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'0‘ I‘M -- at ' 3‘“ Ins-A fi-L- AIL-3-4“ 131'; . 1 ¢-~2;.;%.¥ L1‘2-9~——-L .JSVVEJ’I‘ This is to certify that the dissertation entitled AN INVESTIGATION OF HOW BLACK STUDENTS IN RESIDENCE HALLS PERCEIVE THE IMPACT OF MINORITY AIDES, BLACK RESIDENT ASSISTANTS AND BLACK CAUCUSES IN ASSISTING BLACK STUDENTS TO ADJUST PSYCHOLOGICALLY, SOCIALLY AND ACADEMICALLY, AT A PREDOMINANTLY WHITE UNIVERSITY presented by EUGENE HENDERSON, J R . has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for PHD degmin EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION (ff‘l‘ /// j7r/IL4MW Major professor/ Date f’i7' 323/ MS U IL! an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771 IdSU LIBRARIES RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date To £3273§fi M QWU‘MW I. I- 7 '- W 2.338 ‘T'“ 1 1 " . J. . I} ah“ , 3A2 fiueaew‘ TMIEWW \fi' ((11- stamped below. ,2? .. géggnmfl ((3 ' 102605 AN INVESTIGATION OF HOW-BLACK STUDENTS IN RESIDENCE HALLS PERCEIVE THE IMPACT OF MINORITY AIDES, BLACK RESIDENT ASSISTANTS AND BLACK CAUCUSES IN ASSISTING BLACK STUDENTS TO ADJUST PSYCHOLOGICALLY, SOCIALLY AND ACADEMICALLY, AT A PREDOMINANTLY WHITE UNIVERSITY BY Eugene Henderson, Jr. A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Education Administration College of Education 1985 (D1986 EUGENE HENDERSON, JR. All Flights Reserved ABSTRACT AN INVESTIGATION OF HOW BLACK STUDENTS IN RESIDENCE HALLS PERCEIVE THE IMPACT OF MINORITY AIDES, BLACK RESIDENT ASSISTANTS AND BLACK CAUCUSES IN ASSISTING BLACK STUDENTS TO ADJUST PSYCHOLOGICALLY, SOCIALLY AND ACADEMICALLY AT A PREDOMINANTLY WHITE UNIVERSITY BY Eugene Henderson, Jr. The purpose of this investigation was to study Black students' perceptions of the impact of a Black organization and Black residence hall staff, on Black students' ability to adjust academically, socially and psychologically on a predominantly White campus. The study was guided by two research questions. 1. Do Minority Aides, the Black Caucus and Black Resident Assistants implement programs that help Black students to adjust psychologically, academically and socially at the university? 2. How effective are the Black Caucus and Black Resident Assistants in helping Black students to adjust psychologically, socially and academically at the university? A questionnaire of 51 items was distributed to elicit the subjects' experiences and opinions. Only sophomores, juniors, and seniors were sampled. Eugene Henderson, Jr. The results of this study established that the Black Caucus, Minority Aides and Black Resident Assistants are seen as effective in implementing programs and assisting Black students in adjusting psychologically, socially and academically at the university. The researcher found that Black students have great expectations of the Minority Aides and believes they should be more intimately involved in the academic endeavors of Black students. The researcher also found that the Black Caucus provided Black students with their greatest outlet for social activities. Some of the major findings regarding the written responses were: Black students generally feel comfortable visiting White facu1ty members, but some Black students perceive that White faculty members are very aloof toward Black students. Students also expressed their adjustment to campus would be greatly enhanced if the university would hire more Black faculty and administrators and by increasing the numbers of Black Resident Assistants. Black students expressed their belief that racism exists in the classroom and in general on campus. The findings support the need for Black organizations and Black staff in helping Black students to adjust at a predominantly White institution. DEDICATION This dissertation is the end result of my relatives and friends who believed in me and always encouraged me to achieve and attain higher goals. I dedicate this dissertation to: My parents Eugene and Mary Henderson without their love and support and sacrificing I could not have made it. Also thanks to Dad for the strict discipline and for the bike in the sixth grade. To my sisters, Florence and Charlotte, who were the first to begin their Ph.D.s at M.S.U., for their continued love and faith that they have always shown me, both of you have been tremendous role models and inspiration to me. To my sister Barbara who was the first of the family to receive a Masters Degree at M.S.U. My Aunt Lucille for her special editing and because she told me at least a hundred times to ”write it down". My grandfather, "Cramps,” for his spiritual motivitional and financial support. To Ma for her continued love and inspiration. To my aunts, Opal Rodgers, Hadner Bonds, Roxie Palmer, Jessie Townsend, Tenna Perkins, Bert Halzewood, Delores Chambers. My my nieces and nephews, Marian, Cherly, Donna, Oeidre, Malaica, Nathan, Anthony and Damon. To my uncles, Raymond Rodgers, Nelson Bond, Al and Willie Perkins, Nelson Bond, Henry Halzewood. ii A special thanks to my scoutmaster, Mr. George Jones, who gave us many years of his life so that others might enjoy life. My friends Dick Williams, Lawrence, Merk, Reed, Gilman, O'Neal, Lester, Dizzy, Big Ed, Porter, Honorable Mayor and Dr. Lawrence Crawford for demonstrating first that it could be done. Dr. Melody for her sharing of information, guidance and friendship. To my amigo, Dr. Larry Davis, a brilliant scholar and extraordinary friend, I couldn't have done it without you. To Shirley for her assistance. To the memory of Chuckie, Billy Barnes, Oliver Bruce Moorer and Sandy. To my beautiful daughter, Halima Shani, for all the weekends that I couldn't come home to visit, I love you madly and I hope you will achieve your goals in life. Above all, I give thanks and praise to the source of my strength and foundation for my growth to God. A special thanks to the pastor Oliver White and members of Freedom Road Church for their warmth, prayers and for treating me like a brother. C. Bell thanks for believing in me in 1970 when I told you I was going to get a Ph.D., CC, its all over. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The writer extends his sincere appreciation to uDr. Eldon Nonnamaker, Chairman of his doctoral committee, and to the members of the committee, Dr. Lee Meadows, Dr. Winston Oberg and Dr. Louis Hekhuis, for their assistance, patience and understanding. A special thanks to Dr. Walter Johnson for making it all possible and to Dr. Featherstone for his special support. Sincere appreciation to Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., for inspiring me to keep the dream alive, Peace and many thanks to mygcousins, the Perkins, Bonds, Chambers, Wilsons, and my special California family, Uncle Cecil, Aunt Mildred, Aunt Gladys, Barbara and my other cousins in San Francisco and Oakland. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables. ..... ........... ....... . ......... ........ CHAPTER ONE: THE PROBLEM0000000‘0 ..... .00 ....... 0.000000. 1 Introduction....................................... Statement of the Problem........................... Research Design and Methodology.................... Limitations of the Study........................... Assumptions of Study............................... Objectives of the Study............................10 Importance of the Study............................11 Definition of Terms................................15 Minority Aide.................................15 Resident Assistant (RA).......................lS Black Caucus..................................16 Peer Group....................................16 Student Subcultuers...........................16 Social Adjustment.............................l7 Psychological Adjustment......................l7 Academic Adjustment.......... ...... ...........17 Overview...........................................18 \D\D\I@H CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE..............20 Introduction....................... ......... .......20 History of Black Student Enrollment Predominantly White Institutions...................22 Characteristics and Perceptions of Black Students in the Late 19603 and Early 19703....26 Characteristics and Perceptions of Black Students of the l960$.........................28 Psychlogical Adjustment of Black Students..........32 Stress and the Black Student..................35 Alienation....................................37 The Impact of Racism on the Psychological, Social, and Academic Adjustment of Black Students.......... ....... ............... ...... 40 Affirmative Action: Its Impact on Black Student Adjustment............................47 Social Adjustment..................................S3 Black Student Activities: A Prelude for Implementation of Black Organizations ......... 55 V Academic Adjustment................................58 Retention Rate of Black Students at Predominantly White Institutions..............63 The Impadt of Faculty Attitudes on Black Students' Academic Adjustment.................64 Increased Black Enrollment and Black Organizations.68 History of the Black Caucus at Michigan State University..............................70 The Evolution of the Minority Aide.................73 The Evolution of the Resident Assistant Position............;.........................79 Resident Assistant Job Description............82 Black Students' Experiences in Residence Halls0000000000000.000000.0000000000000000000084 CHAPTER THREE: THE DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY.87 Introduction.......................................87 The Instrument.....................................89 Population and Sample..............................90 Data Collection............ ...... ..................91 Scoring the Responses.... ........ ..................92 Summary of Responses ...... ....................94 Basic Assumptions...... .......... ..................95 summary000000000000000000.00....0.000.000.00000000095 CHAPTER FOUR: ANALYSIS OF DATA.........................97 Responses to Items Concerning Psychological Adjustment.........................................98 Importance of Minority Aide...................98 Importance of Black Caucus...................100 Importance of Black Resident Assistants......103 Discussing Personal Problems With Minority Aides........................................108 Discussing Personal Problems in Caucus Meetings.....................................110 Discussing Personal Problems With Black Resident Assistants ...... ....................111 Difficulty Dealing With Stress...............112 Impact of Isolation..........................ll3 Minority Aide and Motivation.................ll4 Black Caucus Enhances Motivation.............115 Black Resident Assistants Enhance Motivation.116 Identity and the Minority Aide...............117 Responses of Students Concerning Social Adjustment......... ........ .......................119 Social life and the Minority Aide............ll9 Social Life and the Black Caucus.............122 vi Black Resident Assistants and Social Life....125 Social Life and Black Organizations..........126 Social Life and Academics....................127 Impact of Psychological Adjustment on Academics....................................127 Importance of Social Activities.. ...... ......128 Black Resident Assistant and Social Activities...................................129 Increase Social Progress.....................130 Caucus and Social Programs...................131 Social Programs and Black Resident Assistant.l32 Responses of Students to Academic Items...........133 Academic Work and the Minority Aide..........133 Academic Work and the Black Caucus...........135 Academic Work and the Resident Assistant.....l39 The Black Caucus and Academic Programs.......l40 Minority Aides and Academic Programming......l4l Black Resident Assistants and Academic Programming..................................14l Classwork and Minority Aides.................142 Caucus Officials and Academics...............143 The Aides as a Resource Person...............144 Responses of Students of Environmental Items......145 Classwork and White Faculty..................145 Professors' Expectations.....................147 Happiness on Campus..........................149 Comfortable Visiting White Faculty...........152 Visiting White Faculty Members...............153 Racism on Campus.............................154 Racism and the C1assroom.....................lS4 Treatment on Campus..........................155 Black Student Unity..........................156 Relationships With White Students............157 Interaction of Students and Resident Assistants...................................158 Faith in Minority Aides......................159 Faith in Black Resident Assistants...........160 Accessibility of Aide........................160 Analysis of Written Responses.....................162 Psychological Adjustment.....................162 Social Adjustment............................163 Academic Adjustment..........................164 Environmental Items...............................165 Racism.......................................165 Relationships With White Students............166 Minority Aides...............................167 White Faculty................................168 Black Resident Assistants.... ........... .....169 Black Caucus................. .......... ......l70 vii CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS00000000000000000000000000000000.00173 Introduction............ ....... .......... ..... ....173 The Problem ....... ...........................l73 Findings and Conclusions..........................l74 Adjusting Psychologically to MSU Would Be Difficult Without the Presence of Minority Aides........................................175 Adjusting Psychologically to MSU Would Be Difficult Without the Presence of the Black Caucus......................;................l75 I Often Feel Isolated or Lonely on Campus and This Impacts on my Psychological Adjust- ment to the Campus Environment...............l76 My Personal Motivation is Enhanced by the Presence of the Minority Aide................l77 My Personal Motivation is Enhanced by the Presence of the Black Caucus.................177 My Personal Motivation is Enhanced by the Presence of Black R.A.s......................178 The Minority Aide Helps Me to Maintain My Identity on Campus and This Assistance is Valuable For My Psychological Adjustment.....l79 Due to the Efforts of the Black Caucus The Quality of My Social Life Has Improved.......180 The Degree of Happiness With One's Life on Campus Does Not Impact on the Ability to Survive Academically.........................180 My Academic Work is Enhanced by the Presence of the Black Caucus..........................181 If I Had A Problem With My Classwork I Would Seek Help From My Minority Aide..............181 Minority Aides Know of Resources That Can Help Me If I Need Assistance With My C1asswork....................................182 Racism is Generally a Problem on Campus......182 Generally I Feel Accepted on Campus by White Students.....................................183 White Faculty Members Have High Expectations of Black Students............................l83 Discussion............................... ......... 184 Summary of Written Responses........... ........... 187 Psychological Adjustment.....................187 Social Adjustment............................188 Academic Adjustment..........................188 Environmental Items..........................189 Recommendations ...... ........................190 Implications for Future Research ...... . ..... .190 V111 APPENDICES Appendix A: Student Questionnaire................192 Appendix B: Letter of Introduction to Students...200 Appendix C: Follow-Up Letter to Students.........201 Appendix D: Letter From Assistant Provost........202 BIBLIOGRAPHY000000000000000... 000000000000000 0000000000204 ix Table 3b 9b 10 11 12 12b LIST OF TABLES Page Responses to Items Concerning Psychological Adjustment000000000000000000000 00000000000 000000000099 Responses to Items Concerning Psychological Adjustment000000000000000000000.0000000000000000000101 Responses to Items Concerning Psychological Adjustment00000000000000000000000000000000000000000104 Responses to Items Concerning Psychological Adjustment00000000000000000000000000000000000000000106 Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses to tO to to to tO to to to to to to Items Concerning Items Concerning Items Concerning Items Concerning Items Concerning Items Concerning Items Concerning Items Concerning Social Adjustment....120 Social Adjustment....121 Social Adjustment....123 Social Adjustment....124 Academic Adjustment..134 Academic Adjustment..136 Academic Adjustment..137 Academic Adjustment..138 Environmental Items. .............. ....l46 Environmental Items...................148 Environmental Items. ......... .........150 Environmental Items...................151 CHAPTER ONE THE PROBLEM Introduction The system of higher education in America, for most of its history, was a closed society. Black participation during those years was almost imperceptible (National Institute of Education, 1977). This systematic exclusion of Blacks had its purpose for intellectual and affluent Americans, to suppress the goals and ambitions of poor people (Green, 1971). At universities where blacks were barred from entrance by overt policies of segregation, they often lacked the necessary background, academic preparation or financial means to enter. Institutions such as Princeton University, Wesleyan University, Brown University, and Union College simply declined to admit Black students (National Institute of Education, 1977). Accordingly, by 1865, a total of only 35 Blacks had graduated from American colleges and universities. Because of the insurmountable odds facing Blacks who sought admission to White colleges and universities, the task of educating Blacks was left to the traditional Black colleges (TBI's). This, however, did “not satisfy the aspirations of Blacks to achieve the elusive goal of equality of education, including higher education. For decades they battled arduously to acquire equal educational opportunities. As Horace Mann wrote, ”Education is the greatest equalizer of men; the balance wheel of the social machinery." (Crossland, 1971) Black people, like Jews and other oppressed minorities, realized their ticket to the "American dream" was inextricably linked with education. Unlike most other minorities, however, they were locked out of the environment of higher education by legal policies of segregation in the South, social and economic discrimination in the North. The 1954 Brown vs. TOpeka Board of Education decision, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and the Higher Education Act of 1965 built on each other to successively outlaw segregation in public schools, desegregate public accommodations, forbid all forms of racial discrimination in programs receiving any federal funds, and provide financial assistance through grants, loans, and employment. The cumulative intent of these decisions and legislation was to open the doors of academe to Black students, to assure their admission, support and encourage their enrollment, and facilitate their academic progress and achievement of higher education goals. In the early and mid-19605, then, Black students surged into colleges and universities in unprecedented numbers. Their numbers increased in 1972 with the availability of Basic Educational Opportunity Grants (BEOGs) and later in the emotional aftermath of the nation's shock and revulsion at the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. The vastly increased numbers of Black students in predominantly White institutions placed both the students and the institutions under pressure neither had previously experienced. The court decisions and federal legislation permitted the academicians little time for scholarly contemplation of what might happen when and if racial integration came about. Federal orders were for integration now. Most Black high school juniors and seniors and their parents hadn't anticipated college entrance as a realistic option after high school. Black students, especially in the early years, frequently arrived in college unprepared academically and emotionally for an experience they had no reason to expect would be possible for them. They arrived at colleges and universities which were inclined by their scholarly nature to resist institutional change until an innovation had been exhaustively studied, every aspect of it scrutinized, and its outcomes deemed predictable as far as was academically possible. Under federal admonitions to integrate immediately, in the glare of media publicity, these institutions quickly geared up to do what they knew best--research the problem. Since most university personnel viewed the influx of new Black students as "the problem," little attention was given to the environment in which these students found themselves. During the past two decades there have been a multitude of studies conducted on Black students at predominantly White icollegiate institutions. Also the last decade has witnessed a new frontier in the study of college environments. Much of the early research of the 1960's and 1970's was primarily focused on Black students attending predominantly White institutions in which the Black students were enrolled in special compensatory programs (Brazziel, 1970; Vontress, 1970; and Mitchell, 1970). Various studies about Black students on predominantly White campuses generally analyzed: (1) their social and economic characteristics, (2) their levels of adjustment, and (3) their social and economic characteristics (West, 1984). According to West, most of the literature indicates that a cause and effect relationship exists between student characteristics. and student adjustment to the collegiate environment, which then asserts its influence on student performance. These social-psychological models also demonstrate that Black students' academic achievement is interwoven with their ability to adjust to their new and alien environment. A great deal of the literature on Black students in White colleges supports West's contentions of the problems Black students had in adjusting (Proctor, 1970; Harper, 1969; Green, McMillian and Gunnings, 1972). Researchers seemed. to be especially interested in attitudes, academic weaknesses, test performances, family background, and levels of aspiration of these students. Research concerned with the students' expectations and perceptions of their new environment has only recently begun to surface in the literature. Little has been mentioned about the impact of environment on the expectations of these students (Meadows, 1981). Most of the research questions about the characteristics of Black students arose after the students were admitted to various institutions. In the rush to gear up immediately to c0pe with and serve these new students, some of the questions were answered without much detailed empirical data or thoughtful consideration. Consequently myths and stereotypes and inappropriate programs were created. For those who were concerned about the gravity of such errors, Boyd (1974, 1979) investigated these myths. From responses to a questionnaire distributed to 80D Black college students throughout the country, he found that 72 percent of the students had expectations they were going to graduate. Boyd believed that this was largely because a majority of them were first generation college students. Of the students in his survey, one-quarter were special admits, but one-third of the students maintained grade point averages of B or better. He also discovered the only 8 percent of Black students preferred all-Black housing facilities. The results of Boyd's exploration eliminated many of the myths generated about Black students. That is, that all Black students have academic and adjustment problems, that they all prefer segregated organizations, that