gordon (1971) states “students can be
made to indicate a preference for music which they have passively listened
to again and again” (p. 114). The idea that music preferences can be
developed through increased exposure is actually derived in a large part
from the realm of psychological complexity studies. While research
regarding psychological complexity and preference began in the 1950’s
(Walker, 1980 p. vii), Heyduk’s (1975) study using musical examples was
the first to link music preference to psychological complexity. His study

11

found an “inverted U” relationship between musical complexity and an
individual’s optimal psychological complexity level as it relates to one’s
preference decisions. This idea had previously been reported in psychology
by Berlyne (1971). Heyduk also found a better than chance rate that
musical examples that were above one’s optimal complexity level were
liked more with additional experience, whereas below optimal complexity
selections were preferred less with further exposure (experience) (p. 89).
Walker (1980) published his Psychological Complexity Theory, which is
commonly known as the Hedgehog theory. This theory found that a
person’s response to extremely intense stimuli elicited an immediate
defensive or avoidance behavior; lesser intensity found increased
acceptance with acceptance lessening as intensity was increased. The name
“hedgehog” is used for this theory because like the hedgehog, which has
only one physical response to increased stimuli or anxiety (it rolls into a
ball), humans have one response to increased intensity or complexity; their
preference decreases. In Walker’s (1981) discussion of the hedgehog

theory’s relationship to music he discusses two dynamic principles:
1. Learning consists of the progressive simplification of material.

2. There is an optimum level of complexity that will be sought and
enjoyed (p. 318).

In summary, he finds that practice may not make perfect, but sticking with
something will make the complex simpler. He also finds that repetitive
practice (increased exposure to excerpts) will make the material less
complex and therefore eventually progressively less interesting. Heyduk

used the same assumption in his study discussed earlier. Radocy (1982)

12

tested the hedgehog theory and found preferences for the “classical”
excerpts were related to perceived complexity with moderately complex
examples being preferred. Other music researchers have shown this to be
possible as well. Radocy (1982), in his previously discussed test of the
hedgehog theory, found a strong linear relationship between preference and
familiarity. Moskovitz’s (1992) study on the effect of repetition on the
tempo preferences of elementary school students showed that repetition
caused preferences to increase for slow art music.

Peer influence has also been shown to affect music preferences.
Personal experience as an educator can demonstrate clearly the impact that
peers have on each other in a school setting. Students who are perceived to
be popular are often emulated by others as a means of attempting to gain
acceptance by that so called “popular group” or even accepted by students
in general. Likewise, friends tend to group themselves around similar
interests and preferences. J ohnstone and Katz (195 7) showed that the
preferences of teen age girls for popular music in suburban Chicago varied
according to the neighborhood in which they lived as well as their
popularity among peers. It was found that the more popular the girl, the
more closely that girl followed the popular music in her neighborhood.
Conversely, less popular girls were less likely to follow the same
neighborhood’s preferences. LeBlanc (1982), in his interactive theory of
music preference recognized peers as an input variable used in the creation
of one’s music preferences. Radocy and Boyle (1988) observed fourth
grade students as they physically demonstrated disapproval for a musical
style while looking around to see if a sufficient number of their peers were

reacting similarly.

13

While peer influence is not a direct way in which teaching and
teachers can influence a student’s music preferences, it does show the
impact other people can have on musical choices. Also, the better a
teacher’s ability to engage the peer group leaders in thoughtful
consideration of musical options the more the teacher gains that ability for
the entire peer group.

Modeling, or the teacher demonstrating preferences as an authority
figure, can also play an important role in the development of music
preferences. The psychological research of Bandura and Barab (1971) not
only shows that rewarded imitation results in high level imitative behavior,
but also brings out the issue of the status of a model. Greer, Dorow,
Wachaus, and White (1973) found that instructor approval was a significant
factor in a subject’s music selection behavior. Greer, Dorow, and Hanser
(1973) and Dorow (1977) found that teachers demonstrating high approval
behaviors for certain listening preference choices resulted in increased
student listening preferences for certain music types. Dorow’s 1977 study
found further effects shown in music selection behavior and concert
attentiveness. Killian (1990) found that modeling was an important factor
in determining music preferences. Her study looked at a student’s selection
of a vocal solo, as well as the characteristics of the person modeling the
solo. Her results showed that students (especially males) allow a model’s
ethnicity and gender to influence which solos they prefer to prepare and
perform. This result shows that how a teacher presents information has
some influence over students’ preferences. Bandura and Barab (1971)
brought out the issue of the status of a model in relation to the model’s
effectiveness. They found the higher the status given a particular model, the

more likely it was that others would follow the modeled behavior. Radocy

14

(1976) studied the influence of authority figures on music preference. This
study had instructors provide “bogus information” to students regarding
identical performances. Radocy found varied results; however he did find
that an authority figure could influence students’ attitudes. LeBlanc (1982)
cautions, however, that in some circumstances unpopular authority figures

create a reaction in subjects that is contrary to the one intended.

a ‘ 1111.’ ' ' ‘1 ' ° 111' ' n. 1.911111...1

Discussions of the importance of music preference research often
center around the idea of being able to affect students’ musical preferences
through education. While these options were discussed earlier, there is also
an ongoing debate regarding the role schools and educators should play in
affecting one’s musical preferences.

According to Colwell (1970), research has not been able to
conclusively determine whether or not a school setting can make a
difference in affective development. There are, however, not enough
negative findings to allow us to neglect teaching for affective learning in
music (p. 128).

To some, including Colwell, it is considered the role of a school to
provide students with the knowledge and understanding needed to make
intelligent decisions. In this view, responsibility falls on the music
programs in our schools to offer broader musical experiences from different
sources with a clear communication of that music’s basis, origin, and
significance (Colwell, 1970 p. 129) Colwell also believes that the teacher
has an obligation to enable the student to experience aesthetic satisfaction or

understanding of music and how these originated (p. 128).

15

Radocy and Boyle (1988) note that while one can alter music
preferences through education, the direction of alteration as well as the
means is not always predictable. They raise the philosophical question that
perhaps it is not the “it” or “can” regarding education’s effect on music
preferences that is important. Their contention is that the question of
whether music preferences “should” be altered has not been answered
satisfactorily. Radocy and Boyle go on to remark that an expansion of
individual preferences is acceptable in an educational setting, but changing
these preferences in an arbitrary direction is questionable (p. 261).

Colwell (1970) comments that one’s attitudes and values are one’s
personal affair and should not be structured by educational institutions.
Colwell does, however, recognize that if left to make its own uneducated
decisions regarding what is good or bad, human civilization fails to
progress. After all, we learn and progress as a culture by passing on the
knowledge of civilization to successive generations, saving the best and
discarding the rest (p. 126-127).

As was mentioned earlier in this chapter, Abeles (1980) remarked that
preference is a shorter term decision than appreciation. With this, as well as
the previously mentioned comments regarding the ethics of affecting
change in one’s preferences, it seems as though there is a need for schools
to be involved in the creation of music preferences. This is not to be done
through forcing one’s personal preferences on another person, but rather
through the broad exposure of students to many different types of musical
styles. In this way teachers are actually attempting to expand students’
tolerances rather than constrict preferences. Of course this relies on

teachers to go beyond their personal preferences to create such exposure.

16

Studying factors that affect music preference decisions is an
important step in effectively educating our children about our culture.
Colwell (1970) remarks that teachers need to know what attitudes are being
formed in order to be able to proceed in teaching further in the affective
domain. The affective domain is defined by Random House (1987) as
“pertaining to feeling or especially to pleasurable or unpleasurable aspects
of the mental process” (p. 24). The affective domain is therefore the area of
our developmental and educational process related to emotion, attitudes, I
and values (Garry & Kingsley, 1970, p. 116). This is in contrast to most
formal education, which deals with learning concepts or skills. Colwell
(1970) elaborates that it is difficult to define the affective area of music
education enough to assist in teaching, as it does not fall into the usual areas
entailed in music education: skill development and cognitive learning (p.
125). Colwell goes on to mention that music teachers must recognize what
values need to be emphasized and presented to students. Likewise, a
teacher must be able to understand reactions to know whether these values
are being successfully communicated (p. 127). Research into music
preference allows music teachers to better understand how to approach this
broadening of student experience. The study of tempo preferences is a way
to gain knowledge of the topic of music preference through smaller, more
easily understood sub-preferences (such as tempo). Aside from the
previously mentioned reasons for studying aptitude, approaches to teaching
students with different degrees of aptitude and age levels are areas also
current discussion topics for improving general education in our schools.

The present research study is important for all of the reasons that
have been stated in this paper regarding the importance of music preference

research. It also indirectly serves to test the recent findings of LeBlanc, J in,

17

Stamou, and McCrary, (1998), regarding the effect of gender on music
preferences and test to see if these findings are consistent with gender’s
effect on tempo preferences. This study is also unique in that it is perhaps
one of the first studies to look at the effect of tempo discrimination aptitude
on preferences.

The following chapters will review the literature related to past
research in this important area, outline the research process used to further
this research, and show the results of this research which will add to the

knowledge base available regarding music preferences.

l8

Chapter Two: Review of Related Literature

Research regarding individual music preference has gone down two
distinctly different paths. Early studies were done not in the realm of music,
but rather in the area of psychology. One must only look as far away as the
reference list for some music preference research studies to find many
articles dating back as far as the 1920’s appearing in any number of
standard and some not so standard psychological journals. Was the
attention of psychologists of great benefit to the understanding of music
preference? The answer is mixed. Prince (1972) summarizes this idea
when he writes: “Instructional techniques have been excellent, but since
psychologists have not been deeply aware of musical problems and
processes, some of the questions they have studied have been shallow and
unimaginative” (p. 445). The attention of the early psychologists is
appreciated for creating a research foundation in music preference.
However, musicians need to be involved in music research if the results of
such study are to have a quality relevant to the teaching and learning of
music. Music is a unique subject area that needs the attention of someone
who understands its nature. Therefore, while research exists from several
decades, especially concentrated prior to the 1950’s, some of this research is
weak in that it does not come from a musical knowledge base.

An example of the strongly psychological nature of early music
preference research is a study conducted by Keston and Pinto (1955). In
their study they looked at several different factors that might have an
influence on music preference. These possible factors included introversion
and extroversion, age, masculinity and femininity, sex, musical training,
ability to recognize musical compositions, and intelligence (p. 101).

Looking at these topics, it is not difficult to see the immediate psychological

l9

influences of topics like introversion and extroversion, as well as
masculinity and femininity. In contrast to the psychological areas of
inquiry, it is equally easy to notice the lack of musical concepts studied.
Although we do still look at the interaction of non-musical concepts such as
age and musical training in relation to music preference, there is currently
much more emphasis placed on music in the research on musical taste. The
results of the Keston and Pinto study were weakened by the large number of
variables studied:

When it was written over 20 years ago, Wapnick’s (1976) review of
literature was a testimony to the extent of research available on preference
in music. This comprehensive compilation of literature is divided into
segments based on the focus of the individual studies. Topics of discussion
range from the area of measurement scales of attitude to situational
variables in music preference. In total, 82 sources are referenced, which
makes it a helpful resource for finding past research information.

Finnas (1989) also wrote a more recent comprehensive literature
review in the area of music preference, and like Wapnick, he also reviewed
preference from a musical perspective. This review, including American,
British, German, and Scandinavian research, breaks down the subject area
into several different influences believed to affect musical preferences
including: tempo, rhythm, familiarity, peer influences, as well as several
others. In the review of studies concentrating on tempo, Finnas found
overwhelmingly that school age children preferred listening to faster
tempos. F innas also noted from Wapnick (1980), as well as Huebner
(1976), that while listening preferences of students may be positively
related to faster tempos, slower music may be preferred by performers. This

finding is possibly due to the technical aspects needed for musical

20

performance of fast or slow music as well as the expressive possibilities
created through the performance of slow music.

The current approach to music preference testing in the realm of
music, as opposed to the realm of psychology, was an outgrowth of the
1970’s. Prince (1972) broke new ground in presenting a model that he
entitled “A Paradigm for Research on Music Listening.” A paradigm is
described by Gage (1963) as having two component parts: they “derive their
usefulness from their generality”; “they also represent variables and their
relationships in some graphic or outline form” (p. 95). This paradigm fits
this description through the use of the relationships between several
variables in music listening; including “maturation” and “other musical
aptitude” (p. 447). While this preliminary theory was not based strongly on
proven fact, or, as was admitted by the author it was “more hypothetical
than empirical,” (p. 446) it was an important first step into the modern area
of music preference research. Prior to this paradigm there was no real
theoretical model to guide research; instead, research was conducted on
various areas of consideration without a real knowledge of the larger
picture.

A major contribution to the theoretical study of music preference
came in the form of a formal theory of music preference by LeBlanc (1980,
1982). LeBlanc’s theory was an interactive design involving eight levels of
variables related to music preference decisions. This theory, while similar
to the paradigm presented by Prince, is clearer and easier to follow and
understand. A review of the literature regarding music preference
generated since the development of this theory shows its influence. Most of
the research ties back to this model as its source. While the theory as

presented had, at that time, little reliable research on which to prove itself, it

21

was logical in its format and hypotheses, and therefore a valuable asset to
studies about music preference. LeBlanc (1982) states “Although a
considerable body of research literature has accumulated in this area . . .
music preference research has often led to inconclusive or contradictory

results” (p. 29).

EffemiAptimde

For the purposes of this study, it is important to take a look at specific
research regarding some of the individual components embodied in
LeBlanc’s theory, specifically aptitude, age, and tempo. Research into the
relationship between aptitude and the development of music preference is
not as common as are several of the other variables. Many of the studies
that approach the issue of aptitude are actually studying the level of general
intelligence. The fact that intelligence level, a psychological measure, is
studied instead of music aptitude levels, a musical measure, is a weakness in
the psychological origination of some music preference research.
Rubin-Rabson’s study (1940) as well as that of Keston and Pinto (1955) are
examples of studies in which the intelligence-level’s relationship to music
preference is used as an area of inquiry. Before being too critical of the use
of intelligence testing as opposed to music aptitude testing in studies
regarding music preference, we should note that most of the major work
done in the area of measuring music aptitude happened after these studies
were published. Prince (1972) used other musical aptitudes as an aspect of
music preference development. For the purposes of his study, “other
musical aptitude” denoted non-traditional areas of aptitude that were
beginning to be tested in and around 1972. Prince states: “Aptitude tests

traditionally have included rhythmic discrimination, chordal analysis,

22

melodic phrase completion and other aspects. Some of the newer tests also
have included musical sensitivity variables such as discrimination of
phrasing, balance and style. Since the elements of the music
aptitude-ability-achievement complex have not been isolated completely,
firture investigators researching listening aptitude or ability will have to
provide rational grounds for studying whatever kinds of aptitude or ability
they investigate” (p. 450). If the variable “other musical aptitudes” is used
to cover these “new” areas of aptitude study, it appears that the ‘traditional”
areas of aptitude are covered through the variable of “Musical Training and
Experience.” This linking of aptitude and training refer back to the debate
regarding the origin of aptitude that is mentioned in Chapter One. Prince
also noted in his analysis of his paradigm that aptitude and ability are a part
of five out of nine variables representing listener characteristics. LeBlanc
(1982), in his theory, does not list music aptitude as a separate variable;
instead he lists music ability, defined by LeBlanc as a native talent to create,
analyze, or perform music without the benefit of instruction (p. 36), which
is in agreement with Gordon’s definition of aptitude.

