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31293 01780 67

I LIBRARY
Michigan State
University

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

SUPERVISION IN THE MUSIC THERAPY INTERNSHIP:
AN EXAMINATION OF MANAGEMENT STYLES
AND A SURVEY MEASURING INTERN PERCEPTION
OF MENTORSHIP IN SUPERVISION

presented by

THOMAS FRED CAWOOD

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

MASTER degree in MUSIC

 

 

 

/Major professor \

0-7639 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution

—-—-————v- -.

 

SUPERVISION IN THE MUSIC THERAPY INTERNSHIP:
AN EXAMINATION OF MANAGEMENT STYLES AND A SURVEY MEASURING
INTERN PERCEPTION OF MENTORSHIP IN SUPERVISION
By

Thomas Fred Cawood

A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree Of
MASTER OF MUSIC
Department Of Music Therapy

1 999

ABSTRACT
SUPERVISION IN THE MUSIC THERAPY lNTERNSHleAN EXAMINATION OF
MANAGEMENT STYLES AND A SURVEY MEASURING INTERN PERCEPTION
OF MENTORSHIP IN SUPERVISION
By
Thomas Fred Cawood
A survey of music therapy interns and their supervisors measured a baseline Of
mentoring during the internship and compared it to a number Of factors relating
to the internship. All AMTA sites and former AAMT schools were surveyed and
responded with an estimated 45% return. No significant differences were found
between the following factors: former national association, region, client
population, number Of interns accepted simultaneously, and site funding. A
significant inverse relationship was found (p<0.05 in 7 out of 29 questions)
between mentoring levels and the total number Of interns trained at the site. A
similar inverse relationship was noted with the supervisor’s age, years Of music
therapy experience, years of supervisory experience, and number of supervisory
training sessions attended. A null hypothesis Of no statistical difference was
accepted with regard to gender, marital status, and ethnicity. However, the data
show very little ethnic (84% Caucasian) or gender (90% female) differences in
the field of subjects. A positive correlation between the number Of hours of
clinical supervision was shown with each of counseling, providing a challenge in
work assignments, and a specific aspect Of coaching. A negative correlation

was shown with role modeling and a different aspect of coaching.

A

 

Copyright by
THOMAS FRED CAWOOD

1 999

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

For all Of the assistance editing this thesis, the author would like to
respectfully acknowledge his thesis committee of Roger Smeltekop, Frederick
Tims, and Theodore Johnson. Thank you to my dear friends Elaine Tell and
Donna Chambers for all of their help, and to John Truty for the JMP statistical
program assistance. Special thanks go to the author’s wife, Alice, and our
children, Johan, Amber, and Sandy, both for all of their support and the times
together we lost over the past six years. Loving thanks to my mother and father,
who encouraged and helped me to continue my education. A special thanks is
extended to Roger Smeltekop, the first music therapist whom I met 25 years
ago, who took the time to share the wonder of music therapy with me and has

mentored me through this thesis.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

LIST OF TABLES vii
LIST OF FIGURES viii
ACRONYMS x
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
Introductory Remarks 1
Background 5
Problem 6
Purpose of the Study 9
Assumptions 12
Limitations 14
Terminology & Definitions 15
CHAPTER 2 - RELATED LITERATURE
Music Therapy Internships
Establishment of Music Therapy Profession .................................. 18
Concurrent Establishment of Music Therapy lntemship ................ 21
Registration and the Internship 25
Development of a Managerial Style
History of Supervision and Management Theories ...................... .31
Coaching Roles 36
Phases Of the Supervisory/Mentor Relationship ............................ 38
Management Styles in Music Therapy 42
Clinical lntemship Factors
Size of MT Internship .45
Difference of Former National Association 46
Client Population 47
Clients Age 48
Funding Of Site 49
Characteristics of Clinical Supervisor & Intern
Overview of Factors 50
Years of Experience 50
Educational Level of Supervisor 51
Gender Role Relationship 52
Cultural/Ethnic Identity 57
White Non-Hispanic-Americans 59
African-Americans 61
Hispanic-Mexican Americans 62
Asian-Pacific Islanders 63
Middle-Eastern Culture 65
Gender Minority Differences 65
Conclusions Regarding Ethnicity in Music Therapy ............ 67

CHAPTER 3 - METHODOLOGY

 

 

 

 

Research Design 70
Hypotheses 71
SI this”: 72
Survey 72
Procedure 74

 

CHAPTER 4 - RESULTS

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Response to Survey 77
Statistical Calculations for Analysis 78
Noe’s Adapted Questionnaire 79
Demographic/Ethnological Factors 86
Regional Differences 87
Association Approval 90
Total Number of Interns Trained at Site 93
Benefits and Funding 95
Evaluation Period 95
Supervisor & Intern Factors Of Mentorship 96
Ethnographic Data 96
Gender Composition 98
Age Factors 100
Years Of Experience of Supervisors 102
Education Level of Supervisors 104
Number Of Training Session attended by Supervisors ................ 106
Clinical and Social Hours Spent with Interns ............................... 107
Mentorship Level as Judged by Intern 110
Music Therapy Model of Supervision 111
CHAPTER 5 - DISCUSSION
Observations 1 15
Recommendations 1 17
REFERENCES
Literature Cited 118
Additional Bibliography 1 17
Appendix A - Cover Letter to Music Therapy Clinical Directors
& University Clinical Sites 124
Appendix B - Supervisor and Intern Directions 126
Appendix C - Clinical Internship Survey Of Mentorship .......................... 128
Appendix D - Code Sheet for Raw Data Clinical Internship
Survey of Mentorship 131
Appendix E - Raw Data Scores from Lotus 123 137
Appendix F - Lotus 123 Basic Statistical Calculations ........................... 151

vi

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Mean Scores Of Characteristics in Noe’s Survey
and Average Mean Score

75

 

Table 2 Regional Factors & Mentoring Levels (Scale of 1-5) .........................

Table 3 Statistically Significant Factors Compared to
Total Number of Interns at Site

Table 4 Statistically Relevant Factors Compared to Supervisor Age .............
Table 5 Decades of Supervisog Experiences

Table 6 Educational Level and Mentorina

Table 7 Number of Supervisom Training Sessions

 

Table 8 Hours of Clinical Supervision and Perceived Mentoring Level ..........
Table 9 Supervisor Resembles Teacher

..83

88

..94

98

100

100
104

 

Table 10 Supervisor Resembles Teacher Role

 

vii

104

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Vertical bar graph Of Noe’s basic categories of factors;
MTI mean = 4.23, Psychosocial Factors = 4.29, Career Help = 4.23, and
Friendship = 3.61 73

Figure 2. Vertical line graph showing characteristics of survey questions.
Average means contrasted to characteristics as identified in Noe’s survey ....... 74

Figure 3. Vertical bar graph. MTI average means to
Noe’s Survey Questions of perceived mentoring 79

Figure 4. Pie chart of regional statistics demonstrating percentages
of responses from regions regarding factors of number Of responses received.81

Figure 5. Vertical line graph of AMTA, NAMT, and AAMT former associations
comparing mean responses to Noe’s survey 85

Figure 6. Dual Vertical Bar Graph (perceived & preferred supervision of
the interns) depicting sum totals Of teacher, counselor, and consultant as
defined in Memory, Unkefer, & SmeltekOp model of music therapy supervision.86

Figure 7. Vertical line graph depicting four groups having varying levels of
total number of interns trained at the site compared to perceived
levels Of mentoring 87

Figure 8. Vertical line graph of linear regression comparing the total number
of Interns at a clinical internship site compared to perceived mentoring by

 

The MTI 88
Figure 9. Dual pie chart comparing MT and MTI ethnicity nationally ................. 91

Figure 10. Triple pie charts representing gender composition in the interns
and supervisors responding to the survey and the national average .................. 92

Figure 11. Vertical line graph representing perceived mentoring
means compared to gender dyad differences in answers to survey questions...93

Figure 12. Vertical line graph contrasting the level Of mentoring compared to
decade Of supervisors age 94

Figure 13. Vertical line graph contrasting division of years of experience
compared to interns level of perceived mentoring 95

viii

Figure 14. Visually contrasts years of experience with means of
Role Model 2 having an F value Of 8.64, probability of F or T < .0042,
and a standard deviation of .0111 95

Figure 15. Area and Tukey-Kramer circular graphs comparing educational
level with perceived mentoring by the intern about the factor, Acceptance and
Confirmation 1 Encouraged me to try new ways of behaving in my internship...95

Figure 16. Area and Tukey-Kramer circular graphs of comparing education
level with perceived mentoring by the intern about the factor, Counseling 1
Demonstrated good listening skills in our conversations 97

Figure 17. Vertical line graph plotting the number of supervisory sessions
and perceived levels Of mentoring by the MTls 98

Figure 18. Linear Regression chart of Acceptance and Confirmation 1 and
perceived mentorship levels showing a positive correlation with the number
of hours in clinical supervision 99

Figure 19. Linear regression chart of Coaching 6 and perceived mentorship
levels showing a positive correlation with the number of hours of MT social
time 101

Figure 20. Linear regression chart of Coaching 6 and perceived mentorship
levels showing an inverse or negative correlation with the number of hours of
Music therapy social times 102

Figure 21. Pie chart distribution of Preferred Management style based upon
a percentage of the interns’ division of five points 102

Figure 22. Pie chart distribution of Management style perceived based upon
a percentage Of the interns’ division Of five points 106

ACRONYMS

AAMT - American Association for Music Therapy
AMTA - American Music Therapy Association
CBMT - Certification Board for Music Therapists
CMT - Certified Music Therapist (AAMT)

GNVQ - General National Vocational Qualification (Britain)
MENC - Music Educators National Conference
MT-BC - Music Therapist - Board Certified (CBMT)
MTNA - Music Teachers National Association
NAMT - National Association for Music Therapy
NASM - National Association of Schools Of Music
NMC - National Music Council

RMT — Registered Music Therapist (NAMT)

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
lntroductogr Remarks

Nineteen years of experience as a music therapy internship director have
spurred this author's interest in closely examining the relationship between the
intern and the clinical supervisor, as well as the curiosity to research and
determine the present level of mentoring occurring in internships today. Many
changes in the music therapy clinical internship procedures have occurred since
the author Obtained internship approval in 1980. To establish Genesee
Intermediate School District as an internship site, the National Association for
Music Therapy (NAMT) required only simple letters of support from both music
therapy departments at Michigan State University and Wayne State University.
Today the screening process is closely scrutinized by a large committee and
requires a detailed description of the proposed site. Even greater changes have
occurred with the consolidation Of two differing national organizations into the
American Music Therapy Association (AMTA). Both organizations possessed
internship models that were inherently different.

During the nineteen-fifties, the initial music therapy training model
designed by NAMT was developed to accommodate a student's need to adjust
from the academic setting to the clinical setting (Harbert, 1954, p. 194). The
intern's need for transformation from a student to professional has not changed
in more than forty-five years. At the present time, AMTA utilizes two internship
models; one used by the former NAMT, and the other by the former American
Association for Music Therapy (AAMT). The NAMT model relies upon a

1

volunteer supervisor (a music therapy clinician employed by the clinical site and
removed from the academic institution) to train interns at no cost to NAMT (now
AMTA) or to the university. The AAMT model uses the university professor as
the director Of the internship and volunteer music therapists (if available) in
settings close by to provide the intern's clinical supervision. Currently there are
AAMT internship models existing in conjunction with eight universities. There
are 150 NAMT models of internship sites with music therapy clinicians
supervising, and few new internship approved by AMTA. In all cases, mentoring
and modeling by the supervisor contributes to the professional identity gained by
the intern (NAMT, Education Committee Report, 1953, p. xv).

Although the terminology is infrequently used in music therapy literature,
mentorship is an aspect Of both types Of internship and will most likely be
retained in whatever model or models are agreed upon during the unification
process. The concept of mentoring originated in Greek mythology. Odysseus
(or Ulysses) entrusted the education Of his son, Telemachus, and the
supervision of his household to his friend Mentor before sailing away to the
Trojan War. Mentor tutored Telemachus and coached him to become King.
Since then, the concept Of mentoring has been passed down through the ages in
the form of apprenticeships in trade unions and guilds that developed in the
medieval days. The terminology used in business today is new; however, the
concepts developed with regard to types of supervision and teaching are the
same as those used in the preceding decades. In the nineteen-seventies, the
business community recognized the value of mentorship and popularized the

2

terminology in business literature. Successful businesses have adopted the
framework of mentoring to promote fast-track development of individuals with
promising managerial abilities. Business literature validates the concept of
mentoring as an effective technique in training that results in protégés that "may
be more internally driven. . . than non-proteges." (Fagenson, 1989, p. 316). In
the music therapy profession many new music therapists must carve their own
niches in the medical, educational or rehabilitation fields. These music
therapists need tO be internally motivated to develop innovative programs for
which they may have no models to follow or supervisors sufficiently
knowledgeable to tell them how to best do their work.

As the profession of music therapy grows, a parallel may be made with
the business world. Music therapy clinical intern supervisors need to develop
music therapists who are internally motivated to create new positions in new
areas Of music therapy. Formalization of this style of management has been
instituted by business, but in actuality it is found that informal mentoring has
been more successful (Chou, 1992, pp. 619-636). According to Dembele, . .
mentoring has not been treated as a professional practice. Mentoring has been
conceived Of primarily as a social function, with little attention paid to its
educative aspect" (Dembele, 1995).

This study may encourage the recognition of mentoring in the music
therapy field, as well as the unique supervisor/intern relationship role present
during the internship period. Many music therapists retain memories of teachers
and therapists who helped define and shape their careers and may have kept in

3

contact with them. All may have been mentors to the music therapists, but the
clinical internship supervisor plays a crucial role in the transition from student
into professional. This relationship is what the author wishes to examine within
the course Of this paper and to research the level of mentorship occurring in the

present music therapy internship sites of AMTA .

m

Preparing music therapy interns for their future career has an effect on
the future of our profession in how they will interact with future administrators,
fellow therapists, the public and possibly their own future music therapy interns.
Interpersonal relationships and management styles adopted during their
internships are important components Of training. At the college level, the
teacher/student relationship is clearly defined and understood by both.
However, the intems' status (i.e., student versus professional) is not always
clear or even static during the internship. The range in intern status among the
internships available varies from one Of a more casual volunteer to that of an
hourly wage employee Of the facility. The supervisory relationship during an
internship may change or evolve as the intern gains therapeutic skills and is able
to assume the responsibilities Of a music therapist. Music therapy interns must
learn to function independently within the parameters of their internship sites, yet
they cannot be expected to do so without extensive orientation. Supervisors
have dual functions: providing clinical supervision and teaching musical skills.
The challenge for music therapy clinical internship directors and supervisors are
to continue the educational components Of the college setting, yet
simultaneously develop the music therapy intern's interpersonal relationship

skills to function independently as a professional therapist.

Problem

Training Of the music therapist has historically included an internship,
whether it is one in which the intern leaves the academic world to enter the
workplace (NAMT model) or works in the community under the supervision of an
academic advisor (AAMT model). NAMT initially elected to separate internship
training from the academic setting and give the choice of internship site to the
intern (eg. a student in California could go to New York for his or her lntemship).
Contact between the university and internship site may consist of as little as a
letter about the intern's acceptability (from the university) and mid-term
evaluation and final evaluation of the intern (from the internship site) to the
academic site. On the other hand, former AAMT's internships are in continuous
close contact from freshman to intern into professional. Former AAMT'S
internships are directed by the university's music therapy director and limited to
work sites within reach Of the university's setting. Inherent in both models is the
mentoring role Of the internship supervisor.

According to Foa and Foa (1976), the mentor provides love, status,
information and services. The internship affects both participants through a high
degree of emotional involvement and frequently long-term relationships. In the
nineteen fifties, when music therapy was becoming established, there were just
a few role models for music therapists, and NAMT used these first music
therapists in their training model for internships. At that time, the relationship
was much less structured and more informal. There were little regulation of the
type of management style or required evaluations of interns and internship sites

6

by NAMT. The internship structure subsequently became much more formalized
with uniform criteria and evaluation procedures through the years. Formalization
of the structure to improve the abilities of training personnel at the internship site
was advocated as an improvement in the process. Direct supervision of interns
by the university in the internship setting was a major difference inherent in the
former AAMT's model. Our present singular national association for music
therapy, AMTA, has the challenge Of resolving the differences between the two
models, or allowing the present situation of dual forms of internships to remain.
If the internship model is shown to be a significant factor in mentorship, this
could provide a clue as to which model of internship fosters a closer mentoring
relationship.

Many different factors affect the supervision of the intern. Site differences
may include: length of experience Of the supervisor (both as a music therapist
and supervisor), gender role relationships, number Of therapists and interns at
the site, difference in former affiliation with previous national associations,
educational level or the degree obtained by the supervisor, number of hours
supervised and financial support Of the intern by the host facility. Other
important factors to consider relate to the clients, for example, age, type of client
disability, and acute or chronic treatment. It should be determined what role, if
any, these factors may exert upon the level of mentoring that occurs in
internships. A baseline level of mentoring in relation to each Of the factors
above may indicate significant influences of the various site characteristics. A
null hypothesis is employed in this study to assure Objectivity and presentation of

7

both negative or positive aspects of each factor.

Many other disciplines have faced the same questions about clinical
internships. The American Psychological Association has questioned the value
of clinical internships in psychology, and the training varies greatly according to
the facility. Creative arts therapists (Music, Art, Dance, and Drama) in Europe
are struggling to establish their identity and uniformity in clinical training. In
education, similar management issues exist with regard to student teaching.
Modern business has researched management styles in its search for the most
cost effective supervision. Trends in management have changed from the
autocratic style to a style that empowers the employee. Debate continues in the
business world, and a clear choice of the most effective management style may

remain elusive.

Pumose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to review the literature related to the
supervisory relationship in the music therapy internship and conduct related
research to determine the present level Of mentoring occurring in AMTA music
therapy internships. Music therapy sites were sent a questionnaire to be jointly
completed by the clinical internship director, the music therapy supervisor (if
different), and the intern. This questionnaire contained an assessment tool
based on Noe's Mentoring Functions Scale (Noe, 1988) to measure the
perceived level and characteristics Of mentoring from the point of view of the
protégé. Additional Opportunities for comments were provided in the
questionnaire for the subjects to record their Opinions about the supervisor/intern
relationship. Obtaining first hand information from a projected return of 50% Of
music therapy internship sites documented the present level of mentorship
occurring in AMTA's internship sites. Correlations Of job environment,
supervisor's experience and other factors such as the number Of hours together
per week were also recorded on the survey. Null hypotheses regarding the
relationship between mentorship and the various factors were proposed. An
Anova statistical analysis was used to determine if any Of the multiple factors
correlate to differing levels of mentorship.

This research could become the baseline in future studies measuring
mentorship in music therapy internships. Therefore, caution was observed in
designing the instrument attempting to gather and correlate data from the intern,
internship supervisor and/or internship director about the site. A thorough

9

review Of previous music therapy literature was examined to assist
understanding the factors involved in the evolution Of past practices.
Interpretations Of research and literature in traditional supervisory practices were
also used in reaching any conclusions about data. Many different styles and
personality types may function successfully in the learning of how to be
supervisors and/or mentors. Use of the null hypothesis suggests that
supervisory styles and personality types in music therapy could not be identified
to find the "best" type or style of intern supervision, but could assist the
supervisor in selecting the best intern to suit his/her style and to inform the
prospective intern about the type of management to be expected if the music
therapy student accepts the site for the internship.

NAMT workshops Offered at national conferences promote uniformity of
procedures and conformity of management styles. Anecdotal evidence in
speaking with more experienced members about their individual internships may
attest to the diversity Of internships and styles of directors.

As music therapy develops professionally, one of the areas in need

Of attention is that which concerns the selection or guidance of

students interested in becoming music therapists. . . It must be

observed that these problems are not easily simplified, even for
those of us with experience in clinical practice as well as in
academic and clinical training programs for music therapists. For

one thing, we have seen many different kinds of persons within a

considerable range of personality types succeed as a music

therapist." (Michel, 1957, p. 213).

It is hoped by the author that this study may direct a focus on the quality Of the

supervisor/music therapist relationship rather than a unifying standardization of

the relationship.

A review Of the music therapy literature traces the origins of the music
therapy internship and its development in relation to our profession's growth.
Research about management styles Of internships in music and related
therapies such as creative arts therapy, rehabilitation therapy and psychology
are presented. An examination Of styles may illuminate the different number of
possible roles the supervisor may take in supervising the music therapy intern.
Instead of a simple intuitive response by the supervisor, this knowledge could
bring additional choices into consciousness. The focus of this research is to
create a baseline that measures the mentorship occurring in present music
therapy internships and compare the factors of the internship that may or may

not influence the level mentorship occurring.

11

Assumptions

One assumption in this study is that the questionnaire and instrument Of
measurement based on Noe's survey will accurately gauge the level of
mentorship that is occurring in present AMTA music therapy internship sites.
Many tests for mentorship are part Of staff developmental programs that are sold
to corporations and are copyright protected. Other tests, such as Bell's
instrument (Bell, 1996, p. 37-44), have not been used in scientific research and
have only anecdotal evidence to support their validity. Noe's survey instrument
is the only one the author has found used in scientific business research, and
therefore was selected for use in this study.

A second assumption is that measurement of the mentoring that is
occurring would be best perceived by the music therapy intern. Minard supports
this premise.