they prefer to be segregated socially and live in segregated housing (West, 1984). Rather, Boyd showed that, like any other segment of the American population, Black students have diverse characteristics, abilities, preferences and motivation. Statement Of The Problem This research was undertaken to study Black students' perceptions of the impact of a Black organization and Black residence hall staff, on Black students' ability to adjust academically, socially, and psychologically on a predominantly White campus. The study focused on analyzing Black students' perceptions of the effectiveness of Minority Aides, Black Resident Assistants and the Black Caucus. To study this problem it was essential to ascertain the students' perceptions of the environmental impact of the Minority Aides, Black Caucus and Black Resident Assistants. Instrument construction, data collection and data analysis were guided by the researcher's search for answers to the following specific questions. A. ' Do Minority Aides, the Black Caucus and Black Resident Assistants implement programs that help Black students to adjust psychologically, academically and socially at the university? B. How effective are the Black Caucus, Minority Aides, and Black Resident Assistants in helping Black students to adjust psychologically, socially, and academically at the university? It is generally acknowledged that the student subculture and the campus culture are a vital part of the educational experience of these students. Often the students' subculture is a collective response to the problems that they encounter on campus. This study provided an analytical observation of the subculture of a Black campus wide organization and key student positions. The objective was to determine the degree of effectiveness of the Black student's subculture in assisting them to adjust socially, academically, and psychologically at a predominantly White institution. Research Design And Methodology The study involved the administration of a questionnaire to undergraduate Black students regarding their interaction with Minority Aides, the Black Caucus and Black Resident Assistants. The purpose of the questionnaire- was to elicit data relevant to the impact of the Caucus, the Aides, and the Black Resident Assistants on the psychological, social and academic adjustment of Black students at a predominantly White institution. The population was Black male and female .students living in residence halls on the M.S.U. campus. Sophomores, juniors and seniors were included in the randomly selected sample. The questionnaire was anonymous. A descriptive format was chosen for dependability. Nieves (1977) found that, "the descriptive study, because of its survey techniques, has yielded the most reliable information on minority college students." The questionnaire consisted of various statements designed to elicit the subjects' experiences and opinions, using a five point Likert scale: strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree, do not know. The students were also given the opportunity to add personal comments or provide examples of their experiences. Since no hypotheses were tested, chi square was used only to determine statistical difference. Results are reported in the analysis only for those items found to be insignificantly different (.05 level) from each other. The results are reported in absolute numbers and percentages. Limitations Of The Study The principal questions of this research study were very broad in content and of paramount importance to the field of college student personnel. In order to maximize the results of the study, however, it was imperative to procure ample data in sufficient quantity, to develop generalizations from the results of similar studies, and to place limitations on each investigation. The following limitations were considered apprOpriate for optional results. 1. The questionnaire was distributed only to Black undergraduate students at Michigan University who lived in residence halls. 2. Because of their limited experience in resi- dence halls, freshmen were excluded from the study. 3. The study was also limited by the traditional risks inherent in using questionnaires, (i.e., difficulty in procuring complete cooperation from respondents, developing adequate sampling procedures, difficulty in tabulating and validating). 4. The extent to which the results of the study may be generalized to other similar collegiate institutions. Assumptions Of Study In preparing and conducting the study the researcher made the following assumptions: 1. That Minority Aides and the Black Caucus are fundamental resources for assisting Black students to adjust to the university environment. 10 2. That Black Resident Assistants can be effective leaders in assisting Black students to make a successful adjustment to campus.1ife. 3. That effective leadership from Caucus 'officials and Minority Aides can‘ impact positively on Black students' adjustment to the university. Objectives of The Study (a) to study the effectiveness of the Black Caucus, Black Resident Assistants, and Minority Aides, in impacting Black students' ability to adjust academically, socially and psychologically on campus. (b) to determine the influence of factors that inhibit or facilitate interaction of Black Resident Assistants, Minority Aides, and Caucus with Black students. The study included some relevant supplementary objectives which provided helpful information and aided in interpreting the research data. These objectives were addressed by the collection of some subjective data to complement the more objective data derived from questionnaire responses. The supplementary objectives were: (a) to identify new programs or organizations requested by Black students. (b) to determine what, if any, relationship existed between White faculty members and Black students. (c) to determine if Black students view racism as a problem at the university. ll Importance of The Study This study is important to Student Personnel officials and Black students because Black student organizations and staff assist Black students to adjust and develop their own lifestyles, interests and activities at predominantly White institutions. Moreover, Black organizations perform vital support and mediation roles on predominantly White campuses (Willie and McCloud, 1972). Likewise, this study may be important to campus officials because retention is increasingly becoming an issue in an era of declining enrollments (Glenny, 1980; Centra, 1980; and Jackely, 1980). Previous research has noted the advantages of student involvement in non-academic programs such as the Black Caucus and reported that involvement in such extra curricular activities is directly related to college persistence (Bemis, 1962; Mannan, Cola and Preuse, 1980). In the 19608 and early 1970s institutions were only minimally concerned with the retention of students. Lenning (1980) attributes this attitude to two factors. First, during those years colleges and universities were overwhelmed with students, so that if a student left there was always another waiting to be admitted. The second factor evolved from the philosophical issues of equal educational opportunity and maintenance of academic standards. Some administrators felt that they had fulfilled 12 their obligation to equal educational Opportunity by providing easy access to the institution. These same administrators were also concerned about the institutions' academic standards which they felt would suffer if special efforts were made to retain a particular group of students. One of the consequences of the open door policy and high. drop out rates was a barrage ’of student retention studies. Research by Astin (1975) and other theorists posited a strong correlation between student persistence and their involvement in academic and social activities. They found that additional learning external to the classroom can be as beneficial as that learned in the formal academic programs and that, more often than not, when students become actively involved in extra curricular activities it contributes to their retention (Lenning, 1980). Studies supporting Lenning's work include Bean (1980), Everett (1979), Michlein (1977), Tinto (1975), McDermott (1975), Kamens (1972), Chase (1970), Schmid and Reed (1966). Adding importance to this study is the decline of students in the traditional age category in the 1980's. Growth in enrollment has dwindled and declined in many institutions. Lenning (1980) predicts that the 18 to 24 year old student population will decrease by 25 percent by the mid 19703. This anticipated decline is having a serious impact on institutions. Lenning also believes that as a result of the decrease of student populations, institutions 13 will reshape their attitudes even more toward achieving the real goals of equality of educational opportunity. The consequences of this thinking will result in institutions giving greater attention to the educationally disadvantaged. Lenning suggests that institutions will develop strategies to help retain these students. This study is important because research indicates that Black students' retention is dependent upon non-academic variables as well as academic variables. Consideration must be given to their sociocultural adaptability to the system (Maynard, 1974). This study should reveal information that will enable the university to assist Black organizations in working more effectively with Black students. The study will also provide information that will assist institutes to comprehend the importance of Black organizations and Black staff members in assisting Black students to adjust at predominantly White higher education institutions. Additionally, Black organizations interact frequently with student affairs officials and these officials need more relevant information to assist Black students (Peterson, et al., 1978). Cooperation between Black organizations and campus officials should help to eliminate hostility and distrust that Black students often display at predominantly White institutions. Black students' feelings of alienation are greatly reduced and academic performance is enhanced when 14 they perceive that the university is committed to providing them with necessary supportive services (Allen, 1981). Conjointly, this study is important because it is research in an uncharted area. There were approximately 428 research articles written on Black students in White institutions between the years of 1965 and 1976. The topics addressed covered 66 categories or subject areas. The greater proportion of this research was directed at disadvantaged students, attitudes and values (Scott, 1978). Scott noted the tendency for researchers to focus upon those factors internal to the black student (e.g., poor reading skills) rather than those factors external to the student (e.g., biases within the curriculum). After reviewing the areas of research on Black students, Scott formulated a list of important issues and questions that had been omitted in College Student Personnel Administration Research. Three of these topic issues are covered in this study: (1) the nature of the relationships between Black students and faculty...few studies adequately examine whether there are supportive or antagonistic at white institutions. (2) the cultural and psycho-social conflict akin to "culture shock" that Black students experience with regard to the housing environment, the food and extra curricular activities on White campuses. (3) the increasing importance of Black sororities, social clubs and informed Black cliques on White campuses... some understanding of this social phenomenon may provide insight into the extent to which 15 this social segregation is voluntary or serves a psycho-social function. (p.38) Definition Of Terms The following terms are defined in the context in which they are used in this study. Minority Aide A Minority Aide is an undergraduate staff person working part-time, whose primary reponsibility is to assist minority students in making the adjustment to the campus environment. The aide is often a resource person, programmer, peer counselor, and advocate or liason person in behalf of Black students. The aide lives in the hall with students and works closely with advisory and management staff (Minority Aide Job Description, 1984). Resident Assistant (RA) The Resident Assistant is a part-time member of the residence hall staff. The Resident Assistant has some degree of responsibility for the entire residence program with specific emphasis being given to the approximately fifty students in his or her assigned "house". The Resident Assistant enforces university and residence hall rules and regulations, serves as a liason with campus programs, does 16 peer counseling, and works closely with advisory and management staff. Black Caucus A social, political and cultural organization that promotes a spirit of "black togetherness" through political workshops, plays/dramas, dances and political activity. As a general rule, all Black students are considered members (Coleman, 1971). Peer Group Any set of two or more students whose relationship to one another are such as to exert influence upon them as individuals (Brody, 1976). Student Subculture A normative value system held by some groups of persons who are in persisting interaction, who transmit the norms and values to newcomers by some communicational process and who exercise some sort of social control to ensure conformity to the norms. Furthermore, the normative-value system of such a group must differ from the normative-value system of the larger, the parent or the dominant society (Bolton and Kammeyer, 1972). 17 Social Adjustment For the purposes of the study, social adjustment is the ability of Black students to overcome social alienation and isolation at the predominantly White institutions and succeed in establishing satisfying relationships with other students (Black or White) and participating in rewarding extracurricular social activities. Of particular importance to this study is the question, do Black organizations and Black resident assistants assist Black students in making successful social adjustments? Psychological Adjustment For the purposes of the study, psychological adjustment is the ability of Black students to develop behavioral patterns or organizations that help them cope successfully with the stress of being Black at a predominantly White institution. Crucial to the study is whether or how Black students perceive the assistance of Black staff and the Black Caucus in making a successful psychological adjustment Academic Adjustment For the purposes of this studv, academic adjustment is the ability of Black students to utilize available campus resources (i.e., Minority Aides, Black Resident Assistants or Black organizations) to achieve sufficient performance to 18 be retained within the academic guidelines at predominantly White collegiate institutions Overview This study was undertaken to provide information regarding the perceptions of Black students of their adjustment at M.S.U. and the extent to which that adjustment has been facilitated (or possibly impeded) by the assistance of Minority Aides, Black Resident Assistants and the Black Caucus. Such information will provide the institution with additional data to utilize in comprehending and serving the needs of Black students. If predominantly White institutions are going to attract and retain students, and serve them optimally, they must be able to comprehend the needs and perceptions of these students. Additional information regarding the perceptions of Black students of their adjustment at predominantly White institutions will also strengthen the ability of Black organizations and staff to assist these students effectively. In carrying. out these aims, therefore, Chapter One incorporates a statement of the problem, and a brief overview of the methodology the researcher planned to use, the limitations of the study, assumptions of the study, its importance and definitions of some terms as they are used in the context of the research. 19 Chapter Two contains a review of related literature. It also includes the expectations and job descriptions of the Black Caucus, Minority Aides and Resident Assistants. The design and methods used in conducting the study are described in Chapter Three. This chapter details the research population and sample, design and development of the instrument used to collect the data, and the process selected to analyze the data. In Chapter Four the results of this data analysis are provided and interpretations of the results are discussed. Chapter Five is used to present summary, conclusions and recommendations for future research. Appendices are included to provide the opportunity for a more thorough review of pertinent letters and documentation. CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Introduction The researcher's motivation in. studying problems confronting Black students at predominantly White institutions resulted from eight years of work in residence halls. These experiences enabled the researcher to interact with Black students in the early 19703 and later in the mid 19803. Upon returning to campus in 1980, the researcher found much literature (Levine, 1980; Astin, 1982; Peterson et al., 1978) devoted to the characteristics of the new college student of the 19803. Interaction with Black students from various halls on campus convinced the researcher that indeed a different caliber of Black students existed, not only on the MSU campus, but also at other predominantly White institutions. The impact of this realization was the catalyst in helping to formulate ideas and objectives for the research. Problems that Black students encounter at predominantly White colleges were a major priority of several researchers 20 21 during the 19603 and 19703. Bressler (1967) suggests that Black students are forced to deal with interpersonal and group identity problems, financial difficulties, and a lack of academic preparation. Furthermore, he believes that Black students are forced to choose from cultural pluralism, separatism or assimilation as alternatives for a social life style. Willie and McCord's (1972) study of 384 Black students in four predominantly White colleges concluded that Black students had a certain set of expectations prior to arrival on campus. They expected the campus to be less prejudiced and to have a great deal more social interaction than they found to be the case. Consequently, many became angry and withdrew from the environment when their expectations were not fulfilled. These experiences among Black students in the 19603 prompted Black students to turn to each other for mutual support. According to Turner (1980) strong peer relationships and the creation of informal networks of groups and organizations helped to strengthen relations among minority students by providing the personal and academic assistance which is sometimes lacking or underused in the formal structure of the institution. This study was an attempt to analyze the impact of Black formal and informal organizations on Black students' abilities to adjust at predominantly White institutions. 22 The availability of educational literature relating specifically to the impact of Black organizations and staff on Black students' ability to adjust psychologically, socially and academically at a predominantly White , institution is minimal. However, literature focusing on the general adjustment problems of Black students at predominantly White institutions in the 19603 and 19703 is abundant. The literature review in the chapter is organized into several sections. The first section covers the history of Black student enrollment in predominantly White institutions, characteristics of Black students, Black student organizations and the importance of effective leadership. The subsequent content highlights aspects of the psychological, social, and academic adjustment of Black students. Separate sections are included to cover the development of the Black caucus, Minority Aide and Resident \ Assistant programs at Michigan State University. History Of Black Student Enrollment At Predominantly White Institutions The increased enrollments of Black students in higher education was due largely to the Brown vs. Topeka, Kansas Board of Education case in 1954. This case dealt a death blow to legal segregation in public and elementary and secondary schools. It also began a new era of increased civil rights activism which impacted heavily on higher education. 23 The originator of this movement was the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). The mood of Black people during the late 19603 and early 19703 revolved around a spirit of unity and pride in their Blackness. New civil rights organizations such as the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), in 1957 and the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) in 1960 enhanced and stimulated social activism. These groups were supported by liberal Northern churches. One of the achievements of the civil rights movement was the Civil Rights Act of 1964. This act was conceived by President John F. Kennedy and outlawed discrimination in voting or registration procedures and segregation in public institutions or businesses such as restaurants, shops, hotels, recreational facilities and transportation facilities or vehicles. The effect of the Civil Rights Act on higher education was immediate. Title VI of the Civil Rights Act forbade all forms of racial discrimination in programs accepting. federal assistance and mandated the authority of the Attorney General to terminate assistance to any recipient who failed to prohibit discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin. The Higher Education Act of 1965, contributed immensely to the increase of Black students in predominantly White institutions. The act provided financial aid via the 24 College Work Study Program, Educational Opportunity Grants and the Guaranteed Student Loan Program. Further expansion of federal aid came in 1972 in the form of Basic Educational Opportunity Grants (BEOG). BEO grants were allocated based on students' financial needs and students were able to attend the school of their choice. _ BEOG's were credited with having an enormous impact on the level of Black enrollment in all colleges and universities (Mingle, 1978). The expansion of state college systems also contributed to the increase of Black enrollment. Specifically, it was the growth of two-year community colleges which appealed to Black students because of their proximity, low tuition and Open admissions policies (Mingle, 1978). Accordingly, the foundation for equal opportunity in admissions to higher education was established and all that was needed to put the forces into effect was a prime mover. Unfortunately, the catalyst for this thrust was the assassination of Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. His death incited massive non-violent campus unrest throughout the country, particularly in the North. Internal pressures, in the form of Black student protests, and external pressures like the federal mandate, forced many institutions to admit a more diversified population. The first half of the 19603 witnessed a sharp increase in the numbers of Black students attending White colleges in the South. The numbers of Blacks tripled from 3.00 percent 25 in 19603 to 6 percent of the nation's enrollment in 1970 (Mingle, 1978). Although colleges in the Northern and Western states had not been legally segregated, the enrollment of Blacks was infinitesimal (Mingle, 1978). This influx of "new" types of students presented problems for the institutions as well as the student. Campuses sometimes become battle grounds for conflicts which erupted between Black students and campus administrators or Black students and White students. It was estimated that approximately 5,000 Black students were in White colleges outside of the South prior to 1939 (Acre, 1976). By 1947, Acre reported that Black enrollment had increased to 61,000. He attributed this increase to the migration of Black families to the North and the enactment of the GI Bill for Veterans. How is Black student enrollment doing in the 19803? According to Kingston (1984) there are only slight changes in the overall proportion of Blacks within the system of higher education and within the main institutional types today. He also .acknowledges that aggregated attendance rates in higher education "mask" the reality that Black students have been disproportionately enrolled in two year colleges or institutions with minimal academic resources, intellectual prestige and promise of economic benefit. 