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DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE 1198 WMpGS-ptu POSITIVE MOOD: REDUCING STEREOTYPES OF THE AGED By Ryoko Ebina A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF COMMUNICATION Department of Communication 1999 ABSTRACT POSITIVE MOOD: REDUCING STEREOTYPES OF THE AGED By Ryoko Ebina Negative stereotypes of aging in the United States may have promoted a cultural trend that stresses youth, downplays old age, and may result in threat to the quality of life of the old. The present research explored the role of positive mood in reducing negative age-related stereotypes. This study was based on mood congruency theory (i.e. positive mood promotes integration by clustering attributes together in the linkage of similarly toned material) and integrative complexity theory (i.e. positive mood promotes integration by differentiating the dimensions of each object and perceiving the related dimensions). The question styles were suggested to build two different integrating processes. Mood and question style were varied in a 2 (Mood: positive vs. neutral) X 2 (Question: similarity vs. difference) between-subjects factorial design. Although this study found that positive mood had weak effects on stereotyping processes, significant effects for question style were found. Participants who had a task of listing similarities between themselves and the old viewed the old more inclusively and showed more positive stereotypes of the old than participants who had a task of listing differences did. On the other hand, participants who had a task of listing differences showed more negative stereotypes of the old. These findings suggest that question style may have an influence on cognitive process of the in—group/out-group bias. Copyright by RYOKO EBINA l 999 Dedicated with love to my parents, Kiyoshi and Masako Ebina. This work is a tribute to their support and encouragement. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This thesis would not have been possible without the help of many people. 1 would like to explicitly send thanks to the following individuals. To my advisor, Dr. Kim Witte: I thank you for your insight, support, and excellent guidance. Your input turned a very stressful process into one of the most rewarding experiences I have ever had. To Dr. Nancy Nystrom: You opened my eyes to justice. I enjoyed our discussions that helped to inspire me to make efforts for finding a way to address the economic security and quality of life of old people in international communities. To Dr. Mary Bresnahan: Thank you for your support throughout my MSU undergraduate and graduate careers. To Dr. Joseph Cousins: You have always filled me with warmth and support. I learned a lot from your contributions to society. To Dr. Tom Sasabe: My undergraduate and graduate careers at MSU would not have been possible without you. To Dr. Akira Kobata and Dr. Hiroshi Shibata from Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Gerontology: You have linked my dream to the real world. I am looking forward to contributing to the quality of life of old people. Finally, I would like to pray for peace for my grandfather, Sakae Uno, who passed away just before the completion of this thesis. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ........................................................ vii LIST OF FIGURES """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" viii INTRODUCTION ““““““““““““““““““““““““““““““““““““““““ l Stereotypes of the Old """"""""""""""""""""""""""" 2 Impacts of Positive Mood on Stereotyping Processes ------------------- 12 Summary ---- ---- - ---------------------- 15 METHOD ------------------------------------------------------------------ 18 Design and Participants ---------------------------------------------- 18 Procedure ----------------------------------------------------------- 18 Mood Manipulation --------------------------------------------------- 18 Question Style Manipulation .......................................... 19 Measures ........................................................... l9 Mood Manipulation Checks .......................................... 21 Demographic Variables ______________________________________________ 21 RESULTS """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 22 Mood Manipulation Checks ----------------------------------- 22 Question Style Checks ------------------------------------------------ 22 Integration ----------------------------------------------------------- 23 Age-related Stereotypes ---------------------------------------------- 25 Volunteer Intentions ------------------------------------------------- 28 DISCUSSION .............................................................. 29 In-group/Out-group Bias ............................................. 3O Implications .......................................................... 3 1 APPENDIX A: Mood Manipulations and Manipulation Checks """""""" 34 APPENDIX B: Question Style Manipulation _________________________________ 35 APPENDIX C: Integration Measures ----------------------------------------- 36 APPENDIX D: Stereotypes Measures ----------------------------------------- 37 APPENDIX E: Measures for Volunteer Intentions ............................. 44 BIBLIOGRAPHY """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 45 vi LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Common Myths of the Old __________________________________________________ 4, 5 Table 2 Who is an old person? _______________________________________________________ 6 Table 3 Stereotype Trait Sets ------------------------------------------------- 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 Table 4 The Effects of Mood on Five Integration Items in a Seven-point Likert Scale --- 23 vii LIST OF FIGUIRES Figure l The Hypothesized Path Model of Positive Mood in Stereotyping Processes _____ l7 viii INTRODUCTION In colonial times, the power and privilege of old age was deeply rooted in the United States. Respect for the elderly was observed not only in religious and political fields, but also in legal and financial areas (Barrow & Smith, 1979). Presently, the United States has shown the highest poverty rate of the old among the industrial countries (Smeeding, Torrey, & Rainwater, 1993). Sixteen percent of the old live in poverty conditions (Hooyman & Kiyak, 1997). According to Smeeding, Torrey, and Rainwater (1993 ), the incomes drop with age more rapidly in the US. than in other industrial nations; younger U.S. aged do better than do older U.S. aged. The study also shows income inequality based on sex. Nearly 75 percent of the old poor population is women age 65 and over; old single US. women do much worse than women in other nations do. In contrast to this reality, young adults are concerned that the old are not paying their fair share of the cost of their benefits (Silverstein & Parrott, 1997). The age of 18 to 24 is the age group least supportive of elderly entitlement