Based on our own opinion and that of the National Association, we

were sure that we had designed an adequate program by

traditional standards; however, we felt that only the students could

best judge the meaningfulness Of the training program in terms of

its effect on them. (Minard, 1963, pp. 16-17)

There are three components to perception of mentorship: the first is the
perception by the intern, the second is the perception Of the supervisor, and third
is the reality or third-person perspective on the level of mentorship. If it were
feasible to interview both intern and supervisor and examine each clinical
situation, more accurate assessments Of the level of mentorship might result.
The primary role Of mentorship is the development of the protégé; therefore, the

perceived level as measured by the music therapy interns will be used. A

12

secondary consideration in the selection Of the intern is that Noe's original
survey was designed to survey the protégé.

A third assumption is that there will be a close proportionate equality in
the responses from internship sites. Factors listed in the hypothesis (client
population, age Of site, experience of supervisor, etc.) are assumed to make no

difference in the level Of response to the survey.

13

Limitations

The major limitation Of this study is the lack Of scientific research in this
area, both in the music therapy field and in others. The areas of specialization
in mentorship and in internships combine to create a topic that does not exist in
the research literature. TO gain any knowledge of the music therapy
intern/supervisor role, the only sources are music therapy journals and books. A
major text in music therapy, for both former associations (NAMT & AAMT), is
Perspectives on Music Therapy Education and Training by Maranto and Bruscia
(1987). The fifteenth chapter by Memory, Unkefer and Smeltekop, "Supervision
in Music Therapy: Theoretical Models," is one of the few instances in which this
topic is discussed. For background on music therapy internships, a review of
literature is included. However, little reference to the intern/supervisor
relationship has been found, as Opposed to many references about formalization
and structure Of the internship, evaluations, and education Of the intern.

Another potential limitation inherent in the survey arises from the personal
questions about age and cultural ethnicity. These may Offend director,
supervisor or intern, resulting in less response to the survey than hoped for.
The risks of this effect are being taken, because this information may reflect

factors that could cause a difference in mentoring level at the lntemship site.

14

Mentor A dictionary definition of mentoring harkens back to the mythological

age.

According to this definition, a mentor would not necessarily be powerful (e.g., a
supervisor) but would help an individual learn nonacademic skills that the
individual might have learned less well, with more difficulty or not at all. Older
and more traditional use of the word mentor referred to an older, experienced
sage in an organization that enlightens the protégé about the informal structure

of an organization and helps him or her "learn the ropes." Olian quotes Klaus in

Terminology & Definitions

Mentor was a wise, sensitive and trusted advisor, teacher and coach.

describing this type of mentor

Daresh and Playko supply a definition that is more current and relevant to this

study:

. . . a seasoned senior executive who can offer the wisdom Of years
of experience from which to counsel and guide younger individuals
as they move ahead in their careers. It is a term that has been
used particularly to describe informal, intense personal
relationships where senior persons have had important career
molding influence on younger people in the early phases of their
adult professional careers. (Olian, 1988, p. 16).

. mentoring is an ongoing process wherein individuals in an
organization provide support and guidance to others so that it is
possible for them to become effective contributors tO the goals of
the organization. Unlike many other views of mentoring, we do not
necessarily believe that a mentor must be an Older person who is
ready, willing, and able to provide 'all the answers' to those who
are newcomers. Usually, those who are mentors have a lot of
experience and craft knowledge to share with others. But we don't
hold the notion that good mentoring consists Of a sage being able
to direct the work Of the less experienced to the point that no one
ever makes mistakes . . . being a mentor implies the responsibility

15

not only of sharing, but also of listening and learning . . . we
believe that it must have the potential of helping those who are
mentored (or protégés), those who serve as mentors and also the
[organization] that chooses to start a mentoring program. (Daresh
and Playko, 1993, p. 3).

Parsloe defines mentoring as:

A wise and trusted counselor but with three distinct mentoring roles
in the work context:

-the mainstream mentor; someone who acts as a guide,
advisor and counselor at various stages in someone's career from
induction through formal development to a top management
position;

~the professional qualification mentor; someone required by
a professional association to be appointed to guide a student
through a program of study, leading to a professional qualification;

-the vocational qualification mentor; someone appointed to
guide a candidate through a program Of development and the
accumulation and presentation of evidence to prove competence to
a standard required for a National Vocational Qualification
(Parsloe, 1995).

The second and third roles defined by Parsloe correspond very closely to
the rOle of the supervisors. If the supervisor is also a mentor, very frequently the
music therapist and supervisor retain friendship, correspond with each other,
and fill Parsloe's first mentoring role.

For the purpose of this study, it is assumed those MT intern supervisors
(NAMT) and university professors (AAMT) function in the capacity Of a mentor to
the intern. One of the conflicts in mentoring in a supervisory position is found in
Bell's book about mentoring.

This book is about power-free facilitation of learning. It is about

teaching through consultation and affection rather than constriction

and assessment. It views learning as an expansive, unfolding

process rather than an evaluative, narrowing effort (Bell, 1996, p.
xi).

flcLége - French noun describing someone who is under the patronage, care or
guidance of another, especially for help in his/her career. Another French word
used interchangeably with protege is novice, which refers to a beginner in some
pursuit that demands skills. The use of the words protégé and novice will refer

to the music therapist during his or her internship.

Management Style Common patterns Of everyday responses to business
situations involving a normal day of positive and negative stress and other
stimuli. Influences and life experiences shape the manager's style.

Whatever we are at any given time in our life is Obviously a product

Of all that's gone before: all the influences, all the experiences

we've had, plus whatever tendencies and traits we may have been
born with. (Broadwell, 1984, p. 50).

17

CHAPTER 2 - RELATED LITERATURE
Music Therapy Internships

W

The modern practice of music therapy slowly evolved in the twentieth
century from the work of a few individuals who pioneered the field. At the turn Of
the century, Eva Vescelius published articles and books about music's power;
she also publicized the functional use of music and what would come to be
called music therapy. In 1903 she founded the National Therapeutic Society of
New York City (Boxberger, 1962, p. 140). Margaret Anderton pioneered
teaching music therapy, "Musicotherapy", at Columbia University in 1919 after
working with servicemen in World War I. The National Association for Music in
Hospitals, formed in the twenties by Isa Maud Ilsen (who also worked with
Veterans), emphasized that music had to be appropriate to the needs of the
patient and the needs Of the situation as an adjunct tO medical treatment.
Harriet Seymour published one of the first guides to the therapeutic use Of
Music, What Music Can Do For You, and presented in 1933 a demonstration Of
music therapy at a conference in New York for the World Congress of the
International New Thought Alliance. Through the federal Music Project of the
WPA and her chairmanship of the Hospital Music Committee of the State
Charities Aid Association, Seymour founded the National Foundation for Music
Therapy In 1941. Music therapy was promoted and utilized during WW II with
the military usage of music to raise the morale of wounded soldiers. To assist
the Camp and Hospital Councils of the American Red Cross, the National

18

Federation of Music Clubs provided instruments and volunteers to veteran's
hospitals. After the war, the Federation continued to provide services to not only
veteran's hospitals, but also to state hospitals. Also during WW II, the
Musicians Emergency Fund assisted the armed forces through the
establishment of the Hospitalized Veterans Music Service. The military tested
the results of music therapy through their Institute for Applied Music and in 1952
published their results in the book, Music and your Emotions.

The National Association for Music Therapy had its origins in the Music
Teachers National Association's (MTNA) recognition in 1939 of the Works
Progress Administration (WPA) Music Program with mental patients at Wayne
County General Hospital in Michigan. MTNA appointed Roy Underwood
chairman of the Committee on Music in Therapy in 1947. At this same
conference, held jointly with the National Association for Schools of Music, E.
Thayer Gaston agreed with Underwood that recognition of music therapy was
hampered by unqualified people who misled the public and deterred the medical
community from accepting music therapy as a medical field.

Dr. Samuel Hamilton, superintendent of Essex County Overbrook Hospital
and Dr. William Van de Wall, under the auspices of the National Music Council,
surveyed hospitals about music therapy in 1944 (Gilliland, 1961, p. 173). They
found 192 hospitals out of 209 were testing and using music therapy (Music
Therapy 1955, 1954, p. 241). All Of these organizations agreed that leadership
and trained personnel in music therapy were high priorities. In 1944, Michigan
State College (Michigan State University) introduced a degree program in music

19

therapy. Ray Green, 1947 chairman of the committee on the use of Music in
Hospitals (National Music Council) established the Hospital Music Newsletter,
which was the precursor of the Journal of Music Therapy (The Bulletin of NAMT
filled the interim between the Newsletter and the Journal).

In 1948, the first conference for Hospital Musicians directed by Gaston
was sponsored by the University of Kansas. Out of a group of thirty-nine
registrants, including music therapy interns (Boxberger, 1963, p. 155), the
National Association for Music Therapy began. Underwood, Gilliland and Wade
organized the North Central Conference on Functional Music in 1949. Also in
1949, the Newsletter was published separately from the National Music Council
Bulletin for those interested in the Committee on the Use of Music in Hospitals of
the NMC. On June 2, 1950, (the day after the annual meeting of the NMC), an
organizational meeting met to form the NAMT.

When NAMT was established, it was the only national organization for
music therapy; The Canadian Association for Music Therapy and the American
Association for Music Therapy had not yet been established. Canadian music
therapist, Norma Sharpe, Offers a report on Music Therapy in Hospitals in
Canada in NAMT's yearbook, Music Therapy 1960 (Sharpe, 1961, pp. 163-166).
In the 1960's, 37 hospitals out of 92 surveyed replied that they employed music
therapists. The majority were psychiatric and located in the province of Ontario.
Few music therapists came from degree programs, and most worked within
occupational or recreational therapy. Some ancillary staff, ward staff, one
psychologist, one superintendent, etc, provided the music therapy.

20

 

A training program for music therapy assistants exists in only two
hospitals, in one of which graduate psychiatric nurses are trained
in crafts, recreation, and music, and participate in ward activities.
One hospital employs music students on the Music Therapy staff
during the summer. (Sharpe, 1960, p. 164)
A continuing close association with the Canadian Music Therapy Association
permitted the University Of Windsor to concurrently employ the same professor

(NAMT credentials) from neighboring Wayne State University in Detroit.

Concurrent Establishment of Music Therapy Internships

The first music therapy interns were part Of the birth Of a professional
identity for music therapists, and music therapy became a professional field or
therapy in the medical community. At the time music therapy established itself
as a professional field, there were only a handful of institutions providing
informal training to music students (NAMT, 1956). One of the first music therapy
clinical internship sites mentioned in MT literature, the Agnews State Hospital

Clinical Training Program in California, is found in the Hospital Music

Newsletter, Volume III, number three, published in May of 1951 (Bulletin of

NAMT, Sept. 1952, vol.1, no. 3, p. 11).

Overbrook Hospital (now Essex County Hospital Center) is one of
the hospitals which has remained in the forefront of recognition in
this field. It has reflected the growth of the national movement in
its own support of a rapidly growing music therapy program, and
also initiated one Of the earliest clinical training centers in the
country. (Thompson, 1962, pp. 81-82)

21

 

 

Directors of music therapy internships assisted Underwood, when, as
chairman of the Education Committee, he drafted the core curriculum in music
therapy (Boxberger, 1962, p.168). In the core requirements for a degree,
NAMT’s education committee of 1951 recommended:

A minimum of six months residence internship in an approved
neuro-psychiatric hospital with an established music program [sic].
. . . In addition, students planning to work with mentally retarded or
handicapped children were expected to spend an additional two
months in a appropriate institution. The internship was specified to
be supplemental and in addition to the 128 hours Of on-campus
training (Music Therapy 1952, 1953, p. xvii).

Wilhelmina Harbert describes the "Elements of an Effective Hospital
Music lntemship" in Music Therapy 1953, Third Book of the Proceedings of the
National Association for Music Therapy.

In many of our colleges it is necessary to combine
educational work with hospital orientation during the
undergraduate years. A therapy practicum course in music
and psychology provides approximately 6 hours a week for a
period of a year, and provides Opportunities in campus
clinics and wards in general, orthopedic, and mental
hospitals. . . We are convinced that the actual experience
within a hospital for a music trainee should accomplish the
following things:

1. It should provide adequate time to become a part of the
hospital family or personnel.

2. It should give the student opportunities to take an active
part in hospital functions.

3. It should help the student to learn about all types of
patients for whom music may be indicated or contraindicated.

4. It should foster desirable two-way relationships with
hospital psychiatric aides, personnel, supervisors, nurses, doctors,
social workers, other therapists. etc.

5. It should provide a laboratory to practice techniques
acquired in the classroom.

6. It should Offer classes, lectures, seminars, and an
in-service type of educational program, as well as Observations of
other therapies in action.

22

 

7. It should stimulate the student to record all observations, to keep
accurate running records, and to cooperate in all research projects as far
as possible.

8. It should afford the music trainee a chance to evaluate
himself in terms Of his potential strengths and weaknesses.

9. It should teach the student how tO work under the
direction of a trained music therapist, and how to develop
leadership in all music activities.

10. It should create in the student a desire to find new and
better ways to direct a truly therapeutic music program, which shall
not function in isolation but shall serve the total rehabilitation
program Of the hospital. (Harbert, 1954, p. 195)

The internship program associated with the College of the Pacific,
Stockton State Hospital, provided two Options:

1. A twenty hour per week schedule Of clinical experience
with graduate studies at the College of the Pacific.

2. Six months Of a 40 hour week with the intern provided
room and board. (Harbert, 1954, p. 196)

There were financial benefits to directing a music therapy internship if the
music therapist was working for the Veterans Administration in 1953 (Quinto,
1954, pp. 200-201). Requirements for a recreation leader or supervisor (a.k.a.
music therapist) at the GS-5 level paid $3,410 per year. To qualify for the GS-7
level paying $4,205 per year, the music therapist had to have completed one
year of experience including duties of clinical supervision. NAMT surveyed 800
hospitals listed by the American Hospital Association in 1954.

Twelve hospitals reported formal clinical training for music therapy
students (two VA mental, four state mental, three county mental, one private
mental, one VA tuberculous, and one leprosy). Nine Of these have affiliation
with an institution of higher learning. Thirteen institutions reported informal

training of music students (two VA mental, eight state mental and three state

23

 

mental deficiency). (Music Therapy 1955, 1954, p. 265)

Harbert surveyed MT clinical internships for NAMT's Education
Committee and shared the results in the article, "The Present Status of Clinical
Training in Music Therapy" (Harbert, 1955, p.220-232). "From the letters which I
have received thus far, may I say that apparently we have much variety but little
coherence in our training programs" (Harbert, 1955, p. 220). The ten schools
that responded to the survey were affiliated with hospitals that provided
inservioe opportunities and clinical experience for music therapy interns; five
required a Bachelor of Music Education as a prerequisite to clinical training,
three schools offered a Bachelor of Music Therapy before clinical training, and
two schools stipulated that all work in music therapy should be at a graduate
level. Students from four of the schools were supervised in the internship by the
occupational therapy department, four were under the direct supervision of
music therapists, and two schools failed to report data (Harbert, 1955, p. 224).
Gaston advocated adopting similar requirements as other adjunctive therapies.

. . music therapy should be more cognizant of and better
aquainted with the other therapies and particularly their
educational philosophies. Their educational programs should be
understood more fully, as should their requirements for clinical
training. NAMT is at that stage in development when it is
considering the accreditation of institutions who train music

therapists. It is also considering the registration of its individual
members as music therapists. (Gaston, 1957, p. 222)

24

Registration and the Internship
Music Therapists were to be "grandfathered" into certification (a.k.a.
RMT) by NAMT in 1960 without any clinical training or college degree required.

Persons not holding a college degree but who have been engaged
satisfactorily in music therapy positions on salary for a period of at
least three years previous to December 31, 1960, shall be eligible
for registration. Persons who have a college degree whose major
study was not in music therapy, but who have been engaged
satisfactorily in a music therapy position on salary for a period Of at
least one year previous to December 31, 1960, shall be eligible for
registration. Persons who have completed a degree course in
music therapy from an institution "tentatively approved" or "fully
accredited" by NAMT previous to December 31, 1960, shall be
immediately eligible upon graduation for registration. (Music
Therapy 1957, 1958, p. 254)

In 1956 the certification committee was created and the duties included:
(1) to establish standards and procedures for the
certification of Music Therapists
(2) to institute formal approval of training programs. Actions
of the Committee were subject to the approval of the Executive
Committee (NAMT, 1956).
E. Thayer Gaston, chairman of the certification committee, proposed a
plan for the registration of music therapists to the executive committee in 1957.
Eligibility for registration would be dependent on the completion of a college
degree that included a period of clinical training after 1960 ("Registration of
Music Therapists," Music Therapy 1957, 1958, pp. 241-243).

There were twelve schools and fourteen hospitals (music therapy sites)

recognized by NAMT in 1960:

25

 

Educational Institutions
Alverno College, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
College of the Pacific, Stockton, California
Florida State University, Tallahassee, Tennessee
Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana
Loyola University, New Orleans, Louisiana
Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
Mississippi Southern College, Hattiesburg, Mississippi
New England Conservatory, Boston, Massachusetts
Roosevelt University, Chicago, Illinois
Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Texas
Texas Women's University, Denton, Texas
University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas
Clinical Institutions
Beatty Memorial Hospital, Westville, Indiana
Boston State Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts
Essex County Overbrook Hospital, Cedar Grove, New Jersey
Kalamazoo State Hospital, Kalamazoo Michigan
Logansport State Hospital, Logansport, Indiana
Madison State Hospital, Madison, Indiana
The Menninger Foundation, Topeka, Kansas
Milwaukee County Hospital for Mental Diseases, Milwaukee,
Wisconsin
New Jersey Neuro-psychiatric Institute, Princeton, New Jersey
Osawatomie State Hospital, Osawatomie, Kansas
Topeka State Hospital, Topeka, Kansas
VA Hospital, Downey, Illinois
VA Hospital, Salisbury, North Carolina
VA Hospital, Topeka, Kansas

NAMT is not an approving or accrediting body; NASM is. NAMT
only certifies to NASM that the institution in question has met the
educational and training standards required. (Bulletin IX, Jan.
1960, p. 6)

Formalization and standardization of clinical internship sites were
considered at this early stage.

In the immediate future are formalized plans for the approval of

clinical training programs, and the establishment of standards and

procedures for certification Of music therapists. These are the

responsibilities of the Certification Committee. These are heavy

responsibilities and there are many facets to be investigated and

26

developed. For example, a standardized student evaluation form
must be developed and eventually a certification examination will
need to be devised." (Unkefer, 1957, p. 219)

Gaston advocated a similar philosophy in 1960.

Clinical experience in our affiliate hospitals will have become more
uniform instead of maintaining, in some instances, an esoteric
quality. The proper pattern of clinical training ought to exist in spite
of personality." (Gaston, 1960, p. 179).

Gaston is respected in our field for the contributions he made in training music
therapists.

Possibly one of the greatest contributions which Dr. Gaston has
made to music therapy may be seen in the large number of
qualified music therapists he has trained for work in the field.
Many of the university teaching positions and of the music therapy
supervisor positions in hospitals are held by university graduates
who received their inspiration and training under Dr. Gaston; these
graduates may be found at institutions located throughout the
United States and Canada. Truly, NAMT may be justly proud that it
has chosen as its first Honorary Life Member, Dr. E. Thayer
Gaston. (NAMT, 1960, p. 3).

Wanda Lathom contributed one of the first internship sites that Offered
interns work exclusively with individuals who were emotionally disturbed,
mentally retarded, physically impaired, sensory impaired and classified at that
time as schizophrenic.

The National Association has recommended that such a
student take an extra three-month internship in a hospital for
children; however, there have not been any specific places
assigned for this experience. Therefore, Parsons State Hospital
and Training School has designed a training program and allowed
a stipend for music therapists who desire additional training in the
treatment of children. . ..

Therefore, the training program at Parsons State Hospital
will include three types Of training:

27

(1) a six-month program for therapists who are certain that
they want to work with children.

(2) A three-month program for students who are still
undecided, but have an interest in the treatment of children and
want to know more about it.

(3) a workshop for music education personnel who are
interested in learning a little about psychodynamics of exceptional
children and ways in which the school can give added support to
these children and can cooperate in their treatment before it
becomes necessary to hospitalize them. (Lathom, 1962, pp.12-15).

Also at Parsons State Hospital, an important model for clinical training
was established with the "Pilot Training Projects for the National Institute of
Mental Health" (Gaston, 1964, p. 149). The five year project was supposed to
develop the best training programs possible, advance clinical training (i.e.,
Lathom's internship), train researchers in MT, and train scholars In MT. The
volunteer MTs (e.g., Gaston & Lathom) who assisted NAMT In gaining federal
grants for training and education of music therapists have influenced the training
and establishment Of clinical training models.

A unique opportunity for a graduate clinical internship was offered in 1972
by Florence Tyson, executive director of the Music Therapy Center in New York
City (NAMT, Professional News, 1972). A six month internship in music therapy
with psychiatric experience was required before acceptance.

Worthington, in reference to training of counselors (1984, p. 63), cites a
lack of widely accepted theory of supervision, imprecise generalization of
supervisory principles and limited study in the field Of supervision. The same
might have been said about music therapy clinical internship directors in 1984

when NAMT was growing rapidly and standards for establishing internships were

28

limited to a letter of support from a university and the top administrator of a
prospective internship site to approve the site. AMTA now requires supervisory
training, usually supplied at regional and national conferences. Extensive
program descriptions, including intern and site evaluations, are scrutinized
critically by an AMTA clinical training committee. Site evaluations by interns are
a recent development instituted by NAMT and are a tool that was not utilized in
the early years of our association's training procedures.
Clinical supervision can be a dynamic, exciting, and
challenging experience for its practitioner and recipients; it can

also be frustrating, empty, or hurtful in certain circumstances. One

might say of clinical supervision what has been said of being a

parent-~that one learns how to do it on the job. As parent or as

supervisor, however, one can make the mistake of assuming that

the job is simple and straightforward, when in fact a multitude Of

hidden complications await the complacent beginner. Problems

with the supervisor, if not recognized and responsibly dealt with,

can become problems for patients, just as problems encountered

by one family member inevitably affect other members Of the

family. (Frelander, Dye, Costello & Kobos, 1984, p. 189)

Reports of improper usage of interns without direct supervision, in
non-music therapy job tasks, or inadequate supervision, and grueling work
schedules may have been shared between former interns, but with little or no
appropriate response allowed. Now interns have a tool to report their
perceptions of the supervision directly to AMTA. "A body of student
observations is necessary to lend meaning to professional ones." (Barnat, 1974,

p. 189). The internship may be a time of challenge and difficult work. The

supervisor can assist in making the situation a positive one.

