H 3:22:32E:Z:.21:,___I:_:_E;,_::_l:,__ IIIIIIJIIIIII II IIII IIIIIIl IlllllllllllllllHlllllllllllllllllll llllllllllllllll 31293 01789 This is to certify that the dissertation entitled PATTERNS OF MOTIVATIONAL ORIENTATION. OCCUPATIONAL iaonggemncvegeiigng mag? getaways” RETARDATION IN ISRAELI SHELTERED WORKSHOPS presented by LUBA FRIEDMAN has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for 1911.1). 'degmiDSPECIAL EDUCATION [NZ/QM fiajor professor 7 - 5 - 1989 Date MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771 PATTERNS OF MOTIVATIONAL ORIENTATION, OCCUPATIONAL KNOWLEDGE, AND VOCATIONAL INTERESTS AS THEY RELATE TO DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES OF WORKERS WITH MENTAL RETARDATION IN ISRAELI SHELTERED WORKSHOPS BY Luba Friedman A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements -for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Counseling, Educational Psychology and Special Education 1989 \II‘\A1\ (0030736 ABSTRACT PATTERNS OF MOTIVATIONAL ORIENTATION, OCCUPATIONAL KNOWLEDGE, AND VOCATIONAL INTERESTS AS THEY RELATE TO DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES OF WORKERS WITH MENTAL RETARDATION IN ISRAELI SHELTERED WORKSHOPS BY Luba Friedman Since the late 19703 the personal characteristics of f workers with mental retardation have become one of the major concerns in sheltered settings. Research in the field shows that motivational variables can determine whether occupational knowledge or vocational skills ever get a chance to be applied. This research project was a study of the patterns of occupational knowledge, expressed vocational interests, and motivational orientation of workers in sheltered workshops and the relation of these patterns to gender, to a presumed origin of mental retardation (brain damage, Down syndrome, unspecified origin), to the levels of mental functioning, to previous vocational experience, to additional disabling conditions, and to the geographic location of the sheltered workshops. Over a five-month period, data on these variables were collected in five sheltered workshops selected to represent three major cities_and a rural area in Israel. A pilot study was conducted to test the validity and reliability of the Vocational Inventory Questionnaire, one of the two instruments used in the study. This questionnaire assesses occupational knowledge of the subjects and their vocational interests. The sample consisted of 107 workers with mental retardation employed in sheltered workshops. The Motivation to Work Questionnaire was administered to assess subjects' motivational orientation. Analysis of variance, t-tests, and multiple comparisons (Scheffe method) were applied to analyze the subjects' scores on both research instruments. The results indicate that workers in sheltered workshops are distinctly extrinsically oriented and are not interested in the kinds of jobs they are engaged in. Occupational knowledge was found to relate to the gender of the workers, the presumed origin of their mental retardation, and to the levels of their mental functioning. Vocational interests expressed by the workers were found to relate to the presumed origin of mental retardation, to levels of mental functioning, to the presence of emotional disturbance, and to the geographic location of sheltered workshops. It was also found that the geographic location of sheltered workshops is the only variable that was related to the motivational orientation of the workers. The implications of the results for future research, school, and rehabilitation practices are discussed. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am greatly obliged to my teachers - fine professionals and members of my Guidance Committee - Drs. Donald A. Burke (Chairperson), William D. Frey, Lauren J. Harris, and Stephen L. Yelon, for their advice, confidence, and encouragement. I want to especially acknowledge my mentor, colleague, and guiding light 4 Dr. Shunit Reiter. Her dedication to people with special needs inspired me to pursue further knowledge and understanding or special education. I owe a debt to Tanya Fisher, who willingly and enthusiastically assisted my quest for knowledge. My deep gratitude goes to the managers of five Israeli sheltered workshops used in this study - Avi Ben-Ari, Aviva Brian, Arie Haviv, Jacob Hirshenberg, and Danny weitzman. I am deeply endebted to my dear parents Tihon and Eugenia, and my friend and husband Nahum, for their unconditional support and belief in me. Lastly, I am particularly grateful to my wonderful children Talia, Daniel, Arie, and Avner for bravely carrying through a burden of having "a scholar-mom." iv TABLE 0’ CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ix Chapter I. INTRODUCTION Overview of services for people with mental retardation, and a movement towards normalization in the United States and Israel . . . . . . . . . .1 Theories pertaining to the construct of motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 Motivation to work and individuals with mental retardation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 Sheltered employment and its role in - the development of motivation to work . . . . . . .9 Purpose of the study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 Research questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 Operational definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 II. LITERATURE REVIEW The history of research on motivation to work of individuals with mental retardation . . . 25 The concept of intrinsic-extrinsic motivation and its compounds in studies on mental retardation . .28 Motivational orientation of workers with mental retardation in institutionalized and noninstitutionalized settings . . . . . . . . . . 33 Work behavior maintenance issues in the context of sheltered workshops . . . . . . . . . .36 V III. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Target population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47 Sample . . . . . . . . . . .I. . . . . . . . . . 49 Instrumentation and procedure . . . ... . . . . .56 The pilot study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61 Interviewers a. Training of the interviewers of the pilot study . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 b. Training of the interviewers of the actual study . . . . . . . . . . . . .71 Statistical analysis a. Descriptive statistics . . . . . . . . . .73 b. Inferential statistics . . . . . . . . . .73 IV. RESULTS What is the motivational orientation of workers in a sheltered workshop? Is this a job-context (extrinsic) orientation or a job-content (intrinsic) orientation? . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 How much do workers know about the eleven occupational areas tested, and how strong are their interests in these occupations? . . . . . .79 Do female workers and male workers differ in their motivational orientation, occupational knowledge and vocational interests? . . . . . . .81 Do the presumed origins of mental retardation of sheltered workers relate to their motivational orientation, occupational knowledge and vocational interests? . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87 Do subjects at a lower'level of mental functioning and those at a higher level differ in their motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and vocational interests? . . . ,., . 91 vi Are there further differences between workers who have additional disabling conditions, such as epilepsy or emotional disturbance, and those who do not with respect to the variables of motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and vocational interests? . . . . . . . . . . . 100 What role, if any, does previous vocational experience play in regard to the variables of motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and vocational interests? . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Does the geographic locale of a sheltered workshop relate to the variables of motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and vocational interests of workers? . . . . . . . .115 V. SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary of the study a. The problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126 b. Procedures of the research project . . . 128 c. Limitations of the study . . . . . . . . 131 d. Results of the study . . . . . . . . . . 132 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 APPENDICES Appendix A. The geographic locale of four sheltered workshops used in the study . . . . . . . . .162 B. Consent Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 C. Motivation to Work Questionnaire . . . . . . 164 D. Vocational Inventory Questionnaire . . . . . 168 LIST OF REFERENCES 0 O O C O I O O O V O O O O O O O O 17 9 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Conceptual framework of the study . . . . . . . .14 2. Summary of the research design . . . . . . . . . 70 3. Mean occupational knowledge profile of the sample on Occupational Knowledge Inquiry scores 0 O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 104 4. Mean vocational interests profile of the sample on Vocational Interests Inquiry scores 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 105 5. Amount of occupational knowledge of male and female workers without vocational experience . .106 6. Amount of occupational knowledge of male and female workers with vocational experience . . . 107 7. Relative strength of vocational interests expressed by male and female workers without . vocational experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 8. Relative strength of vocational interests expressed by male and female workers with vocational experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 9. Importance of intrinsic motivators for male and female workers without vocational experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111 10. Importance of mental hygiene factors for male and female workers without vocational experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112 11. Importance of intrinsic motivators for male and female workers with vocational experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113 12. Importance of mental hygiene factors for male and female workers with vocational experience 0 e e e e e e e' e e e e e e e e e e e 114 \ viii Table 1. 10. 11. LIST OF TABLES Subjects Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Factors and Factor Loadings on Vocational Interests, Occupational Knowledge, and Motivation Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Rank Order of Motivational Orientation Factors: Mean Scores and Standard “Viations O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O 7 8 Rank Order of Occupational Knowledge and Expressed Vocational Interest by Percentage of Subjects With Complete Answers or With Maximum Number of Times a Given Occupation Was Chosen . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80 Males' and Females' Scores on Occupational Knowledge: Means, Standard Deviations, and Levels of Significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Rank Order of Males' and Females' Scores on Vocational Interests: Means, Standard Deviations, and Levels of Significance . . . . . 84 Males' and Females' on Motivation Factors: Means, Standard Deviations, and Levels of Significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86 Results of ANOVA on VIQ (Knowledge) by Presumed Origin of Mental Retardation . . . . . .88 Results of ANOVA on VIQ (Interests) by Presumed Origin of Mental Retardation . . . . . .89 Mean Scores, Standard Deviations, and Levels of Significance on VIQ (Knowledge) by Level of Mental Functioning . . . . . . . . . 93 Mean Scores, Standard Deviations, and Levels of Significance on VIQ (Interests) by Level of Mental Functioning . . . . . . . . . 95 ix Table 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. Mean Scores, Standard Deviations, and Levels of Significance on MWQ (Intrinsic Motivators) by Level of Mental Functioning . . . 97 Mean Scores, Standard Deviations, and Levels of Significance on MWQ (Mental Hygiene Factors) by Level of Mental Functioning . . . . 99 Mean Scores, Standard Deviations, and T-values on VIQ (Interests) for SS With and Without Emotional Disturbance . . . . .102 Results of ANOVA on VIQ (Interests) by Geographic Locale of Sheltered workahop O O O O I O I O C O O O O O O O O O O O 1 1 6 Results of ANOVA on MWQ by Geographic Locale of Sheltered Workshop . . . . . . . . . .119 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The concepts of normalization, independent living, and community integration of people with disabilities have been and continue to be international in scope. Hardly any discussion can escape the mention of Swedish experience, United States techniques, and so forth. There are significant similarities as well as differen- ces between Israel and the United States. The similarities oinclude a democratic form of government and a mixed social welfare/capitalistic orientation. The differences include historical, political, and economic factors. In spite of these differences, the range of services for the treatment, habilitation, and education of people with mental retarda- tion are quite similar and relatively comprehensive in scope. In both countries these services include: * genetic counseling * developmental screening * preschools and kindergartens * day programs I' therapeutic programs 2 * special classes and schools * vocational training centers * sheltered workshops * group homes and hostels * social clubs * family support services * foster families * parent support and advocacy groups * various "larger" residential programs (e.g.,traditiona1 institutions, communal-style settings, vocational villages) In addition to the concern for ensuring the continuity of services to individuals with mental retardation, both countries are seriously attempting to implement the philoso- phy of normalization (Nirje, 1969: Wolfensberger, 1972). Both countries have a history of serving individuals with mental retardation in relatively large residential institu- tions. In recent years, more fiscal and human resources have been channeled towards a variety of smaller, community— based living and working frameworks. The Service for the Retarded in Israel, as an indepen— dent unit, determines policy and priorities and supervises its own facilities and those public and private facilities that operate under government license. It is also entrusted 3 with the supervision of local, community facilities for persons with mental retardation. The Service provides for the daily needs of individuals with mental retardation and offers them every possible opportunity for growth, both socially and vocationally. It is the policy of the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs that all eligible individuals are entitled to this kind of support and advancement once a diagnosis of mental retarda- tion has been made. Israel, in common with the U.S. and many other count- ries of the world, has developed labor market policies designed to train or retrain individuals with mental retardation in order to facilitate their integration in the -community. Sheltered employment is one example of how these policies are implemented. Although sheltered workshops have existed for more than a century, their greatest growth occurred in the past fifteen to twenty years together with growing controversy over the effectiveness of sheltered settings and their fitness for meeting the needs of indivi- duals with mental retardation. The United States is considered by many countries, including Israel, to be the leader in technology, professionalization, and specializa- tion of services delivered to people with mental retarda- tion. The American experience was used as the model for establishing sheltered employment and training in Israel. Therefore, findings, conclusions, and recommendations 4 generated by Israeli research in the field apply to the American experience to a substantial extent. It is vital to maintain ongoing international collaboration among professionals in order to improve existing service delivery. 111W W In the 1990s, as the concept of "quality of life" emerges, replacing deinstitutionalization and normalization (Schalock, 1988), one should ask people engaged in sheltered employment why they want to work, what kinds of work they would like to do, and what rewards they wish to get from work (Seltzer, 1984). 'The concept of motivation is complex. Its definition is derived from theoretical formulations that . attempt to reason why people do certain things and avoid doing other things. According to Landy and Trumbo (1976), the numerous theories of motivation can be categorized into four general classes, namely: 1. Need Theories - which postulate that there is some underlying need (e.g., for affiliation, survival) responsi- ble for determining ways of behaving: 2. Instrumental Theories - which maintain that the individual chooses to invest energy in situations where some desired rewards can be expected: 5 3. Behavioral Theories - which assert that an individual's behavior is fully determined by his reinforcement history and the contingencies in his present environment: an individual is interested in performing activities associated with rewards: and 4. Balance Theories - which postulate that individuals strive for a "cognitive harmony": if cognitive disharmony occurs, then tensions are created and energy is exerted by individuals to reduce those tensions. WW5 HiIh_H§n§sl_89§§I§e§ign All of the types of theories mentioned above attempt to identify the factors that influence behavior in one's social and work environment. Yet, little has been done with these issues in relation to individuals with mental retardation. In studies that have focused on motivating people with mental retardation, the prime concern has been to evaluate the effectiveness of different reinforcement systems in increasing the productivity of workers with mental retarda- tion (Allyon & Azrin, 1968). Another line of research has been concerned with methods of assessing the vocational skills, work habits, and adjustment to work environments of workers with mental retardation (Rush & Mithaug, 1980: Speake & Whelan, 1985). 6 A third group of studies addressed legislative issues related to employment for individuals with disabilities, labor market dynamics, employer-employee relationships, and employers' attitudes towards workers with mental retardation (Foss & Peterson, 1981: Greenwood & Johnson, 1985). The examination of factors that might motivate workers with various disabilities has received growing attention in the recent past. Several studies with such workers have indicated that they do have consistent and valid vocational interests and inclinations (Becker & Becker, 1983: Whelan & Reiter,1980: Reiter, Friedman, & Molcho, 1985), and they do desire more subtle rewards than money or tokens (Logan, Kisinger, ’ Shelton, & Brown, 1971). Such rewards can be, among other things, an internal affective state (e.g., feelings of competence and self-determination) and should be defined in terms significantly different from those associated with instrumental, balance, or behavioral approaches. Maslow, who is clearly associated with need theories, hypothesized that the basic human needs are arranged in a particular hierarchy starting with the lower physiological needs at the bottom, progressing through intermediate psychological needs, to meta- or self-fulfillment needs at the top (Maslow, 1954). He also contended that until an individual's lower needs are satisfied, excessive amounts of 7 energy are expended in an attempt to satisfy those needs, rendering higher needs less significant and meaningful. Industrial psychology research advanced Maslow's theory further by suggesting that motivation to work is related to these two distinct sets of human needs: that is, lower physiological and higher social needs climaxing in the need for self-fulfillment. Herzberg (1959, 1987) postulated that satisfaction of the lower needs does not produce motivation to work, but rather prevents these so-called mental hygiene or job context factors from becoming a source of dissatisfaction. On the other hand, when a job presents a worker with the opportunity to satisfy higher needs, or, in other words, provides an appropriate job content, then ‘the motivation to work is promoted (Herzberg, 1987: Herzberg- & Hamlin, 1963). Practitioners usually refer to motivation as being composed of two separate and distinct sets of reward systems that people seek, that is, intrinsic and extrinsic (Deci, 1972: Haywood and Switzky, 1985: Lee, Syrnyk, & Hallschmid, 1976). The activation of either of these two systems depends upon how individuals perceive the locus of control of their own behavior (Rotter, 1966).. When people see themselves as being able to determine their own behavior, their work assumes an intrinsic value. In contrast, when they perceive their behavior as being manipulated by outside factors, they are said to be extrinsically motivated (Deci, 1972). 8 It has been shown that the extrinsically motivated nonretarded person, as well as the individual with mental retardation, works less persistently and enthusiastically than do intrinsically motivated individuals who believe that rewards or other reinforcing events result from their behavior or attributes. Research on workers with mental retardation shows that the general model of human motivation to work applies also to their work behavior (Shapira, Cnaan, & Cnaan, 1985) and that the vast majority of individuals with mental retardation fall clearly into the extrinsically motivated category (Haywood and Switzky, 1985). This finding has been explained, at least partially, as a defensive response to repeated failures and negative ' feedback so common in the experience of individuals with disabilities (zigler, 1966: MacMillan, 1970:). Other researchers contend that the shortcomings of the existing service delivery system (e.g.,deficiencies in prevocational and vocational training), as well as a lack of readiness within the labor market to meet the special needs of workers with disabilities, reduce their employment potential and lead these workers to distrust their own abilities and self-realization (Gifford, Rush, Martin, & White, 1984: Greenwood & Johnson, 1985). W In the United States, sheltered workshops were established as federally funded settings for vocational evaluation and training for special needs populations during the 19508. Shortly after, that model of training and employment was adopted in Israel. The workshop has had an ever-changing role in the experience of people with mental retardation since the first such venture for blind persons began near Boston in 1838. Workshops have been long-term placements for persons with low potential for advancement into the competitive sector. Their functions have included evaluation services, training in work skills and adjustment, and assistance to a client in search of a job. The difference between the sheltered and competitive work settings is in the special services available in the workshop (e.g., training, prosthetics) and protective environments within which normative work is performed. Sheltered workshops were intended as transitional training centers to help the individual with mental retardation move into the job market. One key factor in the transition of the individual with mental retardation from the sheltered environment to the community has been successful employment. Research findings. indicated a quite optimistic prognosis for competitive 10 employment for most sheltered workers with mild and moderate mental retardation. However, only about ten percent of sheltered workshop clients are placed in a competitive job each year either in the United States or in Israel (Gottesman, 1983: U.S. Department of Labor, 1977). Many reasons have been proposed for such a situation. Studies on the community adjustment of individuals with mental retardation reveal that their failure to adjust to independent living is related most often to their inability or disinclination to behave in self-regulating ways (Foss & Peterson, 1981). . Most of the sheltered workshops for persons with mental retardation were designed on the assumption that these individuals can work only on simple tasks, that "...they have no growth needs, and their motivation and ability to perform somewhat complicated tasks are limited" (Shapira, Cnaan, & Cnaan, 1985, p.160). Furthermore, it has been pointed out that the typical sheltered workshop staff does not know how to structure its programs to help their trainees find competitive employment (Gold, 1975: Rusch et al., 1983). Typically, total service planning and an Individual Program Plan developed for a workshop client do not include thorough evaluation of the client's inclinations or the extent of his ability to self-regulate. Moreover, the primary training methods and emphasis on overly simplified 11 tasks encourage dependence on sheltered placement. Therefore, development of self-reliance and self- actualization is inhibited, suppressing