benefits (Silverstein & Parrott, 1997). Anti-entitlement benefits of the old may be influenced by the negative views of the aged in this culture, which reinforce prejudice and lead to discrimination. The personal and social characteristics of old people in this society make them a stigmatized or relatively disliked social group (Henwood, Giles, Coupland, & Coupland, 1993). Retirement, poverty, institutionalization, and restriction of domestic and community roles are the experiences which help to explain the public views of the old, especially the structured dependency and frailty of the old (Estes, 1986). The problems associated with the negative views of the old have become more complex and serious than ever. Social construction of frailty of the old, for example, may have an influence on their quality of life. The old are vulnerable to medical management because old age is equated with illness in the public view (Sankar, 1984). Dying is also associated primarily with the view of old age (Marshall & Levy, 1990). Thus, the old who have lived problems are focused on health care issues, which are made by subjective views of health providers and family members (Kaufman, 1994). As a result, an old person becomes a patient at the time of contact with the health care system, in which lived problems are cured by medical and social cares (Kaufman, 1994). Failure to comply with health care team proposals puts a person at risk for institutionalization, which is the greatest threat to autonomy and the quality of life of the old. The purpose of this study is to explore the potential of positive mood on reducing negative views of the old among youth populations. In this paper, the stereotypes of the old will be introduced first. Then, a definition of positive mood and the impacts of positive mood on the stereotyping processes will be provided. Finally, the hypotheses and study will be presented. Stereotypes of the Old Stereotypes are oversimplified, exaggerated beliefs about a group or category of people (Harris, 1990). Stereotyping involves categorizing individuals, ascribing a set of traits to most or all of the members of that category, and applying these characteristics to individual members of the category (I-Iewstone & Brown, 1986). Many stereotypes surround older people and the aging process (Harris, 1990). Linville (1982) found that young men made more extreme judgements about elderly male targets than they did about young male targets. Both young and elderly adults choose the old-old age range (75 and over) for the negative stereotypes (Hummert, 1990). Especially, illness and dying are deeply associated with the views of the old (Sankar, 1984; Marshall & Levy, 1990). According to the common myths of the old (Table 1) and the stereotypes of the elderly in the responses from college students to the question of “Who is an old person?” (Table 2), old people are characterized as a stigmatized or relatively disliked social group (Harris, 1990; Petty, 1979). Hummert, Garstka, Shaner, and Strahm (1994), however, find that subjects have multiple stereotypes of older adults rather than one pervasive, negative stereotype (Table 3). Participants of all ages (i.e., young adults ages 18 to 22, middle-aged adults ages 35 to 51, and elderly adults ages 60 to 84) share seven powerful cultural archetypes of aging; such as the Golden Ager, John Wayne Conservative, Perfect Grandparent, Shrew/Curmudgeon, Recluse, Despondent, and Severely Impaired. With increasing age, participants not only add more traits, but also divide the traits into more distinct groups. In other words, young adults have more simple stereotypes than other older groups. Participants of all ages chose the older age ranges for the more negative stereotypes indicating possible health problems (e.g., Severely Impaired, Despondent), and younger age ranges for the positive stereotypes (e.g., Golden Ager, Activist) (Hummert, Garstka, Shaner, & Strahm, 1995). Table 1. Common Myths of the Old 10. 11. 12. l3 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. . All older people are alike. Most older people live in institutions. The majority of older people is lonely and is isolated from their families. Older people have more acute illness than do younger people. Retirement is less difficult for women than it is for men. The majority of people entering a nursing home remain there for the rest of their lives. Older people cannot learn. Most older people have no interest in or capacity for sexual activity. Older people are more fearfiJl of death than are younger people. The majority of older people are grouchy and cantankerous. Alzheimer’s disease is to be expected with old age. Retirement brings poor health and an early death. . Older workers have high accident and absentee rates. Most older people prefer to live with their children. Old age begins at 65. The majority of older people are set in their ways, unable to change. Older workers are less productive than younger workers are. Older people vote less frequently than younger people do. Being sick is a necessary part of being old. (Table continues) Table l (continual) 20. People become increasingly religious as they reach old age. 21. Older people have higher rates of criminal victimization than younger people. 22. The majority of older people view themselves as being in poor health. 23. As people age they become more politically conservative. 24. At retirement, most people move to Florida or other Sunbelt states. 25. The majority of older people have income below the poverty level. Source. From Sociology of Aging (p. 5, 6), by D. Harris, 1990. New York, NY: Harper & Raw, Publishers, Inc. Table 2. Who is an Old Person? 1. One who has no interests in people or activity. 2. One who doesn’t associate with others at all. 3. One who segregates oneself from others. 4. One who lives alone. 5. One who sits and does nothing even if he’s mentally and physically healthy. 6. One who slows down in activities. 7. One who doesn’t get out and stays home in chair. Somce. From Analysis of Attitudes and Behavior of Young Adults toward the Aged (p. 78), by D. Petty, 1979. Palo Alto, CA: R & E Research Associates, Inc. Table 3. Stereotype Trait Sets of the Old Produced by Young Adults (Ages 18-22) Nggative Stereotype Traits Positive Stereotype Traits Shrew/Curmudgeon Greedy Golden A ger Active Selfish Adventurous Snobbish Healthy Prejudiced Lively Stubborn Sociable Demanding Courageous Happy Inflexible Health-conscious Complaining Sexual Bitter Future-oriented Ill-tempered Self-accepting Humorless Volunteer Jealous Skilled Nosy Successful Frugal Well-informed Dependent Fragile Well-traveled Tired Wealthy Lonely Interesting Neglected Witty Depressed Alert Sad Capable Frustrated Independent Vulnerable Afraid Determined Worried Productive Victimized Proud Hypochondriac Liberal Wary Perfect Grandparent Intelligent Bored Knowledgeable Sedentag Wise Emotionless Kind Miserly Trustworthy Severely Impaired Hopeless Loving Incompetent Supportive Senile Understanding