29

People can endure long hours, unpleasant conditions, and difficult

circumstances as long as they enjoy the people they are working

with. They want to feel a part of something; it is like having an

extended family. (Gilley, 1996, p. 218).

The requirements, to become a music therapy clinical internship director,
are now more stringent than to become AMTA association president, hold any
office or be on any committee. Music therapy clinical internship directors were
the first members required by NAMT to be board certified (MT-BC), but now,
AMTA educators are also required to be board certified. Board certification has
become more important since the discontinuation Of registration (RMT) or
certification (CMT). Many former internship sites were discontinued in the
nineteen-nineties when NAMT required extensive program descriptions, more
unified evaluation forms for interns and site evaluations from interns. This
occurred simultaneously with NAMT’s move to the political arena in Washington,
DC, when attempts were made to upgrade the level of professional expertise
and increase recognition Of the music therapy profession. Older internship sites
and experienced clinical internship directors, except a few who were
grandfathered, were required to meet the same qualifications as those that were
newly proposed. Many clinical internship directors, such as the author, regularly
attend supervisory training sessions at conferences to share expertise and gain
new perspectives on training.

Over the last decade, supervision has emerged as a distinct field Of

preparation and practice with a unique body of knowledge and

skills. As competencies of effective supervisors have been
identified in the literature, the necessity of specialized training in
counseling supervision has become increasingly clear. (Borders,

Bernard, Dye, Fong, Henderson and Nance, 1991, p. 58)

30

Development of a Managerial Style
HistoLy of Supervision and Management Theories

Much research about managerial style has been conducted to assess and
teach the “best” or “in vogue” style of management to improve efficiency and
productivity. Many questions are asked and dollars are spent to study the cost
effectiveness of learning new management styles and approaches. Anecdotal
evidence reflecting the years of research conducted and the amount of budget
allotted to management training shows that companies believe in management
training. Have styles really changed over the years or have changes in
terminology occurred?

Some people have the idea that management styles really haven't

changed all that much over the years. In a way this is true. The

same styles are around. People are still doing things right and

wrong, well and poorly. People are still managing by delegating

and by not delegating, just as they always have. The variety is still

there, but hopefully there are more people doing a better job of

managing than ever before." (Broadwell, 1984, p. 53)

Broadwell also explains that there is an evolution of management styles
built upon the research and knowledge gained, as well as fresh approaches with
differing philosophies. His reasons for believing management styles have
improved over the years are many. The average supervisor knows more about
setting clear standards to achieve job satisfaction. Improved evaluation has
resulted from known expectations and set standards. Improved training for

managers has been developed. Motivation and behavior training to achieve a

high performance is better understood. There is better information to

31

understand and appreciate the employee's needs of family, home, community,
recreation and its integration into the job setting.

Until recent years, published articles on supervision have
portrayed the supervisor as a dispassionate mentor. . . . But the
basic view was, apparently, long held that any emotional reactions
which the supervisor felt toward the therapist, other than those of a
friendly teacher-and-colleague variety, were merely incidental to
their collaborative effort or, more Often, an active deterrent to it.
(Searles 1955, p. 135).

Although Searles statement was made at the time NAMT was first
established, it appears to be still prevalent in the supervisory style advocated by
AMTA today. This is reflected in the uniform use Of evaluation forms and the
strong focus upon objectivity in supervision, reflected in the emphasis upon
critiquing musical and therapeutic skills. Searles emphasizes the Importance of
emotional interplay between supervisor and therapist.

In my view, the supervisor experiences, over the course of a
supervisory relationship, as broad a spectrum of emotional
phenomena as does the therapist or even the patient
himself--although, to be sure, the supervisor's emotions are rarely
so intense as those of the therapist, and usually much less intense
than those of the patient. Moreover, the supervisor can Often find
that these emotions within himself do not represent foreign bodies,
classical counter-transference phenomena, but are highly
informative reflections of the relationship between therapist and
patient. (Searles 1955, p.136)

The emotional relationship between supervisor and therapist described by
Searles is correlated to the therapist/patient relationship.
. if a supervisor finds in himself an especial fondness for a
therapist during a particular phase of their work, this may be in part
traceable to the circumstance that patient and therapist are

currently very fond of one another." (Searles, 1955, p. 145).

32

In the field of psychotherapy or clinical psychology, Psychotherapy
Supervision: Theory, Research and Practice edited by Hess (1980) is frequently
quoted and cited in psychotherapy joumal-articles reference lists. Hess
describes training models and the nature of psychotherapy supervision. The
notion that supervision is essentially a dyadic human interaction with a focus on
modifying the behavior of the supervisee, so he or she may provide better
service to a third person (the patient) ordinarily not present, underlies the
following models. Each model has three characteristics describing it: (a) its
goals, (b) the degree to which the supervisee can choose to attend the sessions
both physically and psychologically, and (c) the nature of the relationship (Hess,
1980, p.16).

Hess Model 1. Lecturer (a) Convey global conceptual schemes and

technique. Generate enthusiasm. (b) High choice. (c) One to mass

audience.

Hess Model 2. Teacher (a) Teach specified content and skills

within programmatic scheme. (b) Moderate choice. (c)

Superordinate to subordinate.

Hess Model 3. Case Review (a) Explore ways of thinking and
relating to cases. (b) Low choice. (c) Elder to younger.

Hess Model 4. Collegial-Peer (a) Support and gaining a different,
unforced view. (D) High choice. (c) Equals in shared intimacy.

Hess Model 5. Monitor (a) Maintain at least minimally acceptable
levels of service. (b) Low choice. (0) External censor, evaluator.

Hess Model 6 Therapist (a) Help psychotherapist grow and reach
new levels of adaptiveness with self and clients. (b) moderate to
high choice. (c) Benign supervisor, trusted model. (Hess, 1980,
P16)

33

Kaiser (1992) addresses four crucial elements of the supervisory
relationship in her field of training marital and family therapists.

Accountapility It is the job of the supervisor, viewing the situation
from a more detached position, to help the therapist regain that
ability. Although therapists must be emotionally involved with
clients, caution must come from the supervisors not to lose their
objectivity and ability to act in the clients' best interest

Personal Awareness. . . . need for the supervisor to be aware of
her own version of dogmatism, subjectivity, lack of respect for the
trainee, and sensitivity to her impact on the trainee.
transference and countertransference issues which occur in the
therapy replicate themselves in the supervisory relationship.

Trust. . . . clients and students treat others the way they are treated
and therefore should experience a particular quality of treatment
which can then apply to their treatment of others. Respect is also
demonstrated by the attention of the supervisor to the particular
learning style and developmental stage of the supervisee as well
as the supervisee's personal level of vulnerability to criticism.
Safety is usually defined as the supervisee's freedom to make
mistakes and to take risks without the danger of a judgmental
response from the supervisor. . . . trust between supervisor and
supervisee is necessary in order for the supervisee to feel safe
enough to be open to a deeper emotional understanding of the
client.

Power and Authority The supervisor's use of authority will
influence the way in which the supervisee uses authority with
clients. A parallel can be drawn between a supervisor who uses
power arbitrarily and destructively and a parent who does the
same. . . . past experiences with authority effect both the
supervisor's and supervisee's approach to authority in this
relationship. A significant source (of power) is the supervisor's
power to evaluate and therefore influence the opportunities
available to the supervisee vis a' vis future jobs, salary increases,
or hiring and firing. As the one in charge, the supervisor is
responsible for setting appropriate limits and boundaries with
regard to such issues as the structure of the supervisory hour, the
parameters of acceptable professional behavior, and a focus on
the supervisee's rather than the supervisor's needs. This
appropriate use of power is related to the issue of trust. (Kaiser,
1992,p.284)

34

Brown claims a mixture of management styles is necessary to be
successful (Brown, 1990, p. 3). He describes four styles:

Autocratic management implies that the manager directs the entire

operation. Brown believes that in certain circumstances this style

is most effective, but that some people will not tolerate it.

Bureaucratic management features company policies and
procedures to manage and requires total submission to rules.

Democratic management allows participation in the decision
making process. This style helps employees feel that they
contribute and are important: however, this does not mean the
manager abdicates his responsibilities.

Idiosyncratic management encourages the manager to use

idiosyncrasies to their advantage in developing or working with a

person. Brown encourages the manager to match the style of

management to the employee and to use a mixture of styles best
suited for the employee.

Martin and McBride designed a theoretical model called "Dual Focus
Supervision" (Martin & McBride, 1987, p.156) that uses two different approaches
to supervision. The first is theory congruency, the ability to translate espoused
theory into practice. If the student was using Gestalt, the supervisor would also
use that technique with the student, the same with rational-emotive therapy,
Freudian analysis, etc. The second approach is one of interpersonal dynamics
or the ability to recognize and attend to the impact of both counselor and client
behavior on the counseling process. They used a modified interpersonal
process recall developed by Kagan that provided audiotape and videotape
feedback. Their study refuted the suggested beliefs they found in supervision
literature, that counselor educators and supervisors have placed too much

research emphasis on basic skills.

35

Teaching facilitative skills is an important part of counselor training:
however, it is not enough by itself. The content of training is,
perhaps, more important than length of training. By requiring
students to learn and apply theoretical and research knowledge,
students can learn professional skills. (Martin & McBride, 1987,
P166)

Hanson (1996), in "Personality Plus," describes how people having
different personalities can become excellent managers and coworkers, and
understand and accept the differences in personalities. He vividly ascribes
'Winnie the Poo" characteristics to personality types. For example, Tigger is
popular and Eeyore is the peaceful type. Hanson stresses that all personality
types (Popular, Perfect, Peaceful, Powerful and mixed types) may become
excellent coworkers and teachers by understanding why others may react
differently to the same situation, yet be equally correct in their approaches.
CoachingRoles

Coaching is used in teaching, supervision and everyday life. . .
coaching does take place almost every day in every work situation. People do
ask their colleagues and managers to Show, explain or advise them how to do
certain aspects of their job or how to do things better" (Parsloe, 1995, p. 52).
Parsloe addresses coaching, mentoring and assessing in Britain in accordance
with their systems of General National Vocational Qualification (GNVQ). He
particularly addresses four levels of certification in vocations and the

convergence of academic and vocational qualifications. Britain's GNVQ users

hope that,

36

. as the decade progresses, the academic and vocational
qualification processes will converge; both in practice and
eventually in acceptance in people's mind" (Parsloe, 1995, p.31 ).

Parsloe describes a progression of coaching roles ranging from
'hands-on' to 'hands-off.‘ Parsloe defines four coaching roles:
Hands-on - Acting as an instructor for inexperienced learners.

hands-off - Developing high performance in experienced Ieamers.

gualifie - When helping a Ieamer develop a specific requirement
for a competence-based or professional qualification.

Supporte - When helping learners, use a flexible learning

package. (Parsloe, 1995, p. 12).
This progression is illustrated in Parsloe’s graph (Parsloe, 1995, p.62) which
shows how matters shift over time from 100% “hands-on” control, through
varying levels of shared control, to 100% “hands-off” control. The supporter role
is played throughout the relationship in providing assigned reading, videotaped
training courses and what Parsloe refers to as "flexible packages." The
“qualifier" role is utilized as an assessment adviser to prepare the protege for
professional competency examination and assist with credentialling

associations.

37

Phases of the Sppervisorv/Mentor Relationship

In the field of counseling, Hogan's model is cited frequently in supervisory
literature (Reising & Daniels, 1983, p. 235). In the sixties, Hogan recognized
that supervision in clinical training needed to be tailored to the professional
development level of the supervisee.

During his development as a psychotherapist, the clinician goes

through four stages of development. During the first state, or Level

1, his approach is heavily influenced by a method, the 'method of

choice' promulgated by his training. In the second stage, or Level

2, he adapts this method to his own personality, his own idiom. In

the third stage, or Level 3, the method-person balance is reversed,

and his approach to therapy is a reflection of his personal idiom

through one or more methods. In the fourth stage, or Level 4, he

goes beyond method and his own personal idiom to develop

creative approaches which are an outgrowth of both method and

person. As Steinbeck has put it in his recent book, Travels with

Charlie, “only through imitation do we develop toward originality."

(Hogan, 1963, p. 139).

Hogan describes the methods at the first level to include tutoring,
interpretation, support, awareness-training and exemplification and describes a
didactic approach in supervision. Hogan suggests at this first level for the
supervisor to be co-therapist with the supervisee and reveal the supervisor's
therapeutic approach by sharing experiences together.

In his second level Hogan describes the trainee's struggle with insight
and overconfidence and the ambivalence of the dependency-autonomy conflict.
He compares this period with the growing pains of the journeyman reflected in a
vast fluctuation in motivation from deep commitment to grave misgivings. Hogan
suggests encouraging the trainee to become less dependent on the supervisor

via an ambivalent-clarification (non-reactive) mode in supervision.

38

Hogan's third stage is compared to becoming a master in a trade, with
increased professional self-confidence. He suggests that the supervisor
continue an approach of sharing, but also professional confrontation (close
critical review) to foster the professionalizing and humanizing of the therapist.

Hogan's fourth stage includes characteristics of personal autonomy,
adequate to independent practice and an insightful awareness of the idiomatic
confrontation with the struggle of living, including one's professional problems.
His supervisory approach is one of a peer supervisor and a reduction of the
controlling supervisory role. Hogan suggests mutual consultation and sharing
as the technique of choice. Hogan's model takes into consideration the
necessity of altering supervisory styles with the personal growth of the therapist
in training.

Kram defines four phases or stages of the mentor (Kram, 1983): initiation,
cultivation, separation, and redefinition. Without any reference to Hogan, her
stages closely resemble his levels with more modern terminology. The
mentoring developmental model Kram created parallels the role the music
therapy clinical internship director encompasses in assisting the intern become
an established professional peer. It is no coincidence that there is a striking
similarity between the internship and Kram's mentoring model. The initial
impetus for the internship is to serve as a transition from student to professional
music therapist. Initiation is a period during which the protégé admires and
respects the mentor as an object for positive identification. The mentor's
behavior lends credence to the protégé's initial impression and in return

39

responds supportively by coaching the protégé with care. There is a balance of
initiative on both sides of the relationship.

For example, an opportunity to work on a high visibility project is

interpreted by the young manager (a.k.a. protege) as proof of the

senior manager's (mentor's) caring, interest, and respect.

Alternatively, a request for assistance or a volunteered criticism of

the department is interpreted by the senior manager as proof of the

young manager's assertiveness and competence. (Kram, 1983, p.

615-616)

In the second stage, cultivation, the mentor tests the positive expectations
of the first stage with challenging work, coaching, exposure-and-visibility,
protection and/or sponsorship. The protégé's sense of competence and ability
to navigate in the field depend upon: the mentor's rank, tenure, experience, and
the degree of trust, mutuality, and intimacy that characterize the psychosocial
functions of the relationship.

During the cultivation phase the boundaries of the relationship

have been clarified, and the uncertainty of what it might become

during the initiation phase is no longer present. For some there is

disappointment in discovering that the relationship cannot meet
important developmental needs,... For others, the relationship is far

richer than anticipated, and the interpersonal bond is far more

intimate and personally meaningful. (Kram, 1983, p. 617)

Separation occurs both structurally and psychologically, resulting in a
redefinition of the relationship. If the stage of structural change is reached
before the emotional separation is complete, there is a period of turmoil and

anxiety. Occasionally some mentors anticipate the emotional loss inherent in

separation, and attempt to block the inevitable.

4O

The separation phase is critical to development. It provides an
opportunity for the manager to demonstrate essential job skills
while operating independently without support from a mentor. At
the same time, it enables the senior manager to demonstrate to
self and to peers and superiors that, indeed, one has been
successful in developing new managerial talent. The end of this
phase occurs when both managers recognize that the relationship
is no longer needed in its previous form. (Kram, 1983, p. 620)

Redefinition of the relationship results in professional association that
could be one of either friendship or indifference. The dominant pattern for the
relationship is one of friendship with an informal basis of contact for mutual
support and sponsorship from a distance. The mentor is removed from a
pedestal in the protégé's eyes, but is usually recalled with indebtedness. For
the mentor, the protege is either proud proof of effectiveness in the passing on

of values, knowledge, and skills; or possibly hostility and resentment, depending

on the relationship.

The redefinition phase is, finally, evidence of changes that have
occurred in both individuals. For the young manager, the ability to
relate in a more peer-like fashion with the senior manager and the
ability to function effectively in new settings without the immediate
support of the relationship reflect greater competence,
self-confidence, and autonomy. For the senior manager, the ability
to relate in a more peer-like fashion with the young manager and
the ability to redirect energies toward other young managers reflect
competence and generality. Both have experienced a shift in
developmental tasks so that the previous relationship is no longer
needed or desired. (Kram, 1983, p. 621)

41

Kram views the mentorship as limited in value and duration as they
progress through the four phases. "Peer relationships appear to offer a valuable
alternative to the mentor relationship; they can provide some career and
psychosocial functions that offer the opportunity for greater mutuality and sense

of equality, and they are more available in numbers." (Kram, 1983, p 623)

Management Styles In Music Therapy

 

There is little research about management styles during internships,
especially in music therapy. Memory, Unkefer and Smeltekop are the few music
therapists who address this issue in Perspectives on Music Therapy Education
and Training (1987) edited by Maranto and Bruscia. The model outlined
regarding management of the intern defines three basic roles: the teacher,
counselor and colleague. In this chapter, no role is defined as superior, and it is
recommended that the music therapy clinical internship director use a variety of
styles dictated by the situation. Memory investigated the three roles in a
discrimination model of supervision at Michigan State University's Music
Therapy Clinic, but found no significant differences in satisfaction with the
supervisor’s use of the three previously named roles (Memory, Unkefer, &
Smeltekop, 1987). The study delineated some of the advantages and pitfalls of

these three relationships.

42

Teacher-Student

The teacher-student role relationship was found to be
especially important at the beginning of training when students
need more information, and when trial and error learning can be
costly in time and mistakes. . . . This role can build a wall between
supervisor and therapist leading to ‘I got the answer-you figure it
out’ situations. The expectation of being the expert at all times is
unrealistic and can lead to other problems, such as anxiety, hidden
agendas, etc. This role feeds into issues of power and control.

Counselor-Client

As students experiment with new therapy strategies, support
and encouragement may be more helpful than new ideas. On the
negative side, the counselor-supervisor may look for and find
emotional distress in the student, even when it has no bearing on
music therapy. Student therapists may focus on themselves and
their emotional health, rather than on clients and treatment issues,
or on themselves in relation to clients. This role may lead to
over-dependency on the supervisor as counselor, and, indeed,
dependency may be fostered from both sides. This role can be
burdensome when the supervisor is expected to be the ‘strong’
one. . . . It is risky for the supervisor to know the student’s personal
problems. . . Solutions to severe emotional difficulties should be
sought outside the supervisory relationship, possibly through
agency services for emotional support of staff.

 

Consultapt-Colleagpe

This role is especially appropriate for supervising more
experienced, mature, and skilled students, and is easily entered
and left either within a session, or in a gradual progression over a
period of months. . . . A potential pitfall is that the student may
avoid supervision if the consultant supervisor waits for the student
to ask for supervision. The student may not accept supervision if
the need for it is not felt or recognized, and student learning may
thus be limited. This role put pressure on students to think they
should know more than they actually do. Students may never
“open up’ out of fear of showing ignorance or failing to ‘measure up’
to the supervisor’s expectations. This role can allow a supervisor
to hide a lack of knowledge. Also, this role may imply to the
student that the supervisor does not have the answers, threatening
the supervisor's credibility in other areas. The student may
perceive the supervisor as lacking authority, and discount other
things the supervisor says. It is perhaps best to avoid the
consultant role until the supervisor knows the student fairly well.
(Memory, Unkefer, Smeltekop 1987, p.164)

43

Memory’s study was with undergraduate students at Michigan State
University, and the advice given may pertain more to undergraduate students
than supervision during the internship. During the lntemship, the relationship
between supervisor and intern is much more intense and time consuming (as
compared to an hour's supervision a week in a clinic). All three roles offer
benefits and pitfalls. Memory based her study on Bemard’s (1979)
“discrimination model” of supervision, but found no significant preference of
management style in the study.

Patrick addresses problems that may arise when the counselor mode is
utilized in supervision.

A unique ethical dilemma arises when, as a direct result of the dual

relationship in the training laboratory, the supervisor becomes

aware of personality traits in the client that the supervisor believes

will interfere with that student's ability to function as a counselor.

According to the ethical standards, the supervisor also has an

ethical responsibility as a member of the counselor education

faculty to screen and monitor graduate students in the

counselor-training program. (Patrick, 1989, p. 338)

Patrick points out the confidentiality factor in professional therapy. It is Patrick's
recommendation that cooperative relationships with community mental health

centers or other options in therapy be used rather than the supervisor as a

counselor for the intern.

