. uni-r... A3... I ‘ a .n ' magma. 33... I4, .9. 3 .1: . n: i. .. . s a. . an... .. $94 .155 ,2... . . 5.. V T . a n . 15,-”. 7.. i... :13. “my ml y 7.....2. a. V , . . .. I...) .x: - 1rd?" :5 I'm? ~ V .3 .15.! a: i a; .2... ,rwunfihémfiwfi ‘ :3... z. a... .s. .2. .‘ iii :1 ..‘ .n It). : : :2“: . 2:05)}. k THESTV M HIGAN STATE LIBRARIES l I’l’lllllllllllll’llll'll Michigan State University This is to certify that the dissertation entitled EUROPEAN AMERICAN, NATIVE AMERICAN, ASIAN AMERICAN, AND LATINO PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT AND THEIR CHILDREN’S HIGH SCHOOL COMPLETION, COLLEGE ASPIRATIONS. AND ENTRANCE INTO AND WORKING IN THE LABOR FORCE presented by Ruben Patricio Viramontez Anguiano has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degreein Family and Child Ecology a Major professor Date/{’07 9i? MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 042771 PLACE iN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. To AVOID FINE return on or before date due. 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DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE ,L;' A «iii with ,J’J“ 1 3 2300 i m; 031403 ”3&72‘1252003 1/” W14 EUROPEAN AMERICAN, NATIVE AMERICAN, ASIAN AMERICAN, AND LATINO PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT AND THEIR CHILDREN’S HIGH SCHOOL COMPLETION, COLLEGE ASPIRATIONS, AND ENTRANCE INTO AND WORKING IN THE LABOR FORCE By Ruben Patricio Vuamontez Anguiano A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fiilfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Family and Child Ecology 1999 ABSTRACT EUROPEAN AMERICAN, NATIVE AMERICAN, ASIAN AMERICAN, AND LATINO PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT AND THEIR CHILDREN’S HIGH SCHOOL COMPLETION, COLLEGE ASPIRATIONS, AND ENTRANCE INTO AND WORKING IN THE LABOR FORCE By Ruben Patricio Viramontez Anguiano This study explored European American, Latino, Asian American, and Native American parental involvement and their children’s high school completion, college aspirations, and entrance into and working in the labor force. The study also explored how difl‘erent family structures would influence a student’s education. This study used the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 and utilized Hierarchical Linear Model (HLM) for the statistical analysis. Social capital theory and a family ecological approach was used as the theoretical foundation in this study. The finding demonstrated that different types of parental involvement were important in a student’s high school completion and college aspirations depending on ethnicity. School involvement was not significant in influencing the level of parental involvement and the relation to high school completion and college aspirations. The study found that parental involvement did not make a difi‘erence in predicting whether students would enter the labor or how long they had worked. This study found that future research should focus on understanding the ways in which a better relationship between families and educational systems could be developed. COPyn'sht by Ruben Patricio Viramontez Anguiano 1999 DEDICATION Que Dios te Bendiga (May God Bless You) This a simple phrase that served as a constant reminder of my family’s support throughout my PhD program at Michigan State University. My mother, Eloisa Viramontez Anguiano, spent her childhood in Mexico and later moved to the United States as an adult. As a child she often reminded me of the importance of education and how I should strive to succeed. My mother never had the opportunity to formally educate herself, but I have always held my mother in high regards for her wisdom. With honor and pride I dedicate this dissertation to my mother and her endless commitment to my success in education and life. I am also grateful to the time that I shared with Salvador F. Martinez, Omar Gastelum, and my cousin Raul Encerado who are no longer with us. These three were taken from this world through senseless, violent crimes. They are in a better place now and can rest in peace. I dedicate this work to my brothers and I pray that no other family will have to sufi‘er the loss of a family member in this manner. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I cannot begin to remember all the people who were supportive throughout the writing of my dissertation. I can only say thank you for being there and I will never forget your dedication to my educational success. I would like to mention a few of the many who served as my spiritual peace. I thank my family including my mother Elosia, my sisters Delia, Brenda, Teresa, my brother Rojelio, and my brother-in-law Luis. I am most appreciative of my beloved Sarah who continued to demonstrate her love and commitment even when at times it seemed like it would never end. I thank my fiiends Sara, Steve, Michael, Oscar, Gloria, John, and Christine who were there to motiviate me in more ways than one. I acknowledge the commitment of my committee members through the process and I thank them including my major professor Dr. Francisco Villarruel, Dr. Lillian Phenice, Dr. Ken Frank and Dr. Robert Lee. Finally, I am most gratefitl to mi Dias who never let me give up faith in my ability and faith in him to succeed. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Goals of the Study Problem Statement Conceptual Framework A Theoretical Approach to Understanding Latino and Native American Parental Involvement An Ecological Approach Ecological Approach and Latino, Native American, and European American Parental Involvement Social Capital Theory Operationalizing Social Capital Rationale for Ecological Approach and Social Capital Theory CHAPTER 2 . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Value in Education Latino’s Value in Education Native American’s Value in Education Summary of Value in Education Familial Structure and Socialization Latino Familial Structure and Socialization Extended Family Compadrazgo Native American Familial Structure and Socialization Fictive Kin Summary of Familial Structure and Socialization Parental Involvement Latino Parental Involvement Latino Traditional Parental Involvement and Parental Advocacy Involvement Native American Parental Involvement Native American Traditional Parental Involvement and Parental Advocacy Involvement European American Parental Involvement Summary of Parental Involvement High School Completion Latino and Native American High School Completion European American High School Completion \JUIA" 10 ll 12 13 l3 l4 17 19 19 20 21 22 23 23 23 24 24 25 26 27 27 29 29 3O 31 Summary of High School Completion Latino, Native American, and European American College Aspirations Latino and Asian American Parents’ Years in the United States Entrance into and Working in the Labor Force CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY Research Questions Hypothesis Family Structure Control Variables Data Set _ Sample Definitions Conceptual and Operational Definitions Independent Variables Traditional Parental Involvement Parent Advocate School Involvement Outcome Variables College Aspirations High School Completion Entrance Into and Working in the Labor Force Control Variables Parents’ Education Family Structure Family Income Parents’ Years in the United States ‘/ Research Assumptions Data Analysis Important of HLM and Hypothesis CHAPTER 4 RESULTS High School Completion Parents’ Number of Years in the United States and Ethnicity College Aspirations Parents’ Years in the United States and Ethnicity Entrance into and Working in the Labor Force CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND LIMITATIONS Discussion High School Completion Parental Involvement vii 32 32 34 35 82 82 83 83 Family Structure Control Variables College Aspirations Parental Involvement Family Structure Control Variable Entrance into and Working in the Labor Force Parental Involvement Family Structure Control Variables Parents’ Years in the United States and Ethnicity High School Completion College Aspirations Entrance into and Working in the Labor Force Limitations Implications APPENDICES Appendix 1: General HLM model Appendix 2: Conceptual model Appendix 3: University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRIS) Letter Appendix 4: Original NELS Codebook Questions Appendix 5: Independent Variable Means Appendix 6: Reliability Analysis & Chronbach Alphas Appendix 7: Ethnic Group Descriptives REFERENCES viii 85 86 88 88 9 1 9 l 92 92 93 93 93 94 94 96 1 OO 1 00 1 O4 106 108 113 117 119 124 LIST OF TABLES Table 1- Ethnic Group Descriptives by Means Table 2- High School Completion Main Effects Interactions Table 3- High School Completion Main Efi‘ects School Level Variables Table 4- High School Completion Mothers' Years Table 5- High School Completion Fathers' Years Table 6- College Aspirations Main Efi‘ects Interactions Table 7- College Aspirations Main Efi‘ects School Level Variables Table 8- College Aspirations Mothers' Years in the United States Table 9- College Aspirations Fathers' Years in the United States Table 10- Work Main Efi‘ects & Interaction Variable Table 11- Work Traditional Parental Involvement and Ethnicity Interaction Table 12- Work Main Effects and Family Structure Variables 52 54-55 57-59 62 63 65-66 68-70 72 ‘ 73 76-77 80-8 1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Parental involvement is an umbrella term for difi‘erent types of activities that depict parental involvement in nonacademic and academic activities that may contribute to children's achievement. Epstein (1986) summarized parent educational involvement activities into several categories: supporting student's learning at home, maintaining communications with school, assisting in school activities, becoming involved in school governance, and advocacy. Epstein argues that parental involvement serves as a catalyst for children's educational success. Moreover, she asserts that parental involvement aids in the maturation of children as productive citizens. Despite research that has underscored the importance of parental involvement in education, parental involvement is interpreted difi‘erently by parents fi'om diverse ethnic and cultural backgrounds (Delgado-Gaitan, 1988; Epstein, 1995). Although most parents agree that it is their obligation to provide students with an environment that supports well- being and learning, there is disagreement about what constitutes such an environment. Mexican American1 parents, for example, see themselves as being responsible for providing basic needs as well as instilling respect and proper behavior. They also feel that it is their job to prepare their adolescent to be well rounded individuals, regardless of the environment. For Mexican Americans, parental involvement is not only essential to their adolescent’s formal education but it is also essential to the adolescent’s life experience (Galindo, 1996). Native American parents, on the other hand, are concerned with creating an environment that will permit adolescents to be formally educated, while transmitting their culture. Parental involvement within tribal nations serves as a mechanism for parents to ‘ Mexican American will be defined as an individual who is of Mexican descent born in the United States. ensure their children's educational success and the continuation of Native American culture. Despite cultural differences, parental participation has been cited as a critical element in the academic success of nrinority students (Cummins, 1986). Minority student’s academic performance was consistently high, regardless of SES, when parents were consistently involved. Although parental participation has been documented as a factor in promoting and supporting student's success, schools have made it diflicult for ethnic minority parents to participate (Cummins, 1986). Minority parents have felt that their participation is not valued by mainstream educational systems (Cummins, 