Incoherent Family-oriented Feeble Generous Sick Fun-loving Slow-moving Happy (Table continues) Table 3. (Continual) Produced by Young Adults (Ages 18-22) Negative Stereotype Traits Positive Stereotype Traits Severely Impaired Slow-thinking John Wayne Conservative Gratefiil Sexless Patriotic Inarticulate Political Poor Retired Recluse Quiet Emotional Timid Mellow Dependent Conservative Forgetfial Old-fashioned Naive Nostalgic Reminiscent Religious Produced by Middle Aged Adults (Ages 35-51) Negative Stereotype Traits Positive Stereotype Traits Severely Impaired Incoherent Liberal Frugal Matriarch/Patriarch Senile Old-fashioned Feeble Liberal Slow-thinking Mellow Inarticulate Wealthy Incompetent Golden A ger Adventurous Despondent Hopeless Future-oriented Hypochondriac Self-accepting Bored Volunteer Wary Curious Depressed Well-informed Sad Fun-loving Afraid Happy Lonely Sociable Mildly Impaired Neglected Witty Tired Productive (Table continues) Table 3. (Continual) Produced by Middle Aged Adults (Age_s 35-51) Negative Stereotype Traits Positive Stereotype Traits Mildly [wired Forgetful Golden A ger Capable Rambling Independent Fragile Lively Slow-moving Active Sick Healthy Dependent Alert Sedentary Health-conscious Victimized Sexual Poor Political Recluse Quiet Successful Timid Skilled Naive Well-traveled Frustrated Perfect Grandparent Loving Worried Trustworthy Shrew/Curmudgeon Complaining Family-oriented Ill-tempered Syportive Bitter Understanding Inflexible Generous Prejudiced Gratefiil Selfish Kind Jealous Courageous Demanding Interesting Stubborn Knowledgeable Nosy Wise Self-centered Greedy Intelligent Miserly John Wayne Conservative Nostalgic Snobbish Reminiscent Emotionless Conservative Humorless Retired Sexless Emotional Determined Tough Patriotic Proud Religious Table 3. (Continual) Produced by Elderly Adults (Ages 60-85; Negative Stereotype Traits Positive Stereotype Traits Severely Impaired Forgetful Golden A ger Interesting Slow-thinking Lively Incompetent Adventurous Rambling Alert Feeble Active Incoherent Happy Inarticulate Fun-loving Senile Sociable Despondent Depressed Witty Hopeless Independent Sick Wise Neglected Intelligent Sad Well-informed Afraid Knowledgeable Victimized Skilled Recluse Poor Productive Timid Successful Sedentary Capable Mildly Impaired Dependent Curious Fragile Volunteer Slow-moving Well-traveled Tired Future-oriented Frustrated Courageous Worried Perfect Grandparent Kind Lonely Loving Emotionless Family-oriented Sexless Generous Self-centered Inflexible Grateful Stubborn Supportive Humorless Understanding Jealous Healthy Miserly Self-accepting Greedy Trustworthy Nosy Activist Political Selfish Sexual 10 (Table continues) Table 3. (Continual) Produced by Elderly Adults (Ages 60-85; Negative Stereotype Traits Positive Stereotype Traits Shrew/Curmudgeon Bored Activist Health-conscious Complaining Liberal Ill-tempered Small Town Neighbor Emotional Bitter Frugal Hypochondriac Old-fashioned Elitist Demanding Quiet Prejudiced Conservative Wary Tough Snobbish John Wayne Nostalgic Conservative Naive Reminiscent Patriotic Proud Determined Wealthy Mellow Religious Retired Source. From “Stereotypes of the Elderly Held by Young, Middle-aged and Elderly Adults,” by M. Hummert, T. Garstka, J. Shaner, & S. Strahm, 1994, Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences. 49, p. 245, 246. ll Impacts of Positive Mood on Stereotyping Processes Positive Mood Affect refers to a whole range of moods and emotions (Monahan, 1995). Positive mood is a mild subjective reaction of generalized pleasant affective state coming from a nonspecific affective event. Examples of positive mood are happiness and benevolence (Monahan, 1995). Positive emotion is an intense and short-lived pleasant affective state, which is induced by a specific affective event (Isen, 1987; Monahan, 1995). Examples of positive emotion are joy, serenity, elation, empathy, compassion, happiness, and exhilaration (Isen, 1987; Niedenthal and Showers, 1991). The difference between mood and emotion is the degree of intensity in each affective state. Mood does not interrupt on-going behavior and capture attention, whereas emotion is a useful attention-gaining device (Stroessner & Mackie, 1992; Bodenhausen, Kramer, & Susser, 1994; Queller, Mackie, & Stroessner, 1996; Petty, Schumann, Richman, & Strathman, 1993; Petty & Cacioppo, 1996; Pechman & Stewart, 1989; Niedenthal and Showers, 1991). Positive mood may result in a change in perceived relatedness of cognitive organization. A large body of research indicates that positive mood can increase integration in cognitive processes (Carnevale & Isen, 1986; Queller, Mackie, & Stroessner, 1996; Stroessner & Mackie, 1992). Integration is inclusive viewing of the self and others, which can be a cue to reduce negative stereotypes of others or influence some of the stereotyping processes. Stereotypes lead to affective reactions to the extent that stimuli fit prior knowledge about individuals (Henwood, Giles, Coupland, & Coupland, 1993). This suggests that happy people have already had a strong potential for 12 positive affective reactions to others. Thus, happy people may react more positively to others and increase integration, which may result in reducing negative stereotypes. In addition, integration is associated with increased sociability and cooperation (Isen, 1987; Carnevale & Isen, 1986). People in a happy mood are more likely to integrate their view of themselves and others, which results in seeing unified goals for both themselves and others. Thus, people in a positive mood tend to be more cooperative and try to obtain more optimal outcomes for both groups (Carnevale & Isen, 1986). Mood Congruency Theory People see more similarity and relatedness between themselves and other people when they are happy compared to other times (Queller, Mackie, & Stroessner, 1996; Stroessner & Mackie, 1992; Carnevale & Isen, 1986). Mood congruency theory explains the linkage of similarly toned material in memory (Bower, 1991; Petty, Gleisher, & Baker, 1991). Based on this theory, positive mood may activate more positive thoughts and make more readily available positive memories and stereotypes. Positive mood may cause more positive stereotypes, simply because positive mood leads to more positive associations with the issue. To combat negative stereotypes, positive mood can be a cue to influence some of the stereotyping processes to create more positive (instead of negative) stereotypes. Integrative Complexity Theory Positive mood also has been found to increase differentiation ability in cognitive process of integration (Harvey, Hunt, & Schroder, 1961). Differentiation ability is the ability to identify distinct dimensions or components of an object. Integrative complexity theory (Harvey, Hunt, & Schroder, 1961) suggests that differentiation ability promotes l3 flexible processing; increased differentiation results in recognition of more dimensions of an object as well as induces greater integration because the larger