Clinical lntemship Factors of Mentorship
Size of MT lntemship
Williams (1963) quotes one of his interns about the advantages of having
other interns share their experience.

The purposes of utilizing the services of the consulting
psychologist were manifold. Generally, our sessions provided us
an opportunity to allay any anxieties we may have had about
working in the psychiatric setting. During the sessions, we were
able to discuss our feeling and attitudes toward patients in order
that we may better know and understand ourselves. We met with
the consulting psychologist one hour a week and dealt with
problems as they arose in the clinical setting. The topic was
presented by whichever intern felt the need to discuss a particular
situation or feeling that may have occurred during the previous
week, i.e., a patient's hostile feeling verbalized to the therapist. It
was then utilized by the psychologist to stimulate free discussion
from the interns. Frequently, the discussion initiated by one intern
extended to a problem area encountered by the other interns.
These discussions gave us better insight into our own feeling and
attitudes. (Williams, 1963. P.20)

The advantage of having a single intern would involve the individual
attention and ability to tailor the internship to the intern's needs. Any jealously
between interns would not be possible, and the focus of the supervisor would not

be shared.

45

 

Difference of Former National Associations.

former

nineteen-seventies.

The differences of beliefs resulting in a division of the profession into two

national associations caused deep wounds in the

poignant editorial, "Are We 'One' Enough?"

If we might liken NAMT to a sailing ship, a hull with rather
fixed dimensions was built. Gradually a strong rudder was added,
as were sails of all sizes and shapes, more and more. The sails
attempted to find their own winds, but were held together by the
design of the hull and the forceful rudder. But, the rudder has
broken loose and is gone, and the design of the hull may not be
the best for both weathering the storms ahead and the sails it must
carry.

The sails are flapping again—some trying to pull the ship this
way, some that way, some to a dead stop. Other sails are trying to
break away from their masts, and new sails are trying to find places
on a mast. Still other sails, old and new, are seeking new ships.
The sailing ship NAMT is being blown by diversity.

To find again that unity necessary to both permit and yet withstand
that diversity, as temporary captain of the ship, I see a most
immediate need to redesign our hull and to build a new rudder in a
possibly quite different shape.

Are We (diversities with and without) 'One' (a unity) Enough?
(Sears, 1971)

early

William Sears, as president of NAMT in 1971, wrote a

It was at this time that the AAMT formed from the divisions that occurred

with regard to philosophies of leadership, education, and clinical internship.

AAMT educational requirements were more focused on the master's level rather

than on a bachelor's level. NAMT retained the model of an internship separate

from the college supervision.

AAMT formed internships with the college or

university directly supervising the intern. The differences between internship

models contributed to the split into two associations.

46

Client Population

The factors of the lntemship sites vary most greatly with the type of client
served and how services are financed. Examination of the music therapy
literature documents music therapists working with children in hospitals and
schools (The Flint Public Schools was among the first setting mentioned). It was
also found to document work with alcoholics, cancer patients, geriatrics,
childbirth, etc. Music therapy internship sites were first found in the psychiatric
setting (Unkefer, 1961, p. 30) and frequently under the direction of an
occupational therapist. In the original curriculum for music therapy in 1952
written by Anderson, Gaston, and Underwood:

A minimum of six months residence lntemship in an approved

neuro-psychiatric hospital with an established music program.

Students planning to work with mentally retarded or handicapped

children should spend an additional two months in an appropriate

institution. The internship is in addition to the 128 hours of

on-campus training. (Bulletin of NAMT, 1962, p. xvii)

Wanda Lathom supported NAMT'S originally proposed internship site that
mixed adult psychiatric training before work with children in an additional three
months of internship experience. At Parsons State Hospital in 1962, Lathom
Offered one of the first internship sites to work with children impaired by physical,
sensory, emotional, or developmental disabilities. To assist the intern financially
in the lengthened internship of nine months, Lathom obtained federal grants
earmarked for training personnel needed in the education of exceptional children

(Lathom, 1962, pp.12-15). Lathom later obtained federal grants to fund Project

Music, an inservice training program that also provided a series of monographs

47

now used as texts in MT education.
Clients Age

Age of the client population may be defined in many ways. For this
survey, the categorization used will be derived from the Certification Board for
Music Therapists. lntemships that have singular populations only, such as Older
adults or young children, are rare. Out of 151 music therapy clinical internship
sites, four sites work exclusively with children, three sites exclusively with adults,
seven sites exclusively with older adults, and no sites exclusively with
adolescents or young adults. Intem's perceived level of mentoring will be
compared with exposure of work with different age ranges in client population to
detect if there is any difference. In AMTA'S 1998 Clinical Training Facilities
Directory, the following presents the percentage of sites that contain

opportunities to work with various age ranges:

Children (0-12) .................................................... 47%

Adolescents (13-18) .............................................. 54%
Young Adults (19-25) ............................................ 73%
Adults (26-64) ........................................................ 70%
Older Adults (65 and older) ................................... 61%

48

Funding of Site

How the site is funded will determine the budgetary constraints with which
the site's staff works. Reimbursement to the intern may also distinguish one
internship site from another. The author's internship at Essex County Overbrook
Hospital consisted of a time clock and an hourly wage (over minimum wage) with
vacation and other benefits. If the author had not been married, he could have
taken advantage of free room and board at the hospital. Orientation contained a
full physical examination, x-rays, and inservices for new employees. Interns at
most other sites in the nineteen-seventies did not receive as generous a
compensation, and most interns were lucky to receive room and board at the
hospital at which they interned.

"Money, money, money", as the song goes, is the greatest of all

rewards and is an excellent motivator. Regardless of common

knowledge, citing some studies that suggest otherwise, money

talks. It is why we all get up in the morning and go to work. Every

single day we endure hardships, and money is a big reason we do

so. Yes, we understand the importance of challenging and

meaningful work and all the other critical career motivators. But we

don't discount the importance of the almighty dollar as a reward

and motivator. (Gilley, 1996, p. 213)

Even if the site is unable to offer money, food, or housing to the intern,
other reinforcements (such as freedom and independence) may motivate the
intern and promote a mentoring relationship between the intern and supervisor.

Highly enterprising employees will welcome the opportunity to

obtain freedom and independence as a reward for a job well done.

These types of employees will grow and develop when provided

with the opportunity to sink their roots deep into the rich soil

provided by freedom and independence. Most employees don't

mind working harder if they can influence the direction of the ship.

(Gilley, 1996, p. 217)

49

Chagateristics of Clinicalirpervisor & Intern

Overview of Factors

Characteristics of the supervisor, such as age, experience, gender, and
cultural background may influence management styles practiced between the
intem and supervisor. The advantage of age and experience may be favorably
compared to the enthusiasm and energy of a young and inexperience music
therapy clinical supervisor. The gender dyads (supervisor/intern) of
male/female, female/male, male/male, and female/female may or may not
influence the level of perceived mentoring by the intern. Because the literature
exhibits such diverse opinions, it is difficult to formulate hypotheses of influence

of gender upon the mentoring relationship.

Years of Experience

The period of time in which the supervisor received his or her initial
training would reflect the style of management generally used during that era.
Broadwell proposes that a strong influence upon chosen management style is
the style used by the supervisor who initially trained the manager.

Without being aware of it, we pick up habits of those who supervise
us. This is especially so if we happen to like the person or admire
certain characteristics or results obtained. There is also evidence
that we pick up the styles of those whom we don't admire or like.
We grow accustomed to doing things a certain way because the
boss wants us to, and fail to realize that while at one time we didn't
approve of this way, it has now become a part of our style.
(Broadwell, 1984, p. 51)

50

Edtgtional Level of Supervisor
AMTA requires the supervisor to possess board certification. This would
imply at least a bachelor's degree or equivalency degree to obtain certification.
At former AMTA sites, supervision was provided by university professors
possessing at least a master's degree. Braswell emphasizes the importance of
education as a creative process for further development.
The acquisition of skills and academic knowledge does not, in
itself, guarantee that the student will become a successful music
therapist. Experience shows that education must be viewed as a
creative process, and as a period for the psychological
development and growth of the student. Therefore, the whole area
of the student's personality and his personal qualifications for this
type of work must be explored. (Braswell, 1961, pp. 36-37)
Supervisory skills are not always part of the curriculum of a Bachelor's or

Master's degree in music therapy. Education of the supervisor is a factor that

could be relevant to the perceived level of mentoring.

51

Gender Role Relationship

According to NAMT's 1996 statistics, ninety percent of music therapists
are female. Males comprise more than ten percent of those in organizational
posts, or who are honorary members or past presidents. Anecdotal evidence
supports the assumption that although most music therapists are female, male
members have historically been more successful in being elected to
organizational positions and obtaining recognition.

Women entering male-dominated professions have triggered a
great deal of research literature in recent years, but an
accompanying movement by men into female-dominated
professions has not created a correspondingly large body of data.
What little has been written was based mostly on anecdotal data or
impressionistic finding. (Lemkau, 1984, p.111)

Since most of the men in nontraditional career studies described
here scored lower in masculinity gender orientation than most
traditional men, it is possible that they may not possess fear of
femininity, avoiding the predicted role strain. It is also possible that
self-selection may explain part of the healthy adaptation. (Chusmir,
1990,p.14)

The role of gender in music therapy has changed over the years. Today

few music therapists would probably agree with the survey conducted by Adams.

Adams' survey of sixty managerial women found cultural conditioning
differences with both successful and unsuccessful managerial women.

Few of the women I interviewed had much experience with
organizational teamwork, and few of them played team sports as
children. Few consider themselves very competitive. Many
characterize themselves aggressive. Many admit to being
uncomfortable when criticized. Some of them take things very
personally indeed. And while all of them have careers now, more
than a few are unsure about whether they want the same career a
few years from now. (Adams, 1979, p. 20)

52

The situation in music therapy in 1955 appears to be closer in thought to
those surveyed by Adams. Wayne Ruppenthal was given the question, "What
Should the Hospitals expect from the Schools?" to answer at the 1956 NAMT
Conference.

I would like to make one other point that is perhaps a little outside
of the stated question. One aspect of an ideal staff is that its
members are reasonably permanent. For that reason it would be
desirable to get more men into the field. I do not contend that men
make better therapists than women, but that they are more
permanent therapists. The natural role of a woman is to become a
wife and a mother. Acceptance of this role generally puts an end
to her employment as a music therapist. If she is unwilling to
accept this role, it is often because of neurotic conflicts that will
also prevent her from being a good therapist. (Ruppenthal, 1957,
p.218)

In a study by the Center for Creative Leadership, gender was found to be
to a women's disadvantage in obtaining a promotion:

This study highlights how the promotion decision process can
undermine women's advancement, even in organizations (like the
one studied here) that are known for their progressive work on a
number of diversity-related concerns. Without careful examination
of the subtle yet potent dynamics that shape assignments and
promotion decisions, it is likely that decision-makers will continue
to choose candidates with whom they feel most comfortable and
will utilize systematically different criteria for promoting men and
women. (Kram, Ohlott, & Ruderman, 1996, p. 22)

. . . data on promotions suggest different dynamics for women and
men. Managers seem to be more hesitant to promote women,
requiring them to demonstrate personal strength and to prove
themselves extensively before they get a promotion. Men were
less likely to have their promotion accounted for in terms of
familiarity with job responsibilities and were more likely to have
bosses report a high level of personal comfort. (Kram, Ohlott, &
Ruderman, 1996, p. 10)

53

The literature on mentoring focuses on men mentoring other men, and
little about women who mentor other women. The vast majority of music therapy
supervisors and interns are female. It is questionable whether literature about
mentoring is transferable to the music therapy internship setting is dependent
upon the gender dyad being female/female in the mentoring studies. Because of
the lack of research into this difference, a null hypotheses of no difference will
be proposed.

A great deal has been written about the significance of a mentor in
the lives of successful men, but less is known about how the
presence or absence of such a person influences career women.
Most studies of working women indicate that few opportunities for
such mentorship are available to women; the interviews I
conducted strengthened this impression, especially the interviews
with women over forty. However, some younger women are
beginning to seek as mentors those very women who are now in
power spots in their companies. The role of mentor is a positive
and challenging one for successful women in mid-life, particularly
for those who have either reached the top or decided for any of
several reasons that they will not seek to improve their current
positions. Women in their thirties who seek women mentors rarely
look in their own companies for such individuals, although many
identified male mentors who were important to them, and all were
members of the women's firms. If they choose successful women,
they frequently search for them in networks and women's
professional organizations and approach them for the kind of
emotional support and sponsorship they require. (Adams, 1979, p.
89)

Sex stereotypes have changed dramatically since figures such as Freud
and Erikson have addressed the issue of gender. Anecdotal evidence shows
that Freud's view is so antiquated that "penis envy" is bantered jokingly in social
discourse. Erikson's work is still held in high esteem, but was challenged by

Horst in reexamining the gender issues in Erikson's stages of identity.

54

Erikson does say that women hold back their identity development

to be able to adjust to a husband and children. The critiques of his

stance cited here all seem to rest on this statement, which certainly

has sexist overtones (why should women do this any more than

men?) . . . In the end, any conception of something as important as

the development of identity and intimacy that portrays women and

men as either completely alike or completely different does a grave

disservice to both sexes" (Horst, 1995, p. 272-273).

Luzzo (1995) identifies a positive aspect about women in comparing
career maturity and perceived barriers in career development.

As revealed by quantitative analyses, the female students who

participated in this investigation scored significantly higher than the

male students on all three of the inventoried measures of career

maturity (career-mature attitudes, career decision-making skills,

and vocational congruence). Even so, qualitative analyses

revealed that women were much more likely than men to mention

role conflicts and barriers that they perceive as stumbling blocks

along the career development pathway. (Luzzo, 1995, p. 321)

According to Good & Wood (1995) men seek counseling services
approximately half as much of the time as women. The traditional socialized
male does not easily disclose personal problems or express himself in an
emotional awareness with others. Good & Wood devised an instrument to
measure male gender role conflict in almost four hundred college men. "This
study found that male gender role conflict is strongly related to men's attitudes
toward help seeking and their experience of depression" (Good & Wood, 1995,
p.72). They divided male gender role conflict into separate components of
restriction of emotionality and achievement motivation. Those men with a high
level of restriction upon their emotions and gender conflict were less likely to

seek help when depressed.

55

The music therapy field is populated by many successful women who
have helped the profession grow in the past fifty years. The same professional
behavior by different sexes could be perceived as different due to merely gender
(e.g., assertive/male and aggressive/female).

Successful women rarely ignore the differences of their gender;
every day, they still consider, as Michelle Hughes put it, "the fact
that I am a woman as a function of my professional identity." and
most consider that, as Michelle does, as a challenge and an
opportunity, not a resentment. They know they belong, and they've
proved it. Though society may have implied that they were
somehow inferior because they were women, they have never
accepted that assessment. "I feel like a woman, and perceive
myself professionally like a man," said Pat Neighbors. "l have
never felt in any way inferior. . .” (Adams, 1979, p. 208)

56

Cultural/Ethnic Identity

 

Early in the association's history, 1956, when consideration was being
given to screening out persons based on personality and individual traits,
Donald Michel clearly defended the role of diversity in selecting students in
music therapy. His quotation used in the introduction clearly defends diversity of
personality types. Anecdotal evidence at conference attendance would support
the thesis that AMTA is a diverse group, except for cultural/ethnic identity.
Certain minorities are not well represented in AMTA's membership and
proportionate with the general population. This may prove to be a minor factor
in the study of mentoring, due to the lack of deviation from the general
membership.

Examination of the literature shows how important multicultural training is
to the training of therapists.

With the increasing cultural diversity of the United States

population, the field of counseling, as elsewhere in various other

professions, is becoming more and more aware of the importance

of the cultural dimension in what we do as counselors, educators,

and supervisors. (Leong, 1994, p. 114)

General theories and models based on white middle-class male values have
been challenged as inappropriate for American minorities who may not share the
assumptions, norms, or world views of the majority (Leong & Wagner, 1994, p.

117). Cultural differences in ethnic groups and differences in supervisory

approach will be compared in this review of literature.

57

Winkelman (1994) points out the necessity of being aware of cultural
shock for the client as well as recognizing one's own ongoing cultural shock
experience. "Effectively dealing with cultural shock requires recognition of
cultural shock occurrences and implementing behaviors to overcome cultural
shock with stable adaptations." (Winkelman, 1994, p. 121). Being aware of the
nature Of cultural differences assists in the adaptation necessary in forming a
relationship. It is not necessary to assimilate, but merely to accommodate or
acculturate effectively. Social learning theory facilitates becoming educated in
culturally appropriate behaviors, and implementing problem-resolution
procedures to provide the basic effective adaptation.

Sue, Arredondo, & McDavis (1992) defined multicultural counseling
competencies in a three-dimensional framework that would assist the supervisor
in becoming effective with a wide range of populations. First, they assert the
importance of being aware of one's own cultural heritage, including respect for
the differences that may exist between themselves and others. Understanding
the limits of their competencies and expertise in dealing with this difference, the
intern supervisor should recommend seeking a non-racist identity in becoming a
culturally skilled therapist. Second, Sue et al (1992) assert that one should be
aware of his or her negative stereotypes and emotional reactions toward other
racial and ethnic groups, and that one would understand the sociopolitical
influences that effect the lives of racial and ethnic minorities. The third
dimension they address is one of developing appropriate intervention strategies
and techniques in supervision. The supervisor needs to understand how testing

58

instruments may be culturally biased and interact in the intern's preferred
language if possible. The internship supervisor should empower and educate
interns about their goals, expectations and legal rights.

Multicultural knowledge and awareness and cross-cultural

counseling skills, as well as counselor qualities of empathy,

respect, genuineness, and concreteness represent core counseling

skills." (Rubin & Roessler, 1995, p. 221).

It is stressed that the counselor relationship must be both technically
proficient and also empathetic, respectful and genuine. A client should not have
to select a therapist due to his/her ethnicity or the ethnicity of the therapist. Maki
& Rigger (1997, p. 265) advocate changing the Code of Professional Ethics for
Rehabilitation Counselors to promote more effective and equitable services to all
individuals, regardless of racial ethnic or cultural factors. A larger percentage of
African American cases was closed without being rehabilitated as compared to
European Americans in the same lower income level. Maki & Rigger (1997)
advocate considerable education in multicultural awareness and accommodation
of growing numbers of minorities entering the field of rehabilitation counseling.

Music Therapy's code of ethics may someday include this same reference to

cultural diversity.

White Non-Hispanic Americans
As described earlier in Sue, Arondondo, & MacDavis definition of
multicultural’s first dimension, awareness of one's own culture and its impact

upon others is imperative in seeking a non racist identity. The existence and

59

identity of a white culture may not be understood by a young naive white
non—Hispanic male who is immersed in a strong religious white cultural identity
with no exposures to other ethnic/racial groups. According to Richardson 8
Molinaro,

. . . the challenge before a counselor is to engage in culturally

relevant self-analysis as a first step in developing multicultural

competence. A counselor must realize that developing
multicultural competence (i.e. learning about his or her personal

and reference group's world view, culture and race) is a process

and often a long-term task. . . . If a counselor accepts this

challenge and engages in self-exploration, then learning about the

race, cultures, and experiences of clients becomes a manageable

process instead of an overwhelming and threatening one.

(Richardson & Molinaro, 1996, p. 241).

The relationship between racism and racial identity among white
Americans is explored by Pop-Davis & Ottavi (1994). They postulate that as we
move toward the 21 st century, whites will no longer constitute a majority.

Given this potential reality, it may be time for whites to explore their

own cultural identity. This should not be done at the expense of

others, but with a commitment by Whites toward understanding

themselves as a racial group (Pope-Davis & Ottavi, 1994, p. 296).

Helm (1984) outlined a model of black and white racial consciousness.
Fifty questions were answered on a scale of one to five addressing items such
as, "I do not understand what Blacks want from Whites." or "I feel as comfortable
around Blacks as I do Whites." (Helms, 1984).

Helms identified,

Contact - naiveté about racial issues.

Disintegration - awareness of ones Whiteness and conflict about racial
injustice.

60

Reintegration - White supremacist belief system that denigrates other
racial groups.

Pseudo-independent - intellectualized understanding of race.

lmmersion-Emersion - desire to define Whiteness in positive and
non-racist terms.

Autonomy - racial transcendence and both cultures valued.

Choney & Rowe (1994) question the validity of the model and believe

the instrument should not be used in future research.

African-Americans

Helm's Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale was used in a study conducted
by Richardson and Helms (1994) to identify if racial identity attitudes significantly
predicted participants' immediate reactions to the counselor (white male
counselor - black male client).

Richardson & Helms (1994) research showed there was no significant
prediction of the counselors' cultural competence related to any of the race
related variables. One limitation is that the black men were undergraduates in
college and not typical of the black male client.

A study by Bagley & Copeland (1994) revealed that African graduate
students who completed their undergraduate degree in Africa utilized counselors
more than African-American graduate students who completed their
undergraduate studies in universities where they were in the minority. "These
finding suggest that Africans, because they are not minorities in their own
countries, have not been exposed to racial consciousness and awareness in the

61

same way as African Americans" (Bagley 8. Copeland, 1994, p. 169).
Black music therapists are small in number but represent a high
proportion in positions of authority and respect, much like men's representation

in the field of music therapy.

Hispanic-Mexican Americans

The Hispanic influence in Miami has changed the character of the city
from one of European Americans to one of a mix including many Cubans. The
Chicano population has greatly increased in number in southern California.
Arbona, Flores & Novy (1995) found that many an undergraduate Mexican
American students possessed cultural awareness and much ethnic loyalty
regardless of the acculturation of the student to Anglo or White culture.