the intrinsic motivation of the workers. W Three comprehensive surveys -- Greenleigh's study in 1976 and the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare studies in 1977 and 1979 -- concentrated on the role of sheltered workshops in rehabilitation of persons with mental retardation} Although the surveys deal mainly with the structure of a workshop and its efficacy, their sound recommendations call for greater focus upon clients' interests and inclinations as a means of eliminating barriers to motivation. The primary objective of education and rehabilitation of individuals with mental retardation is preparation for successful social and vocational adjustment. The present study was an exploratory investigation into factors that can help to make such adjustment possible. Specifically, the study explored patterns of the motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and vocational interests of the subjects within sheltered workshop settings to determine whether these patterns are related to the subjects' gender, the presumed cause of mental retardation, the level of their mental functioning, the existence of additional disabling 12 conditions, the presence of past working experience, and to the locale of the sheltered workshops. The majority of the Israelis today consider themselves nonreligious: however, there is no lack of concern for spiritual values. The Bible is systematically studied in the schools: it is read on the radio and on TV, and it still exerts a great deal of influence, especially upon family life in such matters as marriage, divorce, and other family concerns. In the rabbinic law called Halakah, a woman does not attain equality with a man, even though she has a dignified status and numerous responsibilities. By comparing male and female patterns of vocational interests, knowledge of various occupations, and motivational orientation, it will be possible to see whether and how - these patterns differ. An attempt has also been made to explore a personality trait referred to as motivational orientation. Particularly, it has been examined in terms of a possible relationship between the sources of incentives that are effective in motivating the trainees' work behavior (i.e., job-content orientation vs. job-context orientation) and the amount of their occupational knowledge and the strength of their vocational interest. Although all persons respond to each kind of incentive over time, it is the relative balance between the two kinds of factors (i.e., how often the individual prefers one factor over another) that renders 13 motivational orientation a measurable trait in the study. It is also hoped that the study will facilitate further research on ways of controlling for and evaluating the contribution of motivation to work in sheltered settings. Vocational rehabilitation is based on a belief in restoring individuals with disability to independence. This study also addresses the importance of independence, that is, exercising choice in job selection as a means for deepening the trainees' involvement in their jobs. Knowing what factors can help in establishing an attitude that leads to success at work, improves self-concept, and encourages the individual to strive for further self-fulfillment will advance the goals of rehabilitation.' The prospects for vocational adjustment rest largely on the development and use of new techniques for training and vocational programs, whether in schools or in sheltered workshops. The study's findings may be used for development of more effective prevocational and vocational programs and better positioning of vocational opportunities. mm Figure 1 presents the conceptual framework of the study. As one can see, the study was designed to examine the factors of motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and vocational interests and their relationships. to demographic variables of 88's gender, presumed origins of 14 mental retardation, level of mental functioning, additional disabling conditions, previous vocational experience, and the geographic locale of sheltered workshop. Gender of the SS Motivational Presumed origin MR Orientation 7 :\\ Level ment. funct. Occupational \\_ Knowledge KW p//f Add.disabl.condts. > l Expressed I ' Vocational a Previous voc.exprnc] Interests _J i l l SW's geograph.locatI Figure 1. Conceptual framework of the study « 8 Relations sought among demographic variables and variables of motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and vocational interest According to the conceptual framework presented in Figure 1, the order of the eight research questions below reflects their grouping into the three areas of interest, that is, the characteristics of motivational orientation of sheltered workers with mental retardation, the patterns of their vocation-related knowledge and interests, and the' relationships among the first two major variables and demographic variables in the study. 15 The main questions addressed by this study are listed as follows: 1. What is the motivational orientation of workers in a sheltered workshop? Is this a job-context (extrinsic) orientation or a job-content (intrinsic) orientation? 2. How much do workers know about the eleven occupational areas tested, and how strong are their interests in these occupations? 3. Do female workers and male workers differ in their motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and vocational interests? 4. Do presumed origins of mental retardation of sheltered workers relate to their motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and vocational interests? 5. Do subjects at a lower level of mental functioning and those at a higher level differ in their motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and vocational interests? 6. Are there further differences between workers who have additional disabling conditions, such as epilepsy or emotional disturbance, and those who do not with respect to the variables of motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and vocational interests? l6 7. What role, if any, does previous vocational experience play in regard to the variables of motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and vocational interests? 8. Does the geographic locale of a sheltered workshop relate to the variables of motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and vocational interests of workers? W In this study, relevant terms are operationally defined as follows: Sheltered workshop (8!). A sheltered workshop is a facility specially designed to serve individuals with MR who have not yet obtained competitive employment. The clients are provided with sheltered employment, vocational assessment and counselling, and training and retraining in vocational skills and work habits with the view towards possible placement into competitive employment. Most of the workers are at moderate and mild levels of mental retardation. Levels of Mental Functioning. For the purposes of' more refined statistical analysis, a functional grouping of the subjects into two levels of mental 17 functioning has been used. That is, the scores of the subjects on the Motivation to Work Questionnaire (MWQ) and on the Vocational Inventory Questionnaire (VIQ) have been regrouped into two alternative groups of scores, namely, scores of the subjects with "higher level of mental functioning” and scores of the subjects with "lower level of mental functioning." Thus, the subjects were categorized into two groups not only on the basis of their IQ and adaptive behavior scores, but also on the basis of the facilities' own evaluation and follow-ups on the subjects' social and work behavior. The criteria for regrouping are as follows: -Higher Level of Mental Functioningxi a) IQ quotient of 45 or higher. b) percentile ranks on any broad-ranged scale of adaptive behavior (e.g., AADM AB Scales, the Vineland Social Maturity Scale) are at the fifteenth percentile or higher for all domains associated with independent functioning, vocational activity, self-directed behaviors, responsibility, and socialization. c) an indication of "sufficient" social and work progress in the facilities' monthly reports. Lower Level of Mental Functioning: a) IQ quotient s 28 to 45. 18 b) percentile ranks on any broad-ranged scale of adaptive behavior are between the tenth and fifteenth percentile for all domains associated with independent functioning, vocational activity, self-directed behaviors, responsibility, and socialization. c) evaluation of the subjects' social and work progress as ”not sufficient” in the facilities' monthly reports. A Brain Damage. The subjects were classified as brain damaged on the basis of documentary evidence of sustained damage to the central nervous system. Down Syndrome. The subjects were so classified on the basis of documentary evidence of chromosomal abnormality, either trisomy 21 or hereditary translocation (rearrangement) of chromosome number 21. Mental Retardation of Unspecified Origin. The subjects were so categorized when their case history and clinical study failed to provide any clear indication as to the presumed cause of mental impairment. Epilepsy. A subject was identified as having epilepsy when there was a diagnosed central nervous . 19 system abnormality supported by clinical EEG and documented evidence of epileptic seizures. Emotional Disturbance. The subjects were categorized as emotionally disturbed when there was: * documentary evidence of the subject's inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships: inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances: * general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression: * tendency to develop physical symptoms in response to fears that are associated with personal.problems. Previous vocational Experience. This was coded when there was documentary evidence of such in the subject's file. Locale. Locale was defined as the sheltered workshop's location in one of three major cities (Jerusalem, Tel-Aviv, Haifa) or a rural area (Kfar- Saba). Occupational Area. Each occupational area in the present study was defined according to the nizegtgzy_gf Qgggna;igng1_11tle§, 4th Edition, 1977, U.S. Department of Labor, Employment 8 Training Administration, U.S.Employment Service. The present study uses eight categories encompassing eleven occupational areas covered by the Vocational Inventory Questionnaire employed in the study and designated VIQ. QISIQQI!_12_DIIIQIQI! mm W W Household 8 Related Work Occupations Clerical 8 Sales Occupations Service Occupations Agricultural, Fishery, Forestry and Related Occupations Machine Trades Occupations Structural Work Occupations Benchwork Occupations Occupational Knowledge. cumming Domestic Work Office Work Industrial Laundry Local Services Patient Care Catering Horticulture 8 Gardening Animal Care Garage Work Building 8 Allied Trades Simple Factory Work This was defined in terms of a score (range = 0-10) obtained by the subjects responding to the Occupational Knowledge Inquiry part (designated OKI) of the Vocational Inventory Questionn- aire. 21 Vocational Interest. This was defined in terms of the relative strength of the interest as reflected by the number of times given occupation was chosen by the subject over an alternative occupation (range = 0-10), while responding to the Vocational Interest Inquiry (designated VII) part of the Vocational Inquiry Questionnaire. Mental Hygiene Factors. These are defined on the basis of Herzberg's model of work motivation (1959) as the job's extrinsic elements, which are related to the context in which work is done (i.e., technical supervision, salary, administrative policy, interpersonal relations, and conditions at work place). A Intrinsic Motivators. These factors are defined on the basis of Herzberg's model of work motivation (1959) as the intrinsic elements of the work itself (i.e., interest in the work done, achievement, recognition, responsibility for the work, and advancement). Motivational Orientation. This refers to a personality trait by which persons may be characterized in terms of the sources of incentives that are effective in motivating their work behavior, whether job-content or job-context oriented. Those who see job-content or intrinsic factors as the most important for them are referred to as intrinsically motivated. 22 Those who tend instead to avoid dissatisfaction by concentrating on ease, safety, convenience, and practicality are referred to as extrinsically or hygiene motivated. Although all persons respond to each kind of incentive over time, it is the relative balance between the two kinds of factor (i.e., the relative number of times the subject demonstrated preference for one factor over another) that constitutes the measurable trait of motivational orientation in the study. Zigler (1966, 1967) has sensitized investigators in the field of mental retardation to research findings showing that motivational and emotional variables ' depress the performance of individuals with mental retardation below a level expected on the basis of their mental age. These variables have also been found to increase the reliance of such individuals on externally mediated patterns of behavior. Rush and Mithaug (1980), in their interpretation of data from the U.S. Department of Labor (1979), asserted that unless the existing vocational training system is modified to include the development of social skills and the individuals' interests and inclinations, most clients in sheltered workshops will be unable to meet the requirements of the competitive labor market and, consequently, will remain dependent upon state 23 welfare. The success of vocational training programs is based on clients gaining working knowledge and skills and developing appropriate attitudes toward work' by using internal motivation. According to Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory, one cannot motivate workers by giving them higher wages, more benefits, or new status symbols. Rather, workers are motivated by their own inherent need to succeed in a challenging task. Since Herzberg's theory has been shown to apply also to individuals with mental retardation, the ultimate challenge of professionals concerned with the education and quality of life of people with disabilities is to find out what factors will empower and enhance these inherent needs. Research questions asked in the present study were aimed at studying factors that are related to vocational and personal adjustment of workers with mental retardation in sheltered settings. Moreover, this study was designed to investigate workers' own perceptions and evaluations of factors that are either extrinsic (mental hygiene factors) or intrinsic (intrinsic motivators) to their work behavior. In particular, three major issues were studied: * The characteristics of the motivational orientation of workers with mental retardation in sheltered settings: 24 * The knowledge and interests of workers with mental retardation with respect to eleven basic occupational areas: and * Whether or not six selected demographic variables (gender, level of mental functioning, presumed origin of mental retardation, additional disabling conditions, previous vocational experience, geographic locale of sheltered workshop) relate to variables of vocational interest, knowledge, and motivational orientation of workers in sheltered workshops. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW The following chapter is divided into four parts concerned with the evolution of the construct of motivation to work in research on mental retardation and, particularly, with investigation of motivational variables in sheltered settings. MW]: 9I_Indixiduale_!ith_uental_netardatien In 1909, in Boston, Parsons published a significant paper called "Choosing a Vocation" that laid the foundation of what was to become the principal orientation of vocational guidance in the first half of the twentieth century (Parsons, 1967). In that paper Parsons pointed out that if individuals can be made more aware of their own abilities and interests, they are more likely to be motivated to work. The research on motivation of individuals with mental retardation can be traced back to the 19308 and the 19408 when this topic became a part of the "diffe- rence versus defect” debate regarding the nature of 26 behavioral differences between people with mental retardation and nonretarded individuals (Lewin, 1936: Clark, 1933: Kounin, 1941). With an accumulation of knowledge on the subject, theorists suggested that the differences in rigid behaviors between nonretarded individuals and individuals with mental retardation of the same mental age may be related to differences in the individuals' behavioral motivation (Zigler, 1966, 1967: MacMillan, 1971), specifically individuals' overreliance on external cues triggered by their learned helplessness (Seligman, 1975). Such overreliance was labeled outerdirectedness (Turnure and Zigler, 1964). Continued researCh in the field and laboratory setting progressed towards better understanding of how a locus of control, a construct derived from social learning theory (Rotter,1954), may be changed from external or extrinsic to more internal or intrinsic (Hackman 8 Oldham, 1976). Eventually, professionals in social sciences and education acknowledged that negative encounters with the environment affect the way intrinsic motivation develops and changes (DeCharms, 1968: Deci, 1975, 1980: Herzberg, 1987). The development of self-reliance and self-regulation became a major goal in special education (Lawrence and Winschel, 1975). 27 Developments in the area of industrial psychology brought up the concept of motivation to work, even though industrial psychologists were concerned primarily with productivity increase and not with enhancing motivation (Allyon 8 Azrin, 1968). Herzberg and his associates developed the two-factor theory of work motivation based on Maslow's need hierarchy. Their seminal study indicated that work satisfiers and dissatisfiers are not the obverse of one another, but rather represent two sets of factors associated with different aspects of work motivation. They postulated that intrinsic motivators are related to work itself, that is, whether an individual is interested in the ' work he is doing, in assuming responsibility for the work, in recognition of his efforts by others, and so on. On the other hand, so-called mental hygiene factors were found to be associated with the context within which given work is performed (Herzberg, Mausner, 8 Snyderman, 1959). That is, if an individual dislikes the manner in which he is assigned to a work- task, if his relationships with supervisors and colleagues are tense and stressful, or if a worker believes that he is underpaid, these factors will-cause overall dissatisfaction and loss of interest in work 28 (Brown, Nietupski,8 Hamre-Nietupski, 1976: Seltzer, 1984: Wolf, 1979). The importance of psychological factors in the relationship of job satisfaction to life satisfaction has been examined and confirmed in the earlier literature regarding both normal and disabled individuals (Holland, 1959). As recent research by Herzberg (1987) reveals, about eighty percent of the factors in satisfying job events come from the intrinsic motivators (i.e., job- content factors). Thus, only about twenty percent of the satisfying job events involve hygiene factors. Herzberg's conclusion is that the way to motivate people to work is to provide opportunities to be involved, to be responsible, and to achieve. Not surprisingly, studies in the field of mental retardation suggest similar conclusions with respect to the population of workers with special needs. During the 19708, Deci advanced a definition of intrinsic-extrinsic reward systems composing the construct of motivation. According to Deci (1972), intrinsically motivated behaviors are behaviors that a person engages in to feel competent and self- 29 regulating. Bandura's concept of self-reinforcement suggests that relatively intrinsically motivated persons have self-monitored reinforcement systems that make them less dependent upon external-reinforcement conditions, whereas relatively extrinsically motivated persons have external-reinforcement systems (Bandura, 1972, 1982). He also contended that self-control, that is, an intrinsic reinforcement condition, is a central motivational factor. Acknowledging that there are exceptions, it is usually the case that mental hygiene factors are perceived by the individuals as being beyond their control and thus are conceptualized as extrinsic motivational factors '(Karp 8 Nickson, 1973). Intrinsic motivators are perceived and conceptualized as factors that can be manipulated by the individual and therefore assume intrinsic motivational value (Herzberg, 1987: Wolf, 1979). It seems that the perception of the cause of certain behaviors rather than the actual cause itself plays a central role in guiding subsequent behavior. When a person is intrinsically motivated, the focus of causality for that behavior is internal, whereas when an individual is extrinsically motivated, the locus of causality is external. 30 In the field of mental retardation, internal and external dimensions of motivation have been studied from several standpoints. MacMillan (1971) pointed out that individuals with mental retardation are more likely to focus on external cues in the belief that such a strategy would provide them with a guide to action. He also argued that males will rely on these cues more heavily than their female counterparts. A support for this position is reflected in the review of research by Mercer and Snell (1977). Zigler (1966, 1967) contended that the outerdirectedness of individuals with mental retardation is not a trait characteristic of mental retardation but rather a reaction to unsuccessful social encounters. Zigler also pointed out that females, in general, display less outerdirectedness than do males. As a trait, outerdirectedness has been found to relate to the amount of social deprivation experienced by the individual (Turnure 8 Zigler, 1964). Cromwell (1963) lent support to the general proposition that the higher expectancy of failure on the part of individuals with mental retardation seems to condition a shift towards greater extrinsic motivation. The motivation-hygiene concept, extended to the field of mental retardation by Haywood (1967), stressed differential orientation toward task-intrinsic or task- 31 extrinsic incentives and revealed stronger extrinsic motivation among individuals with mental retardation. There are indications in research that females tend, in general, to have somewhat stronger intrinsic control of their behavior than do males (Lambert, 1978). Haywood amply demonstrated that Herzberg's motivational model applies to persons with mental retardation. To examine the degree to which intrinsic-extrinsic motivation is relevant for individuals with mental retardation, the Job Characteristics Model was developed by Hackman and Oldham (1975). According to the model, job characteristics such as variety, autonomy, task-significance, and feedback lead to -psychological feelings of experienced meaningfulness of the work and a sense of responsibility for its outcomes. These, in turn, were shown to influence performance and intrinsic motivation. In the Hackman and Oldham model, an assumption is made that the psychological needs of people with mental retardation play a crucial role in shaping their work motivation. Underwood and Hardy (1985) showed that poorer adjusted workers of average intelligence have, in addition to the feelings of not being competent, an external locus of control. The importance of these needs in vocational preparation was strongly advocated by prominent researchers in the field of mental 32 retardation (Brolin, 1976: Brolin 8 Kokaska, 1974: Stodden, Ianakone, 8 Lazar, 1979). A significant role played by personal inclinations and interests in successful work adjustment of individuals with mental retardation has also been addressed (Holland, 1973: Reiter et al., 1985). Studies that focused on what motivates individuals with mental retardation and what is important for them in their work indicated that strong and consistent vocational interests expressed by workers with mental retardation have been associated with a knowledge about job requirements. It also has been associated with greater readiness to work and to persist (Reiter 8 Whelan, 1975: Reiter et al.,1985: Stodden et al., 1979). In a study conducted in a sheltered village in Israel, workers with mental retardation have been found to have growth needs (i.e.,interest in the development of their potential accomplishments) similar to those of nonretarded workers (Shapira et al., 1985). An overemphasis on hygiene factors found in another Israeli study, conducted in an agricultural community for persons with mild and moderate mental retardation, was explained, in part, by the further finding that no relationship existed between the kind of job done by the subjects and their expressed 33 vocational interests (Reiter et al.,1985). In general, studies on intrinsic-extrinsic components of motivation attributed greater extrinsic motivation of people with mental retardation not to mental retardation per se, but to the greater social deprivation experienced by people with mental retardation and their prolonged history of failure. W511 Re a on ' t I H . s!’