1986). Fromaparentalperspective, Cumminsnotesthatintrapersonalfactorsmayalso contribute to parental reluctance to participate in student's education Native American and Latino parents are often reminded of having a history of barriers which includes a lack of English fluency and cultural differences. Cumrnins concludes that mainstream schools mayleadtothesabofigingofetMcnfinorityparemdandconummhymvolvanau. In other words, the educational model was not originally developed for minority parents, thus their participation was not valued at the same level as mainstream parents. These inconsistent standards resulted in minority parents feeling a lack of appreciation from the school. Native American and Latino parents often view school as a bureaucracy tint excludes them from participation in their student's education, controlled by non-Native Americans and non-Latinos (Delgado-Gaitan, 1988; Stokes, 1997). For these parents, the lack of cultural sensitivity at all levels and branches of educational systems has created barriers in communication when discussing the educational success of their adolescent. Cultural insensitivity is defined as educational systems that do not demonstrate or make an efi‘orttounderstandthecultmalvaluesandbeliefsofdifi‘erentethnicminoritygroupsin this case Native Americans and Latinos. Shannon (1996) found that parents reported that stafl‘, including teachers, administrators, and support personnel have demonstrated a lack of patience when working with them. Cultural insensitivity results in feelings of exclusion (i.e., that their participation is not welcomed) by Native American and Latino parents (Delgado-Gaitan, 1990; Stokes, 1997). An example of feeling excluded was demonstrated by school districts not respecting Latinos interpretation of time. For example, parent/teacher meetings and other school gatherings and activities were not scheduled during times that were convenient for Native American and Latino parents; meeting times conflicted with work schedules and cultural obligations. School districts are a reflection of mainstream regulators that dictate how time is interpreted. The mainstream educational model governs that parent! school meetings occur after the work day, which does not necessarily correspond with Latino and Native cultural obligations. The cultural obligations include religious activities, commitments to family, extended family, and Latino and Native American communities. Ultimately, the district chose to serve mainstream students and families and exercised a lack of understanding and sensitivity to the needs and concerns of minority parents. Shannon (1996) noted that working class Latinos were confl'onted with obstacles and challenges when they attempted to become involved in their student’s education. The obstacles and challenges that were noted included parents voicing their concerns and not being acknowledged by schools. School districts did not tolerate a working class parent's involvement and used methods of silencing and dismissing to discourage participation in their student's education. Silencing and dismissing were accomplished by ignoring Latino parents' input and participation regarding their adolescent’s education. Similar to Latino families, Native American families have historically struggled with mainstream schools. Forced assimilation during the 1900's, differences between the philosophy of what education is and how a youth is perceived by the family, and the importance of extended family and community in the education and socialization of Native American youth have served to prevent parental participation between mainstream schools y'C far de bri Va; edl fan lite inv and Native American families (St. Germaine, 1995). ‘St. Germaine found that most mainstream schools have failed to acknowledge the historic oppression of Native Americans in educational systems. School personnel have continued to avoid Native American values and beliefs when developing school curriculum. Native Americans have continued to struggle to convince local, state, and federal governments that Native American governed schools can be a successful form of education for Native American youth (Reyhner, 1991). Goals of the Study The goal of this study is to extend the literature on Native American, European American, and Latino parental involvement in adolescent's education. European Americans will be used as a comparison group. Thisstudy willflexplore variables ”SE-”g 5-me __,_, @9999? parent's education, and family structure, which will aid in explaining the chreakdown of the sample. jThese variables have been included to provide a broader picture some of the different factors that can impact a parent’s participation in a adolescent’s education: It] is essential to holistically examine the relationship of these variables in order to understand the process of Native American, European American, and Latino parental involvementz These particular variables (family income, parent's education, and family structure) are valuable in explaining the interdependence within families and how parental involvement must be examined through this lens. Therefore, literature concerning Native American, European American, and Latino parental involvement will be expanded through analysis of these interdependent variables. The number of years Latino parents have lived in the United States will be another variable. The purpose and value of this variable is to explain the diversity of generations that exist among Latino families. This variable is important when explaining the influence of parental involvement between Latino families and mainstream schools. Asian Americans will be used in this analysis to compare the groups and determine the effects of parents' years in the United States. The relationships between the independent variables of parental involvement and outcome variables concerning students (e. g. college aspirations, high school completion, and entering the labor force) will be examined. These outcome variables demonstrate the variation in the decisions that Latino, Native American, and European American youth make about their firtures and the relationship between difl‘erent types of parental involvement. This study will add to the scarce body ofliterature in the area ofNative American andLatinoparental involvement andwill serveasatoolforfarnily specialistsandother professionals who work with families. Family researchers, educational researchers, teachers, family specialists, and others can assimilate this study into the areas of research, outreach, and service provision. Family specialists and outreach service providers who work with parents could also benefit from transforming the research findings into program development, implementation, and evaluation. These programs need to be based on research and take a culturally sensitive approach to working with Native American and Latino families. Thus, a family ecological approach is important when examining the relationship between mainstream schools and parental involvement. A family ecological approach allows for Native Americans and Latinos to be examined through their family values and indigenous culture. Family strengths for Latinos such as familialism, interdependence, and collectivisrn are examples of family values. Similarly, Native American family strengths include interdependence, respect for mother nature, and cooperative leaming. A family ecological approach, therefore, would be appropriate in extending the overall research in Native American, Latino, and European American parental involvement. Problm Statement Latinos are one of the fastest growing ethnic groups in the United States, increasing 50% from 1980 to 1990. While this group constitutes about 9% of the overall population, this number is expected to double in the next century (Sanchez, 1997). As a result an issue concerning researchers who are Latinos is the lack of the majority culture's (European American) understanding of the importance of Latino families in their adolescent's education. Henderson and Berta (1994) assert that one of the most efl‘ective ways to increase students' achievement is to involve their families. Establishing partnerships between families and schools has reciprocal benefits, but the greatest outcome is the success of students in school and later in life (Epstein, 1995). The partnership between Latinos families and schools has not easily been forged. This has been especially evident when examining Latino adolescent's educational success (Shannon, 1996). Latino children in first through fourth grades are enrolled below the national average. In other words, Latino children tend to be enrolled in grades where they are chronologically older than their peers. Through the fifth and eighth grades the number below the national average increases to 40%, and by high school 43% fall further behind. Latino high school drop out rates are estimated to be one of the highest in the United States, second only to Native Americans (F ernander, Paulsen, & Hirano-Nakanishi, 1989). Due to the alarming number of Latino students falling behind at all levels of education, firrther research is warranted to understand the effect of Latino parental involvement in their student’s education. The United States Bureau of the Census (1990) reports slightly less than 2 million Native Americans in the United States, a 30% increase from 1980 to 1990, with the majority living in the western states of Arizona, Califomia, Oklahoma, and New Mexico. However, Native American students continue to struggle with their success in education Native American students have a drop out rate that is twice the national average, and the highest drop out rate among ethnic minority groups in the United States (St. Germaine, 1995). The U. S. Bureau of the Census (1990) reports that three out of every ten Native Amaican high school students drop out of high school, both on and ofl‘ reservations. These numbers pose a challenge to United States school systems that have often ignored the specific educational needs of Native Americans. Preston (1991) stated that Native American students show less irrtaest and feelings of alienation as a result of the need for culturally sensitive learning arvironments in the mainstream schools. In other words, both Latino and Native American children often demonstrate feelings of cultural discontinuity, which effect their academic achievement and success in mainstream educational systems. Mainstream teachers do not reinforce the socialization that Native American youth receive from their parents. As a result, Native American youth are placed in a position of I cultural discontinuity, forced to choose between their culture and educational success in mainstream cultures. Feelings of alienation can lead to problems such as drug and alcohol abuse, which have been related to cultural discontinuity (Reyhner, 1992). Corr F rk Involvement Respect for both Native American and Latino families begins by accepting a family ecological, approach when examining parental involvement in Native American and Latino youth. m _ 3 2 Begum 23680 Begum 39680 - 08.3% .874 03.8 omo=oo 25.8 585.5 Set 38:35 Eat 38.680 - 08% 3 0232 who» mac» owe—Bo mo owe—.8 mo ooodm 585:2. 088 .8 o. 89: Lo 2 E8» v .. m 33» v - m - Sow—m 953 den 08.3. 585:? acumen £882 Begum 23680 .. ooodua 5383m— mo§m BLED 2F 5 83m 355 2:. 5 season—om acumen—om 0885 $5.5 §> £0502 38> 32.3w mbmuoz £053 £83 omefim. 