Corporate business management compared two factories that were built
the same, with the same job descriptions, management structure, etc.; except
that one was located in Texas, and one in Mexico. Management styles used in
supervision were different. The one in Texas reflected a more democratic style,
and the one in Mexico reflected more of an autocratic but fatherly style of
management. In spite of the difference, production was the same at both
factories. This does not prove that either style was superior, but that culture
does play a role in selecting a management style. When the management style
of supervisor does not match the employee’s culture, neither party is wrong,

being together may be wrong for the dyad relationship.

62

Although the literature suggests that Hispanic women face the dilemma of
adopting American cultural roles for women and discarding ethnic notions of the
women's role, Long & Martinez (1994) found this assumption incorrect in their
survey of professional Hispanic women. Their study implies that Hispanic
women’s retention of ethnic identity was a positive influence in adopting
masculine traits to succeed in business. Long & Martinez also speculate that
Hispanic professional women's self-acceptance may be lower and be related to
the balance of acculturation of ethnic expectations and majority middle-class
culture.

Hispanic or Chicano supervisors and interns engaged in the mentoring
relationship, might be affected by the cultural differences in their background.
The literature suggests that awareness of cultural differences may avoid any

supervisory problems and facilitate the mentoring relationship.

Asian-Pacific Islanders
Asian-Pacific Islanders cover the largest area in cultural designation.
This designation includes China, Indochina (Vietnam, Laos, etc.), Korea, Japan,
Indonesia, Java Micronesia, and Polynesia (including Hawaii).

It is important to recognize, however, that Asian-Pacific Americans
come from a wide range of cultural backgrounds. Among 29 or
more different groups in the Asian-Pacific category, each has a
unique heritage. In addition, each Asian-Pacific American has a
different immigration pattern and history in the United States. . . it
is important to recognize their unique historical and cultural
foundation in addition to the characteristics they have in common
with other Asian-Pacific Americans." (ltai & McRae, 1994, p. 373).

63

 

Within the designation of Asian-Pacific Islanders, many differences in
culture may render the designation useless in determining the effect upon
perceived levels of mentoring by the intern. The Hawaiian culture is unique,
even compared to other Asian-Pacific Islanders.

The Hawaiian culture is distinguished by what has been referred to

as the 'aloha spirit,‘ which permeates the values, lifestyle, and

world view of Hawaiians. . . emphasizing the importance of

kindness, being agreeable and patient, and seeking harmony with

others and one's environment." (Daniels, Andrea, & Heck, 1995, p.

92).

Daniel et al. found no gender differences between Hawaiian youths in their
caring responses, as compared to differences found in European American
youths. They also suggest that Hawaiian children and adolescents select a
solution that includes a sense of respect and care for all agents involved in a
problem. Their approach is morally different from that of European American
adolescents who may demand "justice perspective" in the solution of a moral
dilemma instead of the Hawaiian's choice of “care perspective” to the solution.

Western values emphasize independence and self-sufficiency. Japanese
culture values interdependence and collectivity. Respect towards parents and
elders is paramount and held in check, via guilt or shame in Japanese society.
Direct refusals or confrontations (and subsequent verbalizations about one's
behavior) are considered rude behaviors. Also threatening to the Japanese
intern or supervisor, is asking too many personal questions. Supervision may

require not asking too many questions at first and gradually presenting the

rationale and effectiveness of the necessity of questioning as the relationship

64

develops.

Honoring the client's dignity and society in Asian-Pacific culture in

general is important in counseling or the client will perceive no

credibility of the counselor. The counselor needs to dress formally

and be directive and authoritative as to the solution of their

problem. A list of too many options and exploration of others may

cause the Asian-Pacific client to lose respect for the counselors

ability to know what is best for them. Other cultural difference must

be accepted without judgment, such as deference of women's role

as subservient to man or that some Asian cultures permit parents

sleeping in the same room as their children (ltai & McRae, 1994).

Middle-Eastem Culture

Middle Eastern American clients possess some cultural differences about
which the counselor needs to know. They are traditional and appear to be
religious. The rules and orders of Islam are primary to their behavior. Family
and friends are extremely important, as the family is the nucleus of society.
Middle Eastern society's decisions and organizations are male dominated, and
the woman's place is lower than the man’s in most societies, although the
mothers in the family enjoy a divine respect. Middle Easterners are

individualistic in the context of their own culture and enjoy consultation.

Consulting others, especially elders, is a common behavior. (Bakhtari, 1995)

Gender Minority Differences
Gender differences were addressed in the questionnaire in asking the
sexual identity of the supervisor and the intern, and discussed earlier in
relationship to sexual role model differences. A component that will not be

addressed in this study, due to the potential for alienating respondents to the

65

survey, is one of alternative sexual lifestyles (i.e. Gay, Bisexual, Lesbian,
Transgendered), or the gay culture.

Thirty years ago, gender roles were a topic barely worth of study.
It was simply assumed that men followed one role and women
another. The women's movement and later the men's movement
partially resulted in redefining the concepts of gender identity and
gender roles." (Burnes, Anderson, & Heppner, 1995, p. 323).

The Gay, BI, Lesbian, Transgender organization is now clamoring for
recognition as a discriminated minority. Pope (1995) argues the case that they

are a cultural minority,

. . . also a psychological minority in the sense that lesbians and
gay men were labeled as "diseased" by the psychological
community until the seventh printing of the Diagnostic app
fitistical Mapual of Mental Disorders in 1973 (American
Psychiatric Association, 1980, p. 380) . . . Gay men and lesbians,
therefore, are certainly a minority created by the psychological
community out of the prejudices of the majority culture. (Pope,
1995,p.302)

Oppression by the majority culture is why many are "in the closet" and do
not wish to be martyrs for the cause. It seems unlikely that people would
deliberately choose to be oppressed, and there are controversial studies that
reveal brain structure, genetic, and hormonal differences.

Many gay men and lesbians and some racial and ethnic minorities
can pass for majority, but this is not a very effective method of
creating a positive self-identity; in fact it is antithetical. The
consequences of passing include lower self-esteem [Berger, 1982],
along with feelings of inferiority and the internalization of negative
self-concepts [Weinberg & Williams,1974]. The cumulative effect of
this devaluing of self and others like oneself is emotionally
unhealthy [Fischer, 1972; Freedman, 1971; Weinberg, 1971].
(Pope,1995,p.303)

66

If the national average of ten percent is applied to the music therapy
population, there should be about five hundred GBLT music therapists, so it is
very likely that there are a few GBLT music therapy internship supervisors and
that ten percent of the interns may fit this category. Prejudice is alive and may
possibly be a problem if mismatched in the lntemship selection process.
Hypotheses of any difference in perceived music therapy mentoring in the
internship setting is not being tested, due to the sensitivity of those who may
wish to remain anonymous, and those that would be offended at such a question
of sexual orientation being asked of him or her.

Conclusions Regarding Ethnicity in Music Therapy

Training the music therapy intern should utilize cross-cultural training in
the lntemship. In the author's experience, interns as recently as 1998 have
come from an environment almost devoid of exposure to cultures other than
"white, Anglo-Saxon, Protestant." The author's internship site offers exposure to
many cultures, religions, ethnic groups, and sexuality. One intern professed not
to have ever known anyone who was GBLT. The author assigned a number of
readings on the subject for the intern. Tolerance and acceptance are expected
from music therapists for his or her clients; why not the same for any
supervisor's, intern's, or peer's sexual orientation?

Lachman (1997) examines cross-cultural comparisons of the structure
and strength of achievement motivation and compares it to a blind man
describing an elephant by touch. The supervisor should teach by example, with
a willingness to respect and learn about other cultures. The supervisor cannot

67

teach the intern about all cultures, but may only sample some cultural
differences available at the lntemship site. Lachmen advocates focusing on the
cultural connection and investigating the direct effects of culture on the intern, as
well as the processes through which they are exerted in changing his or her own
world view and perception. Multicultural focuses may be attributed to research
incorrectly.

Perhaps it is time to pause and examine the way cross-cultural

studies have been going so far. It is important to ask whether this

way will indeed, lead to a better understanding of cultural

influences. We have to ask ourselves: Can we 'grasp' the elephant

now more adequately than we did two or three decades ago? To

my mind, without a shift in the way we approach cross-cultural

research, we will remain half 'blind' in this regard: our

understanding of the impact of culture will not improve. (Lachman,

1997,p.320)

Multicultural awareness and training evolve as prejudice and
discrimination are exposed in society. The intern may receive multicultural
training, but in essence it remains the responsibility of the intern to develop a
non-racist identity. For example, it would be unethical to judge the behaviors of
a client's family in the context of their own culture instead of the client's culture.
Good ethical professional behavior dictates that we treat each supervisor, intern,
client, and family, with respect for his or her choices, based upon their cultural
backgrounds.

Robinson's (1962) article about music therapy in a hospital setting

discussed the importance of culture in treatment with an example of joy she was

able to impart with her singing of old German songs to a German emigrant client

68

with cancer.

Every week I see children and adults from these groups [Mexican,
Puerto Rican, and Cuban refugees], many of whom speak no
English and understand very little. So, a few months ago I joined a
Spanish conversation class and now sing and converse a little in
their own language. How their eyes shine, and how indulgent they
are of my mistakes! (Robinson, 1962, p. 17)

69

CHAPTER THREE - METHODOLOGY
Research Desigp

In the conceptualization of this study of the music therapy clinical
supervisor/music therapy intern relationship, there was a variety of approaches
from which to select. Case studies of supervisor/students in a music therapy
college clinic were examined by Memory (1987) in her study to discover if
evaluation of the supervision and awareness of the roles played in the
relationship could improve supervision. Detailed interpretive interviews with
random music therapy clinical internship directors analyzed the complexity, and
development of the relationship planned for each intern. Likewise, interviews
with random music therapy interns yielded valuable information about their
transition from student into professional.

A comprehensive survey of all of AMTA's clinical internship sites
(including all former NAMT and AAMT sites) measured the level of mentoring
perceived by the intern and compared that level to the many different factors
about the internship, factors that may or may not have effected the level of
mentoring. The survey contained three components: that of the demographic
data (both supervisor and intern), interns rating data on Noe’s adapted
measurement of mentorship skills, and data from the intern’s allotment of five
points among the three role relationships as defined by Memory, Unkefer, and
Smeltekop (including a second rating of preferred role relationship). Additional
data of opened-ended comments and a general scale rating of mentorship were

collected.

70

Hypotheses
Hymthesis A — The differences in clinical sites (factors listed below) will be
shown to have no correlation with perceived levels of mentoring by the music
therapy intern.

Site Factors
AMTA Region
Founding association (NAMT, AAMT, or AMTA)
Number of interns accepted simultaneously
Total number of interns trained at the site
Primary funding of agency
Environment (psychiatric, school, hospice, etc.)
Population of clients (ages, disabilities and/or facility)
Benefits offered the intern
Site required evaluation times

Hypothesis B - The variety of supervisors' life experiences will be shown to
demonstrate no correlation with perceived levels of mentoring by music therapy

interns.

Supervisor Factors
Ethnographic data (ethnicity, age, marital status, and gender)
MT and supervisory experience
Education level and number of supervisory training sessions
aflended
Number of hours the supervisor spends with the intern in both
clinical supervision and social/lunch time

Hypothesis C - lntems' personal life experience will be shown to demonstrate no
correlation with perceived levels of mentoring by music therapy interns.
Ethnographic data (ethnicity, age, marital status, and gender)
Grading method utilized by intern’s school
Time interval of internship during sampling

Hypothesis D - The intems' selection of the consultant/colleague role will

correlate more closely with interns who report higher levels of perceived levels

71

of mentoring, also those reporting a higher level of perceived mentorship will
select the consultant/colleague role as preferable to the teacher/student role or
the counselor/client role.
was
Subjects were music therapy interns and clinical internship supervisors
surveyed through music therapy clinical internship directors at all active
internship sites (according to AMTA web-site listing of February 19, 1999 and a
list of universities formerly associated with AAMT supplied by Roger Smeltekop,
because they may have exclusive contact with their own active internship sites).
Survey
The basis of the survey’s content (see Appendix C) was adapted from
Noe's survey of measuring mentoring functions (Noe, 1988) as perceived by the
novice (music therapy intern). Twenty-nine statements about mentoring are
listed, and the protege was asked to rate agreement with the statement on a
scale of five (to a very slight extent) to one (to a very large extent). Factors
individually analyzed in the questionnaire include:
Factor 1, Psychosocial functions including:
a. coaching
b.counsefing
c. acceptance
at confirmation
e. supplying a role model
Factor 2, Protégé's career functions of mentors providing:
a. protection
b. visibility
c. sponsorship

d. challenging assignments
Factor 3, Friendship offered by the mentor

72

Noe's survey terminology and questions were altered only to reflect the
music therapist's terminology used in the music therapy internship setting. That
is the supervisor corresponds to the mentor, and the novice to the music therapy
intern. Noe's original survey incorporated: measurement of job involvement,
locus of control, career planning, relationship importance, quality of interactions,
amount of time spent with mentors, gender composition of dyads and
assessment of Various types of functions provided by the mentor/supervisor.

An exploratory factor analysis was used instead Of a confirmatory

approach because this study represented one of the first attempts

to develop a measure of mentoring functions, and theoretical

development regarding the types of functions provided by mentors.

(Noe, 1988, p. 467)

Noe’s factors of locus of control, career planning, relationship importance, and
quality of interactions will not be addressed in this research due to the necessity
to limit the scope of this study. Noe’s other factor of gender dyads was
incorporated into the ethnographic and demographic survey. Based on the
model of music therapy supervision by Memory, Unkefer, and Smeltekop, six
questions in the survey assess the intem’s perception of his/her
supervisor/intern relationship. The intern was asked to divide five points among
the relationship as they perceived it and five points among their preferred
relationship;Teacher/Student, Counselor/Client, and ColliegelConsultant.

A space on the survey was reserved for participants to optionally
contribute comments about the supervisor/intern relationship for further
discussion and score on a five point scale an overall assessment of their

supervisor’s role as a mentor.

73

Procedure

1. Approval from the University Committee on Research Including Human
Subjects for this study was given February 15, 1999.

2. A packet containing a letter of introduction, directions, two survey
forms and two return envelopes with postage was sent to all music therapy
clinical internship directors at all AMTA approved internship sites, and approved
universities (former AAMT clinical sites having lntemship sites), for a total of 174
possible sites.

3. The clinical internship directors distributed the survey and directions to
their supervisors (if not self) and/or music therapy interns.

4. After the deadline was extended two weeks, responses were opened
by a secretary to assist the researcher in maintaining anonymity. Postmarks
were coded with a number in the order received and stored until opening.

5. Data in the survey was compiled into a Lotus.123 data base sheet (see
appendix of raw data) that was used to determine these basic statistics: modes
of responses, median score recorded, mean or average, trimean (top/bottom 5%
trimmed of the mean), factor’s standard error of deviation, standard error of
mean deviation, sum of factors, and population variance of values.

6. The JMP or John’s Macintosh’s Program (SAS Institute) was employed
to determine more extensive sophisticated statistical analysis of the data. This
program was chosen because it provided an unbiased scattergram.
“Scattergrams provide at least impressionistic information about the existence,
strength, and direction of the relationship and can also be used to check the

74

relationship for linearity. . . the scattergram can be used to predict the score of a
case on one variable from the score of that case on the other variable” (Healey,
p. 383). When appropriate, dual figures of Anova computations and t—test linear
line graphs of regression were configured to provide visual interpretation for
over 1080 statistical tests:

a. A one-way anova including a summary of fit, analysis of
variance measuring the F ratio, probability, means used for
one-way Anova, standard error variance of means.

b. The Tukey-Kramer HSD compares all pairs of factors to
determine q* and configure a circular graph comparing all pairs.

The Tukey-Kramer test creates a q* value to produce a graph
illustrating comparison of paired factors. For questions requiring a
t-test (e.g., perceived mentorship level with ages of supervisors),
cross factors measured aspects of mentorship and compared them
to demographic and ethnographic data of both music therapy
interns and their music therapy supervisors. A circle graph by
Tukey-Kramer illustrated the closeness of relationships of factors
in a visual simple form to read. If there were significant F ratios
and probabilities, the graphs simplified determining the relationship
in the two-tailed analysis. When it was apparent from the anova
and standard error that there was no statistical significance, the
Tukey-Kramer graph was not constructed. A good example of
these criteria is ethnic or cultural differences. There was little

75

cultural diversity among music therapy interns and less diversity

with the intem’s clinical supervisors. A chi-square was originally

proposed to study male/female dyad relationships but was not

conducted due to the lack of male music therapy interns and no

dyad paired.

c. Variations [O’Brian, Brown-Forsythe, Levene, Bartrlett] of

analysis of the F Ratio and Probability greater than F.

d. T-test, product-moment coefficient, with analysis of

variance, parameter estimates, t ratio, Probability greater than t,

accompanied by scatter graph and Linear Fit.

7. Against each question in Noe’s survey, a battery of comparisons was
made against many demographic statistics: region, association, supervisor’s
age, ethic origins of both supervisor and intern, educational level of supervisor
and his/her supervisory training, perceived mentoring levels, reimbursements,
grading, time interval in the internship or times of evaluations.

8. Six questions in the survey [based upon Memory, Unkefer, and
Smeltekop’s model of music therapy supervision] were statistically analyzed for
significance against Noe’s measurement and all other demographic information

provided by the intern and supervisor.

76

CHAPTER FOUR - RESULTS

Response to Survey

Surveys utilized in the study include respective data from 106 music
therapy interns and the corresponding supervisors. The number of sites
responding can not be determined, due to the anonymity in the survey. The
number of interns at the same site may sometimes be identified (see appendix d)
by matching site factors and consecutive postage order of receipt (perhaps the
same envelope), but certainty of identification is unreliable. An AMTA annual
survey (1998) of clinical training indicated 100 sites out of 158 approved clinical
training sites reported training 233 MT Interns (Creagan, 1999). With 106
responses and an estimate of 233 MT Interns being trained in 1999 (based upon
1998 figures), this produces an estimated 45% rate of response to this study’s
survey. Unless future clinical site surveys validate a much larger number of
interns trained in 1999, a 45% rate of response should be adequate to validate
serious consideration of the research data. Surveys were expected back by
March 10, 1999; but were accepted for data until the postmarked date of March
26, 1999.

Statistical data from the surveys were held unopened until the last
postage date of March 26, 1999. This exceeded the time period of gathering by
two weeks. “The intern completes the survey without discussing it with their
supervisor and returns it anonymously in the enclosed envelope before March

10, 1999” (see the appendix B).

77

This increased the sample from 81 surveys to 106 surveys (23%
increase). Examination of surveys that arrived after the March 25, 1999, date
demonstrated little deviation from the norm and was consistent with national
averages. Although 106 surveys were entered in the Lotus 123 statistical data
file, only 99 had valid statistical data (For example, one survey had used check

marks instead of the 1-5 Likert Scale).

Statistical Calculations for Analysis

An analysis of demographic factors against Noe’s survey questions and
the MT model questions of roles generated over a thousand statistical analysis
tables with charts using the JMP program in addition to the basic statistics
supplied by Lotus.123. Statistics revealed a few probabilities less than p<0.01.
More were found at the p<.05 level of significance. A number of factors having a
p<0.2 were noted as possible factors influencing the perceived level of
mentoring.

The accuracy of probability below p<0.2 with a small sample could easily
misidentify a factor as being significant, so caution was exercised in weighing
importance. If a question about a characteristic generates a statistically
significant relationship (p<0.05), similar questions identifying the same
characteristic (e.g., coaching, friendship, or role modeling) may offer clues to
interpretation of the data. A deeper look (appendix E) at R value squared, the
means, and consistency of answers from similar questions (e.g., coaching,

friendship, or role modeling) may offer substantiation of a relationship between

78

factors and characteristics of mentorship. Statistically significant factors at the
p<0.01 level of assurance indicate rejection of a null hypothesis in many
scientific studies. In this sociological study of a limited population, p<0.05 will

be considered relevant, and factors with an p<0.2 assurance will be examined.

Noe's Adapted Questionnaire
Noe devised the questionnaire to measure three factors (psychosocial,
career functions, and friendship) in perception of mentorship through a battery of
29 questions. An examination of the data using Noe’s perspective gives broader
relevance to the statistical analysis Of individual questions compared to the

demographic data about either the intern or supervisor.

Noe's Categories of Mentoring Factors

1? 5 '**7’* .. 2,.i2 W: ' T*\*:
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Psychosocial Career Help Friendship
Average Rating of Mentoring by Music Therapy Intems

Figure 1. Vertical bar graph of Noe’s basic categories Of factors; MTI mean =
4.23, Psychosocial Factors = 4.29, Career Help = 4.23, and Friendship = 3.61.

79

Friendship, as a characteristic defined by Noe, appears to be at a lower
level in the MT intern/supervisor relationship. The friendship level was based on
questions about the intern and supervisor sharing lunch and other times outside
of work together. Psychosocial characteristics include factors of coaching,
counseling, acceptance and confirmation, and service as a role model. Career
Help characteristics include factors of protection, exposure and visibility,

sponsorship, and challenging assignments.

 

Characteristics of Survey Questions

 

 

 

 

5
8
8 4.5
f 1to5
8’ ' / -I-
3 4
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3.5

 

 

 

protection
exposlvlsb
spans/ship
chaflenge
friendship
coaching
counseflng
act/confirm
role model

Characteristics of Noe's Factors

 

 

 

Figure 2. Vertical line graph showing characteristics of survey questions.
Average means contrasted with characteristics as identified in Noe's survey.

Figure 2 is constructed from the means provided in table on the next

page.