! !i0 J' 1 5 ll' With the establishment of sheltered workshop training programs in the 19508 and increasing movement toward deinstitutionalization of individuals with .mental retardation, employment-related variables became » centrally important to research in the field. Herzberg and Hamlin (1963) contended that there are individuals who, because of life experiences and training, have learned to react mainly to the hygiene factors of work (i.e., the job's extrinsic elements related to the context in which work is done) and have consequently become hygiene-seekers. This assumption is especially meaningful when one examines a typical life experience of individuals with mental retardation. The academic careers of such individuals are usually a succession of failure experiences (MacMillan, 1971) resulting in an approach designed to avoid 34 failure rather than to achieve success. Numerous studies (Brown et al., 1976: Cromwell, 1963: MacMillan, 1969, 1970: Moss, 1958) point out that persons with mental retardation, especially those who have been institutionalized, have a higher expectancy for failure than do nonretarded people. The research in the field also indicates that personal disposition interferes with the development of self-monitored reinforcement systems and adversely affects the performance of individuals with mental retardation (Switzky & Haywood, 1974). 8 Furthermore, it appears that the desire of the individual with mental retardation to interact (what Zigler, 1966, called the positive reaction tendency) and his wariness to do so (the negative reaction tendency) are both positively related to the amount of social deprivation encountered and impair learning or work performance (Harter, 1967) as well as the ability to establish appropriate social behavior at work (Edgerton 8 Bercovici, 1967). Thus, high expectancy for failure, strong positive-negative reaction tendency, and pronounced extrinsic orientation all appear to characterize individuals with mental .retardation more than nonretarded individuals and those who are or had been institutionalized more than those who had not been institutionalized. 35 Although social scientists agree that institutionalization causes a condition of social deprivation, its impact on the individual is far from clear. While institutionalized individuals with mental retardation act, in general, more rigidly than do noninstitutionalized individuals, these differences have been found to relate to the effects of preinstitutional deprivation (Zigler, 1966). It thus appears that the general motivational effects of institutionalization depend on the preinstitutional history of the individual: under the same condition of institutionalization, some individuals may be more externally oriented while others will be more -intrinsically oriented. ' Haywood and Weaver (1967) found that relatively intrinsically motivated persons with mental retardation, even though institutionalized, would work more vigorously simply for the opportunity to do more work than for other rewards. Those who are relatively extrinsically motivated will work harder for tangible rewards. Moreover, similar results were obtained in normally developing 9- to lZ-year-old intrinsically and extrinsically motivated children (Switzky 8 Haywood, 1974). It has been pointed out, however, that an overdependency on hygiene factors (and especially on 36 supervision and salary) is more characteristic of those who work and live in institutions than of noninstitu- tionalized workers (Shapira et al., 1985).: Ramot et al. (1979) suggested that both hygiene and motivator factors seem to operate as an underlying basis of motivation to work among institutionalized workshop clients. Cohen and Close (1975) reported similar results for noninstitutionalized sheltered workshop workers. W W Because sheltered workshops were established as _ the predominant means for the vocational training that leads to the transition of individuals with mental retardation to competitive employment, their effectiveness in achieving these aims has come under scrutiny by researchers and practitioners. Although important differences exist among workshops, they all have been criticized for not doing enough to assist their workers to enter the open labor market (Whitehead, 1979). Usually, only eight to ten percent of sheltered workshop workers are placed into competitive jobs (U.S. Department of Labor, 1977, 1979). Various reasons such as inappropriate staff «qualifications, poor prevocational and vocational 37 education of trainees, and financial problems were blamed for the situation. Edgerton and Bercovici (1976) argued, however, that the major reason for workers' failure to adjust is their indisposition to behave in self-regulatory ways. It was also shown that the workers who preferred sheltered employment over competitive employment were the ones who relied heavily on external means of mediating their behavior for even basic maintenance needs (Turner, 1983). Studies on personal characteristics of individuals with mental retardation indicated that they differ in their reactions to various situations and their behavior with respect to the presumed origins of their ' mental retardation.) It was demonstrated, for example, that the Down syndrome group differs markedly from both brain damaged and so-called familial-cultural group throughout the whole range of psychophysiological characteristics (Karrer, Nelson, 8 Galbraith, 1979: Smith 8 Wilson, 1973) that determine, among many other things, the ability to adapt and to adjust. Other studies identified emotional control (Foss 8 Peterson, 1981: Balthazar 8 Stevens, 1975) as one of the specific properties that appeared linked to successful vocational and social adjustment. ~ Specifically, unstable temperament and emotional disturbance accounted for a large number of workers 38 with mental retardation being terminated from jobs in the open market (Greenspan 8 Shoultz, 1981). Earlier studies on individuals in sheltered settings were strongly behavioristically oriented. They neglected the issue of maintaining valued work behavior, because it had been presumed that behaviors changed via intervention programs adapt to the natural contingencies of reinforcement and, thus, are maintained and/or transferred to novel situations (Gifford, Rusch, Martin, 8 White, 1984). Today it is widely recognized that maintenance and generalization do not occur automatically and involve much more complex processes (Rusch, Schutz, 8 Heal, 1983). Gifford and his colleagues reviewed a growing body of research on work behavior to examine maintenance issues in the context of sheltered workshops (Gifford, et al., 1984). They contended that the sheltered workshop is an ineffectual model for promoting successful transition from sheltered to competitive environments. They also presented a theoretical framework to unify current findings and additional maintenance strategies that use externally generated cues in conjunction with internally generated cues. One of the most interesting findings of Gifford and his associates was that an external control approach precluded development of self-directed 39 behavior and might fail to promote generalization of the newly acquired response over settings and time. Further research on work behavior of the workers with mental retardation in sheltered environments suggests that any effort to get them to function under conditions of self-regulation will be frustrated until their motivational orientation becomes more task- intrinsic (Karp 8 Nickson, 1973: Shapira, et al., 1985) and their locus of control becomes more internal (Switzky 8 Haywood, 1974). But before one can bring about these changes, more investigation is needed into the patterns of motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and vocational interests of persons with ' mental retardation. Therefore, the present study was designed to explore these patterns in the context of sheltered workshops. The relationships among the constructs of motivational orientation, vocational knowledge, interests, and demographic variables were sought in order to understand more clearly their relevance to the work behavior of individuals with mental retardation. To summarize, a considerable body of research has now accumulated examining the issue of motivation to work and methods of its enhancement. Yet, very little has been done concerning this issue in the context of mental retardation (Haywood, 1967: Shapira et al., 40 1985), while the literature focusing on the motivational orientation of workers is even more scarce (Karp 8 Nickson, 1973). Motivational characteristics of persons with mental retardation have been studied in one of three contexts, namely: in comparison to persons of average intelligence (Switzky 8 Haywood, 1974: Zigler, 1966): in relationship to academic preparation (Harter, 1967: Lawrence 8 Winschel, 1975): or in the impact of institutionalization (Edgerton 8 Bercovici, 1967: Ramot, 1979). Among the most important findings of research in mental retardation are those suggesting that the mechanisms of motivation of individuals with mental retardation are comparable to those of nonretarded people (Cohen 8 Close, 1975: Hackman 8 Oldham, 1975: Haywood, 1967: Ramot et al., 1979). It was shown that the psychological needs and inclinations of people with mental retardation play a significant role in shaping their work behavior (Holland, 1973: Reiter et al., 1985). Research also indicated a considerable impact of environment (e.g., institutionalization, sheltered settings vs. competitive employment) upon motivational forces in this population (Edgerton, 1967: Edgerton 8 Bercovici, 1976: MacMillan, 1971: Mess, 1958: Zigler, 1966). As stated in the first research question, this study examined motivational orientation of workers with 41 mental retardation in sheltered workshop from their own perspective.1 This line of research can be viewed as a logical continuation of all previous investigations relevant to factors facilitating successful integration of people with mental retardation into community. The core of the second research question is patterns of occupational knowledge and vocational interests among workers with mental retardation. This issue is relatively new to the field (Reiter et al., 1985: Seltzer, 1984), especially with regard to sheltered employment (Shapira et al., 1985). Despite an early notion about the importance of the factors of occupational knowledge and vocational interests made by Parsons at the beginning of the century, sheltered workshops were designed with the assumption that their clients have no growth needs or complex interests, and therefore, all they should know are few simple operations such as sorting, simple assembly, collating, and similar tasks (Shapira et al., 1985). Nevertheless, studies that addressed factors motivating the work behavior of people with mental retardation found that vocational interest and inclinations play a significant role in successful vocational adjustment and are related to knowledge and skills possessed by them (Brolin, 1976, 1982: Brolin 8 Kokaska, 1974: Reiter 8 Whelan, 1975). 42 Male-female differences in the ability to adapt and to adjust were pointed out by several researchers in the field (Zigler, 1966: Lambert, 1978: Mercer 8 Snell, 1977), indicating greater internal control over their behavior and fewer dependency on external cues among females. This tendency was found to be similar in both populations -- those with and without mental retardation. Gender differences were also found in preferences expressed by men and women with mental retardation for specific occupations (Reiter et al., 1985). As suggested by the third research question of the study, a systematicexamination of the relationships between ‘ the variables of gender and motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and expressed vocational interest of the sheltered workers was carried out. One can talk definitively about the causative factors of retardation in less than twenty percent of all cases (Baumeister 8 MacLean, 1979). The less severe the retardation, the less likely is the probability of determining its origin. Usually, the population of sheltered remunerated clients is categorized into three broad categories. First, there are those whose mental retardation was caused by chromosomal abnormalities. This group is represented mainly by persons with Down syndrome. Second, there are trainees with clinically 43 confirmed neurological impairments that are a result of one of another form of brain damage. The third and largest group comprises of those individuals whose mental retardation cannot be described in terms of etiology. The characteristics of these three groups were studied primarily in the context of learning strategies and performance (Karrer, Nelson, 8 Galbraith, 1979). The fourth research question of the present study concerned with comparing workers with Down syndrome, brain damage, and workers with mental retardation of unknown origin on their motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and vocational interests. I Historically, classification of persons with mental retardation has been used to serve the purposes of instruction, research, professional organizations, and advocacy groups. As has been emphasized by many researchers (Baumeister 8 MacLean, 1979: Brown et al., 1976: Cromwell, 1963: Edgerton 8 Bercovici, 1976,: Haywood, 1967: Wolfensberger, 1972), a classification by mild, moderate, and severe levels of retardation is relevant only if it leads professionals to develop treatments or specific interventions. The current system used by public Schools and other service delivery systems does not meet the criteria of utility 44 and coverage and, as noted in the present study, also lacks reliability and logical consistency. It is usually the case that as the severity of mental retardation increases, so does the number of problems the individual experiences. It is reflected in impaired learning and work performance (Harter, 1967), weaker ability to adjust socially and vocationally (Edgerton 8 Bercovici, 1967), and more pronounced reliance on external cues (Shapira et al., 1985: Turnure 8 Zigler, 1964). A functional classification of the subjects into two groups (i.e., higher level of mental functioning vs. lower level of mental functioning) was applied in the present study in order to address the problem stated in the fifth research question. Namely, the relationships between the variable of mental functioning and variables of motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and vocational interests were sought. Investigations of specific properties of people with mental retardation have revealed a higher prevalence of additional disabling conditions (e.g., epilepsy, emotional disturbance) within this population ,than within the population of average intelligence (Greenspan & Shoultz, 1981: McMillan, 1977). Although the relationships between specific properties of 45 individuals with mental retardation and their success or failure in community living have been emphasized by researchers (Greenwood 8 Johnson, 1985: Switzky 8 Haywood, 1974), little or no efforts were made to examine whether or not additional disabling conditions relate to motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and vocational interests of workers in sheltered settings. Such an investigation was the core of the sixth research question in the present study. The bulk of the literature on the community adaptation of individuals with mental retardation was cited in this chapter to show that the extent to which they succeeded in their vocational and social sadjustment is a function of many interacting variables inherent in personal characteristics of the individuals, their environments, and the service delivery system (Brolin, 1972: Greenspan 8 Shoultz, 1981). Sheltered workshops have been criticized for not knowing what skills should be trained and for failure to facilitate generalization of acquired knowledge and experience to novel situations (Gifford et al., 1984: Rusch et al., 1983: Shapira et al., 1985: Turner, 1983). While numerous studies focused on the importance of the worker's skills and abilities for his vocational adjustment (Brolin 8 Kokaska, 1974, Greenleigh Associates, 1976: Greenwood 8 Johnson, 1985: 46 U.S. Department of Labor, Sneltgrg§_flgrk§ngp_§§ggy, 1977, 1979), very few studies have discussed the role that previous vocational experience plays in vocational adjustment and the development of work motivation of individuals with mental retardation (Greenspan 8 Shoultz, 1981). The seventh research question of the present study has focused on whether or not previous vocational experience is related to motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and vocational interests of sheltered workers. Two major computerized searches were conducted on Current Index of Journals in Education, Research in Education, on Psychological Abstracts, and Dissertation Abstracts International, ' encompassing all data sources that were published between 1980 and 1989. One of the purposes of the search was to find studies on the effect of the geographic location of a sheltered workshop on motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and vocational interests of the workers, that is, the topic of the eighth research question. No citations on this topic were found. CHAPTER III RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY This chapter focuses on the research design employed in the study and on the methods of execution of the research. Major characteristics of the target population and sampling procedures are described. The structure and content of two measurement devices -- the Vocational Inventory Questionnaire and the Motivation to Work Questionnaire -- as well as the techniques of data recording and the interviewers' training are discussed. The pilot study on a modified version of the Vocational Inventory Questionnaire is described to -illustrate how it led into checks on reliability of the instrument and how results were used in training the interviewers for the actual study. The rationale for the research methodology is also presented. warden Almost forty vocational rehabilitation centers (VRC) for people with mental retardation are now operating in Israel. More than thirty VRCs provide their clients with sheltered settings similar to those adopted in the United States. Specifically, they are similar to those in the Lansing, Michigan, metropolitan 47 48 area as characterized by data on Peckham VOcational Industries collected by the author in 1985. These Lansing, Michigan, programs are designated "sheltered client programs," that is, remunerative workshop programs available for individuals who cannot find competitive employment. SW8 in Israel provide their clients with career education, vocational evaluation, in-service training, and assistance in placement. The jobs in Israeli SWs usually are confined to very simple kinds, such as light industrial work (e.g.,simple assembly, cardboard riveting) and manual work (e.g., gluing labels, attaching tags, sorting plastic items, janitorial work). Other VRCs function mainly as information brokers, centers for "work activity" clients, or for vocational assessment and counseling. The major difference between SW8 in the Lansing metropolitan area and in Israel is in wages. In Israel, SW8 salaries are based upon the number of hours worked, whereas in the Lansing metropolitan area, wages are based on worker productivity and may, therefore, be less than minimum wage. However, the hourly pay rate in Israeli SW8 is quite low (a premium wage is rarely paid) making wages roughly comparable to those in the Lansing metropolitan area. . 49 There were slightly more than 1500 clients in all Israeli VRCs in 1987 (Reiter, 1989, in press) with predominantly mild and moderate levels of mental retardation. Sample Five SW8 were identified for the study to represent three major cities in Israel -- Jerusalem, Tel-Aviv, and Haifa -- and a rural area, Kfar-Saba. These places were selected for the study because their geographical and industrial differences are considerable (Appendix A). Haifa, Israel's major city of the north, is also the country's main port and consists mainly of blue- collar workers. . Tel-Aviv, Israel's largest and most central city, both geographically and culturally, is also Israel's most commercial city. Jerusalem, Israel's major city of the south, is a center of three major religions and is, therefore, a main site of tourism. Kfar-Saba was selected as the rural area because it lies in the center of the country and is characterized by agricultural/horticultural industries. There were several reasons for selecting Haifa's SW8 for both the pilot and actual study: 50 * Local experts at Haifa University offered advice and support for the study. A * The School of Education at Haifa University also provided assistance and convenient use of computer services. * Although getting access to data is usually difficult, especially when data are confidential, having access to these data through a local, well- respected, and well-known professor of special education at Haifa University was helpful and effective. * The principal investigator's personal residence in Haifa also made this city a convenient location for ' both the pilot and the study. At the time of the study, the five SW8 selected had a total of 344 clients. The present study required using subjects' spoken answers on two instruments (see Instrumentation and Procedure), as well as the fullest possible background data. These data included age, case history, assessment of mental functioning, evidence of previous experience, and data on additional disabling conditions associated with mental retardation (epilepsy and emotional disturbance). For these reasons, teams of SW managers,instructors, social~ workers, psychologists, and senior students in special education were asked to identify subjects (SS) who _ 51 would satisfy the requirements of the study. A total of 282 individuals were identified by the SW teams. The subjects were identified by initials and code numbers. Eighteen percent of the individuals rejected by the teams were independently assessed by the author. The ability to understand and to provide a spoken answer was assessed by tryouts of sample items randomly selected from both research instruments. .The availability of demographic data was evaluated by checks of the files through authorized personnel. Interscorer reliability was calculated by dividing the number of agreements by the number of agreements plus disagreements and multiplying the dividend by 100. The result yielded an agreement coefficient of 89. Using a table of random numbers, a sample of 130 subjects (approximately nine percent of the total population in Israeli VRCs) was selected from the total list of 282 individuals. The distribution of these 130 individuals among the five representative SW8 was as follows: Jerusalem - n=32 Tel-Aviv - n-37 Haifa I - n-19 Haifa II - n-22 Kfar-Saba - n-20 52 Next, written consent of the subjects and subjects' parents or legal guardians was obtained (Appendix B). The purpose of the study was explained to all involved, and groups of interviewers were formed (see Interviewers). By a flip of the coin, one of the two SW8 in Haifa was assigned to participate in the pilot study, thus reducing the sample size to 108 SS. Shortly after the sample was formed, one subject left for personal reasons, so the sample size was reduced to 107 SS. The mean age of the SS was 35.66 (range - 15-52). All SS had indexes of performance on WAIS, WISC, Stanford-Binet, or other assessment instruments (some ' unspecified by the referring agency) in their files. The mean IQ was 49 (range - 28-70). All subjects had files containing their categorization into one of three levels: mild, moderate, and severe mental retardation. According to the definition of mental retardation contained in the WW2: tion (Grossman, 1983) the criteria are as follows: a) mild MR IQ - 50-55 to 70 moderate MR IQ - 35-40 to 50-55 severe MR IQ = 20-25 to 35-40: 53 b) lack of development primarily in the cognitive domain as documented by the clinical study: c) impairment of adaptive behavior as evaluated by a standardized adaptive behavior assessment. All individuals referred to a sheltered workshop were assessed on intelligence tests prior to their entry. However, some considerable differences in the assessment procedures were present for the sample. For example, about eighteen percent of the sample were classified as severely mentally retarded on the basis of their recorded lack of development in the cognitive domain and low IQ. However, some of these individuals .scored very differently on various intelligence tests, in at least four cases reaching a difference of nine IQ points: and some of them scored even above 40 on the WAIS or above 38 on the Stanford-Binet. To say the least, all seventeen subjects categorized as ”severely retarded" were mobile, verbal, and to some extent articulate. The difference between the subjects classified as having "moderate" and "mild" mental retardation appeared, at times, even more obscure. In eighty-five percent of the cases, the IQ scores for these two categories overlapped. Only about fifty percent of the subjects in these two categories were assessed by the 54 multidisciplinary teams, and an emphasis upon cultural and/or economic differences has sometimes been too strong. Generally speaking, the entire sample showed somewhat vague differentiation in respect to the three levels of mental retardation. Therefore, the subjects were reclassified into two broader groups of ”lower level of mental functioning" (n-17, 16.8%) and "higher level of mental functioning" (n-84, 83.2%), based upon a combination of IQ, available scores on adaptive behavior, and the facilities' own records on the subjects' work and patterns of social behavior. There were 30 subjects (28%) labeled as "brain damaged," 32 subjects (29.9%) with Down syndrome, and 45 subjects (42.1%) reported as having mental retardation "of unknown or unspecified origin." Twenty-eight percent (n=30) of the SS had some previous vocational experience. A summary of the subjects' characteristics is presented in Table l. 55 Tablel Subject Characteristics Characteristic N Subject's age (in years) 50 - 55 1 45 - 49 3 40 - 44 7 35 - 39 12 30 - 34 13 25 - 29 25 20 - 24 27 15 - 19 19 Gender Males 57 Females 50 Presumed origins of mental retardation Brain damage ~ 30 Down syndrome 27 Mental retardation of unspecified origin 43 Additional disabling conditions** Epilepsy Yes 26 NO 81 Emotional disturbance Yes 23 NO 83 Previous vocational experience YES 3 0 NO 77 * Failure of frequencies to sum to 107 indicates missing data ** No information available on whether epilepsy and emotional disturbance groups were discrete. 