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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

THE MESSAGE CREATION PROCESS
IN

MAKING ITV
presented by

MARINA MAXWELL

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

_MASEERS__degree in WCATION

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1M W14

THE MESSAGE CREATION PROCESS
IN
MAKING ITV

Michigan State University - IAH 201

Integrative Arts &'Humanities Video Course

BY

Marina Maxwell

Thesis Paper
And
A Wdeo Documentary
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of The
Masters of Arts (Production)
To The
Department of Telecommunication

\

M.S.U.

1993

Robert Albers, Advisor

ABSTRACT
THE MESSAGE CREATION PROCESS
IN MAKING ITV
BY
MARINA MAXWELL

This Masters Thesis consisted of a video documentary, MAKING ITV, and a
background paper on the MSU video course IAH 201, Integrative Arts and Humanities’
U.S. HISTORY AND THE WORLD for tertiary education. The video record of the
MESSAGE CREATION PROCESS of IAH 201 is 55 minutes in duration. The Course is
documented from conceptualization to Its operation in the classroom.

The Objectives were to document In detail the systematic DESIGN AND
MESSAGE CREATION PROCESS of IAH 201 for the purposes of providing a basic guide
to making ITV; to provide a record of IAH 201 for archival purposes; and to introduce In
addition and supportive to Objective 1 the concepts of the AUDIENCE
PARTICIPATION/BASED approach to me production of mediated forms of instruction such
as IAH 201 to provide a theoretical frame oriented to the development of I‘I'V for

developing countries.

DEDICATED

TO

MY MOTHER BERYL MAY ARCHBALD-CRICHLOW

AND

MY FATHER DR. FELIX A. CRICHLOW, M.D.C.M.

AND

MY DAUGHTER LEAH NATALIE GOLD

AND FOR THE

DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION EDUCATION OF THE CARIBBEAN AND OUR

THIRD WORLD COUNTRIES WHO MUST USE COMMUNICATION. INFORMATION,
AND TECHNOLOGY FOR THEIR OWN GROWTH.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

i'd like to take this opportunity to say a very sincere thank you to all those who
made this return to academia, after so many years, realizable and without whom this vital
training would have been impossible.

First, to my dearest daughter Leah Natalie Gold for all her love, sensitivity, and
encouragement as always to go on living creatively. To Vernon Griffith, my special
brother, who made it all possible as my sponsor and who kept me going in the darkest
hours; to my brothers and their families always there for me; my sister and husband in the
UK always so supportive.

Thanks also to my Michigan families, Mrs. Onuma Ezera of Nigeria, Africana
Librarian at M.S.U., Mr. and Mrs. Charles Watson, Caliista and Choclate, and to all the
other friends l have made in Michigan. To those from the Caribbean all so helpful and
ready to laugh at the worst. To WLAJ-TV 53 ABC for my internship, which extended my
state-of-the-art expertise and professional friendships.

My great appreciation goes to all the members cf THE PROJECT TEAM OF IAH
201 who assisted me in so many ways to be able to video and write this Thesis. My
appreciation goes to Mr. Bob Albers, my Academic Advisor, who sorted out my several
problems with his wry humor, thoroughness and understanding. Special thanks to my
Thesis Committee: Mr. Robert Albers, Dr. Angeline Dvorak, and Dr. Bella Mody and
M.S.U.

Thanks to the Department of Telecommunication, M.S.U., for all its facilities.
Gratitude is due to Dr. Howard Anderson, Chairman of the Graduate School, for the
Graduate Fellowship and renewal of the Nancy Dempsey Scholarship for the second year,

which also helped to see me through.

Thanks must go to the Cipriani Labor College of Trinidad, Caribbean, the Ministry
of Labor, and the Chief Personnel Officer there for Leave to let me complete this essential
research study which I hope will be useful to the College, University system and lTV/ETV
in the Caribbean. And very special thanks and appreciation go to Dr. Bella Mody not only
for her most welcome and enjoyable intellectual rigor and sensitive support but also for
her brilliant work for Third World Development Communication which guides and inspires

all of us who seek to make contributions.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

gage
Chapter I
Objectives of the Study/Introduction .............................. 1
Chapter II
Review of Literature - Historical Overview .......................... 5
Chapter III
Methodology .............................................. 55
Introduction: Video Recording The Message Creation Process .......... 55
Part I: The Systematic Process of lAH 201’s Project Team ............ 58
Part 2: Evaluation Design of lAH 201 ............................ 62
Chapter IV
Part I: Summary of Findings .................................. 64
Part II: Responses to \fideo ................................... 71
Chapter V
Summary of Procedures ...................................... 74

 

 

vi

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES

Television in Higher/Tertiary Education is now an accepted fact in many developed
countries. Since the 19305 and post-war years, Educational/Instructional (ETV/ITV)
Television has been recognized as a valuable educational tool at all levels of education.
Extensive exploration has been done over the years on a world-wide basis towards the
development of the pedagogy, andragogy, methodology, techniques of presentation and
improvements in all aspects of video production for classrooms, closed-circuit TV and for
national broadcasting. The potential of ETV/ITV for developing and under-developed
countries is only just beginning to be explored seriously to really benefit those countries.
The paradigm for development and, therefore, for Development Communication and use
of media in countries of dependency changed over the years and continues to grow. Most
of these theories and practices always served the center or developed countries.

Detailed documentation of the MESSAGE CREATION PROCESS of a major video
course in the making such as Michigan State University's INTEGRATIVE ARTS &
HUMANITIES (IAH 201) provided a cardinal opportunity to lay a possible foundation and
record a systematic design and approach to the production of mediated forms of
instruction on video in higher education but useful at other levels also. Coupled with the
new Audience Participation-Based Approach of designing (Mody, 1991) messages for
Development Support Communication, it is hoped that this research will be a theoretical
frame for the periphery or developing countries. Tailored carefully, it could be a primary
guide through all the aspects and elements requiring attention. It is hoped that it will be

useful especially to those Anglo-phone Caribbean countries and islands with their need

2
to span diverse distances, the need to use all appropriate and relevant media and

technology for their own growth in schools, Labor, Adult ITV education, and for the
far-flung University system spanning the islands and needing the network and potential
of all the new technology of media.

The purpose of this research is to document for archives and, as stated above, for
possible wider application the MESSAGE CREATION PROCESS of the development and
production of IAH 201, THE US. AND THE WORLD. This video-based course for over
6,000 M.S.U. undergraduates from Fall 1992 was designed to utilize advanced
Instructional technology to enhance the academic experience of the students. The course
was conceptualized in the Center for Integrative Studies and designed and presented by
Dr. Warren l. Cohen, M.S.U.’s Distinguished Professor of History, under the aegis of the
Faculty of Record Committee. Executive Producer/Project Coordinator of the Project
Team was Dr. Angeline Godwin Dvorak, Assistant Professor in the College of Arts &
Letters, and Mr. Dick Brundle of ITV was the Producer/Director of the video course. The
Faculty of Record Committee responsible for IAH 201, content experts, researchers, and
technology specialists worked in concert using the committed support and facilities of the
Department of Instructional TV at M.S.U. The Project Team created 40 segments of IAH
201 - THE UNITED STATES AND THE WORLD, a multi-media, mum-disciplinary video
course.

IAH 201 is another experience and innovation in the history of video production in
higher education in the USA It is in keeping with the utilization of new and proliferating
communication media for ETV/ITV in process for the last 50 years. The US. was the first
country where television was Used in colleges and universities, starting with the medical
and dental schools. The first non-commercial educational TV station was Houston's

KURT-TV, licensed to the University of Houston and Houston public schools, in 1954.