80

Table 1

Mean Scores of Cha_m_cteristics in Noe’s Survey and Average Mean Score

 

Average Mean Coaching Counseling Acceptance Role Model
123. L33 ifl Q fig

Protection Exposure Sponsorship Challenge Friendship
388 4 M5 4._81_ fl

 

The career function level perceived as the highest by music therapy
interns was in providing challenging assignments. The lowest level perceived
was in the factor of friendship. Challenge and sponsorship were also perceived
at a higher level and protection and acceptance & confirmation were perceived
lower. Function means cannot be accurately analyzed statistically for
significance. Each question will be addressed individually.

Coaching
Coaching Factor 1 - Survey question #1
Shared the history of his/her career with me.
Mode = 5 Median = 5 Average = 4.34 Std. dev. = .095
Coaching Factor 2 - Survey question # 2
Encouraged me to prepare for employment.
Mode = 5 Median = 4.5 Average = 4.2 Std. dev. = .1
Coaching Factor 3 - Survey question # 23
Suggested specific strategies for me to achieve my career goals.
Mode = 5 Median = 4 Average = 4.13 Std. dev. = .1
Coaching Factor 4 - Survey question # 24
Shared his/her ideas with me.
Mode = 5 Median = 5 Average = 4.57 Std. dev. = .07
Coaching Factor 5 - Survey question # 25

Suggested specific strategies for me to accomplish my work objectives.
Mode = 5 Median = 4 Average = 4.19 Std. dev. = .09

81

Coaching Factor 6 - Survey question # 26
Given me feedback regarding my performance during the internship.
Mode = 5 Median = 5 Average = 4.57 Std. dev. = .07

Acceptance 8. Confirmation

Acceptance & Confirmation 1- Survey question # 3
Encouraged me to try new ways of behaving in my lntemship.

Mode = 5 Median = 4 Average = 4.03 Std. dev. = .105
Acceptance 8 Confirmation 2 - Survey question # 14
Conveyed feelings of respect for me as an individual.

Mode = 5 Median = 5 Average = 4.63 Std. dev. = .078

Acceptance & Confirmation 3 - Survey question # 28
Asked me for suggestions concerning problems she/he has encountered at
school.
Mode = 4 Median = 3 Average = 3.04 Std. dev. = .159

Role Model

Role Model 1 - Survey question # 4
Work behavior I try to imitate.
Mode = 5 Median = 4 Average = 4.17 Std. dev. = .087

Role Model 2 - Survey question # 5
Attitudes and values regarding music therapy that are like mine. .
Mode = 5 Median = 4 Average = 4.16 Std. dev. = .097

Role Model 3 - Survey question # 6
My respect and admiration as a supervisor.
Mode = 5 Median = 5 Average = 4.61 Std. dev. = .068

Role Model 4 - Survey question # 7
Provided a model I will try to be like when I reach a similar position in my career.
Mode = 5 Median = 5 Average = 4.31 Std. dev. = .087
Counseling
Counseling 1 - Survey question # 8

Demonstrated good listening skills in our conversations.
Mode = 5 Median = 5 Average = 4.6 Std. dev. = .069

82

Counseling 2 - Survey question # 9
Discussed my questions or concerns regarding feelings of competence,
commitment to advancement, relationships with peers and supervisors or
work/family conflicts.
Mode = 5 Median = 5 Average = 4.55 Std. dev. = .083

Counseling 3 - Survey question # 10
Shared personal experiences as an alternative perspective to my problems.
Mode = 5 Median = 5 Average = 4.24 Std. dev. = .1

Counseling 4 - Survey question # 11
Encouraged me to talk openly about anxiety and fears that detract from my work.
Mode = 5 Median = 4 Average = 4.17 Std. dev. = .098

Counseling 5 - Survey question # 12
Conveyed empathy for the concerns and feelings I have discussed with him/her.
Mode = 5 Median = 5 Average = 4.48 Std. dev. = .071

Counseling 6 - Question #13
Kept feelings and doubts I shared with him/her in strict confidence.
Mode = 5 Median = 5 Average = 4.48 Std. dev. = .086

Protection

Protection 1 - Survey question # 15
Reduced unnecessary risks that threatening the possibility of my being hired as
a music therapist in the future.
Mode = 5 Median = 4 Average = 4.13 Std. dev. = .101

Protection 2 - Survey question # 16
Helped me finish assignments/tasks or meet deadlines that othenIvise would
have been difficult to complete.
Mode = 5 Median = 4 Average = 3.63 Std. dev. = .14

Exposure 8: Visibility

Exposure & Visibility 1 - Survey question # 17
Helped me meet his or her colleagues.
Mode = 5 Median = 5 Average = 4.32 Std. dev. = .091

Exposure & Visibility 2 - Survey question # 18
Given me assignments that increased written and personal contact with
administrators.
Mode = 5 Median = 4 Average = 3.8 Std. dev. = .130

83

Exposure 8 Visibility 3 - Survey question # 19
Assigned responsibilities to me that have increased my contact with people at
work who may judge my potential for future job references and contacts.
Mode = 4 Median = 4 Average = 3.89 Std. dev. = .112

Sponsorship
Sponsorship 1 - Survey question # 20
Given me assignments or tasks in my work that prepared me for employment.
Mode = 5 Median = 5 Average = 4.46 Std. dev. = .078
Challenging Assignments
Challenging Assignments 1 - Survey question # 21
Given me assignments that present opportunities for me to learn new skills.
Mode = 5 Median = 5 Average = 4.63 Std. dev. = .525
Challenging Assignments 2 - Survey question # 22
Provided me with support and feedback regarding my performance as a music
therapist.
Mode = 5 Median = 5 Average = 4.54 Std. dev. = .077
Friendship
Friendship 1 - Survey question # 27
Invited me to join him/her for lunch.
Mode = 5 Median = 5 Average = 4.16 Std. dev. = .134
Friendship 2 - Survey question # 29

Interacted with me socially outside of work.
Mode = 1 Median = 3 Average = 3.07 Std. dev. = .163

Further visual comparison of factor questions of mentoring characteristics

may be seen in figure 3, on the next page.

84

 

Noe's Survey Questions

   

 

 

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23
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C III -
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Mentorship Characteristics

 

Figure 3. Vertical bar graph. MTI average means to Noe’s Survey Questions of
perceived mentoring.

The lowest levels of mentorship occur with the third question of
acceptance and confirmation regarding requests for help in understanding
previous school work and its relationship to the present internship. This
question (sometimes marked with a question mark or written comment by the
MTI) does not appear to have been rephrased in such a way that the MTI
understood to what the question referred. The question on friendship, and
meeting outside Of the work situation, was understandable, and the responses
are clear that this is not an area of mentorship that MTIs or MT supervisors
endorse or strive to achieve. There was an extreme range of answers to the

other question of lunch, many answers of fives and ones.

85

DemagraphiclEthnolaqical Factors

Site factors consist of region, former association, number of interns
accepted simultaneously, the total number of interns trained, primary funding of
agency, environment (psychiatric, school, hospice, etc.), population of clients
(ages, disabilities and facility), benefits offered the intern, and site required
evaluation times. The null hypothesis A, regarding site factor differences, is
accepted in part in that no statistical significant differences (p< 0.05) in factors
were found in the JMP analysis (Appendix E available from author) for the
following factors: the total number of interns accepted for training simultaneously
at site, primary funding of agency, environment (psychiatric, school, hospice,
etc), and population of clients (ages, disabilities and facility).

Factors with significant differences (p<0.05), however, were noted for:
region, former association, number of interns trained at site, site evaluation
times, and benefits including wage, stipend, housing, mileage and meals.
Regional differences are investigated more closely than other factors to
exemplify the mode or average response to factor questions in the survey and

offer a more comprehensive view of internship training nationally.

86

Mnal Differences

Regional differences in modes of factors and averaged perceived
mentorship levels were determined for seven of eight regional districts that
comprise the AMTA. There were three late responses from internship sites in
the South Central Region, four late responses from the South Western Region,
and two late responses from the New England region. The Great Lakes and
Mid-Atlantic regions are two that possess larger numbers of internships than
New England or South Central regions. The following chart shows the

closeness of answers between groups in different demographics.

 

Reglonal Statistics

I Great Lake I West I MidAtlantIc I Southcentral
E Southeast New England Midwest I Southwest

    

responses members
9.0%
3.0% 1.8%
13.1% [' 26.3% 77% . 22,31, 33*
.......... I ... 115% 1%
23.31. “m 280* . 12.7% 197%
2.0% 13.1% 4.7% 139*

 

internships Means
7.19s

   

15.0%
L 13.71.

 

 

 

 

Figure 4. Pie Chart of Regional Statistics demonstrating percentages of
responses from regions regarding factors of number of responses received

This pie chart, illustrating regional differences, offers the average means
in percentages of total number of points scored of perceived mentoring and
gives a general profile of respondents. For similar analysis of other factors,
appendix E offers that opportunity. Regional differences and responses look

87

similar to the charts representing membership, AMTA schools and internships.
However, very little difference may be observed between regions when one is
examining the percentage of means perceived in internships (e.g., New
England). Other demographics such as number of music therapists, schools,
and lntemships may vary greatly. If a strict interpretation of the null hypothesis
were maintained (p<0.01) there would be no sets of answers to questions
related to region that are answered with statistical significance. Although a null
hypothesis, a p<.01 is frequently required in a large-sample sociological study to
reject the hypothesis, in a small-sample study as this, the probability assurance
is raised to p<0.2 to determine if any factors might be related (see factors
following table 2). “The larger the sample, with all other factors constant, the
higher the probability of rejecting the Hypothesis” (Healey, p. 220). The
following three questions show data of interest for further study, though not
significant at the p<0.05 level.

Question 22. Provided me with support and feedback regarding my
performance as a music therapist. The Southeastern region’ average of
mentorship was 4.08 compared to the national average of 4.54 and
Midwesterner's average of 5.0. This mentorship characteristic of challenge was
calculated to have an F: 1.838, p<0.101.

Question 19. Assigned responsibilities to me that have increased my
contact with people at work who may judge my potential for future job references
and contacts. The means vary greatly from 2.5 to 4.3. This mentorship
characteristic of exposure and visibility was calculated to have an F: 1.769 with

88

p<0.115 and the standard error of .76 in the New England region having only

two respondents.

Question 6. My respect and admiration as a supervisor. The means in

this question vary from 4.3 (Southeastern) to 4.9 (Midwestern) levels, with a

p<.18.

Table 2

figional Factors 8 MentoringLevels (Scale of 1-5)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

AMTA lntems Mentorship Total of Supervisor Years as 3 Years as a Population
Region Responded Averages interns Training MT Supervisor Mode
All 98 4.22 33.83 1.64 14.6 7.5 Psych
Great Lake 36 4.13 37.69 37.69 14.8 7.9 Psych
South 14 4.21 21.93 1.21 15.7 7.9 Psych
Eastern
Western 13 4.47 22.31 1.46 15 5.2 Multiple
New 2 4.07 8 2 4 2.5 Not App.
England
Mid 28 4.2 37.5 1.43 14.7 9.4 00 Res
Atlanlic
Mid West 13 4.26 36.08 1.23 13.6 6.3 Psych
South 3 4.42 79 1.66 15.8 4.2 Psych
Western
South 0 No Data ' '
Central

 

89

 

Association Approval

This question “Internship originally approved by: _ NAMT, _ AA MT,
or_ AMTA in 19_” may be more ambiguous than it first appears. One
respondent checked NAMT and put “98” in AMTA's date. The merger has been
gradual and sites approved were most likely applied for during AMTA’s transition
period. Supervisor age averages are lower for AMTA, and this may correspond
to the newness of the sites in AMTA. NAMT’s mentorship average is 4.03,
AAMT’s average is 4.2, and AMTA’s average is 4.6. These were not significant,
and averages of all factors are not true reflections of significant differences
because this is a two-tailed test. Research error may be made in placing
significance upon the averages. This is illustrated in the following question that
respectively possess p<0.12 and p<0.15, and low R squared values.
Significance is determined two-tailed, questions 25 and 7 reflect both positive
and negative differences in characteristics for NAMT and AMTA. Extremely
small samples contribute to diminishing any statistical significance. The NAMT
model had 78 interns, the AAMT model had 4 interns, and the AMTA approved
sites had 10 interns. The following two questions may show data of interest for
further study, though not significant at the p<0.05 level.

Question 25 (Coaching) - Suggested specific strategies for me to
accomplish my work objectives. [NAMT - 4.15, AAMT - 5, and AMTA - 3.85]

Probability less than 0.12 chance occurrence.

9O

Question 7 (Role Model) - Provided a model I will try to be like when I
reach a similar position in my career. [NAMT - 4.21, AAMT - 5, and AMTA - 4.5]

Probability less than 85% chance occurrence.

 

Former & Present National Association Comparison
-I- Average —0— NAMT + AAMT -ai- AMTA

 

""iu‘h'gun'ongufl'”‘%floflflg"e"z
.. - g fig
I g g E 2% SEE

Noe's Survey Questionnaire

 

 

 

Figure 5. Vertical line graph of AMTA, NAMT, and AAMT former associations
comparing mean responses to Noe’s survey.

Although there is no strong statistical significance (p<0.05) attached to
the findings (due to the extremely small sample), there are definite observable
patterns in responses. Questions of Acceptance 3 compared to Friendship 2
provide interesting characteristic contrasts of perceived mentorship by the

interns of differing former and present associations.

91

 

MT Supervision Model

I NAMT I AAMT I AMTA

 

 

Average of Division of Five Points

Teacher Consultant Counselor
Counselor Teacher Consultant

MTl's Perceived Supervision 8 Preferred Supervision

 

 

 

Figure 6. Dual Vertical Bar Graph (perceived 8 preferred supervision of the
interns) depicting sum totals of teacher, counselor, and consultant as defined in
Memory, Unkefer, 8 Smeltekop model of music therapy supervision.

Interns at all sites, regardless of former association strongly prefer that
their supervisors supply the role of consultant/colleague, and they do receive
their preference in proportionate measure. The role of teacher and counselor is
supplied more to the intern than is preferred by them. The role of

counselor/client is one rarely preferred or supplied. Former AAMT sites do note

a higher level of counseling and prefer it more than former NAMT or AMTA sites.

92

IpflNulber of Interns Trained aathe Site

The total number of interns trained at the site demonstrates statistically
significant differences in perceived factor difference of coaching, counseling,
acceptance 8 confirmation, and friendship. To gain an overall perspective, the
lntem’s overall estimate of perceived mentoring was compared to various levels

of the number of interns who have completed their internship at the same site.

 

Total Number of Interns
4.6

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

n- \
E 4.4 \
5 4.3
2
‘8
‘g 4.2
.1
4.1
1 - 6 Interns 6 - 14 Interns 15 ~60 Interns 60-600Interns

Number of Interns the Clinical Site has Trained

 

 

 

Figure 7. Vertical line graph depicting four groups having varying levels of total
number of interns trained at the site compared to perceived levels of mentoring.

This chart of linear regression for the factor of coaching by total number of
interns will show the typical graphs produced (found in appendix) for all of the

similar characteristic survey questions listed in the table 3.

93

 

 

 

coaching

 

 

 

I ' r T r T I ' I ' r
0 100 200 300 400 500
TOTAL!

 

 

Figure 8. Vertical line graph of linear regression comparing the total number of
lntems at a clinical internship site compared to perceived mentoring by the MTI.

Table 3

Statistically Significant actors Compared to Total Number of lnternsat Site

 

L'L. .s‘ 0-‘ ' ve-.0,‘.u‘-n F‘-i0 lo..- 0
Coaching 1 4.35 6.13 -2.48 p<0.02
Counseling 3 4.24 7.31 -2.7 p<0.008
Counseling 6 4.49 2.71 -1.65 p<0.1
Accept 8 Confirm 1 4.02 2.75 -1.66 p<0.1
Accept 8 Confirm 2 4.62 4.42 -2.1 p<0.04
Accept 8 Confirm 3 3.01 4.58 -2.14 p<0.04
Friendship 1 4.16 6.26 -2.5 p<0.01
Friendship 2 3.06 2.95 ‘ -1.72 p<0.09

 

In all of the factors thus far studied, the factor of the site’s total number of
interns appears to have the most significant weight of influence. Five out of the
eight questions were statistically significant at p > .05, and three were significant

at a reduced value of p>0.1.

94

Benefitsfiand Pump

lntems who received benefits of stipend, housing, meals, mileage, and
(for one intern) an hourly wage, showed no significant difference in mentorship
levels. Other benefits (i.e., parking) offered to two lntems were shown to have a
supposed significant effect upon the perceived level of mentorship (if such a
small sample could be relevant). Interns who received other benefits (parking)
perceived an average mentorship level higher on two questions regarding role
model and exposure/visibility.
Evaluation Period

The evaluation period frequency displayed a statistical significance for a
two-tailed difference in characteristics for thirteen of the questions. This
statistical significance appears unrelated to actual perceived mentorship levels,
but that the vast majority were in the same period of their internships. Out of 94
interns who answered the question, 76 were evaluated at mid and final times of
the internship. This, plus small samples of population, and R squared values
less than 0.20 demonstrate that significance is probably due to the variability of
the individual supervisor, rather than the evaluation period. In some of Noe’s
questions, each group scored significantly higher for various questions. The
Bimonthly group scored significantly higher (frequently 5.0) than every three
months, but the weekly group scored significantly lower and higher on different
questions (Act/confirm 3 - 2.5 8 Challenge 1 - 5.0). No consistent patterns of
mentoring levels appear in the data (i.e., The more frequent the evaluation, the
less acceptance and confirmation received).

95

mewisor 8 lntem Factors of Mentorship
Supervisor factors include ethnographic data (ethnicity, age, marital
status, and gender), MT and supervisory experience, education level, number of
supervisory training sessions attended, and the number of hours the supervisor

spends with the intern in clinical supervision and social/lunch time.

Ethnographic Data

The survey reaffirmed AMTA’s ethnographic domination by white
middle-aged female supervisors having college age white females as interns.
Statistical analysis reveals significant differences in ethnicity on six of the
survey’s questions about mentorship. But with a small sample of one African
American and two Asian Americans, such data (comparing region, populations,
etc.) can not be considered without revealing identity of the lntem/supervisor.

There were only four African Americans, two Chicano/Mexican
Americans, eight Asian Americans, and two interns reported themselves as
other. Asian-Americans in this sample were represented in a higher
percentage. The survey reports one intern having an African American
supervisor, two interns having an Asian supervisor (the same post arrival 8
demographics), and 95 interns having Caucasian/Non-Hispanic supervisors. No

intern checked multi-racial, Hispanic, or American Indian/Alaskan Native.

Ethnicity of MTs and MTls

I Caucasian Hispanic] Chicano
I African/American I Other
I Asian Pacific Islander Native American

 

lntems Music Therapists
1.1% I 19%
7.3% 447% 1 I I '

3.7% 7 1.8% 22% . 0.0%

       

87.2% 90.0%

Figure 9. Dual pie chart comparing the ethnic percentage of music therapist and

music therapy interns.

Figure 9 illustrates the increase of Caucasians entering the field as music
therapy interns. There were no multiracial, native Americans, or others who
responded to the survey. There is a positive increase of African Americans into

the field.

97

Gender Composition

Gender Composition
National MT 5 Supervisors
Male Male Not Declared
14.7% 10*

    
    

9.1%

............

Female Female
I Female 853% 899%
I Male
I Not Declared
lntems
Male Not Declared
6.1% 2.0%

  

Female
91 9%

Figure 10. Triple pie charts representing the gender composition in the lntems

and supervisors responding to the survey and the national average.

Males represent only 15% of the music therapy population (AMTA 1998
Sourcebook) and only 6% of the interns responding to this survey. There were
no significant differences in mentoring noted between any dyad composition
(i.e., Female/Female, Female/Male, or Male/Female). There were no Male/Male
dyads, only one possible dyad where the supervisor was male, but the intern did

not indicate his or her gender.

98

 

Gender Dyad Comparison

-I- Male/Fem -o— Fem/Male -a- Fem/Fem

 

 

 
   
 

     

 

 

   
  

 

 

 

 

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Noe's Survey Questions

Figure 1‘_l= Vertical line graph representing perceived mentoring means
compared to gender dyad differences in answers to survey questions.

Closeness of responses between the differing dyads is visually
demonstrated in figure 11. The differences of responses between the
male/female and female/male dyads are more pronounced when examining
factors of Acceptance 3, Role Modeling 1 & 2, and Friendship 1 & 2. Except for
role modeling, the Female/Male dyad relationship showed a higher level of

mentoring perceived. No statistical probabilities were less than p<0.05.

99

 

Agefacm
Age factors of the supervisor or the intern did produce statistically

significant differences in levels of perceived mentorship. The data chart
reinforces the earlier claim that the majority of supervisors were middle-aged.
There are a surprising number of supervisors in their twenties, and it is
interesting to note that the mentorship levels appear to vary within the

supervisors 30th and the 40th decade.

Supervisor Decade Comparison

 

 

 

 

-I- Mean

4.3
O
S:
E 4 25
> I
as
2
3 4.2
1:
.2
_l

4.15

203 303 403 508

Decade of Supervisors age

Figure 12. Vertical line graph contrasting the level of mentoring compared to
decade of supervisor's age.