number of dimensions requires more bases for integration. The ability of positive mood to promote differentiation may elicit keen recognition of the dimensions of an object and lead people to perceive dimensions as more related to each other. Differentiation ability promoted by positive mood may generate inclusive group representations in a social categorization task, and cause people to believe that members of two groups would feel like one super- ordinate group (Isen, 1987). e i n l Mood congruency theory indicates that positive mood promotes integration by clustering attributes together in the linkage of similarly toned material, whereas integrative complexity theory indicates that positive mood promote integration by differentiating the dimensions of each object and perceiving the related dimensions. These theories seem to claim the two contradict integrating processes. However, these contradictories can be explained that an integrating process is built depending on how questions are framed. Mood congruency theory is suggested to support the process of clustering together when questions ask for similarities between members of two groups (Isen, 1987). If happy subjects are asked to identify similarities, then happy subjects find more bases for similarity resulting from mood congruency. On the other hand, integrative complexity theory may support the differentiating process when questions ask for differences between members of two groups. If happy subjects are asked to identify differences, then happy subjects find more bases for difference resulting from integrative complexity. 14 Summary Overall, both mood congruency and integrative complexity theories suggest that positive mood promotes integration. Mood congruency theory indicates that positive mood promotes integration by clustering together in the linkage of similarly toned material. Integrative complexity theory indicates that positive mood promotes integration by differentiating the dimensions of each object and perceiving the related dimensions. The question styles are suggested to build two different integrating processes. Positive mood may promote integration by clustering together when questions ask to identify similarities between members of two groups. Positive mood may promote integration by differentiating when questions ask to identify differences between members of two groups. Integration is inclusive viewing of the self and others, which can be a cue to reduce negative stereotypes or influences some of the stereotyping processes. The present study tested hypotheses based on whether or not positive mood improved integration in cognitive process. Integration was suggested to help break negative stereotypes and lead to more positive stereotypes toward the elderly (Figure 1). There were four research hypotheses. The first hypothesis was that positive mood promoted integration by clustering together (i.e., indicating more similarities) when questions asked to list similarities between members of two groups. The second hypothesis was that positive mood promoted integration by differentiating (i.e., indicating more differences) when questions asked to list differences between members of two groups. The third hypothesis was that positive mood promoted integration. The fourth 15 hypothesis was that positive mood had an influence on negative stereotypes and increased positive stereotypes. l6 Positive Mood l l Similarity Question Style Difference Question Style Indicate More Similarities Indicate More Differences Promote Integration (Indicate more inclusive views of the self and old people) Y Find More Positive Stereotypes & Find Less Negative Stereotypes Figure 1. The hypothesized path model of positive mood in stereotyping processes 17 METHOD Design and Participants Mood and question style were varied in a 2 (Mood: positive vs. neutral) X 2 (Question: similarity vs. difference) between-subjects factorial design. Data was gathered immediately after the manipulation. Participants were120 (48 male, 72 female) undergraduate students at Michigan State University who received course credit in an introductory communication course for participating. Thirty participants were needed per cell for .93 power to detect large effect sizes (f = .40) with one-tailed tests (alpha = .05) (Cohen, 1988). Participants were between ages 18-24. Procedure On arrival, participants received a booklet in which they first completed the manipulation and then completed the survey. Participants were assigned in random alternation to one of four conditions: (1) positive mood—similarity question style, (2) positive mood—difference question style, (3) neutral mood—similarity question style, (4) neutral mood—difference question style. Then, participants were instructed to write an essay (i.e., the mood manipulation) and answer the questionnaire. To increase the likelihood that they would answer questions honestly, participant anonymity was guaranteed. Mood Manipulation Positive mood was induced by asking participants to write a one-page essay describing the happiest moment of their lives (See Appendix A). Positive mood 18 participants were instructed to relive the event in their mind’s eye and to give a vivid report, including their feelings and emotions (for the effectiveness of this type of mood induction, see Bless, Bohner, & Strack, 1990; Bohner & Schwarz, 1993). In the neutral mood condition, participants were asked to write a one-page essay describing their daily routines. Neutral mood participants were instructed to relive the day in their mind’s eye and to give a detailed report, including their actions and practices. Question Style Manipulation Participants in the similarity question style condition were asked to list similarities between the youth and the elderly (See Appendix B). The question was, “Please list as many similarities as possible between you and the elderly.” Participants in the difference question style condition were asked to list differences between the youth and the elderly. The question was, “Please list as many differences as possible between you and the elderly.” This type of question style manipulation has been suggested to yield different responses among participants (Isen, 1987). Measures Integration Participants were asked to rate a seven-point Likert scale indicating their integrative views in each category (See Appendix C). For example, “Please indicate the degree of similarity and/or dis-similarity in physical ability, between you and the elderly,” for 5 integration measures (e. g., physical ability, intelligence, life style, value, and hobby) ranging from Different (l) to Same (7). l9 Ago-rolated Stereotypes Participants were asked to list their views of old age on the immediate posttest. The open-ended question was, “Please list as many words or statements as possible describing the elderly” (See AppendixD). Participants were also asked to rate a seven-point Likert scale expressing their agreement of each age-related stereotypes (53 items for positive stereotypes and 76 items for negative stereotypes) found by Henwood et a1. (1993), Harris (1990), Petty (1979), and Hummert et a1. (1994). To develop a positive stereotype and a negative stereotype scale from these items, a factor analysis was conducted. First factor analysis with varimax rotation was performed through SPSS on the 53 items from the age-related positive stereotypes and the 76 items from the negative stereotypes of 120 students. Principal components extraction was used prior to principal factors extraction to estimate number of factors. The first factor (with factor loadings in excess of .60) for positive stereotypes yielded 23 items and an alpha of .95. The first factor for negative stereotypes yielded 22 items and an alpha of .95. Volunteer Intentions Participants were asked to rate a seven-point Likert scale to express their volunteer intention for helping elderly people (alpha=.95) (See Appendix E). For example, “I would like to do volunteer to help elderly people,” ranging from Strongly Disagree (1) to Strongly Agteo (7). 