Studies directly investigating the relationship of musical aptitude to
music preference have shown that a slight correlation does exist. Using the
Seashore Measures of Musical Talent, Fay and Middleton (1941) found
that students who preferred “serious classical music” had higher test scores
than subjects preferring “light classical music.” They also found that
subjects who preferred swing style music had inferior test scores when
compared with those individuals who preferred classical music. Getz
(1966) reported a small but statistically significant relationship between
aptitude test scores and music preference choices. This study utilized the

Whistler-Thorpe Musical Aptitude Test. The validity of these findings,

23

however, could be called into question, as no information is given
concerning the validity of the criterion measure. Williams (1972) found
music aptitude did not emerge as a major predictor of music preference in
the five types of music tested. In contrast Hicken (1992) utilized the
Rhythmic Imagery and Tonal Imagery subtests of Gordon’s Music Aptitude
Profile, as well the Music Preference and Familiarity Survey in a study that
found music aptitude to be among several variables that were significantly
correlated to music preference. The limited number of studies available and
their conflicting results suggest that there might only be a slight relationship
between aptitude and music preference; however none of the past research
described here has shown conclusively the effect of musical aptitude. This,
as well as music aptitude’s appearance on both the Prince (1972) paradigm
as well as on the LeBlanc (1982) model, gives justifiable reason to continue

research into this area.

Effectange

The effect of age on music preference has been discussed in several
studies. Studies conducted by Rubin-Rabson (1940), Schuessler (1948),
Fisher (1951), Keston and Pinto (1955), and Rogers (1957) are all examples
of early research done in this area. Rubin-Rabson found that age had the
most significant influence on preference of all the areas she studied. Her
study was based entirely on reactions to various styles of art music ranging
from classical to modern (20th Century). Based on these styles of music,
subjects were more indifferent toward all types of music tested as they grew
older, with a more pronounced negative attitude toward modern music.

This study does not test, however, what other types of music may become

more popular as art music declines in popularity.

24

Schuessler (1948) explored the relationship between social
background and musical taste. Reviewing Prince’s (1986) definitions of
taste and preference offered in Chapter One, taste and preference differ from
one another in that preference is a shorter term choosing of one thing over
another. Taste denotes a longer term commitment to preferences. In
Schuessler’s study, sex, age, race, music training and familiarity (with the
musical example) were also studied to further break down factors
determining musical preferences. Schuessler found age to be significant in
preference for six of eight musical excerpts. His findings were consistent
with the belief that older people preferred older music, and younger people
preferred newer music.

Fisher’s (1951) study found few differences in music preference for
“classical music” (classical as a popular term rather than a time period)
associated with age. Those age group differences that were found were
primarily style preference differences. She found that age does play a role
when comparing preferences for music that is found at the opposite ends of
the style spectrum. Otherwise, the overall preferences as compared between
age levels were similar. Of course, like the Rubin-Rabson study, the
preferences stated are relative to the one style of music tested. The results
of Fisher’s study show that there is a similar level of preference for classical
music in different age groups, but, the study does little to generalize this
finding to music preferences in general.

Keston and Pinto (1955) concluded that age was not a factor in music
preference, after not finding a significant difference between mean scores of
different groups on music preference tests. It is important to note that the
Keston and Pinto’s study only utilized undergraduate college students as

subjects, and therefore, the test population did not have much age

25

difference on which to base their findings. Rogers (195 7) was one of the
first to look at age and music preference in relation to distinctly different
styles of music: “seriously classical,” “popular classical,” “dinner music,”
and “popular music.” Rogers was also among the first to isolate age or
more specifically grade in school as an influence on music preference.
Earlier studies had examined several variables at the same time. Results of
this study showed a preference for popular music in all age groups, with a
decrease in openness to classical music as children grew older.

Almost 20 years after Rogers (195 7) conducted his research, Greer,
Dorrow, and Randall (1974) studied the music listening preferences of
elementary children. This study was aided by the development of
technology that allowed students to make decisions regarding which music
they wanted to listen to while allowing researchers to keep track of not only
the musical choices the students made but also how long they spent
listening to each style of music offered. As with Rogers’ study, which
found a preference for “popular music” among students, Greer, Dorrow &
Randall, found that students chose to listen to more rock music as they
increased in age. They also found no change between rock and non-rock
listening preferences between nursery school students and first grade
students. It was observed that the time between third and fourth grade is an
important time in the development of music taste. This age roughly
corresponds, according to the authors, to a “turning point for the acquisition
of other musical behaviors” (p. 289). Testing group size in this study was
small (130 students preschool to sixth grade), but the researchers felt that
the differences were consistent and strong enough to make them worthy of
note. There was some concern over the lack of control over the broad

musical category “non-rock,” which used different musical styles for each

26

grade level. LeBlanc has performed two studies related to age and music
preference. In 1979 LeBlanc studied the “preferred generic music style and
the critical competitors of that style” (p. 255) for fifth grade students. In his
research problems, LeBlanc mentions an intention to explore the procedural
options of paper and pencil listening tests as well as the possibility of using
behavioral observation to back up research findings (p. 256). Both of these
techniques were successfully employed and have been used by LeBlanc.
Further, these techniques are now used by others in preference inquiry.
LeBlanc also used this study to present a factor analysis that supported his
interactive theory of music preference (LeBlanc, 1982). LeBlanc (1979)
took issue with Greer and associates’ previously noted lack of control over
the “non rock” music category. LeBlanc not only looked at the fairly well
established idea that rock music was popular with children, but he took it a
step further. When looking for the overall generic style preference, he
compared rock music with other generic styles of music that also benefit
from heightened attention fi'om the media, peer groups and families. As a
result of this different approach LeBlanc’s findings did not support the idea
that rock music is the most preferred generic style; instead it was
easy-listening pop music that came out with the overall highest preference
level. In fact rock music’s rating among fifth grade students was
statistically comparable to ragtime, Dixieland, band-march, country &
western/bluegrass, as well as randomly generated electronic stimuli (p.
268)

Music style preferences were also the subject of a 1996 study by
LeBlanc, Sims, Siivola, and Obert. Unlike the 1979 study, which was
limited to one specific age group, this study involved subjects ranging from

age 6 to 91. This age range is important because much of the research has

27

centered around college students as they are easier for many researchers to
access. By studying different age groups, it is possible to see the changes in
music preference that occur throughout life, not just in a four or five year
period. LeBlanc, Sims, Siivola, & Obert were influenced by a 1982 study
by Hargreaves. In this study, Hargreaves brought forward a hypothesis
regarding an inverted U curve in reference to music preferences over the
course of time. The inverted U curve represents higher acceptance levels of
diverse musical styles early in life as well as later in one’s lifetime with a
lesser tolerance being shown in one’s early to mid teens and again in one’s
late adulthood. This concept was upheld in a later study by Hargreaves and
Castell (1987).

Part of the inverted U hypothesis relates to the concept of
“open-earedness.” Open-earedness refers, in part, to the belief that children
were more accepting of different types of music. Radocy and Boyle (1988)
support the idea of decreasing acceptance of musical styles with increasing
age through their personal observations while in elementary school
classrooms. They observed that students in the first, second, and third
grades were much more willing to listen to varied musical styles; fourth
grade students, listening to the same varied styles of music, were seen to
cringe and cover their ears as they listened to “non rock” styles. (p.
250-251). This concept appears to conflict with the aesthetic philosophy of
music education as described by Reimer (1989), which states that one must
understand music to enjoy music. It is doubtfiil that children have more
understanding of music at an early age and then as training in music begins
they understand less and become less accepting of varied types of music.

One must also keep in mind, however, that acceptance does not always

28

equate to preference (Gordon, 1970, p. 114); one can tolerate a piece of
music but it may not be his/her preferred style.

In his 1991 literature review on maturation and aging as related to
music preference, LeBlanc provided the following hypothesis based on
Hargreaves study: “(a) younger children are more open-eared, (b)
open-earedness declines as the child enters adolescence, (c) there is a partial
rebound of open-earedness as the listener matures from adolescence to
young adulthood, (d) open-earedness declines as the listener matures to old
age” (p. 2). LeBlanc, Sims, Siivola, & Obert (1996) found that preferences
for each of the three music styles tested remained consistent across age
levels. This study also conformed to the Hargreaves-LeBlanc hypothesis
showing a highly significant effect of age on overall preference (p. 56).
Sims’ (1992) study of opera attendance and its affect on students’
acceptance of opera presented recommendations that teachers use the later
elementary grades to expose children to such types of music as opera when
they are young enough to use this experience to increase their tolerance for
less popular art forms. This recommendation once again supports the
Hargraeves (1982) theory of open earedness. If indeed students’ tolerance
for musical styles declines as they reach middle school, late elementary
school students would be more receptive. Broadening students’ exposure to
diverse musical styles at an early age also has some foundation in Gordon’s
theories of aptitude which, as discussed earlier state that aptitude is formed
in part by environmental exposures up through late elementary school age.

Although the research into the effect of age on music preference is
more inclusive than the literature concerning aptitude, the wide variety of
research topics shown also demonstrates a need for continued study in this

area. Likewise, many of the studies in music preference relating to age and

29

especially the older studies, were done using older students. This has
hampered knowledge in this area. Although recent studies have used school
age children, the previous lack of such studies as well as the research that
shows tremendous growth in aptitude and acceptance in the early years of
one’s life gives more reason for further studies of age and music
preferences. As well, some of the studies of the influence of age on music
preference decisions have not been conclusive. More research is necessary

to establish definite trends in this area.

EffecLQflempo

Much research has been conducted with tempo as its primary focus.
From the experience of the researcher this could be understandable to
teachers who have taught a middle school music class in which students
rebuke any attempt made to expose them to music literature if the tempo is
below 120 beats per minute. The importance of tempo’s influence in music
preference is demonstrated by its presence within the “physical properties of
stimulus” variable in LeBlanc’s (1982) model of variables in music
preference. Lundin (1985) also recognized tempo as one of the
characteristics influencing one’s reaction to music in his discussion of this
area. Tempo’s significance is also highlighted through its appearance, on
many preference rating scales, as a reason why one selection is preferred
more than another. This is especially true in the free responses on
preference rating sheets utilized by LeBlanc during several studies (LeBlanc
& Cote, 1983; LeBlanc & McCrary, 1983). This prevalence of commentary
regarding tempo by test subjects was also noted in Flowers’ (1988 ) study.

General research into the nature of tempo has been done by Brown

(1979). Among the topics studied by Brown are several physiological

30

considerations such as circadian rhythm which, according to some people,
might have an influence on why we prefer certain tempos over others.
Circadian rhythm is defined as “noting or pertaining to rhythmic biological
cycles recurring at approximately 24-hour intervals” (Random House
Dictionary, 1987). Brown also comments on the idea of a connection
between tempo preferences and the natural tempos established by bodily
functions such as the heart rate.

Early studies regarding the importance of tempo were general in
nature. These early studies, such as the research of Hevner (1937), and
Rigg ( 1940), are more closely related to the emotional and affective nature
of tempo instead of its musical purpose. In her study of tempo’s affective
value, Hevner tested her subjects’ responses to music of various tempos.
She did this by having her subjects select adjectives with which to describe
that musical example. Calm, dignified, serene, sentimental, and sad were
all terms that were used to describe music with slower tempos. Faster
tempos were referred to with adjectives such as happy, exciting, restless,
and vigorous (p. 626). Rigg’s (1940) opening statement from his study is
“from previous experiments it has appeared that tempo has more influence
upon the emotional suggestiveness of music than any other single factor” (p.
566). His study is built around tempo as it affects the musical mood. For
this study subjects were to designate whether a selection was
pleasant-happy or serious-sad. From these general classifications the
subjects were to classify the selections into more detailed categories
suggesting various states of emotion. Logical conclusions were found in
this study as well; faster tempos made music “happier” in nature, whereas
slower tempos made the musical mood seem more sad and subdued. These

studies, although highly involved in psychological research into human

31

emotions, bring forth interesting thoughts. Could it be possible that one’s
emotional state, both actual and desired, can effect his or her preferences for
both tempo and music? Could it not also be possible that children’s music
and tempo preferences are merely a reflection of their desire to exhibit a
certain emotion? This could explain why there is such an apparent
preference for faster tempos. It also is a reason for the appearance of the
“current affective state” variable in the LeBlanc (1982) theory.

Wapnick (1980) used speed sensitive tape technology to test student’s
tempo preferences. Students were allowed to speed up and slow down the
musical examples to which they were listening. The data in this study
involved timbre preferences as well as tempo and pitch preferences. There
proved to be too many intervening variables, as the results were difficult to
understand and rather inconclusive. While there was a preference shown in
favor of faster tempos, it was not always possible to discern whether this
was a function of tempo preference or a combination of two or more factors.
This study also raises the question of whether or not tempo preferences are
affected by how an individual is interacting with the music, in this case,
performing or listening. These are yet other possible factors influencing

music preference.

EffectoflempaandAge

A large amount of tempo research, and the literature most closely
related to this study, is regarding the effect of age and tempo. Flowers
(1988) worked with several different variables including tempo in her
study involving students in preschool through sixth grade as well as college
undergraduates. This study involved a teaching situation in which the

undergraduate students were actually educating the elementary school test

32

subjects about one of the selections on the listening test. Following the
classroom activity, elementary school subjects rated faster tempos higher
than slower tempos; however, the differences were not as great as they have
been in other studies of tempo preference. Likewise, it is interesting to find
that following the teaching situation, undergraduate students chose to spend
roughly equal amounts of time listening to the slow selections on the
listening test as they did the faster excerpts. This too is contrary to some
conventional thought regarding music tempo preference.

LeBlanc and his various associates are responsible for many of the
studies conducted regarding tempo (LeBlanc, 1981; LeBlanc, & Cote, 1983;
LeBlanc, & McCrary, 1983; and LeBlanc, Colman, McCrary, Sherrill, &
Malin, 1988). Shortly after LeBlanc developed his interactive theory of
variables in music preference (1982), he began to work to investigate the
assumptions that his model entailed. Unfortunately many of his early
studies regarding the effect of tempo upon music preference were hindered
by significant interactions between the variables (LeBlanc, 1981; and
LeBlanc and Cote, 1983). Despite the interactions, LeBlanc (1981) did
find “a slight but general preference for faster tempos” (p. 155). In the
second study, (LeBlanc, and Cote, 1983) the significant interaction caused
the researchers to perform an examination of cell means, which disclosed a
trend toward increasingly higher preference ratings as tempo levels rose
among the fifth and sixth grade students who took part in the study.
LeBlanc and McCrary’s (1983) study follows up on LeBlanc and Cote’s
work with fifth and sixth grade students. However, in the later study tempo
was the only variable being tested. Successful confirmation of the previous
hypotheses that were hidden by the interactions was accomplished. A trend

showing a direct relationship between rising tempos and similar rising

33

approval ratings by listeners was found. Likewise, the constructed
responses (free responses) by the subjects showed that 77% of comments
made were in reference to tempo. Eighty-six percent of subjects
commenting on slow tempos expressed a general dislike for them.
Ninety-two percent of the comments concerning fast tempos demonstrated a
favorable preference for that element. This data shows the importance of
tempo in decisions concerning music preference. Likewise, this preference
toward faster tempos was brought out more clearly by the fact that the slow
music excerpts, on the test, were by their own nature longer than the fast
excerpts. This meant that despite lengthened exposure to slower tempos
subjects were still overwhelmingly in favor of faster tempos.

LeBlanc, Colman, McCrary, Sherrill, & Malin (1988) took the
previously mentioned study and expanded its scope by varying the age
groups involved. The students used in this study ranged in age from grade 3
to college senior. As in past studies, the subjects took part in a music
preference test, filled out comments regarding their musical opinions and
were watched for any behavior that might interfere with the criterion
measure’s results. The findings supported the belief that students of all ages
have a preference for faster tempos. The highest preference rating for the
traditional style jazz examples was at the third grade level; preference
declined to a low point in grade 7 and rose again all the way throughout
high school and into college. The authors were very clear to point out that
this result was only tested using traditional jazz, so there is no factual reason
to believe that the same would necessarily be true in other musical styles.