3

(Yarrington 1979) Earlier use of television as an education medium is, however, recorded
at the State University of Iowa in 1934, in Nebraska/Creighton University with WOW-TV
In 1984 and the Navy using TV for extensive training in 1949. By the 19503 Iowa State
College at Ames had its TV frequency, and Syracuse University and American University
planned to have coaxial cable linking them to commercial stations nearby. By 1951 at
least five states projected video networks and petitioned the FCC. for frequencies.
Among these were several Land Grant Colleges such as M.S.U.

The huge and growing numbers of eager students to be served and the wide range
of subjects In collegiate instruction were some of the main incentives motivating the use
of TV for teaching purposes. Television, the newest mass mode of communication after
World War II, was widely adopted in a very short time. There were, of course, hesitations,
doubts, and resistances. However, it was seen as a most useful and more efficient
method to solve critical educational problems than past procedures. A Fund for the
Advancement of Education provided support for demonstrations of the potential uses of
TV. Seminars, conferences, and workshops proliferated across the country with a growing
body of acts, laws, organizations, committees, documentations, and research guides for
the development of the new teaching medium.

By the mid-20th Century, however, TV was still undeveloped and also very costly.
In 1951 the Joint Committee on Education (JCET) was established to represent seven
large groups of American educators, colleges, and schools. The FCC. received over 300
petitions at this time for frequencies to be used for stations for education. About 209 were
finally awarded and laid the foundation for a national network of ETV in America. Later,
the term ETV was considered too broad a term for direct teaching purposes, and ITV

became a popular term for this type of programming.

4

How media can be used effectively in education is an ongoing challenge and one
that educators today continue to address. With limited resources in the under-developed
and developing countries, careful and thoughtful usage is essential. We live In the
Information and Communications age when technology produces daily innovations which
can be used fruitfully if planned with care, chosen for appropriateness, and designed
systematically for specific use and audiences. Rather than be swamped by foreign media
as Is quite possible in the present globalization of media, under-developed countries need
to consider harnessing technology to produce relevant materials for their own educational
objectives and purposes. Wide research to establish efficiencies and relevance will be
necessary. Study and exploration of experiences, such as IAH 201, provide unique living
opportunities for the analysis of ETV/lTV in growth and action. The intention of this thesis
is to attempt to document as many aspects of IAH 201 as possible from Its
conceptualization to its operation.

Objectives

1. To systematically document in detail the systematic DESIGN and MESSAGE
CREATION PROCESS OF IAH 10, M.S.U. 1992/1993 for the purposes of
providing a basic guide to making ITV.

2. To provide a record of IAH 201 for archival purposes.

3. To Introduce in addition and supportive to Objective 1 the concepts of the

AUDIENCE PARTICIPATION BASED approach to the production of mediated

forms of instruction such as IAH 201 to provide a theoretical frame oriented to the

development of ITV for developing countries.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE: HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

Teaching through radio and television began in the 1930s with one of the earliest
uses of TV as an educational medium recorded at Iowa State University in 1934. There
was a standstill during the war years until 1947 and no nation-wide progress took place
until after this date. RCA used TV to help train air raid wardens through transmitters at
police stations during the war years. Shortly after the War’s end, station WBKD and the
Chicago Public Schools cooperated in two initial, experimental and inspiring TV series:
YOUNG CHICAGO and A VIEW TO EDUCATION. Work had begun at the school system
level. At tertiary levels in 1940, Creighton University, Omaha, Nebraska, in cooperation
with Station WOW-TV, broadcast a series of programs on microscopic life, applying a
modification of the microphonographic projector to television. Perhaps the most extensive
use of television for educational purposes then attempted was undertaken by the Special
Training Devices Section of the US. Navy for the greater part of 1949. (Levenson
1945/52)

It began to become obvious that television could be useful at all levels of the
school systems. Levenson summarizes some of the benefits that motivated the growth
of TV in education: (1) Broadcasting is timely; (2) conquers space; (3) can give pupils a
sense of participation; (4) can be an emotional force in the creation of desirable attitudes;
(5) can add authority; (6) can integrate the leamer’s experience; (7) can challenge
dogmatic teaching; (8) can be used to develop discrimination; (9) can help in continuous
curriculum revision; (10) can "upgrade“ teaching skills; (11) can interpret schools to the

community; (12) offers closer observation of individual children; (13) sound is helpful in

6
teaching; (14) offers a service to handicapped children; (15) can teach skills.(1) (Levenson

1945/52)

Of course, limitations were noted. Television could not replace teachers. But it
certainly could assist in extending teacher availability especially with the growing shortage
of teachers as the number of school university places burgeoned In the post-war years.
University radio stations had flourished and fluctuated in numbers and usefulness over the
years. Television began to become more important especially when the depression
closed a large number of the stations. Some radio stations survived, but in many cases
there were too many obstacles to overcome and TV appeared to be more worth the cost
and effort.

TV by nature of its high installation and operation costs was not at first eagerly
sought by colleges and universities as was FM radio. Only Iowa State University at Ames,
Iowa, secured its own television frequency. Other universities followed with Syracuse and
American University of Washington, DC, in the forefront. Cooperative arrangements
became the usual strategy. Colleges and universities utilized the facilities of local
broadcasting stations rather than build their own too-expensive plants. This type of
arrangement proved popular across America from Boston to the University of Texas. The
University of Michigan in cooperation with WWJ-TV made a bold step In 1950 by offering
a series of regularly-scheduled courses of instruction by television through its Extension
Service. Students received through regular correspondence course machinery, course
outlines, supplementary teaching materials and lists, assignments, afinal examination, and
even ‘teletours' of libraries and laboratories of the university, allowing interaction between
students and faculty. This development laid the foundation for a model of later

methodologies and techniques of 'IV instruction (Levenson 1945/1952).

7
On October 16, 1950, the Joint Committee on Education Television was set up to

represent seven large groups of American educators. Their activities were directed
towards securing the reservations of 209 television channels in the US. and its territories
for educational purposes. The FCC. received over 300 petitions from educational groups
and Institutions signifying support and interest and intention to use these channels if they
were reserved for education. These petitions included the Land Grant Colleges such as
M.S.U. By 1952 channels were reserved for use by 252 communities. This was a
transition time for E'IV which was seen as a great new force emerging in the US.
Callahan (1953) records E‘IV as a flourishing form of entertaining teaching. There was
the growing urgent need to bolster teachers as schoolrooms bulged with students.
Callahan noted a shortage of 50,000 teachers, and the system needed relief and
extensions. How to do it and the methods used in TV instruction, the pioneer work done
by universities and ETV stations are the subject of many books, seminars, and
conferences of this time. There were the early years of experimentation and the growth
of ETV through new programs, scripts, forums, articles, and conventions. M.S.U., then
a state college, was very involved, and its statement on the use of TV in higher education
was significant.

“Education may be defined as the process by which society preserves and
transmits its intellectual and cultural heritage. Television, as the new medium of
communication, holds tremendous potential for the realization of this educational purpose
and the fulfillment of this process. To this end, Michigan State College intends to use the
Television medium to extend its educational resources and services to the people within
Its area of educational responsibility, in fulfillment of its obligation to serve the agricultural

and Industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions of iife."(2) (Callahan 1953)

A Broadcasting Policy was dedicated by the then Michigan State College (M.S.C.), and

8
this has been the guiding statement that developed over the years. (Callahan 1953) The

Broadcasting Policy reads in part:

1. The presentation and interpretation of the various courses of study, services, and
activities of the college, with emphasis upon education, research, training, and
service.