20 Mood Manipulation Checks Participants were asked to rate a seven-point Likert scale in order to measure their affective state on a series of bipolar adjectives (alpha of .92) (See Appendix A). For example, “Please indicate the extent that you currently feel happy.” The answer ranged from None of This Feeling (l) to A Great Deal of This Feeling (7). Demographic Variables Age, sex, academic major, ethnicity, religion, year in school, and past experience with the elderly were assessed for use as control variables when needed. 21 RESULTS Mood Manipulation Checks Mood manipulation checks were assessed with a t-test. Analysis indicated that mood had been successfully manipulated. Participants who wrote the happiest moment reported their moods as significantly more positive (M=S.55, S_D=l .02) than participants who wrote the daily routine (M=5.02, fl=1.17), t (118)=2.624, p<.05, two-tailed. Question Style Checks Question style checks were tested with a t-test as assessed by a count of number of similarities or differences. A significant effect for question style was observed. Participants in a difference question style condition listed more attributes (M= 6.85, §Q=3.18) than participants in a similarity question style condition (M= 4.90, _SL)=3.20), t (118)=-3.35, p<.005, two-tailed. Mood by Question Style Analysis The effects of mood on finding similarities and finding differences were tested in a 2 (Mood: positive vs. neutral) X 2 (Question: similarity vs. difference) ANOVA. A significant main effect for question style was found, E (3, 116)=11.13, p<.005, n2 =.09. Difference question style participants listed more attributes (M: 6.85, S_D=3. 18) than similarity question style participants (M: 4.90, S_D=3.20). No other significant main effects or interactions were found.1 ‘ The main effect for mood was not significant, E(3, 116)=1.11, p=_n_s. The two-way interaction effect for mood and question style was not significant, E(3, 116)=.02, p=n_s. 22 The results showed that positive mood did not promote integration by clustering together (i.e., indicating more similarities) when questions asked to list similarities between members of two groups. Also, positive mood did not promote integration by differentiating (i.e., indicating more differences) when questions asked to list differences between members of two groups. Thus, hypotheses 1 and 2 were failed. Integration The effects of mood on five integration items were examined with t-tests. Significant effects for mood were found on two of the five integration measures (Table 4). Hypothesis 3 that positive mood promoted integration was partly supported by the integration measures only in the categories of value and hobby. Table 4. The Effects of Mood on Five Integration Items in a Seven-point Likert Scale Positive Mood Neutral Mood t (118) Sig 49:60 2:60 .M SD M SD (l-tailed) Physical ability 1 .53 .89 1.60 .85 -.42 as Intelligence 3.60 1.67 3.72 1.67 -.38 n_s Life Style 1.87 1.20 1.87 1.21 .00 go Value 4.45 1.65 3.80 2.02 1.93 <.05 Hobby 3.02 1.53 2.43 1.35 2.21 <.05 Moodb e in leAn sis The effects of mood by question style on the integration measure were tested in a 2 (Mood: positive vs. neutral) X 2 (Question: similarity vs. difference) ANOVA. 23 Significant main effects for question style were found in the category of intelligence, E (3,116)= 8.24, p<.01, n2 =.07; life style, E (3,116)=3.94, p=.05, n2 =.03; and hobby, E (3,116)=11.41, p<.005, 1*]: =08. Participants in a similarity question style condition viewed the old more inclusively in the category of intelligence (M=4.08, S_D=1 .62) than participants in a difference question style condition (M=3.23, SQ=1.61). Similarity question style participants showed a marginally higher integration in the category of life style M=2.08, _S_12=l .42) than difference question style participants (M=1.65, 52:90). Similarity question style participants also showed a higher integration in the category of hobby M=3.15, SD=1.52) than different question style participants (M=2.30, S_D=l .29). However, while significant effects for question style on the integration measure existed, it should be noted that the means of life style and hobby were lower on scale than other integration items. In other words, even though similarity question style participants had significantly more inclusive views of the old in terms of life style and hobby than difference question style participants, participants in both conditions tended to consider the old different kinds of people in these aspects. A significant main effect for mood was found in the category of hobby, E (3,116)=5.37, p<.05, 1]: =04; and a marginally significant effect for mood was found in the category of value, E (3,116)=3.80, p=.054, n2 =.03. Positive mood participants viewed the old more inclusively in the category of hobby m=3.02, SD=1.53) than neutral mood participants did (M_=2.43, §Q=1.35). Positive mood participants indicated a 24 marginally higher integration in the category of value (M=4.45, S_D=l .65) than neutral mood (M=3.80, S_D=2.02). No other significant main effects or interactions were found.2 Age-related Stereotypes Results from Listing Stereoggpes The effects of mood on positive stereotypes and negative stereotypes were tested with t-tests. Positive and negative stereotypes were assessed by a count of number of indicated adjectives. Examination of the means indicated that participants in a positive mood listed a marginally greater number of positive stereotypes of the old (M=5.47, D=2.67) than participants in a neutral mood (M=4.62, _S_l_)_=3.07), t(118)=1.618, p=.054, one-tailed. 2 The main effect for mood on the physical ability measure was not significant, E(3, 116)=. 18, p=pa. The main effect for question style on the physical ability measure was not significant, E(3, 116)=1.60, p=pa. The two-way interaction effect for mood and question style on the physical ability measure was not significant, F(3, 116)=l .60, p=n_s. The main effect for mood on the intelligence measure was not significant, F(3, 116)=. 