Studies completed by Sims (1987) and Montgomery (1996) also
involve the effect of tempo on varying age groups. Sims uses students from

kindergarten through grade 4 for her study. Montgomery’s study includes

34

kindergarten students through grade 8. The results from these inquires were
similar to those of the previous LeBlanc studies. Sims found that with the
exception of the kindergarten subjects, each age group had a positive and
significant preference for faster tempos when listening to classical piano
excerpts. Regarding preference decisions based on tempo, Sims stated: “it
may be inferred that the tendency to base preference decisions on tempo
discrimination and to prefer fast tempos...is probably acquired by fourth
grade” (p. 24). Montgomery’s study that used early Romantic opera as its
musical style, found similar results. Data for test subjects in grades 3-8 were
consistent with what other studies using these ages had found (see LeBlanc,
Colman, McCrary, Siivola, & Malin, 1988). Unlike the results for the older
students and also unlike the results found by Sims, Montgomery’s subjects
in Kindergarten through grade 2 showed no significant preference for any
tempo level. This finding, as well as the statement made by Sims regarding
the acquisition of tempo discrimination, are consistent with other findings
showing many preferences in music do not stabilize until around third grade
(Greer, Dorow, & Randall, 1974).

Eflbclnflficndex

Gender’s effect on music preferences has not been studied in great
detail. Many early studies, especially those looking at music preferences
through psychology, concluded that gender had little or no effect on music
preferences (Schuessler, 1948; Keston & Pinto, 1955; Rogers, 1957). A few
researchers reported preference differences between genders, such as Fay &
Middleton (1941), who found college women rated classical music higher
than did college men. Birch (1962) as reported by Reimer (1965) wrote
“women have broader tastes than men” (p. 151). LeBlanc (1982) listed

35

“sex” as a personal characteristic variable that influences music preference
decisions in his interactive theory of music preference. LeBlanc, J in,
Stamou & McCrary (1998) studied the effect of age, country and gender on
music preferences. They found age and gender to be significant influences
on music preference. However, in this study, gender was only a significant
influence in Greece, where the female participants showed greater
preference levels regarding art music, traditional jazz, and rock music
examples. The lack of and inconclusive nature of past research regarding
the effect of gender on music preferences, as well as the easy access to self
reported gender data on the Tempo Preference Listening Test developed for
and used in the current study warrants further gender research through this

study.

BurposmanPrleems

Most researchers would agree that tempo has a significant effect on
music preference decisions. While there is a good amount of research
available regarding this subject, there is still much to be learned. What
happens to music preferences as well as tempo preferences as students grow
out of adolescence? Does aptitude play a role in how one accepts slower
tempos? These are questions that are worthy of further inquiry. Their
answers will benefit music teachers as they prepare their classes to suit the
needs of their students. Therefore, in an effort to improve music education
through enhancing the knowledge and understanding of music preferences,
the purpose of this study is to gain information concerning the effect of age
and aptitude on the music tempo preferences of middle and high school

students.

36

One problem of this study is to determine whether tempo aptitude has
a statistically significant relationship to the tempo preference of middle and
high school age students.

A second problem of this study is to determine whether age has a
statistically significant relationship to the tempo preferences of middle and
high school age students.

A third problem of this study is to determine whether gender has a
statistically significant relationship to the tempo preferences of middle and

high school age students.

37

Chapter Three: Method

The previous two chapters have discussed the importance of this
study and reviewed the pertinent literature of the subject area. The
following chapter will describe in detail the method utilized to look further
into the effect of age and aptitude in secondary school students’ tempo
preferences.

This research project was designed to test the effects of age and
aptitude on the tempo preferences of secondary school students, utilizing
the Tempo subtest of the Music Aptitude Profile by Edwin Gordon to test
tempo aptitude and a listening preference test designed by the researcher to
measure preference.

A research proposal was presented to the faculty thesis committee.
Following the committee’s approval the proposal was submitted to the
Michigan State University Committee for Research Involving Human
Subjects (UCRIHS). The research proposal including the informed consent
mechanism was approved by UCRIHS (IRB #97-782) (see Appendix A).

According to the proposal, test subjects were to be drawn from the
instrumental music students of a public school system in Southeastern
Michigan. Upon the approval of the University Committee for Research
Involving Human Subjects the school district administration was
approached for approval of this testing process. Proposals were distributed
to the Assistant Superintendent for Curriculum, the local building principals
for the buildings included in the study, and the band directors whose classes
would be disrupted. Support was immediate and very positive from the
central administration of the district as well as the band directors. While
support was slower and more difficult at the local buildings, approval was

granted concurrent with final approval of the band directors involved.

38

Following final approval, explanatory letters and permission slips were sent
home with each student in the classes to be tested (see Appendix B). Follow
up letters were also sent in some cases to encourage higher participation in
the study as well as to ensure that the initial letter reached the students’
parents.

Much care was taken to avoid divulging the focus of this study to the
students. It was believed that the students’ responses would be more true to
actual preferences if they did not have to weigh their perceived preferences
regarding tempos. Instead, students were told that the study was meant to
help study factors that make people prefer various types of music. While
volunteerism was high in grades 7-12, it was more difficult than expected to
find sixth grade volunteers. Despite the extreme care used to avoid the use
of the word “test” when discussing this project and the diligence used to
make sure the students understood the complete anonymity of their
responses, it seemed that the younger students were still concerned about
embarrassing themselves by not doing well on the test. This could have
been related to their lack of band experience, making them less comfortable
with the idea of being tested in an area they had only just begun to study.
Regardless, the sixth grade bands in this school district are the largest
group of students from which to draw subjects, so a sufficient number of
volunteers were found.

Subjects were selected from the instrumental music students of two
middle schools and one high school from the previously mentioned school
system. The test group subjects were representative of the school district
used and therefore represent a variety of socio-economic backgrounds but
little racial diversity. The breakdown of subjects tested by age is as shown
in Table 1:

39

 

Table 1

 

 

 

11' .1 . [S l' l g
_2_ W Aginnm Mm-:mumun “
11 ~“61 “i ”5’”
12 99
13 78
14 58
15 63
16 29
17 30
18 4
Total sample 422
Amimmlfist

To establish levels of student aptitude, the Tempo subtest from the
Rhythmic Imagery test of Edwin Gordon’s Music Aptitude Profile (MAP)
was administered to subjects as a part of their regular music classes.

MAP was developed by Gordon and released to the public in 1965.
Its purpose is: “to act as an objective aid in the evaluation of students’
individual music aptitudes so that the teacher can better provide for all
students’ individual musical needs” (Gordon, 1995, p. 9). Since its initial

publication over thirty years ago, MAP has become a widely accepted and

40

used method of studying students’ musical aptitude. MAP is designed to
test three factors: Tonal Imagery, Rhythm Imagery, and Musical Sensitivity.
Within these three test areas are seven subtests that are listed below with
their corresponding test in parenthesis: Melody and Harmony (Tonal
Imagery), Tempo and Meter (Rhythm Imagery), Phrasing, Balance, and
Style (Musical Sensitivity). This study only employed the Tempo subtest of
the Rhythm Imagery Test for reasons to be discussed later.

The material for the test questions consists of original short musical
selections composed for violin and cello by Gordon. These selections were
performed by international award winning performers: Stuart Canin, violin;
Charles Treger, violin; Paul Olefsky, cello.

Although MAP is widely used as an aptitude test, a problem the test
presents to educators is the length of time required to administer all
components of the test battery, one hour and fifty minutes. While the test is
easily broken down into three sessions, it can be difficult to find and devote
three class periods to this activity in a curriculum-driven environment. Test
length is one of the factors that led to testing students using only the Tempo
subtest. It is acknowledged that using only a portion of the test does not
produce a true overall analysis of a student’s music aptitude, much the same
as judging a student’s intelligence merely by studying his or her language
arts grades while ignoring the rest of the battery of subjects a student is
exposed to through a typical education. Parents requesting a summary of
testing results were informed of the limitations of using the subtest score in
relation to overall music aptitude. However tempo aptitude was a primary
focus of this study, and the tempo subtest was the best measure of this
aptitude in MAP.

41

Norms for MAP were established during the 1964-1965 school year.
Gordon reports his belief that the norms have remained stable over the thirty
years since the norms process took place. Gordon bases this opinion on the
concept that stabilized music aptitude varies only in situations of increased
music achievement in society at large. Through the comparison of Iowa
Tests of Musical Literacy scores fi'om 1971 and 1993, Gordon has found no
such increase in achievement by students and therefore no reason to doubt
that the norms established for MAP during the 1964-1965 school year were
still appropriate in 1995 (Gordon, 1995). Gordon’s norms standardization
process was carefully planned and executed using 12,805 students from
twenty school systems in eighteen states. Care was taken to ensure that
each region of the United States, each community size and each economic
condition was represented equally through these schools. Norms subjects
ranged from grade four through grade twelve with a more than adequate
sample being obtained from all grade levels.

Reliability coefficients of MAP for the norms sample were
determined through the split halves procedures for each test by grade, with
split half results adjusted to reflect the true length of the test with the
Spearman—Brown Prophesy Formula. The reliability, means and standard
deviations for the tempo subtest as reported by Gordon are reported by

grade in the following table:

42

 

Table 2:

{'me. \l‘e.e.. 1.90.... a... ,I‘KI. O...‘..

 

 

WWW
Grade Reliability Mean Standard
Deviation
_-_____6.__-____.____-__6.__7___.________ 29.8 _. 6.06 _._.
7 0.81 30.7 6.07
8 0.82 3 1.6 5.86
9 0.83 32.8 6.12
10 0.84 32.8 5.36
1 1 0.85 33.4 5.43
12 0.84 33.8 5.20

 

 

The Tempo Subtest of the Rhythm Imagery Test from the MAP was
designed with forty questions and utilized twenty different musical
examples (see Appendix C for sample answer sheet). Each short song was
performed for two consecutive questions. The questions were set in a
paired response format; the song would be heard once, and during the
second hearing students had to determine if the tempo of the ending was the
same or different than the first time they had heard the song. One feature of
this test is the use of three response options: same, different, and unsure

(labeled S, D, or ? on the answer sheet respectively). This method improves

43

the reliability of the responses as it eliminates much of the guessing that
happens on any true-false or same-different test. The unsure response is
marked as an incorrect answer and helps to eliminate the inflation of correct
responses that can occur as a result of random guessing. It may also help in
the testing process by lowering the anxiety of students who are not sure of

the answer and have a difficult time guessing.

W51:

Tempo preference was tested by a listening test developed by the
researcher titled Tempo Preference Listening Test (TPLT). The TPLT was
modeled on previous preference tests used by LeBlanc. Some alterations
were made based on the specifications of the test, including the use of both
Likert-type scale attitude responses as well as ranked preference responses
to each group of three excerpts presented (see appendix D for sample test).
The use of both a Likert-type scale as well as ranked responses allowed the
TPLT to serve as both a preference and attitude test. According to Colwell
(1970), a preference test often utilizes a ranking system that forces subjects
to state what they prefer in relation to several options (p. 138). The ranked
responses included in the TPLT force subjects to make a preference
decision. Through this, the TPLT helps to eliminate the possibility of a
subject taking an easy option by not differentiating between preference
degrees such as “like a little” and “its OK.” as discussed by Colwell. In
this study, the Likert responses serve as an attitude test because they allow
the subjects to like or dislike each of the musical selections without having
to choose one over the other. According to Colwell (1970), attitude scales
differ from preference scales because they measure both positive and

negative feelings, and individuals are not required to make a first choice,

44

second choice, and so on (p. 138). The actual design and format of the test
will be discussed later.

Tempo and musical style were both taken into account when selecting
excerpts to be played. Tempo was used to separate excerpts into fast and
slow categories. A metronome marking of 100 beats per minute (bpm) was
used to divide the categories. While this number was chosen arbitrarily,
Hevner (193 7) used 102 bpm as her separation point. The division of tempo
groups was also made clearer because no excerpt was used in the final study
that was closer than 12 bpm to 100 bpm, creating a 24 bpm separation
between fast and slow examples. Table 3 lists the musical works, fi'om
which excerpts were drawn, the composer of these excerpts, the metronome
marking of each piece, the fast or slow categorization as determined by the
adult excerpt judge (to be discussed later), and the duration of each excerpt
on the TPLT.

Musical style was defined for the purposes of this study as the general
characteristics of the compositional techniques used in the creation of a
piece of music. In seeking musical examples for this study, the concern was
with finding music that fits into the Western concert music tradition, as
opposed to music that is related through a common time period. In fact,
there are cases in which there is more difference between music at the
extremes of a time period than there is between selected works from two
separate periods. It was important to examine carefully the musical style of
the excerpts in this study to ensure that the subjects’ responses were related
more to preferences for certain tempos and not related to a general bias
against some different or unusual compositional technique. Homyak (1966)

found that students responded more favorably to compositions that sounded

45

 

Table 3

 

 

 

Tempo,
beats per
Excerpt minute Tempo Length of
Number Song Composer (bpm) Group Excerpt
1 Harmony Heaven Bamhouse, UT fist 22 sec.
C.L.
arr. Paynter, J.
2 La Fiesta Reed, HQ. 144 fast 50 sec.
Mexicana,
Mvt. 3: Carnival
3 Crown Imperial Walton, W. 88 slow 24 sec.
4 Rhythm of the Erickson, F. 66 slow 34 sec.
Winds
5 Symphonic Songs Bennett, RR. 81 slow 31 sec.
for Band, Mvt. 2:
Spritual
6 Symphony No. 3, Giavanni, V. 112 fast 32 sec.
Mvt. 1: Allegro
Energico
7 La Fiesta Reed, HQ. 62 slow 41 sec.
Mexicana, Mvt. 2:
Mass
8 Children's March Grainger, P. 125 fast 33 sec.
9 T'was in the Moon Traditional, 75 slow 30 sec.

at Wintertime arr. Smith, R.

46

 

Table 3 continued

Excerpt Information from the Tempo Preference Listening Test (TPLT)
TDWHHEPinfie—a'pple Poll sewer/K. _‘1—30m_ fast 26 sec. ‘-

 

 

Suite, Mvt. 4: arr. Duthoit
Finale
11 Fantasy For Band Erickson, F. 72 slow 37 sec.
12 Roman Festivals, Respeghi, O. 162 fast 23 sec.
Mvt. 4:
The Epiphany arr. Odom
13 Chorale for Band Erickson, F. 58 slow 34 sec.
14 Glory of the Sousa, J.P. 120 fast 21 sec.
Yankee Navy
15 Chorale Variations Bullock, J. 68 slow 37 sec.
16 Pineapple Poll Sullivan, A. 132 fast 50 sec.
Suite, Mvt. 1: arr. Duthoit
Opening Number
17 March to the Berlioz, H. 74 slow 30 sec.
Scaffold from the arr. Story, M.
Symphony
Fantastique

18 Trittico, Mvt.3; Nehlybel, V. 164 fast 20 sec.
Allegro Marcato

 

Nate. Refer to appendix E for discography.

“traditional” (p. 10). In this study the style of the musical examples was
held constant. Traditional wind band excerpts (including orchestral
transcriptions for band) were used in this study; all selections closely

followed the tonal and harmonic traditions of the common practice period

47

of Western art music. Once again, for the purposes of this study, common
practice period described music following the harmonic tradition generally
associated with European influenced works written between the years 1600
and 1900. As mentioned before, this does not mean that musical examples
used in this study were exclusively from this period; rather, examples
needed to conform to the general mainstream compositional styles from this
period.