2. The development of educational programs for use by other stations, public-service
organizations, and educational institutions and the cooperative extension of time,
facilities, and services to the same group for their own development of programs
in the public interest.

3. The broadcast of informational, cultural, educational, and entertaining programs
consistent with the policies and standards of an institution of higher learning, which
may originate from sources other than the college and immediate community.

4. The development of a training program and courses of study in television
broadcasting for the staff and students of the college in order to advance and
Improve the medium and its utilization through instruction and research."(3)
(Callahan 1953)

These were the days of poor aluminum buildings resulting in 'rain on the roof'
during productions, Methodologies, and equipment developed, says M.S.U. lTV‘s Dick
Brundle, today the Producer/Director of lAH 201 (1993). The new buildings and
prestigious studios of ITV and WKAR-TV in action today only appeared in 1981 on the
M.S.U. campus. They are living monuments to the ideals and goals of the broadcasting
Policy.

In the post-war U.S., two types of television emerged: The commercial TV which
still Is basically formats to sell and educational TV with the potential for educating and

Instructing the public “community wise, health wise, and job wise.'(4) (Callahan 1953)

9

EIVIITV became a thing apart more and more from commercial television. A few seasons
of telecastlng had only begun to scratch the surface and educators, administrators, and
audiovisual supervisors, etc., all clamored for more and more facilities and
experimentation In a field that “could change the world."(5) (Callahan 1953) The
Association for Education by Radio-Television filled its journals with articles and editorials
on the current successes In TV teaching and the hundreds of emergent programs. ETV
had to have a future. Curriculum committees began to study in-school TV programming
while PTA groups and local TV dealers donated sets in classrooms and auditoriums.
(Callahan 1953) Under the aegis of JCET, the Joint Committee on Educational 1V, seven
educational organizations took the lead in developing ETV: the American Council of
Education, the Association for Education by Radio-TV, the National Association of
Educational Broadcasters (NAEB), the Association of Land Grant Colleges and
Universities, the National Association of State Universities, the National Council of Chief
State School Officers, and the National Education Association of Teachers. By April 14,
1952, these educators were seeing the fruits of their labors when the FCC. awarded 252
TV channels for non-commercial stations.(6) (Callahan 1953)

The National Citizens Committee for Educational Television (NCCET) was formed
in the midwest In the 505 to work in collaboration with JCEI' to strengthen public support,
accelerate planning, and to help with fundraising since costs were so astronomical. The
NCCET/NAE and JCEI' formulated plans for the NETRC, the National Educational
Television and Radio Center, to serve the nation’s school and community stations. It was
located in Chicago and with the help of the Ford Foundation, et al, the Fund for Adult
Education set aside $1.5 million to see the center begin. Its purpose was two-fold: (1)
to serve as a distribution center for educational stations; and (2) to develop programs

suggested by the Center’s Programming and Research Division. National ETV/ITV was

10

beginning to take off and to grow in leaps and bounds. Many books and documents detail
this growth which cannot be included in detail here with the limitations and focus of this
study. The improvement of teaching by television was at all times central to the growth
and to the experimentation over the years.

The Penn State University Project #1, AN lNVESTlGATION OF CLOS ED-CIRCUIT
TELEVISION FOR TEACHING UNIVERSITY COURSES (1955), is significant in its
objectives and its findings. It helps to summarize and present some of the cogent areas
of study then being addressed nation wide by universities and schools systems. These
have affected thinking and developments up to today.

PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY 1955
Oblectives and General Conclusions On ITV

Objective One: To compare the relative effectiveness of conventional Instruction
with the same Instruction presented over closed-circuit television for a full academic
semester.

Relevant Finding: The overall comparative measurements did not yield significant

differences in information learning by students in two different courses of

psychology and the lecture demonstrations part In general chemistry.

Ob|ective Two: To study the acceptability of unmodified courses presented to
students over closed-circuit television.

Relevant Findings:

a. Instructional television was acceptable to students for the courses as

taught in the context of experiment.

b. Students' general attitudes towards televised instruction as compared with

direct instruction were mainly neutral or slightly negative.

11
Ob|ectlve Three: To investigate trends in effectiveness and acceptance during

a full semester of regular Instruction.

Relevant Finding: No statistically significant trends in effectiveness or acceptance

were found over the course of a full academic semester of televised instructions.

Oblective Four: To study the feasibility of using "moderate cost'I closed-circuit

television for teaching selected university courses.

Relevant Finding: It was found to be practical to use vidicon closed-circuit

television equipment under the conditions of the experiment, but there are many

problems of feasibility and costs which need further study preparatory of full-scale
operations.

Oblectlve Five: To study the acceptance of~ instructional television by

administrators and faculty members.

Relevant Findings:

a. University administrators accept and see promise in closed-circuit television
as one means of solving difficult problems related to increased student
enrollment, shortages of instructors, and limitations of academic space and
facilities.

b. Experienced instructors generally do not prefer instructional television, as
used in this experiment, to their accustomed teaching procedures.

c. Faculty members are willing to accept closed-circuit television on an
experimental basis.

Oblectlve Six: To explore the possibilities of using closed-circuit television to

extend the power and influences of good and superior instruction to large numbers of

students.

12

Relevant Finding: Practical use of two systems suggests that the potentialities are
very great for using single or multiple systems of closed-circuit vidicon television
for channeling excellent instruction from a single source or sources to very large
numbers of university students. This year's exploratory work has helped to define

a great number of unsolved problems of instructional television which urgently

need Investigation.(7)

A survey of the existing literature on the effectiveness of television as a means of
Instructions as at 1955 is available also in the Penn State Project report by Carpenter and
Greenhill (1955). Research was conducted by two principal groups: (a) US. Department
of Defense and other related agencies, and (b) colleges and universities. Relevant
findings will be discussed in following sections of this study as useful.

The offering of 1V courses for college credit was one of the first instructional uses
of TV. By the mid-50$ ETV/ITV was being used widely in Higher Education in both public
and private colleges and universities, in engineering schools, teacher-training Institutions,
junior colleges and technical institutes. Almost every subject in the college curriculum had
been taught somewhere with television. Through matching funding and Ford grants,
faculty members were released from duties to present programs on the newly-established
EI'V stations to strengthen college-level credit course offerings on TV. Meaney (1962)
reports on the College Faculty Released- ime Program for TV Instructions undertaken by
27 colleges and universities. The insights and experience gained were invaluable.