26 Characteristics And Perceptions of Black Students In The Late 19603 and Early 19703 Although the doors of admissions had been opened by the courts, few institutions were prepared to deal with the rush of Black students. Prior to the era of "militant" Black students at White institutions, campus officials were accustomed to experiencing a different type of Black student. The typical Black student of the fifties was expected to be very grateful for having the opportunity to enter prestigous White colleges, to associate with Whites, to learn the predominant White culture, to be uncreative and merely receptive to teaching if girls, outstanding in athletics if boys (Morgan, 1970). Another characteristic of Black students in the fifties, according to Morgan was their rapid assimilation. Black students were accepted if they adopted the value orientation and behavior patterns of Whites. In comparison with their predecessors, Black students' perceptions and attitudes on predominantly White campuses in the 19603 changed drastically. They were militant and full of racial pride and ethnicity (Mitchell, 1970). Research by Rao (1980) and Erickson (1980) indicates that Black students were seeking to reform those predominantly White institutions. Black students began to View the academic and residential environment differently. Integration provided 27 them first hand experiences with Whites and they began to see and react aggressively to the social and academic environment (Harper, 1969). Most administrators could not comprehend the feelings and perceptions of these "new” students. Campus administrators were overwhelmed with Black students' demands for Black curriculum, separate facilities, and recruitment of Black faculty and administrators (Clift, 1969). The experiences of Black students were quickly labeled and identified by researchers. Describing the "new" student, Harper (1969), stated: A newly enrolled black student is usually alone and without friends in a strange milieu. He soons finds himself seeking out more friendly and approachable persons, his black peers. The problem one encounters here is that there are few black students to be found in the sea of white faces. The need for belongingness thus propels that black student to identify with and move toward blacks in the cafeteria corner, at the black student gatherings and meetings. The possibility of coldness and rejection from whites discourages black students from attempting to establish meaningful relationships with students and also from participating in traditional all- white campus functions such as dances, Greek rushes, orientation activities and outings. Adding to the description of the "new" students Gibbs (1975) suggested that Black students experienced a greater range of problems than those experienced by the majority student population. Similarly, Morgan (1970) asserts that the sudden growth of a group of students with 28 different racial and cultural backgrounds was accompanied by problems of academic, social and psychological adaptation to the university milieu. Most universities were not prepared to deal with this new student. Prior work has suggested that Black students brought with them certain knowledge, "self styles" and forms of selfhood different than the prevailing campus norms (Harper, 1969). Consequently it is believed: That the typical instructor or administrator, limited in his knowledge and understanding of these students, quickly learned that much can be learned from them. This perceptual problem of recognizing the cultural base of Black students and the personal strengths they bring with them requires the college or university staff member to work with Black students on a different level. (Harper, 1969:38) Characteristics and Perceptions of Black Students Of The 19803 With the advent of the 19803, what are the characteristics of Black students on predominantly White campuses? According to West (1984): Black students differ markedly on family characteristics such as parent's income, occupation, and education, along with precollege experiences of an academically relevant nature. While they constitute a heterogenous group with diverse backgrounds, abilities and interests, Black students can be characterized,in general terms, as different from White students in their average family backgrounds, academic achievements (p.35). 29 How do Black students view their situations at predominantly White institutions? fIt's assumed that a White student deserves to be here, but if you're Black you have to prove it." (Newsweek, 1983). From a Georgetown senior, ”I felt I had to do better to keep people from (thinking I wasn't qualified, when people heard I got above a 3.0 GPA they were surprised. Why should they be surprised." (Newsweek, 1983). From the University of Virginia, "You feel safe with people of your race." (1983). From the University of Houston, "There's very little interracial partying, if you're Black you fall into the Black scene. If you're White you fall into the White scene.” (Newsweek, 1983) Undoubtedly Black students' perceptions and attitudes are influenced prior to arrival on campus. Commenting on Black students' cultures and expectations, Gunnings reported that: Minority students bring to predominantly White colleges and universities a specific set of mores and customs as well as unique, cultural, family and background influences. These components, when viewed 'in context with the structural environment within which they find themselves affect how minority students perceive themselves. (p. 14) Another noted researcher, Arthur Levine, believes that collegiate institutions in the 19803 are dealing with a different type of student. He claims that today's undergraduate students are different in political and social 30 beliefs than students 10 or 20 years ago. Because of their age, Levine claims that Lyndon Johnsons's War on Poverty, Robert Kennedy's and Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.'s assassination have not impacted them (Levine, 1981). Furthermore, Levine claims that today's college students do not trust America's major institutions. They are fearful of the economy, pollution, crime, morals, energy, and nuclear war. They are concerned about drugs, money, foreign policy, corruption, illegal aliens and the right wing. (p. 17) Levine also points out that today's undergraduate students have tunnel vision toward education, and it is interpreted as money. For today's undergraduates, the magic word is "professional”. According to the Institute for Social Research, two out of three freshmen in 1979 were planning careers in the professions; and one out of five planned to enter one of the platinum professions, law or medicine. (p.17) In reference to student protests and radical politics, Levine's orientation is that student activism has decreased. He attributes this to the political orientation that students are more "moderate” and fewer of them classify themselves as left or right of center. He also believes that today's students are concerned primarily with the politics of me (Levine, 1981). This "politics of me" could be a primary contribution to the apathy of Black students on predominantly White 31 campuses in the 19803. Research by Hollar (1982) indicates that the major impacts affecting students in the 19803, minority students in particular, will not be based on traditional patterns of racial or student unrest. Hollar suggests that the impetus for their unrest will be the country's severe economic unrest, the administration's preoccupation with militarism and consequent crippling cutbacks in education and social services. Although there is an abundance of articles, surveys, and statistics enumerating changes in students' values and attitudes, there are some theorists who believe that some things never change. In ”The College Student of 1980,” Nevett and Sanford (1968) claimed that basic developmental tasks are present and remain unremitting over generations of college students regardless of changing times. Certain problems, preoccupations and concerns are generally constant for young men and women in Western societies: establishing independence from their parents and coming to terms with authority, maintaining self-esteem while achieving a more or less accurate assessment of themselves, deciding upon a vocation, discovering members of the opposite sex, and learning how to relate to them as individuals, adapting themselves to the requirements of the student culture while revealing themselves enough to make friendships possible and attaining a perspective on our society that will permit them to see and to oppose its ills without lapsing into cynicism or total withdrawal (Nevitt and Sanford, 1968). 32 Psychological Adjustment of Black Students For the purpose of this study psychological adjustment is to determine the ability of Black students to develop behavioral patterns or organizations that help them adjust to the stress of being Black at a predominantly White institutions. Research has indicated some of the psychological problems confronting Black students at White colleges. In a study by Gibbs (1973) it was found that Black students discussed six problem areas most frequently with counselors. Their problems were: establishing a personal identity, interpersonal relationships between Black students and Whites and also among Blacks, academic performance, autonomy, sexual and aggressive feelings and long range career plans. Prior research points out that low self esteem, anxiety,nervousness, alienation, and depression are also crucial concerns of Black students (Baum and Lamb, 1983; Burback and Thompson, 1971). Much research has focused on the process of young adults establishing their identity in the formative collegiate years. . The process of evolving from adolescence to adulthood and establishing a personal identity is a complex one. The transition requires that a person establish a sense of competence, learn how to manage his or her emotions, becomes autonomous and be able to develop interpersonal relationships and purpose or direction in his or her life (Chickering, 1969). These factors are basic 33 components of what Chickering calls human development and he believes that college can impact on the changes in life process that will occur while students are in college. There are numerous studies that support ‘Chickering's contentions, including Newcomb et al (1967) and Medshei (1968). For most students there is a time in their lives when the development of identity reaches a turning point. According to Erickson this is a very critical stage. In that period of the life cycle when each youth must forge for himself some central perspective and direction, some working unity, out of the effective remnants of his childhood and the hOpes of his anticipated adulthood; he must detect some meaning--re3emblance between what he has come to see in himself and what his sharpened awareness tells him others judge and expect him to be. (p.90) For the Black student the challenge of establishing an identity on a predominantly White campus can be a formidable task. Newly enrolled Black students often find that they are alone and without friends in a strange milieu. They quickly discover they are surrounded by Whites who think of them as "invisible” persons to be tolerated (Harper, 1969). In 1974, a report from the Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education said that increasingly the culture of higher education was being seen as a major factor in minority student attrition. The commission recognized that higher education is generally "alien" to its majority students and is anathema to its minority students (Michigan 34 Department of Education, 1979). Research indicates the isolation Black students encounter is counterproductive to their growth. The developmental theorists (i.e., Flemming, 1981) believe that evidence supports that social risolation creates a solemn problem for many Black students on predominantly White campuses. Consequently Flemming claims that it ‘inhibits the natural developmental needs during adolescence for interpersonal sharing. Furthermore, he believes that the next phase of adolescence, the acquisition of task competence in conjunction with developing interpersonal relations is aborted because Black students must deal with an intellectual environment that arouses intellectual anxieties. He concludes that Black students' energies are diverted from academics to cope with an unresponsive environment. Studies by Davis and Borders et a1 (1978) and Kysar (1966) support Flemming's contentions that Black students demonstrate a great deal of "preoccupation" with interpersonal problems on a White campus more often than with pressing academic difficulties. Research by King (1968) also indicates 'that when Black students attend a predominantly White university one must expect that the student will sustain traumatic reversals of imagery, and identity. In a similar study, Goodman (1972) found that individuals who receive support and affirmation from their environment generally develop a positive and strong self l 35 concept. He observed also that if students received only ridicule and criticism from the environment that they would likely have a great deal of difficulty formulating a healthy concept. To comprehend the circumstances of the traditional White university that cause frustration and unrest among Black students one must be cognizant of the psychological and sociological factors that are central to the oppression of Black students and Black people (Harper, (1969). Stress And The Black Student Exceptional problems await minority students in educational environments. They are exposed to a relatively stressful position in the campus social structure and thus perceive their environment quite differently than White students (Gunnings, 1982). Therefore, the problem remains how campus administrators can assist Black students to successfully cope within the environment of the institution. , According to Gunnings, the institutions can assist Black 1 3 students by negating problems that create stress. It is possible to identify racial or cultural factors that will increase or decrease the intensity and duration of stress. Gunnings contends that stress consists of cultural, personal and situational determinants and that if counselors are going to be effective they must develop and implement J m..- ‘ 36 strategies to mediate the personal and institutional variables in order to help students adequately deal with stress. In a study of 284 Black students enrolled at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Edmunds (1984) distributed a questionnaire consisting of 83 potential sources of stress. The students identified the following preeminent stressors: Environment Stressors: Low expectations of faculty for Black students' performance, poor academic advising, insensitive attitudes of faculty toward Black students, lack of leadership and unity among Black students. Academic stressors: writing term papers, test anxiety, fear of failure, competition for grades, answering essay questions, poor study skills, excessive academic load, concentration and memory. To complicate their mental health situations, Black students tend not to utilize traditional counseling services at predominantly White institutions (Winer et al., 1974). The authors suggest that Black students' underuse of mental health facilities is due to a lack of trust by "nonwhite" students, a lack of psychological comprehension of mental health services and their preference for Black staff members. A report by Cimbolic et a1 (1981) also confirms that Black students tend to shy away from conventional counseling services. 37 While virtually no research was uncovered relating to a correlation between stress and academic performance, there is much, literature that deals with stress and job performance. Research by Parker (1982) reports that when counselors find themselves under a great deal of stress they will not have the ability to be patient and to do the mundane aspects of their job. Parker's investigation of stress and job performance of high school counselors supported her hypothesis that stress and job satisfaction are negatively related. Another study by Tanner (1969) concluded that ”when an individual is faced with a state of overload...his ability to improvise deterioriates, and his behavior regresses to simpler, more primitive responses to summoned up from his past." Alienation Considerable research has been devoted to studying the socio-psychological problems of Black students attending predominantly White institutions. In an exhaustive study of the minority experience at White institutions, Nieves (1977) found that sentiments of "nonentitlement" to a college education, feelings of abandonment, seclusion and isolation, withdrawal and social and cultural isolation, were some common problems of minority students. Similar but separate studies by Powell (1970), Pruitt (1970) and Harper (1969) support the conclusion that institutions of higher education 38 are failing to include Black students in their organizational life on campus. The .importance of alienation to this study can not be overemphasiZed. The issue of Black student alienation nurtures such questions as: What is the effect of alienation on the psychological and social adjustment of Black students? Does a causal effect exist between alienation and low academic performance of Black students? In a study of the social and academic environments of Black students on White campuses Smith (1981) stated: White university social environment envelopes Black students in a ”Catch 22" situation. Hostile communications from White faculty and students, including curriculum that omits or distorts Black contributions are constant negative reminders to the students of their racial identities. On the other hand, Black student efforts to counteract their loneliness and alienation, by grouping together at dining tables, rooming together, and by joining all-Black social groups are discouraged by university officials. Nevertheless, Black students generally persist in adopting formal or informal organizations to help them cope with a hostile environment (Scott, 1980). These organizations are also very influential in the educational and career aspirations and attainments of college students. Such Black organizations allow Black students the opportunity to define for themselves what they are all about (Scott, 1980). Alienation is the most "pressing" problem that Black students encounter on predominantly White campuses (Reed, 39 1966). Karl Marx was famous for his work that focused on alienation. Alienation (or estrangement) means for Marx, that man does not experience himself as the acting agent in his grasp of the world but that the world (nature, other and he himself) remain alien to him. They stand above and against him as objects, even though they may be objects of his own creation. Alienation is essentially experiencing the world and oneself passively, receptively as the subject separated from the object (Fromm, 1966). Prior work indicates that Black students often feel like they are separated from the institution. Minority groups in general, and Black Americans in particular, are commonly viewed as among the most alienated members of society (Claerbut, 1966). In order to compensate for alienation some Black students allow themselves to become captive audiences within the physical and academic environment and end up stunting their own personal growth (Hale, 1975). In some universities learning implies multiracial and multicultural approaches to learning. Consequently the alientation of Black or White students is counterproductive to learning, and it presents serious problems (Hale, 1975). Furthermore, Hale contends that if a Black student has lived all his life in a Black community, spends most of his time in predominantly Black institutions, and then enters a predominantly White institution and spends all of his time 40 in Black enclaves (i.e., Black organizations, fraternities, sororities, Black corner of cafeteria) the student is depriving himself and White students of cultural and educational experiences that are imperative for growth and understanding. Therefore the issue for campus administrators and Black student leaders is how these organizations can maintain their identity and existence and become a viable part of the total campus environment with the support of the administration. An even more important question is how alienation can be ” reduced at predominantly White institutions. The Impact Of Racism On The Psychological, Social, And Academic Adjustment Of Black Students During the 19603 most of the research conducted on Black students concentrated on their weaknesses or disadvantages, producing an overemphasis on the handicaps of Black students and an underemphasis on the racism in the institutional structure and policies of White colleges and universities (Scott, 1978). When Scott wrote her article ”Two Sides of the Coin, Black Students in White Institutions," it was during the end of the 19703. The era of integration and open admissions was coming to a close. The intent of Scott's article was to provide some recommendations for the uncharted decade of the 41 19803 regarding Black students at predominantly White institutions. Some researchers believe that racism will continue to be a major force in the life of every minority student (Hollar and Milton, 1982). Notwithstanding, ‘the question for the 19803 is how can it be attacked. Several key questions for .campus administrators and Black organizations to deal with are: How are Black students impacted by racism? What are the psychological consequences of enduring racism for Black students? In the following quotes, racism, cultural racism, and ethnocentrism are defined. Racism is the prediction of decisions and policies on considerations of race for the purpose of subordinating a racial group and maintaining control over that group. Racism is both overt and covert. It takes two, closely related forms: individual whites acting against the black community. We call these individual racism and institutional racism. The first consists of overt acts by individuals which cause death, injury or the violent destruction of property. This type can be recorded by television cameras; it can frequently be observed in the process of commission. The second type is less overt, far more subtle, less identifiable in terms of specific individuals committing the acts. But it is no less destructive of human life. The' second type originates in the operation of established and respected forces in the society, and thus receives far less public condemnation than the first type (Carmichael and Hamilton, 1967). Ethnocentrism "a tendency to view alien cultures with disfavor and a resulting sense of inherent superiority". (Websters Third International Dictionary). 