Radocy and Boyle (1988) note there is a tendency to prefer the music
from the 18th and 19th centuries when encountering Western art music (p.
251-252). Western art music is defined by this researcher as sacred and
secular music primarily of a European-influenced church or concert
tradition. This refers to music created for formal performance outside of the
realm of folk or popular music. Radocy and Boyle hypothesize further that
this avoidance of music from the 20th century could be the result of these
composers’ deviation from the “compositional norms” as they termed them
(p. 251-252). Mueller (1967) comments on an aesthetic gap between 20th
century composers and their audiences as caused by composers’ failure to
relate to their audiences as well as the composers of the past did.
Farnsworth (1966) published eminence rankings of composers throughout
history. These eminence rankings were determined by the responses from
the membership of The American Musicological Society. The same study
had been previously performed in 1938, 1944, 1951, and 1964.
Consistently listed as the most historically significant composers were:
Bach, Beethoven, Mozart, Haydn, and Brahms. Notably missing from the
upper level of significant composers were those from the 20th century.
Famsworth did point out in 1969 that eminence (historical significance or

rank) does not necessarily represent preference in all cases. However, logic

48

would lead one to conclude that personal preference would play a major
part in how most people determine eminence.

Aside from general style concerns, the musical examples used for the
listening test were also chosen to conform to one performance medium
style. In this case, concert band performance was the desired medium.
Concert band music was chosen for several reasons. Past research has
shown that certain vocal techniques distract test subjects and can therefore
influence the results. LeBlanc and Cote (1983) observed a dislike for vocal
music among the subjects. They also hypothesized that the unintended
humorous effect of some vocal techniques may have influenced the results
of their study. LeBlanc and Sherrill (1986) found that students’ behavior
was rather disruptive and negative toward vocal art-music examples. While
it could not be shown that this was a result of a dislike of vocal vibrato, a
foreign language, or art music in general, it seemed prudent to avoid vocal
music in this study. Words also provide meaning that is not inherently
musical; therefore vocal text could affect how test subjects relate to a piece
of music. Likewise, the students involved were all enrolled in a band class
and were, therefore, in most cases, more accustomed to the sound of band
performance than to orchestral performance. Using orchestral recordings
could have biased the students against certain selections.

As was the case with musical style, performance tempo had to be
examined carefully. Music was selected based upon its ability to be
grouped into two distinct tempo classifications; fast and slow. Special care
was taken to make certain that the musical examples selected had a definite
discernible beat and that ambiguity based on microbeats and macrobeats
would not be a source of confusion in the student’s comprehension of the

excerpts. For the purposes of this study microbeats and macrobeats are

49

defined as elements inherent in a composition that can affect one’s
perception of the tempo, either making the selection sound slower or faster
than the actual documented tempo. This usually occurs in very slow or very
fast music, as someone might perceive a subdivision or elongation of the
beat as the actual tempo. One also only needs to review past research to see
that subjects have difficulty perceiving musical examples in triple meter
(Madsen, Duke, Geringer, 1986). Therefore all excerpts used in this study
were in duple meter.

Another factor that needed attention in the development of the tempo
preference listening test was familiarity. There are many factors that could
influence subject opinion of familiar music. Music heard more often could
create a comfort level in the students and could therefore cause more
positive reaction than would otherwise be felt. The opposite is also
possible: Music associated with a negative event could hold some
extra-musical connotation for listeners and would therefore affect their
preferences, not in general, but for a specific piece alone (LeBlanc, 1982).
The music teachers whose students were involved in this study were
consulted to ensure that the test subjects had not been exposed to the
musical examples through the music curriculum at their school. At this
point in the process, one possible excerpt was eliminated because of
familiarity to the test population. There is no way to completely guarantee
that all selections were foreign to the test subjects; however, this step was
taken to minimize the possibility of a large number of subjects having
incidental exposure to the excerpts. One has to take into account the
exposure children have to music at home. Likewise, as test subjects get

older, many might perform with honors bands and orchestras; through this

50

experience they might have come into contact with music of which their
band director has no knowledge.

With all that said, it was more difficult than expected to find excerpts
within the parameters set for musical examples within this study. One
reason for this is obvious; the amount of wind band recordings available at
record stores is much less than orchestral recordings at those same stores.
Likewise, fewer composers have written for the band medium. Also, of the
available recordings, many are primarily full of faster selections or
commonly heard slower songs. While marches were no problem to find, it
was difficult to find other examples presenting a variety of style, interest
and tempo.

Another area that compounded previously stated difficulty was
related to the school system providing subjects for this study. This school
system has a large, high quality band program. Many of the traditional
band pieces or orchestral transcriptions that are frequently recorded had
been introduced to or performed by some of the students. Likewise, the
seriousness of the students, easy access to three major universities and the
Detroit, Michigan metropolitan area, and the existence of a local community
band and orchestra creates a situation in which students were frequently
having out of school musical experiences. These, in turn, expose students
to more of the standard band literature.

Each year music publishers produce a number of demonstration disc
recordings featuring newly composed band music, which are sent to band
directors. There is also a growing body of recordings available of secondary
school band music composers’ more notable compositions. Both of these
outlets for music excerpts were utilized in finding an adequate number of

pieces that met the requirements of the study. Once again careful attention

51

had to be paid to chosen excerpts to ensure that none of the three school
band programs involved had used that piece of music.

Once selected, music excerpts were recorded from compact disc
format in order to standardize, as best as can be expected, the recording
quality. Compact disc recordings were transferred onto a high quality audio
cassette tape to produce master cassettes. These master cassettes contained
all excerpts that were in consideration for use in the study.

Following the creation of the master excerpt recording, a group of
judges, consisting of both music professionals and representatives of the
subject population, met to test the validity of the musical examples.
Because the tapes used for this judging included more than 18 excerpts, it
was possible to easily substitute one excerpt for another if it was found by
the judges to be questionable or invalid without creating a situation where
the adult and student judges would have to convene again to determine the
validity of additional excerpts. These judges gave feedback regarding the
tempo of the selections, and the excerpt’s placement in the fast and slow
tempo groups. The judges were also responsible for determining if there
were any musical style or familiarity concerns that might affect the validity
of results from the TPLT.

To help facilitate this process, each judge was given a checklist with
the criteria listed that he/she was to use to determine the acceptability of
each possible excerpt. The “TPLT musical excerpts: professional
qualification checklist” (see Appendix F) was given to the adult judges. A
separate “TPLT musical excerpts: student qualification checklist” (see
Appendix G) was used by the student judges. A checklist was completed
for each excerpt on the source tapes. These forms were different to reflect

the difference in the areas to be commented on by each group of judges as

52

discussed later. The judges were instructed to listen to each excerpt and fill
out the form to the best of their ability. They were also allowed to replay
any excerpt as many times as was necessary to answer the questions.
Because of scheduling concerns, the student judges listened to the excerpt
tapes together; however, they were not allowed to work with each other or
communicate with each other in any way. The professional judges listened
to the excerpt tapes separately. The researcher was present at all judging
sessions in order to answer questions, ensure student cooperation, and help
operate the tape player.

Five excerpts from the original tapes were disqualified by the judges,
or ultimately not used in the TPLT. One of these was eliminated due to
familiarity to some of the test subjects, two were eliminated because of
tempo ambiguity caused by microbeats or macrobeats, and two excerpts
were not used because they were not needed after finding 18 suitable
excerpts.

Mean tempos as reported by the adult, professional, judges as well as
fast and slow categorizations by both professional and student judges were
also shown in Table 3. Interjudge reliability statistics on the results of the
judges’ review are not necessary as each excerpt had to meet approval by
each of the judges or the excerpt was eliminated from the final TPLT tape.

The four student members who participated in this trial were not used
in the actual test so as not to bias their responses on the test through
familiarity.

Subject population judges were used because professionals have a
much more advanced understanding of musical concepts than do the average
secondary school students. Items that professional musicians might find to

be inappropriate because of their advanced training and bias might

53

not create such a problem for the less informed subject population.
Likewise, student judges may notice problems related to student acceptance
that the professionals have overlooked based on the depth of their musical
experience. The acceptance of dissonance by a professional musician could
be much higher than that of a secondary school student. The student judges
were used as an advisory group more than as a panel of judges. Likewise,
using students in this way gave the excerpts of the listening portion of the
test a pilot test with students to detect any problems before the entire test
was used with a class of students. Each judge listened to each musical
example and determined its acceptability in relation to the style parameters
discussed earlier.

Once again, it was important that the music not have any qualities
that would create an unnecessary bias among the listeners. Likewise, the
three professional judges tested the clarity of the meter to ensure that all
examples were in duple meter; as well they tested the clarity of the beat as
affected by the macrobeat and microbeat. A BOSS Doctor Beat DB-66
metronome was used by the adult judges to determine the tempo of each
example. One feature of this metronome is its “tap” function that allows a
listener to tap the beat of the music he or she is listening to and read tempo
on the display window. This was helpful to secure accurate tempos fi'om
the judges. All judges were able to listen to each excerpt as many times as
was necessary to be comfortable with their tempo determination.

While it was desired that all of the judges use metronomes for
establishing the tempo, it was found that the sixth grade students used as
judges had a very difficult time establishing and maintaining a steady
tempo. In some cases observed beat keeping by a student varied during the

same excerpt by over 20 beats per minute (bpm). Likewise, the individual

54

tempos established by the students varied wildly from student to student and
rarely were they consistent with the published tempo, even when allowing
for the presence of microbeats and macrobeats. This situation was
interesting and might warrant further study. It was hypothesized by the
researcher that the problem could have occurred because that area of
students’ ability had not yet solidified as they were only in their third month
of band instruction. A similar lack of tempo consistency was noted
throughout their sixth grade class. It also was possible that the problem
occurred due to their lack of dexterity in tapping the tempo on the
metronome. While students had difficulty tapping a consistent tempo, they
were not bothered by the metronome and seemed to have a great deal of fun
working with it.

As the metronome was not found to be a good source of tempo
validity from the sixth grade students, much better (and more consistent)
results were found when asking the students to merely write whether they
would consider the excerpt to be fast or slow. While establishing this
entailed having the students listen to the excerpts a second time, it was
possible to gain the necessary information to allow the process to proceed.
Once the tempos had been validated, the selections were placed into fast and
slow tempo groupings. Each judge did this. The professional judges also
listened to the quality of the recording, both in sound quality as well as
performance quality, to determine that the recording quality would not
affect subject perception unnecessarily. Performance quality was also a
factor found on the LeBlanc model (1982). Once the validity of excerpts
was determined the final master, cassettes were created from the compact

discs.

55

The TPLT excerpts were transferred from compact disc in order to
make the test accessible to the classrooms involved, as one of these
classrooms did not have compact disc playing capabilities. Likewise, it
would have been impractical to do a “drop the needle test” with compact
disks. The musical examples were transferred directly from the compact
discs to the test tape to avoid a decrease in copy quality, which could result
from duplicating from a subsequent generation copy of the test tape.

Eighteen musical examples were selected for this test. Excerpt length
varied based on the nature of the selections. Instead of a definite time limit
for each piece, efforts were made to end examples in musically logical
places, such as a strong cadence or the end of a section. This helped to
avoid biasing students against the excerpts based solely upon their
presentation. Excerpt length ranged from a minimum of 20 seconds to a
maximum of 50 seconds with an average excerpt length of 32 seconds.
Mean length of the fast excerpts was 31 seconds with a standard deviation
of 11.82; the mean of the slow excerpts was 33 seconds with a standard
deviation of 5.01.

Eighteen musical examples were used to provide an adequate survey
of music while keeping the test within a reasonable time limit. Three
practice exercises were also included in the TPLT. It was important that the
process of administering the TPLT could be accomplished within the
confines of a 50-minute class period. Likewise, research shows that student
attentiveness begins to wane in music listening tests lasting over 30 minutes
(LeBlanc & McCrary, 1983). The TPLT test tape, which included taped
instructions, had a duration of 20 minutes and 15 seconds, while the TPLT
re-test took 15 minutes and 10 seconds. The difference in duration from one

test to the other resulted from summarizing the instructions and not

56

including practice exercises in the re-test. Once again the instructions for
both the test and the re-test were recorded on the tape for consistency of test
administration (see Appendix H and I for spoken text). The tempo subtest of
the MAP was timed at 18 minutes and 20 seconds.

The format of the listening test was as follows: Musical examples
were divided into six groups of three excerpts. Each individual musical
example was rated individually on a 5-point Likert-type scale with anchors
of “dislike very much,” and “like very much.” Following the third excerpt,
students were told to rank the three selections in relation to their preference
for one over another. Pauses of 4 seconds were placed after each of the 18
excerpts, with 10 seconds being allowed between each group of three
excerpts that were being ranked. Once the students were aware of the time
allowed for response (through practice examples), there was no perceived
difficulty in accomplishing the required marking in the allotted time.

For test taking purposes, students were instructed that they must wait
for the entire selection to be played before marking their response sheets.
This technique has been used in past studies and works well to keep the
students focused. It also helps the student to pay more attention to the
excerpt and make the reasons for the response more thorough, instead of
making a snap decision (LeBlanc, 1983). There were three practice
exercises at the beginning of the tape to help the students experience the
procedure. The practice exercises were drawn from music the students
would recognize to help them focus on the test taking procedure without
having to concentrate on the musical exercises. These practice exercises
were printed on the cover sheet of the test booklet so that the students could

practice along with the tape. An overhead projector and transparency of the

57

cover page example questions also helped to clarify the process (see
Appendix J).

Throughout the testing process there were few obvious problems with
ranking three excerpts. There were students who failed to rank the excerpts
or who seemed to have done it backwards (ranking their highest rated facial
response excerpt as their least favorite, and their lowest ranked facial
response excerpt as their most favorite); these tests were eliminated from
the final test sample. The challenge in this type of test was to make sure
that no two exercises in a group of three had the same or a closely related
tempo. Having two exercises with the same or similar tempo within a group
of three exercises could make analysis more difficult, as one could not
assume that tempo was a factor in preference decisions if subjects were
declaring an unequal preference for examples with the same tempo. All
spoken instructions were recorded on the tape to assure consistency in each
test administration.

Groups of five musical examples as well as a paired comparison
study were also considered. Groupings of five examples were deemed
impractical because students would find it extremely difficult to remember
details of each of five excerpts in order to rank them. Paired comparisons,
while heavily considered, were not used, because it was uncertain that the
test would function exactly as desired; in a paired comparison, using one
fast example and one slow example, it is too easy for the subject to make a
quick decision. In a group of three excerpts, the student would have had to
consider more when ranking the musical examples. It was this researchers
belief that the subjects would be able to handle the comparison of three

items.

58

A student response sheet was created (see Appendix D). This
response sheet followed the format of the tempo preference listening tape.
Pictorial representations of faces were used to signify the points of
preference of the Likert scale. Drawings ranged from happy faces, which
denote a response of “like very much,” a neutral face to signify a “neutral”
response, and a sad face to represent a “dislike very much” response to the
musical example; other faces filled in the gaps between these
representations. The subjects were asked to mark in some fashion the
appropriate face to register their level of preference for that musical
example. This type of testing has been shown to be effective in past studies
of this nature (May, 1985; Sims, 1987; and Montgomery, 1996; LeBlanc,

J in, Simpson, Stamou, McCrary, 1998), even with older students (Sims,
1987) study. Reliability of the pictorial scales was found to be superior in
LeBlanc et al. (1998). This group of students was no different, and many
very interesting creations were developed out of the faces that seemed to
bring fun to the testing process.

Following each group of three pictorial responses, there were three
lines on which the subjects ranked the previous three excerpts. This ranking
was to make an effort to eliminate any general bias concerning the musical
style being used. This method was intended to keep a student from being
able to say he or she hated this style of music and circle the same negative
response for each excerpt; in this case, a student had to at least tell which
ones he or she hated less than others. Moskovitz (1992) had found it to be
possible that children’s tempo preferences are more often a result of an
automatic response to tempo rather than a thoughtful response based on
several musical elements and characteristics. She also hypothesized that a

preference for slow music may depend on a person’s ability to understand

59

elements of the music that are not as apparent in faster music. This in part
supports the aesthetic philosophy of music education as presented by
Reimer (1989) and discussed earlier, which holds that one’s understanding
of music and its elements is the key to musical preference.