The concept of E'IV expanded to include Direct Teaching, and the Ford
Foundation shifted Its emphasis in its grants from general cultural programming called
ETV or ITV, per se. The 27 institutions in the colleges and universities program slowly
took over larger and larger shares of costs. By April 1961 $1,200,000 in Foundation

grants had been received by the 27 institutions. Half was used for CCTV, Closed-Circuit

13

'IV, campus studios to classrooms hook-ups by cable and microwave much as the
facilities used at M.S.U. for the telecasting of IAH 201. These years utilized the
knowledge gained as far back as 1958 when hundreds of carefully controlled experiments
testing the effectiveness of 'IV as an instructional device in practically every area of
Instruction had been undertaken. Various approaches to presentation and methods and
techniques were attempted in the drive to improve the medium, cut costs, and develop
networks and cooperation. M.S.U. was particularly active through its Continuing Education
Service and Institute of Communication Research. (McKune 1956 and Kumata 1956)

Invaluable to the time was Hideya Kumata’s AN INVENTORY OF
INSTRUCTIONAL RESEARCH (1956). Supported by a grant from the University of Illinois
Institute of Communications Research, it provided an overview of ITV Research in
classroom and non-credit courses and Abstracts of Pertinent Articles still useful today to
educators. Many of the findings of these research projects remain relevant today. Actual
performance at this point in time had far outstripped evaluation of ITV and pioneers were
needed In this field. Kumata felt that “except in a few studies, a true partnership between
performance and evaluation does not exist" (1956). The abstracts and additional readings
presented In the inventory contains the results of research accomplished so far at that
time. The list is small considering the fact that there were efforts by 47 school systems
and 406 credit and non-credit courses put on by 77 different colleges and universities and
at least 29 closed-circuit teaching programs.

A brief summary of some of the findings relevant for this study will Indicate some
of the concerns:
1. 90 students learn bv television?

This question was asked in several studies. The finding by Belson appears to be

typical: After exposure to two 10-minute programs in a BBC information series,

2b.

14

70% of his sample of 250 showed ”sufficient grasp of the full major main point“
and 80% had a “sufficient grasp of at least a useful part of the full major main
point." Rock, Duva, and Murray reported that all grades of officers and enlisted
men reservists made significantly higher scores on a series of eight one-hour
telecasts on combat operations. Stanley found that In general a substantial
Increase in sources of 2nd and 6th graders on a true and false test occurred after
exposure to one of a series of ITV programs. Ulrich, working with 8th graders,
found that television students did significame better than a control group which
was not exposed to the material. Snyder reported that after taking high school TV
credit courses, adults passed 71% of 337 tests and failed 29% of them.

Do students taught by TV compare well wMose taught by other media?

The answer to this question is probably the best documented of all says Kumata.
'On the whole, television students have done as well as other students and at
times somewhat better.“ (Kumata 1956)

TV vs. r_e_gular classroom lecture.

Evans, Roney, and McAdams found “no significant difference in performance" on
final examinations between TV students in two subjects-~biology and psychology.
Carpenter and Greenhill found no significant differences in regular semester
examinations between TV and normal instruction students in chemistry and
psychology. The list of favorable comments on TV and results were long. Studies
that reported on TV vs. Audio-only instruction found that students exposed to TV
did significantly better than those who were taught by reading and normal methods
only.

What is the effect on retention of material learned through TV?

The longest term retention study done was over a period of eight months. Paul

1 5
and Ogilivla did a follow-up study of Canadian students, and in all four conditions

of exposure there was a significantly better score for the controls than for those
not exposed to the TV materials. TV students scored highest, followed by the in-
studio students, then radio and finally reading-only students. Forgetting seemed
proportional to the amount learned and was independent of the medium by which
the lnfonnation was acquired.

What methods of teaching In TV are the most effective?

Kumata records that Brandon compared three different methods of presenting
Information on TV--by lecture, Interview, and panel discussion. There was no
significant difference among the three methods as measured by an immediate
information post test. Ulrich tested for the relative effects of a straight lecture, the
same lecture with visual aids handled by the instructor, and the same lecture with
visual aids flashed across the screen. An Immediate post test by the 8th graders
Involved revealed that the straight lecture was significantly inferior to the two visual
aids versions in transmitting information. There was no difference between the two
visual-aid versions.

Under what audience conditions does learning_bv TV seem effective?

The Pennsylvania State University explored this question most thoroughly. They
found that varying the size of the class from 14 to 200 students In TV receiving
rooms did not have any effect on the amount learned. They reported that no
difference occurred among television groups due to the amount of proctoring (none
to full time) or kind of proctoring (peers, graduate assistants, and faculty). There
were no significant differences among “IV students because of the kind of
discussion arrangements (35 minute TV lecture followed by 15 minute class

discussion led by graduate students or two lectures a week followed by a full

16

period of discussion). This area of research is still being explored today in
MSU/IAH 201 1992-1993 and other l‘lV projects.

How Important is intercommunication or feedback?

The concern prior leads to this one. There are very few studies, says Kumata,
that attacked this problem directly at that time. The studies at Penn State
compared students in a ROTC course between those who had an opportunity to
use a two-way microphone and those who did not. No significant differences were
reported. In a study designed to encourage discussion, Harshbarger and Becker
found that more students in the classroom indicated a desire to participate or did
so than in the TV rooms. Making intercommunication available often resulted in
trite and immaterial questions. Fitz, et al, concluded that most of the questions
from the class could be eliminated if adequate preparation and planning went Into
the lesson plan of the instructor. More research in this area was recommended.
Penn State's Greenhill and Carpenter reviewed closed-circuit courses for university
teaching and McIntyre and Greenhill discussed these courses to consider various
methods to improve student participation and interaction.

What kinds of subject matter are best taught over TV?

Practically every field of instruction has been attempted by television, says
Kumata. Nevertheless, there was very little evidence to point out the most fruitful
subject matter areas for TV transmission. An inventory taken then showed that
respondents listed science, medicine, teaching of interrelationship among parts of
equipment, manipulation of equipment, social studies, art, history, and training
subjects. (Kumata 1956) I

How are instructors chosen for TV teaching?

Last, but not least, in the range of areas researched and the immediately relevant

17
ones for this study is the above question. in the Heath Study which surveyed a

number of educational institutions engaged in ITV, the following was found: 'The
most frequently mentioned factors were the subject matter handled by the teacher;
the teacher's personality; the teacher’s reputation as a good teacher. it was
concluded that first of all the TV teacher has to be a good classroom teacher.
Gable says that good face-to-face teachers make good TV teachers and concludes
that in picking a staff for ITV the preference should be to pick teachers to learn TV
rather than to pick TV staff personnel to learn instructional procedures.'(8)
(Kumata 1956)

One further area to be mentioned concerns the length of TV instruction
generally preferred by students. Allan found most students agreeing that one hour
was the maximum for any one TV session. They also preferred to have days for
TV and days for discussion following. Gable found that teachers prefer a 15-
minute session for primary and 30-minute sessions for elementary and secondary
grades. (Kumata 1956) The research and concerns of the 503 and 603 continued
over the decades into the 705 as well.

The Kumata Survey (1956) reports that a total of 244 separate courses for college
credit appeared on open broadcast by 48 different Institutions. Of these 244 courses, 12
were given by the University of Houston, 23 by Western Reserve University, and 28 by
the University of Omahaua total of 93 courses or 38.1% of those reported. Other
Institutions reporting over 10 courses were Indiana University - 15; Michigan State
University - 11; Iowa State College - 10; and the Oregon State System of Higher
Education - 10. Three of those top seven institutions broadcast their own courses over

educational television channels-Houston, Iowa State, and Michigan State University.

18

M.S.U.’s WKAR-TV, a public television station, was to come much later In the 60s to serve
the University’s growing needs.

Television was being recognized as the “best device in the modern world for linking
minds by transmitting, transilluminating, genitive manifestations in movement and sound
or the planned absence of such manifestations."(9) (McKune 1969) Some things were
particularly highlighted;

By 1962 three important variables were commonly present In colleges and
universities now in ITV:

1. Telecasts were either live or recorded.

2. Telecasts were done over closed-circuit (cable or microwave) facilities or

over broadcast facilities.