42 Cultural Racism "When whites use power to perpetuate their cultural heritage and impose~ it upon others while at the same time destroying the culture of ethnic minorities (National Council for Social Studies, 1973). Within any institution, there are three general, but distinct levels at which racism may be operating (1) the level of personal attitudes and actions, (2) the level of policy and practices, and (3) the level of foundational assumptions, which give the institution its reason for existing and the philosophical basis for its operations. More often than not the only visible racism that is acknowledged by an institution is on the first level of personnel attitudes and actions when in fact it is the racism that exist on the other two levels that is far more oppressive and more difficult to deal with. (Barndt, 1972). In reviewing the literature on Black experiences on White campuses, the researcher found numerous studies depicting racial problems confronting Black students at these institutions (Nieves, 1977; Sedlacek and Brooks, 1976; Sedlacek et al., 1973; Troy et al., 1975; Mitchell, 1970 and Middleton, 1981). These studies target racial isolation, rejection, and biased curriculum and professors. In their book, Racism In American Education, Sedlacek and Brooks (1976) cited eight typical instances of racism in higher education: 1. Biased admissions standards result in fewer minority students in the nation's campuses. 2. Faculty members have low expectations of minority student performance. 3. Most student activities are organized primarily for Whites. 43 4. Most counselors are not knowledgeable about minority student problems and concerns. 5. There are only limited course offerings that are relevant to minority students. 6. Few minority personnel are in key decision making' roles. 7. Programs for minority students tend to be understaffed and underfunded. 8. Schools commit little of their own funds to minority programs. The authors clarified the fact that some acts of racism can be unintentional, however, for the Black student the end result is the same as if it were intentional. The benign neglect of Black students on White campuses compounds the psychological adjustment problems of these students to campus. Notwithstanding, studies by Kegan (1974) and Mannan, Golan and Pease (1980) have reported that Black students can develop healthy attitudes and adjust more readily if they establish some identity with the institution. Prior research indicates that sometimes Black students at predominantly White institutions often distort the image of the campus. This can be attributed to such factors as frustration with environments, lack of sensitivity, lack of self-confidence or self-esteem. In reviewing the perceptions of Black students at predominantly White colleges, William Boyd (1973) questioned the differences in perceptions of Black students. 44 To work with them effectively one needs to see their views. Similarly faculty members and administrators at predominantly White colleges may not see the black students as they really are but it is important to know that staff and students agree about many, but not all problems of black students in predominantly - White colleges. In cases in which the viewpoint of students and staff are dissimilar, it is unlikely that problems will be solved until perceptions of either or both groups can be changed. In cases in which the viewpoint are similar the problem solving exists. The lack of building foundations for something on them however remains. (p. 17) Another researcher, Erickson, has a different understanding of Black students perceptions. The black undergraduate who perceives himself and is seen as primarily a student causes no unexpected problems for his white instructor. These students follow the pattern of others, adjust their life styles to the other, and are content to be educated as others are. It is when they insist on being black, that their different backgrounds and values become college concerns. Colleges will be misled if they base all interpretations of student behavior upon skin color, as they will also be if they ignore questions of race and say that color has no importance what so ever. (Erickson, 1982, p.21) It is acknowledged that Black college students who comprehend the dynamics of racism were more likely to stay and persist in school (Cesare, Sedlacek and Brooks, 1972). The importance of supportive mechanisms in aiding Black students to deal with racism is further advocated by Harvey (1981). 45 Special problems that provide academic and psychosocial support programs that have often been havens against the various forms of racism to which students are exposed should be continued and strengthened. Many of those programs have proved themselves effective in enrolling, assisting, and graduating students who come from "disadvantaged” backgrounds and who, without them, might never succeed in or graduate from a college or university. (p. 56) Stereotyping is another problem that inhibits the psychological growth of Black students at predominantly White institutions. Many campus officials, professors, and students through verbal or non-verbal behavior tend to view Black students as being "special admit students." Therefore they expect them to be low achievers (Reed, 1978). That minorities attend college because of the availability of sports, scholarships, or financial aid packages is another stereotype (Burrell, 1979). The perpetuation of these myths continues to prevent understanding between Blacks and Whites. In order for Black students to effectively handle racism they must be aware that it is not essentially their problem. People who have the ability or power to impact others, regardless if they are in the numerical majority, ‘are the perpetuators of racism (Sedlacek and Brooks, 1976). They also report that American society is operated and dominated by and for Whites and that therefore racism is primarily a White problem. They conclude by suggesting that unless "Whites are able to alter their behavior individually 46 and 'cOllectively through institutions, White racism is likely to remain." In discussing the importance of developing a positive“ identity for Black students, Thomas (1970) makes ’the' following comments: Racial identity is the passage to power and the essence for quality of life. For those of us rendered powerless because of race there is almost a constant assault by knowledge that disagrees with behavior. Fighting the inconsistencies between one's self image, and what one wishes to be requires so much energy it is difficult to be a human being. (p.7) In analyzing the psychological adjustment of Black students one must consider the importance of Black students' feeling that they are accepted by their White counterparts. The rejection of Black students by Whites can be devasting to some students. Some White students are very selective in the caliber of Blacks with whom they choose to interact. When they do choose Black friends they select the Black students whom they consider to be "docile" and agreeable (Harper, 1969). Harper also believes that White students assume that racism is not a problem on campus. Although it is difficult to measure the impact of racism on Black students in regard to their interactions with other students, some studies have adequately analyzed such interactions. One of the most difficult aspects of human behavior to "overcome" regarding the impact of attitudinal racism directed at Black students at predominantly White 47 institutions is pretension. Pretension is the degree to which Whites pretend to accept Blacks (McClain, 1982). Furthermore, McClain claims that it is difficult to eliminate . attitudinal racism in predominantly White institutions” of higher education because Whites refuse to accept themselves that they are the major contributors to the perpetuation of this social enigma. Has higher education identified its sources of racism? Most research manifest that racism in higher education is academically, intellectually and institutionally alive. Through an awareness of Black perceptions of the existing college environment, campus administrators can make sincere efforts to enhance the Black student experience at their institution (Dawkins, 1978). It is the responsibility of higher education, through educational philosophers, researchers and administrators to promote and sustain the American people in the quest for a pluralistic society (Scott, 1978). Moreover, Scott argues that researchers must generate probing questions in respect to the character and mission of the American eduational system. Affirmative Action: Its Impact On Black Student Adjustment In actuality, affirmative action was initiated by the first wave of Black students entering predominantly White institutions during the turbulent 19603. It was noted by 48 Peterson and Davenport (1978) that Black students' efforts to recruit large numbers of other Black students undoubtedly preceded official recruitment decisions. Black students also began to demand an increase of Black ‘faculty ”ahd' administrators prior to official affirmative action mandates (Boyd, 1974). A review of Black student demands selected from 13 predominantly White colleges indicated that "ten demands were focused on increasing black faculty and staff: Interestingly these were not associated with affirmative action regulations since eight of the ten occurred prior to Executive Order 11246." (Peterson and Davenport, 1978). Does affirmative action have a significant impact on the adjustment of Black students in the psychological, social and academic realm? When Black students began to voice their disenchantment with the lack of minorities, faculty administrators and students, researchers began to take note of the need for role models for Black students (Turner, 1980). The importance of having Black faculty at these institutions was such a premiere problem that some institutions would have a great deal of difficulty attracting and retaining Black students, if Black staff was not visibly involved in all aspects of the campus environment (Turner, 1980). A similar train of thought was advanced by Mitchell (1979). 49 The institution must be willing to alter those attitudes, methods, and practices which will adversely affect the black students' chances for success.... Finally, if the institution is to become a meaningful place for black students to seek higher education, then there must be.blacks throughout the institution: on the faculty and staff, in adminstrative positions and within the graduate as well as undergraduate student body., (p.31) Have the "attitudes, methods and practices" mentioned by Mitchell been eradicated by higher education? Has the racial climate cooled down on predominantly White campuses? Some research indicates that there have not been drastic changes in racial awareness in higher education (Freedman, 1980). There are also the opinions of other researchers that times have changed. During the past twenty years, Americans have witnessed a diminishing of intensity in racial conflicts (Freedman, 1980). However, Freedman contends that although progress in civil rights is mandated in the official policy of the country, there is a "disquieting amount of evidence suggesting that the changes hoped_ for and promised by the struggle have not yet occurred." According to Freedman, one of the consequences of the struggle was a belief that the next generation of American youth would avoid the racial and religious bigotry that represented America's past. Have American youth in the 19803 abandoned their heritage? Freedman suggests that they have not. 50 The conventional wisdom suggests that young people, unlike their parents, reject stereotypical thinking and negative beliefs about minority groups and refuse to counterance discriminatory behavior. Racism incidents on many of our beleaguered high school and college campuses are discounted as aberrations that time and contact will erase. At the same time a,' pervasive neglect of cross cultural attitude' formation affects most classrooms if not by design then by default (Freedman, 1980, p.51) Freedman believes that the public considers the campus as "society's important bastion" of education and enlightment. He cited a study on Patterns of American Prejudice by Dr. Charles Glock which concluded that the level of education, not income or occupation, was a key factor that determined the propensity to prejudice (Glock, 1975). Although research demonstrates that prejudice decreases as one's education increases, Freedman suggests that if this is true than bigotry should be virtually nonexistent on college campuses. However, he confirms that bigotry does exist on college campuses. Referring to a survey of ninety colleges, he reported that 41 percent reported that they experienced some kind of racial incident (Anti-Defamation League, 1979-1980). For many institutions affirmative action has not yielded the intended results. A prominent researcher (Gittell, 1975) made the following comments on the failures of affirmative action: 51 For those of use who saw affirmative action as an instrument for institutional change in the broadest possible terms, those were the anticipated results. Sexist and discriminatory practices would necessarily fall by the wayside in an.0pen democratic society where people were held accountable. Instead, affirmative ‘action has become a limited response to a series of individual complaints. Class action suits represent ~the only continued pressure, and negotiated settlements sidetrack larger issues for correction of past inequities.. We appear to have lost the concept of a broader plan for institutional change. The complete failure of the university community to respond to the issue, to rise to the occasion and set standards that the rest of society can look to is disheartening. The retreat from earlier committments and from long range goals makes affirmative action in the university nothing more than an illusion. (p.43) On the other side of the coin, how do Black students evaluate affirmative action progress at predominantly White institutions? Research by Jones (1979) at 19 predominantly White Southern colleges, indicated that Black students believed that their institution was not making a sincere effort to recruit and maintain minority faculty. During the Winter of 1982, the Black Coalition for Organizational Unity at Michigan State University, complained that Black students represented only 5.9 percent of the undergraduates. The organization considered the decline of Black enrollment and lack of retention of Black undergraduate and graduate students, as a programmatic issue that must be addressed by the administration and Board of Trustees. One of the programmatic responses to institutional racism at Michigan State was the adoption of an affirmation action program. 52 Although the program was adopted several years prior to the complaints of Black Coalition for Organizational Unity, it did address some of the organization's complaints. The affirmative action program has the following primary objectives: (1) representation of women, minorities and handicappers, in the student body and workforce, and (2) the quality of the living-learning-work environment. Other goals as they related to this study are the retention of minority faculty and students. A case in point is the creation of the Madison Minority Alliance. Madison College is a residential college located at Michigan State that offers a course of study that prepares students for a career in public affairs, social and human services. Many of the students are pre-law. The alliance was formed because of the academic and cultural problems encountered by Black students at the University. The primary objective of the alliance was to assist them in graduating from the University. To achieve its objectives the Madison Alliance directed and developed programs that related to (l) recruitment, (2) retention, (3) informational services, (4) community and university activities (Madison Minority Alliance, 1980). In reality the Black students were asking the university to help them make a successful adjustment by admitting and retaining some students and hiring more Black 53 faculty at James Madison. Prior research denotes the importance of the need for Black faculty and administrators as role models and mentors for Black students (Thomas, 1970). ‘ The response from the administration of the Dean of Madison College was receptive. The Dean responded that affirmative action had been a primary objective of her predecessor, and she would continue to pursue the goal. However, she alluded to the economic status, of the university as a major reason that the goals had been somewhat compromised. Social Adjustment The ability of Black students to overcome social alienation and isolation at predominantly White institutions is a major obstacle (Bressler, 1967). Is there a causal effect between Black students' social adjustment and their academic success at these predominantly White universities? According to Smith (1981), University officials seeking means for decreasing the dropout rate among Black students should look more carefully at the social environment of their universities. Various researchers (Smith, 1981; Harper, 1969; Powell, 1970; and Pruitt, 1970) support the importance of a positive social environment for Black students at predominantly White institutions. It is very important to understand the impact 54 of the social context in which the education of Black students on predominantly White college campuses takes place. P In a related study, Lyons (1973) found in his survey of 14 colleges, that most Black students were channeling their energies into Black student organizations. Lyons study supports the need for and importance of Black student organizations. Although research upholds the argument that students who belong to or participate in extracurricular activities or organizations tend to perform better, few studies analyze the impact of these organizations on the psychological adjustment of Black 'students. Another crucial factor in assisting Black students to adjust socially at predominantly White institutions is the number of Black students at the institution. In a study of four New York state campuses, Willie and McCord (1972) noted that in order for satisfactory adjustment to White campuses, there must exist a minimum number of Black students. They also revealed that in the colleges where there were less than 75 Black students, they suffered the social consequences of having too few people to relate to and with whom to build relationships. The ability of Black students to produce or develop networks is also limited by their numbers (Keith, 1972; Reed, 1979). In the face of these findings, the decline in Black enrollment points up 55 the need for Black organizations and staff members at predominantly White institutions. Considering all of the problems _Black students on these campuses have, the psychosocial problems emanating from alienation and a 'lack of support from the campus environment appear to be the most devasting (Rosser, 1972). Black women in predominantly White institutions as a rule suffer greater from social alienation than Black men (Flamming, 1984; Wright, 1978). Wright, in her study of problems confronting Black women at a predominantly White institution, observed that 36 percent of Black women reported problems in social activities. She found that 33 ‘percent reported having difficulty finding campus activities. The consequences of this social isolation and alienation can be devasting to Black females and often results in students feeling depressed and lonely (Wright, 1978). Black Student Activism: A Prelude For Implementation Of Black Organizations In comparison to the 19603 and 19703, a different caliber of Black students exist on predominantly White campuses in the 19803. Black students then were militant and full of racial pride and ethnicity (Clift, 1969). The impact of these nonviolent strikes and demands often spread to nearby institutions. The institutions often 56 responded by delivering on some of the Black students' demands, such as special admit programs, recruitment of Black students, faculty, and staff (Mingle, 1978). Black student organizations were generated by !the energies and talents of Black student activists. The impetus for Black student activism was fanned by Southern Black college students who reacted to the racial prejudice and "Jim Crow" living conditions in the communities around the colleges (Lyons, 1973). The activism of Southern students spread to Northern students, but the problems in the North were more internal as opposed to surrounding communities. In a study by Peterson and Davenport (1978) speculated that Black students had been recruited to predominantly White institutions with high expectations and possessed of a heightened awareness of civil rights consciousness. What they found on these campuses were miniscule planned programs ready to cope with their aspirations and needs. Consequently, Peterson and Davenport noted that the Black students who emerged as leaders from "special admit" students were not as academically prepared and were more severely economically disadvantaged than earlier Black students. Hence they claim that the leaders of Black organizations were not as cognizant of the process of change in the academic world. They also reported from their survey of 13 campuses that by 1974, Black student .57 organizations had reached their apex, and had become legitimate. The selection of relevant activities and issues enabled Black student leaders to develop a sense of espirit de corps among Black students. Black organizations and student leaders served another vital function at predominantly White institutions, to assist Black students to mature successfully through their developmental years (Clift, 1969). Student development is an integral factor of the student personal point of view (Williamson, 1961). Inherent in this philosophy is the tenet that all students must have a positive self—image to survive the academic environment. Studies by Goodman (1972) and Craig (1972) indicate that a student's environment can enhance or negate his or her self concept. If individuals receive support and affirmation from their environment, they will be likely to develop a strong and healthy self concept. However, if they receive only negative feedback or ridicule from the environment they will have difficulty maintaining a healthy self concept. A related study by Bradley and Stewart (1982) claims that if students do not learn the mastery of a positive self concept, they will not be developmentally ready to manage subsequent challenges that the collegiate environment offers. The authors further acknowledge that any barriers that obstruct the advancement of positive self 58 development should be envisioned as a potential impediment to procuring a college degree. The diversification of Black organizations was thought to enhance the self development of Black students. In a study of Black student organizations, Peterson and Blackburn (1981) noted the following: Equally numerous were special interest black organizaions for drama, dance and music. The names reflect the black cultural emphasis of these groups: Mojo Theater; the Gospeliers; Black Genesis; Voices of the Soul. Some were athletic groups: Black Athletes' Coalition; Black Karate Club; a variety pep squad. Some were primarily social or residential units. Several off-campus service groups were active; Ebony Sisters and Brothers, Inc.; Sisters, Inc. Some groups of black students primarily at the more elite institutions, formed professional interest groups (e.g., law; pre-med; psychology). Academic Adjustment The enormously increased educational opportunities for Black students expanded rapidly between 1966-77. The attendance of over 700,000 Black students should be viewed as a positive sign for higher education. However, regardless of the encouraging expansion there exist many discouraging factors which limit the potential for successful matriculation and achievement of the ultimate goal of graduation (Smith, 1981). The importance of understanding the factors that inhibit the academic adjustment of Black students is acute for Black 59 organizations and staff, as well as campus