52 Interaction effects were created from the main efl‘ect variables. The effect of traditional parental involvement on high school completion significantly depended on ethnicity. The effect of traditional parental involvement proved to be significantly difl‘erent for Asian Americans when compared to European Americans (t = 2.64, p = .009), but not Latino (t = .208, p= .836) or Native Americans (t = .765, p = .444). The efi‘ect of traditional parental involvement was more positively associated with high school completion for Asian Americans than for European Americans. The interaction between parental advocacy involvement and ethnicity was significant for two comparisons: Latinos versus European Americans (t = -2.03, p = .042) and Asian Americans versus European Americans (t = 2.00, p = .044). The efl‘ect of parental advocacy involvement was more positively associated with high school completion for Asian Americans than for European Americans. For Latinos, the effect of parental advocacy involvement was negatively associated with high school completion (t = -2.03, p = .042) (see Table 2). Insert Table 2 about here The control variables mother's education (t = 7.05, p = .000) and father's education (t = 7.43, p = .000) had a positive association with high school completion and were significant. In other words, the more education the parents had, the more likely their children were to complete high school. Youth from households with a higher income were also more likely to complete high school than adolescents from households with lower income (t = 4.83, p = .000). The variable two parent households was significant (t = 4.71, p = .000) in determining if a student would complete high school (see Table 2). 53 Sad anon 086. «3 Sad 3386 :m nae—um consonam 38¢. 32. the 332 .o vwownmd 2m mac—~83: 82¢.— 63,—. :ooo. anon cane. 2&de 3.386. am .580ng 358m 33:68.“. 33. each 86—- 02.306 238,—- mm 53.65 5:3 Sad ence mad- $33.— ovgevg- 5m. 583:? 0382 find each 29— 332.0 032 Md em 85:5 «.58. $2. 286 owommod 3E _ mo 8 282: awn—am :80. 32. mmvs «mg—ed 232.0 E eoauoacm mun—gm 38o. anon owes 2886 5326 8 538:5 €2.82 :vd amok. mnmd. 382 .o vmomfl .0. mm 8.8m cox—5 2: 5 983» {ofiam emmd 805 Red- awn; _ .o 2 mm: .o- a 35m 3E5 2: 5 30> {2.82 .386 moo SON Kmooed 333$ 80 N 30885 cm 2328.: 02.54— 8385 .«o acumen 25¢. Bum Bantam 89mm 35m 23683.? 335mm 3,—qu ”3%qu one... 82 at..- .388... 8. .33. NS 233.. 888...... 808.5. 8.3 :8. as. 88.”- :38... $2.... .- .3 233.. 8.883... 808.5. 2.37. on“... 8.: m3... 358.... 8:33.... 8.. 233.. 888...... 83.3 .35. as. 8.: 283... 89.8... a... 8833. 3.8.8.. 50.8.5. 5.3. 3.8... 82. 8.... 83.3... RR. . .o a... 88%... 3.83... 38:05 02.32 33. as. 083- 2.38... 338...- :m 8893. 3.83.. 8.3.. :8... 82 $3 2.28... w. .2. .o 2.. .8822... 3.83.. 383.3... 80.8.5. 8.2 3...... 88.. 83 E... . .o 88... . .o 2m .8829... 3.83.. 38.88... 80.8.5 3.32 on... as. mom... 888... $88... Em .8832... 3.83.. 383.3... 8.3. NS... on... 38.. 38:0... .388... m... 83.8%... 883.. N8... 88.. 9.. .o- 338... 823...- a... 8.2.38: .83.. 25.. 8.83m. 02.3-.. 8030... .«o Summa— o_.8-.—. .otm Begum 60am vex... 83.5833. 55 School involvement was included as the school level variable in the HLM model. Traditional parental involvement and parental advocacy involvement were included at the individual level of the multilevel model. The effect of school involvement on high school completion did not depend on the level of traditional parental involvement (t = -0.977, p = .0329) and parental advocacy involvement (1 = -129, p = .195) (see Table 3). 2 The same multilevel model tested the interaction of school involvement, traditional parental involvement and ethnicity, and school involvement, parental advocacy involvement and ethnicity. Results show that the efl‘ect of school involvement on high school completion was not significant on the level of traditional involvement and ethnicity: Latinos and traditional parental involvement (t = .479, p = 0.631), Native Americans and traditional parental involvement (t = -0.634, p = .526), and Asian American and traditional parental involvement (t = -0.833, p = .405). The effect of school involvement on high school completion did not significantly depend on the level of parental advocacy involvement and ethnicity: Latinos and parental advocacy involvement (t = .385, p = .700), Native Americans and parental advocacy (t. = 882, p = .378) and Asian Americans (t = 1.47, p = .141) (see Table 3). Insert Table 3 about here 2. Does the efl‘ect of family structure on youth's high school completion depend on ethnicity? A HLM model was run at the individual level of a multilevel model to determine if family structure was important in a students decision to complete high school. 2 Ingeneral,whencomparingefl‘ectsofglmps,suchasethnicitiee, anomnibustesuF-testin Amva)ismmweifflwgrmmsamgemuydiflemntbefommmmmmgspedficefleasofmmmy variables. 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The efl‘ect of extended family on high school completion significantly depended on whether the students were Native Americans when compared to European Americans (t = -2.07, p = .037). Native American students who lived in a household that included at least one extended family member were less likely to graduate. The efi‘ect ofextended family on high school completion did not significantly depend on whether the students were either Latinos or Asian Americans when compared to European Americans: Latinos (t = .330, p = .975) and Asian Americans (t = .778, p = .436) (see Table 2). The control variables, parents’ education: mother’s education (t = 7.05, p = .000) and father’s education (t = -0.823, p = .000) was significant. The more education the parents had the more likely their children would complete high school. Children fiom households with a higher income were more likely to complete high school (t = 4.83, p = .000). The variable two parent households was significant (t = 4.71, p = .000) in determining if a student would complete high school (see Table 2). The interaction ofparents' number ofyears in the United States and ethnicity was investigated to see ifit was important in determining ifan individual would complete high school. This question was tested in the larger high school completion HLM model. An interaction variable between parents' number of years in the United States and ethnicity wasusedintheanalysis. Inthis studybothAsianAmericansandIatinoswerecompared to European Americans. The effect of parents' number of years in the United States on high school completion was only significant for Asian American mothers, but not for Asian American fathers, Latino mothers, or Latino fathers. The efi‘ect of parents’ years in the United States on high school completion did not depend ethnicity for: Latino mothers' 60 (t = -l.203, p = .229) or Latino fathers’ (t = .327, p = .743). The efl‘ect of parents’ years in the United States on high school completion did depend on ethnicity for Asian American mothers’ (t = -2.44, p = .015) but not for Asian American fathers' (t = -0.645, p = .518) (see Table 4 & Table 5). Insert Table 4 and 5 about here W 3. Does the efi‘ect of different types of parental involvement on a youth’s college aspirations depend on ethnicity? A HLM model was run at the individual level of a multilevel model specifying college aspirations as an outcome variable. The hypothesis examined whether the effect of traditional parental involvement and parental advocacy involvement were dependent on the ethnicity of a child in their aspirations to attend college. Traditional parental involvement and parental advocacy involvement variables were included in the model as main effects. Ethnic variables (e. g., Latino, Native American, and Asian American) and parents’ years in the United States were included in the model as main effects. Family income, two parent households, and parents' education were included in the model as control variables. The interaction variables between different types of parental involvement and ethnicity included: traditional parental involvement and ethnicity, and parental advocacy involvement and ethnicity. These interactions were run at the individual level of the model. 61 :sva rava 3 md 38 need- «Snead gnaw _ .o. hm 823m 33.5 2: E «38». €an 585:? 5:2 mend ammo and $836 2 2 _ _ .0 cm 83m “Vegas 2.. 5 e8». ”Logan 8:3 :08. 38 Sad mm 2.2 .0 $336 mm 3.283: 803m 9:. 096 38 3nd «pm 3%.— mflmv— ._ E 59:05 5:3 mood 38 2nd- onmmi .N cameo— . 7 mm 3.53 Q: .o 38 mac. 7 mmvtmd 3323. am 83% 835 2: s was» {05: wmmd 38 Bed 002.36 332 .o a 83m use: 2: s as» ”has: :80. now cocaq mun—mo; 3333‘ SO N 809.35 8 _ a835— oagi 8802;. ”8&8 8?... Sam «seam scum BE reggae“? Equesm >L5m=._8 _: E v 033. 62 1.8.Vq M...mo.va gm 86 38 mva- 3356 233.0. mm 83% cox—5 05 E :30.» {9502 538:2 =32 ammd 38 «on. T nmvgmd hvooumd- om 8.8m 3E5 2: s as: ”bee: 8:3 38¢. 33 3.0.2» ownhfl .o :momwd mm mEozomsom Evan 03H 2.30. 38 «and $39.. 3321. vm 585:2 :32 vwmd $8 at: «396— 335.— mm 8,53 :36 38 NM _ . T «magmd 02 Sad. am $35 82.5 2: 5 23> 25:“: Sad 33 who; 353.0 355.6 a mow—Sm :22: 2: 2 28> 23:82 .. 306 «.3 S «cm oewvoad EmeNN 80 N 58:25 on _ 2.8.25 cagi 838$ mo 89on 0384. Sam Sufism 80km taxi 8:82:95 @3935 63 The effect of traditional parental involvement on college aspirations did depend on ethnicity and proved to be significant. The effect of parental involvement was more negatively associated with college aspirations for Asian Americans than European Americans (t = -l .96, p = .049). This effect was not significantly different for Latino (t = .947, p = .344) and Native Americans (t = .749, p = .454) than for European Americans. The efl‘ect of parental advocacy on college aspiration did depend on whether the students were Native American compared to European American (t = 2.26, p = .024) but not for Asian Americans (t = 1.52, p = .128), Latinos (t = .263, p = .793), or European Americans (see Table 6). Insert Table 6 about here The control variable father's education was important in predicting whether a child would aspire to attend college (t = 10.79, p = .000). The effect was positive, meaning that the more education the father had the more likely that the child would aspire to attend college. Mother’s education was also significant and positively associated (t = 6.21, p = .000). The more education the mother had the more likely a child would aspire to attend college. Family income had a significant positive effect on whether a child would aspire to attend college (t = 7.80, p = .000). Children who came fiom households with a higher family income were more likely to aspire to attend college. The variable two parent households was significant (t = 4.23, p = .000) in determining a students college aspirations (see Table 6). N0~.0 «.0? 03.7 2530 3000a? .5 380m 000002.".— ..5000. no? came 00300.0 mama—v.0 Sm 02000300.— 00003 03,—. 2000. 8? «3.0. 3020.0 00 800.0- 0m 00080202: 300.80 300068... .200 m0? vnvd 9.0360 omega; mm 505:3 0304 000.0 8? 000.7 834.0.— Gfigm- um 5.05:? 03:02 3Y0 norm 50.0 33000 Evmam0 0m 0.0005 1.000. no? 305 3020.0 00002.0 mm 08005 {05$ 2.000. «.03 «00.2 3020.0 332.0 vm cosmosnm 0.2055 2000. m0? 380 0320.0 00030.0 8 0000005 $0502 $0.0 m0? 30.0- Sumo—.0 03000.0- mm 0.000% 0.0053 1.80.0 3? :03... 332.0 33$? 5 33> {0502 :3 mm: 83 23.000 32 a 2 cm a 52:35 020.»-0 50002.0 .00 000? 0:84. Btu 8065000 «0005 noxfi 000808009: 20055 9800900:— wfioflm 0. 2 0000: 0< 0 = U 0 030,—. 65 5.0 a? 33. 383.0 0233. «8 $5 3085 50.55 £3 83 a? as . _- 232.0 0853- am €50 3085 53.55 2602 2:. as 32- 23.3 32:8. 80 €50 3.85 ”803 as .o 8% 82 8.08.0 3280 20 @833 3:2... 80.55. :22 $8. a: 82 9.808 2 880 E0 6892 .8003.— 08t08< 0382 a; 8% 83 058.0 888.0 :0 3893 38.8 803 as. 8% 3a. _- 888.0 a as .o- 20 .85235 353.. 3.3.3: 50:05 :23 was as 30 32:3 882 .o 20 22:29.: 38:.— 08005 53025. 332 $3 83 5.3 «580 named :0 58.22.: 3:88 .2805 803 God a? E: $88.0 $88.0 20 5822 353.. :3 as :3 .8030 3:30 20 8.288: «00.8.— 25. concofim 30>-.. 