56 WWI: Motivation to work Questionnaire. The MWQ (Reiter et al., 1985) is an instrument designed by Reiter and by the author of this study on the basis of Herzberg's motivational model (1959). It includes two sets of motivational factors: First set - factors found to relate to the content of the job and, therefore, designated as "intrinsic motivators”: Interest in the Work Done Advancement Responsibility Recognition Achievement. Second set - factors associated with the job's context and accordingly designated "mental hygiene" factors: Technical Supervision Salary Interpersonal Relationships Conditions at the Work Place Administrative Policy The Hebrew version of the MWQ (Appendix C) .consists of two parts: Part one: Background data such as age, gender, IQ: presumed origin of mental retardation and/or 57 indications of level of mental functioning: presence of additional conditions associated with mental retardation such as epilepsy or emotional disturbance: and presence of vocational experience prior to 8'8 entry to SW. Part two: Fifty sentences, half of which represent job content factors (i.e., intrinsic motivators) and another half representing job context (i.e., mental hygiene) factors. Each statement representing a hygiene factor is paired with a state- ment representing a motivator. Example: a. ”I like doing things where Iiam in charge" (intrinsic motivator): or b. "I like working where they pay well” (mental hygiene factor). The subject is asked to choose between the two statements. Thus, the second part of the MWQ consists of 25 hygiene versus motivator statements presented in a forced-choice format. The scoring system of the MWQ is as follows: 1 - score for the factor chosen by the S 0 - score for the factor not chosen by the S (Range for each factor - 0-5) 58 The Motivation to Work Questionnaire and the Vocational Inventory Questionnaire (which is described next) were administered at each locale on a randomly chosen day of the same week, during an extended lunch hour. Validity and Reliability of the MWQ. The MWQ was applied and standardized in the preliminary investigation on work motivation conducted in a residential village for people with mental retardation in Israel (Reiter, et al., 1985). The degree to which the MWQ measures the construct of motivational orientation, that is, content validity, was evaluated by experts -- a vocational counselor and an assistant professor with a specialty in psychology of mental retardation. They analyzed the MWQ content and the representativeness of the test items and concluded that the content validity of the MWQ is sufficient. In addition, relationships between MWQ results and ratings of absenteeism for the SS in the residential village (i.e., a concurrent validity assessment) were calculated (rho-.32, p5.002). Correlation analysis (Spearman rank order correlation) revealed that the model suggested by Herzberg et al.(1959) of two independent sets of _factors held for the respondents in the study. Highly significant correlations were found among all of the job context and among all job content factors. No 59 positive and significant correlations were found among any of the job context and any of the job content factors (Reiter et al., 1985). Reliability analysis (the Cronbach reliability coefficient) of each subscale of the MWQ indicated moderate to high levels of internal consistency of the items within each subscale for the instrument: Conditions at Work Place alpha - .76 Interest in Work Done alpha a .75 Interpersonal Relationships alpha - .74 Administrative Policy alpha - .73 Salary alpha - .73 Recognition A ' alpha - .71 Responsibility alpha - .71 Achievement alpha 8 .67 Advancement alpha - .66 Supervision alpha - .64 The observers' reliability was evaluated by the degree of agreement among ratings of trained students in special education: prior to that study, they practiced in rating answers to satisfy the criterion of eighty percent agreement. Reliability was calculated for each item by dividing the number of agreements by' agreements plus disagreements and multiplying the dividend by 100. Responses such as "don't know” or "not 60 applicable" were excluded from the calculations to prevent the possibility of an artificially high agreement score. The specially designed vocational Inventory Questionnaire -- VIQ -- is based on the Illustrated Vocational Inventory (Whelan 8 Reiter,1980) and consists of two separate inquiries: A. Occupational Knowledge Inquiry (designated OKI) is aimed at determining an individual's insight into eleven occupational areas and their requirements. The areas are as follows: Domestic Work, Simple Factory Work, Industrial Laundry, Food Preparation and Catering, Horticulture and Gardening, Animal Care, Local Services, Patient Care, Garage Work, Office Work, and Building and Allied Trades. B. vocational Interest Inquiry (designated VII) assesses the relative strength of an individual's interests and preferences for the same eleven occupational areas. The original Illustrated Vocational Inventory -- IVI-- is a reading-free instrument making use of black and white photographs, each depicting one of the occupational areas and presented in a forced choice ,format. Photographs and terminology of the IVI originated in England and have not been standardized in Israel. In 61 order to adopt the IVI for use in this study, the author described each photograph in a few words, using short and simple sentences, local terminology, and local concepts of working conditions (Appendix D). W The pilot study was conducted on the randomly assigned Haifa-II sample (n-22) in the following manner: First, by flip of a coin twenty-two SS were randomly assigned to the two groups: a. photo-group (n-11) to be assessed on the original IVI (black and white photographs) first: b. word-group (nail) to be assessed on VIQ (sentences, questions read aloud) first: Next, following a training session for the interviewers (see Interviewers), both groups were assessed simultaneously in different rooms during an extended lunch hour. Interviews were tape recorded. Finally, following a two-week interval, the groups were switched so that the Vocational Inventory Questionnaire was administered to the photo-group and the original Illustrated Vocational Inventory to the word-group simultaneously during an extended lunch hour. Interviews again were tape recorded. Validity and Reliability of VIQ. All three major types of reliability were covered by the pilot study's 62 test-retest results. To determine stability over time, a t-test (pairs) between the total scores on the Vocational Inventory Questionnaire test-retest scores was applied, and a t-test (pairs) between the total scores on the Illustrated Vocational Inventory test- retest scores was applied. The retest was administered following a two-week interval. Then, correlations were calculated between every item of the IVI and VIQ for both test and retest: findings reflected moderate to high levels of correlations on both parts of the VIQ -- Occupational Knowledge Inquiry (r-.99, ps-.0001) and Vocational Interests Inquiry (r-.67, ps.01). Interscorer reliability was calculated for each item by dividing the number of agreements by agreements plus disagreements and multiplying the dividend by 100. The reliability of scoring yielded a high degree of agreement: it was equal or greater than 80. Construct validity was evaluated by Dr. Reiter - one of the co-authors of the original Illustrated Vocational Inventory -- and by estimating the relationship between the trainees' scores on the Vocational Inventory Questionnaire and their monthly ratings on work-readiness and social behavior at the work site (external criterion). Significant correlations -- r-.79, pS.01 (for the Occupational 63 Knowledge Inquiry part of the VIQ) and r-.69, p$.03 (for the Vocational Interests Inquiry part of the VIQ) -- were found. Thus, in its final form the Vocational Inventory Questionnaire consisted of two separate inquiries -- the Occupational Knowledge Inquiry and Vocational Interests Inquiry administered to the actual sample following training of interviewers. The Vocational Inventory Questionnaire and the Motivation to Work Questionnaire were administered at each locale on a randomly chosen day of the same week during an extended lunch hour. The procedure of administering the VIQ was as follows: In the Occupational Knowledge Inquiry -- OEI -- each S was asked to give as much information as possible about each of the eleven occupational areas by answering five questions. Example: An interviewer prompts the S with the opening statement, "This person usually assists doctors in their work by giving sick people shots," and then asks the following questions: 1. What do you call a person who does this kind of work? 64 2. What do you call a place where such a person works? 3. What other things does she do in her work? 4. What instruments are used in this work? 5. What are the monthly wages for this kind of work? The scoring system for the OKI part of the VIQ is as follows: Complete Answers: For all the questions numbered 1 - a correct designation of the occupational title (e.g.,"nurse") receives two points. For all the questions numbered 2 - a correct designation of the place associated with the given occupation (e.g., "hospital", "clinic", "homes for the elderly") receives two points. For all the questions numbered 3 - two or more duties (e.g., "checks blood pressure," "delivers medicine," etc., excluding duties mentioned in the prompt) receives two points. For all the questions numbered 4 - two or more instruments/tools/machines (e.g.,"thermometers," "bandages," "bed pans," etc., excluding instruments/tools/machines mentioned in the prompt) receive two points. i For all the questions numbered 5 - two ranges of wage estimation are provided in the scoring sheet: if 65 the response falls in the narrower range (which is based on the current wage indexes published by the Israeli Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, 1985), two points are obtained. Incomplete/Partial Answers: For all the questions numbered 1 - an approxima- tion of the occupational title (e.g., "a person who works in the hospital/clinic and helps doctors", etc.) receives 1 point. For all the questions numbered 2 - an‘ approximation of the place associated with the given occupation (e.g.,"a place where sick people are taken care of", etc.) receives 1 point. For all the questions numbered 3 - at least one major duty (e.g., "makes beds," etc., excluding the one mentioned in the prompt) receives 1 point. For all the questions numbered 4 - at least one relevant instrument/tool/machine (e.g., "bed pan", etc., excluding the one mentioned in the prompt) receives 1 point. For all the questions numbered 5 - two ranges of wage estimation are provided on the scoring sheet: if the response falls within the wider range, 1 point is obtained. 66 Incorrect / Irrelevant Answers a 0 (Range for each occupational area a 0-10) In the vocational Interests Inquiry -- VII -- each S was asked to choose between two alternative sentences regarding his/her interest in the given occupation. Example: Interviewer asks whether the subject would rather be: 1. An attendant in an industrial laundry . or 2. A nurse aide in the clinic? The scoring system for the VII part of the VIQ is as follows: 2 points - for the occupation chosen by SS 0 points - for the occupation not chosen (Range for each occupation - 0-10) About a third of the 88 at each locale were assessed independently by the author of the study who scored the subjects' answers simultaneously with the interviewers using the Vocational Inventory Questionnaire. These scores then were compared with those of the interviewers and the degree of agreement was calculated: it reached or exceeded the eighty percent preestablished agreement. 67 A factor analysis (Varimax Rotated factor matrix) was applied to the scores on both the Vocational Inventory Questionnaire and to the Motivation to Work Questionnaire to validate questionnaires. The analysis yielded five independent factors that together accounted for sixty-three percent of the total variance. These factors are presented in Table 2. Table 2 Factors and Factors' Loadings on Vocational Interests, Occupational Knowledge, and Motivation Factors Factor/Item Factor loading 1: Vocational Interests Domestic Work .73 Simple Factory Work .76 Industrial Laundry Work .68 Catering ' .77 Horticulture and Gardening .82 Animal Care .76 Local Services .79 Patient Care .79 Garage Work .79 Office Work .79 Building and Allied Trades .74 2: Intrinsic Motivators vs. Mental Hygiene Factors Interest in Work Done .60 Recognition .62 Achievement .54 Responsibility .55 Advancement . .60 68 Table 2 cont'd Supervision -.76 Salary -.63 Interpersonal Relationships -.79 Conditions at Work Place -.73 Administrative Policy -.79 3: Occupational Knowledge - Building 8 Allied Trades and Garage Work vs. Patient Care, Laundry and Domestic Work Garage Work .85 Building and Allied Trades .79 Patient Care -.45 Industrial Laundry -.42 Domestic Work -.38 4: Occupational Knowledge - Catering Local Services and Simple Factory Work Catering .62 Local Services .58 Simple Factory Work .54 5: Occupational Knowledge - - Office Work vs. Horticulture 8 Gardening and Animal Care Office Work -.62 Horticulture and Gardening .60 Animal Care .44 As can be seen in Table 2, each questionnaire tapped a different and independent set of responses. Vocational Interests (Factor 1) represents an area of high factor loadings. The next area is that of motivational orientation, which is represented by Factor 2 and relates to the two independent areas of motivational variables -- the area of intrinsic motivator factors and that of mental hygiene factors. Finally, three clusters (Factors 3, 4 and 5) relate to 69 Occupational Knowledge. In the first cluster we find that knowledge in the areas of building and garage work is negatively related to knowledge in the areas of patient care, laundry, and domestic work. In the second cluster we find that local services, catering, and factory work represent a related area of knowledge. The third cluster relates to knowledge in horticulture and animal care and is negatively related to knowledge in office work. It is inferred that subjects showed a clear understanding and clear differentiation between the three domains investigated -- knowledge, interests, and motivational orientation. Figure 2 illustrates the dynamics of variables in the study, research questions pertaining to these variables, and methods of their assessment. 70 / Q3 lGender of the SS I Motivational Orientation QS \ [Level ment. funct. I Occupationall [Presumed origin MR]Q4 Knowledge Q6 //l 7 Add.disabl.condts.J VIQ 02 \\‘ Expressed Q7 \- vocational lPrevious voc.exprnc Interests IQB ISW's geograph.locatI Figure 2. Summary of the research design MWQ - Motivation to work Questionnaire VIQ - Vocational Inventory Questionnaire Q1-Q8 - Research questions associated with the indicated variable/variables Intermission: Following the random sampling of the 130 subjects chosen to participate in the pilot study and in the actual study, staff members of the five SW8 and several senior special education students were asked to volunteer for the administration of the VIQ and the MWQ. Five groups of SW managers, social workers, psychologists, vocational counselors, and students of special education were formed. Interviewers of the Pilot Study. A group of four interviewers (one social worker, one vocational 71 counselor, and two special education students) for the Haifa-II subsample, which had been randomly assigned to the pilot study, underwent one-session training. The training session consisted of an introduction to the VIQ instrument and practice in the appropriate scoring of its items by means of simulating possible scoring problems provided by the author of the study. The interviewers were trained up to the point where 80 percent agreement among their scores was reached. As the pilot study progressed, the pre- and post- test interviews were tape recorded to train the interviewers for the actual study. -Interviewers of the Actual Study. Four groups of the interviewers that administered both the VIQ and MWQ instruments underwent two-session training consisting of two sessions: First session - an introduction to the purpose, structure, and scoring techniques of both instruments: Second session - a random sample of tape recorded interviews from the pilot study was scored independently by pairs of interviewers, and the degree of agreement was calculated. A criterion of 80 percent agreement was reached for both VIQ and MWQ scores. During the administration of both instruments to the actual sample (n-107), about thirty randomly 72 assigned 88 were simultaneously and independently assessed by the author of the study on both instruments, and the degree of interscorer agreement was calculated. In all instances, a coefficient of agreement was equal to or exceeded the preestablished criterion of 80 percent. MW Since this study was exploratory and descriptive, its purpose was not to create a new theory or a new model of motivation to work in the mentally retarded, but rather to provide deeper insight into factors that may affect such motivation. Specifically, the aim was to investigate and describe how demographic variables and variables of occupational knowledge and vocational interest relate to the SS preference for either job content (intrinsic motivators) or job context (mental hygiene) factors under conditions of sheltered employment. Therefore, the statistical analyses included descriptive statistics along with standard inferential techniques (e.g., t-tests, Pearson's correlation coefficients, analysis of variance, and multiple .comparison - Scheffé method). 73 Descriptive Statistics. All background data, such as SS's ages, gender, presumed origin of mental retardation, level of mental functioning, additional disabling conditions associated with mental retardation of SS, previous vocational experience, and SWs' locale, as well as SS scores on both research instruments are summarized and presented in the form of cross-tabulation, rank order of means and standard deviations, ranked percents, and histograms. Inferential Statistics A t-test is described as the most suitable .statistical technique when one of the purposes of a study is to detect significant differences between the means of two groups of an interest (Linder, 1979). To compare various combinations of 88's scores on the basis of the background data, the following t-tests were run: * Male vs. female performance on VIQ and MWQ instruments: * SS with previous vocational experience vs. SS without _previous vocational experience - on both instruments: * SS with epilepsy vs. SS without epilepsy - on both instruments: . 74 * SS with emotional disturbance vs. SS without emotional disturbance - both instruments: * SS at lower level of mental functioning vs. SS at higher level of mental functioning - on both instruments Analysis of Variance. The basic concept underlying the analysis of variance (ANOVA) is that of consistency of scores within the sample. If the sample scores fluctuate markedly themselves, the ANOVA then assists in reducing the significance of small differences between the averaged scores of the sample and provides an estimate of the errors due to factors that create systematic differences (Linguist, 1940). Since a statistical analysis of the present data often involved simultaneous investigation of more than two independent variables (e.g., three presumed causes of mental retardation, four locales of the SW8 under the study) in their relationship with the dependent variables of occupational knowledge, vocational interests, and motivational orientation (as expressed by the specified type of individuals), the ANOVA tests appear to answer several research questions of the study in the most appropriate way. 75 Thus, the ANOVA tests were run on the 88's scores on both the VIQ and MWQ instruments for the following subgroups of the subjects: * SS with severe, moderate, and mild mental retardation * Brain damaged SS, SS with Down Syndrome, and SS with unspecified origin of mental retardation * SS from Jerusalem, Tel-Aviv, Haifa, and Kfar- Saba The Scheffe Method is a multiple comparison procedure designed to test the significance of a contrast among several means simultaneously when a significant F-value for these means is obtained on the ‘ANOVA. The Scheffé method was chosen over the Tukey method because the number of the SS in the four locales and in the three subgroups formed according to the levels of mental retardation or to the presumed causes of mental retardation was not equal and that precluded applying the Tukey method. Following the ANOVA on the scores of 88 from the four different locales where significant F-values (p$.005) were obtained for both instruments, it was necessary to investigate which_locales differed. Thus, the Scheffe method for testing the significance of differences among the four locales was performed for 76 the following significant F-values on the Vocational Interests Inquiry part of the VIQ: Horticulture and Gardening F(3,103)=6.23, ps.001 Animal Care F(3,102)=5.77, p5.001 Garage Work F(3,103)-8.56, pS.000 Office Work F(3,103)-11.l, pS.OOO Building and Allied F(3,103)-4.47, p5.005 Trades It was also performed for the following significant F-values on the Motivation to Work Questionnaire: Policy F(3,103)=8.2, pS.005 Salary ~ , F(3,103)-7.05, pS.000 Pearson-Product Moment Correlation Coefficient is the most sensitive measure of correlation for checking internal consistency of research instrumentation. It was applied to determine the validity and reliability of the Vocational Inquiry Questionnaire. It was also used to assess interscorer reliability of the interviewers. This chapter presented a description of the research design and included a rationale for using the techniques of data analysis selected to provide answers to each of the eight research questions. The results are presented in the next chapter. 77 CHAPTER IV RESULTS This chapter is divided into eight sections corresponding to the eight research questions that represent the three major issues addressed in the study. Specifically, the first section examines motivational orientation as it is perceived by the subjects. The second section probes occupational knowledge of the subjects and their expressed vocational interests. Finally, the last six sections reflect on the search for relationships among variables of gender, presumed origin of subjects' mental retardation, level of mental functioning, additional disabling conditions, previous vocational experience, geographic localeof the sheltered workshops and variables of motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and expressed vocational interest. The results are organized in the form of tables and figures to illustrate and highlight them. 1. What is the motivational orientation of workers in a sheltered workshop? Is this a job-context (extrinsic) orientation or a job-content (intrinsic) orientation? 