administrators. Wiseman (1961) found that motivation and .academic achievement were directly related. She also observed that level of achievement was found to vary with degree” of. integration into college life. Low school spirit was found to be closely related to lower academic achievement. To determine how important Minority Advisors and Black Minority Counselors are in assisting Black students to adjust academically, in a study by Burrell (1979), Black students were asked what group of individuals they would turn to for help with their academic, personal, or financial problems. Students had to choose among minority and White professors, students, counselors, advisors and administrators. The results showed that minority students were more likely to turn to minority advisors or counselors for help with academic problems. In their study of Blacks at predominantly White institutions, Willie and McCord (1972) also indicated that trust levels among Whites and Blacks were very slow to develop and, therefore, the unofficial or 'official intervention of minority professionals was crucial to the success of Black students. In reviewing literature on academic adjustment of Black students at predominantly White institutions, the researcher found that most studies discussed the Black student who was not academically prepared prior to enrollment. The extent of the student's academic 60 preparation at the time of college entry proved to have a more frequent and stronger relationship to most. outcome measures than any other single variable (Astin, 1982). Astin also suggests that high school grades, aptitude tests,' study habits, high school curriculum, and perceived need for tutoring are the five best measures of academic preparation. In a review of the admissions and retention problems of Black students at seven predominantly White institutions, Smith (1980) observed the following: (a) the existence of special programs that provide academic and financial assistance seems to have little impact on Black attrition at the univer- sities investigated. (p.5) (b) Black students are unfamiliar with the fierce competitiveness of White students. (p.9) (c) the academic adjustment for Black students at the public universities investigated in the Midwest, East, and West, while much slower, is much more difficult. They are not subjected to such rigorous requirements, but neither are they the academic elite, possessing the superior secondary school training that characterizes the private students. (p.5) Although the Advisory Committee criticized the value of special programs for disadvantaged students, not all special programs are failures. At Michigan State University the special admit program operated by the Office of Supportive Services, has a high success ratio in maintaining and graduating its students (Harris, 1983). Black students attending predominantly White institutions can be placed in two groups. First, regularly- 61 admitted Black students who are selected based on their academic merit, i.e., pre-collegiate experiences, scholastic aptitude tests SAT or ACT. These students are inclined to have attended college-oriented urban or suburban high' schools. They tend to come from middle class or upper working class homes and have a wide range of academic and career goals comparable to their White counterparts (Epps, 1972). The second group are the specially-admitted Black students. These are the students toward whom most research is directed. Such students generally come from predominantly Black inner-city schools. Their parents are from the working class. These students tend to view the university as a place for "vocational" preparation. Compared to their White counterparts, they are generally near the bottom in their pre-collegiate academic achievement. Their generation tends to be the first in their family to attend college. While most of this socioeconomic data was gathered from Black students in the 19703, most of it is still applicable in the 19803, except that‘ most Black students today come to campus with better pre-collegiate academic experience than their predecessors (Erickson, 1982). Black students are doing better at White colleges in the 19803 because the institutions are attracting a higher caliber of Black students (Smith, 1981). Also, Smith acknowledges that Black students enrolled in 62 elite private or public universities are academically prepared to survive. There are many variables linked with the. academic adjustment' of Black students at predominantly White institutions. Therefore, it is difficult to categorize them. Reporting on the state of the academic environment for Black students at predominantly White institutions, Smith (1981) made the following comments: It is difficult if not impossible to write comprehensively about an academic environment for Black students. Even within specific universities there will be differing environments. Some will react with varying degrees of debilitation, others will screen out or interpret hostile stimuli and there may be resultingly little effect of their social or academic adjustment. When Black students contend that racism is at the root of all their problems at the University, this may be the result of their frustration or alienation. Students may blame their lack of success on instructors and the instructional program rather than on their personal inadequacies. (Jones, Harris and Hauck, 1975) They also suggest that social difficulties may assume exaggerated proportions, but exaggerated or not an imagined problem can distract quite as effectively as a real one. The importance of a successful sociocultural environment to academic achievement is well documented (Kegan, 1978; Hayes and Franks, 1975; Kegan, 1974). 63 Retention Rate Of Black Students At Predominantly_White Institutions As reported earlier in the study, retention is becoming increasingly more important to higher education because‘ of' the decline in the 18 to 24 year old population (Lenning et al., 1980). Student retention means student persistence to the completion of a degree or certificate. It may also refer to persistence to the completion of a chosen program, but short of a degree or certificate; persistence to completion of a term or a course; persistence to the attainment of a personal goal, but short of a degree or a certificate (Lenning et al., 1980). To impact positively on the retention rate, institutions and organizations should be aware of the importance of supportive services. The type and quality of student supportive services can enhance student retention. These services include counseling, orientation, advising, extracurricular activities and recreation (Lenning et. al., 1980). Although many studies, including Astin (1975), postulate that student interaction in academic and social services is a conduit to student persistance, there is some research that does not support the idea that extracurricular activities encourage persistence. After studying student persistence in various institutions, Chapman (1979) believes 64 that student involvement in extracurricular activities does not necessarily mean that a student will not dropout. Another theory that is considered pertinent to student persistence is that student-institution fit and interactions are correlates of student retention (Lenning et al., J1980). _These researchers also suggest that the morale and social integration interactions of students must be addressed by the institution. A great deal of research on the retention of Black students dealt with the need for cooperation from campus officials. Organized efforts by administrators and faculty can impact on Black students' retention, if there is a total commitment by the university environment (Carey et al., 1982). The Impact Of Faculty Attitudes On Black Students' Academic Adjustment A critical aspect of Black student's academic adjustment is their interaction with White faculty members. Prior research indicates that prejudice is subtle but is often found in the classroom (Fields, 1970; Christensen and Sedlacek, 1974). Since a correlation exists between attitudes and behavior (Sherif and Sherif, 1956), it is not unreasonable to assume that White faculty members' perceptions of Black students can be influenced by their racial philosophy. If they have healthy, positive, or 65 neutral attitudes toward Black students, it can aid Black students. The effects of White faculty notions of Black students' abilities can also have a significant impact on Black students (Rosenthal and Jacobson, 1968). The direct effect of expectations of students' performance is also called self-fullfilling prophecy. That is, if the Black students feel that their professors have high expectations of them, they will rise to the occasion. On the other hand, if little is expected of them, they will have the tendency to achieve little. Previous research indicates the difficulty in measuring the racial attitudes of White faculty members (Zavallone and Cook, 1965; Sigall and Page, 1970). Since hostility or negative attitudes towards Blacks on campus are unlikely to be expressed overtly, it is extremely difficult to appraise White faculty attitudes (Ostrom and Upshaw, 1970). When Black students began to arrive on predominantly White campuses in large numbers, one of the fundamental questions that had to be addressed was whether the staff was experienced enough or willing enough to work with students from different cultural and economic backgrounds and those whose academic preparation was severely lacking or at least not up to the level expected of White students. Prior research reveals that most White professors were unprepared or ill prepared to work with such students (Erwin, 1976). Therefore, a major demand of Black students in the late 66 19603 and early 19703 was for the administration to hire a more representative group of faculty and staff (Turner, 1980). While there is much research that indicates there were White faculty members who were sympathetic to Pthe issues and concerns of Black students (Sowell, 1972; Blackburn and Peterson, 1978), in some cases Black students were angry that White professors expected and often rewarded medocrity from Black students (Davis et al., 1978). Another study by Bindman (1967) at the University of Illinois disclosed that some staff performed their duties in an openly discriminatory manner. It is acknowledged that some of the barriers confronting White faculty members and Black students do not result directly from racial bias. In the classroom some White teachers frequently feel awkward in the presence of Black students (Rafky, 1972). Communication and affective style presents problems for other professors (Young, 1980). According to Young, the teacher's skills or style of presentation might present a problem in communicating with Black students A faculty person's affective style is as crucial as his or her cognitive expertise, because the rewards of the higher education system are primarily based on cognitive factors (e.g., intellectual expertise, research, publications and education). Many scholars have ignored their affective development regarding communication skills, ability to show concern in a way that reinforced the student, and concern for helping students develop professional attitudes and conduct. When students see a caring human being 67 who is financially, professionally, and personally successful, they are more apt to be motivated to follow in the same direction. (p180) The motivation that Young discusses is similar‘ to another motivation theory called the ”Pygmalion Effect." The National Institute of Education offers the following as a definition of the "Pygmalion effect." According to ancient mythology: Pygmalion sculptured a statue of a beautiful woman and thereupon fell in love with it. He appealed to Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty, to bring the statute to life. Aphrodite obliged and thus Galatea came into being. Pygmalion married her. The Pygmalion effect is the term applied to broadly analogical events in which the subject has a direct hand in producing the very response he or she wishes from another person. (p.235-236) Studies by Rosenthal and Jacobson (1974), Tuckman and Bierman (1971) and Rubovits and Maehr (1973) confirm that teachers tend to obtain the results they expect to get. The influence of faculty members as role models is well documented (Thistelthwaite, 1959, 1960, 1962; Davis, 1964; Heath, 1966; and Young, 1980). The crux of the question at a predominantly White institution is whether White professors can and should be role models for their Black students. Research by Young (1980) concedes that by having personal involvement with students and recognizing their personal accomplishments, White faculty members can prove successful role models. He also claims that for Black students who place high priority on the affecive domain, 68 personal contact is imperative. Furthermore, he believes that White faculty members may need b "professional assistance" to improve their knowledge of Black awareness and to enhance their interpersonal skills. The idea/flof' additional training for faculty is proposed in "other studies. Smith (1980) recommended that university presidents and other ranking administrators should be the catalysts in helping their faculty to be more effective in teaching Black students. He suggests that this process would include reexamination of curricular content, assessment of teaching strategies and reexamination of assumptions about who should be served by the university, who "fits the university's image" and what social or racial characteristics are necessary for the good of the university. In conjunction with additional training in human relations, Smith suggests that universities should encourage, foster, and develop more mechanisms for contact between Black students and faculty. Research indicates that many Black organizations on predominantly White campusses develop programs to encourage interaction between Black, students and faculty (Thomas, 1970). Increased Black Enrollment And Black Organizations For many students, especially Blacks attending predominantly White institutions, going to college meant 69 adjusting to different people, different social and recreation activities, different sets of attitudes and values, different demands on the individua1--in short to an entirely new lifestyle (Burrell,l973). Some of the problems confronting college officials were: How would Black students be supported academically, financially and socially? How could Black students achieve the sense of identity and security which would allow them to adjust to a foreign environment? To comprehend the challenges and resolve the problems much research was devoted to studying Black students at predominantly White institutions (Thomas, 1970; Peek, 1970; Peterson et al., 1978). The results of some of the studies led to the development of support systems for Black students. Most of these systems were formal, educational, and implemented by the institution. Historically, beginning with the late 19603, cultural, social and academic programs were put into effect to appease and meet the demands of Black students for greater visibility and cultural relevance. Black students also developed their own fraternal organizations, caucuses, and social or educational activities to ease their transition and survival in these institutions (Allen and Nadolski et al., 1984). 70 History Of The Black Caucus At Michigan State University In an attempt to surmount the obstacles inherent in alienation and racism, the Division of Student Affairs and Services, the University Housing Programs Office 'and the Department of Residence Halls, with student input and involvement, established the Black culture room at M80. The first Black culture room was located in Shaw Hall and opened in September 1969 (University Housing Program Personnel Policies Manual, 1982 [UHPPOPM]). The virtues of the caucus room were: The original purpose of the culture room were to provide a location where Black students could develop a network among themselves. The culture room would help foster their sense of identity. It would also enable them to deal with "destructive" feelings of isolation, loneliness and alienation. These factors are the consequences of being Black at a predominantly White institution. The rooms would allow Black students to develop programs and activities that focused on their history and culture. The rooms would foster programs and activities that would enable majority students to learn about culture differences and commonalities thereby promoting racial awareness and understanding. (p.45) As a means of expediting the intended purposes of these rooms and of meeting the specific needs of minority students in particular, each residence hall established a Black Caucus. The physical space and original furnishings for the culture rooms were provided by the Department of Residence Halls, at no cost to the caucuses (UHPPOPM, 1982). Advising 71 services and professional expertise regarding student and group development, campus and community resources and program implementation were provided by the senior staff of the Univer3ity Housing Office in each residence'hall. Both- departments made every attempt to provide the necessary facilities, services and expertise to ,Black students, ensuring their success at Michigan State University (UHPPOPM, 1982). In actuality, the trust for the development of Black Caucuses and caucus rooms was made by Black students. The national sentiment during the mid sixties relating to the needed improvements in civil rights for Black Americans caused this university to examine its posture on the recruitment and retention of Black students. It was determined that a special effort, beyond what was currently taking place, was necessary to insure that the University student population was diverse and representative of the many communities it served. As a result the "Detroit Project” was instituted, bringing many more Black students to the campus than had ever been here before. UHPPOPM, 1982, p. 286) The Black United Front (BUF) organized Black students to build a spirit of togetherness among Black students. They sought to encourage and foster the development of strong dormitory Black organizations for the purpose of building a politically cohesive group (Coleman, 1971). One of the objectives of this study was to determine the impact of Black caucuses on Black students' ability to adjust socially, academically, and psychologically at the unviersity. Considerable research demonstrates the 72 importance of Black organizations and peer group in the adjustment of Black students at predominantly White institutions. Edmunds (1984) conducted a survey of 284 Black students enrolled at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte, to identify stressors of Black students and aid in program development to reduce those stressors. Regarding~ leadership, 57.7 percent of Black students reported stressors due to the lack of effective Black student leadership, 54.5 percent cited lack of unity among Black students. Peer group associations and the implementation of an informal network of associations helps to strengthen relations among Black students by providing the personal and academic assistance which is sometimes lacking or underused in the formal structure of the university (Turner, 1980). To illustrate the purpose and goals of Black Caucuses, the researcher has chosen for review a constitution from Case Hall, Michigan State University. This constitution exemplifies the essence of the caucuses on campus. The caucus has as elected officials, a president, vice- president, second vice-president, chairman of activities, secretary and business manager. Each officer serves for a period of one academic year. The officers chair the following committees as well as assuming other responsibilities: (a) academic encouragement committee; (b) cultural development committee; (c) social committee; and 73 (d) athletic committee. The caucus operates its meetings under Roberts Rule of Order, the president presides over the meetings and a quorum of one-third of the caucus membership is necessary (Case Hall Constitution, 1983). The debate pertaining to the pros and cons of; peer group influence in collegiate environments is well documented (Thistletwaite, 1959; Murphy, 1960; Hughes, 1960). These studies present arguments that illustrate that the direction of peer group influence varies from very positive to negative. Although empirical grounds exist to show that the peer group effect in contemporary American colleges exists, they are not as solid as many educators believe (Newcomb, 1973). Some researcher, such as Hughes et al., (1960) are adamant in championing the positive and profound influence of student peer groups on academics. The Evolution Of The Minority Aide Regardless of how they arrived on campus, once large numbers of Black students began attending predominantly White colleges and universities, these institutions were destined to change. This new population of students did not embrace many of the prevailing goals of higher education; their enrollment raised many serious questions regarding the mission of higher education in American society (Epps, 1972). 74 Most institutions of higher education had not done their home work prior to admitting these students. Thus, there were more questions than prepared solutions. Questions such as "What changes in the institutions seem most likely to minimize conflict or develop the students' capacity to c0pe with the academic environment." “ "What mechanisms or adaptations do students use to maximize their individual and group abilities to cope with the academic institution?" (Epps, 1972, p. ixx). "How was the social organization of campus affected? How did faculty respond to Black students in their classes? (Blackburn, Gamson and Peterson, 1978) The response of Black students to similar questions inadvertently provoked them into forming Black organizations at Michigan State University and they used these organizations to draft their list of demands to the University president. On the list of demands from these students was the need to have a program specifically created to assist Black freshmen in making a successful transition —-—7‘_.__\ _. _.__.. w......— M to campus. The university acquiesced and approved a program that would focus on all Black students, not just freshmen. Initially this program was called a Student Aide "A..- m-O-M‘ *F’ ." "‘""'“ ’ program. The student aide had the general responsibility of assisting Black students in adjusting to the total environment of the campus and specifically to the residence 75 hall environment. Some of the original objectives of the programs were to: (1) increase communication between Black students and staff vis a vis the aide; (2) serve as a resource on University structure and environment for Black students; (3) create "innovative social, recreational, and economic activities" for Black students; ' (4) inform and discuss with other staff members matters relative to the racial problems or concerns of Black students; (5) provide on-the-job training to educate and involve Black students in other key positions in the hall structure, and to open communication between Blacks and non-Blacks. (Coleman, 1981) Since the aide was a part-time member of the residence hall staff, many of the staff expectations and staff relations were similar to those of Resident Assistants. The responsibilities included working closely with the Head Resident Advisor, Graduate Advisor and with the Resident Assistants. They were to become familiar with the administration of the housing and food operation in order to interpret these to students. The original individual responsibilities ,and functions of the aides included: 3 bontacting all new Black students in the hall, identifying and interpreting concerns of those students, counseling on “an.