58800? A32000 203-0 Sum 8.8.9.0 08.00 BE 088m0000< 0.305% A HLM model was run at the second level (school level) of the multilevel model. Traditional parental involvement and parental advocacy involvement variables remained in the model at the individual level School involvement was included in the model at the second level. Results demonstrated that the efl’ect of traditional parental involvement and parental advocacy involvement were not different for schools with difl’erent levels of school involvement. The efl‘ect of school involvement on college aspirations did not depend on the level of traditional parental involvement (t = .558, p = .576) and parental advocacy involvement (t = .600, p = .548). An interaction between traditional involvement and ethnicity was included in this model at the second level. The results demonstrated that the effect of the interaction was not significantly different for schools with different levels of school involvement: Latinos and traditional parental involvement (t = -0.582, p = .560), Native Americans and traditional parental involvement (t = p = .254), and Asian Americans and traditional parental involvement (t = .327, p = .743). An interaction between parental advocacy involvement and ethnicity was included in the model. The efl‘ect of school involvement on college aspirations did not depend on the interaction of parental advocacy involvement and ethnicity: Latinos and parental advocacy involvement (t = -0.358, p = .720), Native Americans and parental advocacy involvement (t = .891, p = .373), and Asian Americans and parental advocacy involvement (t = -l.09, p = .273) (see Table 7). Insert Table 7 about here 67 £2 8% $2 388° a: 83 asaozga 623 :89 as 23.- «:23 383 am $8.235 385 3.2.65 :8. as 22 38»; 83%; 8 535:2 5?. 8.3 83 2:- 52.3.. $895- B 5085 0232 82 8% «86 23:6 £58 8 853 :80. a: 82. 82:3 5.525 mm 2:85 beam .68. as 5.2 838.0 #825 «m Sesammbfia :80. as 33 838.0 523 8 aogémmbeo: 9.3 a: «8.? 383 2:86- 3 303.25 :80. 8% 83- 52.2.0 833°. 5 Max:282 $3 S» was- 838.0 .838? 5.8225 .83 83 an 23 2583 8802 8o «585.5 cm .5858. one; 5885.. 8E8 8?... 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N... .0. .o $8.2. a... 882...... 3:08.. 505:2. 5.3 $3 8... .8... $2.8... 5.8.2. .8829... .028 am... 8... m8...- amfi. .m 88:2- a... 882...... 3:08.. 50.8.5. 03.02 8:. 8% $2.. omovoo... 08.8.0- .8.8>.o>... .88m 80... 8% an... m. .08... 288... :m 889...... 3.88.. 8.8-. 020?.” 82.00.... mo m00.w0O 2.5.-.. .85 50.08000 «co-mm cox... 0.8.0.8.... 288% 70 Pms' Numm of Ygs in the United Stag and Ethnigty’ An interaction variable between parents' number of years in the United States and ethnicity was used in the analysis. In this study both Asian Americans and Latinos were compared to European Americans. The interaction of parents' number of years in the United States and ethnicity were important in determining if an individual would aspire to attend college in the case of Latino mothers (t = 3.076, p = .003) and Latino fathers (t = 3.633, p = .001). This was tested in the larger college aspiration HLM model. The analysis examining the efl‘ect of parents' number of years and ethnicity was not significant for Asian American mothers (t = -0.606, p = .544) or Asian American fathers (t = .351, p = .725) (see Table 8 & Table 9). Insert Table 8 and 9 about here 4. Does the effect of family structure in a youth's college aspirations depend on ethnicity? A HLM model was run at the student level to determine if family structure was important in influencing a student's college aspirations. Parent's education, family income, and two parent households remained in the model as control variables. Ethnic variables and parent’s number of years in the United States were left in the model as main efl’ects. 71 :~0.Vn mam0.va mth ammo 3W0 m005NNO 35050.0 6m 8.5m 00:5..— 05 E 33> 0.4.050...— cuotoE< :22 «:00. ammo mm0.m :vwm_.0 00thm0 0m magnum 005.3 05 E 83> $5590 0.53 0 .000. ammo b: .0 mm _ 2.0.0 mmooom .0 mm 3.2.0.30: «co-Hn— 03h. 00w.0 name 2..— .0 momhomé hum _ VN.0 vm 52.523. :22 «L00. ammo 29m- ~N—0h0.— owmmawd- mm 0.053..— —m— .0 ammo 03.7 mev0_ .0 «um—3&0- Nm magnum 8...... 2.. ... 28> 82...... mood wwmo Saw. _. m0m0w00 meV2 .0- nm «.035 8...... 0... 5 80> {2.82 3.000. mam vmoé 50—0500 .5200. m 08 N Eco-.02: om . 500.0...— 020>d 80000.... 00 000W0Q 2.8-... .otm 0.0:...mm 80.0w 00...... 0.08.5...Em Nazism > 5 m m a. = U m 03...”. 72 :......v.. 9.3!. 3.2. 3.8 2...... 2.8.2. 88.. .o- 8 8.8m 8...... 2.. ... 38> 9.0522 5.2.6.5.. 5.3. :8... £8 .2... 8...... .o 8...... 8 8.5m 8...... o... a. mBo> {0:82 05.....— :8... a... a... 8:8... 23...... 8 8.2.8.5.. .88.. 2.... 8. .o 88 8... 8.88.. 82...... x. 808...... 5.2 :8... £8 8...- 88...... 28%..- 8 8...... 2.2. 3.8 8.... $88... 5.8... 8 8.3m 8...... 2.. ... 88> 82...... .23. a... .8..- ”8.... ... 82.....- 5 8.2m 8...... 2.. ... 28> 82.82 :8... 8.. 8a.. .82.... 5.8.... 8.. a 388.... cm . 2.88.... 8.8-.. 2588...... 82...... 2...-.. .2... 28...... 8...... 82... 89.6853 c.8235 > 2 . .. .. a 035. 73 Interaction variables between family structure and ethnicity also remained at the individual level of the multimodel. The interaction between extended family and ethnicity was tested and not significant for Latinos (t = -1.054, p = .132), Native Americans (t = -l.112, p = .267), or Asian Americans (t = -0.765, p = .444) (see Table 7). The control variable, family income was significant, in other words children who came from households with a higher family income were more likely to aspire to attend college (t = 7 .80, p = .000). The control variable, father's education, was significant in determining whether a child would aspire to attend college (t = 10.75, p = .000). The efi‘ect was positive, meaning that the more education the father had, the more likely that the child would aspire to go to college. Mother's education was also significant and positively associated (t = 6.18, = p = .000). The more education the mother had the more likely that the child would aspire to attend college. The variable two parent households was significant (t = 4.24, p = .000) in determining a students college aspirations (see Table 7). But in W ' ' r F r 5. Does the efl‘ect of difi‘erent types of parental involvement in how long a student had worked after high school depend on ethnicity? There was less data in the number of months worked after high school variable than the other outcome variables. When several of the variables were entered into the model at the same time, variables appeared to be overly related and there were more estimation difficulties. Several final HLM models were run at the individual level of the multimodel to determine if different types of parental involvement would influence a student's decision to enter the labor force and how long they had worked afier high school. Depending on the model, traditional parental involvement and parental advocacy involvement variables were included as main efi‘ects. Ethnicity variables and parents' number of years in the United States were also included as main effects whenever possible. Family income, two parent households, parents' education were included in most of the 74 models as controls. Interaction variables involving traditional parental involvement, parental advocacy involvement, and ethnicity were also included. The efl‘ect of difl‘erent types of parental involvement on entrance into the labor force and how long the student worked after high school did not depend on whetha the students were Native Americans, Asian Americans, or Latinos when compared to European Americans. Both the interaction between traditional parental involvement and ethnicity were not significant: Latinos and traditional parerntal involvemernt (t = .766, p = .444), Native Americans and parental involvemernt (t = -O.294, p = .768) and, Asian Americans and parental involvement (t = -0.924, p = .356). Parental advocacy involvemernt and ethnicity were also not significant: Latinos and parental advocacy (t = .769, p = .825), Native Americans and parental advocacy (t = .769, p = .442), and Asian Americans and parental advocacy (t = .973, p = .331) (see Tables 10 & ll). InsertTablelOand ll abouthere The control variable father’s education was significant and had a positive association with number of months worked in the labor force (t = 2.08, p = .036). The more education a father had the more fiequently the student worked after high school. Mother’s education was not significant (t = -O.824, p = .410). In other words, number of months worked afier high school did not depend on the level of education a student's mother received. Family income was not significant (t = -1.10, p = .271). Difi‘erent household incomes were not important factors in explaining how long a student worked in the labor force. The variable two parent households was not significant (t = -l.12, p = .262) in determining whether a student would enter the labor force and how long the student would work (see Table 10). 75 c- unfit—ELL 2.10. v a m...m0. v a 8.... 2: 8...- 88...... 888...- o... .8... 8.82m .8... 2: .2..- 88...... 82.8...- 2. 8.2.8.5.. .82.. a... 8.... 2... 8...- 5.8.... 8.8...- .m .885. 8.2 8.... 2... .2... 88...... 888... 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Does the effect of family structure in how long a student had worked after high school depend on ethnicity? A HLM model was run at the individual level to examine if family structure was important in a student decision to enter the labor force and how long they had worked after high school. Control variables such as family income, two parent households, mothers' education, and fathers' education were included in the model. Ethnic variables and mothers' years in the United States and fathers' years in the United States were included in the model as main efi‘ects. The interaction variables between extended family and ethnicity were included in the model. The effect of extended family on entrance into the labor or how long a student had been working after high school did not depend on whether the students were Latino, Native American, or Asian American when compared to European Americans: Latino and extended family (t = .166, p = .869), Native Americans (t = -1.61, p = .105), and Asian Americans (t = 1.33, p = .181) (See Table 12). Insert Table 12 about here The control variable family income was not significant. A family's income did not determine how long a student would be working afier high school (t = -1.29, p = .195). Mothers' education was not significant (t = -0.789, p = .430). Mothers' education was not an important indicator of how long a student would be working after high school. Father's education was significant and had a positive association (t = 2.13, p = .033). The more education a father had the more frequently the student worked afier high school. The variable two parent households was not significant (t = -1.23, p = .218) in determining whether a student would enter the labor force and how long the student would work (see Table 12). 79 mad 2: EN... 2385 :38? Se ”2288583.. 65 :3 2: 2m..- 8385 £38.? 8 88395 383.. 32:25 88 2: 83- ".855 $32.? an 88:65 :22 $8 2: :3 833° «853 E 885:2 6232 23 2: :3. 2.5.3 3:8,? 8 85.3 33 2: com... 238... 388.? 3 658:12m $8. 2: 82 52.85 3386 E ceaseemflefiem 81o 2: $3- $886 288.? 8 eeeeeémfefiez N26 2: «3.... 8823 £28.? 8 383.2% 38 2: $3 3385 e333 5 38:3..an .68. m2 3:; 828.0 888d 80 fimwmum 82>... 863656 semen 235. Sum .8380 seem Baa ogoaqfi usgm .24. N— 03:. S—d 0:: 9mm.— aannm—d NOSE—.0 3m bah—am 8265 56:65 55 med 0:; :97 cab—no.0 0202.0- 3m 338m novcofim 505:2 26ml acmd 0:: 026 £886 MOS—0.0 m _ m been. 8865 853 30.0 2: _mm._ ommmhod comm: .0 gm amt—0:330: seen 63 35am 8N6 0:1 Ono. T MMOVmod oomhmod. — mm ~Amfiaa town—vim 2:5-.— Eov8em mo 80% 038-9 Bum 820580 80am 35..— seewoane. 365m Q 033. 