16, p=os_. The two-way interaction effect for mood and question style on the intelligence measure was not significant, E(3, 116)=.71, p=g. The main effect for mood on the life style measure was not significant, E(3, 116)=.00, p=ps. The two-way interaction effect for mood and question style on the life style measure was not significant, E(3, 1 16)=.21, p=n_s. The main effect for question style on the value measure was not significant, E(3, 116)=2.40, p=p_s. The two-way interaction effect for mood and question style on the value measure was not significant, E(3, 116)=1.56, p=ps. The two-way interaction effect for mood and question style on the hobby measure, E(3,116)=1.94, p=n_s. 25 Examples of listed positive stereotypes of the old were knowledgeable, brilliant, wise, happy, loving, supportive, caring, generous, kind, and experienced. Examination of the means indicated that neutral mood participants found a greater number of negative stereotypes of the old (M=4.07, S_D=3.03) than positive mood participants (M=3.12, SD=2.99), t (118)=-1.73, p<.05, one-tailed. Examples of listed negative stereotypes were weak, feeble, slow, tired, fragile, senile, sad, sick, frail, and boring. The effects for mood by question style on positive and negative stereotypes were tested in a 2 (Mood: positive vs. neutral) X 2 (Question: similarity vs. difference) AN OVA. A marginally significant main effect for question style on positive stereotypes was found, E (3, 116)=3.81, p=.053, n2 =.03. Participants in a similarity question style condition listed more positive stereotypes of the old M=5.55, _SD=2.66) than participants in a different question style condition (M=4.53, S_D=3.05). No other significant main . . 3 effects or Interactions were found. 3 The main effect for mood on positive stereotypes was not significant, E(3, 116)=2.66, p=ps. The two-way interaction effect for mood and question style on positive stereotypes was not significant, 13(3, 116)=. 12, p=ps. The main effect for mood on negative stereotypes was not significant, E(3, 116)=3.00, p=g. The main effect for question style on negative stereotypes was not significant, E(3, 116)=1.87, p=n_s. The two-way interaction effect for mood and question style on negative stereotypes was not significant, E(3,116)=.41, p=p_s. 26 Resultg from Stermtype Soales The effects for mood by question style on positive and negative stereotypes were tested in a 2 (Mood: positive vs. neutral) X 2 (Question: similarity vs. difference) ANOVA, which were assessed by the agreement measurement scale of positive and negative stereotypes of the old. A significant main effect for question style on the negative stereotypes measure was found, E (3, 108)=4.77, p<.05, n2 =.04. Participants in a different question style condition indicated more negative stereotypes (M=3.64, S_D=.98) than participants in a similarity question style condition M=3.18, @=1.20). No other significant main effects or interactions were found.4 Thus, hypothesis 4, that positive mood had an influence on negative stereotypes and increased positive stereotypes, was partly confirmed. 4 The main effect for mood on the positive stereotypes measure was not significant, 5(3, 108)=3.16, p=ps. The main effect for question style on the positive stereotypes measure was not significant, _E(3, 108)=3.48, p=g. The two-way interaction effect for mood and question style on the positive stereotypes measure was not significant, F(3, 108)=1.11, p=p_s. The main effect for mood on negative stereotypes measures was not significant, E(3, 108)=. 17, p=n_s. The two-way interaction effect for mood and question style on the negative stereotypes measure was not significant, E(3, 108)=.40, p=g. 27 Volunteer Intentions The effects of mood by question style on the intentions measure were tested in a 2 (Mood: positive vs. neutral) X 2 (Question: similarity vs. difference) ANOVA. No significant main effects or interaction effects were observed.5 5 The main effect for mood on the intentions measure was not significant, E(3, 116)=1.33, p=n_s. The main effect for question style on the intentions measure was not significant, E(3, 116)=.84, p=pa. The interaction effect for mood and question style on the intentions measure was not significant, E(3, 116)=.00, p=g. 28 DISSCUSSION The main goal of this study was to determine the effects of positive mood on reducing negative stereotypes of the old. This study showed weak effects of positive mood on stereotypes or stereotyping processes, and the proposed model (see Figure 1) did not fit. Although there were limitations due to a short time period study with one test, the findings in this study seemed to fit neither mood congruency theory nor integrative complexity theory. In contradiction to integrative complexity theory, the findings suggest that a social categorization task may cause an individual to believe that members of two groups are completely different kinds of people. Although integrative complexity theory suggests that increased differentiation induces greater integration because the larger number of dimensions requires more bases for integration, this study implies that increased differentiation could enhance distinction between members of two groups. Question style may perhaps enhance the in-group/out-group distinction, which has a stronger effect on stereotyping processes than mood. This study showed that participants in a similarity question style condition viewed the old more inclusively and reported more positive stereotypes of the old than those who were in a difference question style condition did. On the other hand, difference question style participants viewed the old more negatively (i.e., rating higher in the negative stereotype scale) than similarity question style participants did. 29 In-group/Out-group Bias These findings suggest that question style may have an influence on cognitive process of the in-group/out-group bias. The in-group/out-group bias is a tendency to view in-group members more favorably and derogate out-group members (Brewer, 1979; Coser, 1956; I-Iinkle & Schopler, 1986). A participant in a similarity question style condition may tend to view the old being in the same social group to which a participant belongs (i.e., considering the old in-group members), which results in viewing the old more positively. On the other hand, a participant in a difference question style condition may tend to View the old being in the different group (i.e., considering the old out-group members), which results in viewing the old more negatively. Participants who were in a difference question style condition listed a greater number of attributes of the old than participants who were in a similarity question style condition did. One plausible reason for this finding is that the age of 18 to 24 is suggested as the age group least supportive of elderly entitlement benefits (Silverstein & Parrott, 1997). Thus, participants in this study might have already considered the old out- group