The ranked responses helped to eliminate snap general decisions and
provided necessary data concerning preference despite the possible bias of
the listener. Once again, no mention was made to the test group concerning
the nature of the information this test gathered, prior to or during the testing
process. Information distributed to parents referred to studying the effect of
“musical characteristics,” rather than tempo, on music preference. It was
assumed from past research that a large percentage of the comments made
by students about their preference for certain music would relate to tempo
(LeBlanc & McCrary, 1983; LeBlanc, Colman, McCrary, Sherrill, & Malin,
1988). It was also assumed that students’ self-report regarding music
preferences were an accurate assessment of their opinions. This has been
shown to be true in past research (LeBlanc, Colman, McCrary, Sherrill &
Malin, 1988; Sims, 1987; Montgomery, 1996).

I l . . .
To protect the confidentiality of student scores throughout the
duration of the testing, each student was assigned an identification (ID)
code that was used for identification on the aptitude test as well as on the
tempo preference test. Each student was given an index card with a mailing
label attached on which they found their name and ID code. It was hoped
that this would help students to keep track of their ID code for subsequent
days of testing and thereby eliminate the need to spend great amounts of

time looking up ID codes. This appeared to be helpful in eliminating most

60

problems arising from forgotten ID codes. These codes were also kept by
the guidance counselor at each of the testing schools in case a subject forgot
his or her identification number. These lists were destroyed upon the
completion of the testing. Because testing took place in several different
buildings, each identification code enabled test results to be separated by
building, class, and gender. This was done to allow the teachers who had
students involved in the study to gain information about the tempo aptitude
levels of their students as a group without divulging the identities of the
individuals. It was also done to help in case student ID information was
omitted from the test form. Students were instructed about the meaning of
the components of their ID code so that they would have to remember as
little as possible to be able to recall this code later.

As mentioned previously, the entire test, complete with instructions
and question-response time, was designed to be completed within the
confines of one class period. There was some work that took place outside
of the testing session, such as the assigning of the individual identification
codes; however this did not require a great deal of extra time for the
directors involved. There were several issues regarding test administration
in a music classroom that needed to be handled at each individual building
prior to testing. These included providing adequate writing surface space
on which the students could answer test questions, as well as adequate space
so that students could have the privacy necessary to state their music
preference decisions without the interference of peers. LeBlanc (1982)
shows peer influence as a contributing factor to individual music
preference. This would include not just the effect of what the music peer

groups listen to when they are together, but also the fear that a student

61

might have of being honest about music preferences that might be in
contrast with the “appropriate” peer group answer.

The space issue was of special concern in one class in which 89
students were involved in the testing process. This problem was taken care
of through the use of the school cafeteria. This area provided an ideal area
for testing, as it is right next to the bandroom. This provided easy access
and little confiision among the test subjects. There was also plenty of space
for the students to spread out, and it was easy to observe the testing
activities from the slightly raised stage floor in the front of the room.

There was a concern over the availability of an adequate sound
system to use in the cafeteria. This was easily managed through the use of
the choir’s portable stereo system. All sixth grade testing and testing in
other buildings was easily conducted in the band rehearsal room. Prior to
testing, it was also necessary to check the calendar for the entire school
building for the planned testing dates to ensure that there were no activities
scheduled in the cafeteria. Likewise, all school events that would pull
students out of their elective classes were checked to avoid conflicts for
those dates. Testing at the two schools in which the researcher was not the
primary band director required careful calendar consultation, and at the
researcher’s home school it was necessary to obtain a substitute teacher to
teach his classes while he was administering the test in a different location.
The researcher was present for the administration of all testing.

The tests were administered during students’ regular music classes in
order to avoid scheduling problems caused by testing outside of the regular
class period, such as schedule conflicts with other class activities or
conflicts with the other building staff members whose students were

involved. This enabled the attendance of test participants to be more

62

consistent because of the lack of these intervening factors. Testing during
regular class time encouraged more students to participate in the study. It
also helped avoid a potential volunteer bias in which only certain types of
students would be interested in participating, thereby skewing the results in
one direction or another. The percentage of available students who
volunteered for this study showed a broad cross-section of students from
which a representative student sample was obtained. All subjects used in the
final statistical analysis completed all components of the testing.

The entire test was piloted with a class of sixth grade band students.
This class’ results were not used in the final statistical analysis. Sixth grade
students were used for two reasons; (a) to ensure the test was not too
advanced for the youngest of the test subjects (it was assumed that the
appropriateness of the test for older students would be confirmed by the
previously mentioned judges); and (b) the number of available sixth grade
students was well above that of the remaining grades. The pilot test of both
the TPLT as well as the Tempo Subtest of the MAP went smoothly and
there were no revisions needed in the TPLT tape.

The TPLT and Tempo subtest of the MAP were administered to all
test subjects in the month of January, 1998. Because of scheduling
concerns, both the Tempo subtest and the TPLT were administered during
one class session. While this was not optimal in maintaining student focus
throughout a rather grueling process, the subjects handled the situation very
well. As previously mentioned, research recommends that music preference
testing take no more than 30 minutes. In this case it was believed that the
diversity of format and response requirements of the two tests would help to
maintain student focus. The inability to schedule three test sessions within

the testing period, that forced the decision to administer two tests in one

63

class period was known about early enough to allow all testing, including
the pilot test, to be done in this manner to maintain consistency. Had a
problem occurred during the piloting process, alternatives would have been
implemented. It was assumed that if any group of students would have had
a problem with maintaining focus during this process it would be the
youngest group. Test duration was such that there was a brief pause
between tests, during which students could relax before resuming the testing
process. The researcher determined that the Tempo subtest was much more
mentally taxing than the TPLT, it was also decided that the TPLT would be
a welcome relief from the deep concentration required on the tempo subtest.
Based on these determinations, the Tempo subtest of the MAP was
administered first in all cases.

Throughout the age groups, students demonstrated a dislike for the
subtest of the MAP. Through informal discussion with the subjects
following testing, it was discerned that this was due primarily to a dislike of
the sound and the unvaried nature of the performance medium (a string
instrument) used for the test examples, as well as the nature of the examples
themselves. This could be possibly a result of the lack of exposure of these
students to the sound of an orchestral instrument, as the school system used
in this study does not have an orchestra program. As was mentioned earlier,
this was one reason for the exclusive use of wind band excerpts in the
TPLT. During the pilot testing of the tempo subtest it was noticed that there
was laughter when the two excerpts to be compared were obviously
different to most of the class. Despite instruction to students to cease this
action, some level of it still existed and it existed throughout the testing of
the other classes. It was the researcher’s concern that the students might

realize that the laughter meant the excerpts were different and this might

64

jeopardize the reliability of the subtest. An informal review of the results of
the MAP subtest immediately following the testing session, as well as the
subsequent reliabililty statistics, did not validate this concern.

There were no immediate concerns that came up during the test
sessions of the TPLT. While there were comments from several students
after the testing that they wished they had recognized the music they were
listening to or that they really did not like that type of music, these attitudes
were not evident during the testing. The type of drawings made on the
pictorial scale, however, did denote the level of preference. While
administering the TPLT to the highest ability-grouped band at the high
school, the researcher observed some students who were very interested in
showing off their drawings, but this was not a major disruption. From a
visual scan of the test sheets when addressing this situation, it was not
affecting the individual results of the students who were sharing drawings.

It was noted that while taking the TPLT, a large number of test
subjects were engaged in some form of movement that was showing tempo
consciousness. Examples of such actions include foot or pencil tapping or
even a slight nod of the head. It was also noticed that many of the test
subjects ignored the instruction to wait to mark their answer sheets until the
excerpt was finished playing as they listened to the later examples. Of
course with a four second interval between questions there would not be
enough time to be creative with the faces if they waited until the end of each
selection.

The retest was given during the second week following the original
testing date. The test to retest time interval ranged fi'om a minimum of 8
days to a maximum of 12 days. The differences in the length of time

between test administrations was a result of accommodating the schedules

65

at each of the three schools. All testing was completed by mid-February,
1998. As was stated earlier, the exact dates were determined following a
detailed look at the school calendar.

With the exception of the practice examples, which were deleted, the
re-test contained the same material that was used in the first test (see
Appendix K). There were, however, slight changes made in several areas in
order to maintain student interest through the post test. LeBlanc (1979)
found that students became less attentive to the test when they realized that
it was the same test they had taken before. Based on some of his
suggestions the listening test and student response form were altered. On
the listening tape, the musical examples were re-arranged to create some
variety. In order to maintain the integrity of the criterion measure, care was
taken not to alter the combinations of musical excerpts that make up of the
groups of three examples. Instead, the order of these groups as well as the
order of the three excerpts within the group was altered. This kept the songs
that were directly compared with each other together, just possibly in a
different order. To create variety on the student response form, as well as
help organize the results, the color of the form was'changed. The content
and format of the form were the same. The entire retest of the TPLT,
including taped introductory comments was completed in 15 minutes and 5
seconds.

The Tempo Subtest of MAP was scored by adding up the number of
correct answers. Following the compilation of student subtest scores, the
scores were divided into high, medium and low aptitude groups for
purposes of analyzing the data produced by the tempo preference listening
test. These groups were determined by analyzing the students’ scores. The

groups were not created to be equal sizes, as the distribution of tempo

66

subtest scores was not evenly distributed. Instead natural breaks as well as
percentage of correct responses were examined. A score of thirty-six (90%)
or more correct responses, out of forty, was classified as indicating high
tempo aptitude, a score between 35 (88%) and 31 (78%) was placed in a
medium tempo aptitude group, and scores 30 and lower were placed in the
low aptitude group. This equates to 42.7% of the people taking the test
being placed in the high aptitude group, 37.6% of those tested into the
medium aptitude group and the remaining 19.7% in the low range. This
breakdown of scores was used because it roughly follows what would be
considered high, medium and low academic achievement in a school setting
which served as a logical base on which to separate the scores. More
information regarding the test scores can be found in the next chapter.
Gordon (1971) reports that there is evidence to support the idea that
music aptitude, much like intellect, is normally distributed among the
population. It is also believed that everyone has at least some musical
aptitude (p. 5). Gordon, however, also notes that participants in school
music programs score higher on MAP than non- participants (p. 30). This is
a possible explanation for the lack of even distribution of the Tempo subtest
results in this study. It is also the belief of the author of this study that the
lack of even distribution amongst the band students studied, as well as the
increase of the Tempo subtest scores with age could be related to the idea
that students who continue involvement in musical organizations over the
years are often the ones who have the most aptitude to support their
participation and achievement. Students who try an instrumental music
activity without having the aptitude to support their effort may become
easily frustrated and not continue. In the results of this study, Tempo

subtest scores improved as the students grew older.

67

Scoring of the TPLT response sheet was done through the use of
numeric values given to each of the five levels of liking, with 1 representing
the lowest level of preference and 5 representing the highest level of
preference. The scores from the nine fast test examples were grouped
together and called the fast preference total, and the same was done with the
nine slow examples. Likewise, both tempo preference totals were combined

to create a total preference score.

68

Chapter Four: Results

The method described in chapter three produces a great amount of
data which will be analyzed and discussed in the following chapters.

Mean tempos as reported by the adult, professional, judges as well as
fast and slow categorizations by both professional and student judges were
also shown in table 3. Interjudge reliability statistics on the results of the
judges’ review are not necessary as each excerpt had to meet approval by

each of the judges or the excerpt was eliminated from the final TPLT tape

Subjectflemographics

Test subjects were drawn from a small city area school district in
Southeastern Michigan. The city itself served as a “bedroom” commuter
community, most commonly for workers in the city of Detroit, the western
suburbs of Detroit, and the city of Ann Arbor. There was also a moderate
sized section of the population who were long term residents of the city.
This group consisted mainly of older residents and their families who
remained in the area. This portion of the population was generally blue
collar and worked at some of the local shops or industries. This area was
generally perceived to have a relatively high Socio Economic Status (SES),
which was especially noticeable when studying property values as well as
the cost of new housing. As mentioned earlier, the long time residents were
of a more blue collar middle class SES. Mainly on the basis of a historical
precedence of racial intolerance in the county in which this city lies, the city
has remained a relatively ethnically homogeneous white community.

The school district itself was a rapidly growing system serving over
6,700 students (K-12). The district consisted of a school for Kindergarten,
five elementary schools (grades 1-5), two middle schools (grades 6-8), and

69

one high school of 2,200 students (grades 9-12). The school system has had
a very good reputation for the quality and scope of its educational
opportunities and programs. It has ranked consistently high in state wide
standardized tests.

All students involved in this study were enrolled in a band class at the
time of testing. The band program in this school system also has long had a
reputation of excellence in its area as well as across the state and region.
The band program is large, serving over 900 students in three buildings.
Thirty to forty percent of middle school students in the district participated
in band activities, with over 10% of the high school having been involved in
band activities. There were three full time band instructors in this school
district. Band instruction begins in the 6th grade (which is the youngest
grade used in this study) and classes meet every day as a part of the
student’s regular schedule.

Four hundred eighty-one students returned informed consent forms.
Of this number, 41 were used as pilot test subjects and therefore were not
used in the final computation of results. This left 440 test subjects who
participated in the first portion of the testing process. Of these remaining
subjects, 422 students successfully completed the three sections of the test:
the tempo subtest from the MAP, the TPLT, and the TPLT re-test. Only 18
students failed to attend or properly complete all three sections of the test.
The most common student mistakes were failure to rank preference
responses, as well as seemingly inverting the rankings by ranking highly
rated excerpts lower than excerpts that were given a lower preference score
through the Likert-type scale.

The final number of tests accepted represented 96% of the original

test sample. Afier consideration was given to the demographics of the tests

70

that were not accepted, it was determined that the remaining tests provided a
sufficient sample in each age group to allow for accurate assessment of the
results. Please note that while some of the older age groups contain smaller
numbers of students, this shortage was due to the natural retention rate of
the band program studied and not a result of the incomplete tests that were
eliminated. The final test sample by age as presented in chapter three is
restated below, in Table 4, along with the percentages of each age in the

overall sample.

 

 

 

Table 4
Agalimnhenandiercentageflestfiubjects
Age n Percentage of Sample
r 11 61 14.5
12 99 23.5
13 78 18.5
14 58 13.7
15 63 14.9
16 29 6.90
17 30 7.10
18 4 0.90
Total 422 100

 

 

 

The average age of respondents was 13.45 years old with a standard

deviation of 1.83. Table 5 shows the distribution of test subjects by grade.

71

 

Table 5

 

 

 

WWW
“WMJG—racdefl M T.— ‘T hm W— n F Percentage of Sample
OT—g ”BETTE-" 7 ,2 #_____9,5______ ___-______- 22.5

7 87 20.6

8 85 20.1

9 62 14.7

10 44 10.4

11 25 5.9

12 24 5.7

 

 

 

The mean grade was 8.10 with a standard deviation of 1.76.

The number of subjects in the upper age and grade levels was
considerably smaller than those of the younger ages and grades. The
disparity in test subjects by age and grade was fairly consistent with the
natural attrition rate of the band program used. It was also caused by the
way in which students were scheduled in band. In this program there were
not enough year long concert band classes to accommodate each of the
more than 250 students who enrolled for some type of band class. Many
students only participated in marching band, a nine week class at the
beginning of the school year. The extremely small 18 year old group was a
result of the natural age of high school students. Generally, high school
students will reach the age of 18 in the second half of their senior year. The
testing process for this study was completed at the end of the first semester
and the beginning of the second semester of the school year and was

therefore before most, but not all, 12th grade students reached their

72

eighteenth birthday. One must keep these numbers in mind when studying
items such as means. The low number of subjects, especially in the 18 year
old category, could definitely effect the consistency of the analysis of
results from this group.