77 78 Since the first research question of the study was to find whether workers in a sheltered workshop are oriented extrinsically (towards job context factors) or intrinsically (toward job content factors), all SS's scores on the Motivation to Work Questionnaire were analyzed in terms of the 88's expressed preference for the former or latter. The results are presented in Table 3. Table 3 Rank Order of Motivational Orientation Factors: Mean Scores and Standard Deviations Hygiene/Intrinsic Motivator ' Mean SD Factor Score. Hygiene Conditions at Work Place 3.20 1.7 Hygiene Salary 3.15 1.6 Hygiene Interpersonal Relationships 2.80 1.3 Hygiene Supervision 2.70 1.6 Hygiene Administrative Policy 2.50 1.6 Motivator Interest in the Work Done 1.80 1.5 Motivator Achievement 1.75 1.5 Motivator Recognition 1.46 1.3 Motivator Advancement 1.45 1.3 Motivator Responsibility 1.30 1.3 * maximum number of the times each factor could be chosen - 5 As can be seen in Table 3, two groups of factors differ markedly in terms of the number of the times each factor was chosen by the SS. Mean scores on job 79 context (mental hygiene factors) are larger than those for factors of job content (intrinsic motivators). Among factors of job context, the factors condition at work place and salary received higher scores, while administrative policy was chosen the least number of the times. The next set of factors, called "intrinsic motivators,” revealed low response on the part of the SS, especially the factors of responsibility, which was chosen the least number of times, and advancement. The intrinsic motivator interest in the work done was chosen more often than the other four intrinsic motivators. 2. How much do workers know about the eleven occupational areas tested, and how strong are their interests in these occupations? The total amount of occupational knowledge and the relative strength of the expressed vocational interest, the focus of the second research question, were assessed through the percentage of complete answers obtained on the Vocational Inventory Questionnaire instrument. The percentage of those who received a .maximum of two points for a complete answer or for the factor chosen is presented in Table 4. 80 Table 4 Rank Order of Occupational Knowledge and Expressed Vocational Interest by Percentage of Subjects With Complete Answers or With Maximum Number of Times a Given Occupation Mas Chosen Percentage of Percentage Occupational SS who gave Vocational of SS who Knowledge a complete Interest chose given answer occ.max.times Patient Care 5.6 Catering 8.4 Office Work 5.6 Horticulture 6.5 Catering 1.9 Patient Care 4.7 Domestic Work .9 Garage Work 4.7 Laundry . .9 Domestic Work 3.7 Garage Work .9 Office work 3.7 Animal Care 0.0 A Animal Care 2.2 Building' 0.0 Laundry 1.9 Factory Work 0.0 Building 1.9 Local Services 0.0 Factory Work .9 Horticulture 0.0 Local Services .9 Note: Maximum score = 10 As can be seen from Table 4 the occupational areas of patient care and office work were areas of greater knowledge (5.6 percent of the SS gave a complete answer), while occupations related to food preparation and catering and horticulture and gardening were of most interest for the SS (8.4 percent and 6.5 percent of the SS, respectively, chose these occupations the maximum number of times). 81 3. Do female workers and male workers differ in their motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and vocational interests? The third research question concerned possible sex differences in the amount of occupational knowledge, in relative strength of vocational interests, and in motivational orientation of the SS. Males and females in the sample were assessed on both the Vocational Inventory Questionnaire and Motivation to Work Questionnaire with respect to their background data, such as the presumed origin of their mental retardation, levels of their mental functioning, additional conditions associated with mental .retardation (epilepsy, emotional disturbance), previous vocational experience, and the SW's geographic locale. The results of a t-test, that is, means, standard deviations, and levels of significance of males' and females' ranked scores on the Occupational Knowledge Inquiry, are presented in Table 5. 82 Table 5 Males'and Females' Scores on Occupational Knowledge: Means, Standard Deviations, Levels of Significance Occupational The amount of area occupational knowledge Male(n-57) Female(n=50) Catering i 5.2 6.2 SD 2.3 2.0 Office Work f 5.1 6.2** SD 2.4 2.1 Garage Work 2 5.0 2.5*** SD 2.6 2.1 Building 2 4.7 2.9*** SD 2.0 1.4 Factory Work 2 4.7 4.9 SD 1.7 1.6 Patient Care 2 4.4 6.0*** SD 2.9 2.9 Horticulture - R 4.5 5.0 SD 1.8 1.8 Local Services 2 4.4 4.2 SD 1.9 1.5 Laundry x 4.3 5.9*** SD 2.0 2.0 Domestic Work x 4.1 5.1** SD 2.2 1.7 Animal Care 2 3.2 3.0 SD 2.2 2.3 'Note: Maximum score - 10 ** ps.01 *** p$.001 83 A t-test of the males' and females' scores revealed better knowledge among females about office work, t(105) = -2.4, ps.01, patient care, t(105) = -2.8, pS.OOl, laundry, t(105) a -3.8, pS.OOl, pS.Ol, and domestic work, t(105) = -2.6 ps.01. Males showed greater variability in their scores. They demonstrated better knowledge in occupations related to garage work, t(105) - 5.5, p5.001, and building 8 allied trades, t(105) = 5.5, p$.001. To determine expressed vocational interest of male and female workers, SS were assessed on the Vocational Interest Inquiry part of the Vocational Inventory Questionnaire. The rank order of scores obtained by males and females is presented in Table 6. 84 Table 6 Rank Order of Males'and Females' Scores on vocational Interests: Means, Standard Deviations, Levels of Significance Occupational Expressed Vocational Interests area Male(n-57) I Female(n=50) p Catering 2 6.0 6.0 .84 SD 2.0 3.0 Patient Care 2 6.0 6.0 .56 SD 2.0 3.0 Horticulture 2 6.0 5.5 .70 SD 3.0 3.0 Garage Work 2 5.0 4.0 .03 SD 3.5 3.0 Domestic Work 2 4.6 6.0 .04 SD 2.5 3.0 -Laundry x 4.2 5.0' .24 SD 3.0 3.0 Animal Care 2 4.2 4.2 .99 SD 3.0 3.4 Local Services R 4.1 4.0 .60 SD 3.0 3.0 Office Work 2 3.8 4.0 .70 SD 3.0 3.0 Building and R 3.4 3.0 .20 Allied Trades SD 3.0 3.0 Factory Work 2 3.3 3.6 .58 SD 2.5 3.0 Note: Maximum score = 10 pS.Ol 85 The t-test revealed no significant sex differences in the expressed vocational interests of males and females. In order to test whether female and male workers differ in their motivational orientation, a t-test was performed on their scores on the Motivation to Work Questionnaire. The results of the test are presented in Table 7. 86 Table 7 Males'and Females' Scores on Motivational Factors: Means, Standard Deviations, and Levels of Significance Motivator/Hygiene Male Female p Factor (n=57) (n-SO) Interest in x 1.2 1.8 .06 Work Done SD 1.6 1.6 Recognition i 1.4 1.6 .44 SD 1.6 1.5 Achievement x 1.4 1.5 .70 SD 1.5 1.4 Responsibility 2 1.1 1.2 .60 SD 1.3 1.6 Advancement x 1.2 1.3 .90 SD 1.4 1.5 - SD 1.6 ' 1.6 Salary 2 3.7 3.2 .14 SD 1.7 1.5 Interpersonal x 3.4 3.0 .22 Relationships SD 1.7 1.6 Conditions at 2 3.4 3.6 .75 Work Place SD 1.8 1.6 Administrative 2 3.2 2.7 .16 Policy SD 2.2 1.7 Note: Maximum score a 5 for each factor ps.01 Results of the t-test showed no significant differences between males and females in their preference for motivators and hygiene factors. 87 4. Do the presumed origins of mental retardation of sheltered workers relate to their motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and vocational interests? The focus of the fourth research question was on the relationships between a presumed origin of mental retardation, that is, brain damaged, Down syndrome, or unspecified/unknown origin, and motivational orientation, knowledge of different occupations, and vocational interest of the subjects. To determine these relationships, an analysis of variance was performed on scores of both instruments for each group of subjects. The results of the analysis of variance (ANOVA) performed on the Vocational Inventory Questionnaire, specifically on the Occupational Knowledge Inquiry part of the Questionnaire (OKI), are reported in Table 8. 88 Table 8 Results of ANOVA on VIQ (Knowledge) by Presumed Origin of Mental Retardation §QBI2§ 91:1 §BE§_21_§§H§I§§ MQSD_§922£§ E Patient Care * Between 2 110.3 55.2 6.4 Within 102 873.9 8.6 Total 104 984.2 9.5 *ps.01 The only F-value to indicate significance at the 1 percent level (F 8 6.44, pS.01) was patient care, so there are systematic relationships between the amount of occupational knowledge demonstrated by the SS in the area of patient care and the presumed origin of mental retardation (brain damage, Down syndrome, or unspecified/unknown origin). Mean scores on occupations related to patient care were 6.5(SD=2.25) for the subjects with mental retardation of unknown/unspecified origin, 5.4(SD=2.99) for those diagnosed as having brain damage, and 3.6(SD=3.3) for the subjects with Down syndrome. No significant relationships were found between the presumed origin of mental retardation and the amount of occupational knowledge in office work, catering, domestic work, laundry, garage work, animal care, building, simple factory work, local services, and horticulture. To find whether or not subjects with Down syndrome, brain damage, and mental retardation of 89 unspecified/unknown origins differed in their expressed vocational interests, ANOVA was performed on their scores on the Vocational Interests Inquiry part of the Vocational Inventory Questionnaire. The results are presented in Table 9. Results of ANOVA on VIQ (Interests) by lel. 9 Presumed Origin of Mental Retardation $23222 Horticulture Between Within Total Patient Care Between Within Total Office Work Between Within Total Building Between Within Total Q11; Sums_of_§guares HEAD—592923 102 104 102 104 102 104 102 104 116.3 766.4 882.6 64.7 617.4 682.1 143.6 866.6 1010.2 89.5 788.4 878.0 \DmH e e e \IUIQ ”‘3‘ e e e 9"” ,* pS.Ol 90 The F-value indicates significance at the less than 1 percent level, so there are systematic relationships between the level of vocational interest as expressed by the 88's scores on Vocational Interest Inquiry part of the Vocational Inventory Questionnaire (in horticulture, patient care, office work, building) and presumed origin of mental retardation. Mean scores on vocational interest expressed in occupations related to horticulture were 6.5(SD-2.3) for the subjects with unknown/unspecified origin of mental retardation, 6.0(SD-2.8) for the group with brain damage, and 3.6(SD-3.4) for the group with Down syndrome. A Mean scores on vocational interest expressed in occupations related to patient care were 6.2(SD-2.5) for the subjects with unknown/unspecified origin of mental retardation, 6.5(SD=2.2) for the group with brain damage, and 4.5(SD-2.6) for the group with Down syndrome. 5 Mean scores on vocational interest expressed in occupations related to office work were 4.9(SD-2.9) for the subjects with unknown/unspecified origin of mental retardation, 4.6(SD=2.1) for the group with brain damage, and 2.4(SD:2.7) for the group with Down syndrome. 91 Mean scores on vocational interest expressed in occupations related to building were 3.7(SD=2.9) for the subjects with unknown/unspecified origin of mental retardation, 3.1(SD-2.9) for the group with brain damage, and 1.5(SD-2.3) for the group with Down syndrome. No significant relationships were found between vocational interest in catering, garage work, domestic work, laundry, animal care, local services, factory work and presumed origin of mental retardation. ANOVA performed on scores of the three groups (i.e., brain damaged, Down syndrome, and . unknown/unspecified origin) on the MWQ failed to detect any significant relationship between the motivational orientation of the SS and the presumed origin of mental ‘ retardation. 5. Do subjects at a lower level of mental. functioning and those at a higher level differ in their motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and vocational interest? The fifth question was concerned with whether the impairment of the SS's mental functioning was related to their motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and vocational interests. ANOVA performed on Vocational Inventory Questionnaire scores of the three groups formed by using the initial categories 92 contained in the 88's files (i.e., mild, moderate, and severe mental retardation) failed to detect significance at the 1 percent level. Following the analysis of the 88's files, it was concluded that the classification into these three groups was not substantiated enough by the data contained in the files (see Research Design and Methodology). Therefore, the SS's scores were regrouped into the two broader categories of higher and lower levels of mental functioning in order to refine the analysis of the scores. Table 10 reports the results of a t-test on the Occupational Knowledge Inquiry part of VIQ that was performed on the scores of SS regrouped into groups of "lower" and "higher" levels of mental functioning (on the basis of a combination of IQ scores, measures of adaptive behavior, and the facilities' monthly evaluation records). 93 Table 10 Mean Scores, Standard Deviations, and Levels of Significance on VIQ (Knowledge) by Level of Mental Functioning Occupational Lower level of Higher level of area mental funct. mental function. p (n=17) (n=84) Domestic x 4.5 4.7 .81 Work SD 2.3 2.1 Factory Work 2 4.2 5.0 .08 SD 1.6 1.8 Laundry R 5.0 5.2 .78 SD 2.4 2.2 Catering 2 5.5 5.8 .62 SD 2.4 2.3 Horticulture x 4.4 4.9 .42 SD 2.3 1.8 Animal Care 2 1.9 3.5 .004. SD 1x8 2.3 Local 2 3.6 4.5 .03 Services SD 1.5 1.8 Patient Care 2 5.6 5.1 .50 SD 3.0 3.1 Garage Work 8 3.4 3.9 .47 SD 2.6 2.7 Office Work x 4.6 5.8 .03 SD 1.9 2.5 Building 2 3.2 4.0 .16 SD 2.1 2.0 Note: Maximum score = 10 * pS.01 94 As seen in Table 10, there is a statistically significant difference between the SS at the lower level of mental functioning and those at the higher level of mental functioning in how much they know about animal care (ps.004), and no difference was found for the occupational areas of domestic work, factory work, laundry, catering, horticulture, local services, patient care, garage work, office work, and building and allied trades. Additionally, this research question was concerned with whether or not these two groups, that is, subjects at the higher level of mental functioning and subjects at the lower level of mental functioning, differ in Atheir vocational interests. A t-test on the Vocational Interest Inquiry scores revealed the results reported in Table 11. 95 Table 11 Mean Scores, Standart Deviations, and Levels of Significance on VIQ (Interests) by Level of Mental Functioning Occupational Lower level of Higher level of p area mental funct. ment.function. (n=17) (n=84) Domestic Work 2 4.0 5.4 .08 so 2.8 2.6 Factory Work 2 1.6 3.8 .006' so 2.6 2.7 Laundry x 3.3 4.7 .07 so 2.8 2.7 Catering i 4.0 6.2 .013* so 3.0 2.3 Horticulture x 3.3 6.1 .001* so 2.9 2.7 Animal Care x 2.0 4.6 .005' so 3.1 2.8 Local ‘2 2.1 4.3 .012’ Services SD 3.0 2.7 Patient Care 2 4.1 6.3 .004* so 2.6 2.4 Garage Work x 2.1 4.8 .001. so 2.6 2.9 Office Work 2 1.6 4.4 .001' so 2.6 3.0 Building 2 1.4 3.3 .013' so 2.6 2.8 Note: Maximum score a 10 * pS.01 96 As one can see in Table 11, there is a significant difference in the strength of the expressed vocational interest between low functioning SS and SS at the higher level of mental functioning. This latter group scored significantly higher for all occupations, except for the areas of domestic work and laundry. Finally, this research question dealt with possible relationships between motivational orientation and two levels of mental functioning, that is, higher level of mental functioning and lower level of mental functioning. When ANOVA was performed on the Motivation to Work .Questionnaire scores of the SS categorized initially by three levels of retardation, the results indicated systematic relationships between the motivational orientation of the SS and the degree to which they are mentally impaired. However, these results obviously were artifacts of the lack of reliability and consistency in classifying these subjects. As stated in the section on Research Design and Methodology, there were several objections to the manner in which the SS were divided into three groups by the severity of mental retardation (listed as having mild, moderate, or severe retardation in their files). Serious flaws such as unsatisfactory classification 97 criteria and an overlap among ”mild," "moderate," and "severely retarded" rendered post hoc comparisons of ANOVA results impossible for meaningful interpretation. Therefore, a t-test was performed on the same scores on the Motivation to Work Questionnaire when they were regrouped into the categories of higher mental functioning and lower mental functioning (a rationale for the regrouping and the criteria were presented in Chapter III). The results of the t-test are reported in Table 12. Table 12 Mean Scores, Standard Deviations,and Levels of Significance on MWQ (Intrinsic Motivators) by Level of Mental Functioning Intrinsic Lower level of Higher level Motivator mental funct. of mental p functioning (n=17) (n-84) Interest in R 1.9 1.4 .24 Work Done SD 1.8 1.6 Recognition x 2.2 1.3 .035 SD 1.6 1.5 Achievement x 1.5 1.4 .75 SD 1.3 1.5 Responsibility 2 1.7 1.0 .10 SD 1.6 ' 1.4 Advancement R 1.8 1.1 .16 SD 1.8 1e3 ‘ Note: Maximum score = 5 pS.01 98 Since the present study utilized a very low probability for deriving wrong conclusions (p$.01), one can see that the t-test concerning scores on motivators fails to detect significant differences in how both groups value them. However, by applying a criterion of significance at the 5 percent level, a statistically significant difference indicated by the ANOVA (for the factor of recognition) can be noted. That is, the S8 at the lower level of mental functioning valued recognition of their work much more than did those at the higher level of mental functioning (pS.04). However, even with a criterion level of 5 percent, there were no significant differences between the two 'groups with respect to the factors interest in the work done, achievement, responsibility, and advancement. The results of a t-test on mental hygiene factors for the same two categories, that is, subjects at the higher level of mental functioning and subjects at the lower level of mental functioning, are reported in Table 13. 99 Table 13 Mean Scores, Standard Deviations, and Levels of Significance on MWQ (Mental Hygiene Factors) by Level of Mental Functioning Mental Hygiene Lower level of Higher level factor mental funct. of mental functioning (n=17) (n=84) Supervision R 1.9 3.5* SD 1.6 1.5 Salary 2 2.8 3.5 SD 1.7 1.6 Interpersonal X 2.2 3.5. Relationships SD 1.7 1.6 Conditions x 2.5 3.7. at Work SD 1.8 1.6 Administrative ‘2 "1.6 3.3. "Policy SD 1.6 1.6 Note: Maximum score = 5 for each factor * pS.01 As shown in Table 13, with the exception of the factor of salary that appears to be equally important for both groups, "higher" SS scored significantly higher than ”lower" SS for all factors related to a job's context (ps.01). 6. Are there further differences between workers who have additional disabling conditions such as epilepsy or emotional disturbance, and those who do not 100 with respect to the variables of motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and vocational interests? The sixth research question was concerned with the relationship between additional disabling conditions associated with mental retardation, that is, epilepsy or emotional disturbance, and motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and expressed vocational interest. T-tests were performed on the 88's scores on both the Vocational Inventory Questionnaire and the Motivation to Work Questionnaire. No statistically significant differences between the SS with epilepsy and SS without epilepsy were found. I Another additional condition associated with mental retardation in the study was emotional disturbance. The t-test on the 88's scores for the Occupational Knowledge Inquiry part of the Vocational Inventory Questionnaire failed to detect any significant difference in the amount of occupational knowledge possessed by the SS with emotional disturbance as compared to that of the SS without emotional disturbance. However, the results of a t-test on the Vocational Interest Inventory for the same two groups revealed a statistically significant difference (ps.002) in the relative strength of vocational interest for the . 101 occupations related to building and allied tradea. There were no significant differences found for the occupations related to domestic work, simple factory work, industrial laundry, catering, horticulture and gardening, animal care, local services, patient care, garage work, and office work. Table 14 reports these results as means, standard deviations, and t-values of scores obtained on the Vocational Interest Inquiry part of the Vocational Inventory Questionnaire. 102 Table 14 Mean Scores, Standard Deviations, T-Values on VIQ (Interests) for SS with and without Emotional Disturbance Scores of SS Scores of SS Occupational w/out emotnl with emotnl. t area disturbance disturbance (n-83) (n=23) Domestic Work 2 5.2 4.9 .61 SD 2.7 2.6 Factory Work 2 3.5 3.3 .31 SD 2.8 2.7 Industrial 2 4.6 4.4 .33 Laundry SD 2.7 2.7 Catering 2 5.8 5.9 -.10 SD 2.5 2.4 ' Horticulture x 5.8 5.2 .79 and Gardening SD 2.8 2.9 Animal Care 2 4.1 4.3 -.28 SD 3.0 3.1 Local Services 2 3.9 4.0 -.13 SD 2.8 2.9 Patient Care 2 5.8 6.0 -.39 SD 2.7 2.1 Garage Work f 4.4 4.4 .08 SD 3.1 3.0 Office Work 2 4.1 3.4 1.07 SD 3.2 2.6 Building and x 3.4 1.7 3.26' Allied Trades SD 2.0 2.0 Note: Maximum score * pS.01 ll 5..- O 103 As shown in Table 14 the SS without emotional disturbance expressed significantly higher interest in occupations related to building and allied trades than did the SS with emotional disturbance. The t-test on the MWQ revealed no significant differences between the 88 with emotional disturbance and the SS without emotional disturbance regarding their preference for job content or job context factors. 7. What role, if any, does previous vocational experience play in regard to the variables of, motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and vocational interests? The seventh question of the study addressed the issue of previous vocational experience and its relation to 88's motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and relative strength of their vocational interest. The profiles of the 88's occupational knowledge and expressed vocational interests are presented in figures 3 and 4. In these histograms the x-axis represents eleven occupational areas (Domestic Work, Factory Work, Industrial Laundry, Catering and Food Preparation, Horticulture and Gardening, Animal 104 Care, Local Services, Patient Care, Garage Work, Office Work, Building and Allied Trades) while the y-axis represents the mean scores (range - 0 to 10) of the SS on the two parts of the VIQ. sample is presented in Figure 3. onoou =38}!le HXO A mean occupational knowledge profile of the 10'- 9._.. 8—’ 7.4 D No vocational experience Previous vocational experience 5-‘~ 4— 3— 2—4 L__ \\\\\\\ ‘ \\\\\\ K\\\\\ \ \\\\\\\\‘l DW FW IL C&F H&G AC LS PC cw ow o'er occupational area Figure 3. Mean occupational knowledge profile of the sample on Occupational Knowledge Inquiry scores DW=Domestic Work FW=Factory Work ILFIndustrial Laundry C8F=Catering and Food Preparation H8G=Horticulture and Gardening AC=Animal Care LSaLocal Services Pc-Patient Care GWSGarage Work OF-Office Work B8T-Building and Allied Trades A t-test performed for these two groups failed to detect any significant differences at the 1 percent level. 105 Profiles of the SS's vocational interests are presented in Figure 4. D No vocational experience Previous vocational experience :IDCDB l 'r .f I m\u\\\\\\\\‘l \\\\\\\\\uw E DW FW IL C8F H8G AC LS PC GW -OW B8T occupational area Hh4< OPIOCIO Figure 4. Mean vocational interests profile of the sample on Vocational Interests Inquiry scores DW=Domestic Work AC=Animal Care FW=Factory Work LS=Local Services ILaIndustrial Laundry PC=Patient Care C8F=Catering and Food GW=Garage Work Preparation OF=Office Work H8G=Horticulture and B8T=Building and Gardening Allied Trades A t-test performed for the groups with and without previous vocational experience on their expressed vocational interests failed to detect significance at the 1 percent level. The profiles of occupational knowledge in eleven occupational areas constructed for males and females with and without previous vocational experience on the Occupational Knowledge Inquiry part of the VOcational 106 Inventory Questionnaire are presented in Figure 5 and Figure 6. The x-axis represents eleven occupational areas, that is, Domestic Work, Factory Work, Industrial Laundry, Catering and Food Preparation, Horticulture and Gardening, Animal Care, Local Services, Patient Care, Garage Work, Office Work, Building and Allied Trades. The y-axis represents the range of scores -- 0 to 10 for the Occupational Knowledge Inquiry (OKI) part of the Vocational Inventory Questionnaire. orio¢lu :ietns H790 Figure ‘ 10-‘ 9.._‘ 7—+ 6—. 