81 CHAPTER V DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS AND LIMITATIONS Disgssign Previous research has demonstrated that traditional parental involvement and parental advocacy have been important factors in influencing high school completion and college aspirations in European Americans, Latinos, Asian Americans, and Native Americans (Delgado-Gaitan, 1988; Epstein, 1995; Matute-Bianchi, 1986; Reyhner, 1991, 1992). Such studies have demonstrated that parents' participation is essential to their student's success in education. In addition, these studies have identified factors such as cultural difl‘erences, family income, parents’ education, parents' years in the United States as important to a student’s high school completion and college aspirations. More specifically, the fiamework used in this study illustrates the importance of the ecological interrelationship between the family and educational system embedded within the contextual Work of social capital. Difi‘erent types of parental involvement mdfamflymuauresseweasmeawesofwddcapitdatthestudentlweLandschool involvement represents social capital at the school level. These concepts provide a basis for understanding how social capital within an ecological setting will explain high school completion, college aspirations, and entrance into the labor force and how long a student works afier high school. This study contributes to the literature by providing an explanation for the importance of the ecological relationship between family systems and educational systems through the use of social capital. Furthermore, this study contributes to the literature by providing empirical research on school involvement on student's high school completion and college aspirations. It also provides empirical research on how school involvement difl’ers for difi‘erent ethnic minority groups. In addition this study contributes to the scarce literaturethat hasexamined dilferenttypesofparental involvement and howtheyefi‘ect a 82 student's entrance to the labor force and how long they had worked in the labor force based on the student's ethnicity. High School Completion Pm Involvement Did the efi‘ect of parental involvement on an adolescent’s high school completion depend on ethnicity? The high school completion model at the student level demonstrated that both traditional parental involvement and parental advocacy involvement were significant. In other words, a parent’s participation does make a difl‘erence in whether or not an adolescent completes high school. This finding supported previous literature that demonstrated that different types of parental involvement are important indicators of whether or not a student completes high school (Chavkin & Williams 1993; Epstein, 1 995). In addition, the results extend the scarce empirical research that examines the importance of traditional parental involvement and parental advocacy involvement with Native Americans, Asian Americans, and Latinos. Specifically, these significant findings provide a basis for research that will continue to examine the importance of the family context in a child's education. This research should take an ecological approach that would explore the interrelations between the microsystem, youth and their families, and the mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem, which would include educational systems, PTO, and other school and parent organizations. The main effects of traditional parental involvement, parental advocacy involvement, and ethnicity will not be reported because there was an interaction between the difi‘erent forms of parental involvement and ethnicity. In other words, the interactions will be reported not on the main efi‘ects. In this case, the relationship between traditional parental involvement and high school completion was different for Asian Americans when compared to European Americans. The relationship between traditional involvement and 83 high school completion was stronger for Asian Americans than European Americans. Traditional parental involvement was a bette- predictor of high school completion for Asian Americans than for European Americans, Native Americans, and Latinos. Research hasdemonstratedthat AsianAmericanparentsareinaccordancewiththeeducational system about the importance of traditional parental involvement, thus explaining the stronger effect of traditional parental involvement (Y so, 1993). The relationship between parental advocacy and high school completion was difl‘erent for Latinos when compared to European Americans. The relationship between parental advocacy involvement and high school completion was stronger for European Americans than Latinos. A possible explanation for these findings is that, although Latino parents have a strong value in education being bien educado (well educmed), perhaps taking the advocate role has not been a method of their involvement. Previous literature has found that Latino parents have differed with educational systems because of cultural difi‘erences such as language and socialization philosophies, specifically in education which could explain the reduced effect of parental involvement (Delgado-Gaitan, 1991; Shannon, 1996). For Asian Americans the relationship between parental advocacy and high school completion was different when compared to European Americans. The relationship between parental advocacy and high school completion was stronger for Asian Americans when compared to European Americans. This finding could be explained by previous research that found Asian American culture to strongly value education dating back to Asia, thus this belief is in accordance with the educational system explaining the stronger effect of parental advocacy involvement (Y ao, 1993). For Native Americans, the relationship between parental advocacy and high school completion was not significant. This can explained by the lack of a strong relationship between educational systems and Native Amaican families. Historically, this relationship was marked by a disregard for Native American family values and educational beliefs (Reyhner, 1992). Afier controlling for traditional parental involvement and parent advocacy involvement at the student leveL the relationship between high school completion and school involvement did not depend on ethnicity. A possible explanation for this outcome is that there is a need to develop a stronger relationship between families and educational systems. Despite the nonsignificant results, this study provides empirical data on school involvement that has rarely been explored in previous research. Thus, the nature of these findings suggests the need for future research between school involvement and the family. Specifically, this research should examine the ways in which school personnel (e. g. administrators and teachers) interact with families to develop a strong environment for effective school involvement. Findings from the study demonstrated that social capital provided by parents of various ethnic groups is essential to their student's high school completion even when some cases are a reaction to their student's academic struggles. In other cases, parents have become their students’ advocate to secure their students’ educational success. Parents provide social capital in the form of difi‘erent types of parental involvement. This study has reinforced the research that states that there is a need to continue to develop an ecological relationship between ethnic minority family systems and educatioml systems. For example some research has provided examples of how to develop that partnership through parental involvement and incorporating cultural sensitivity into the school curriculum (Chavkin & Gonzalez, 1995). mm Did the efi‘ect of family structure on an adolescent’s high school completion depend on ethnicity? Main efl‘ects for family structure and ethnicity will not be reported because there was an interaction between family structure and ethnicity. The association between 85 extended family and high school completion was difi‘erent for Native Americans as compared to European Americans. The relationship between extended family and high school completion was less strong for Native Americans than European Americans. The efi‘ect of extended family was less predictive of high school completion for Native AmericansthanEuropeanAmericans, Asian AmericansandLatinos. Thesefindingswere not consistent with the literature that has often found Native American extended families as a support network for families, with the children (Red Horse, 1980). All the students who lived in a household, which included at least one extended family member, were less likely to graduate. Although the findings were inconsistent with previous research, the findings are an important contribution for future research on the interaction between Native American family support networks, a child’s education, and educational systems. This study demonstrated the importance of family to a student's success in high school. Althoughthechallengesmightvarydependingonfamilytype,theneedto understand family dynamics within a cultural context is essential to develop the connection between family systems and educational systems. In addition, this study contributes to the literature by providing a basis for future research to examine how different family structures influence students within different ethnic groups. This research should focus onthewaysinwhichdifi'erentethnicgmupsdefinefamilyandwhattheyinterpretas culturally appropriate involvement with difl‘erent educational systems. Furthermore, the present study contn’butes to the literature by providing an argument for social capital and how it should be interpreted as family involvement, and not parental involvement. W The analysis demonstrated that both mother‘s and father's education was significant. A possible explanation for the positive association between parents' education and high school completion is that both parents are more familiar with educational systems and can access resources tint students need to complete high school. Another explanation is that students might interpret their parents' educational success as a goal for their own 86 education. Both of these explanation have been cited in previous research (Rumberger, 1995). Similar to parents' education, family income was significant and is a factor that has been documented in the literature that efi'ects high school completion (Fernandez, Paulsen, & Hirano-Nakanishi, 1989). Students who came from higher income families often had resources or access to resources to promote their educational success. The results also demonstrate that two parent households were significant in a student’s decision to complete high school. A possible explanation for the positive association is that the student has the support of both parents. Another explanation could be that both parents share in the responsibilities of their adolescent’s educational success. The findings show that parents’ education, two parent households, and family income were important factors in whether a student would complete high school. These findings are consistent with previous investigations (Rumberger, 1983, 1987). However, it is noteworthy to discuss the ecological contributions of these findings to the literature and the importance of future research to understanding the ecological relationship between students, their families, and their educational systems. Parents with more education demonstrated that they have been successful in the United States educational system and can serve as role models for their students to complete high school, particularly in two parent households. Often these parents have a better command of how the educational system works based of their own experience. These parents demonstrate their willingness to manipulate the available resources so that their children will succeed in education. Furthermore, parents with more education often have a support network that could be instrumental in helping their children succeed in education. For example, parents might not firlly understand the financial aid system, but they may know of other parents with more experience that would be willing to assist them. This study demonstrated that households with a higher income could access essential resources from the educational systems for students to succeed in high school. Accessing resources enabled families to establish relationships with educational systems that 87 benefited their students. For