3. Courses were offered for formal credits in one or more than one institution;

I.e., multi-institutional credits were possible.

In 1968, MSU published its NATIONAL COMPENDIUM OF TELEVISED
EDUCATION (Vol. 15). It was put out by University of the Air, M.S.U. Continuing
Education Service with the cooperative assistance of chief state school officers, school
boards, ETV commissions, television councils, state networks, commercial TV stations and
personnel responsible for televised education in 14,189 sources tapped for 1967-68.
Educators who were trying to extend the learning horizons of staff and student alike, to
Increase functional adequacy of overcrowded school plants, and to stabilize quality of
eduction surveyed a number of educational institutions engaged in ITV. The following

were found:

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

19
THE COMPENDIUM

That television employs no magic, but a competent, well-coordinated team of
producers, teachers, and technicians, make it seem like magic.

That It Is only a complex electronic medium; a machine; a device.

That each of us may use the medium to the extent of our willingness and worth.
The medium can transmit only the excellence which teachers bring to It.

That it transmits the composite representation of all efforts Infallibly.

That the medium and the service it affords must be used without neglecting other
audio-visual media.

That status, personal authority, depend upon our mastery of television in its
relation to this era of time and space.

That teachers, being people, have changed very little throughout the centuries.

That teaching requires facility with words and psychological awareness of added

. complexities in mass-communication--adjusted for strengths and limitations In the ‘

greater learning process.

That the need to be human persists and is requisite.

That children who have grown up with television now enter school with greatly
widened horizons.

That students are learning, both in school and out, with accelerated independence,
being accustomed to a pattern of one way communication.

That teachers must be cognizant of this independence in developing televised
instruction.

That vitalization of subject matter can be no greater, no more effective, than is the

recorded stimuli and the attendant response contributed by the human mechanism.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

20

That television teaching demands great sustained energy, keen perceptual vitality,
disciplined physical aliveness, and unfiagging integrity.

That television will teach with an eye more perceptive than the most obdurate of
supervisors, penetrate depths of personality, knowledge and understanding,
revealing the communicator precisely as he is, no better and no worse.

That the competent communicator cannot be enslaved by the medium, but must
be served by it.

That shallowness, Incompetence, artifice, and ignorance will likely result In failure
on television.

That knowledge, simplicity, and integrity, represented with clarity, economy and
relevance will be successful.

That continued success will depend upon the wisdom and ingenuity of
administrators, the ability and skill of communicators, and the Intent and aptness
of viewers.

That television can be used effectively, successfully, and economically throughout
our culture, in our study and our work.

That ready acceptance of ideas depends upon initial participation in the Inception
and development as applied to teachers, to students, to administrators, and to the

public.(10) (McKune 1969)

@VANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

From the 603 and into the 70s and 803, the focus in ITV became more and more

evaluative. A UNESCO study (Cassirer 1960) on the subject of the use of TV by colleges

and universities reported on the Penn State University findings on the appropriateness,

21

acceptability, and feasibility of ITV. The findings at Pennsylvania State University have

been summarized in a report of the Fund for the Advancement of Education:

APPROPRIATENESS

1.

Television can be used to extend the reach of the most experienced instructors to
large numbers of students, especially in introductory courses taught by the lecture
demonstration method.

Televised Instruction can be supplemented by laboratory or discussion sections in
small groups under the leadership of graduate students or selected seniors.
Teacher-student Interaction can be achieved through the use of a two-way
intercommunication system. But, teachers and students must learn to use the
system effectively.

Simple television systems can be used to magnify demonstrations in laboratories
In such a way as to facilitate laboratory instructions.

Test questions of the conventional objective and essay types can be presented
over television to large numbers of students. Television also shows promise for
the presentation of lifelike problem situations for students to solve, thus opening

up new dimensions of testing.

ACCEPTABILITY

1.

Student responses show that on the average, 78 percent of students think that the
use of television is either a “very good“ or “fairly good“ means of teaching courses
with large enrollments.

Students In TV classes ranked televised instruction first over conventional
instruction in classes of 200 taught by the same instructor, or classes of 45 taught

by graduate assistants.

22

in five courses, students were given instructions via television, and in face-to-face
situations by the same teachers. They were then given a choice between the two
methods of instruction for the remainder of the semester. On the average,
students chose televised instructions six to four over face-to-face instruction by the
same teacher in a large class.

Attitudes toward televised instructions by faculty members have varied greatly. A
few are quite negative towards it. Some are enthusiastic, and the largest
proportions appear to be undecided or Indifferent Many faculty members have not
observed televised classes.

Almost every semester, over the eight-semester period that television has been
used for instruction at Penn State, there has been an increase In the number of

courses and instructors participating in the television project.

FEASIBIUTY

1.

It was felt In 1960 that moderate-cost "professional“ vidicon television equipment,
which was what was then in use, was entirely adequate for the presentation of
televised instruction on a large scale. Low-cost “industrial" vidicon equipment also
then in use was felt then to be adequate for magnifying live demonstrations
(including use of the microscope) in large auditoriums or laboratories. Today,
vidicon equipment does not exist.

Personnel usually found in a university can operate and maintain this equipment.
Many functions can be handled by students.

Careful cost analyses in four well-established courses showed savings of $38,000
In one year through the use of television as compared with the traditional ways of
teaching these courses. Comparison included all operating costs for television as

well as depreciation of equipment.

23

4. Average costs per student credit unit for the year in these four courses were
reduced from $9.48 for conventional teaching to $5.44 for televised instruction.

5. It was found that the "break even“ point in relative costs was reached when 200
students were enrolled in a course. Below this figure, conventional teaching In
groups of 45 students was cheaper. Above it, substantial savings are possible
through the use of television.

To conclude this report on the use of television at Pennsylvania State University,
it should be stressed that the evaluators of this project were conscious of the fact that they
were only at the beginning of a long road, and that there were many open questions which
could only be answered by experience, coupled with careful research. Available evidence
supports the generalizations that closed circuit televised instruction to large numbers of
shrdents in general college courses can make a very significant contribution towards
solving the quantity problem. But the quality problem still remained to be solved. It may
be possible to demonstrate that televised instructing can be so conducted and
supplemented as to lnstigate superior academic achievement by students when compared
with conventional and generally employed methods of direct teaching. Adequate evidence
supporting this proposition was not yet fully available. It is for this, and many other,
reasons that most of the educators engaged in the use of television did not want to limit
themselves to this medium of communication. They envisaged the use of television where
it meets strongly felt needs, and makes significant contributions either from an
administrative or an educational point of view. But, they envisaged equally the use of
other forms of education which are carried on simultaneously.(11) (Cassirer 1960)

Meaney (1962) documents as the most often cited advantage of professors that
ITV made it possible to give lectures that were “better than any” given before. Students

concurred that lectures had improved greatly. The improvement was explained by the fact

24

that professors were given full-released time to prepare their TV courses. So TV was
seen as creating a new logistic of teaching which by increasing the output per person hour
provides the means of creating a new product. With more time, the lecturer produces a
new course that is tighter, more rigorous, more condensed, and yet covers the subject
matter In less time.

The professor can also do things on TV that he could never do otherwise;
closeups, even microscopic ones of maps, drawings, demonstrations, etc., can bring detail
into the classrooms as never before. He or she can bring in interviews on films or video-
clips of great events and famous scholars students would never meet, tap all the wealth
of films, make direct eye contact with every viewer; employ a range of graphic and
animated techniques that the camera alone can create. Videotape also allowed
professors to continue classes even when ill, absent, or on leave. Repetitiveness is also
minimized.