100

Table 4

Statisticamr Releva_nt Factors Comgared to Supervisor Age

 

Number 92 20 19 36 17
Ages Avg. 20's 305 40s 505

u e e '0 an Mean ea Mean ea F atio robabilit
Coaching 6 4.56 4.6 4.84 4.35 4.76 4.89 p<0.0005
Role Model 2 4.15 4.2 4.68 4.06 3.71 2.57 p<0.032
Counseling 3 4.24 3.75 4.21 4.44 4.41 1.54 p<0.185

AcceptanceB 3.05 2.42 3.56 3.17 2.93 1.64 p<0.16
Chanegggz 4.53 4.55 4.79 4.43 4.47 1.5 p<0.197

101

Years of Experience of Supervisors

 

Music Therapy Supervisory Experience
4.4

 

 

3

W

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

g
2 4.3 \
Oat-A
. 4
E "‘ \ +
:3: 4.15
9
3 4.1
1 -5Yrs 11.151": 21 -30Yrs
6-10Yrs 134an

 

Five Divisions of Years

 

 

Figure 13. Vertical line graph contrasting division of years of experience
compared to intern's level of perceived mentoring.

Compared with years of experience, perceived mentoring levels are
effected inversely with the increase in years being accompanied by a decrease

of perceived mentoring.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

§3J
O
E .
Ԥ
2—
.1
1.1
I TIT If]
0 510152025303540
YRSEXP

 

Figure 14. Visually contrasts years of experience with means of Role Model 2
having an F value of 8.64, probability of F or T < .0042, and a standard deviation
of .01 1 1.

102

 

As it appears in the figure 14, the higher the numbers of years of

experience, the more frequent and lower are the scores of mentoring perceived.

Table 4 offers statistical probabilities and means for the Figure 13 and other

questions of factors graphically similarly. Statistical significance (p > .05) for two

of the survey questions, friendship 1 and role model 2, confirm the inverse

relationship between years of supervision and perceived levels of mentoring by

 

 

 

the intern.
Table 5
Decades of Swervisory Experiences

Number 38 38 22 98
Decade 1 -10 1 1-20 21 -33 all

u e e n Megn Mgap Meag Probability
Role Model 2 4.42 4.16 3.7 4.38 p<0.03
Friendship 1 4.46 3.95 4.0 4.17 p<0.03
Friendship 2 3.39 2.81 3.11 3.09 p<0.20
Counseling 1 4.72 4.63 3.7 4.61 p<0.20
C_h_alleane 2 4.62 4.53 4.38 4.53 p<0.19_

 

that are like mine.

Role model 2, Attitudes and values regarding music therapy

Friendship 1, Invited me to join him/her for lunch; both

questions and the other ones with lesser significance encompass
communication and sharing of similar ideas.

With more years of experience, there is a greater trend toward interns to

perceive a lower level of mentorship in the above characteristic factors.

103

 

Educational Level of Supervisor

Higher educational level of the supervisor correlates with higher levels of
means recorded on scores for challenge 1 and acceptance and confirmation 1.
However, lower levels of mentoring for mean scores for counseling 1 and role
model 2 are seen. Any relationship correlating educational level and mentoring
characteristics would be unseen if only comparing averages of scores as can be

seen in comparing figures 15 and 16.

 

 

 

 

 

act/confirm

 

 

 

 

' , 13 All Pairs
’7 Tukey-Kramer
so LEVEL 0.05

 

 

 

Figure 15. Area and Tukey-Kramer circular graphs comparing educational level
with perceived mentoring by the intern about the factor, Acceptance and
Confirmation 1 (Encouraged me to try new ways of behaving in my internship.)

104

 

 

 

 

counselingl

2.5 "'

2.0 "'

 

 

 

 

1.5 l l

 

All Pairs
Tukey-Kramer
ED LEVEL 0.05

 

 

Figure 16. Area and Tukey-Kramer circular graphs of comparing education level
with perceived mentoring by the intern about the factor, Counseling 1

(Demonstrated good listening skills in our conversations.)

There is a positive correlation between level of education and perceived

mentorship that is statistically significant (p<0.05).

Table 6

Educational Level and Mentoring

 

 

Number 49 42 3 94

Educational Level Bachelor Masters Doctoral Average
MW Mean Mean hLean=___Emlzahilm
Challenge 1 4.41 4.74 5.0 4.57 p<0.049
Role Model 2 4.37 3.94 4.33 4.16 p<0.132
Accept & Confirm 1 3.84 4.24 4.00 4.02 p<0.192

 

105

 

Ngmbar of Training Sessionigttended by Supervispra

The number of NAMT or AMTA supervisory training sessions attended
demonstrated the statistical significance at p<0.05 levels of confidence. In a
pure analysis of the null hypothesis at confidence level, there is no statistical
significance at p<0.01. Higher averages of perceived mentoring usually
occurred if the supervisor had not claimed to have attended any training

sessions, and levels went down frequently with higher numbers of sessions

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

auended.
Supervisory Training Sessions
'I‘ Coach 6 '0' Friend 1 '1' Counsel 1
6
8 5
5‘
o 4
E
g 3
3 2
t
,8 1
:1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Training Levels 1 =No Sessions 9: 15 Sessions

 

 

 

Figure 17. Vertical line graph plotting the number of supervisory sessions and
perceived levels of mentoring by the MTls.

The high crest in the figure 16 and scores on Friendship 1 that dipped to
1 on the Likert scale, were represented by only one MTI who had a supervisor
with five supervisory sessions (see table 7). Although statistically significant, the
number in the sample reduces the significance.

106

 

Table 7

Number of Supervisory Trainirg Sessions

 

 

Level Number Coach 6 Friegdshig 1 Qognsel 5
0 19 4.74 4 4.61
1 44 4.55 4.45 4.41
2 16 4.66 4.09 4.63
3 2 3 4.5 4.5
4 3 4.67 3.34 5
5 1 4 1 5
6 1 5 4 5

10 1 5 4 5

15 3 3.67 1 3

p<.032 p<.045 p<.015

 

Clinical and Social Hou_rs Spent with Intern

The hours in clinical supervision, and in social time, varied in both
extremes from one hour to forty hours. In examining hours of clinical
supervision, the number of hours had a significant (p<0.05) two-tailed effect

upon three questions in the survey and possibly seven other questions.

Table 8

Houjrs of Clinical Supervision and Perceived Mentoring Level

 

 

Meat—ion Maan ; Ratio grogaaility>|t|<pgo1
Role Model 2 4.15 -2.05 p<0.04
Counseling 1 4.47 +2.04 p<0.04
Coaching 1 4.43 +1.98 p<0.05
Counseling 2 4.6 -1.94 p<0.06
Counseling 4 4.17 +1.91 p<0.06
Counseling 3 4.26 +1.77 p<0.08
Coaching 6 4.6 -1.69 p<0.09
Role Model 1 4.19 -1.68 p<0.09
Role Model 3 4.64 -1.64 p<0.10
Challenge 2 4.55 +1.38 p<0.17

 

107

The consistencies of characteristics that were both positively and
negatively effected by the hours of clinical supervision confirm the validity of
Noe’s survey of characteristics. Perceived role model mentorship decreased
with the number of hours of supervision and counseling levels perceived by the
intern increased. A comparison of clinical supervisory hours and social hours
yields an interesting contrast with an inverse relationship with characteristics of
role modeling and a positive correlation with counseling. The following linear

regression charts constructed from the t-test illustrate these relationships

 

 

4—1

coaching

1-1

 

 

 

l I I f 17 r l I
0 10 20 30 40
hrs clin sup

_

 

 

 

Figure 18. Linear Regression chart of Acceptance and Confirmation 1 and
perceived mentorship levels showing a positive correlation with the number of
hours in clinical supervision.

If a linear regression chart was shown for role modeling, the line would be
going down, instead of up. The actual average level of mentoring is not effected
by this significant two-tailed statistical analysis. Characteristics, such as

counseling and role modeling are significantly affected.

108

 

 

 

 

 

 

5" nee-oceano- - e e e
4‘1 nnnnnn an e a
2’ 3+ -
.C
8
8
2—4
1
1—l
l ' l l ' 1 fi l
0 5 10 15 20
hrsmtlsoc

 

 

 

Figure 19. Linear regression chart of Coaching 6 and perceived mentorship
levels showing a positive correlation with the number of hours of MT social times

 

 

 

 

 

55

5.0- on. on no. a e e

45- ..—‘T“‘--._____~‘--‘~‘.

4.0 -' o u. . n o e e
jg 35-3
§ 30-1

2.5 -1

20-5

15 . . 1 . , , 1 , T

o 5 1o 15 20
hrs mtlsoc

 

 

 

Figure 20. Linear regression chart of Coaching 6 and perceived mentorship
levels showing an inverse or negative correlation with the number of hours of MT
social times.

109

Mentorship Level 3i Judged bylntern

Do you look to your supervisor as a mentor? __ (scale of 1 for strong
disagreement to 5 for strong agreement) Please comment about your supervisor
(On an additional sheet of paper, if you wish). When this question was added to
the survey for additional data, the statistical significance was not considered.
What was discovered is that there is a strong correlation between the answers
on the survey and the score in the question above. The significance of the self
appraisal, twenty-six questions out of twenty-nine correlating significantly at
p<.01, validates both those questions and the self appraisal. The other two
questions correlated at a lower statistically significant level; Counseling 1

(p<0.12), and Friendship 1 (p<0.17).

110

Music Therapy Model of Supervision

The only model of supervisory roles, developed at Michigan State
University, was referred to in Perspectives on Music Therapy Education and
Training. Questions in the survey relating to this portion of the research
hypothesis included, My supervisor/intern relationship most resembles (Total of
five points divided among the three): Teacher/Student, Counselor/Client, or
Consultant/Colleague and The relationship I prefer to have is one of a (Total of
five points divided among the three): Teacher/Student, Counselor/Client, or
Consultant/Colleague”

Many questions and characteristics were shown to be significant to the
p<0.15 level. Therefore reported results will be limited to those factors at p<0.1,
and statistical significance of p<0.05 remains the standard for definition of
absolute correlation in this study.

Table 9

Factors Indicating Supervisor Resembles Teacher

 

urv ue tion Mean F Ratio Probability
Coaching 2 4.2 3.66 p<0.06
Coaching 3 4.11 2.77 p<0.1
Counseling 2 4.59 2.32 p<0.04
Counseling 4 4.16 1.83 p<0.1

Acceptance 2 4.63 2.19 p<0.05

 

111

Acceptance and Confirmation 2 was the only question to register as
significant (p<0.05). The highest level of the mean was achieved in the mid
range (M=4.93), and the lowest was with those who scored the highest

preference for a supervisor utilizing the teacher/student role.

Table 10

Supervisor Resembles Teacher Score Analysis

 

Score Level Number of lntems Averaga Mean Standard Error

0 19 4.63 0.17
1 23 4.78 0.16
2 16 4.93 0.19
3 20 4.42 0.17
4 4 S 0.38
5 10 4 0.24

 

For those preferring the counseling role, there was only one weak
statistical correlation (p<0.07) relating to Coaching 2. There was a negative t
ratio of -1.81. For those interns reporting that their supervisor most resembled a
counselor, there were eight factors that registered below (p>0.05). Because 78
interns out of 98 reported 0 or 1, the analysis shows that this is not a role often
used in the music therapy clinical internship setting.

The majority of interns did not select the teaching role as a preferred
management style (23 at level 0, 25 at level 1, 22 at level 2, 8 at level 3, 3 at

level 4, and 8 at level 5). This was much greater a spread in scores than those
who preferring counseling.

The consultant role was evenly distributed throughout the range. There
was significance established for those who had a supervisor that resembled a

112

consultant. Role Modeling 2 and 3 were significant at p>.01 and p>.05; also
Exposure and Visibility 2. There was a direct correlation between supervisors
receiving higher levels of consulting and interns recording higher perceived
levels of mentoring. Interns who preferred a consultant scored significantly

higher in Role Modeling 2, Exposure and Visibility 2, and Friendship 1.

 

Management Perceived
I Teacher I Counselor I Consultant

Percentage of Division of Five Points

47.6%

 

14.8%

 

 

 

Figure 21. Pie chart distribution of Preferred Management style based upon a
percentage of the interns’ division of five points.

113

 

Preferred Management Style

I Teacher I Counselor I Consultant

Percentage of Division of Five Points

53.9%

 

 

 

 

Figure 22. Pie chart distribution of Management style perceived based upon a
percentage of the interns’ division of five points.

It is evident that roles being offered, are similar to the percentage of roles
desired or preferred. A higher level of the teacher role is offered by supervisors
as a lower level of consultant role is offered. Comments indicated that interns

strongly preferred a consultant/colleague style of supervision.

114

CHAPTER 5 - DISCUSSION
Observations

Among the survey factors, there are few that generate any specific
differences in mentoring levels. Demographics about the site, such as the size
of the internship, former association, client population, and funding of the site
appeared to have no significance or relationship to mentoring as stated in
hypothesis A. Hypothesis A was rejected in the case of the total number of
interns trained at the clinical site. There was a definite inverse relationship. The
more interns who were trained, the lower the mentoring level was perceived by
the intern. Evaluation times exhibited an interesting propensity for interns to
report their highest levels of perceived mentoring in the middle third of the
internship.

In hypothesis 8, a number of factors were statistically significant (p<0.05)
for a number of factors in the survey. A generalization may be proposed that
more experienced (music therapy and supervision), older, trained (MT
supervisory inservices), who have trained many interns, in actuality are
perceived by interns to provide less mentoring. The reasons for this may be with
either the supervisor or intern. These findings do not negate the value of age,
experience, education, and training. It may be that interns have a harder time

relating to professionals more distant from them in their personal and
professional growth. Other reasons could be with the supervisor getting “in a
rut” and becoming weary of supervising lntems after numerous years. This
indicates that future study is necessary to retain positive mentoring skills

115

between the supervisor meeting this profile and interns who are green.

The supervisory model, developed by Memory, Unkefer, and Smeltekop,
appeared to be function as hypothesized. Supervisors use a variety of
management styles, appropriate for the situation and individual interns. Interns
appear to be receiving close to the levels of mentoring that they desire. The
consultant role was dominant in preference and reported by the interns. The
teacher role was secondary in strength, but had its proponents among the
lntems. The counselor role was universally rejected, except for a few interns.
The only relationship identifiable (not statistically significant) was one between
AAMT and a stronger counselor role played by the supervisor and expected by
the intern. With AAMT’s previous focus on psychotherapy, instead of a
behavioral focus as NAMT, this finding is not surprising.

Future research in these areas now has a baseline upon which to start its
investigations. Negation of parts of hypothesis B about the supervisor’s
characteristics have given clues about how to proceed in future studies. Issues,
such as ethnicity and gender, may need not be pursued due to the extreme lack
of diversity in the field of music therapy. The dwindling number of men in the
field (as compared nationally, as supervisors, and as interns) point to a trend

that may make men in the field a small minority, like ethnic groups such as
African Americans, Hispanics, Asians, etc. (not to mention native Americans or
multiracial individuals). Supervision with these populations will not be relevant

unless we have them in the field of music therapy.

116

Recommendations

Continued investigation is needed into the surprising correlation of the
supervisor factors of training, experience, age, or working at a site that has
trained many interns over the years. A fresh look at the information and training
provided at supervisory training sessions could yield new ways to increase the
levels of mentoring occurring in internships. Future research may offer insight
into the mentoring relationship and the matchings of supervision styles with
those best for the intern.

The trend of dwindling minorities in AMTA internships needs to be
addressed by our association and individual members who recruit potential
music therapists through high school job shadowing or presentations about
music therapy in the community. There are fewer men and ethnic minorities
entering the profession than the small minorities now existing. Mentoring is
used by other disciplines to increase the number of minorities in their
professions. Although music therapists in the United States have never been a
diverse cultural group, it is possible our profession may become less culturally
diverse and accessible to a multicultural and global society. Heightening
awareness and active recruiting by AMTA membership may be able to increase
minorities and diversity in the profession. Mentoring, though never in disuse, is
enjoying a renaissance in many professions and the terminology is becoming
familiar vernacular. Additional research may employ this study to determine if

perceived mentoring increases, decreases, or remain stable in MT internships.

117

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133

APPENDIX A

Cover Letter to Music Therapy Clinical Directors & University Clinical Sites

134

Thomas F. Cawood MT-BC
Genesee Intermediate School District
2413 West Maple Avenue
Flint MI 48507

Ph: 810 - 591- 4550 Fx: 810 - 591- 4415
E-mail: tcawood@gisd.gisd.kl2.mi.us
February 19, 1999
Dear Music Therapy Clinical lntemship Director:

For nineteen years I have been a fellow clinical internship director and have a strong
interest in examining the relationship between the supervisor and intern. Although the
concept of mentoring is very old and occurs with many interns, there is no mention of its
existence in music therapy literature. In my master’s thesis at Michigan State University, I
am surveying all music therapy clinical internship sites to determine a baseline level of
mentorship occurring at this time, as perceived by the music therapy intern. The survey
instrument being used was developed from one used in a similar study in business. The
assistance and cooperation from you, the clinical supervisor, and the intern could result in
findings that may be significant in the area of clinical training in the fixture. Many changes
in clinical training have occurred with the creation of our new association (AMT A). We
are witnessing a new and fresh approach in examining the clinical training models. The
data and statistical analysis will be offered to AMT A's clinical training committee with the
hope of assisting and understanding the process of training interns.

The purpose of the study is to measure the average level of mentorship in music therapy
clinical training and determine whether any of the factors compared in the survey have an
effect upon the level of mentoring as perceived by the intern. My thesis proposes there
will be a null effect by the factors (e.g., age, gender, or ethnicity) being questioned. To
study this hypothesis, it will be necessary to have as 11111 a representation from all types of
clinical training sites.

The clinical internship director does not always directly supervise the intern. Therefore, I
am requesting your assistance in distributing the following letter, survey, and return
envelope to the supervisor(s) and intem(s) at your clinical internship site. Your help in
collecting accurate data by duplicating additional survey forms, return envelopes, and
postage would be greatly appreciated. You are welcome to copy the survey to discuss
with your interns, but please do so only after the interns complete and mail their
anonymous responses to me.

Thank you for relaying this request for participation in this study to your intem(s) and
your supervisor(s) [if different from you]. Your comments, both signed or anonymous,
would be a welcome addition to the study.

Sincerely Yours:

Thomas F. Cawood MT-BC

135

APPENDIX 8

Clinical Supervisor and lntem Directions

136

Dear AMTA Supervisor(s) and Intern(s):

Thank you for your dual participation in this study. Although there are personal questions
in this survey (e.g., age, ethnicity, etc), please be assured that your anonymity will be
preserved. Factors such as region, client population, and number of interns will be
analyzed separately so that no site will be identifiable in the study. If there are questions
that you (the supervisor or intern) prefer not to answer, leave those questions blank. The
intern’s answers on the survey’s instrument to measure perceived mentorship may still be
used to determine a baseline level in the study.

This research study was reviewed by Michigan State University's Committee on Research
Involving Human Subjects. This committee's guidelines for addressing issues, such as
confidentiality, are and will be closely followed to assure confidential handling of all data.
Your voluntary completion of the accompanying survey will indicate your informed
consent to take part in this research study.

Please follow these steps in completing the survey:

1. The clinical internship director will duplicate survey forms (if necessary) and
distribute them to all AMT A approved clinical internship supervisors.

2. The supervisor will complete the first section of the survey (regarding the
internship site and personal attributes) and duplicate (if necessary) for each of his/her
interns.

3a. The intern completes the survey without discussing it with their supervisor and
returns it anonymously in the enclosed envelope before March 10, 1999.

3b. Ifthere is more than one intern, complete the survey without discussing it with
the supervisor or fellow interns. The interns should then choose one to collect and return
the surveys anonymously. If other envelopes are used, please do not use a return address
of the site.

4. Personal comments about the mentoring relationship or this survey are welcome
from the supervisor or intern. If you would like to write or e-mail your comments before
March 15th, they will be included anonymously in the study.

I look forward to hearing from most of you and desire your feedback, whether positive or
negative, about internship relationships. Results will be provided to participants who
provide comments and/or request an abstract of the final thesis.

Sincerely Yours

Thomas F. Cawood MT-BC

137

APPENDIX C

Clinical lntemship Survey of Mentorship

138

Clinical Internship Survey of Mentorship

Pa t h com I te inical Internshi Su ervisor
AMTA Region: _Great Lakes, _Southeastem, _Western, _New England,
_Mid-Atlantic, _Midwestern, _South Central, _Southwestem

Internship originally approved by: __ NAMT, __ AAMT, or __ AMTA in l9_
Total number of interns accepted for training simultaneously at this site
Approximate number of interns trained at site since it's inception
Intemship's agency primary funding is:

__ Governmental funds (taxes & grants)

__ Private (insurance & client's fee)

__ Non-profit agency (private foundation or charity)

Gender: _Female __ Male Marital Status: _ Married __ Unmarried
Decade of Age: __ 20's __ 30's __ 40’s _50's _ 60’s _ 70's 80's
Cultural/Ethnic Origins:
C aucasian/Non-Hispanic A fi'ican American Chicano/Mexican American
Hispanic American Indian/A laskan Native Asian/Pacific Islander
Multi-Racial/Ethic Americans Other:

 

Number of years experience as a music therapist

Number of years as a clinical internship supervisor

Educational level: _ Bachelors __ Masters___ Doctorate __ Post Doctorate
Number of NAMT or AMTA supervisory training session attended:

P com Iete he lntem
The age(s) of clients you work with (select all that apply):
__ Infants (0 - 2) __ Children (3 - I l) __ Adolescent (12-19)
_ Young adult (18-25) _ Adult (26 - 64) __ Elderly (65-up)
Population of clients (select primary one):
__ Psychiatric (inpatient) ___Psychiatric (outpatient or partial hospitalization)
__ Substance abuse clinic _ F orensic/correctional facility
__ Developmental disabilities (residential) __ Developmental disabilities (day program)
__ School for Deaf or Blind __ Special education school
__ Medical hospital _ Nursing home
_ Hospice _Private practice
Clients' therapy/treatment is primarily: Acute or short term Chronic or long term
Gender: _Male _Female Marital Status: __ Married __ Unmarried __ Divorced
Decade of Age: _ 20's _ 30's __ 40’s _50's __ 60’s _ 70's 80's
Cultural/Ethnic Origins:
Caucasian/Non-Hispanic A fi'ican American Chicano/Mexican American
Hispanic American Indian/A laskan Native Asian/Pacific Islander

Multi-Racial/Ethic Americans Other/International Student (origin):
Host agency of the internship site provides:

 

 

Hourly Wage, Stipend, Housing, Meals,

Other Reimbursements: .
The internship is taken for a Grade, for Pass/Fail credit, for no credit.
Time Interval during the internship: __ First Third __ Second Third __ Final Third
Number of hours you spend with your supervisor per week:

Hours in clinical work Hours of other times (meetings, lunch, etc.)
Formal evaluation times. Mid & Final Monthly Bimonthly Weekly

139

To cmletd heM icTher In rn
Directions: On a scale of one (strong disagreement with the comment) and five (strong agreement); please
write your level of agreement with the following statements on the line following the item number.