example, households with a higher income would have the financial resources to be able to register their children in college preparatory courses so that their children will have a better opportunity in to be accepted into college. W 13mm Did the efi'ect of different types of parental involvement on an adolescent’s college aspirations depend on ethnicity? The main efi‘ects of traditional parental involvement, parental advocacy involvement and ethnicity will not be reported because there were interactions between the difi'erent types of parental involvement and college aspirations. The associations between traditional parental involvement and college aspirations was different for Asian Americans than European Americans. The relationship between traditional parental involvement and college aspirations was stronger for European Americans than Asian Americans. A possible explanation for these findings is that although Asian American parents do have a strong value in education, perhaps taking the traditional parental involvement role has not been important in motivating their students to continue on to college. These results reinforce previous literature that has found educational success, particularly college aspirations, to be an important cultural value in Asian American families, not necessarily hm on a puent’s involvement (Matute— Bianchi, 1986). In other words parent involvement had more an efi'ect on college aspirations for European Americans, Native Americans, and Latinos. The relationship between parental advocacy involvement and college aspirations was difi‘erent for Native Americans when compared to European Americans. Parental advocacy involvement was more predictive of college aspirations for Native Americans than it was for European Americans, Asian Americans, and Latinos. Previous research has demonstrated that the effect of parental advocacy involvement on college aspirations is more important for Native Americans. This could possibly be explained by the cultural value of collectivism or interdependence of the Native American community who believe in contributing and being actively involved with their family members (Leveque, 1994). This study contributes to this scarce body of literature by providing a basis for an ecological relationship between Native American families and educational systems through parental advocacy involvement. Specifically, this research should examine the importance of Native American socialization throughout children’s educational development and the ways in which socialization provides valuable insights into Native American culture. These insights would assist school teachers and administrators in developing a more culturally sensitive curriculum that would encompass the Native American family, community, and educational systems. Alter controlling for traditional parental involvement and parental advocacy involvement at the student level, the relationship of school involvement to college aspirations did not depend on ethnicity. Research has found that the efi‘ect of school involvement ultimately depends on the reciprocal relationship between parents and schools which is essential to secure students academic success (Chavkin & Williams, 1993). Previous research has found that difl‘erent types of parental involvement have been significant in a student's decision to aspire to attend college. The findings of this study were in accordance with previous research for European Americans (Epstein, 1995), Asian Americans (Y ao, 1993), Native Americans (Reyhner, 1991), and Latinos (Chavkin & Williams, 1993), and contribute to the literature by stressing the importance of school involvement. The reasons why parents were involved in this decision were quite varied. The importance of parental involvement lies in the relationship that parents' have developed with the educational system. Social capital enabled them to develop a stronger bond between the two contexts that benefited the students. The present findings demonstrate a nwd to develop relationships between family contexts and educational 89 contexts. In this way, social capital would be reciprocated between the families and educational systems. Emmy: Did the efi‘ect of family structure in an adolescent’s college aspirations depend on ethnicity? The interaction between family structure and ethnicity was not statistically significant. In particular, the relationship between extended family and college aspirations did not depend on ethnicity. A possible explanation for this could be that difi‘erent ethnic families and their extended family are not as familiar with the educational system and are not able to access resources to help their students prepare themselves for college. These results support pmviousresearchthathasfoundmatdespiteanextendedfamilynmbain the household there is still a lack of communication between the family and the educational system (Reyhner, 1992; Delgado-Gaitan, 1990). This study contributed to the literature by demonstrating the importance of family systems in a student's aspirations to continue their education beyond high school. Although the challenges vary depending on family type, the need to understand family dynamics within a cultural context is essential to firrtha develop the connection between family systems and educational systems. This connection will enable the students to develop the confidence and skills to continue their education beyond high school. W Results demonstrated that both parents' education were significant. These findings are consistent with previous literature that found a positive association between parent's education and college aspirations (Duran & Wefi‘er, 1992; Hauser & Anderson, 1991). Perhaps both parents were more familiar with the educational system and could have accessed resources that students needed to continue their education beyond high school. Furthermore, students might have interpreted their parents' educational success as a goal for their own education and aspired to attend college (Duran & Wefl‘er, 1992; Hauser & 90 Anderson, 1991). Family income was a factor that efl‘ected college aspirations; this finding is also consistent with previous literature (Reyhner, 1991; Rumberger, 1990; Valverde, 1987). Often students who came from higher income families had the resources or access to resources to promote their educational success. Moreover, consistent with parents’ education and family income two parent households was significant in a student’s college aspirations. A possible explanation is that both parents provided an environment for their adolescent to continue their education beyond high school. These findings are consistent with previous research (Rumberger, 1990). These findings contribute to the previous literature by providing a contextual picture of how these variables could influence a students college aspirations. For example, parents with more education demonstrated success in the United States educational system andtheyservedasrolemodelsfortheirstudentsto aspiretocontirmetheireducation beyond college. This study found that households with a higher income could access essential resources fiom the educational systems. By accessing those resources, families were able to establish relationships with educational systems that benefited their students. Furthermore, the students were able to build academic skills and confidence to aspire to continue thdr education beyond high school. WM Did the efl‘ect of different types of parental involvement in a student’s decision to enter the labor force and how long they had worked after high school depend on ethnicity? This model, at the student level, demonstrated that parental advocacy involvement and traditional parental involvement were not significant in predicting whether a student would enter the labor force and length of time worked after high school regardless of a student's ethnic background. A possible explanation for this is that the sample size was small, and problems with the analysis could be attributed to a lack of statistical power. 91 Despite the limitations of the data analysis, this study contributed to the literature by interpreting and exploring the ecological relationship of students choosing to work, and the time they worked after high school graduation, and how family and. educational systemscaninfluencetheirdecision. Basedonthefindings, itwasnotclearhowsocial capital would contribute to the student's decision to work, rather than attend college. W Did the efl‘ect offarnily structure in a student’s decision to enter the labor force and how long they had worked alter high school depend on ethnicity? The interaction between extended family and ethnicity was not significant. A possible explanation for this is that the sample size was small and problems with the analysis could be attributed to a lack of statistical power. Due to the limitation ofthe data analysis the ecological relationship between the family and the educational system warrants more exploration as to why students choose to go to work Communities Fathers' education was significant and had a positive efl‘ect in predicting whether a student would enter the labor force and length of work in the labor force after high school graduation. A possible explanation for this result is that the student might feel no pressure to select acareerafierhigh school orattend collegebecausetheirfatherisestablished. Mothers' education, two parent households and family income were not significant in predictingwhetherastudent would enterthelaborforceorhowlongtheyhadworkedin thelaborforce. Thelackofpowerintheanalysiscouldbeanexplanationofwhythese variables were not significant. Furthermore, the ecological relationship between a family's income, two parent households, parents' education and working in the labor force warrant more exploration. Examinations of how these factors influence a student to work and how long the student has worked rather than attend college is important. 92 P 'Y in ni tat E The results of this analysis are based on the Latino and Asian American group with the European American group as the comparison. The findings show tint parents' number of years in the United States and ethnicity was only significant in predicting whether an individual would complete high school for Asian Americans specifically, Asian American mothers. Literature on this finding has been inconsistent. Previous research demonstrates that generation and ethnicity do not influence high school completion (Buriel & Cardoza, 1988). On the other hand, there is a body of literature that argues that recent immigrants aspire to complete high school because they want to be successfirl in the United States and they see education as an avenue to success (Ogbu, 1982; 1987; 1992). Their American Latino counterparts have become disillusioned with the United States educational system because previous family generations were not successful in their education (Buriel & Cardoza, 1988; Ogbu, 1982; l987; 1992). Research with Asian Americans yields different findings (Hsia & Nakanishi, 1989). Recent Asian immigrants, similar to Latino immigrants, view education as a vehicle to success in the United States. However, for their American counterparts education has been a means to success. This includes Japanese and Chinese Americans. Groups such as Vietnamese Americans and other Southeast Asian Americans have struggled with the United States educational system and have not been as successful as Japanese and Chinese Americans (Hsia & Nakanishi, 1989). E 11 E . . TheresultsofthisanalysisarebasedontheLatinoandAsianAmericangroupwith the European American group as the comparison. The model demonstrated that Latino fathers’ and mothers’ years in the United States were important in determining college aspirations. Previous literature has been inconsistent (Buriel & Cardoza, 1988; Ogbu, 1987). Some research has argued that factors other than