The fear, however, was exposed that taping lectures could lead to ‘frozen
teaching." Parts would, in fact, be repeated, and sometimes long after they are out of
date. Erasure and renewal could, however, take care of this possibility in the same way
that spoken lectures are revised.

Some faculty members saw TV as a possible threat of exploitation of the professor
unless agreements are worked out ahead of time. Rights of revision, terms of infra-inter-
lnstitutional use and provision for royalty payments when appropriate should bear
discussion. A few such agreements were made. Some telecourse professors also
resented that their hard work would not meet with recognition as well as reimbursement.
But, wider viewing of lecturers’ work as allowed by TV in fact worked to some advantage,
and those involved were seen as pioneers as well as benefitted by raises in salary and

promotion. Prestige, through TV, often went further than the usual kudos for publication.

25

Another disadvantage explored concerned the size of classes and the possibility
of too much distance between lecturer and student. On the other hand, some faculty felt
that TV allowed a much greater intimacy especially in large, over-crowded classrooms.
What felt like direct eye contact per student was often perceived by students as an
advantage from TV. A professor meeting with a small group of students was still,
however, seen as the ideal. Most professors regret the loss of direct personal contact In
the classroom. Lack of opportunity for immediate feedback of student reactions,
classroom discussion and questions were generally considered a large handicap.
Methodologies and techniques were being explored to minimize the "impersonality' of TV
classes. The use of Teaching Assistants, proctors, regular meetings with professors In
tutorials were also considered. TV lectures were limited to two a week and one weekly
classroom discussion session was held weekly. This model became widespread. With
the emergence of the computer, more on-line contact became possible as will be seen.

The experience of a lecture free from all interruptions, reports Meaney, was not
without its gains. As one student wrote about the TV lecture, 'It is never late, always
present and has no human foibles such as favoritism and anger that waste precious class
time."(12) (Meaney 1962) It also limited the “show off" professor and student! The more
mature students felt that postponing questions until later in the week resulted In more
thoughtful questions and challenged them to exercise a greater responsibility and initiative
in seeking answers of their own. The lack of feedback did sometimes result in some
professors' lectures moving too fast. This problem of pacing had to be addressed. Some
researchers found that experienced producer-directors could be of great assistance In
achieving the proper rate of delivery. Apart from rehearsal prior to taping, visuals,
captions, graphs, reinforcing data cards, etc., could be inserted to slow down the pace of

the material for absorption. Discussions on tape with other lectures also could slow the

26
pace of the material for absorption. Discussions on tape with other lecturers also could

slow the pace and a token class of four or five sometimes could provide a guide allowing
question times. These were later discarded when pace was seen as satisfactory.

The limitations of this study do not allow the recording of all the many facets of the
advantages and disadvantages explored over the decades of ITV's growth. The aim was
always improvements of ITV, and this was widely achieved. To sum up further, TV
offered a substantial saving over small classes taught by faculty or teaching assistants;
was cheaper than large lectures which may need repeating; can be economical if costs
are shared by several institutions; provides proven instructional ability to large numbers
of students seeking places more and more in learning systems. Real gains In quality of
instructional inputs and in course content and organization have already been mentioned.
Most of all are the technical advantages of ITV where the use of visual aidsucharts,
tables, etc-can be entertaining, educational and endless. (Meaney 1962)

To sum finally some more of the disadvantages briefly, although only providing a
limited amount of data, ITV could absorb a disproportionate amount of an Instructor's time.
If publication is more important to the institution, a professor could suffer in the long run
from prolonged and intensive involvement in ITV. Teaching via TV involves different skills
and different satisfactions and rewards than classroom teaching, Meaney notes. Lastly,
It was felt by some lecturers and researchers that instructors might be unduly restrained
by pressure groups from discussing controversial issues. Since instructors are now more
"public' in a sense, the instructor might become inhibited in relation to expressing
'unpopular" opinions. Emergent research also dealt at length on issues such as these
and others affecting the ITV teachers.

Pierce (1978) notes that future historians may be perplexed that as late as the

19703 controversy still raged as to whether TV affected every day behavior. It was by

27

then so much a tool of education and of commercialism and had been subject of
widespread research. In the spirit of inquiry and challenge, Pierce brought together a
range of papers to share the problems involved in obtaining the promise of TV's potential.
Space does not allow detailing but some issues explored at this time included the sort of
things a teacher or any informed citizen might need to know about ITV. A reader, he felt,
'would be led to his own communings about a variety of subjects ranging from leamlng
theories to socioeconomics problems to the biological fabric of the human being.“ (Pierce
1978) This leads to the literature concerned with pedagogy, methodologies, andragogy,

techniques, and critical scholarly thinking on the subject of ITV.

PEDAGOGYlANDRAG-OGY, MEI'HODOLOGIESI AND CRITICAL SCHOLARLY
THINKING

A taxonomy of educational objectives (Bloom & Krathwohl, et al, 1956) must be
noted as relevant; this is a classification of educational goals relating to the cognitive
domain. Curriculum builders specify objectives in order to plan leamlng experiences
through the use of such classification of objectives. A taxonomy covers, among other
subjects knowledge objectives of trends and sequences, of universals and abstractions,
principles and generalization, of intellectual abilities and skills to be acquired. Learning
tasks and strategies; e.g., writing, keeping a journal, etc. are related to such objectives.
How and why humans acquire, store, and use information are useful information for the
educator In whatever field. These are some of the concerns of those in ITV which is but
another field of education. (Callahan 1953)

The same general principles of learning apply to all media but certain media
present special opportunities and also special problems, says Neal Miller of Yale

University (1957). Preparation of assessments and judgments of TV instruction must be

28

made relative to the broad educational aims and responsibilities of colleges and
universities. TV is not only presenting information or teaching objective facts but it Is a
complex process of teaching and learning. It has to be seen as two integrated
communication systems of visual and auditory stimuli instructional in character and
projected and perceived by students. (Adams, et al, 1957) The Report of the Conference
Sponsored Jointly by the Committee on Television of the American Council of Education
and the Pennsylvania State University, 1957, edited by Adams, Carpenter and Smith
explored many of the relevant issues in this area. They asked what is television when
viewed functionally as it relates to the complex processes of teaching and learning.
Concerned with its large capacities and its limitations, the educators Involved felt that
there was need for techniques and methods to overcome the limitations. They also felt,
among other things, that too little was still known by professional educators about human
behavior, leamlng potentials, and principles of learning.

Neal Miller, in one of the papers at the Conference at Penn State, Principles of
Learning m Televised Instruction, described what he saw as the fundamental factors of
the problems of Teaching/Leaming paradigms. Miller suggests the importance of:

a. DRIVE or, as it is often called, MOTIVATION. The student must want

something.

b. CUE or, as it is often called, STIMULUS. The student must notice

something.

c. RESPONSE or, as it is often called, PARTICIPATION. The student must

get something that he wants.

These he felt had to be 'roadtested“ for ITV. In the ongoing confrontations about

Learning theory they perhaps need even more attention today. It is useful here to record

29

the literature dealing with that controversy on theory as relevant to the emergence of
taxonomies, pedagogy, andragogy, methodologies for ITV.