5— 4—1 3-4 2— 1—1 Males D Females A\\\\\\\\\\\\" DW FW IL C8F H&G AC 7 g f :5 ' "I l 1 PC GW OW B&AT r occupational 8 ea 5. Amount of occupational knowledge of male and female workers without vocational experience DW=Domestic Work FW=Factory Work' IL=Industrial Laundry C8F=Catering and Food Preparation H8G-Horticulture and Gardening AC=Animal Care LSaLocal Services PC=Patient Care GW=Garage Work OF=Office Work B8T=Building and Allied Trades 107 . Males m 2 e _ IF 1 a _ emaes nlo— U S C O r e 0 K I DW FW IL C8F H8G AC LS PC GW OW B8AT occupational area Figure 6. Amount of occupational knowledge of male and female workers with vocational experience Dw=Domestic Work AC=Animal Care FW=Factory Work LSaLocal Service ILFIndustrial Laundry PC=Patient Care C8F=Catering and Food GW=Garage Work Preparation OF=Office Work H8G=Horticulture and B8AT=Building and Gardening Allied Trades As seen in Figures 5 and 6, females with and without previous vocational experience followed a similar pattern whether in amount of occupational knowledge or in relative strength of vocational interests. That is, their scores peaked equally in the occupational areas of patient care and office work. No significant differences in occupational knowledge were found between males and females without previous vocational experience using t-tests. The same 108 previous vocational experience using t-tests. The same was true for occupational knowledge of males and females with previous vocational experience. The profiles of vocational interests expressed by the male and female with and without previous vocational experience were also plotted and are presented in Figures 7 and 8. The x-axis represents eleven occupational areas, that is, Domestic Work, Factory Work, Industrial Laundry, Catering and Food Preparation, Horticulture and Gardening, Animal Care, Local Services, Patient Care, Garage Work, Office Work, Building and Allied Trades. The y-axis represents the range of scores -- 0 to 10 for the Vocational Interests Inquiry (VII) part of Vocational Inventory Questionnaire. Figure 7 represents the relative strength of vocational interests as expressed by the male and female workers of the sample. 109 m 7 . Males . — 7 a — D Females n 10-' s c o r 5' e a 5 V 5 a— I .— I .v :5 IL C8F H86 AC LS PC GW 0W B8AT occupational area Figure 7. Relative strength of vocational interests expressed by male and female workers without vocational experience DW=Domestic Work ACsAnimal Care FW=Factory Work LS=Local Service ILsIndustrial Laundry PC=Patient Care C8F=Catering and Food Gw=Garage Work Preparation' OF=Office Work H8G-Horticulture and B8AT-Building and Gardening Allied Trades A t-test failed to detect any significant- differences between males and females without vocational experience. Figure 8 represents a profile of vocational interests expressed by male and female workers who have previous vocational experience. _. fl Females tifllba l ' h! ml ’ f ’ f ’ HH< onoom a l " 5 5 ‘l a! f 5 ’ . 1 \ ' U GW W BSAT a E' 8 viii} . a ‘ ' DW FW IL C8? H86 AC occupational are Figure 8. Relative strength of vocational interests expressed by male and female workers with vocational experience DW-Domestic Work Ac-Animal Care FWtFactory Work LS=Local Service ILpIndustrial Laundry PC=Patient Care C8F=Catering and Food GWBGarage work Preparation - OF=Office Work H8G-Horticulture and B8AT-Building and Gardening Allied Trades' Comparing profiles on the expressed vocational interests reveals greater similarity of interest patterns between males and females without previous vocational experience than between males and females with such experience. A t-test found no significant differences between the group with previous vocational experience and the group with no vocational experience. The next four figures, that is, Figures 9 to 12, reflect on the motivational orientation of male and female workers with and without previous vocational experience. . 111 Figure 9 presents a comparison of males and females with and without previous vocational experience on their preference for intrinsic motivators. The x- axis represents five intrinsic motivators, that is, Interest in Work Done, Recognition, Achievement, Responsibility, and Advancement. The y-axis represents the range of scores -- 0 to 5 on the Motivation to Work Questionnaire (MWQ). m 2' e I Males D Females a n 5-' S 4-' c o 3-4 r l e M ‘ % W Q L__, W IN RC AC RS AD Figure 9. Importance of intrinsic motivators for male and female workers without vocational experience IN-Interest in Work Done Ac-Achievement RCsRecognition Rs-Responsibility AD-Advancement No significant differences between males and females were detected by a t-test. Figure 10 presents patterns of males' and females' preference for different mental hygiene factors under 112 the condition of no previous vocational experience. The x-axis represents five mental hygiene factors, that is, Supervision, Salary, Interpersonal Relationships, Conditions at Work Place, and Administrative Policy. The y-axis represents the range of scores -- 0 to 5 on the Motivation to Work Questionnaire (MWQ). Males E] Females 10113 OHOOUD 3 s— 4— __1, 1 9—1' *— 7/"' ~ .. a? Z 2% 2’7 2‘/ / ¢ % a 55:: //// 3:5: //” 9”” 1_% é / ¢ % 8? SL IR cw AP Figure 10. Importance of mental hygiene factors for male and female workers without vocational experience SP=Supervision SL=Salary IR=Interpersonal Relationships CW=Conditions at Work Place AP=Administrative Policy A t-test revealed no significant differences in these patterns. 113 Figure 11 presents patterns of males' and females' preference for intrinsic motivators under the condition of no previous vocational experience. The x-axis represents five intrinsic motivators, that is, Interest in Work Done, Recognition, Achievement, Responsibility, and Advancement. The y-axis represents the range of scores -- 0 to 5 on the Motivation to Work Questionnaire (MWQ). 1: Males. D Females a n 5- s 4- c o r e M W 0 . AD Figure 11. Importance of intrinsic motivators for male and female workers with vocational experience IN-Interest in Work Done AC=Achievement RCsRecognition RS=Responsibility ADBAdvancement A t-test revealed no significant differences in these patterns. Figure 12 presents patterns of males' and females' preference for different mental hygiene factors under . 114 the condition of previous vocational experience. The x- axis represents five mental hygiene factors, that is, Supervision, Salary, Interpersonal Relationships, Conditions at Work Place, and Administrative Policy. The y-axis represents the range of scores -- 0 to 5 on the Motivation to Work Questionnaire (MWQ). Males D Females SIDGDB fi or:o¢:m U l v :2 lN\\\\\\\\N s l\\\\\\\\\\N (>133 22 mm : i\\\\\J\\ S '0 Figure 12. Importance of mental hygiene factors for male and female workers with vocational experience SP=Supervision SL=Salary IRaInterpersonal Relationships CW=Conditions at Work Place AP=Administrative Policy A t-test revealed no significant differences in these patterns._ 115 8. Does the geographic locale of a sheltered workshop relate to the variables of motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and vocational interests of workers? Finally, the variable of the SWs' locale was examined in the study. The ANOVA was run for the SS's scores on both instruments with respect to the four locales included in the study, the three major cities - - Jerusalem, Tel-Aviv, and Haifa -- and a rural area, Kfar-Saba. The ANOVA performed on the 88's scores for the Occupational Knowledge Inquiry part of the vocational Inventory Questionnaire failed to detect any significant relationships between the amount of the 88's occupational knowledge and the location of the SW (1-.o1 ’3.104 =- 3.98>all F obtained). The results of the ANOVA performed on the 88's scores for the Vocational Interests Inventory part of the VIQ are as presented in Table 15. 116 Table 15 Results of ANOVA on VIQ (Interests) by Geographic Locale of Sheltered Workshop Source 51.1... W More I Horticulture . explained 3 138.1 46.1 6.2 residual 103 760.6 7.5 Total 106 898.8 9.6 Animal Care . explained 3 134.7 32.3 5.8 residual 103 793.6 7.8 Total 106 928.4 8.8 Garage Work . explained 3 184.7 61.6 8.6 residual 103 740.9 7.2 Total 106 925.5 8.7 Office Work . explained 3 250.1 33.3 11.1 residual 103 786.2 7.4 Total 106 1026.3 9.7 Building . explained 3 . 102.3 34.1 4.5 residual 103 785.7 - 7.6 Total 106 889.1 8.4 *pS.01 As can be seen in Table 15, F-values indicated significance pS.01 of the relationships between expressed vocational interest in horticulture, animal care, garage work, office work, building 8 allied trades, and geographic locale of the workshop. (No significant relationships were found for the occupations related to domestic work, simple factory work, industrial laundry work, catering, local services, patient care.) However, the finding per se did not reveal which locale contributed to the 117 significance obtained. Therefore, multiple comparisons among the four locales' means were made applying the Scheffe method. For the occupations related to horticulture 8 gardening (but not for the occupations related to animal care, garage work, office work, building 8 allied trades), the means of Kfar-Saba and Jerusalem differed significantly, indicating stronger vocational interests for the SS from Kfar-Saba: \P/éq' 3.4.32 >VTJ-1)1-a F.I-1,u-1 33:49 For the occupations related to the area of animal care (but not for the occupations related to horticulture 8 gardening, garage work, office work, ' building 8 allied trades), the means of Kfar-Saba and Haifa differed significantly, indicating stronger vocational interests for the SS from Kfar-Saba: <9Aém>=4.8 Z 3.49 For the occupations related to garage work (but not for the occupations related to horticulture 8 gardening, animal care), the means of Kfar-Saba and Jerusalem differed significantly, indicating stronger vocational interests for the SS from Kfar-Saba: QAé3$=5.l3 z 3.49 Also, the means of Kfar-Saba and Jerusalem differed in the same manner for the occupations related 118 to office work (but not for the occupations related to horticulture 8 gardening, animal care): QJ/équ =5.85 2 3.49 The third occupational area in which subjects from Kfar-Saba and Jerusalem differed significantly was building 8 allied trades (but not in the area of horticulture 8 gardening, animal care): qJ/8Q=4.08 2 3.49 The means of Jerusalem and Tel-Aviv differed significantly with respect to the occupations related to building 8 allied trades (but not in the occupations related to horticulture 8 gardening, animal care, garage work, office work), indicating stronger vocational interests in these occupations for the SS from Tel-Aviv: A \P =|-3.69| 2 3.49 <5“ . Y Since the eighth research questions was also concerned with whether the motivational orientation of the SS was related in some systematic manner to the SWs'locale, an analysis of variance was performed on the MWQ scores. Results are presented in Table 16. 119 Table 16 Results of ANOVA on MWQ by Geographic Locale of Sheltered Workshop §QQIQ§ 9111 Eum§_ef_§suare§ H§§D_§QQQIQ E Recognition * explained 3 27.7 9.3 4.3 residual 103 224.9 2.2 Total 106 252.7 2.4 Advancement * explained 3 24.5 8.2 4.4 residual 103 192.2 1.9 Total 106 216.7 2.0 Salary * explained 3 47.1 15.7 7.1 residual 103 229.5 2.2 Total 106 276.7 7.1 Supervision * explained 3 30.1 9.9 4.1 residual 102 248.7 2.4 Total 105 278.6 2.7 Interpersonal Relationships * explained 3 ' 33.7 11.3 4.4 residual 103 , 264.4 2.6 Total 106 298.2 2.8 Conditions at Work Place , explained 3 31.5 10.5 4.1 residual 103 263.3 2.6 Total 106 294.8 2.8 Administrative Policy * explained 3 36.3 12.1 4.6 residual 103 272.6 2.7 Total 106 308.9 2.9 * p 5.01 As shown in Table 16, Ffvalues indicated significance (pS.01) for the relationships between motivational orientation of the subjects and geographic locale of sheltered workshop for two intrinsic motivators, that is, recognition and advancement (but 120 not for factors interest in work done, responsibility, achievement). Significant relationships were also found between all mental hygiene factors, that is, salary, supervision, interpersonal relationships, conditions at work place, administrative policy, and geographic locale of a sheltered workshop. In order to find out which locale contributed to the significance, multiple comparisons among the four locales' means were performed applying the Scheffe method. For the hygiene factors of supervision, interpersonal relationships, and policy the Scheffe method failed to differentiate between the pairs of the locales. Any combination of the two locales compared to a third locale or to the combination of two other locales is of no practical value and has no meaning and therefore was not reported. For the mental hygiene factor of salary (but not for the factors of supervision, interpersonal relationships, conditions at work place), the means of Kfar Saba and Haifa differ significantly: $8 from Kfar-Saba attached more importance to the factor: A \P/Ads‘,’ 4.0 >\/(TJ-1),,. F M.“ = 3.49 Next, the SS from Haifa demonstrated less interest in the factor of salary (but not in the mental hygiene factors of supervision, interpersonal relationships, 121 ’ conditions at work place, administrative policy), than the SS from Tel-Aviv: W/gQ-I-amw 2 3.49 For the mental hygiene factor of conditions at the work place (but not for the other four mental hygiene factors -- supervision, salary, interpersonal relationships, administrative policy), the SS from Kfar-Saba attached more importance to the factor than did the $8 from Jerusalem: (iv/8%:- 3.69 2. 3.49 For the intrinsic motivator of recognition the Scheffe' method failed to differentiate between pairs of locales. Therefore, the ANOVA results were disregarded. However, for the motivator advancement (but not for the intrinsic motivators of interest in the work done, recognition, achievement, responsibility), the 88 from Jerusalem showed significantly stronger preference for the factor than did the SS from Kfar-Saba: CP/esq)=|-3.77| 2 3.49 To summarize the results presented in this chapter, first, a pronounced mental hygiene orientation or, in other words, extrinsic orientation of the subjects, was noted. Such orientation was especially obvious with respect to the factors conditions at work 122 place and salary which were chosen most often by the SS, as reported in Table 3. Second, the workers demonstrated rather poor knowledge in eleven basic occupations and the requirements of these occupations, as shown in Table 4. The occupational areas where subjects showed their best knowledge were patient care and office work (none of them were employed in these areas). The areas of least knowledge were animal care, building and allied trades, simple factory work, local services, and horticulture and gardening ,as presented in Table 4. Although the subjects expressed valid vocational interests, these interests were in occupational areas not related to their usual jobs. To illustrate the point, the subjects expressed their strongest vocational interest in catering, yet none of the subjects was employed in catering. Moreover, they expressed the least interest in occupations related to simple factory work ,in which they all are engaged, and in local services ,traditionally oriented toward employing people with disabilities. Third, significant relationships (ps.01) were found between the gender of the subjects and their occupational knowledge. Men and women workers differed in how much they knew about occupations related to office work, garage work, building, patient care, 123 laundry, and domestic work. In addition, women scored significantly higher than men in more occupational areas, that is, in office work, patient care, laundry, and domestic work. Men scored higher than women only in garage work and building. Fourth, significant relationships were found between the occupational knowledge and expressed vocational interests of the subjects and the presumed origins of their mental retardation. That is, the groups with brain damage, Down syndrome, and mental retardation of unknown/unspecified origins showed different amounts of knowledge in occupations related to patient care. The subjects with mental retardation of unknown/unspecified origin and those with brain damage knew more about occupations related to patient care than did the subjects with Down. In addition, the group with Down syndrome expressed less vocational interest in occupations related to horticulture, patient care, office work, and building and allied trades. Fifth, workers at lower levels of mental functioning expressed less interest in all occupational areas but domestic work, compared to those at higher levels of mental functioning. Sixth, significant relationships were found between vocational interests of the workers and 124 emotional disturbance. That is, workers without emotional disturbance expressed more interest in occupations related to building 8 allied trades than did those with emotional disturbance. Seventh, it was shown that there were no significant relationships between previous vocational experience of the workers and their motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and expressed vocational interests. Finally, significant relationships were found between vocational interests and geographic locale of the sheltered workshops. That is, the workers from Kfar-Saba expressed stronger vocational interest in occupations related to horticulture 8 gardening, animal care, garage work, office work, and building 8 allied trades. Workers from Tel-Aviv expressed stronger vocational interest than workers from Jerusalem, in occupations related to building 8 allied trades. The only significant relationships found between motivational orientation and demographic variables, were those between workers' motivational orientation and the geographic locale of the sheltered workshop. Specifically, workers from Kfar-Saba and Tel-Aviv displayed a stronger mental hygiene orientation than those in Haifa and Jerusalem. In addition, workers from Jerusalem showed stronger preference for the intrinsic 125 motivator factor of advancement than did the workers from Tel-Aviv, Haifa, and Kfar-Saba. The following chapter summarizes the study, discusses its findings, draws conclusions from the findings, and offers recommendations for future research. CHAPTER.V SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS This concluding chapter consists of four closely interrelated sections. First, a summary of the study is given. It offers a brief review of the problem, the procedures of the research project, a summary of the findings, and also indicates the limitations of the study. The second section discusses the findings. It integrates research reviewed in the Chapter II and the findings of the study in an attempt to interpret these ‘findings. I The third section presents conclusions of the research. It highlights the major findings, which are ordered in the same sequence as the eight research questions of the study. Finally, recommendations for future research are provided. W The problem. The most important function of a sheltered workshop is, by definition, to prepare an individual 126 127 with a handicap for competitive employment and eventually, for integration in the community. Nevertheless, only eight to ten percent of trainees survive in open-market employment. A wide variety of reasons has been pointed out to explain such a low rate of success: financial, administrative, and those viewing personal characteristics of sheltered workers as an obstacle to nonsupported employment. When within a sheltered workshop, trainees are expected to be productive, yet very little is done to stimulate their productivity. Typically, sheltered workshops are involved with unskilled, monotonous jobs of sorting, packaging, gluing,simple assembly, and similar tasks. -Brown and his associates have observed that workers with mental retardation have been devalued and undertaught (Brown et al., 1976). The pioneering work of Zigler (1966) and others called for a revised approach to the behavioral characteristics of people with mental retardation. Their sociopsychological characteristics ceased to be viewed as pathognomonic of mental retardation. The differences in their rigid learning and work behaviors, as compared to these of individuals of average intelligence, are explained by differences in their motivational orientation. 128 w . This study attempted to provide insight into ”what do workers know about work," that is, into patterns of occupational knowledge: "what kinds of job do they want to do," that is, patterns of their vocational interests: and "what is important for them in their work,” that is, patterns of motivational orientation. These patterns were further examined in the context of their relationships with demographic variables such as gender, presumed origin of mental retardation (brain damage, Down syndrome, unspecified/unknown origin of mental retardation), level of mental functioning, additional disabling conditions (epilepsy and emotional disturbance): previous vocational experience, and 'geographic location of a sheltered workshop. Procedures of the research project. The study was designed to include sheltered workshops that are representative of major Israeli cities (Jerusalem, Tel-Aviv, Haifa) and a rural area (namely, Kfar-Saba). Each of these four locations is characterized by a different industry (e.g., tourism, agriculture, heavy industry), which may direct the population toward different fields of employment. The sample of 107 workers was randomly selected from a larger pool (N-282) of workers with mental retardation employed in the selected workshops. 129 Two assessment instruments, namely, the Motivation to Work Questionnaire (MWQ) and Vocational Inventory Questionnaire (VIQ), were administered by trained interviewers. The interviewers underwent special sessions aimed at preparation, administration, and reliable scoring of both instruments. A criterion of eighty percent interscorer agreement had been established. A pilot study was conducted in a randomly selected workshop in order to test the reliability and validity of the VIQ assessment instrument, which had been modified prior to the study to correspond to the local environment. Test-retest correlations were r-.67, ps.01 for the Vocational Interests Inquiry part of the VIQ: r=.99, pS.0001 for the Occupational Knowledge Inquiry part of the VIQ. Construct validity was evaluated by the author of the original Illustrated Vocational Inventory and by comparing scores on the Vocational Inventory Questionnaire to an external criterion, namely, monthly ratings of subjects on work-readiness and evaluation of their vocational interests, which comprised part of a work-readiness checklist and part of a social behavior checklist. Significant correlatiohs for the Occupational Knowledge Inquiry part of the VIQ (r=.79, 130 p$.01) and the Vocational Interests Inquiry (r-.69, pS.03) were obtained. In the Occupational Knowledge Inquiry part of the VIQ, the interviewer assigned points to each item of the Inquiry. A total score on an item ranged from the maximum score of two points for a full/accurate answer to zero points for an incorrect/irrelevant answer. Expressed vocational interest was assessed by the Vocational Inventory Inquiry part of the VIQ. The score was derived from the number of times a given occupation was chosen by the respondent out of the total times this occupation appeared in combination with all other tested occupations. (Range 8 0-10.) Measures of motivational orientation were obtained by determining the number of times either a job-context (hygiene) or job-content (motivator) factor was chosen by the respondent from paired sentences. Each pair always included one sentence describing a hygiene factor paired with a second sentence describing an intrinsic motivator. The order of appearance of mental hygiene (job-context) factors in combination with intrinsic motivators (job-content) factors was randomized to prevent dubious acquiescent responses. Each factor could be chosen a maximum of five times. The Motivation to Work Questionnaire and the Vocational Inventory Questionnaire were administered at ' 131 each locale on a randomly selected day of the week during an extended lunch hour. Limitations of the study. Although the results of the study appear to have implications for the future of sheltered workshops and their programs, several limiting factors stipulated by the design of the study must be noted: 1. Sample Selection. The results of the study may be limited to those trainees who understand what is being asked of them in the questionnaires, are able of giving a reliable answer, and have all necessary background data in their files. 