“ facademic, social, or personal problems, becoming involved with mangement advisory staff to interpret hall policy to Black students, informing students of the judicial process; and interact with student government. 76 The responsibility of training the aides was a joint venture of the Office of Urban Affairs, Department of Residence Halls, the Black Liberation Front and Student Affairs Office. The bulk of the training was -administered' through an Education 482 class and in-service training program. The purpose of the class was to provide the aide with extensive experience in the structure and politics of the university. The intent was to develop an awareness of how the university functions in order that the aide could pass this on to other Black students. The class featured seminars from crucial campus administrators. The aides studied virtually all aspects of the university judicial system, faculty governance procedures, undergraduate government (ASMSU), standing committees and group dynamics (Deman, 1971). From the university perspective the implementation of the minority Student Aide program was to demonstrate the university's commitment to making Michigan State University a more hospitable environment for minority students. Funding for the program was approved by the vice-president for Student Affairs and the proposal was drafted by the Director of Housing. The proposal called for 24 Black Aide positions to begin in the Fall of 1969. In 1972, the program was widened to include the needs of Hispanic and Native American students. The program name was changed to Minority Aide Program. 77 ' Over the sixteen years from 1969 to 1984 the Minority Aide Program has been expanded with the increase of minority students. Each hall has a Black male and female Aide, and Hispanic and Native American Aides are also placed. in. several halls. The job description for the Minority Aides includes academic, cultural, and social programming.. The original budget for the aide program was $18,000 in 1969. The College of Urban Development, under the auspices of Dr. Robert Green, originally funded the program. However, Dr. Green recommended to the Dean of Students that the Office of Student Affairs could more appropriately finance the program. Subsequently, this was agreed upon, basically because the demands of the Black students and the program activities requested were generally associated with Student Affairs functions. The second year's budget for the program of $36,000 was funded through the Dean of Students Office. Dr. Eldon Nonnamaker, Dean of Students, also recommended increasing the number of Aides from 24 to 36. The intention was to make them more effective by having each aide work with» an individual residence hall staff and populations (Coleman, 1971). Minority Aides and Resident Assistants at Michigan State University are utilized as peer counselors. Peer counseling can be a healthy antidote for assisting Black students to adjust at predominantly White institutions. It has been found to improve classroom adeptness and grades and 78 inspired di3advantaged students to higher educational and vocational goals (Vriend, 1964). Peer counseling has made possible the successful adjustment of Black .students 'to community colleges (Pyle and Snyder, 1971). It has fostered psychological growth among high school students (Mosher and Sprinthall, 1971). Lastly it has expedited college students in developing their social skills and coping with loneliness (McCathy and Michaud, 1971). There are, of course, "pitfalls" in utilizing students as peer counselors. Peer counselors must receive training and close supervision (Jackson, 1972). Jackson also suggests that peer counselors are students and they experience emotional needs and apprehensions as do the students they are working with. Equally important to remember is that peer counselors cannot leave the premises after the session, therefore, they must continue to interact and socialize with the people they are attempting to assist. Regardless of the risks, peer counselors can be trained to be effective student leaders and counselors. Research demonstrates that when institutions provide the training and support for minority peer counselors, it shows minority students that the institution recognizes them as student leaders and helps to break down barriers between minority students and administrators (Keel, 1983). The qualifications for the Aide position have remained basically the same since its inception, although grade point 79 eligibility was raised from 2.0 to 2.2 in 1984. The priority of Aides is to motivate and encourage students in their academic, social, and cultural endeavors. They cannot hold outside jobs and must have prior experience living in residence halls. The Evolution Of The Resident Assistant Position The development of college housing evolved from the British concept of academic housing. The American system deviated substantially from the British, however, in regard to administrators' attitudes toward residential living. The British concept held that the total environment (i.e., residence halls and classrooms) was intended to enhance the education of the student. In the American system, however, dormitories tended to be places more for convenient board and lodging and the administration of a stringent set of regulations governing the daily lives of students (Powell, Plyer and Dickinson, 1969). College students in the colonial era were very young and administrators felt that rigid control must be exerted over their lives. Assisting in the development of student controls, was the idea that the college was responsible for the moral teaching and discipline of the student. In the 18003 the role of college housing began diminishing in importance. Students were left on their own 80 to locate housing and some new colleges decided not to build housing at all. Increasing enrollments and decreasing commitment to regulate the religious and moral aspects of students' lives contributed to the demise of. residential control of students (Powell, Plyer and Dickson, 1969). The Twentieth Century found the American system reverting to the British concept of a total educational environment. Residence halls were constructed initially for freshmen, enabling the college to more adequately provide for their academic preparation. Student life on campus has been impacted by national events. The 19203 experienced involved intellectual debates in dormitories about socialism, communism, the Sacco Vanzetti case and the usual sex and booze. This was also a period in which rigorous regulations were in force for female students. After World War II, college housing accelerated at unprecedented rates. The GI Bill, and more importantly, the federal expenditures for higher education increased. The 19503 was the period in which the role of personnel assistant increased. At Michigan State University Kuhn (1955) stated, The role of the personnel assistant has been a dynamic one during this period. The earliest PA's at MSU, for example, were hired by the president around the turn of the century for $8.00 per month. Their duties included inspecting rooms each morning, maintaining a quiet atmosphere, and reporting the violators of college policies to the faculty members in charge of the hall. (p.18) 81 Women were subjected to more strenous rules and regulations than their male counterparts. Powell, Plyer, Dickinson and McClellan (1955) reported: Women students at the same (MSU) were supervised by the Dean of Women, who lived on the first floor, and by some home economics instructors, who lived on the floor with the students. The out-of—class hours of the women students were rigidly governed. For example, Michigan State University women could be out in the evening until 11:00 p.m. only four times a term and then only if chaperoned. As late as ten years ago, it was the responsibility of the PA's at another midwestern school to sit in the corridors to maintain order in the evening. Some housing brochures even contain a statement about regular room inspection by PA's. The 19603 witnessed a massive change in college student-relations mainly because of students challenging the concept of in loco parentis (Upcraft and Pilato, 1982). Rules that usurped students' rights to privacy in their rooms were eliminated. Students were permitted to mingle more freely and continuous visiting hours were also established. Since morals supervision was no longer legal, colleges began to substitute student development and programming as methods of building student character. Residence hall life evolved to a level that was more consistent with the overall objectives of higher education (Delworth, Sherwood, and Casaburr, 1974). The late 19603 and early 19703 also saw a drastic revolution in the role of undergraduate Resident Assistants (RAs). As in loco parentis diminished, Resident Assistants did not have to 82 enforce rigid parental rules. They were freer to develop programs and help students create a wholesome living environment (Upcraft and Pilato,1982). ' Most ' studies of residential living indicate -the, importance of the residential counselor in student growth and development. Resident Assistant Job Description The Resident Assistant is a part-time member of the residence hall staff. The Resident Assistant has some degree of responsibility for the entire residence hall program with specific responsibility for the approximately Vfifty students in his or her "house". The Resident Assistant is a full-time student and may carry a full schedule of courses depending upon ability and past performance. It is sometimes recommended that during Fall Term the Resident Assistant carry three credits less than the normal load. Students majoring in a variety of academic areas have been selected for these positions but course work in education, sociology, psychology, and related areas is particularly helpful (University Housing Program Office Manual, 1982). Since the ,Resident Assistant position is reserved for those who can maintain a satisfactory level of scholastic achievement and still fulfill the responsibilities of the position, a 2.00 cumulative GPA is required. 83 Each Resident Assistant is expected to participate in a pre—school workshop in Fall Term, remain on the job through the last ‘day of every term, and give priority to this position over all other areas of activity with the exception. of academic work. The Resident Assistant receives remuneration of .a single room with board as payment for services rendered (University Housing Program Office Manual, 1984). Although the evolution of resident hall living has been influenced by a great number of diverse factors, few educators can doubt its importance, as indicated by Mongtomery, McLaughlin, Fawcett, and Ward (1977). The importance of resident halls in our current universities is an uncontested fact. This is supported through various researcher's studies. Chickering (1974) conducted a survey involving 170,000 students and 5,400 in another study. His results established that students living in residence halls had more advantages than non-resident hall students. The advantages were that students became more involved with academics, extra-curricular activities and social activities, earned higher grade point averages and their personal development was reached more quickly and exceeded those of other students. A similar study by Astin (1977) concluded that one of the most important factors associated with student persistence to graduation was living in a residence hall during their freshman year. Astin also 84 observed that residence hall students, as oppossed to commuters, expressed more satisfaction with their undergraduate experience, were more likely to become involved in extra curricular activities, that men have. higher grade point averages and demonstratd greater interest in artistic interests. Liberalism and self esteem_ were other dimensions that these students possessed. In this study, the relevancy of Black RAs in Black students' psychological, social and academic adjustment will be addressed. Black students' perceptions of Black RAs will also be assessed. Black Students' Experiences In Residence Halls The transformation of residence hall environments did not bypass Black students. For most Black students their lives in residence halls presented unique and complex challenges. The consequences of integration in residence halls in the 19703 spurred the creation of Black student organizations and' Black Caucuses in residence halls. In developing these organizations Black students looked for staff and programs that. addressed their social and psychological needs. It is acknowleged that Black students on predominantly White campuses often require innovative services (Westbrook and Smith, 1976). The implementation of 85 the Minority Aide Program at Michigan State University, proved to be an effective "innovative" program for minority students. Some of the problems Black Resident Assistants must” contend with often inhibit successful interaction with Black students. At M80, in 1983, Black Resident Assistants joined together to form a support group to: (1) help ease the pressures and effects of being a Black (RA) on a predominantly or totally White floor; (2) prevent alienation imposed by floor members; (3) prevent alienation imposed by other Black students, and (4) prevent being forced into the expert role in regard to their knowledge of Black people Have circumstances changed drastically enough on campus to eliminate the need for Black oriented programs, such as the Minority Aide program? Most research would indicate that there is still a vital role for these organizations because alienation still exists at predominantly White institutions. A case in point is the residence halls at the University of Maryland. Roberta Coates (Newsweek, 1983) a resident, states that Blacks look at Whites having food fights and shaving cream fights and say, "Why do they do that? It makes them think Whites are unclean. And the Whites don't understand why Blacks play their record players so loud and talk loudly in the halls." Michiele Singlettary (Barol et al., 1983), a junior at the University of Maryland comments, "Sometimes the Black students in the dorms have 86 bull sessions with the White students. We explain to them ' why we like different types of food and music, .why our families tend to live closer and stricter. I guess (its, helpful but you get tired. They get tired too, of dealing with the sneers of militant Blacks who accuse them of selling out." How Black students will relate to Black Resident Assistants is a concern of some resident hall personnel at Michigan State. As stated earlier, Black students at predominantly White institutions often form their own social groups (Turner, 1980). They often view the predominantly White institutions as hostile or unfriendly. Subsequently, they cast a suspicious eye toward Black students who readily identify or become deeply entrenched with the school (M.L. King, 1968). The lack of communication and interaction between Black Resident Assistants and Black students appears to be a problem. The Black Resident Assistant support group has as one of its priorities to discuss and resolve the communication gap between Black students and Black Resident Assistants. CHAPTER THREE THE DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY Introduction In this chapter the design of the study is reported. Incorporated also are the scoring procedures, sample, collection of data, method of analysis and brief demographics on Michigan State University. This study was conducted using Black undergraduate students living in residence halls at Michigan State University. Michigan State University was created as a land grant institutuion in 1855 in East Lansing, Michigan. It is a state-supported institution with a total of 40,122 on- campus students. There are 32,339 undergraduate students, 6,513 graduate students and 2,500 faculty. Michigan State is the choice of students from 107 foreign countries, all 50 states and all areas of Michigan. The Black student population is 2,057 or 5.3 percent of the campus population. Michigan State is governed by a Board of Trustee's elected by the people of the State of Michigan. The institution is accredited by the North Central Association of College and Secondary Schools. Undergraduate admission 87 88 to the university is based on the student's high school grade point average, Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), and American College Test (ACT) scores. The institution administers a Development Student Program ‘designed to provide an opportunity for higher education to educationally disadvantaged students who demonstrate potential to succeed at university work. Guidance for these students is provided through the Office of Supportive Services. Michigan State University has the largest residence hall system in the country. There are 26 residence halls that range from ivy covered collegiate Gothic to very modern high rise structures. The halls offer a variety of options: quiet halls, single-sex halls, co-educational halls and an international hall. Honors college students may request housing on an Honors floor. The halls are staffed by professionaly trained directors who are generally pursuing advanced degrees. Undergraduate staff function as trained residence assistants. Michigan State University parallels most other state- supported regional institutions in size, tuition fees, accreditation, admission standards, student body composition and minority student enrollment (Scott, 1978). Thus, implications derived from this study may be applicable to other similar regional public institutions. 89 The Instrument The questionnaire was developed by the researcher. The researcher conducted interviews with Minority Aides,‘ Black Resident Assistants, and Black Caucus members to solicit input on the questionnaires, as well as to Lobtain additional questions for the survey. Some questions were used as a result of the review of literature. Some of the items pertaining to the Minority Aide were selected from Coleman's (1971) dissertation, "The Status of the Black Student Aide Program and the Black Student Movement at Michigan State University." The questionnaire consisted of 51 items devised to solicit responses from the students regarding the effectiveness of the Minority Aides, Black Resident Assistants and the Black Caucus in assisting them to adjust psychologically, socially and academically. The questionnaire was divided into four areas: social adjustment, psychological adjustment, academic adjustment and environmental factors. The purpose of the environmental items was to further investigate problems that inhibit the adjustment of Black students to the campus environment. The data were analyzed and reported in term of absolute numbers and percentages. results are shown in absolute numbers and percentages. Chi-square was used to determine whether there were statistically significant differences of any of the items. 90 The study was conducted as a descriptive study of the perceptions of the impact of Black Caucus, Minority Aide, and Black Resident Assistants in assisting Black students to adjust psychologically, socially and academically. The overall intent was to ascertain whether Black students' interaction with Minority Aides, Black Resident Assistants and Black Caucus had a positive or negative influence on their adjustment at the university. This was carried out using a random sample of Black sophomores, juniors and seniors living in residence halls at Michigan State. The collection of data was done by campus mail. Population And Sample All Black students living in residence halls were the population for the study, which included male and female, sophomore, junior and senior students. Freshmen were eliminated solely on their dearth of experience with Minority Aides, Resident Assistants and the Black .Caucus. The Registrar's Office conducted the random sample. The selection procedure and research proposal was submitted and approved by the University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRISH). The purpose of UCRISH is to ensure that the rights and welfare of human subjects are protected. In order that the subjects remained anonymous, the researcher worked with the 91 assistant provost. The assistant provost required the following data (See Appendix-D): (a) definition of study population in order to determine sample size ‘ (b) questionnaire prepared for mailing and follow-up letter to be mailed to all students in the study The final procedure necessitated the involvement of the assistant registrar who prepared the list of subjects and mailing labels. These materials were then forwarded to the assistant provost and the questionnaire mailed from that office. A return envelope was included which routed the completed questionnaire back to the researcher. As previously mentioned, this process was devised to guarantee that students would remain anonymous. The total of the sample was 512. Data Collection Due to the traditionally low return rate of student quesionnaires, the procedure for collecting the data was extremely important. The first step after preparing the questionnaire was to meet with the Assistant to the Vice President for Minority Affairs. The researcher chose to meet with the assistant because his department was responsible for the coordination of the Minority Aide program. He also had considerable contact with Black Caucus 92 officials via a Black Caucus roundtable meeting held monthly. The researcher shared the goals and objectives of the. study with the Assistant, and stressed the importance of the study to his office and student affairs in generali An opportunity to meet with the Minority Aides at one of their weekly meetings was requested to explain the rationale and importance of the study and to solicit their support in motivating the students to fill out the survey and return it on time. The Assistant also agreed to stress the importance of returning the survey to the Caucus roundtable officials. On October 16, 1984 the questionnaire, along with a letter of introduction, was mailed to the students with a return date of November 5th requested. A follow-up letter was mailed on November 8th and some Caucus presidents and Aides were called to reinforce the need to have students return the survey. The follow—up letter considerably increased the return rate responses which turned out to be 309 of 512 questionnaires sent. Scoring the Responses The data Was scored by using the Likert Scale to determine the respondents' perceptions of the impact of Minority Aides, Black Resident Assistants and Black Caucuses on their ability to assist them in adjusting socially, 93 psychologically, and academically were tabulated with the following procedures. Rensis' Likert created a new approach .to measure. attitudes. The most significant advantage of the Likert technique was its ability to be administered and fiscored quickly. The realability of the Likert Scales are in the 0.90 range. The basis for the Likert Scale stemmed from Likert's dissertation, "A Technique for the Measurement of Attitudes," and it has become a standard resource for social scientists. The Likert Scale is easy to score because of its five point scale. Black students in this study were asked to respond to items concerning the effectiveness of the Aides, Resident Assistants and Black Caucus, by designating opinions that most reflected their own. Opinions were indicated by checking or placing an X by the appropriate response. Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree Do Not Know Each response was assigned a value. Due to the structure of the questions they were divided into two different categories for scoring purposes. Some questions or statements were treated as positive items and positive response to them received a high value. Thus: 94 Strongly Agree = 5 Agree = 4 Don't Know = 3 Disagree = 2 Strongly Disagree = 1 For the negative statements or questions, students who agreed were indicating their disapproval and such responses were assigned lower values. Thus: Strongly Agree = 1 Agree = 2 Don't Know = 3 Disagree = 4 Strongly Disagree = 5 The data was tabulated and then analyzed in terms of absolute numbers and percentages of responses to each item. The researcher combined "strongly agree" and "agree" responses, likewise ”strongly disagree" and "disagree” to simplify the reporting of the responses. As mentioned previously, the researcher did not generate or test hypothesis in this study,l chi-square was used only to determine whether any of these items were statistically different. Chi-squares at the .05 level or below were reported in the analysis only to those items \ which were found to be significantly different. Summary Of Responses There were 309 completed questionnaires returned. Seven questionnaires were returned without responses because students moved off-campus or moved without leaving a 95 forwarding address. Thus, of the 512 distributed, 309 or 60.0 percent of the questionnaires were returned. The researcher attributes the high rate of return to the following factors: (a) meeting with Minority Aides and the Director' (b) most Aides posted notices or discussed the importance of the surveys with the students assigned to them (c) Black caucus presidents were informed of the importance of the questionnaires and discussed the importance of returning completed surveys during their Caucus meetings. Basic Assumptions As generally anticipated in research, there are inherent basic assumptions that must be made prior to the analysis of the data. The most prominent assumptions of the study are listed below. 1. That respondents answered questions independently of other students. 2. All respondents answered the questions to the best of their ability. 3. The returned questionnaires of the sample students were representative of the total population. Summary The sample population, the design of the instrument, distribution of the instrument, scoring of the instrument, 96 and data analysis techniques have been described in this chapter. In Chapter Four, the data derived from the survey and analysis of the data are discussed. CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF DATA The principal objective of this research was to ascertain the perceived impact of the Minority Aides, Black Resident Assistants and Black Caucuses in assisting Black students to adjust psychologically, socially and academically at a predominantly White university. This chapter was designed to introduce and analyze the data collected from the study questionnaire. The questionniare was separated into four sections to assess student perceptions. The four sections were: (1) psychological adjustment, (2) social adjustment, (3) environmental adjustment, and (4) academic adjustment. The survey instrument was mailed to a total of 512 students. These students represented the total population of Black sophomores, juniors and seniors living in residence halls. The students were randomly selected by the Registrar's Office. The number of returned questionnaires was 309, which represented 60 percent of the students sampled. The composition of the sample included 123 male respondents and 186 female respondents. By class, the respondents were 131 30phomores, 106 juniors and 72 seniors. 97 98 As previously mentioned, the researcher collapsed the Likert scale responses of ”strongly agree” with "agree" and “strongly disagree” with ”disagree" to simplify reporting the responses. The results are presented in percentages. Also, the numbers were rounded off to the nearest decimal point. Due to the failure of some students to respond to all of the items the number of responses varied. Also as indicated earlier Chi-square were reported only for items found to be statistically significant at the .05 level of significance. The format or program utilized with the computer is called "Multiple Response: Tabulation of Multiple Response Variables” of the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). This procedure provided a means for analyzing multiple response items and permitted analysis of simple variables on multiple response items individually and in comparison with one another. It produced two types of output: frequency tables and N-Way tables. Responses To Items Concerning P3ychological Adjustment Importance Of Minority Aide Item 1 concerned student perceptions of the importance of the Minority Aide in their psychological adjustment. As noted in Table l, 211 or 69 percent of all students agreed that it would be difficult adjusting psychologically without I‘L‘) U) TABLE I RESPONSES TO ITEMS CONCERNING PSYCHOLOGICAL ADJUSTMENT PSYCHOLOGICAL ADJUSTMENT ' ALL STUDENTS DIS- OON3T TOTAL QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS AGREE N AGREE N KNOH N 1 N 1. Adjusting psychologically to MSU would be difficult without the presence of minority aides. 69 211 24 76 7 22 100 309 2. Adjusting psychologically to MSU would be difficult without the presence of Black Caucus. 71 220 23 70 6 17 100 307 3. Adjusting psychologically to MSU would be difficult without the presence of Black R.A.'s. 69 212 21 66 9 29 99 307 4. I feel comfortable in discussing personal problems with my minority aide and this helps me to adjust psychologically to the campus environment. 60 184 33 102 7 20 100 306 5. I feel comfortable in discussing personal problems in Black Caucus meetings and this helps me to adjust psychologically to the campus environment. 51 155 36 111 13 39 100 305 6. I feel comfortable in discussing personal problems with a Black RA and this helps me to adjust psychologically to the campus environment. 57 175 30 90 13 40 100 305 V o I sometimes have difficulty dealing with the stress of being Black at a predominantly Hhite institution. 62 191 37 115 1 1 100 307 8. I often feel isolated or lonely on campus and this impacts negatively on my psychological adjustment to the campus environment. 65 199 28 86 7 22 100 307 9. My personal motivation is enhanced by the presence of my minority aide. 66 205 26 80 8 23 100 308 10. My personal motivation is enhanced by the presence of Black R.A.'s. 65 200 28 86 7 22 100 308 11. My personal motivation is enhanced by the presence of Black R.A.'s. 61 190 27 82 12 36 100 308 12. The minority aide helps me to maintain my identity on campus and this assistance is valuable for my psychological adjustment. 62 I91 31 9S 7 21 100 307 Number of All Students = 309 100 the presence of Minority Aides. Seventy-seven or 24 percent of all students disagreed with this statement. Those who indicated they didn't know were 22 or 7 percent of all students. In Table 2, analysis by sex indicated that 86 or 69 percent of males and 125 or 68 percent of females agreed that adjusting psychologically would be difficult 'without the presence of Minority Aides. Twenty—eight or 24 percent of males and 47 or 25 percent of females disagreed with this statement. Nine or 7 percent of males and 13 or 7 percent of females indicated that they didn't know. It is noted in Table 3 that analysis by class indicated that 86 or 66 percent of sophomores, 75 or 71 percent of juniors and 50 or 70 percent of seniors agreed that Minority Aides helped them to adjust psychologically. Thirty-seven or 28 percent of sophomores, 23 or 21 percent of juniors and 15 or 20 percent of seniors disagreed with the statement. 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O N O m I ' o M a: a¢.o. 3023 p.809 8 uu¢c< -m—O uu¢¢¢ at... u¢_m. o:_z¢uuzou mxu»_ o. numxcgmuc .a. n a...» 107 _~ - ~n oo— oo— oo— ~— .— .— o~ .m ~m cm on v. u. n .50.... .9 50.15. ..¢ol...q.. ..u.oo.ogus.. .t 5.. ........ .. out....... .... 9c. .:.I.u co ....¢... .u :...c..t a. as ..... o... ....o¢.¢ as. .~_ ....... no... .0 ouc...c. .c. x. eouc..co .. co......o¢ ..co.c.. A: .__ ..:o:.. .u... .o .o:..o.. as. .. 9.9:.‘c. .. so...>..oc —.co.c.. a: .o. 108 percent of all students agreed with this statement.. Sixty— six or 21 percent of all students disagreed that it would be difficult to adjust without Black Resident‘ Assistants.' Twenty-nine or 9 percent of all students responded they ”didn't know." From Table 2 it is apparent that analysis by sex showed that 83 or 69 percent of males and 129 or 70 percent of females agreed that it would be difficult adjusting without Black Resident Assistants. Twenty—five or 19 percent of males and, 41 or 22 percent of females disagreed with this statement. Those who didn't know were 15 or 12 percent of males and 14 or 8 percent of females. As noted in Table 3, analysis by class showed 88 or 68 percent of sophomores, 76 or 72 percent of juniors and 15 or 21 percent of seniors agreed it would be difficult to adjust without Black Resident Assistants. Twenty-eight or 21 percent of sophomores, 22 or 21 percent of juniors and 15 or 21 percent of seniors disagreed and 14 or 11 percent of sophomores, 6 or 7 percent of juniors and 8 or 11 percent of seniors didn't know. Again, there were no apparent differences by sex or class and a considerable majority of the students agreed with the statement. Discussing Personal Problems With Minority Aides Item 4 pertained to the importance of the Minority Aide in discussing personal problems and if the Aide helped students to adjust psychologically. As noted in Table 1, 109 184' or 60 percent of all students agreed that they felt comfortable discussing personal problems with a Minority Aide and this helped them to adjust psychologically on campus. Those who disagreed were 102 or 33 percent of all. students. Twenty or 7 percent indicated that they didn't know. From observing Table 2, it is evident that by sex 77 or 60 percent of males and 107 or 58 percent of females agreed with this statement. Thirty-seven or 30 percent of males and 65 or 35 percent of females disagreed with the statement. Nine or 7 percent of males and 11 or 7 percent of females indicated that they didn't know. Analysis of the responses by class revealed that 78 or 60 percent of SOphomores, 64 or 63 percent of juniors and 42 or 58 percent of seniors agreed they are comfortable discussing personal problems with a Minority Aide and this contributes positively to their psychological adjustment. Forty-two or 33 percent of sophomores, 35 or 33 percent of juniors and 25 or 35 percent of seniors disagreed with this statement. Checking that they didn't know were 9 or 7 percent of sophomores, 6 or 6 percent of juniors and 5 or 7 percent of seniors. On this statement there were no apparent differences by sex or class and majority of the respondents disagreed with the statement. 110 Discussing Personal Problems In Caucus Meetings Item .5 refers to the importance of being able to discuss personal problems in Black Caucus meetings. I As. noted in Table 1, 155 or 51 percent of all studentsiagreed that they were comfortable in discussing personal problems in Black Caucus. Those who disagreed with this statement were 111 or 36 percent of all students. There were 39 or 13 percent of all students who indicated that they didn't know. Analysis by sex (See Table 2) indicated 60 or 49 percent of males and 95 or 52 percent of females agreed with this statement. Forty-four or 36 percent of males and 67 or 37 percent of females disagreed. Checking that they didn't know were 18 or 15 percent of males and 21 or 11 percent of females. From observing Table 3, analysis by class indiated 59 or 45 percent of sophomores, 54 or 52 percent of juniors and 42 or 58 percent of seniors agreed with this statement. Fifty or 39 percent of sophomores, 38 or 37 percent of juniors and 23 or 32 percent of seniors disagreed. Indicating didn't know were 20 or 16 percent of SOphomores, 11 or 12 percent of juniors and 7 or 10 percent of seniors. Again, there were no apparent differences by sex or class on this item, but a slight majority of all students agreed with it. 111 Discussing Personal Problems With Black Resident Assistants Item 6 asked if discussing personal problems with Black Resident Assistants enabled students Ito adjust psychologically. As can be seen in Table 1, 175 "or 57 percent of all students agreed their psychological adjustment was aided by discussing personal problems with Black Resident Assistants. Ninety or 30 percent of all students disagreed with this statement. Also, 40 or 13 percent of all students checked that they didn't know. As observed in Thble 2, analysis by sex indicated that 76 or 62 percent of males and 99 or 54 percent of females agreed with this statement. Twenty-seven or 22 percent of males and 63 or 34 percent of females disagreed with this statement. Those checking don't know were 19 or 16 percent of males and 21 or 12 percent of females. As noted in Table 3, analysis by class demonstrated that 70 or 57 percent of SOphomores, 65 or 63 percent of juniors and 40 or 56 percent of seniors agreed that discussing personal problems with a Black Resident Assistant assisted in their psychological adjustment. Forty-two or 30 percent of sophomores, 24 or 23 percent of juniors and 23 or 33 percent of seniors disagreed with this statement. Seventeen or 13 percent of sophomores, 15 or 14 percent of juniors, and 8 or 11 percent of seniors checked that they didn't know. Testing of this statement by chi-squre analysis revealed a significant difference at the 112 05 level. Within the junior class, a great disparity existed between the majority of students agreeing with this statement and those who disagreed. Further exploration by sex also revealed a signficance at the .05 ‘level among' males. Over fifty percent agreed that they were comfortable in discussing personal problems with a Black Resident Assistant while twenty-five percent of respondents disagreed. Difficulty Dealing With Stress Item 7 were whether students sometimes had difficulty dealing with the stress of being Black at a predominantly White institution. It is evident in Table 1 that 191 or 62 percent of all students agreed they have difficulty with the stress of being Black at MSU. Those who disagreed were 115 or 37 percent of all students. Only one student or 1 percent of all students indicated that they didn't know. As can be seen in Table 2 analysis by sex indicated 78 or 63 percent of males and 113 or 63 percent of females agreed with this statement. Forty-four or 36 percent of males and 71 or 38 percent of females disagreed with this statement. Only one of the males and no females checked that they didn't know. As observed in Table 3, analysis by class indicated that 81 or 62 percent of sophomores, 57 or 53 percent of juniors, and 53 or 74 percent of seniors agreed with this statement. Fifty or 38 percent of sophomores, 46 113 or 43 percent of juniors, and 8 or 25 percent of seniors disagreed with this statement. Those checking that they didn't know were no sophomores, 3 or 3 percent of juniors and 1 or 1 percent of seniors. There were no noticable' differences by sex or class. Although not all students responded to this statement, the majority of those who did agreed with the statement. Impact of Isolation Item 8 asked whether students felt isolated on campus and whether this negatively affected their psychological adjustment. From Table 1, it is apparent that 199 or 65 percent of all students agreed that being lonely and isolated negatively affected their psychological adjustment. Eighty-six or 28 percent of all students disagreed with this statement and 22 or 7 percent of all students checked that they didn't know. By sex, as noted in Table 2, 78 or 66 percent of males and 119 or 64 percent of females agreed with- this statement. Thirty-seven or 27 percent of males and 53 or 28 percent of females disagreed. Nine or 7 percent of males and 13 or 8 percent of females indicated that they didn't know. From Table 3, by class, it is indicated that 95 or 72 percent of sophomores, 61 or 58 percent of juniors and 43 or 61 percent of seniors agreed that isolation and loneliness has a negative impact on their psychological adjustment. Thirty-two or 25 percent of 114 sophomores, 36 or 34 percent of juniors and 18 or 25 percent of seniors disagreed with this statement. Four (3 percent) of sophomores. 8 (or 8 percent) of juniors and 10 (or 14 percent) of seniors checked that they didn't know. Testing of this item by chi square analysis revealed a significant difference at the .05 alpha level across grade levels. Over 50 percent of all respondents agreed with this statement, but among seniors agreement was disproportionately high and disagreement disproportionately lower than juniors. Minority Aide And Motivation Item 9 was concerned with the relationship between the students' personal motivation and the minority aide. It is evident in Table 1 that 205 or 66 percent of all students agreed their motivation was enhanced because of the Minority Aide. Eighty-six or 26 percent of all students disagreed with this statement. Indicating that they didn't know were 23 or 8 percent of all students. It may be observed in Table 2, by sex, that 85 or - percent of males and 120 or 65 percent of females agreed with this statement. Twenty- eight or 23 percent of males and 52 or 29 percent.of females disagreed with this statement. Ten (or 7 percent) of males and 12 (or 8 percent) of females marked that they didn't know. As noted in Table 3, by class, 82 or 63 percent of sophomores, 71 or 67 percent of juniors and 52 or 72 percent of females agreed Minority Aides enhanced their personal 115 motivation. Forty-one or 32 percent of sophomores, 24 or 23 percent of juniors and 15 or 21 percent of seniors disagreed with this statement. Acknowledging that they didn't know were 7 (or 5 percent) of sophomores, 11 (or 10 percent)’flof' juniors and 5 (or 7 percent) of seniors. Testing of. this statement using Chi-square analysis revealed a significance difference at the .05 level within the senior class. An overwhelming majority of seniors agreed with this statement and one-fourth of them disagreed. Black Caucus Enhances Motivation Item 10 regarded enhancement of the students' motivation due to the presence of the Black Caucus. It can be seen that, by class, in Table 1, that 200 or 65 percent of all students agreed with this statement. Eighty-six or 28 percent of all students disagreed. There were 22 or 7 percent of all students who checked that they didn't know. It can be observed in Table 2, by sex, that 86 or 70 percent of males and 114 or 61 percent of females agreed that the Black Caucus enhanced their personal motivation. Twenty- seven or 23 percent of males and 59 or 32 percent of females disagreed with this statement. Ten (or 8 percent) of males and 12 (or 7 percent) of females checked that they didn't know. From observations of each class in Table 3, it is evident that 82 or 62 percent of sophomores, 65 or 61 percent of juniors, and 54 or 74 percent of seniors agreed 116 with the statement. Disagreeing were 40 or 31 percent of sophomores, 32 or 30 percent of juniors and 14 or 20 percent of seniors. Checking that they didn't know were 9 or, 7 percent of SOphomores, 9 or 7 percent of juniors and 4 or 6 percent of seniors. Testing of this item utilizing the Chi- square analysis revealed there was a significant difference at the .05 level across classes. A majority of each class agreed with this statement, however, significantly more seniors agreed and fewer seniors disagreed with this statement. There were no apparent differences be sex. Black Resident Assistants Enhance Motivation Item 11 asked whether students believed their motivation was enhanced due to the presence of Black Resident Assistants. It can be observed in Table 1 that 190 or 61 percent of all students agreed with this statement. Eighty-two or 27 percent of all students disagreed. Indicating that they didn't know were 36 or 12 percent of all students. As noted by sex in Table 2, that 88 or 71 percent of males and 102 or 55 percent of females agreed that their personal motivation was enhanced by the presence of Black RAs. Twenty-one or 17 percent of males and 61 or 33 percent of females disagreed with this statement. Checking that they didn't know were 14 or 12 percent of males and 22 or 12 percent of females. From Table 3, it is evident that, by class, 78 or 61 percent of sophomores, 65 117 or 67 percent of juniors and 71 or 52 percent of seniors agreed their motivation was enhanced by the Black .Resident Assistant. Those who dispersed with the statement were 35 or 29 percent of sophomores, 32 or 29 percentaof juniors,' and 14 or 20 percent of seniors. Thirteen or 10 percent of sophomores, 5 or 4 percent of juniors and 8 or 13 percent of seniors checked that they didn't know. Testing of this item by chi square analysis indicated significant differences at the .05 level by sex and class. An overwhelming majority of all males agreed with this statement and less than one- fourth of them disagreed with it. Analysis by class revealed that an overwhelming majority of seniors agreed ‘that their personal motivation was enhanced by the presence of Black Resident Assistants, and less than one-fourth of this group disagreed with the statement. Identity and The Minority Aide Item 12 pertained to the relationship between student identity and interaction with the Minority Aide. I It is evident in Table 1 that 191 or 61 percent of all students agreed that the Minority Aide enhanced their identity and psychological adjustment. Ninety-five or 31 percent of all students disagreed with this statement. Twenty-one or 7 percent of all students indicated that they didn't know. By class, as noted in Table 3, among sophomores 71 or 54 percent, 63 or 60 percent of juniors, and 57 or 80 percent 118 of seniors agreed with the statement. There were 48 or 37 percent of sophomores, 36 or 34 percent of juniors; and 16 or 11 percent of seniors who disagreed. Indicating that. they didn't know were 11 or 9 percent of sophomores, 7 or 6' percent of juniors and 3 or 4 percent of seniors.d- By sex as noted in Table 3, males by 81 or 66 percent and females by 110 or 60 percent agreed that the Minority Aide enhanced their identity and psychological adjustment. Thirty-three or 27 percent of males and 62 or 33 percent of females disagreed. Those who indicated that they didn't know were 9 or 7 percent of males and 12 or 7 percent of females. Testing of this item by chi-square analysis revealed a significant difference at the .05 level among the classes. There was an increase in agreement with this statement among upper classmen, with an overwhelming majority of seniors in agreement with this statement and less than one-fourth who disagreed. . A majority of Black students indicated that Minority Aides, Black Caucus and Black RAs assisted and enhanced their psychological adjustment to campus. Likewise they believed their motivation is positively impacted by the presence of the Minority Aides, Black Caucus and Black Resident Assistants. The students believed that isolation has a negative impact on their psychological adjustment. Being able to discuss personal problems with Minority Aides, 119 and Black RAs, helped them to adjust psychologically to campus life. Responses Of Students Concerning Social Adjustment Social Life And The Minority Aide Item 1 in the social adjustment section of the questionnaire concerned the relationship between the Minority Aide and the social life of the student. From observing Table 4, it is evident that 147 or 48 percent of all students agreed that the influence of the Minority Aide improved their social lives. Disagreeing with this statement were almost as many, 136 or 45 percent of all students. Twenty-two or 7 percent of these students indicated that they didn't know. It may be noted,v by sex, in Table 5, that 60 or 50 percent of males and 87 or 47 percent of females agreed with this statement. Fifty-five or 45 percent of males and 81 or 44 percent of females disagreed. Six or 5 percent of males and 16 or 9 percent of females checked that they didn't know. By class, in Table 6, it is apparent that 61 or 47 percent of sophomores, 53 or 51 percent of juniors and 33 or 47 percent of seniors agreed with this statement. Sixty-one or 47 percent of sophomores, 47 or 44 percent of juniors and 28 or 40 percent of seniors disagreed with this statement. Those selecting don't know were 8 or 6 percent of sophomores, 5 or 5 percent of juniors 1220 TABLE 4 RESPONSES TO ITEMS CONCERNING SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT. SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT ALL STUDENTS DIS- DON'T TOTAL QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS AGREE N AGREE N KNOW N i N 1. Due to the efforts of my minority aide. the quality of my social life has improved. 48 147 45 136 7 22 100 305 2. Due to the efforts of the Black Caucus, the quality of my social . life has improved. 63 195 30 90 7 20 100 305 3. Due to the efforts of the Black Resident Assistants the quality of my social life has improved. 54 167 35 104 11 35 100 306 4. Social life for Black students on campus is not an important issue for Black student organizations. 42 129 54 167 4 13 100 309 5. The degree of happiness with one's social life on campus does not impact on the ability to survive academically. 72 221 26 76 4 12 100 309 6. The degree of happiness with your psychological adjustment to campus can impact on your ability to adjust academically to the campus environment. 74 219 32 69 4 11 100 309 7. Social activities planned by minority aides assist me in adjusting socially to the campus environment. . 66 205 26 79 8 25 100 309 8. Social activities planned by Black Resident Assistants assist me in adjusting socially to the campus environment. 49 153 30 89 21 65 100 307 9. Minority Aides should develop more social programs. 42 I30 48 147 10 29 100 306 10. Black Caucus should deveTOp more social programs. 43 133 47 143 10 31 100 307 11. 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A No _~ «o. .o nos oo_ o o o n so" so .oo_~ aa.coc.l an oust» we. ouoanoc _ .~_ ~o~ co“ as v v~ o. o.— as aw. oo_ o n 5‘ v. ~o as .uocovaom goo—m to aco.ooo.auo ecu monocooc_ .a—ooo oz» ocogn «ocaon.uuo ocov.uoc scope one: ._~ mm“ oo— 0‘ o no n~ o~_ ac n- oo~ o N m~ o~ cm as .aoeouaom oo.g: an wanton co vooaouua .ooo n .nppatocoa .o~ mod ooa «— a mm ~n o__ co MN. oo~ s e on - No No .coom m. uaaeao co mucousou goo—m aces. »o_c= .o mo~ coo ~_ o 5m .n ~__ no MN” oo~ a e on on “A co .u=QEoo co x—c.~o cooooco 5. ~ .m ¢m~ oo~ ma o co v~ m- on n- oo_ o n on ~n on me .eoocmuo_o ogo c. sopnoca o a. sm.ooa .N “as coo as o mm m~ nn— ac -~ co" m a - a_ ~o ms .maa5oo co .otocom c. sopaoca a a. ¢m_oo¢ .o no“ oo~ on m N. m~ o~_ on MN“ o¢~ c n o~ _~ no as .mcaoc ou.ooo c_ogo oc.c:v moonsoa nopaooo oo_:z so.) «an.» ~ .m moo oo~ _~ o ~m _n m_fi no -~ co. m o cm o~ no no .ncaog ou_o.o oc.c:u moo—Coo c_o;o c. «gonzo: xu_:ooo oo_z: go.2 a=.o_n.s c. o_a.oto.¢o8 a. _ .. was co" mg o oo ~m oo_ oo o- oo— s m co um o“ no .uaano co «ouco.coaxo st no.3 nan-g so _ .n «ma oo_ no a ma do no om -~ oo_ o A ~m no so om .nococaou xoo_m 5o aco_o~oooaxo u_eououo co.g osog nooasoc xo—auoo oo.c: .N mm_ cos a m ac an 50— mm m- coo ~_ o_ no on no ~m . .utoEan no.3ooo oo.g: go.3 accommopo as o:.mm:on.u c. o—aoocoCEOo 2. ~ ._ x n z rezx z uu¢o< z woao< z a z xozx x ouuo< z uoao< mxup~ w¢_zo mxmb~ 4zu o» mumzoamua an u4mzu quFA 4zu o» mumzoamux N_ wom