My supervisor has:

__ Shared the history of his/her career with me.

_ Encouraged me to prepare for employment.

Encouraged me to try new ways of behaving in my internship.

Work behavior I try to imitate.

Attitudes and values regarding music therapy that are like mine.

My respect and admiration as a supervisor.

Provided a model I will try to be like when I reach a similar position in my career.
Demonstrated good listening skills in our conversations.

Discussed my questions or concerns regarding feelings of competence, commitment to
advancement, relationships with peers and supervisors or work/family conflicts.

10. _Shared personal experiences as an alternative perspective to my problems.

11.__ Encouraged me to talk openly about anxiety and fears that detract from my work.
12._ Conveyed empathy for the concerns and feelings I have discussed with him/her.

l3. _Kept feelings and doubts I shared with him/her in strict confidence.

l4. _Conveyed feelings of respect for me as an individual.

15. _Reduced unnecessary risks that threatening the possibility of my being hired as a music therapist

99°99‘999’N!‘

in the future.

16._ Helped me finish assignments/tasks or meet deadlines that otherwise would have been difficult to
complete.

17,— Helped me meet his or her colleagues.

18._ Given me assignments that increased written and personal contact with administrators.

19. Assigned responsibilities to me that have increased my contact with people at work who may
judge my potential for future job references and contacts.

20. _Given me assignments or tasks in my work that prepared me for employment.

21. _Given me assignments that present opportunities for me to learn new skills.

22. _Provided me with support and feedback regarding my performance as a music therapist.
23. _Suggested specific strategies for me to achieve my career goals.

24. _Shared his/her ideas with me.

25. _Suggested specific strategies for me to accomplish my work objectives.

26. _Given me feedback regarding my performance during the internship.

27. _Invited me to join him/her for lunch.

28. _Asked me for suggestions concerning problems she/he has encountered at school.
29. _Interacted with me socially outside of work.

My supervisor/intern relationship most resembles (Total of five points divided among the three):
Teacher/Student C ounselor/C lien! Consultant/Colleague

The relationship I prefer to have is one of a (Total of five points divided among the three):

Teacher/Student Counselor/Client Consultant/Colleague
Do you look to your supervisor as a mentor? (scale of l for strong disagreement to 5 for strong
agreement)

Please comment about your supervisor (On an additional sheet of paper, if you wish.

 

 

 

 

140

 

Appendix 0

Code Sheet for Raw Data Clinical lntemship Survey of Mentorship

141

 

Code Sheet for Raw Data
Clinical lntemship Survey of Mentorship

Part to be completed gr Clinical Internsm Supervisor
MOrdinal number of dates received

W: AMTA Region: 9 no data 1_Great Lakes, LSoutheastern,
§ Western, 5 New England, a_Mid-Atlantic, §_Midwestern,
1_South Central, §_Southwestem

9211111103 lntemship originally approved by: 1 NAMT, z AAMT, or a
AMTA in 19_ 9 none

921111.001 Total number of interns accepted for training simultaneously at this
site Qrdinal number

W Approximate number of lntems trained at site since it's inception

gamma:

M Intemship's agency primary funding is
_‘L Governmental funds (taxes & grants)
.2. Private (insurance & client's fee)
_§_ Non-profit agency (private foundation or charity)
_L Multilple answers
_9_ No data

M Gender: 1_Female _a Male _Q_no data
M Marital Status: 1 Married 2_ Unmarred 9_no data

ColumnIDecade of Age: _1_20's__2__ 30'sg40's__1_50's___5_60's_p 70's
Z 80's gno data

M Cultural/Ethnic Origins:
_1__ Caucasian/Non-Hispanic __2_ African American _§_
Chicano/Mexican American _a Hispanic __5_ American Indian/Alaskan
Native _a Asian/Pacific Islander _1_ Multi-RaciaVEthic Americans
_§_Other: _Q NO DATA

W Number of years experience as a music therapist Qmina| number

142

Mi Number of years as a clinical internship supervisor Qmigal
MEL

W Educational level: _1_ Bachelors __; Masters _§__ Doctorate _=4__
Post Doctorate agpgaga

mu Number of NAMT or AMTA supervisory training session attended:
Quinal gumper

_P_a_rt to be completed by the lntem
The age(s) of clients you work with (select all that apply): mm

W Infants (0 - 2)

W Children (3 - 11)

W Adolescent (12-19)

M Young adult (18-25)

mg Adult (26 - 64)

my. I Elderly (65-up)

mp Population of clients (select primary one):

1 Psychiatric (inpatient) _L Psychiatric (outpatient or
partial hospitalization)

a Substance abuse clinic _L Forensic/correctional
facility
_a Developmental disabilities (residential) _a Developmental
disabilities (day program)

Z School for Deaf or Blind g Special education
school
_a Medical hospital 12 Nursing home

11 Hospice 1; Private practice
_g multiple answers 0 no data

M Clients' therapy/treatment is primarily;
M 1_ Acute or short term 3 Chronic or long term

W Gender: 1 Male ; Female
mm Marital Status: 1 Married ,2 Unmarried a Divorced

143

mu Decade of Age: 1 20's _1 30's _a 40's 4 an: a 60's _§_ 70's

_LBO's 9= [32 gata
M Cultural/Ethnic Origins: 0= up data
1__ Caucasian/Non-Hispanic 3.. African American §_

Chicano/Mexican American; Hispanic §__ American Indian/Alaskan
Native a Asian/Pacific Islander L Multi-RaciaI/Ethic Americans
Other/International Student (origin): a

Host agency of the lntemship site provides: mm
W HOW/y Wage

W Stipend

m Housing

92111111042 Meals.
W Other Reimbursements:

 

W The internship is taken for a _1_ Grade, for Z Pass/Fail credit,
for a no credit. Q= no gaga

W Time Interval during the internship: 1 First Third _;_ Second

Third 1 Final Third O= no daga
Number of hours you spend with your supervisor per week:

M Hours in clinical work Qrgigal numpag

W Hours of other times (meetings, lunch, etc. )W
W Formal evaluation times:_1_ Mid & Final 1 Monthly 3
Bimonthly 1_Weekly Q= pg data

144

To go comgleted by the Music Therapy lntem

Directions: On a scale of one (strong disagreement with the comment) and five
(strong agreement); please write your level of agreement with the
following statements on the line following the item number.

My supervisor has:

1. AK Shared the history of his/her career with me.

2. A]. Encouraged me to prepare for employment.

3. AM Encouraged me to try new ways of behaving in my internship.

4. A” Work behavior I try to imitate.

5. AQ Attitudes and values regarding music therapy that are like mine.

6. A; My respect and admiration as a supervisor.

7 Ag Provided a model I will try to be like when I reach a similar position in my
career.

8. AB Demonstrated good listening skills in our conversations.

9. A§ Discussed my questions or concerns regarding feelings of competence,
commitment to advancement, relationships with peers and supervisors or
work/family conflicts.

10A]: Shared personal experiences as an alternative perspective to my

problems.

"All Encouraged me to talk openly about anxiety and fears that detract from
my work.

12.A¥Conveyed empathy for the concerns and feelings I have discussed with
him/her.

13AflKept feelings and doubts I shared with him/her in strict confidence.

14gConveyed feelings of respect for me as an individual.

15.A1Reduced unnecessary risks that threatening the possibility of my being
hired as a music therapist in the future.

16.5; Helped me finish assignments/tasks or meet deadlines that otherwise
would have been difficult to complete.

17.flAHelped me meet his or her colleagues.

18.ޤGiven me assignments that increased written and personal contact with
administrators.

19.ޤAssigned responsibilities to me that have increased my contact with

people at work who may judge my potential for future job references
and contacts.

20.5QGiven me assignments or tasks in my work that prepared me for
employment.

21.ޤGiven me assignments that present opportunities for me to learn new
skills.

22.B_EProvided me with support and feedback regarding my performance as a
music therapist.

23.B§Suggested specific strategies for me to achieve my career goals.

24. gfiShared his/her ideas with me.

2551 Suggested specific strategies for me to accomplish my work objectives.

145

26%; Given me feedback regarding my performance during the internship.

27.35Invited me to join him/her for lunch.

28.fl___LAsked me for suggestions concerning problems she/he has encountered
at school.

29. ”Interacted with me socially outside of work.

My supervisor/intern relationship most resembles:
(Total of five points divided among the three):
ay Teacher/Student BQ Counselor/Client BP Consultant/Colleague

 

The relationship I prefer to have is one of a:
(Total of five points divided among the three):
BQ_ Teacher/Student BR Counselor/Client BS Consultant/Colleague

Do you look to your supervisor as a mentor?
W Likert scale of 1 for strong disagreement to 5 for strong agreement

W Average of AK...BM (Noe’s adapted survey using a Likert Scale)
W Average of Coaching (AK, AL, BG, BH, Bl, BJ)
WAverage of Acceptance (AM, AX, BL)

W Average of Role Modeling (AN, AD, AP, AQ)

291.11.010.51. Average of Counseling (AR, AS, AT,AU, AV, AW)

W Average of Protection provided (AY, AZ)

W Average of Exposure & Visibility (BA,BB,BC)

W Average of Sponsorship (BD)

W Average of Challenging Assignments (BE, BF)

W Average of Friendship (BK, BM)

146

Appendix E

Raw Data Scores from Lotus 123

147

 

L
0.5

24.5

5.5
1.5

3.5

20

0.5

11

2.5

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10

20

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21

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21

15
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19
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24
25

 

 

26

 

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4 5 0 0 5 4 3.3793 3.8333 3 3 3.8333 2
5 4 3 0 2 3 3.8621 3.3333 3 3.75 4.1667 3
6 0 0 5 0 5 4.7241 5 4.6667 3.75 4.8333 4.5
7 2 1 1 3 3.5 3.5357 3.1667 2.6667 2.75 4.5 1.5
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12 5 0 O 5 5 4.7931 5 4.3333 3.25 5 5
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21 1 1 2 2 4 3.8214 3.8333 3.6667 3.25 4.3333 2.5
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49 4 2 0 3 5 3.931 3.8276 3.6667 3.5 4.3333 3.5
50 2 2 1 2 5 4.8966 4.7931 4.6667 3.75 5 5
51 2 1 0 4 3 3.3103 3.3448 2.6667 3.25 3.6667 2.5
52 1 1 1 3 2 2.8448 2.8793 2.5 2.25 2.75 3
53 3 1 0 3 5 4.3448 4.3103 4 3.5 4.8333 3
54 3 1 1 3 5 5 4.8621 5 3.75 5 5
55 0 5 0 0 5 4.6154 4.6154 3.3333 3.75 4.1667 0
56 0 3 2 0 5 4.7241 4.6552 5 4 4.8333 4.5
57 0 0 0 5 3 4.4138 4.3448 4.3333 2.75 4.6667 4
56 1.66 1.6 .6 1.66 5 4.5185 4.3948 2.6667 3.75 4.1667 1.5
59 2 2 0 3 4 3.8276 3.7586 3.3333 3 4.3333 3
60 2 2 0 3 4 3.6207 3.6207 3 3.25 4.1667 3
61 3 2 0 3 5 4.2414 4.1379 3.3333 4 4.6667 4
62 0 5 0 0 3 3.5172 3.5517 3.6667 2.75 3.8333 3.5
63 5 0 0 5 3 4.1111 3.9259 3.3333 3.25 3.5 0
66 5 0 0 5 5 4.7931 4.6207 4.6667 3.5 5 5
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72 2 2 1 2 4 3.9286 3.8214 3.6667 2.5 4.3333 4
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63 1 2 1 2 4 3.7321 3.7321 2.3333 2.875 3.8333 3.5
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69 1 0 4 1 3 4.1724 4.069 4.3333 4 4.5 3.5
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91 2 3 0 2 5 4.6207 4.5517 4 3.75 5 5
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93 2 3 0 2 5 4.6552 4.5862 4 3.75 5 5
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ordod B C D E F G H I J K L
100 8 1 1 _7 2 1 2 2 7 7.5 4.5
101 1 1 4 76 1 1 O 3 1 24 19
102 1 1 4 76 1 1 O 3 1 24 19
103 1 1 4 76 1 1 0 2 1 24 19
104 5 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
105 1 1 2 2 4 1 2 1 20 2
106 3 1 5 156 1 1 2 2 1 10 5
Factor rssu su train infants child adoles yg adul adult elder m lgttm int a_en
ordorfl M N O P Q R S T U V W
100 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 9 1 2
101 2 15 0 1 1 1 1 1 5 2 2
102 2 15 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 2 2
103 2 15 0 1 0 1 1 O 5 2 2
104 ? ? 0 1 0 0 O O 6 2 2
105 2 2 0 1 1 1 1 1 12 2 2
106 1 2 0 1 1 1 1 1 5 2 2
Factor int mar inta int cul wage stipend housi 9 meals other grade? time hrs clin
ordow X Y Z AA AB AC AD AE AF AG AH
100 1 2 1 0 O 0 0 0 1 2 20
101 0 2 0 0 0 1 O 0 2 1 2
102 O 1 O 0 0 1 O 0 1 2 ?
103 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 ?
104 2 1 1 O 0 0 0 0 1 0 2.5
105 2 1 1 0 O 1 0 0 3 0 6
106 2 1 6 0 1 1 0 0 2 2 1
Factor hrs soc eva|# coach coach act/con m rol+e m m couns couns
ordorfl Al AJ AK AL AM AN A0 AP AQ AR AS
100 10 ? 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
101 2 1 4 4 4 4 4 5 3 4
102 ? 1 4 4 5 5 4 4 3

103 ? 1 5 4 5 5 5 5 4
104 1.5 4 3 4 5 4 4 5 5 5 5
105 6 1 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
106 10 1 4 5 3 4 5 5 4 4 5
Factor couns couns couns couns got/con protect motect exp/vis ex Ivis exg/vimmsorl
ordodt AT AU AV AW AX AY AZ BA BB BC 80
100 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
101 3 3 3 3 4 3 2 5
102 3 2 4 4 5 4 3 4
103 3 4 4 4 5 5 5
104 3 5 5 4 5 4 2 3 2 5 4
105 5 5 5 5 5 2 1 5 5 3 5
100 5 4 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 4 5

 

 

 

162

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Factor chall chall coach coach coach coach friend act/con friend supteacm_
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100 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 0 0
101 5 3 2 3 3 3 2 3 1
102 4 4 4 4 4 4 1 1

103 5 5 4 4 4 2 3 1
104 5 5 3 5 5 5 3 2 1 2 1
105 5 5 5 5 2 5 5 2 5 5 0
106 4 5 4 5 4 4 5 5 5 0 2
Factor sumfl greteac’precoun precon int est ak-bm couch a t ro_|e couns protect
ordor# BP 80 BR BS BT BU BV 3W BX BY 82
100 5 0 0 5 5 3.3967 3.325 5 3.75 5 5
101 1 3 1 1 3 3.2689 3.2034 1 3.25 2.1667 0
102 4 3.2101 3.1453 2.6667 3.25 1.5 0
103 2 3 1 2 5 3.1624 3.1034 0 3.5 3.3333 0
104 2 2 1 2 5 3.1092 3.0424 4 3.5 4.3333 3
105 0 5 0 0 5 3.1008 3.0169 4 3.75 4.5 1.5
106 3 0 2 3 5 3.0756 2.9576 4.3333 3.25 4.8333 4

 

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Factor ak-bm couch M role couns protect Factor ak-bm couch £21 role couns grotect
order# BU BV 8W BX BY 82 order# _BU BV BW BX BY__J_ __B_Z_

1 3.6207 3.6667 3 3 3.6667 3.5 51 3919399449#@_6_Q‘92_L§6661~2L5__
2 3.8966 4 3.6667 3.25 4.1667 0.5 52 2.8318 .8793 2.5 2.25 2.75 3

3 4.5714 5 .3333 3 5 4.5 53 4844843103 4 3.5 4.8333 3

4 3379338333 3 3 3.8333 2 54 5 _44_86A__5_ 3.75 5 5

5 9862133333 3 235.75 4.1667 3 55.251931325154333” 3.7143966722292
6 4.7241 5 62667223752 93935 4.2225623124169152 5 4 4.83_33947._5_fl
7 3.5357841662226667 2.75 4.5 1.5 57 4-9ié3ii4é‘1389-i3fi3 2.75 46667294

8 3.9167 333333393 4 1.5 1 5829552185939423496667 3.75 4.1667 157
9 3.48283.833_§@333 3 3.8333 5 59 3-§Q§,§l§§Q§-_3333 3 .3393 3 fl
1O 3.379322332225667 3 3.5 2.5 60 362073.629] 3 3.25 4.1667 3
11 3.413838133323333 2 8.8333 1.5 61 4.24144.1379 .3333 4 4.6667 4
12 4.7931 5 4.3333 3.25 5 5 62 3.5172 3.55218266L27138333 3.5
13 14.24144166746667 3.75 45667 4 63 4111139259 .3333 3.25 3.5 o
14 4.7143 5 4.3333 3.5 4.6667 4 66 4793196207 4.6667 3.5 5 5

15 4.8276 5 4.6667 3.75 5 4 6799.791399094435 3.25 3.9167 2.5__
16 9689796667 4 2.5 3.5 4 68__ 46552ng 4 4 5 4 -4
17 4.655248333433313 3.75 48393 4 69773969 3 2 3.25 2.8333 3
18 47931 5 .6667 4 4.8333 4.5 71 3.8214 3.754933 1.75 4.5 3
19 4.5172 5 5 2.75495 5 72 3.9289E92143.6667 2.5 4.3333 4___1
20 44929493333833 3.5 46667 4.5 73 36692965526667 2.75 4 3.5
21 3.8214 833336667 3.25 4.3333 2.5 74439379 4 4 2_._75 4.1667 L
22 4310343333 4 3.25 4 4.5 76 2 O 925 O O__fl
23 4.931 5 5 3.75 5 5__492794_._8_2_764.65524.6667 3.75 5 5__2
24 3.724136667331333 3.5 _4_.5 3.5 78 62073620723333 2.5 3.5 L9
25 3.821438233336667 3 4.3333 2.5 79 2 O 0.25 O 09
26 4310343333 4 3.25 4 4.5 80 1 O 0.25 O O
27 4 4 4 3 4 4 81 4.1034FM0344-3333 3.5 4.5 4.5
28 4.536214666743333 4 5 5 82.49-24'43-2414 .3333 1.75 3.83_3_34_ _2_%_
29 4310346667 4 3.5 4.3333 4 83 9 732191921229333 2.875 3.8333 3.52
30 4448341667 4 3.75 4.6667 5 84 96439929636667 3 3 _4__1_.5
31 4344846667 4 3.75 4.8333 4.5 85 29694937943333 3 4.1667 3L
32 5 5 5 3.75 5 5 86 351729959517 4 2.75 3.6967 3
33 4.379342414233313 3.75 5 4 _88 4.89_664.7931 5 3.75 .8333 4
34 4.5862 4.4483 5 3.75 .8333 4 89 4.1724 4.069 4.3333 4 4.5 3L
35 4.75 460714.666? 4 4 2 90 4 3862133333 3.75 .8333 3
36 4.7931 655243333 4 5 5 91 4620745517 4 3.75 5 5
37 4.2857 214336667 3.LL.1667 2 92 6.55176.48284.3333 3.75 4.8333 4L
38 4.586244812843333 3.75 4.5 4 93 4655245892 4 3.75 5 5
39 4 4 2.6667 3.5 5 4.5 94 4.896634793146667 3.75 5 5

4o 4.115440769233332935 3.6667 5 96 51723.413843.66622922523.6667193__4
41 4.379342414461367 3 5 5 98 4.155240236233333 3.25 4 4.52
42 4.1034 4.069 3 2.75 4.6667 2.5 99 4-25__.M.786 3 3719933324.:
43 5 5 5 4 5 5 100 3.468 3.5957 5 3734.3- J 5 1
44 4.75864.6552 5 4 4.6667 4.5 101 3.4523 3.5741 1 3.25 21667 O
45 4 3.89766 4 3 33533 3.5 102 3246757377356 2.6667 3.25 1.5 O
46 4.85194.66672.6667 4 5 5 103 3.4762 3.5479 0 3.5 3.3333 0
47 .55174448346667 4 5 5 104 3.4838 3.5301 4 3.5 4.333” 3
43 4 5,8955 4 3 4 4 105 3.4931 3.5301 4 3.75 4.5 1.5
49 3.931 827696667 3.5 4.3333 3.5 106 349437$15§753333 3.25 4.9633 4
50 {1.8966 .79311 .6667 3.75 5 5

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

164

APPENDIX F

LOTUS 123 BASIC STATISTICAL CALCULATIONS

165

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168