2. Sample Size. Because of the reasons indicated in Sample Selection, the subsamples in the four workshops were of unequal size. For instance, n-19 in the group from Haifa versus n=37 in the group from Tel- Aviv. Although there could be a slight possibility of a bias in analysis of relationships between variable of expressed vocational interest and geographic locale of a sheltered workshop, the Scheffe method is designed to test samples of unequal size. 3. Staff-to-Trainee Ratio. It is possible that the different staff-to-trainee ratio that was present in the four workshops could result in different proportions of individualized training available. 132 However, the study was designed to include different locales (big cities and rural area) representative of different industries. Results of the study. The results of the study may be summarized as follows: 1. Regarding the first research question about the motivational orientation of workers in sheltered workshops, the results suggest that they exhibit a pronounced mental hygiene (extrinsic) motivational orientation. The subjects indicate factors related to the context of the job (e.g., conditions at work place, salary) as being much more important for them than ‘factors related to the content of the job (e.g., advancement, responsibility). It has been shown that the subjects chose mental hygiene factors much more often than they chose intrinsic motivators that were paired with mental hygiene factors when factors of their choice were rank-ordered. 2. As to the topic of the second research question, that is, patterns of the subjects' vocational interest and occupational knowledge, the results showed that all subjects demonstrated quite low interest (especially in factory work and in local services)~and lack of knowledge in many of eleven basic occupations (especially, in occupations related to domestic work, 133 office work, animal care, laundry, building, factory work, local services). The subjects showed almost no interest and knew very little about occupations related to simple factory work, an occupation in which they all were engaged. Simple factory work was among five occupational areas (simple factory work, horticulture and gardening, animal care, local services, and building 8 allied trades) where none of the subjects obtained a score of two points, which corresponded to a complete answer. They also demonstrated the least interest in a simple factory work occupation, preceded by almost equally low scores on interest in the occupations associated with local services, a second .occupational area where persons with mental retardation are usually employed. These two occupational areas involve the kinds of job that are traditionally part of a sheltered workshop's program. 3. The results of an analysis of six demographic variables, namely, gender, presumed origin of mental retardation, levels of mental functioning, additional disabling conditions, previous vocational experience, and geographic locale of sheltered workshops, indicated that gender of the workers and the patterns of their occupational knowledge were related. Males demonstrated better knowledge of occupations traditionally regarded as masculine (e.g., garage work occupations, building 8 134 allied trades), while females were more knowledgeable in such occupations as patient care, domestic work, laundry, and office work. Both sexes exhibited marked preference for five mental hygiene factors, namely, supervision, interpersonal relationships, salary, conditions at work place, administrative policy over five intrinsic motivators, that is, advancement, recognition, interest in the work done, responsibility, achievement. 4. The presumed origin of mental retardation was found to relate to both the occupational knowledge and vocational interests of the subjects but not to their motivational orientation. That is, the three groups differed significantly in their knowledge about occupations related to patient care. They also differed in relative strength of vocational interest expressed in occupations related to horticulture, patient care, office work, and building and allied trades. Generally speaking, the group with Down syndrome was generally less knowledgeable and expressed less interest in various occupations than did those diagnosed brain damaged and those whose mental retardation had not been described in terms of causation. 5. Levels of mental functioning were shown to relate to the amount of occupational knowledge and to the relative strength of vocational interest expressed 135 by the subjects. The subjects with lower levels of mental functioning demonstrated less knowledge and lower vocational interests. The subjects with higher levels of mental functioning tended to be more hygiene oriented, that is, chose the mental hygiene factors of supervision, interpersonal relationships, conditions at work place, and administrative policy significantly more often than subjects with lower levels of mental functioning. 6. Emotional disturbance associated with mental retardation was found to be related to the relative strength of vocational interest in one occupational area, namely building 8 allied trades. That is, the subjects without emotional disturbance showed significantly stronger interest in occupations related to building 8 allied trades than did the subjects with emotional disturbance. No relationships between additional disabling conditions (epilepsy and emotional disturbance) and occupational knowledge or between the former and motivational orientation of the subjects were found. 7. The subjects' previous vocational experience was found to be unrelated to occupational knowledge, vocational interest, or motivational orientation. 8. The only variable that was found to be related significantly to the motivational orientation of the 136 subjects was the geographic locale of the sheltered workshop. That is, workers from Kfar-Saba and Tel-Aviv chose factors related to job context (e.g., salary, conditions at work place) significantly more often than workers from Haifa and Jerusalem. Workers from Jerusalem valued the intrinsic motivator advancement significantly higher than those from Kfar-Saba. Discussion Practitioners in special education consider long- term community adjustment to be a paramount goal for individuals with mild and moderate mental retardation. It is recognized that employment-related factors play a -substantial role in achieving that goal (Gifford et al., 1984). Nevertheless, research to date indicates that job opportunities and job training per so cannot guarantee successful employment unless the personality of the person with mental retardation is taken into consideration (Brown et al., 1976: Haywood 8 Switzky, 1985: Reiter, 1988: Schalock, 1988). The motivational orientation of workers with mental retardation and their vocational interests and inclinations emerge as an integral part of their personalities and represented a core of the first and second research questions in the study. 137 The results of this study indicate that factors related to the context in which work is done are more important to the workers than those related to the work itself. They suggest a pronounced hygiene or external orientation on the part of workers in sheltered workshops. The study confirms the position of Zigler (1966, 1967) and other researchers who assert that individuals with mental retardation are less intrinsically motivated and have an external locus of control (Riedel and Milgram, 1970: Seligman, 1975). The analysis of data pertaining to the second research question revealed that workers had almost no interest or knowledge in the kinds of work in which they are engaged. Only .98 of the sample chose simple factory work and local services areas the maximum number of times. This situation raises a question as to the effectiveness of traditional programming in sheltered workshops and about enhancing or developing work motivation of the trainees (Shapira et al., 1985: Gifford et al., 1985: Greenlegh Associates, 1976). The assumption of Hackman and Oldham (1975) about the crucial role played by job variety and task significance in shaping motivational orientation seems to be especially meaningful in the context of the present results. The negative side effects of low skill, extremely simplified jobs upon workers with 138 mental retardation have been observed and discussed in research (Brown et al., 1976: Reiter, 1988: Reiter et al., 1985: Rush, 1971). These results help to understand why these workers demonstrate low job- content (intrinsic) motivational orientation and call for a revision of the manner in which people in sheltered workshops are assigned to different jobs. One cannot reasonably expect that workers will be enthusiastic to do work that they did not choose and have no interest in doing. Statistical analysis of the patterns of occupational knowledge and vocational interests of the male and female workers indicate a relationship between gender and these patterns. These were results that, in essence, were predictable and reflective of major social norms, that is, males' better knowledge in garage work and building or females' in domestic work or laundry. However, females showed significantly better knowledge in seven occupations, as compared to four occupations known better by males. No sex differences were found in the patterns of vocational interests nor in the motivational orientation of the subjects. More specifically, both sexes appeared to be rather hygiene oriented with almost no interest in factors related to job content. There was, however, some trend for females to value 139 motivators more than did males. Support for such a trend is contained in the review of several studies by Mercer and Snell (1977). It was found that females are less outer-directed and have more internal locus of control than their male peers. Also, in a study on the Adaptiye_fiehayigr_§cale by Lambert (1978), gender made a significant contribution to the Responsibility domain: both females with mild mental retardation and nonretarded females functioned at a slightly, but significantly higher level (pS.05) than their male peers on the items assessing responsibility. Females were, in a sense, better adjusted with respect to assuming responsibility. Therefore, it is speculated .here that because of specific traditional ways in which a woman in our society is socialized (i.e., girls are considered to mature at a faster pace: they also are expected to assume adult responsibilities at an earlier age than their male peers: the scope of females' responsibilities is traditionally broader than that of males), females have learned to rely more heavily on an intrinsically-mediated lifestyle. Setting aside the controversy over biology versus socialization in gender disparity, it can be inferred here that males and females tend to differ with respect to their behavioral characteristics, and these differences have been supported by ample evidence in psychological 14o ‘ literature, particularly when dealing with predictions regarding male-female careers (Harris, 1979). Measures of vocational interest, occupational knowledge, and motivational orientation were also analyzed with respect to a presumed origin of the subjects' mental retardation. The results indicated significant relationships between the patterns of knowledge of the subjects about different occupations, their interest in these occupations, and the origin of their mental retardation (brain damage, Down syndrome, mental retardation of an unspecified/unknown origin). Specifically, the subjects diagnosed as having Down syndrome demonstrated less knowledge in different occupations and less interest in them than did the other two groups. It is noteworthy, however, that the workers with Down syndrome displayed a greater degree of mental retardation than those diagnosed "brain damaged" or those without a clear indication of the source of their mental retardation. This result is consistent with other results of this study regarding poorer knowledge and relatively weaker vocational interests on the part of the subjects at the lower levels of mental functioning. This result is also consistent with numerous studies (Baumeister 8 MacLean, 1979: Harter, 1967: Mercer 8 Snell, 1977: Smith 8 ‘Wilson, 1973: Zigler, 1966: 1967) which clearly 141 indicate that severity of mental retardation is positively related to pursuing a slower, more limited course of learning and generalization of acquired information to novel situations. However, no relationships were found between the subjects' preference for motivators or hygiene factors and the origins of mental retardation: all three groups displayed a more pronounced orientation toward factors related to the context in which their jobs are done. The Down syndrome group tended to differ more from the brain-damaged and unspecified group than the latter two differed between themselves. As Baumeister and MacLean stated (1979), there is -no such thing as a syndrome of brain damage (BD) that is characteristic or pathognomonic to individuals with mental retardation. An IQ score below normal could itself be taken as an index of BD. With low IQ as the criterion, the entire population of people with mental retardation could conceivably be classified as BD. Therefore, classification into "brain damaged - non brain damaged" seems to be, at least, an imprecise classification. Nevertheless, persons with Down syndrome, as a group, display more homogeneous characteristics, and because of it differ more distinctly from those diagnosed "brain damaged" and those whose cause of mental retardation is . 142 unknown/unspecified. Support for this assumption can be found in Karrer et al. (1979). All those labeled SD in this study had a clear indication of sustained brain damage in their case history. Among those classified as having mental retardation of unknown origin, there was no clear indication of any damage caused to the central nervous system but clear indication of mental retardation, including low IQ scores and impaired adaptive behavior. Their clinical picture, however, was often quite complex and fragmented. Some subjects had additional disabilities such as autism and different degrees of hearing and/or visual impairment. Thus, defining what is a primary disability often was quite difficult and it may explain, in part, less salient differentiation between "brain damaged" and ”unknown/unspecified" than between the Down syndrome group and each of the two former groups. If the hygiene or distinctly extrinsic orientation is pathognomonic of mental retardation, as the Lewin- Kounin rigidity formulation suggests (Lewin, 1936: Kounin, 1944), one would expect to find that individuals with more severe mental_retardation will exhibit even greater preference fer hygiene factors than those with milder forms of retardation. Nevertheless, statistical analysis performed on 143 subjects' scores on the Vocational Inquiry Questionnaire revealed that while more severe retardation was associated with poorer occupational knowledge of the subjects and, subsequently, with less interest expressed in these occupations, the subjects with lower levels of mental functioning did not demonstrate a stronger hygiene orientation. This finding is consistent with the position of those researchers who contend that mental deficiency does not connote vocational deficiency (Brolin, 1979: Brolin and Kokaska, 1974: Stodden et al., 1979). In fact, it was observed in this study that the subjects with lower levels of mental functioning showed, at times, stronger preference for intrinsic motivators or factors associated with job content than those with higher levels of mental functioning. Higher functioning subjects not only demonstrated a stronger hygiene orientation, but also tended to value all motivators (job content factors) less than the lower functioning subjects. This result was unexpected, but it may indicate that factors other than mental retardation (e.g., less favorable past history of social encounters with higher social expectations towards less disabled individuals) shaped the motivational orientation of workers with mental retardation. Follow-up studies indicate that the more 144 able people with mental retardation often tend to have lower vocational aspirations and to be self-conscious (Edgerton 8 Bercovici, 1976). Concerning the role of additional handicapping conditions (e.g., emotional disturbance, epilepsy) in how much the subjects knew about different occupations, how strong their vocational interest was, and whether they were intrinsically or extrinsically oriented, epilepsy does not influence the subjects' knowledge of eleven occupations analyzed in the study, their interests in the occupations, or their motivational orientation. Epilepsy/no-epilepsy groups are equally more hygiene oriented. It is noteworthy that subjects without epilepsy tended to be more hygiene oriented than those with epilepsy. This tendency could reflect a reaction to higher social requirements as perceived by the workers free of additional disabling conditions. Emotional disturbance was shown to be related to the vocational interests expressed by the subjects. Similar observations regarding persons who experience emotional disturbance in addition to mental retardation were indicated by Balthazar and Stevens (1975). Interestingly, workers with emotional disturbance tended to know.more about occupations related to building and allied trades: they also demonstrated 145 significantly lower interest in these occupations. Therefore, it can be inferred that their lower interest in building occupations could have resulted from better familiarity with the requirements of the building and related occupations and possible dislike of the occupations. Even though emotional disturbance was shown to have no statistically significant relationship to the motivational orientation of the subjects, the observable tendency of the workers without emotional disturbance to value motivators less than hygiene factors could reflect either a greater exposure to unsatisfactory vocational experience on the part of ' workers free of additional disabling conditions or a different degree of expectancy of failure experienced by workers with and without additional disabling conditions (Cromwell, 1963: Edgerton 8 Bercovici, 1976). Analysis of the factor of previous vocational experience revealed no significant relationships between this factor and the motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, or vocational interest of the workers. Though not significant, a careful review of the results related to previous vocational experience suggests the following: 146 a. Previous vocational experience may influence males' knowledge about various occupations and their requirements more than that of females: b. Past experience may affect intrinsic motivation in men more adversely than in women: specifically, men may become more extrinsically motivated than women would, other things being equal: c. Men tend to show more consistent association between how much they know about a particular occupation and to what extent they are interested in it than do women. One of the issues under study concerned whether the locale of a sheltered workshop influenced the -vocational interests, knowledge, and motivational orientation of the workers. It has been shown that the amount of occupational knowledge is independent of the physical location of a sheltered workshop. However, statistical analysis of patterns of vocational interests indicated their clear association with the locale. This unexpected result should be examined in the context of local industries and their influence upon individuals' interests. For example, it has been demonstrated that the workers in the rural area have stronger interests in the occupations related to horticulture and gardening than the workers from the tourism-oriented Jerusalem. 147 Similarly, workers from rural Kfar-Saba expressed stronger interest in occupations associated with animal care than did subjects from Haifa, a central port city of Israel. Kfar Saba's workers also demonstrated stronger interest in garage work occupations, especially in items on fixing machinery and building and allied trades (e.g., building greenhouses) as compared to the subjects from Jerusalem. In turn, the subjects from Jerusalem obtained their maximum score on interest in occupations related to catering (highly representative of Jerusalem's tourism industry) and the next highest score in occupations related to industrial laundry (another ‘ occupational area important for tourism). ' A stronger vocational interest in the occupations related to building and allied trades was shown by the subjects from rapidly expanding Tel-Aviv as compared to the interest of Jerusalem's subjects who expressed the least interest in these occupations. Based on these results, several implications come to mind: 1. The results call for a pro-local orientation in designing the vocational programs of sheltered workshops: that is, such programs should take into~ consideration the specifics of'a given locale. 148 2. There was an observable tendency of the subjects from the sheltered workshops with fewer trainees and a higher staff-to-trainee ratio to express stronger vocational interests in a larger number of occupations (e.g., the results of the smallest workshop in Kfar-Saba as compared to the largest workshop in Jerusalem). This suggests the efficacy of a more individualized approach in vocational training. 3. The locale of the sheltered workshops appeared to be the only demographic variable that influenced the motivational orientation of the workers. That is, Kfar- Saba's and Tel-Aviv's subjects demonstrated a greater hygiene orientation (with re8pect to the factors of salary and conditions at work place) than did subjects from Haifa and Jerusalem. This result can be explained, at least partially, by the different sources of income in the four sheltered workshops. Workshops in Haifa and Jerusalem receive 100 percent of their operating budget from the Israeli government, while Kfar-Saba's workshop receives significantly lower government support and depends on the seasonal agricultural industry of the region. Similarly, Jerusalem's workshop relies partially on contract sales. 4. Jerusalem's subjects appeared to be more intrinsically oriented than the other three groups, at least with respect to the motivator Advancement. It may 149 be inferred that they felt deeper involvement in the outcomes of their work because of more the competitive bases of their income. sonslusisns The motivational orientation of workers with mental retardation employed in a sheltered workshop with respect to the factors of mental hygiene and those related to the content of the work itself was the focus of this study. Furthermore, the workers' own perception of being either hygiene (extrinsically) or motivator (intrinsically) oriented has been examined in the context of possible relationships among patterns of motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, expressed vocational interest and gender, presumed origin of mental retardation, level of mental functioning, additional disabling conditions, previous vocational experience, and location of the sheltered workshop. Based on the results of this study the following conclusions can be drawn: 1. Workers in sheltered workshops are distinctly mental hygiene oriented. Conditions in which their work takes place, monetary rewards, relationships with supervisors and co-workers, and (even though to a lesser degree) the manner in which they are assigned to 150 their jobs are much more important for them than any factors related to the content of their work. As pointed out earlier in this study, the general model of motivation to work is applicable to people with mental retardation (Hackman 8 Oldham, 1975: Shapira, et al., 1985). What probably happens in today's workshops is also universal to anybody who encounters situations similar to those of a sheltered workshop. "When managers deny human beings motivating work, they force them into a pattern of seeking satisfaction with hygienes...," as Herzberg observed throughout his studies (Herzberg,1987, p.32). Therefore, program planners and decision-makers within the service delivery system should take particular care of providing good job content. This is, perhaps, not a sufficient, but absolutely necessary condition of promoting job satisfaction and motivation. 