zA mXWAA Azu oA mumzoamua AoANA “Am~ . P. 0’ >0 DOC) m w HQ) (301 Q) h 001-: I.) OH 14 no COO 03 you N: «1 0‘0 >30 4.14. or: «1 km C. u) H that 0:(. 0 (DD C1 10. 11. 12. 194 I sometimes have difficulty dealing with the stress of being Black at a predominately White institution. Please Comment/or Give Examples I often feel isolated or lonely on campus and this impacts negatively on my psychological adjustment to the campus environment. Please Commnet/or Give Examples My personal motivation is enhanced by the presence of my minority aide. Please Commnet/or Give Examples My personal motivation is enhanced by the presence of Black Caucus. P ease Commnet/or Give Examples My personal motivation is enhanced by the presence of Black R.A.‘s. P ease Comment/or Give Examples The minority aide helps me to maintain my identity on campus and this assistance is valuable _ for my psychological adjustment. Please Comment/or Give Examples 131114.111nuvks>.1\l bkfll >~ . P! Q! >0 mm m 01 «4'0 Cm m 34 MN u 01.4 H no can 03 you N: m cm >30 L14. 4: m Hm I: m .4 U-H 0:4 Q the Q 195 lil’l’l'li'l'lVl'ZNliSS A'I' MSU >~ . Pl Q) SQ) com 01 Q) A Q) C m d) H 00H u 0 H H 00 C3 00 O H DU N: m 0 m 1. ‘un. 42 m H m u) .4 U-H r) 0 m0 0 ___._-..--__.g Know SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT 1. Due to the efforts of my minority aide, the Quality of my social life has improved. Please Comment/or Give Examples 2. Due to the efforts of the Black Caucus, the quality of my social life has improved. Please Comment/or Give Examples 3. Due to the efforts of the Black ReSident Assistants the quality of my social life has improved. Please Comment/or Give Examples 4. Social life for Black students on campus is not an important issue for Black student organizations. Please Comment/or Give Examples 5. The degree of happiness with one's social life on campus does not impact on the ability to survive academically. Please Comment/or Give Examples 6. The degree of happiness with your psychological adjustment to campus can impact on your ability to adjust academically to the campus environment. Please Comment/or Give Examples 7. Social activities planned by minority aides assist me in adjust- ing socially to the campus environment. Please Comment/or Give Examples 10. 11. Social activities planned by Black Resident Assistants assist me in adjusting socially to the campus environment. _ Please Comment/or G1ve Examples Minority Adies should develop more social programs. Please Comment/or Give Examples Black Caucus should develop more social programs. Please Comment/or Give Examples Black Resident Assistants should devel0p more social programs. Please Comment/ or Give Examples ACADEMIC ADJUSTMENT 1. My academic work is enhanced through the assistance of the minority aides. Please Comment/or Give Examples My academic work is enhanced through the assistance of Black Caucus. Please Comment/or Give Examples 196 lil’l’lifl'l'lVIiNl'lSS A'l' MSU Strongly Q) 50) 0 0 01 HQ) Q) Q) #4 00H H H 00 COO b0 04: m on: 4. «c 01 um H “to-4 O (AD Knox: Do 30: 197 My academic work is enhanced through the assistance of Black Resident A sistants. n P ease Comment/or Give Examples The Black Caucus should develop more programs that are academically oriented. . Please Comment/or G1ve Examples The minority aides should develop more programs that are academically oriented. Please Comment/or Give Examples Black Resident Assistants should develop more programs that are academically oriented. Please Comment/or G1ve Examples If I had a problem with my class- work I would seek help from my minority aide. Please Comment/or Give Examples Black Caucus officers encourage academic achievement and that helps to motivate me. Please Comment/or Give Examples Minority Aides know of resources that can help me if I need assistance with my Classwork. Please Comment/or Give Examples l~.l- l-l-.(.| lVlleahh M Mr)” >~ . P‘ Q} :\ Q3 DOC) m m H m ('3 Q1 m H 00L: 1.: O H H 00 c: 00 O 3 H no N: m C m >: 0 Lid. .1: m H m C'. m .4 u w o :1. Q m C) Q 198 Environmental Questions 1. I am comfortable in discussing my classwork with White faculty members. Please Comment/ or Give Examples White faculty members have high academic eXpectations of Black students. I am happy with my experiences on cam us. . p1e§se Comment/or Give Examples I am comfortable in visiting with White faculty members in their offices during office hours. Please Comment/or Give Examples I visit with White faculty members during their office hours. Please Comment/or Give Examples Racism is a problem in general on campus. Please Comment/or Give Examples Racism is a problem in the classroom. Please Comment/or Give Examples I am treated fairly on campus. Please Commnet/or Give Examples l 111x.|1\n Wigs» Al lfibU >~ . v-l Q) . Am and: m m r-a m C Q) G) H OOH u 0 $4 H on C 00 O 3 34 DD N! n1 0 m '13 O urn «1: m H m C. U) 0'4 JJ-H 0 :1. C: (110 D ___J-_-...- 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Unity among Black students on campus Pl good. . ease Comment/or G1ve Examples Generally, I feel accepted on campus By WhitE stude ts. , ease omment or Give Examples Most Black resident assistants share the goals, interests and aspirations Bf Black stude ts. , ease omment or G1ve Examples JIEEEgeEt and frust my minority aide. omment or Give Examples I respect and trust Black resident stista ts. , ease omment/or G1ve Examples The aide is available when I need gim/her. lease Comment/or Give Examples Ii l"l-'I'I(I'l' l VliNl'ZSS A] Ni)” >~ . P" 0) >501 000 Q) Q) HQ, Cw m I»: can u 03-: H m COO 03 RD!) N m cm 930 1.14: f 01 um C'. U) «4 U-H Oh”. Q mm D APPENDIX B LETTER OF INTRODUCTION TO STUDENTS APPENDIX C FOLLOW UP LETTER TO STUDENTS 200 October 16, 1984 Dear Student: My name is Eugene Henderson Jr, and I am a Doctoral Candidate in Education and Administration. I am also the founder of the Committee Commemorating Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King Jr, on campus. As a requirement in fulfilling my doctoral obligations, I am writing my disseration titled "A Study of the Perceptions of Black Students in Residence Halls, on the Ability of Black Caucuses, Minority Aides and Black Resident Assistant, in Assisting Black Students to Adjust Academically, Socially and Psychologically at a Predominately White Institution." The questionnaire that I am enclosing refers to the terms, psychological, social and academic adjustment. For the purpose of this study: Social adjustment is the ability of Black students to overcome social alientation and isolation at predominately White institutions. Psychological adjustment is the ability of Black students to develop behavioral patterns or organiz- ations that help them adjust to the stress of being Black at predominately White institutions. Academic adjust is the ability of Black student to utilize available campus resources, (minority aide, Black caucus, Black resident assistants), to achieve a successful academic adjustment at a pre- dominately White institution. Your participation in this study is completely voluntary and you are free to discontinue at any time. However, your cooperation in this study will provide information to university officials, which can be used to assist in solving problems and improving the overall quality of life on campus for Black students. Your response will be completely anonymous; on request, results of the study will be made available to you. Any information given is strictly confident- ial and will be treated with the greatest of respect. To indicate your choice of response to the question or statement, place an X or check mark on the appropriate line. You will have five choices: Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree, Strongly Disagree, Do Not Know. If you desire you may make additional comm- ents in the space provided or on a separate page. Please take a few minutes of your time to fill out this instrument and re- turn it to me by November 5, in the enclosed envelope. Thanking you in advance for your deeply appreciated and desperately needed attention. Sincerely, Eugene Henderson Jr. Dr. Eldon Nonnamaker Graduate Student Committee Chairperson Enclosure: questionnaire, envelope APPENDIX D LETTER FROM ASSISTANT PROVOST ‘201 November 08, 1985 Dear Student: Recently a questionnaire was mailed out to you. If you have not comp- leted the survey, I am appealing to you to please take 10-15- minutes to fill this survey out. Your individual response is very important and crucial to the effectiveness of this study, since this study re- presents four years of my graduate work. Upon returning to Michigan State in 1980. I discussed with many Black students my interest in improving the quality of life for Black stud- ents, particularly those living in residence halls. The information that I am seeking will provide university officials with essential information that ill enable them to make Michigan State University, a more hospitable environment for Black students. However my problem is that without a higher percentage of returning questionnaire's, my study will not be considered valid. Therefore, it is imperative that you complete this questionnaire and return it immed— iately. Please consider the fact, that the Black community has criticized Black educators for not conducting research on Black issues or Black students. I am attempting to fill this void in the study of Black student leaders and Black organizations at a predominantly White institution. Conse- quently, I need cooperation to make this study an overwhelming success. I still have faith that you will assist me in this academic endeavor. The return address is: Eugene Henderson Jr. c/o Ms. Ruth Harris W- 125 Owen Hall, Urban Affairs Program, Campus Mail Respectfully, W- #WJX ene Henderson Jr. 'Doctoral Candidate Education & Administration P.S. If you have already returned this questionnaire, please disregard this reminder. 202 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY OFFICE Of 111! PIOVOST EAST LANSING . MICHIGAN . «cu-nus ADMINISTIA'DON BUILDING October 1, 1984 MEMORANDUM TO: Dr. Henry Bredeck Assistant Vice President for Research (5 FROM: Lou Anna Kimsey Simon, Assistant Provost SUBJECT: Request by Mr. Eugene Henderson On Friday, September 28, Hr. Eugene Henderson talked with me by phone about his research project. He stated that he wanted to send a questionnaire to minority (Black) students who had lived in a residence hall at least one year. He reaffirmed that he had submitted his research proposal to the University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS) for review. I indicated that minority status was considered confidential information. Therefore, if UCRIHS approved his research project on its merits, I would arrange to distribute the questionnaires in order to protect the anonymity of the students. I outlined the following steps: Mr. Henderson should provide an explicit definition of his study population to me so that the total number of individuals in the study population could be determined. If acceptable in terms of sample size, I would request that two sets of mailing labels and a list be prepared and delivered to my office. Mr. Henderson would be responsible for charges associated with the production of the mailing labels. Hr. Henderson would then deliver to my office the questionnaires prepared for mailing. My office would then affix the labels and mail the questionnaires. If any questionnaires were to be mailed off-campus, Hr. Henderson would be responsible for providing stamps. Mr. Henderson indicated that he wanted to do a follow-up to increase his response rate. I indicated that he should prepare and deliver to my office ready for mailing a follow-up letter. This letter should be worded so that it could be sent to all students in the study since there would be no way of knowing who had responded if anonymity were to be preserved. As with other research projects that are approved by the UCRIHS, I am willing to facilitate the research project while protecting the confidentiality of student data in accordance with University policy. I rely on UCRIHS to assure Memorandum to: Dr. Henry Bredeck 203 October 1, I984 Page 2 that the questionnaire construction and the research design are apprOpriate and that they protect the anonymity of the respondents. If you have any questions, please let me know. I will not initiate any actions until I have received a notice of UCRIHS' approval of Mr. Henderson's research request. LAKS:jcSO928a CC: Mr. Henderson BIBLIOGRAPHY 204 SELECTED B I BLIOGRAPI-IY Astin, Alexander W. Minorities In American Higher Education San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1982. Astin, A.W. and King, Richardson, G. ”The American Freshmen National Norms for Fall 1980.“ Los Angeles: University of California, Los Angeles, 1980. Astin, A.W. Four Critical Years: Effects Of College On Beliefs, Attitudes and Knowledge. San FrancisCo: Jossey-Bass, 1977. Barndt, Joseph. Liberating Our White Ghetto. Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House, 1972. Barol, Bill. "Why They Choose Separate Tables." Newsweek, March 1983, pp. 4-12. Baumb, M. and Lamb, D. "A Comparison of the Concerns Presented by Black and White Students to a University Counseling Center." Journal Of College Student Personnel 24 (1971):127-131. Beal, Phillip E. and Noel, Lee. What Works In Student Retention? Iowa: Paper Read at American College Testing Program and National Center for Higher Education Management Systems, 19__. Bean, John P. ”Dropouts and Turnover: The Synthesis and Test of a Causal Model of Student Retention.” Research in Higher Education 13 (1980): 155-187. Bindman, .0. "Participation of Negro Students in an Integrated' University.” Journal Of Negro Education, (Summer 1967): 193. ‘ Bolton, Charles D. and Kamaeyer, C.W. Campus Cultures, Role Orientations and Social Types. New York: Pergamon Press, Inc., 1968. ' Bond, Arthur J. and Lebold, William K. ”Factors Associated With Attracting and Retaining Black Americans in Engineering.” Washington, D.C.: American Society for Engineering Education, 1977. 205 Boney, Don J. "Some Dynamics of Disadvantaged Students in Learning Situations.” Journal Of Negro Education. (Summer, 1967) IN: Minority Students: A Research Appraisal The National Institute of Education, Washington, D.C. 1977, p.236. Boyd, William M. Desegregating American Colleges. New York: Praeger Press, 1974. Brody, Celeste M. The Peer Group Morristown: General Learning Press, 1976. Bressley, Marvin. "White Colleges and Negro Higher Education." Journal Of Negro Education, 36 (Summer l967):258-65. Bullereit, H. "Fuhrergestalten in der Schulkass." 2 F. agnew Psychology 43 (1932):369-413. Burbach, Thompson H. "Alienation Among College Freshmen: A Comparison of Puerto Rican, Black and White Students." Journal Of College Student Personnel (1971):248-252. Burrell, L.F. and Clements, L.J. A Survival Kit. White Plains: Weelen Press, Inc., 1973. Burrell, L.F. ; Clements, L.J., and Trombly, T.B. "PerSpective on the Recruitment and Retention of Black Students in Traditionally White Universities.” Burlington, 1975 (Unpublished research). Bressler, Marvin. "White Colleges and Negro Higher Education." Journal Of Negro Education 26 (Summer l967):258-26S. Carey, Philip; Singh, Baldave; and Pillinger, Barbara. ”Impact: A Summer Enrichment Program for Minority Disadvantaged Undergraduates at the University of Minnesota." In Gail E. Thomas, Black Students In the 1970's. Wesport: Greenwood Press, 1981. "Case Hall Black Caucas Constitution." James Madison College, Michigan State University, 1982. Centra, John A. "Black Students at Predominantly White Colleges: A Research Description." Sociology Of Education (Summer 1970):325-339. Centra, Lyman A. "Demographic and Related Issues for Higher Education in the 1980's." Journal Of Higher Education 51 (July-August):18-39. 206 Charles, Willie V. and Sakuma, Arline. Black Students at White Colleges New York: Praeger PubliShers, 1972. Chase, Clinton I. "The College Dropout: His High School Prologue." Bulletin Of The National Association Of Secondary Principals, 54 (January, 197D):67-71. Chickering, A.W. Education And Identity San Francisco: Josey-Bass, 1969. Christensen, Kathleen C. and Sedlacek, William E. "Differential Faculty Attitudes Toward Blacks, Females and Students in General.” National Association For Women Deans, Administrators And Counselors (Winter, l974):78+§2. Claerbut, David P. "Black Student Alienation.” R. & E. Research Associates, Inc. San Fredrick Ugar Publishing Company, 1966. Study Of A Francisco, Clift, Virgil ”Higher Education of'Minority Groups In the United States.“ Journal Of Negro Education, 38, 1969:300-301. Coleman, Don. ”The Status of the Black Student Aide Program and the Black Student Movement at Michigan State University.” Ph.D. Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1971. Cope, Robert G. "Why Students Stay, Why They Leave." In Reducing The Dropout Rate. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc., 1978. Council, Kathryn N. "Graduation and Attrition of Black Students at North Carolina State University." Raleigh: North Carolina State University, Division of Student Affairs, 1974. (Eric Document Reproduction Service No. Ed. 130 588). Cross, K.P. Beyond the Open Door: New Students To Higher Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1971. Crossland, Fred E. Minority Access To College N.Y.: Schocken- Books, 1971. Davis, J.A. Great Aspirations: The Graduate School Plans Of Americanrs College Seniors. Chicago: Aldine Press, 1964. 207 Davis, J.A. and Borders, Patterson. Educational Testing Service Invitational Papers Submitted to the Selected Education Subcommittee of the Education and Labor Committee of the 0.8. House of Representatives, March, 1971, p.69. . Report On Black Students In Predominantly White North Carolina Colleges and Universities. New York: College Entrance Examination Board, 1978. Dawkins, (Marion P. "Enhancing the Meaning of the College Experience for Black Students on a Predominantly White Campus." The Maryland Association For Higher Educational Journal, (1978): 10-19. Demitroff, John F. "Student Persistence.” College and University 49 (Summer 1974):553-S67. Di Cesare, A.; Sedlacek, W.E. and Brooks, G.C., Jr. ”Nonintellectual Correlates of Black Student Attrition." Journal Of College Student Personnel (1972):319-324. Edmunds, Gloria J. "Needs Assessment Strategy for Black Students: An Examination of Stressors and Program Implications." Journal Of Non-White Concerns In Personnel and Guidance. ,(January 1984):48-56. Epps, Edgar A. Black Students In White Schools Worthington: Jones Publishing Company, T972. Erickson, E.H. Young Man Luther. New York: Norton, 1962. In: Education And Identigy San Francisco: Jossey— Bass, 1969. Erickson, Ralph J. ”The Black College Student in the United States.” College Student Journal (Summer 1982): 113- 115. ”Equal Educational Opportunity for Blacks in United States Higher Education: An Assessment." Institute for the Study of Educational Policy, Washington, D.C.: Howard University, 19 . Erwin, James. "The Attitude of Black "New" Students? and Administration Responses." Journal Of Negro Education (Spring 1976):161-163. 208 Everett, Carol L. "An Analysis of Student Attrition at Penn State University." Park, PA: Office of Planning and Budget, The Pennsylvania State University, August, 1979. Faquier, W. and Gilchrist, T. "Some Aspects of Leadership in an Institution." Child Development (1942): 55-64. Feldman, K.A.: Newcomb, H.; Burrell, L.F.; and Clements, L.J. A Survival Kit White Plains, New York: Weelen Press, Inc.: 1973. Fields, C.A. "kBlack Students in A White University." In Fran Nancing, Equal Opportunity In Higher Education: A College Scholarship Service Colloguim. New York: College Entrance Examination Board, 1970, 33-37. Flemming, J. "Stress and Satisfaction in College Years of Black Students." Journal Of Negro Education (1981):307-318. Franklin, Westbrook D. "Assisting Black Resident Students in a Predominantly. White University: A Paraprofessional Approach.” College Student Personnel (May l976):205-210. Freedman, "Is Civility on the Campus Threatened?" Educational Record 62 (Summer l981):51-53. Fromm, Erich Marx's Concept Of Man New York: Fred Ungar Publishing Co., 1966. Gibbs, J.T. "Black Students at Intergrated Colleges: Problems and Prospects.“ In C.V. Wilie (ed.) Black/ Brown/White Relations. New Jersey: Transaction Books, 1977. . "Use of Mental Health Services by Black Students at a Predominantly White University." American Journal Of Orthopsychiatry (1975):110-ll9. . "Black Students/White University: Different Expectations.” Personnel And Guidance Journal 51 (1973): 463-469. - Glenny, Lyman A. 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