members. It is important to note that even though similarity question style participants actually listed a fewer number of attributes than difference question style participants did, a task of listing similarities seemed to have some positive impacts on cognitive process of the in-group/out-group bias. Similarity question style participants viewed the old more inclusively and found more positive stereotypes of the old, even though similarity question style participants listed fewer attributes of the old than difference question style participants did. This may be because people pay more favorable attention to the old just 30 by thinking about similarities between themselves and the old. This favorable attention may have a positive influence on a change in perceived relatedness of cognitive organization, which results in considering the old the in-group members. Implications This study suggests that a task of looking for similarities between members of two groups may facilitate integrative views of themselves and out-group members. This suggestion has many implications to improve the quality of life or the quality of care of elderly people. Reducing social construction of frailty of the old is one aspect of implications of this study. As indicated in the introduction, social construction of frailty of the old is made by subjective views of health providers and family members (Kaufman, 1994). If health providers integrate their views of themselves and the old, which results in considering the old in-group members, then the social construction of frailty could be reduced. Specifically, for example, if all health providers are required to participate in a training program in which they are encouraged to find similarities between themselves and the old before every health examination of the old, then the training program could be a trigger to start reducing the social construction of frailty. This is because the training program to look for similarities between the self and the old may make health providers start seeing the old as people who have lived problems, rather than patients. However, limitations of this research due to the available population must be acknowledged. The age range of participants in this study was from 18 to 24. This is not only the age group least supportive of elderly entitlement benefits (Silverstein & Parrott, 1997), but also the age group having the most simple stereotypes of the old (Hummert, 31 Garstka, Shaner, & Strahm, 1994). Thus, there is a possibility that perhaps participants in this study have never paid careful attention to old people. The task of looking for similarities between the self and the old might have provided the participants an opportunity to pay attention to the old, which have a positive impact on a change in perceived relatedness. If so, this task may have an influence on the category of young adults who have never thought about the aging issue, but not on the category of health providers who have often contacted to the old. Age may be unique as only one social category in which an individual progresses unavoidably from one category (i.e., young) to another (i.e., old) over time. As individuals age, their definitions of the in-group/out-group categories based on age also change. Such changes in the in-group/out-group status generally do not occur in other social dimensions such as race or sex. Thus, while cognitive process of the in-group/out- group bias may operate in our perceptions of those in other age groups, developmental processes may interact to modify those processes. A profitable area for further research will be to examine the effects of question style (i.e., providing a task of looking for similarities or differences between members of two groups) on cognitive process of the in-group/out-group bias. 32 APPENDICES 33 APPENDIX A: Mood Manipulations and Mood Manipulation Checks i iv Mo M i 1 ion Please write a one-page essay describing the happiest moment of your life. Please relive the event in your mind’s eyes and give a vivid report, including your feelings and emotions. BMW Please write a one-page essay describing your daily routine. Please relieve the day in your mind’s eye and give a detailed report, including your actions and practices. Mood Manipulation Checks Please rate your agreement with each of the following statements. Not at All Totally 1. I feel Happy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2. I feel Good. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 3. I feel Benevolent. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 4. I feel Kind. 1 L 3 4 5 6 7 5. I feel Positive. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6. I feel Sad. l a 3 4 5 6 7 7. I feel Bad. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8. I feel Aggy. 1 L 3 4 5 6 7 9. I feel Bored. l 2 3 4 5 6 7 1N U A U! a \l 10. I feel Depressed. l 11. I feel Neutral. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 34 APPENDIX B: Question Style Manipulation Similao'ty Question Style Manipplation Please list as many similarities as possible between you and the elderly. Difforenco Question Stylo Manipplatiop Please list as many differences as possible between you and the elderly. 35 APPENDIX C: Integration Measures Please indicate the degree of similarity and/or dis-similarity, between you and the elderly. Different Same 1. Physioal ability 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2. Intglliggngg 1 Z_é 4 5 6 7 3. Life style 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 4, Yalpg I a 3 4 5 6 7 5. Hobby 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 36 APPENDIX D: Stereotypes Measures er M r Li in Please list as many words or statements as possible describing the elderly. tro esM ure le S nhfinin fH mm 1994 Please circle one answer for each sentence that shows your feeling toward elderly people. Old people are: Strongly Disagree Neutral Strongly Agree 1. Like young children 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2. Playing for sympathy l 2 3 4 5 6 7 3. Wanting to be the center of attention 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 4. Emotionally dependent l 2 3 4 5 6 7 5. Demanding 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6. Slow-thinking 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7. Incompetent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8. Feeble 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9. Incoherent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10. Inarticulate l 2 3 4 5 6 7 11. Senile 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 12. Depressed l 2 3 4 5 6 7 13. Sad l 2 3 4 5 6 7 14. Hopeless 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 15. Afraid 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 16. Neglected l 2 3 4 5 6 7 37 Strongly Disagree Neutral Strongly Agree WV 1 4.4 4 5 j__1 18, Complaining l 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 - r 1 2h} 4 5 6 7 20. Bitter 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 mm 