2. Workers in sheltered workshops have almost no interest in the kinds of jobs that are traditionally associated with sheltered workshop. The rehabilitation community should take special care in designing vocational training programs in a manner that will secure the maximum possible involvement of the client. Full cooperation between the schools' prevocational and secondary transitional programs and the workshops' vocational training 151 programs is suggested. As with an Individual Education Program at the school level, there should also be an Individual Vocational Program that is based on the pupil's vocational interests and inclinations and takes into consideration the pupil's motivational orientation during transition and at the workshop level. Instead of the usual prevocational instruction (i.e., reading: writing: knowledge of commonly used tools, utensils, etc.), the pupil's functional vocational capabilities should be evaluated, possible areas of interest identified, and objectives designed accordingly. The pupils must be shown that their own behavior has effective outcomes that coincide with their intentions and desires. Use of individualized educational and vocational plans might then be incorporated into total service planning, both as an evaluation tool and as a guide for an individually tailored training program. Vocational/rehabilitation specialists are encouraged to focus on several questions posed by the results of the study: a) Why do workshop trainees know so little about the occupations directly related to their training? .Why do they care so little about the work they are engaged in? Are they sufficiently involved in program planning and/or in goal setting? 152 b) Is the simple factory work/low-skill service orientation of the majority of vocational training programs the right orientation? Is it a lack of knowledge about simple factory work and low-skill service jobs that causes a lack of interest in these occupations or vice versa? c) What is the opinion of a parent or guardian or relative about the ”right job" for this particular individual? How actively do they participate in total service planning? Despite a recent dispute over the efficacy of sheltered workshops (Gifford et al., 1984), they still are a predominant setting for vocational evaluation and training of people with various disabilities.' The question of what can be done within the existing service delivery system to help individuals with mental retardation attain their vocational promise can not be overvalued. Traditionally, experts in the area are oriented more toward increasing work productivity, proficiency, or rate than toward finding out whether these factors, viewed by the experts as being "necessary for success in competitive employment" (Wehman, 1981, p.18), are regarded as such by the workers themselves. I ~ 3. Female workers in sheltered settings know more than males about job-related skills, tools/machines, 153 and wages associated with different occupations than do males. Females are also knowledgeable of a larger number of different occupations and tend to be more intrinsically motivated than are male workers. The results concerning the relationship of gender to the amount of knowledge about different occupations and some gender-related tendencies in the patterns of motivational orientation lend support to the position asserting the influence of socialization on choices of vocation as well as on the development and change of motivational orientation. However, it would seem premature to draw conclusions about the greater effectiveness of sheltered settings for one sex than .the other. - Educators, rehabilitation specialists, employers, and parents/guardians need to become aware of the possibility of intervention in the process of shaping and enhancing intrinsic motivation in the individual with mental retardation. The broader community should be educated and encouraged to adopt a holistic and more optimistic approach towards the potential for change of people with mental retardation and, subsequently, towards their chance for the fullest possible integration. 4. Sheltered workers with lower levels of mental functioning possess poorer occupational knowledge and ' 154 exhibit weaker vocational interests. Nevertheless, the patterns of motivational orientation are quite similar across levels of mental functioning. Individual Vocational Plans, as described above, might help in identifying individuals with weaker interests and setting achievable training objectives. These individuals need challenging goals within their ability range with more intense feedback and more structured training. Their direct efforts on correcting personal factors (e.g., attention to task/job performed, persistency) should be especially encouraged and oriented toward reducing a self-blaming tendency. 5. The relative strength of vocational interests of workers in sheltered workshops and their knowledge are related to the presumed origins of their mental retardation. Further study in this area is obviously needed. It should be remembered that the Down syndrome group, which differed from the other two groups, displayed a greater degree of mental retardation. Their prevocational and vocational preparation should, probably, include very intensive training in maintenance and generalization of work behavior. As a group, these workers are known to have good job-related potential that can be nurtured and enhanced considerably (Gifford et al.,1984). 155 6. Additional disabling conditions of workers with mental retardation are related to the strength of their vocational interest. The generally higher incidence of emotional problems associated with mental retardation is described in professional literature. It suggests an inclusion of comprehensive additional data into investigations dealing with vocational adjustment (e.g., length and success of a worker's vocational history, possible effects of past institutionalization, etc.). Program planners should be sensitized to the possible emotional problems that are not readily ’apparent when formal evaluations are used for I referrals. The teachers and trainers of prevocational/ vocational skills should exercise caution with this population in order to identify sources of conflicts and frustrations. The social progress in such a population is usually slow. Therefore, instruction/ training often requires an individualized approach. 7. Previous vocational experience of workers in sheltered workshops is unrelated to their motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and expressed vocational interest. ' The profiles of motivational orientation, occupational knowledge, and expressed vocational . 156 interest of subjects with and without previous vocational experience were analyzed in this study in great detail. As a result, a need for further investigation of this issue is emphasized here. This conclusion also suggests that we may seriously consider the outcomes of vocational preparation for the graduates of sheltered training. 8. The relative strength of workers' vocational interests in different occupations is related to the geographic site of sheltered workshops. It is apparent that: a) Teachers, advocates, and parents of the individual with a disability need to cooperate in designing a prevocational program that matches the program and the individual's interests and inclinations. b) A match between the prevocational or transitional curriculum of the secondary school program and local industries should be achieved. c) Vocational/rehabilitation counselors should design training and seek placement in such a manner that the specifics of local industries and the vocational interests of the individual are taken into consideration in both short-term and long-term goal- setting. 157 Unfortunately, the reasons for the relationship between the motivational orientation of a worker and the locale of a sheltered workshop are not clear at this point and could be an artifact of either differences in the remunerative system used in the workshops in the study or of an unequal staff-to- trainee ratio in these workshops. Bsssmnsndsfisns Taking into consideration the results and limitations of the study, several suggestions and recommendations for future research have been identified: 1. It would be of practical value to compare patterns of occupational knowledge, vocational interests, and the motivational orientation of three categories of sheltered workers: a) trainees immediately upon referral: b) trainees who re-enter a sheltered workshop: c) trainees who never attempt to gain open employment. By investigating these.three groups, valuable data about motivational orientation and its possible relationships to either prevocational training or~ experienced failure in employment could be obtained and analyzed. Another possible relationship that could be 158 examined is that between early rehabilitative intervention and the rate of success in nonsupported employment. 2. Regarding the issue of classification of persons with various handicapping conditions,it is stressed once more that any differentiation along a continuum of risk is arbitrary. Formal testing came to be viewed, at most, as an occasionally useful, but by no means essential, compliment to the observation of workers in real-life situations and to face-to-face discussion about their needs, concerns, and aspirations. Further research should concentrate rather on -patterns of workers' interests and inclinations as they are related to externally-mediated versus internally- mediated behavior. The dichotomy "brain damaged - non brain damaged” or "organic - environmental" and so on seems to be of much lesser value than whether a worker selected a particular job or not, how training was tailored to fit interests, and how much responsibility for work the worker can/is willing to assume. 3. It would be useful for future studies to investigate whether workers at higher levels of mental functioning have more substantial vocational experience and could therefore be exposed to greater pressure to succeed than those at lower levels of mental . 159 functioning who may never leave a sheltered environment. In addition, the variable of age needs to be examined in relation to expectancy of failure and to' the motivational orientation of the worker. 4. Further investigation is needed to check whether additional handicapping conditions associated with mental retardation are related to: a) amount of post-training experience: b) higher rate of unsuccessful experience: c) a degree of expectancy of failure. 5. In order to improve research design and to obtain more refined results, it is suggested that future research investigate the relationship between the variables of knowledge about various occupations and vocational interests: specifically, whether those who know more about an occupation are more/less interested in it. 6. As a means of further improvement of existing services for people with mental retardation, it seems essential to investigate to what extent sheltered workshops should adjust their training programs to the characteristics of local industries and in what manner. 7. In concert with what is suggested in the literature, this study views workers in sheltered workshops as having vocational interests and 160 aspirations similar to those of their counterparts of an average intelligence. It is suggested here that research comparing motivational characteristics of these two groups under similar or almost similar conditions (e.g., workers in sheltered workshops versus factory workers of an average intelligence employed, say, on a simple assembly line) will produce fruitful grounds for better understanding of work motivation mechanisms among shelterd workers. The ability to work and earn a living is a standard in our society. According to a forecast by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, some seven million relatively low-skill jobs are expected to be generated in the U.S. between 1980 and 1999 (Kuttner, 1983). Israel, in turn, is experiencing an accelerated process of both industrial and agricultural growth. This process will likely expand the existing labor market rather rapidly (Israel's Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, 1985). Thus, an increased demand for low- skill and unskilled entry-level workers is very likely to improve the general employment picture for persons with disabilities. Results of the study highlight the extremely low intrinsic motivation of the workers in today's sheltered workshops and lack of interest in major jobs offered by workshops on the part of workers. It would, 161 however, be premature to draw conclusions about the efficacy of‘a sheltered workshop setting unless its methods and programs are thoroughly studied and compared to alternative programs. Clearly, future research should focus on studies of this kind. Numerous recommendations and suggestions have been made in the study for different groups of people with the view toward possible improvement within the existing service delivery system. These recommendations might be useful to educators, program developers, researchers, and policy-makers as they design, evaluate, implement, and change services intended for special populations. It is the author's greatest hope that the present study will contribute to ' a clearer conceptualizing of the motivation to work of people with mental retardation as well as to their consequent integration in the community. APPENDICES APPENDIX A MEDITERRANEAN ISRAEL _ Olmfloum 0 25 so Muse p.—'——'—_—a 0 29 so Knomm @ - The geographic locale of ‘ four sheltered workshops used in the study 162 APPENDIX B Research: Motivation to Work in Sheltered Workshops Principal Investigator: Luba Friedman QQNSENT_IQBN . I, HEREBY AGREE TO ANSWER QUESTIONS ABOUT DIPPERENT OCCUPATIONS AND THEIR REQUIREMENTS AS WELL AS QUESTIONS ABOUT THINGS, WHICH I CONSIDER TO BE IMPORTANT POR MY JOB. I UNDERSTAND THAT I DO NOT HAVE TO PARTICIPATE IN THESE INTERVIEWS IP I DO NOT WANT TO. I UNDERSTAND THAT MY PIRST NAME, MY LAST NAME, MY ADDRESS AND PHONE NUMBER WILL REMAIN UNKNOWN TO THE RESEARCHER. (SIGNATURE) (WITNESS) (DATE) 163 APPENDIX C Research: Motivation to Work in Sheltered Workshops Principal Investigator: Luba Friedman MOTIVATION TO WORK QUESTIONNAIRE BY SHUNIT REITER, Ph.D., AND LUBA FRIEDMAN,M.A. PART 1: BACKGROUND VARIABLES (to be filled out by a staff member) NOTE: PLEASE DO NOT WRITE CLIENTS' NAME ON THE QUESTIONNAIRE Sheltered Workshop Number 1 2 3 4 5 (please circle one) Client's Code Number Sex: Male Female (please check one) Age: (please round to the nearest full number) Previous Vocational Experience: yes no (please circle one) Mental Retardation Defined as: mild, moderate, severe (please circle one) Mental Retardation Associated with: (please check one) Brain Damage Down Syndrome ___ Origin Unknown ___ other (explain) Epilepsy: yes no (please circle one) Emotional Disturbance: yes no (please circle one) Thank you very much! Please, over 164 PART 2: 165 The following includes a list of thoughts and feelings people have towards their job. The items are arranged in pairs. Please, choose from each pair the item which best describes what you think and feel, and circle it. a. The thing that makes me most happy is working in an interesting job b. The thing that makes me most happy is when the instructor talks to me a. ”A good day" is a day when I am being praised for my work b. "A good day" is a day when I receive my paycheck a. I an angry when I can't do my work well b. I an angry when my co-workers do not treat me well a. ~"A bad day" is a day in which I can't overcome hardships at work b. "A bad day” is a day when the noise and dirt in the work place bother me a. I an angry when my co-workers do not care about what I do b. I am angry when my work place is messy a. The feeling of being in charge of my own work makes me happy b. When my co-workers are friendly with me, I am happy a. Working where nothing depends on me upsets me b. Working where the instructor is not good upsets me V ~ a. I like doing things when I am in charge b. I like working where I get paid well 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. a. b. 166 A boring job upsets me A noisy and dirty work place upsets me Working in a job where nothing depends on me upsets me It upsets me when the management does not treat its workers fairly The most important thing for me is interesting work The most important thing for me is working with the supervisers I feel good when what I do is praised I feel good when I can ask my supervisor for help When I am doing my job well, I feel good When the instructor treats me well, I feel good "A good day" at work is a day when I do my job well "A good day" at work is a day when I have been given a salary raise I am upset when the work I do is not given any attention I am upset when I do not get along with my co-workers "A good day" at work is a day when I have something interesting to do ”A good day" at work is a day when all of us are helping each other and working together I feel good at work when I am in charge of how to do my job I feel good when my work place is clean 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 167 I am very happy when I am raised to a higher position at work I am very happy when I work in a quiet and neat place "A good day” for me is a day when I am promoted at work "A good day" for me is a day when my co- workers help me, and I help then I am very happy when I am raised to a higher position or rank at work I am very happy when I receive a bigger paycheck Working when nothing depends on me upsets me . I feel angry when my job is not explained to me well A job that does not give me rise to a higher position is not good I am disturbed when in the middle of one job I'm transferred to a different job Doing my job well is the most important thing to me The most important thing to me is when managers care about the workers I feel happy when I am praised for my work I feel happy when I get along with my instructor I do not want to work when my job is boring I do not want to work where I get little pay APPENDIX D Research: Motivation to Work in Sheltered Workshops Principal Investigator: Luba Friedman PART A: OCCUPATIONAL KNOWLEDGE INQUIRY - OKI The following is an inquiry aimed at determining the individual's insight into eleven various occupations and their requirements. Please read each descriptive sentence and ask the respondent to answer five basic questions related to the occupation depicted in the sentence. - The choice of questions was guided by the need to assess the individual '8 basic knowledge of each occupation whilst taking account of the limited experiences which most of the respondents have had. Please remember that some respondents may need a little rehearsal with the five questions in order to grasp what was required of them. Responses should be scored in the spaces provided next to each question according to the scoring criteria as the following: 2 points - for a full/accurate answer 1 point - for a partial/rather less accurate answer 0 points - for an incorrect/irrelevant answer (Note: Full scoring criteria is explained during training sessions for the interviewers) Occupation Code will precede each question. (over, please) 168 169 1. (Domestic) Polishing the floors: What do you call a place where this type of work is done? What do you call a person who does this kind of work? What other things does he/she do in this work? What tools/machines/or instruments are used in this work? What are the monthly wages for this kind of work? 2. (Simple Factory Work) Weighing huge bags on an industrial scale: What do you call a place where this type of work is done? What do you call a person who does this kind of work? What other things does he/she do in this work? What tools/machines/or instruments are used in this work? What are the monthly wages for this kind of work? 3. (Industrial Laundry WOrk) Folding large amounts of sheets, towels, pillow-cases, clothes: What do you call a place where this type of work is done? What do you call a person who does this kind of work? What—Ether things does he/she do in this work? Nola/machines/or instruments are used in this 33:523E3‘E52 monthly wages for this kind of work? 4. (Catering) Setting 20 or 30 tables: What do you call a place where this type of work is 332:233‘§33'ca11 a person who does this kind of work? What—Ether things does he/she do in this work? Mols/machines/or instruments are used in this work? What are the monthly wages for this kind of work? 170 5. (Horticulture & Gardening) Trimming the lawn: What do you call a place where this type of work is done? What do you call a person who does this kind of work? What other things does he/she do in this work? What tools/machines/or instruments are used in this work? What are the monthly wages for this kind of work? 6. (Animal Care) Feeding the cows/animals: What do you call a place where this type of work is done? What do you call a person who does this kind of work? WEEE_BEEer things does he/she do in this work? Wols/machines/or instruments are used in this W§::?§;E_EKE monthly wages for this kind of work? 77—735351 Services) Collecting garbage/trash: What do you call a place where this type of work is done? What do you call a person who does this kind of work? What—Ether things does he/she do in this work? Mols/machines/or instruments are used in this $§§:?§EE‘EEE monthly wages for this kind of work? 87_(P§Eient Care) Helping a patient out of bed: What do you call a place where this type of work is 3:22233—y35_call a person who does this kind of work? WEEE_EEher things does he/she do in this work? WlTaT-t—o—ols/machines/or instruments are used in this 33:5?SEE'EEE monthly wages for this kind of work? 9. (Garage Work) Jacking up: 171 What do you call a place where this type of work is done? ‘ What do you call a person who does this kind of work? What other things does he/she do in this work? What tools/machines/or instruments are used in this work? What are the monthly wages for this kind of work? 10. (Office Work) Typewriting: What do you call a place where this type of work is done? What do you call a person who does this kind of work? What other things does he/she do in this work? What tools/machines/or instruments are used in this work? What are the monthly wages for this kind of work? 11. (Building and.Allied.Trades) Making/Mixing Concrete: What do you call a place where this type of work is 3:2:?§3‘§Sfi'ca11 a person who does this kind of work? Wh§t_3ther things does he/she do in this work? Mols/machines/or instruments are used in this work? What are the monthly wages for this kind of work? PART B: VOCATIONAL INTERESTS INQUIRT - VII The following includes 55 pairs of sentences representing ten examples of each occupational domain (total of 11 occupations). The order of presentation of the eleven occupational areas has been randomized.throughout the 55 sentence-pairs. Please ask the respondent to choose between two alternative sentences and award: 1 point for the occupation chosen by the respondent: 0 points for the occupation not chosen by the respondent. (Note: Full scoring criteria is explained during training sessions for the interviewers) Occupational code will precede each sentence (e.g., G -- for Garage Work, 0 -- for Office Work, P -- for Patient Care and so on). 172 173 TELL ME, WHICH WOULD YOU RATHER DO? Change tires or Answer telephones in an office Feed animals in a zoo or Bind books Arrange papers and letters in folders or Work in a factory Make wooden boxes or Trim the lawn Repair different cars or Dust lots of furniture Put price tags on merchandise or Feed sheep and chickens Make many beds or Set many tables for a meal Saw lots of wood or Wash and polish floors Weigh many big sacks or Put large piles of clothes in washer 174 Unload equipment from a truck or Trim plants in a greenhouse Iron large amounts of clothes or Weigh cheeses in a store vacuum many carpets or Arrange cans on store shelves Paint window and door frames or Solder metal parts Wash floors or Change sheets of hospital beds ' weigh calf or Sweep sidewalks Push a loaded wheelbarrow or weigh fruits in a store Help a patient into bed or Feed sheep and chickens Make beds or Make cardboard boxes Carry garbage cans to garbage truck or _ ’ weigh cheeses in a store Feed cows or 175 Change tires Put boxes in a pile or Carry bricks up a ladder Nail nails into wooden parts or Deliver milk to clients Take food out of an oven and arrange it on plates or Clean car windows Pack goods in boxes or Arrange empty flower pots on shelves Take care of sick people or Dig large holes in the ground Fold clean shirts or Cook a meal in a restaurant Sew many clothes or Fix cars Train sea seals or Fix a water pipe Mow grass or Iron clothes Make beds in a hospital or Remove milk bottles from a cart 176 Serve food in a restaurant or Spray trees to protect them from bugs Put gas in cars or Empty garbage cans Mow lawns or Bathe elephants Entertain old people or Fix a machine Copy letters or Paint door frames Fold many towels or Take care of old people Wash floors or Look after dogs in dog pounds Operate a flour packing machine or Deliver letters Take care of zoo animals or Put sugar on cakes and cookies Water plants or Polish floors 177 Wash dishes or Build walls Type letters or Serve tea to old people Shovel sand or Help sick people into bed Put clothes in drying machine or Feed camels Wash windows or Dry many towels Weld metal bars or Mow grass Deliver milk to people or Wash floors Sand wooden parts until they are smooth or Fold a lot of clothes Put sale goods on shelves or Peel many potatoes Unload goods from a car or 178 Help sick people into bed Mix food in big pots or Empty garbage cans Fold many sheets or Wash floors Pump air into tires or Make meat sauce Wash pots or Knit fabric LIST OF REFERENCES LIST OF REFERENCES Allyon. 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