There has, in fact, been an ongoing climate of disagreements and mainly two
camps about Learning Concepts and Processes for decades. (Millholan and Forisha
1972) Central to the paradigms are the Behavioral concepts of Skinner and the
Phenomenological process of learning espoused by Rogers. These divergent, highly
influential philosophical and psychological viewpoints of human nature had great influence
on education. Over. time, they produced two contrasting approaches to educational
theorizing about pedagogy and andragogy (adult pedagogy). The Behaviorist orientation
considers man/woman to be a passive organism governed by stimuli supplied by the
external environment. Man/woman can be manipulated, his/her behavior controlled. The
Phenomenological orientation considers man/woman to be the source of all acts.
Man/woman is essentially free to make choices in each situation. The focal point of this
freedom is human consciousness. Behavior then is only the observable expression and
consequences of an essentially private and internal world of being. The latter orientation
appears to be much closer than the former to the researchers on TV and ITV as a cultural
forum (Newcomb 1987) and TV as a text, a media text to be read by I'readers" who bring
their consciousness and educational baggage to the experience of viewing TV. (lser
1978) Since IAH 201 apparently leaned more towards the Phenomenological school of
thought on Ieaming theories and therefore the methodologies relevant to be applied, it is
useful to review the controversy briefly here.

Harvard's Skinner was ovenivhelmingly chosen from a survey of departmental
chalrrnen of American universities as the most influential figure in modern psychology In
the 1970s. He was a most controversial choice. His contributions consist of developing

the study of behavior into an objective science. His experiments with both Positive and

30

Negative Reinforcements on laboratory animals were very well known. His other
contributions include the fictional account of a Utopia based on scientific control of human
behavior, WALDEN TWO (1948). His subsequent book BEYOND FREEDOM AND
DIGNITY (1971), a non-fiction version, delivers the message that "we can no longer afford
freedom and so it must be replaced with control over man, his conduct, his culture.“(14)
(Millholan and Forisha 1972)

Most educators have been affected by Skinner. School practices have been
Influenced by his principle of OPERANT CONDITIONING. Knowingly or not, these
principles have been applied in the classroom. These are based on the effects of
“reward“ and “punishment.“ Influences on his work include Pavlov's (association/stimulus
and response experiments with dogs), classical conditioning theory, and Watson and
behaviorism. Historically, he is linked to Lockean associationistic, environmentalist
tradition, and determinist positions as expressed in the work of more contemporary

psychologists.

THE PROCESS OF LEARNING: SKINNER'S SCIENTIFIC
ANA_I¢SIS OF _B_EHAVIOR
In Skinner’s system all behaviors fall into one of two classes: “Reflex" or
'Involuntary' behavior and "Voluntary“ behavior or “Operant” behavior. The “unscientific“
nature or ambiguity of these terms led Skinner to rename and define them carefully.
Besmdent (reflexive) behavior covers all responses of human beings and organism
elicited by special stimulus changes in the environment of the human or organism. The
other type or gm behavior covers all the things we do that have an effect on or

operate on our outside world; i.e., affect the environment.

31

The second kind of behavior includes a much greater number of human responses.
In fact, most human behavior is operant in character; e.g., walking, writing, driving a car,
etc., says Skinner. Operant behavior takes in all of the things we do that have an effect
on or operate on our outside world. Whereas responses are elicited automatically by a
specific class of stimuli from the very beginning, operants are neither automatic nor related
to known stimuli. What makes an infant take its first step? No stimuli can evoke it. We
simply have to wait for it to occur.

TWO KINDS OwRNINg

For each kind of behavior, Skinner identifies a type of Ieaming or conditioning.
Associated with respondent behavior is ;e_spgi_qent conirtioning. Pavlovian or classical
conditioning is said to be of this sort. Pavlov’s experiments with dogs being conditioned
to salivatelrespond through stimuli for food are well known. A particular stimulus
consistentm elicits the remnse. But Skinner was not too concerned with this type of
conditioning or Ieaming. .

The second type of Ieaming Skinner calls Operant Conditioning. Whereas
respondent behavior is controlled by a preceding stimulus, Operant Conditioning is
controlled by its consequences; stimuli which follows the response. An example is a baby
accidentally touching a bell on his crib. When this happens again, the baby begins to
touch the bell to get the sound. So the stimuli follows the resgnse, says Skinner. He
called this reinforcement. Thorndike called it the Law of Effect. It is through this
conditioning process we refer to as learning, that Skinner believes that most behavior is

acquired.

32
IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING: THE TECHNOLOGY OF TEACHING

Skinner feels that there are notable deficiencies in the present methods of
teaching. One major problem he feels is the use of aversive control; e.g., physical
punishment or the threat of extra homework or exams. Students study because the
teacher holds authority and control. Students soon rebel in some form. Skinner feels
children learn without being taught because they are naturally interested and Ieam and
discover by themselves. Skinner feels this discovery method is, however, inadequate.
Students do not Ieam simply by doing or being in contact with the environment. For
Ieaming to occur, we must recognize the response, the occasion upon which the response
occurs and the consequences of the response. In order for schools to achieve their
purpose, effective control of behavior must be achieved. This is accomplished through
special techniques designed to arrange Enforcement conti_ngencies; the relation between
behavior on the one hand and the consequences on the other.

For Skinner the application of his methods to education is simple and direct.
Teaching Is simply the arrangement of contingencies of reinforcement under which
students Ieam. Skinner feels what is missing from the classroom is Mile
reinforcement. Students remember because they have been reinforced for recalling what
they saw or heard. If natural reinforcers inherent in the subject matter (e.g., art and its
materials) are not enough, contrived reinforcers (e.g., visits to museums, books, etc.) must
be used to control behavior.

Another question is how are reinforcements to be made contingent on the
appropriate behavior. Skinner's answer is that becoming competent in any subject matter
ls accomplished by dividing the material into very small steps. This led naturally to the
emergence of educational applications called programmed Instruction and teaching

machines. These have been severely criticized as one of the types of the technology of

33
teaching that jeopardizes individuality and is a form of debilitating control. Natural

Scientific psychology did not appear to have all the answers.

CARL R. ROGERS: A HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY

The literature in the field on Ieaming processes most relevant to lTV
methodologies, techniques and developmentseems to lie in the area of Phenomenology,
Carl Rogers' Humanistic approach which influenced educational theorizing. There Is a
tradition in psychology which attempted to define psychology as the study of the human
person. It embraced the viewpoint that psychology belongs to Human Science and not
to Natural Science.

Psychologists who are committed to science have by and large been concerned
with meeting the standards of Natural Science and adopted attitudes and methods in their
shidy of behavior a la Skinner, at al. This has been the dominant influence In psychology.
But objectors led by Maslow developed the notion of The Third Force in psychology.
Rogers was prominent in this movement. To these objectors any science of human
behavior attempting to capture the essence of man in a set of symbolic elements and
relations among these elements is to do violence to his nature and dehumanize him. A
scientific study of man they felt is crude, insensitive and superficial. Only the trivial and
obvious In human behavior can be addressed by the scientific method and so the
uniqueness, complexity, and unpredictability of mankind are omitted and ignored. Rogers,
et al, wanted a different conception of science and a human scientific psychology, a new
type of science or a broader meaning of science more faithful to the phenomena of man.
Every day phenomena of life such as experiences, feelings, meanings, and human actions

are psychologically relevant. Natural Science and its assumptions, procedures, and

34

techniques could not rigorously study the phenomena of man. Precision was less

important than relevance.