generation, such as parent’s 93 education, family income, and student’s self motivation to succeed are more important in explaining why a student aspires to continue their education beyond high school (Rumberger, 1987). Other researchers argue that both recent immigrants and their American counterparts aspire to continue their education beyond high school (Buriel & Cardoza, 1988). However, recent immigrants, including Latino and Asian American groups, have not become disillusioned with the United States educational system and see themselves in college, while their American counterparts feel that they do not have adequate resources to prepare themselves to attend college (Buriel & Cardoza, 1988). Emag into and Working in the Labor Force There was less data on this outcome variable than high school completion and college aspirations. Problems with highly intercorrelated variables caused estimation difficulties. Main efl‘ects of fathers' years and mothers' years in the United States were successfirlly fitted and proved to be nonsignificant. The main effects of ethnicity were successfully fitted and proved to be nonsignificant. Thus, one could hypothesize that parents' years in the United States were not important indicators of predicting whether a student would enter the labor force and how long they would have worked after high school regardless of ethnic background. Limitations Alirnitation ofthis studywastheuseofasecondarydataset;theactualexposureto the respondents did not take place. Exposure to respondents would have provided a perspective on their feelings and reactions to the questions and purpose of the study. Moreover, actual exposure to the respondents would have provided an environment and opportunity for follow up studies with certain subsamples of the larger sample. These follow up studies would focus on family and educational issues not covered in the NELS secondary data set. Furthermore, a limitation of the secondary data was that the researcher was limited to the variables and measures provided by the data set. 94 fa lin Pu 0v Mt inv old edL Another limitation of the study was tint only specific questions were pulled fiom the data set rather than entire instruments and questionnaires possibly leaving out important concepts. This study was limited because all the questions asked to the respondents were objective in nature. Although yes or no questions are important, these question do not givearich picture ofcultural values and beliefsthat aqualitativeanalysiswouldhad provided. Missing data could also be considered a limitation. Multicollnearity occun'ed throughout the analysis process thus causing estimation problems as well increasing missingdataandafl‘ectingcellsizeinseveraloftheanalyses. Thiswasespeciallytruewith the outcome variable entrance into the labor force and time working in the labor force. The question of entrance into the labor force, more specifically the actual time the student had worked after high school, might have been limiting since they were the only items availableonthedataset. Thedatasetdidnotlnveaquestionthatspecificallyasked ifa student aspired to enter the labor force rather than attend college. TheNELSdatasetfocusedonmothersanddidnotreaflyexplorethefatheror father figure's involvement in his adolescent's education. The sample on stepparents and other adult figures that were not blood related comprised a small portion of the study, thus limiting the study to biological parents. ThenumberofMexicanAmericansintheLatino samplewashigh, asinother nationally representative samples. To learn more about other Latinos in this study, such as Puerto Ricans, and Cuban Americans, the groups with smaller pacentages could had been over sampled thus putting Puerto Rican and Cuban Americans at the same level with Mexican Americans in the Latino sample. Another limitation of the study is that the NELS data set fails to measure familial involvement. The importance of other family members such as grandparents, possible older siblings, and extended family could serve as a support network in the adolescent's education. 95 ef fa th sh Pl'l up mam The influence of the family on an adolescent's educational aspirations and success in life must be acknowledged. Positive parental involvement with schools and communities must be encouraged. Schools should implement a process that will merge educational institutions with family support systems to foster improvement in the education and general well being of young people. To assure the educational success of Native American, Asian Americans, Latino, and European American children familial inclusion is essential. The contextual coalition between families, schools, ethnic communities, and the larger community will be the cornerstone of the future generations. The importance of collectivism continues to move towards the forefiont with larger communities, ethnic communities, and families facing the lack of resources. Furthermore, because of the lack of resources, competitivism can lead only to a bipolar society. Future research should investigate whether existing measures of parental involvement are accurate measures of ethnic minority groups discussed in this study and effects on high school completion, college aspirations, and entrance into the labor force. Thosemeasru'esshouldbebasedwithintheculturalcontextofthat specificethnicminority family, and they should provide a basis for understanding the importance of family involvement in a child's education. In other words when these measures are developed they should use a culturally sensitive lens. For example, as discussed in this study they should consider how ethnic groups define education and how this efi‘ects parental involvement. Furthermore, when developing the measures it would be important to include professionals who understand the specific culture that is being studied. These professionals would be instrumental in developing cultural sensitivity questions to be used in the measures. In addition, once the measures have been developed they should be updated and refined for regional, gender and age difl‘erences within the specific ethnic minority group being studied. This study focused on specific variables such as parents' education, family income, and parents' years in the United States and the relation to high school completion, college aspirations, and entrance into the labor force based on difl‘erent ethnic groups. Future research should examine other factors that could be important in determining the educational success of a student. In the case of Native American students and thdr families, factors such as interaction with the Native American community, teaching methods, tracking of students, inappropriate curriculums, inappropriate testing, culturally sensitive teachers, and stafl‘ should be considered to provide a more holistic picture of a Native American student's experience. Future research should examine other factors that are important in determining whether Latino and Asian American students will be W in education Factors such as language difl‘erences between these groups and how language influences high school completion, college aspirations, and entrance into the labor force would be a wananted investigation. Future research should also focus on how Latino and Asian American communities influence and promote the success of youth. It would be important to examine the influences of religious organizations, community based centers, and parental involvement on high school completion, college aspirations, and entrance into the labor force. Further investigations are also warranted on how factors such as culturally sensitive teaching methods, and bilingual teachers can influence a student's educational success. It would be noteworthy to explore how these factors efl‘ect high school completion, college aspirations, and entrance into the labor force particularly with Asian Americans and Latinos. Future research should also explore the process of tracking, and if it had a positive or negative efl‘ect on high school completion, college aspirations, and entrance into the labor force with difl‘erent ethnic groups. The variable student's grades was not used in the analysis to determine how this influences a student's high school completion, college aspirations, and entrance into the 97 labor force. Future research with this variable would be noteworthy in explaining how a student's grades would be related to parental involvement and whether this would have an influence on high school completion, college aspirations, and entrance into the labor force. Althoughthisstudydid haveameasureofparents'mrmberofyearsintheUnited Statesarrdgavesomeerquanationforgenerationalefl’ectsthiswouldbeanareathat warrants firrther research. Acculturation measures and generational models would especially be conducive to describing the relationship between Latino, Asian Americans and educational systems. These models would help explain the genaational differences within Latinos and Asian Americans, which have a varied effect on educational outcomes. In conclusion, this study provides a valuable source of literature that has continued the exploration of parental involvement. By incorporating an ecological approach and grounding the fiamework with social capital theory, the current research demonstrated the possibilities of future contextual relationships between families, schools, and communities. This study demonstrated that a coalition among families, schools, and communities is simply not enough. Rather, the goal of the current investigation was to provide valuable information to firture relationships between families, schools, and communities. Thus, the beginning of this exploration included a nationally representative sample. Another important aspect of this study was to demonstrate the weaknesses and strengths of previous research to be able to make an appropriate paradigm shift. This study provided a basis for this paradigm shift to secure the educational success of future generations. This study demonstrated how parental involvement should be reevaluated to include multiple components. These components would include family involvement and community involvement, which are integral components in relationship among families, schools, and communities. As stressed in the study, families including extended and fictive kin and communities including ethnic, religious, social, and political are participants in the impact of adolescent’s education. The new paradigm would have to incorporate a variety of participants to allow ownership of the education that an adolescent would receive. In other words, adolescents’ formal education would no longer be the task and responsibility of schools. Thisstudyprovidedthenecessaryinformationthatwouldbeginto establishtheessential steps to establish this paradigm shifl Furthermore, this present study also demonstrated that in order for a successfill paradigm shift, the larger society would have to make the shift to the collective mode of educating. Moreover, this study asserts the ways in which the inclusion of non middle class values is essential to this paradigm shifl. The inclusion of culturally diverse values ' would be essential to this success. This study provides valuable information that would argue that the new paradigm would have to provide professional stafl‘ that could work with the different players on a fulltime basis. Developing a strong relationship among families, schools, and communities can no longer be a part time endeavor ofa few dedicated teachers, parents, and community members. Appendix 1 100 Appendix 1 GENERAL HLM MODEL Logistic level (Student level or First level) ln( TPL )= Boj + Blij (Traditional Parental Involvement) + B 2ij (Parent Advocacy " PU Parental Involvement) + B3ij (Latino) + B4ij (Native American) + BSij (Asian American) B 6ij (Family Structure) + B 7ij (Traditional Parental Involvement X Latino) + B8ij (Traditional Parental Involvement X Native American) + B 9ij (Traditional Parental Involvement X Asian American) + B l Oij (Advocacy Parental Involvement X Latino) +B llij (Advocacy Parental Involvement X Native American) + B 12ij (Advocacy Parental Involvement X Asian American) + B13ij (Motheryears X Latino) + B14ij (Motheryears X Native American) + B15ij (Motheryears X Asian American) +B16ij (Fatheryears X Latino) + B l 7ij (F atheryears X Native American) + B18ij (F atheryears X Asian American) + B19ij (Extended Family X Latino) + B20ij (Extended Family X Native American) +B21ij (Extended Family X Asian American) + B22ij (Two Parent Household X Latino) + B23ij (Two Parent Household X Native American) + B24ij (Two Parent Household X Asian American) + B25ij (Extended Family X Two Parent Household X Latino) + B26ij (Extended Family X Two Parent Household X Native American) + B27ij (Extended Family X Two Parent Household X Asian American) +B28ij (Family Income) + B29ij (Mother Education) + B30ij (Father Education) + rij 101 8le Bllj Blzj [llij Bl4j BI Sj Blnj Bl7j Blsj. Second level (Model at school level) Boj=800+uoj B 1j=810+u1j B2j=520+u2j B 3j=63o B4j =840 B 5j=550 B 6j =560 B 7j =57o B 8j=680 B 93‘ =69o B 10j =5100 B 11j=6110 B 12j =812o B 13j =6130 B 14j=514o B15j=6150 B16j=516o B 17j =617o B 18j=6180 102 B l9j = 6190 B 20j = 6200 B 21j = 6210 B 22j = 6220 B 23j = 6230 B 24j = 6240 B25j = 6250 B26j = 6260 B 27j = 6270 B 28j = 6280 B 29j = 6290 103 Appendix 2 104 ’ Appardixz .UCATIONALSYSTEM SCHOOLS NAIEAI ~‘ 0 l PARENTS PTO CHILD . i A NAIEAIAAILA ’Jp““'tll3|' -:: ' ERSOCIETY Nauve' Anew Asian' WWI-“arm I . ‘ BelongtoPTO-AttendPI’O-Panicrplmmm- . <==>- InflueneeSchoolPolicies SocialCaPital: TraditionalParentalInvohrement GoingtoSchoolAcdvities-Helpwithflomework- «nu-.- GotoParealfreachaMeefings . NA = Native American EA 3 European'American AA = Asian American LA ’3 O O 105 Appendix 3 106 ‘i‘hi‘IF .a’ I it. s 4" a‘ .I 9 I - I‘tilli flflfiiflll HtflHGFflfl harm Enhoikin "m Mus-r University Committee on Research involving Harm Subjects (3:915) MICHIGAN sz‘f‘E L119 1 \/ E.lt S I 1"Y May 27, 1998 1'0: Pranciao A. Villarruel It!!! 2 Paolucci Bldg . :33 ; sa-sas 73' strict aarzvs anxazcmw. LNIINO. ASIAN’AHERICII a luaonaau'anzarcan'anaanran Invoavcnnur.aun relic. MIG! W: KIA QWY: l-B APPROVAL DATE: 05/21/98 The university Cocaine: on Research Involving manna Subjocca' (0:21:38) review 0: thiazprojocc in complete. I an planned to ndvaao that: the rights and wel are of the hrmn'aubj , b- cely weaned and methods on obtain informed consent: are approp. riacn. etoro, the acams approved this project and any reunions listed above. We acarns rovaliavalidtoronncnlondnryou.hoginningwich the apps-.2811 date shown above Investigators planning to continue a project be oneyoar mt: use the green 2 torn (enclosed with original rovnl lancer or when a. project; is renewed) to cool: e certification. There in a maximal of four such expedit: renewals noiblo. Investigators wishing to continue a project: beyond ch: tiara need to submit: it: again or complete review. martinis: scams mat: review any changes in We involving hurrah subjects. rior to initiation of change. I: this is done a: the time o renewal, please use the groan renewal form. To . revise an a roved rococol at: an other time during the year send. your wggcton rgquesc no the £22138 Chair. requesting revised approval and referencing the project's m 8 and title. lncludn in ur request: a description of :hechnngo and any revised in: ta. consent: torus or ndvortnonrontn that: are applicable. mom] cannons : Should either of the toll arise during the course of the work, investigators rtant: not: cums promptly: (l) .- ( and sad: offeccsincornp u'ch c.) involving our subjects or (2) changes that re: t; intonation indicating greater rial: no the human nub not: chnn existed when the protocol was previously reviewed npprovod..____.. I: w-c'nnbe‘ at. any tucura help. please do not: hesitate to contact: us at: ‘(517)355’-2180 or m (51714 2- 71. I vid 8. Wright. Ph.D. Chair D“:bed cc: Ruben Viranroncez \ 107 Appendix 4 108 Appendix 4 Original NELS Codebook Questions TRADITIONAL PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT Sincethebeginningofthis schoolyar, hascitherofyour parents or guardians done any of the following? (MARK ONE EACH) BYS3 7A Attended a school meeting BYS37B Phoned or spoken to your teacher or counselor BYS37C Visited your classes BYS37D Attended a school event such as a play, concert, gym exhibit, sports competition, honor ceremony or science fair where YOU participated 69. How often do you or your spouse/partner help your eighth grader with his or her homework? (MARK ONE) ADVOCATE PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT How much do you agree or disagree with each of the following statements concerning your eighth graders school? (MARK ONE EACH) BYP74A The school places a high priority on learning BYP74B The homework assigned is worthwhile BYP74C My eighth grader is challenged at school BYP74D My eighth grader is working hard at school BYP74E My eighth grader enjoys school BYP74F The standards set by the school are realistic BYP74G The school is preparing students well for high school BYP74H The school is preparing students well for college BYP74I The school is a safe place BYP74J Parents have an adequate say in setting school policy BYP74K Parents work together in supporting school policy 59. Do you and your spouse/partner do any of the following at your eighth graders school? (MARK ONE EACH) BYP59A Belong to a parent-teacher organization BYP59B Attend meetings of a parent-teacher organization BYP59C Take part in the activities of a parent-teacher organization 109 BYP59D Act as a volunteer at the school BYP59E Belong to any other organimtion with several parents from your eighth grader's school (for example, neighborhood or religious organimtions) PARENTS YEARS IN THE UNITED STATES BYP12 &15 How many years agodidyou oryour spouse come to the United States to stay? (MARKONE) FAMILY INCOME BYP80 THIS NEXT SERIES OF QUESTIONS IS ABOUT THE PRESENT SITUATION OF YOU AND YOUR FAMILY. WE NEED THIS INFORMATION IN ORDER TO COMPARE YOUR ANSWERS WITH THOSE OF OTHER PEOPLE WHO TAKE PART IN THIS SURVEY. THIS INFORMATION WILL BE KEPT CONFIDENTIAL AND IT WILL NEVER BE USED WITH YOUR NAME. 80. Whatwasyourtotalfamilyincomefromall sourcesin 1987? (lfyou are not sure about the amount, please estimate.) (MARK ONE) EDUCATIONAL BACKGROND BYP30 THE NEXT SERIES OF QUESTIONS IS ABOUT YOUR EDUCATIONAL AND WORK EXPERIENCES AND THOSE OF YOUR SPOUSEJPARTNER 30. What is the HIGHEST LEVEL of education you have completed? (MARK ONE) FAMILY STRUCTURE Which of the following people live in the same household with you? (MARK ALL THAT APPLY) BYSSA Father BYSSB Other male guardian (stepfather or foster father) BYSSC Mother BYssD Other female guardian (stepmother or foster mother) BYSSE Brother(s) (including step- or half-) BYSSF Sister(s) (including step- or half-) BYS8G Grandparent(s) llO BYSSH Other relative(s) (children or adults) BYSSI Non-relative“) (children or adults) COLLEGE ASPIRATIONS OUTCOME 51. Doyouplantogotocollegeafteryou graduatefromhigh school? (MARK ONE) WORKING OUTCOME The series of variables LABR0692 - marrow will contain the monthbymonthemploymentstamsfromlune I992thronghAugust 1994. The possible values for each month are: 1 Employed 2 Unemployed and receiving unemployment compensation 3 Unemployed and not receiving rmemployment compensation 4 Out of the labor force Inthehardcopyquestionnaire, samplememberswereaskedto completeamatrixwheretheyindieatedtheirstamsforeachmonth In the CATI questionnaire, these values were derived from the answers to the following series of questions in combination with the interview date: The next section of our interview concerns your employment historyfromlune I992totoday. Now, pleasethinkbacktoluneof 1992. At that time were you employed, unemployed and receiving unemployment compensation, unemployed and NOT receiving unemployment compensation, or were you out of the labor force (that is,notworking, notlookingforworkANDnotreceiving unemployment compensation)? INTERVIEWER: IF R WAS UNEMPLOYED PROBE WHETHER OR NOT SIHE RECEIVED UNEMPLOYMENT COMPENSATION. INTERVIEWER: [F R SEEMS UNSURE AS TO WHAT ”OUT OF THE LABOR FORCE” MEANS, PROBE BY REPEATING ITS DEFINITION. ”Out of the labor force means that you were not working not looking for work AND not receiving unemployment compensation.” AND' Then starting in "MONTH/YEAR“, were you employed, unemployed and receiving unemployment compensation, unemployed and NOT receiving unemployment compensation, or out of the labor force (that is, not working and not looking for work)? INTERVIEWER: IF R WAS UNEMPLOYED PROBE WHETHER OR NOT S/HE RECEIVED UNEMPLOYMENT COMPENSATION. AND: When did you stop being employed(unemployed and receiving unemployment compensation, etc)? INTERVIEWER: IF R DOES NOT KNOW MONTH, PROBE FOR SEASON. ENTER 96/96 IF CURRENT. Note: Variables for months after the interview was conducted willbesettothevalueforlegitimateskip. Ill HIGH SCHOOL COMPLETION OUTCOME F3UNIV23 2 year follow up after expected graudation ETHNIC BACKGROUND Next, we would like to ask you some background information BYS31A Which best describes you? (MARK ONE) BYS3 IB Which of these best categorizes your background? (MARK ONE) ASIAN OR PACIFIC ISLANDER BYS3 lC Which of these best categorizes your background? (MARK ONE) HISPANIC 112 Appendix 5 113 :88 333523.: on. so: automate .3 one! 83st? :08 co con... 8.. 882 ”202 8.. 23 8.3:. E833. 385. one: 32 as 8.2“: c.2395 one... 1855 can .2 8.38. .6823. 385. so So 8+3: seiner eon.— eae State and 2 .o 8.5: been Basem— med .3 83¢: £2.38: .85 e5 .3 :3 8.35: 8.85 $5 Sm Re 8.2% nausea—abs: a: one 8.8:. Seance .582 m3 m3 8&2: 33% use: on. a e8> she: a; :e 8.23: 8.3m ose: 2.. a 28> £2.82 83.69 :82 z 8.52 «new; Begum 333333 n xenon? 114 SN 2.... 8.8.... 8.3... 8...... . 2.. n. 28> 8058.. 8...... m. .o 8... 8.8:. $8.. 8.8:... 50.8.5. .52 8... 8... 8.8... $8.. 8.8.x... 50.322. 3er e . .o 8... N. m: as... 8.8:... 8.8,. m. .. 8... 8. .8: 8893. one... 808...... 8.2 a... 8... 8.3.... 88...... .85....— c8toE< 3.82 .2 8... 8.8... .8829... 388.. .8283. 80.8.5. 8.2 c... o. .c 8.82. .8828... 388.. .8885 58.8.5 3...... m3 .2 8.82. 8.823... .58.... .8282... 8.3 8.8.8.. :82 z 8.87. 2.3.9 9.an 115 «NA :6 8.09.: 8.8m ooch 05 5 88> 9.05am 8.8.5.. 5.2 mod 50.0 8.32 _ 8.8m cog—.3 2: S . 88> «.85.... 8.8.5. 3.2.2 god who 8.3m: 88am .835 05 E 28> 9.2.8.. 9......— VNA _m.o oedem: 8.3m pogo: 2: E 88> .882 80.8.5. 8.2 and nod 8.2m : 835 ooze: 2: E 88> «.8522 5.0.8.5.. 0282 8.8.89 :82 2 882 033:5 b.3935 3333833 .88.? 116 Appendix 6 117 .3 3... 2.. 8... 8... 8.8.. 883.... 38.... S... 8... 8... a... we... 8. $8. .8829... 3.88.. 38.8.... B... 2... 8.. a... .2 8.8... 8.2.3.5.. .88.. can 8... 8... 8.. a... 8.. 8.82. 2.8.. 8.8.... 8... 8... 8.. N... 8.. 8.82. 8.2.9.8.. .88.. new 8.8.... 8....2 one... 5:58.... ease... 8...). z 8.82 28...; 118 Appendix 7 119 88...... a........... 88.2.. .83.. 88> owe—BU mo 88> 82...... Boo. to o. m... 88.9.80 8.85 5.3 9.8» owe—BU mo 88> £2.82 29.. to o. n... 88.9.80 50.8.5. 53.. 088.: 8....m 83.5 on... :— cannon—om 25> LE .8» Lens. e 88...... 120 838 2:85 686$ mas...— =2§6£O £223 .83 .3: oz 50.8.5 26.2 own—BU mo 38> £382 a .85 33 58.25. 95.2 0885 8.8m no.2: och S 5:833— 0333/ 3:5,,— 88.» mo ~33 h €23 121 3%va 2:85 83% been E8» «84 30:8...— 29: E 2 8 035 5» 9:395 28» 33 p.282 98:. 8 2 3 03.5 5» 2:25: 0883 83m 33.: 2E. 5 338:3 033:5 beau 30> Lo .33 h 592.? 122 .omo__8 he 3% 3. 3.238 2.3 Ga: 223 as 3.3 8052: 50.55 SonoSm .«o ems—822. 0380388 a 83 22:. 6ch .. 83$” 2:85 .895 beam 5:335 323% 18$ .3: 53:05 saosm 553680 £2.82 . .83 .35 50.55 Saosm 088... .23 use: 2: 5 Sass—fl 2%.55 >15 m 50> we 35 h $.23 123 REFERENCES 124 REFERENCES Archarnbault, A (1982). The talking circle. 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