Table 6 shows the age of test subjects by gender. While an even
distribution between genders would have been desired, that was not realistic
considering the gender imbalance that exists in most band programs. The
gender imbalance was consistent with the gender ratios of the band program

used in this study.

 

 

Table 6
Demographicibegeandficndcr
Age Male Percentage Female Percentage Total
1 1 21 34.4 40 65.5 61
12 34 34.3 65 65.7 99
13 20 25.6 58 74.4 78
14 30 51.7 28 48.3 58
15 30 47.6 33 ‘ 52.4 63
16 10 34.5 19 65.5 29
17 14 46.7 16 53.3 30
18 4 100 0 0 4
total 163 38.6 259 61.4 422

 

There is a large enough sample of each gender to allow for the study
of trends appearing in each gender. Obviously the exception to this is the

18 year old test group, which consisted entirely of male subjects.

73

. | I l E S l .

Two questions were asked of subjects at the end of the TPLT’s first
administration. These questions, while not part of the present study’s
research variables, were intended to provide a better understanding of the
experience level of the test subjects. The first question was: “Have you
ever been a member of a band or orchestra outside of school?” “Bands and
orchestras outside of school” were described to the students as honors bands
or orchestras, community bands or orchestras, local church bands or
orchestras, or summer music camps. It should be noted that there was a
community band and an orchestra in the county in which the students live,
which accepted a certain level of high school musicians. Likewise there
was a county high school honors band that was fi'equently made up of a
majority of students from this school district. The school’s close proximity
to three major universities, the high school director’s affiliation with a
fourth and the close proximity to the Detroit metropolitan area all provided
several opportunities for high school students to perform outside of school.
Of the test subjects, 24.9 % stated that they had been a part of an outside
ensemble. If one looked only at subjects aged 15 and above (that would
generally represent tenth grade and above), 51.6% of those participants had
been a part of an outside ensemble.

The second question asked for the number of years students had been
playing a music instrument. This question included piano, band and
orchestra instruments, but did not include the recorder or any of the other
instruments that students are required to be exposed to as a part of their
elementary general music program. The responses for this question ranged
from 1 to 14 years with a mean experience level of 4.59 years and a

standard deviation of 2.62.

74

While these statistics did not directly affect the purposes of this
study, this information is important because it provided a better view of the
demographics of this test group. We know that the students came from a
strong band program in a mid- to upper-middle-class SES area. There were
many enrichment activities available to the students and there were many
who availed themselves of these activities. All these factors have possible
implications on the aptitude and achievement of these students. As
discussed earlier in this paper, especially in Chapter One, past studies have
shown that increased experience and participation in music activities may
have an effect on one’s music aptitude scores as well as one’s preference for
“classical” music. Gordon (1971) found that participants in a school music
ensemble scored higher on MAP, although non participation in a school
music program did not limit a student’s ability to attain a high score on
MAP. These findings were found during MAP’s norms process (p. 30). Of
course this could be explained by the premise that the students with higher
music aptitude are the ones that remain in a music program while their
classmates with less aptitude may find band more fi'ustrating and elect to
discontinue participation. This is a potential area for further research to

build upon the results of the current study.

I B 1.1.].

The test-retest procedure was accomplished using Pearson
product—moment correlations on each of the preference totals for fast and
slow tempos. This comparison of the first and second testings determined
the reliability of the TPLT over time. Except for the computation of
reliability, only the scores from the original test were used in this analysis.

This was recommended by LeBlanc (1979), who believed that the first

75

response was a truer, more natural preference measure than was the second
one (p. 261). The internal reliability of the researcher-created Tempo
Preference Listening Test (TPLT) was determined through the use of
coefficient alpha. Prior to computing the coefficient alpha values, the
musical excerpts from the TPLT were divided into two groups of 9 excerpts.
One group of excerpts contained all excerpts with a slow tempo (slower
than 100 bpm), while the other group contained the excerpts that had a fast
tempo designation (faster that 100 bpm). Reliability was computed for each
grouping of excerpts. The coefficient alpha value for the fast excerpts on
the first and second administration of the TPLT was .81 and .83
respectively. The same process yielded slow excerpt coefficients of .84
during both administrations of the test. Test-retest reliability for the TPLT
was acceptable with a correlation coefficient of .73 for the entire test.

The reliability of the Gordon Tempo Subtest was computed using
Cronbach’s a. The overall reliability of the tempo subtest of the MAP for
the Osborn study was reported at .71. Once again remember only the
Tempo subtest of MAP was used for this study; this reliability figure is
representative of only the subtest’s use in this study and not indicative of
the entire MAP when given in its entirety.

In Tables 7 and 8 the reliability, mean score, and standard deviation, ,
of the tempo subtest of the MAP by grade are shown as reported in Gordon
(1995) and Osborn (1998). These reliability coefficients were computed
using the split halves procedure as adjusted by the Spearman—Brown
Prophesy Formula to be consistent with the procedure used by Gordon in
the MAP’s norms process. Likewise, grade rather than age was used for

this analysis, once again in order to be consistent with the groupings used

76

by Gordon in his norms process. The subject distribution by grade was

shown previously in Table 5.

 

Table 7

1111.11 .111‘ ° .11 v.1 1 1.1‘ 1 1‘ ‘1111 1‘
1 1'u '.1'1- 1 °. '111-11 1111 '° .1101111

£1228)

 

Sample Size Reliability Sample Size Reliability
Grade (Gordon) (Gordon) (Osborn) (Osborn)

 

6 1681 0.77 95 0.57
7 1543 0.81 87 0.75
8 1494 0.82 85 0.71
9 1312 0.83 62 0.84
10 1223 0.84 44 0.84
11 1077 0.85 25 0.70
12 1083 0.84 24 0.83
total 9413 422

 

77

 

Table 8

.1111... 1 U‘-..1 1 ‘ 1.. 911-. 1 D‘ O... 1 11' 1 .1‘ ‘1111

_1‘ 1 1‘U.. ;1.1‘ 1 ‘1 ‘11q‘11 1111 .11

 

 

stcmil928)
Mean Score Standard Mean Score Standard
Grade (Gordon) Deviation (Osborn) Deviation
_.——6'”— "WEST” A i I “606*” "“3‘3175—fl— 5.76 _
7 30.7 6.07 33.4 4.17
8 31.6 5.86 34.4 4.17
9 32.2 6.12 33.3 4.69
10 32.8 5.36 36.0 3.54
11 33.4 5.43 35.1 3.81
12 33.8 5.2 37.0 2.61

 

In most cases the reliability between the two test groups is close
enough to be consistent from Gordon’s test norms sample to Osbom’s
administration of the subtest. Considerably lower reliability was found in
two grade levels from the Osborn test administration, grades 8 and 11. The
difference that occurs in the eleventh grade could be the result of several
things. As you will recall from table 5 the eleventh grade test group was
small (n=25, 5.9% of total test population), and this lack of subjects could
have affected the reliability somewhat. It is also noteworthy that the
observations of these students’ band teachers over their time as a part of the
program is that this group of students in general did not achieve, as
musicians at as high a level, as had the remainder of the test population. A
possible reason for the discrepancy at the eighth grade level is that it was

one of two grades in which the test was administered to some of the

78

students by someone who did not have a student-teacher relationship with
them. In these cases some of the test subjects were drawn from the second
middle school in the school district. In all other cases the researcher had, or
had previously had an instructor relationship with the test subjects.
However, as stated earlier, the test was administered by the researcher
during each test session.

This difference in reliability coefficients was evaluated by comparing
the means, standard deviations, and reliability of subjects in those grades by
school. These numbers were found to be similar between the two schools.
The eighth grade students at the researcher’s school had a mean score of
34.94 with a standard deviation of 3.99. Eighth grade subjects from the
second middle school attained a mean score of 33.74 with a standard
deviation of 4.35. Coefficient alpha reliability for the Gordon tempo subtest
was also similar between the two schools. Reliability for subjects from the
researchers school was reported at .624, and reliability for subjects at the
other middle school was reported at .645. It was concluded that the
difference between Gordon’s and Osbom’s reliability findings could be

accounted for by the large difference in size of the groups tested.

B l E l I E E I . . I
Table 9 documents the average preference scores for the TPLT. The
scores for the excerpts are based on the ratings subjects marked on a five
point Likert-type scale. The most positive anchor was worth five points in
the scoring with the least positive anchor being worth one point. Therefore,

the higher the mean score, the higher the overall preference for that excerpt.

79

 

Table 9

 

 

1111-11 U‘u “‘1‘ 1‘ 1 1‘ I' 1 . ‘11 a1.11‘11
crdcnoflncreasinghcferenceSccrc
Standard
Test question Mean Deviation Tempo Classification
4 2.76 1.09 66 slow
17 2.77 1.19 74 slow
13 2.82 1.12 58 slow
5 2.93 1.11 81 slow
2 2.94 1.05 144 fast
15 3.14 1.19 68 slow
9 3.17 1.23 75 slow
7 3.34 1.15 62 slow
11 3.39 1.15 72 slow
3 3.40 1.06 88 slow
18 3.44 1.20 164 fast
1 3 .51 1.08 130 fast
8 3.53 1.08 125 fast
14 3 .60 1.15 120 fast
12 3.84 1.10 162 fast
6 3.85 1.04 112 fast
10 3 .90 1.08 130 fast
16 4.08 1.32 132 fast

 

80

As shown above, overall preference was shown for faster excerpts.
Only one of the musical examples classified as having a fast tempo was
preferred less than any of the slow tempo selections. Looking back at the
excerpts, this particular one was a long excerpt that took a long time to
develop melodically. This may have caused the students to lose interest
before the melody took hold. In future studies it would be wise to either
edit the excerpt down in length or avoid it completely. The mean
preference score for the style of music utilized in this study was 3.36 (out of
a possible 5), with a standard deviation of .64.

For purposes of organizing the statistical analysis the excerpts were
divided into two groups: fast and slow. The fast tempo preference mean
score was 3.63 with a standard deviation of .70, while slow excerpts
attained a mean preference score of 3.08 with a standard deviation of .77.

Tables 10 and 11 show the mean preference and standard deviation
by age for fast excerpts and slow excerpts respectively. Figure 1 charts

these same preferences.

81

 

Table 10

U

 

 

 

 

 

 

Standard
Age 11 Mean Preference Deviation
ll 61 3.49 0.84
12 99 3.63 0.74
13 78 3.69 0.70
14 58 3.60 0.68
15 63 3.74 0.57
16 29 3.48 0.56
17 30 3.79 0.57
18 4 3.61 0.61
Table 11
U-..'---. ~... .1...1-".... .13‘ 1 1, ‘1111 11

Age Preference Mean Standard Deviation

Tl 2.84 0.85

12 2.91 0.82

13 3.09 0.77

14 3.03 0.68

15 3.19 0.66

16 3.42 0.47

17 3.58 0.65

18 3.56 0.79

 

82

 

Figure 1

 

 

4-
7‘ T I 7/# 3‘ :if‘rf: /"'::§
3. F - . *"' ' I
m 1
O .
5
as 2*
“1'1 .
a .
1‘
agI—é—‘T‘r‘ TE __. 13 i 17.1“" 15 T6 17 18

age
~5- fast preference + slow preference

 

A casual look at the mean preference scores by age as shown in these tables
and in Figure 1, shows a visible gain in mean as students grow older;
however age 16 is an exception to this for fast tempo, and age 14 and 18 are
minor exceptions for slow tempo. The increase in means as one grows older
is considerably larger for slow tempo preference than it is for fast tempo.
This result shows that fast tempo preference does not go down as a result of
the gain in acceptance for slow tempos; instead fast and slow tempo
preferences are merely moving closer together. This result will be looked at
statistically later in this chapter.

Tables 12 and 13 show the mean score of fast and slow excerpts by
age and gender. Figure 2, further illustrates the relationship between age,

gender, and preference found in this study.

83

 

Table 12
PreferencefonTPLlEastExcemtsthgeandficnder

 

 

Standard Standard
Age Male Mean Deviation Female Mean Deviation
11 3.57 0.79 3.44 0.87
12 3.50 0.77 3.69 0.72
13 3.83 0.75 3.64 0.69
14 3.57 0.72 3.62 0.64
15 3.54 0.54 3.92 0.55
16 3.37 0.65 3.54 0.51
17 3.59 0.57 3.97 0.52
18 3.61 0.61 0.00 0.00

 

 

Table 13
PreferencefoLIPIlSlmExcerptsbegcandflcnder

 

 

Standard Standard
Age Male Mean Deviation Female Mean Deviation
1 1 7.63 0.7 2 2.94 0.90
12 2.86 0.80 2.93 0.83
13 2.92 0.84 3.14 0.74
14 2.88 0.71 3.20 0.62
15 2.90 0.58 3.45 0.62
16 3.44 0.27 3.41 0.56
17 3.47 0.74 3.67 0.57
18 3 .56 0.79 0.00 0.00

 

84

 

Figure 2

 

 

 

4 ' /Q \ //’O
'1. _ .. ’3 " 4 A ‘—— a / : “\N ‘ «nab/*"TJ/DI/fif!
g. ~ _,_,,:.H.~—_._iv~— 451,—- / 1‘
,-+———E— 9/ j //“/ I”
30- —— — 1_ _ .-..,. A - —.—— #——— -I
s w
8
'— 2
19 .
g ,
1.
o;___-_ 2.- - .-,__.__.____ii__i_-_ .9“ a»-
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Age (years)
-- male fast + male slow

9 female fast + female slow

 

The overall mean for fast preference was 3.67 for females, with a
standard deviation of .687, and 3.57 for males with a standard deviation of
.691. Likewise, the mean by gender for slow preference was 3.16 for
females with a standard deviation of .772, and 2.95 for males with a
standard deviation of .742. This result shows that in general, females had
higher preference for the style of music used in this study regardless of age
and tempo. However, the preference difference between male and female
listeners was even greater with the slow excerpts, with females having the

higher preference.

85

RankedExccrpLResults

As a means of avoiding a bias against the general style of excerpts
being used in preference testing for this study, students were asked to rank
each group of three excerpts according to how much they liked one excerpt
compared to another. In doing this, students had to at least say they like
something better than something else, even if they disliked all three
examples. Casual observation of the individual response sheets for the
TPLT disclosed some examples of a general bias on the facial responses.
These were answer sheets on which every or almost every response was the
same (usually at the lowest preference level). This use of two ranking
systems helped to provide more information fiom which to draw
conclusions concerning overall preferences regardless of a student’s general
musical style bias. Table 14 shows the mean score and standard deviation
of the ranked responses. For the purpose of maintaining consistency
between the facial response means and the ranked response means, rankings
were coded in a way as to maintain a five point scale. An excerpt receiving
the highest ranking was given a score of five, the middle ranking received a

score of three and the lowest ranking received a scOre of one.

86

 

Table 14

 

 

1111.11 U‘-1 11.1.1' ‘1 ‘ 11.11‘1'1011- 1 1 ‘.'1-
PreferenceScore
Standard
Excerpt Mean Deviation Tempo Grouping
17 1.99 7.39 slow
4 2.32 1.40 slow
2 2.34 1.55 fast
11 2.44 1.61 slow
5 2.45 1.39 slow
13 2.45 1.44 slow
9 2.68 1.62 slow
15 2.82 1.58 slow
18 2.87 1.39 fast
7 3.02 1.59 slow
3 3.19 1.56 slow
12 3.23 1.54 fast
8 3.29 1.64 fast
10 3.33 1.60 fast
1 3.46 1.59 fast
14 3.73 1.61 fast
16 4.14 1.36 fast
6 4.26 1.32 fast

 

N912: Ranked responses were coded in such a way as to give five points to
the excerpt with the highest stated preference, three points for the excerpt
ranked in the middle, and one point for the lowest ranked excerpt.