1 J_§ 4 5 6 7 22, Domanding 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 23. Inflexible 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 24. Selfish 1 2L 3 4 5 6 7 25. Jealous l 2 3 4 5 6 7 26. Stpbporn l 2 3 4 5 6 7 27. Nosy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 28. Fragile l 2 _3 4 5 6 7 29. Tired 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 30. Slow-moving l 2 3 4 5 6 7 3 1. Depen_d 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 32. Demanding 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 33. Prejudiced 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 _34. Warv l 2 3 4 5 6 7 35. Snobbish 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Main 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 37. Afrai_d 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 38 Strongly Disagree Neutral Strongly Agree 38. Worried 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 39 Victimized l 2 3 4 5 6 7 40. Hypochondriac 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 41. Bored l 2 3 4 5 6 7 42. Sedentary 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 43. Emotionless 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 44. Miserly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 45. Lively 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 46. Adventurous 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 47. Alert 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 48. Active 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 49. Sociable l 2 3 4 5 6 7 50. Witty 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 51. Independent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 52. Well-informed 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 53. Skille_r_1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 54. Productive 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 55. Successful 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 56. Capable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 57. Vplpnteer l 2 3 4 5 6 7 58. Well-traveled l 2 3 4 5 6 7 59. Futureoriented 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 39 Strongly Disagree Neutral Strongly Agree 60. Fun-loving 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 61. Happy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 62. Curious 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 63. Healthy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 64. Sexual 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 65. Self-accepting 1 2 S 4 5 6 7 66. Health-conscious 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 67. Intoposting l 2 2 4 5 6 7 68. Kind 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 69. Loving 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 70. Family-oriented 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 71, Generoua l 2 3 4 5 6 7 72. Grateful 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 73, Supportiva 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 74. Understanding l 2 3 4 5 6 7 75. TrustLvoghv 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 76. Intemgent l 2 3 4 5 6 7 77. Wipe l 2 3 4 5 6 7 78. Knowledgofirle 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 79. Patriotic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 80. Religious 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 in U A (It ON \I 81. Nostalgic 1 40 Strongly Disagree Neutral Strongly Agree 82. Reminiscent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 83. Retired 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 84. Conservative 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 85. Emotional 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 86. Mellow 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 87. Determined 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 88. Proud 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 89. Political l 2 3 4 5 6 7 90. Sexual l 2 3 4 5 6 7 91. Health-conscioua l 2 3 4 5 6 7 92. Liberal 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 93. Emotional l 2 3 4 5 6 7 94. Frugal 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 95. Old-fashioned 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 96. Quiet 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 97. Congervative l 2 3 4 5 6 7 98. Tough 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Stereotypes Sfllles based on the findings of Harris ( 1990) Please circle one answer for each sentence that shows your views toward elderly people. Strongly Disagree Neutral Strongly Agree 1. All older people are alike. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 41 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. Older people are lonely and are isolated from their families. Older people have more acute illness than do younger people. Retirement is less difficult for women than it is for men. The majority of people entering a nursing home remain there for the rest of their lives. Old people cannot learn. Older people have no interest in or capacity for sexual activity. Older people are more fearful of death than are younger people. The majority of older people are grouchy and cantankerous. Alzheimer’s disease is to be expected with old age. Retirement brings poor health and an early death. Older workers have high accident and absentee rates. Older people prefer to live with their children. The majority of older people are set in their ways, unable to change. Older workers are less productive than younger workers. Older people vote less frequently than younger people. Being sick is a necessary part of being old. People become increasingly religious as they reach old age. Older people have higher rates of criminal victimization than younger people. The majority of older people view themselves as being in poor health. As people age they become more politically conservative. At retirement, most people move to Florida or other Sunbelt states. The majority of older people have income below the poverty level. 42 Stermtypes Measures based on the findings of Pegy ( 1979) Who is an old person? Please circle one answer for each sentence that shows your concept of the old. Strongly Disagree Neutral Strongly Agree 1. One who has no interests in people nor activity. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2. One who doesn’t associate with others at all. 3. One who segregates oneself from others. 4. One who lives alone. 5. One who sits and does nothing even if he’s mentally and physically healthy. 6. One who slows down in activities. 7. One who doesn’t get out and stays home in chair. 43 APPENDIX E: Measures for Volunteer Intentions Please circle one answer for each sentence that shows your volunteer intention for elderly people. Strongly Disagree Neutral Strongly Agree 1. I would like to do volunteer to helgelderly people. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2. I would like to help elderly people. 3. 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