87

Results from the ranked responses demonstrated similar results to the
Likert-type facial responses. In both assessments, faster excerpts received
overall higher mean responses. The order by mean of the facial responses
was not completely consistent with the order by mean of the ranked
responses. They were similar enough, however, to uncover trends regarding
the preference for these excerpts. These trends confirm that the test subjects
had a higher preference for the faster tempo selections.

It is not easy to utilize the means of the ranked responses in the same
ways the means of the facial responses were used. Unlike the facial
responses, which allowed students the freedom to like or dislike each
excerpt at the same level (there could be tie scores), ranked responses
required subjects to choose one excerpt over another (no ties were allowed).
This means students who gave the highest preference score to two or three
excerpts using the facial responses had to mark an excerpt they liked as a
lesser favorite. The points per ranking were such that one could have
preferred an example at the highest level of facial response which was worth
five points, but when one placed that same example in a ranked position it
could result in no more than a three point value. This circumstance would
definitely lower an excerpt’s overall mean and ranking among other
excerpts, showing what appears to be a lack of preference. It was also
possible that excerpts that had lower positions when ranked, as opposed to
when rated on the faces, may have suffered from being in a particularly
strongly preferred group of three excerpts. Also, an excerpt that had less
than convincing ratings on the faces could have been elevated in rankings
because the other two excerpts in its grouping were preferred even less. For
all of these reasons it is impractical to directly compare the means of the

facial responses with the means of the ranked responses.

88

Because of the fact that no high incidence of general negative bias
(consistent negative rankings on all or most excerpts) was evident in the
facial responses, the ranked responses are presented to reinforce the facial
responses, which showed a preference for faster tempos. If a general
consensus had not been found between the two styles of rating (rated
response [facial], or ranked response) a closer interpretation of internal

ranked results might have been necessary.

ResultsoflthclemmSubtesr
Table 15 shows the subject scores on the tempo subtest of MAP. The

scores on MAP were relatively high and not evenly distributed as shown in
that table: Because the nature of the participants in the current study was
not as diverse as a national random sample, the aptitude scores in this study
were not as evenly distributed as one might expect. The raw aptitude scores
for tempo perception were concentrated in the higher score range.

Table 16 shows the mean score and standard deviation by grade for
the Tempo Subtest of the Music Aptitude Profile, as reported from Osbom’s
(1998) testing. Mean scores for participants in the current study rose over
the course of the grades included in this study with the exception of a slight
mean decrease in grades 9 and 11 from the past grade’s mean score.
Standard deviation also decreased across the grades with the same
exceptions noted in the mean scores.

The norms for the MAP were developed by Gordon through the use
of test results of 12,805 students. Among those students were 4,744
“musically select” students whose norm scores were reported separately. It
was the norms from the musically select students that were used to compare

to the mean scores from the current study. This was done to attempt to

89

equalize the fact that unlike the general MAP norms, who were selected
regardless of musical training, the participants of the current study all had
been involved in a musical activity for some period of time. Remember, the
test population for this study was limited to students enrolled in
instrumental music classes and contained a good percentage of subjects who
had extensive musical experience and training.

A comparison of the means of these musically select students and the
students involved in the present study, is shown in Table 17. This
comparison showed the means to be between the norms testing and the
present study to be close, with the current test subjects scoring slightly
higher in each age category.

When looking at any difference in mean test scores one should also
consider that there is a 34 year difference between the time that Gordon
established the norms for the MAP and the administration of the tempo
subtest by Osborn. It would be difficult to assess what type of effect the
lengthy gap of time between testings by Gordon and Osborn had on the

overall differences in mean scores.

90

 

Table 15

O O C . . . . .. . .
.11 1111.. 1 1.1.11 11 11.11

 

 

thelcmmfiublcstflfiheMAB
Raw Score Frequency Percent of Population
12 l 0.2
13 1 0.2
17 1 0.2
18 2 0.5
20 2 0.5
21 3 0.7
22 2 0.5
23 6 1.4
24 6 1.4
25 3 0.7
26 7 1.7
27 6 1.4
28 11 2.6
29 17 4.0
30 15 3.6
31 19 4.5
32 26 6.2
33 31 7.3
34 35 8.3
35 48 11.4
36 42 10.0
37 32 7.6
38 44 10.4
39 45 10.7
40 17 4.0

 

91

 

Table 16

 

 

1111.11 .111: " um. 1- .11 .11.1|-".1.1 1.
Wing

Standard
Grade 11 (Osborn) Mean (Osborn) Deviation

6 95 31.5 5.76

7 87 33.4 4.17

8 85 34.4 4.17

9 62 33.3 4.69

10 44 36.0 3.54

11 25 35.1 3.81

12 24 37.0 2.61

 

92

 

Table 17

1111.. 1 .111‘ " U‘..1 1 ‘ .11 .11.. 1 D‘ '111 1.1‘

11 1 1 u,. “ ~1“ 1111 " .11 ‘ _1‘

 

 

LQSthJQESJ
11 Mean Standard 11 Mean Standard
Grade (Gordon) (Gordon) Deviation (Osborn) (Osborn) Deviation
4-6 T490 29.8 5.87 95 3T5 5.76

7-9 1414 33.1 4.80 234 34.0 4.32

10-12 1840 35.1 4.33 93 36.0 3.43

 

Note. Gordon grouped subjects from grades 4-6 together to achieve the
mean reported above. The Osborn test mean in that age category only
includes students from grade 6 as that was the youngest age group involved

in the Osborn testing.

Correlations

Using the Pearson Product Moment procedure, correlation coefficients
were computed to test the effect of each variable on individual preferences.
The level of significance was set at alpha = .05 for this study.

Effecmfage

When studying the effect of age on fast tempo preferences the
correlation coefficient between age and preference is .065 (p=.182). This
shows that while there may be a slight increase of fast tempo preference as
age increases, this finding is not significant.

The effect of age on slow tempo preferences is considerably more

positive. This study found a highly significant effect of age on slow tempos.

93

The correlation coefficient between listener age and slow tempo preference
was .266 (p=.000).

The correlation between age and the MAP tempo subtest score was
.292 (p=.000). This result shows that increasing age has a significant and
positive effect on tempo perception scores when measured by the Tempo
subtest of the MAP.

Effectnfltcmpnapfitudc

The correlation between tempo aptitude and slow tempo preference
yielded a significant (p= .000) result with a coefficient of .181. This result
indicates a relationship between increased preference for slow music and
increased tempo aptitude. Likewise, the effect of higher tempo aptitude on
fast tempo preferences was significant (p=.004) correlation with a coefficient
of .139. This result shows that there is a slight positive preference for fast
music among individuals with higher tempo aptitude.

Eflcctnfgcndcr

Gender’s effect on fast tempo preferences was shown to be non
significant (p=.161). The correlation coefficient in this area was .068.
Gender, however, was shown to have a significant effect (p=.008) on
preferences for slow music. The correlation coefficient (.129) showed that
females had a slightly higher, but significant preference for slower music
than did males.

This statistical analysis yielded some important results. All of these
results and their implications for education as well as for future research will

be discussed further in chapter five.

94

Chapter Five: Conclusion
The results as stated in Chapter Four provide some very interesting
areas to study. Some of these results further confirm previous research as
mentioned in Chapter Two; others branch off into new research areas and
new ideas. This chapter will highlight these latter areas and discuss the
possibilities for future research, as well as present implications for music

education.

11' . [1; E' 1'

Through the use of the TPLT students demonstrated an overall
preference for faster tempos. This was shown in the result that of the nine
fast excerpts on the TPLT; eight of these received higher mean preference
scores than any of the nine slow excerpts. Upon further thought it was
noticed that the lone fast example to be preferred less than several slow
examples was perhaps borderline in passing the qualification check for
inclusion in the TPLT test tape. Its tempo may have been ambiguous, the
melody a little slow to develop, and the whole piece a bit more esoteric than
students of these ages are accustomed to.

The ranked responses on the TPLT also demonstrated a higher
preference for the fast excerpt within each of the groups of three excerpts
that were compared to each other. Of all the ranked excerpt means only two
fast excerpts even had a mean score lower than that of the slow excerpts;
one of those was the excerpt mentioned in the previous chapter. The other
happened to be in a grouping that contained one of the most preferred
excerpts overall, and it was therefore handicapped by that circumstance.

The result in this study that shows that secondary school age students

prefer faster tempos is certainly no surprise. This belief is heavily

95

supported through the literature as discussed in previous chapters. The
more interesting results came from looking at how age, tempo aptitude, and
gender affect the tempo preferences of secondary school students.

Examining the mean preference score and standard deviation by age
in the results of the TPLT shows clearly a general increase in preference as
students become older. While preference for both the fast and slow excerpts
from the TPLT rose consistently in all but one age (age 14), the difference
was greater in preference for slow tempos. This demonstrates that in this
study, subjects already preferred fast excerpts, but their preference for slow
music increased at a greater rate than their preference of fast music as they
grew older. Standard deviations also decreased with an increase of age.
The gap between preference for the slow and fast excerpts on the TPLT
decreased from 0.65 at age 11 to a difference of 0.05 at age 18 (on a scale of
1 to 5). This actually shows that while students still preferred fast music,
their tolerance or acceptance of slower music increased as they grew older.
The finding that age was a factor in preference supports previous research
as discussed earlier in chapter 2.

The effect of gender and age on preferences also showed some
interesting results. As with age and tempo preference, mean preference
scores for both fast and slow tempos in both genders increased as the
students grew older. The most interesting results to come fi‘om the analysis
of gender, age, and tempo preferences came from a closer look at how each
gender’s tempo preferences interacted with each other. Looking at slow
preference, females displayed a higher mean preference for the slower
excerpts than did males. Females retained higher mean preferences though
age 17, which was the oldest age group tested that contained female

subjects. The female mean preference score for slow tempos increased at a

96

gradual rate throughout the age groups tested. Male slow tempo preference
means rose in subjects over the years as well, however this growth was not
as gradual as it was with females. The growth in preference for males was
gradual up through age 15 (by which point they had still not reached the
preference mean of the 11 year old females). Between age 15 and 16 there
was a sudden increase in preference from 2.90 to 3.44 (which is actually
slightly higher than the female mean, but for only that age). From age 16
through age 18 the mean preference increased gradually as did the female
mean reported earlier. This discrepancy between how the different genders
related to slow tempos at different ages seems to be similar in many ways to
the differences in maturation stages of adolescents in this age group: girls
tend to begin the maturation process earlier than boys. This same
maturation difference could be part of the cause of the sudden jump in
tolerance of slow musical examples such as those presented on the TPLT.

The effect of age and gender on fast tempo preferences was also
noteworthy. In this instance males exhibited a higher preference than
females for the fast excerpts of the TPLT at age 11. The difference between
genders was much closer in this case than it was with the slow excerpts.
Overall the males maintained a stable mean; it did not increase or decrease
significantly other than 2 one year spikes at age 13 and age 16.

Perhaps the most interesting result uncovered through this analysis is
that while females exhibit a lower preference for fast excerpts at age 11
their preference for faster excerpts increased at a higher rate and by age 17
females had a higher mean preference score for faster music than did males
by a difference of 0.38.

In summary, the finding that females exhibit a higher preference for

slow tempos throughout all age groups and develop a higher preference for

97

faster music with age than males, supports the idea that females may be
more tolerant of various styles of music than males. These are fascinating
results; however, this area of research has not been studied extensively and
more study is needed before one can conclusively agree that gender has an
effect on music preferences. This study is however a step in that direction.
Correlation studies also show that there is some increase in
preference for slow tempos for individuals with higher tempo aptitude and a
slight increase in preference for fast tempos among those with higher tempo

aptitude.

I l' . E F. B 1

There are many areas in which future research could be done. It is
obvious from the literature base that gender differences in music preference
is an area that has received little attention and needs additional emphasis
before conclusions can be created. Additional research into the role
aptitude and age play, together or separately, in preference decisions is also
an important area to study firrther so as to improve our educational abilities.
If this study’s findings are to have a future impact on music education more
research must be done if merely to establish clear ideas regarding age,
aptitude, and gender differences that affect our liking of various styles of
music.

This study looked at students exclusively from a successful band
program. How would these results differ based on the utilization of a vocal
music group? Or how would things be different if a totally
non-musically-trained or random sample of trained and untrained students
were used? Would these results change if tested longitudinally? Could

differences in preferences by gender be linked to differences in maturation

98

in males and females at various stages of development? The ideas are

almost endless.

11"E11'E1'

If, as Gordon (1971) mentions the testing of and research into music
aptitude is to help teachers diagnose students’ specific strengths and
weakness (p.47), and if our focus as music educators is to provide our
students with worthwhile experiences in music to help them to become life
long consumers of music, we must put effort into helping teachers to
understand the complexity of aptitude and preference decisions so as to
allow teachers to structure learning opportunities to the level of their
students. It is through this approach to make the study of music a
stimulating and tolerable experience at the individual level that we enable
our students to better enjoy their musical experiences and learn further in
the area of music.

As with any area of improving education, this improvement in
musical understanding and education is accomplished through continued
research into areas such as the affect of age, aptitude, and gender and
application of this learning into the curriculums of our school. After all,
current issues in music classrooms such as ability-level grouping versus
grade-level grouping in instrumental music classes, mixed-or-single gender
vocal music ensembles, or the importance of a good elementary and general
music program in every school system are all real issues facing music
educators now. Research in the aforementioned areas continues to give
educators the ability to defend and support their professional beliefs aside

from the obvious goal of doing what is best for those we are educating.

99

APPENDICES

100

APPENDIX A

University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects Approval

101

MICHIGAN STATE

U TV I \/ E 11 S l 1' Y

December 2, 1997

 

TO: Albert Le Blanc'
149 MuSic Building

RE: IRE“: 97-782
TITLE: EFFECTS OF AGE AND APTITUDE ON THE MUSIC TEMPO
PREFERENCES OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS
REVISION REQUESTED: N/A
CATEGORY: l-B
APPROVAL DATE: 11/19/97

The University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects'lUCRIHS)
review of this project is complete.. I am pleased to adVise that the
rights and welfare of the human subjects appear to be adequately
rotected and methods to obtain informed consent are appropriate.
rgeiefore, the UCRIHS approved this proaect and any reViSions listed
a ove.

RENEWAL: UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year. beginning with
the approval date shown above. Investigators planning to
continue a project beyond one year must use the green renewal
form (enclosed with t e original agproval letter or when a.
project is renewed) to seek u date certification. There is a
maximum of four such expedite renewals ossible. Investigators
wishing to continue a project beyond tha time need to submit it
again or complete review.

REVISIONS: UCRIHS must review any changes in procedures involving human
subjects, rior to initiation of t e change. If this is done at
the time o renewal, please use the green renewal form. To
reVise an approved protocol at any other time during the year,
send your written request to the_ CRIHS Chair, requesting reVised
approval and referencing the progect's IRB # and title. Include
in your request a description of the_change and any revised
ins ruments, consent forms or advertisements that are applicable.

PROBLEMS]

CHANGES: Should either of the followin arise during the course of the
work, investigators must noti UCRIHS promptly: (1) roblems
(unexpected side effects,'comp aints, e c.).involving uman
subjects or 12)_changes in the research enVironment or new
information indicating greater risk to the human sub'ects than
eXisted when the protocol was previously reviewed an approved.

If we can be of any future help, please do not hesitate to contact us
at (517)355-2180 or FAX (51714 2-“‘71.

Sincerely,

:David E. Wright, Ph .

\_UCRIHS Chair
DEW:bed

cc: Michael Osborn

102

APPENDIX B

Informed Consent Letter

103

December 4, 1997

Dear Brighton Band Parent,

This letter is to ask your permission for your son or daughter to participate in a research study.
The purpose of the research study is to research the musical characteristics that influence the music
preferences of students of various ages and musical aptitudes. For this study I will administer to each child
the tempo subtest of the Gordon Music Aptitude Profile, a standardized music aptitude test. Each student
will also take a listening test during which he or she will listen to several musical examples and, using the
response sheet provided, rate their liking of the various musical excerpts. Testing procedures will take
place during your child’s regularly scheduled band class. Total class time used will be three class sessions
over the course of two weeks. This study is administered at no cost to the participants.

Steps have been taken to protect the confidentiality of each test participant in order to safeguard
their rights. This study has been explained to school authorities, and it is through their approval that I am
seeking your permission. I hope you will allow your son or daughter to participate in this study. You can
indicate your approval by signing and returning the consent form below. If you have any questions or
concerns regarding this study please contact me at (810) 229-1455.

Sincerely,
Michael K. Osborn, Director

Maltby Middle School Bands
229- 1455

 

(Please detach and return this portion to your band director if you consent)

I have read the above explanation and hereby consent to my child’s participation in your
music/tempo preference study. I understand that my child is free to withdraw from this study at any time
without penalty. I understand that my child will remain anonymous throughout this study, this his or her
verbal assent will be obtained as a condition of this study, and that his or her responses will remain
confidential. Within these restrictions, I understand that when the study is completed the overall results of
it will be made available to me upon my written request.

Signed: Date:
(parent or legal guardian)

 

 

Child’s Name:

 

Teacher’s Name:

 

104

APPENDIX C

Music Aptitude Profile Answer Sheet Page One
(Used with permission from GIA Publications Inc)

105

 

 

TEST T — TONAL IMAGERY

 

 

MUSICAL APTITU DE
PROFILE

9 ‘ GIA Publications, Inc.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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01.80qu Muir-reamed.

106

Your scores on the MUSICAL APTITUDE-
PROFILE will provide inlormotion that
will help you and your teacher.

This is a listening test. Musical selections
are on a recording. Your answers will be

marked on this answer sheer.

Wait quietly for directions.

APPENDIX D

Tempo Preference Listening Test Response Sheet

107

TPLT

 

 

Student 1]): School:
Grade: Age:
Class name: Gender (circle one): male female

 

 

Example Questions:

Please draw the nose or mark in some fashion the face that best represents your liking of
that musical example. You may use the same answer more than once.

eoeoe
eoeoe
eeeoe

In the spaces below please rank each excerpt, by letter, in order of your preference

Most Preferred Least Preferred

108

 

Test Questions:

ooeoe
ooooe
©©e®e

Most Preferred Least Preferred

109

ooooe
ooooe
ooooe

 

eeeoe
eeeoe
eeeoe

Most Preferred Least Preferred

111

cocoa
ooeoe
©©ooe

Preferred

 

 

©O O.

14.
15.
Most Preferred Least Preferred

 

113

16.
e e
V
17.
e e
V
18.
e e
"v”

Most Preferred Least Preferred

 

Please respond to the following questions regarding yourself.

Have you ever been a member of a band or orchestra outside of school? Yes No

How many years have you played a musical instrument? years

114

APPENDIX E

Discography of Excerpts Used in the Tempo Preference Listening Test

115

Music Excerpt Reference List

, (traditional). T’was in the moon at Wintertime.
Arranged by Smith R. (1995). On ScumLChQicsLlflflit Vol. 9 [compact
disc]. Valley Forge, PA: J .W. Pepper & Sons, Inc. (1995).

 

Bamhouse, CL. (1921). Harmony Heaven. Arranged by Paynter, J.
(1991). As performed by the Washington Winds, Edward Peterson,

conductor. On fiQldangLQfithmh [compact disc]. Oskaloosa, IA:
Walking Frog Records. (1994).

Bennett, R. R. (1957). Symphonic Songs for Band: Mvt. 2, Spiritual.
As performed by the Eastman Wind Ensemble, Frederick F ennell

conductor (1959). On BrmmmdAmcncanBandfilassms [compact disc].
London: Mercury Records. (1990).

Berlioz, H. (1830). Symphony Fantastique: March to the Scaffold.
Arranged by Story, M. (1996). On MusiLIQLCQntandjnilazz
EnscmhlsLlQQfi: disc 1 [compact disc], Edward Peterson, conductor.
Miami: Warner Bros. Publications. (1996).

Bullock, J. (1996). Chorale Variations. On WSW
andlazzfinscmblszlflfifiz disc 1 [compact disc], Edward Peterson,

conductor. Miami: Warner Bros. Publications. (1996).

Erickson, F. (1955). Fantasy for Band. As performed by the
Virginia Wind Symphony, Dennis J. Ziesler, conductor. On Frank

Erickmfianiclassics [compact disc]. Oceanside, CA: Oceana
Recordings. (1995).

Erickson, F. (195 8) Chorale for Band. As performed by the
Virginia Wind Symphony, Dennis J. Ziesler, conductor. On Enank

Erickscnzfiandclassics [compact disc]. Oceanside, CA: Oceana
Recordings. (1995).

116

Erickson, F. (1964). Rhythm of the Winds. As performed by the
Virginia Wind Symphony, Dennis J. Ziesler, conductor. On Erank
EricstnLBandfilassics [compact disc]. Oceanside, CA: Oceana
Recordings. (1995).

Giannini, V. (1959). Symphony No. 3, Mvt. 1: Allegro energico. As
performed by the Dallas Wind Symphony, Frederick Fennell, conductor.
On Iritticc [compact disc]. San Francisco: Reference Recordings. (1993).

Grainger, P. (1919). Children’s March: Over the hills and far away.
As performed by the Michigan State University Symphonic Band, Keith
Brion, conductor, Kenneth Bloomquist, director. On Imheonczm

Gramgerlsgreatsymphonicbandmusic [compact disc]. Hollywood, CA:
Delos International. (1990).

Nelhybel, V. (1964). Trittico, Mvt. 3: Allegro marcato. As
performed by the Dallas Wind Symphony, Frederick Fennell, conductor.
On Irinicc [compact disc]. San Francisco: Reference Recordings. (1993).

Reed, H. O. (1949). La Fiesta Mexicana, Mvt. 2: Mass. As
performed by the Dallas Wind Symphony, Howard Dunn, conductor. On
Eicsial. [compact disc]. San Francisco: Reference Recordings. (1991).

Reed, H. O. (1949). La Fiesta Mexicana, Mvt. 3: Carnival. As
performed by the Dallas Wind Symphony, Howard Dunn, conductor. On
EicataL [compact disc]. San Francisco: Reference Recordings. (1991).

Respighi, O. (1929). Roman Festivals, Mvt. 4: The epiphany.
Arranged by Odom, L. As performed by the United States Air Force Band,
Lieutenant Colonel Lowell E. Grahm, commander, conductor. On Roman
Trilogy [compact disc]. Washington DC: United States Air Force.
(1997)

117

Sousa, J .P. (1909). Glory of the Yankee Navy. As performed by the
University of Illinois Symphonic Band, Harry Begian, conductor. On In
0: ‘1 Al 1‘ t. ‘ ' s 'u' true: 31:0 H. U-. 1‘ t
1‘ 1 o ' -._ .9: aw ° 9. 9:9 one '11: ‘ 11.. t‘ [compact
disc]. From the series The Begian Years, Vol. IV. Clarence, NY: Mark
Custom Recording. (1993).

Sullivan, A. as compiled by Mackerras, C. (1951). Pineapple Poll
Suite, Mvt. 1: Opening Number. Arranged by Duthoit, W.J. (1952). As
performed by the Eastman Wind Ensemble, Frederick Fennell, conductor

(1959). On BalleLfQLBandleagnct [compact disc]. London: Mercury
Records. ( 1992).

Sullivan, A. as compiled by Mackerras, C. (1951). Pineapple Poll
Suite, Mvt. 4: Finale. Arranged by Duthoit, W.J. (1952). As performed by
the Eastman Wind Ensemble, Frederick Fennell, conductor (1959). On

BalchfQLBandzflagncr [compact disc]. London: Mercury Records. (1992).

Walton, W. (1937). Crown Imperial: A coronation march. As
performed by the Eastman Wind Ensemble, Frederick Fennell, conductor
(1959). On BritishjndAmcricanBandfllassics [compact disc]. London:
Mercury Records. (1990).

118

APPENDIX F

TPLT Musical Excerpts Professional Qualification Checklist

119

TPLT MUSICAL EXCERPTS
Professional Qualification Checklist

XES Nfl Qualificatinn
l. Purely instrumental music (no vocal music)
2. Concert band recording

3. Duple Meter

4. Absence of Microbeats and Macrobeats
4. Traditional Sounding
5. Unfamiliar to students

6. Performance of acceptable quality

7. Recording of acceptable quality

 

Tempo: _ bpm Source Tape& Selection #

XES HQ Qualificafinn

_ __ 1. Purely instrumental music (no vocal music)
__ __ 2. Concert band recording

_ _ 3. Duple Meter

__ _ 4. Absence of Microbeats and Macrobeats
_ _ 4. Traditional Sounding

_ __ 5. Unfamiliar to students

__ _ 6. Performance of acceptable quality
__ _ 7. Recording of acceptable quality
Tempo: __ bpm Source Tape & Selection#

 

120

APPENDIX G

TPLT Musical Excerpts Student Qualification Checklist

121

TPLT MUSICAL EXCERPTS
Student Qualification Checklist

4.
5.

Source Tape & Selection #

Q l'fi |°
Purely instrumental music (no vocal music)
Band recording

Traditional Sounding

Unfamiliar to you

Performance / recording of acceptable quality

 

 

4.
5.

Source Tape 8: Selection #

Q Hi I'
Purely instrumental music (no vocal music)
Band recording

Traditional Sounding

Unfamiliar to you

Performance / recording of acceptable quality

 

 

Q Hi I'
l. Purely instrumental music (no vocal music)
2. Band recording

3. Traditional Sounding

4. Unfamiliar to you

5. Performance / recording of acceptable quality
Source Tape & Selection #

 

122

APPENDIX H

TPLT Recorded Instructions and Spoken Text

123

Text for Listening Test

Hello. Thank you for agreeing to participate in this project today. When I
have finished reading the instructions you will begin taking a listening test
which will be used to investigate music preferences amongst you and your
peers. There are no right or wrong answers for this test. Instead the
response you provide on the answer sheet should represent your level of

liking of the musical selctions presented.

You will listen to 18 musical examples. Following each example you will
mark, on your answer sheet, how much you like or dislike a musical
example by marking the appropriate face. The smiling face on the left side
of your answer sheet represents the most positive preference to that excerpt.
Likewise the frowning face to right represents the most negative preference
to the musical example. Do not mark your sheet until the musical example
is finished playing. You will be given a few seconds after each example
during which you may chose your answer. You may use the same level of
response more than once but mark only one face per question. Following
each group of three excerpts you will be asked to rank each of the three
examples in order of your preference. Please remember there are no right

or wrong answers for this test.

Before we begin let’s try some sample questions; please find the practice
examples on your answer sheet. Now listen to the musical example and
when the music stops mark on the face that descibes your liking of that
piece of music. I will do example A for you then we can do the last two

together. Here is practice example A.

124

(music plays and stops)

Now please look at the screen.

As you can see, I really liked the first example so I drew a nose on the face
Farthest to the left. Now let’s try the next two examples together.

Here is practice example B

Now please mark the appropriate face

You may have noticed that our answers to this example might not be the
same. That is alright. Remember there are no right or wrong answers to
this test.

Here is practice example C. Mark your paper when the music stops.
Now please mark the appropriate face.

Please use the spaces below example C to rank the examples according to
your preference. Place the letter of the excerpt on the appropriate line.
There can not be any ties, each excerpt must be used.

Your answers might look like mine.

Are there any questions before we begin?

125

If there are questions during the test please raise your hand and the

instructor will come to you. Do not leave your seats during the test.
This is example 1.

This is example 2.

This is example 3.

Please rank your preferences now.
This is example 4.

This is example 5.

This is example 6.

Please rank your preferences now.
This is example 7.

This is example 8.

This is example 9.

Please rank your preferences now.
This is example 10

This is example 11.

This is example 12.

Please rank your preferences now.

126

This is example 13.
This is example 14.

This is example15.

Please rank your preferences now.

This is example 16.
This is example 17.

This is example 18.

Please rank your preferences now.

Please take a few moments to answer the following questions regarding
yourself. When you are finished remain silent while others are finishing
their comments. Your teacher will collect your test when everyone is
finished. Thank you once again for your participation in this project. If you
have any questions reagarding this test, please ask the instructor after the

tests have been collected.

127

APPENDIX I

TPLT Retest Recorded Instructions and Spoken Text

128

Text for the Retest of the Listening Test

The following is a listening test much like the one you participated in a

short time ago. To prepare for this test, please look at your response sheet.

Once again you will listen to 18 musical examples. Following each
example you will mark on your answer sheet how much you like or dislike a
musical example by marking the appropriate face. The smiling face on the
left side of your answer sheet represents the most positive preference to that
excerpt. Likewise, the frowning face to the right represents the most
negative preference to the musical example. Do not mark your sheet until
the musical example is finished playing. You will be given a few seconds
after each example during which you may chose your answer. Remember
you may use the same level of response more than once, but mark only one
face per question. Following each group of three excepts you will be asked
to rank each of the three examples in order of your preference. Please rank
each excerpt without using any ties. Please remember that the purpose of
this study is to hear your opinions and preferences regarding these musical

examples, therefore there are no right or wrong answers for this test.
Are there any questions before we begin?

If there are questions during the test please raise your hand and the

instructor will come to you. Do not leave your seats during the test.

129

This is example 1
This is example 2

This is example 3

Please rank your preferences now

This is example 4
This is example 5

This is example 6

Please rank your preferences now

This is example 7
This is example 8

This is example 9

Please rank your preferences now
This is example 10
This is example 11

This is example 12

Please rank your preferences now
This is example 13
This is example 14

This is example 15

130

Please rank your preferences now

This is example 16
This is example 17

This is example 18

Please rank your preferences now

Thank you once again for your participation in this project. If you have any
questions regarding this test please ask the instructor after the tests have
been collected. Once the analysis of the results is completed, you will be
able to see you results from each sections of the testing process. You will

be notified at a later time as to how to receive these results.

131

APPENDIX J

TPLT Examples on Overhead Transparency

132

TPLT

 

 

Student ID: School:
Grade: Age:
Class name: Gender (circle one): male female

 

 

Example Questions:

Please draw the nose or mark in some fashion the face that best represents your liking of
that musical example. You may use the same answer more than once.

0
v

c.
ee
V

In the spaces below please rank each excerpt, by letter, in order of your preference

A.

 

  

V

  

Most Preferred B A 0 Least Preferred

 

 

133

APPENDIX K

TPLT II, (retest)

134

TPLT Il

 

 

Student ID: School:
Grade: Age:
Class name: Gender (circle one): male female

 

 

Please draw the nose or mark in some fashion the face that best represents your liking of
that musical example. You may use the same answer more than once.

 

Test Questions:

1.
0 O
V
2.
O O O 0 O O
V V —
3.
O O
V
Most Preferred Least Preferred

 

 

 

135

 

Test Questions:

oooee
e©®ee
eooee

Most Preferred Least Preferred

136

eoooe
eoooe
eoooe

Most Preferred Least Preferred

137

eooee
eooee
eooee

Most Preferred Least Preferred

 

138

eoeoe
eoeoe
eoeoe

Most Preferred Least Preferred

 

139

eoeoe
eoeoe
eoeee

Most Preferred Least Preferred

140

1: © Q 9.

l7.
0 0
V
18.
0 O
V
Most Preferred Least Preferred

 

141

REFERENCES

142

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