THE PROCESS OF LEARNING AhQROCLERS' PHENOMENOLOGY
Rogers practised a clinical psychology unlike the others in that he concentrated on
the individual; on people rather than on animals in a lab. From this came his theory. In
his CUENT CENTERED THERAPY (1951) he presented his 19 formal Principles on

Human Behavior. All are concerned with Learning from the Phenomenological viewpoint:

1. Development of an individual's own sense of reality.
2. Those internal forces which cause him to act.
3. The development of the individual's own self-concept; i.e., his concept of

himself as a person WHO ACTS. (Rogers 1951)

Inherent In the 19 Principles is Rogers’ assumption of man’s ability to adapt, that
is his propensity to grow in a direction that enhances his existence; I.e., positive growth
once his view of reality is clear. One of Rogers’ primary contributions was “given a non-
threatening environment in which an individual may experiment with the various models
of being available to him, congruence with reality will increase and positive growth again

resume."(15) (Millholan and Forisha 1972)

IHE 19 PRINCIPLES

1. Every individual exists in a continually changing world of experience of which he
Is the center.

2. The organism reacts to the field as it is experienced and perceived. This

mrgflual field is, for the individual, his “reality.“

3. The organism reacts as an organized whole to his phenomenal field.

10.

11.

35

The organism has one basic tendency and striving-to actualize, maintain, and
enhance the experiencing organism.
Behavior is basically the goal directed attempt of the organism to satisfy its need

as experienced in the perceiveg fielg.

Emotion accompanies and in general facilitates such goal directed behavior; the

kind of emotion being related to the seeking versus the consummating aspects of
the behavior, and the intensity of the emotion being related to the perceived
significance of the behavior for the maintenance and enhancement of the
organism.

The best vantage point for understanding behavior is from the Internal frame of
reference of the individual himself.

A portion of the total perceptual field gradually becomes differentiated as the “self.“
As a result of interaction with the environment and, particularly, as a result of
evaluational interaction with others, the structure of self is formed, an organized,
fluid, but consistent conceptual pattern of perceptions of characteristics and
relations of the 'l' or "me' together with values attached to these concepts.

The values attached to experience, and the values which are a part of the self-
structure, in some Instances are values experienced directly by the organism, and
in some instances are values introjected or taken over from others, but perceived
in distorted fashion as if they had been experienced directly.

As experiences occur in the life of the individual, they are either (a) symbolizedI
greelved, and organized into some relationship to the self, (b) Ignored because
there is no perceived relationship in the self-structure, or (c) denied symbolization
or given a distorted symbolization because the experience is inconsistent with the

structure of the self.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

36

Most of the ways of behaving which are adopted by the organism are those which
are consistent with the concept of self.

Behavior may, in some instances, be brought about by organic experiences and
needs which have not been symbolized. Such behavior may be inconsistent with
the structure of the self, but in such instances the behavior is not “owned" by the
individual.

Psychological maladjustment exists when the organism denies to awareness
significant sensory and visceral experiences, which consequently are not
symbolized and organized into the Gestalt of the self-structure. When this

situation exists, there is a basic or potential psychological tension.

 

Psychological adjustments exist when the concept of the self is such that all the
sensory and visceral experiences of the organism are, or may be, assimilated on
a symbolic level into a consistent relationship with the concept of self.

Any experience which is inconsistent with the organization or structure of self may
be perceived as a threat, and the more of these perceptions there are the more
Ligifly the self structure is organized to maintain itself.

Under certain conditions, involving primarily complete a_bsence of any threat to me
self-structure, experiences which are inconsistent with it may be perceived, and
examined, and the structure of self revised to assimilate and include such
expefiences.

When the individual perceives and accepts into one consistent and integrated
system all his sensory and visceral experiences, then he is necessarily more
understanding of others and is more accepting of others as separate individuals.
As the individual perceives and accepts into his self-structure more of his organic

experience, he finds that he is replacing his present value system based so largely

37

upon introjections which have been distortedly symbolized with a continuing

organismic valuing process.(15) (Millholan and Forisha 1972)

In the two last principles enunciated Rogers pulls together the various threads
regarding the phenomenological behavior of the human organism into one descriptive
strand-what amounts in traditional therapeutic schools to a definition of positive mental
health. Rogers later elaborated on this and titles it THE CONCEPT OF THE FULLY
FUNCTIONING PERSON. He did not believe that human behavior needed to be
predicted or controlled in the Skinnerian mode or similarly. "Proper socialization“ was
unnecessary. A fully functioning person would make the creative choices, be balanced
and synthesized, realistic and appropriate to maintain and enhance his organism. This
did not mean conforming to his culture in a simplistic way but in living and choosing
creatively. A person fully open to his experiences creates himself anew in every action

and choice.

IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHIBQ: THE FACILITATION OF LEARNING

Rogers' approach initiated what in fact was a revolution for education. The
system, he felt, must develop a climate conducive to personal growth, a climate of
innovation rather than rigidity and fear. Creative capacities should be nourished and
expressed rather than unified or stifled. Only in this context could an individual be
provided with the opportunity for maximum experimental striving in his personal quest for
enhancement. The end point of the educational system should be to produce and develop
'fully functioning" people. Rogers felt that the present educational system lacked faith in
and trust of the human organism; it denies man both his freedom and dignity.

Rogers postulates that the goal of education must become the facilitation of

change and learning. By this view the only man who has been educated is the man who

38

has learned how to adapt and change, who realizes that no knowledge gives any basis
for security. Only from an interpersonal context will arise ‘true students, real learners,
creative scientists and scholars and practitioners, the kind of individuals who can live in
a delicate but ever changing balance between what is presently known and the flowing,
moving, changing problems and facts of the future."(1 6) (Millholan and Forisha 1972)

The facilitation of Ieaming is not equivalent to teaching as commonly defined. It
does not rely on the skills of the leader or instructor but creates a relationship with the
learner and goes beyond chalk and talk. What Rogers stressed was the kind of resource
that encouraged a very wide and deep self-initiated Ieaming process. Three attitudes
were to be encouraged: reainess or genuineness from the facilitator, the role, or the mask
of the Teacher must disappear. Students are also expected to respond in real ways.
Secondly, in the context of trust, there must be the acceptance of the learner as valuable,
separate, seeking, and worthy not ignorant and needy. Finally, communication must
ensue between persons involved. A facilitator must be sensitive to the learner In a non-
judgmental way and open to exchange, understanding rather than evaluation. Rogers felt
that it would take time to realize these attitudes in a classroom setting and was open to
a new kind of teaching context altogether rather than the authoritarian traditional
approaches. ITV as a non-formal, potential, and flexible medium lent itself to developing
such new attitude and contexts for Ieaming. (Mager 1968) Rogers laid the foundation for
further developments.

Jerome Bruner in THE PROCESS OF EDUCATION called for changes to redesign
the study of every traditional subject. The aim in the new design would be to center on
the activity of "inquiry" or discovery learning. This is, of course, Ieaming by doing.
Students become self-directed researchers and scientists themselves and seek answers

to real questions. They Ieam how to learn. Self-Ieaming and interpersonal relationships

39

are the key to the more humanistic approach to the learning process. In Rogers’
FREEDOM TO LEARN he proposed a plan for redesigning school systems and leamlng
contexts to Include administrators, teachers, students, and parents. Changes which would
be decided upon during an intensive group experience he feels are more likely to be
implemented than otherwise. Systematic planning for lTV‘s mediated instruction, it was
found, required this same type of innovative team work so that curriculums and syllabi and
pedagogy could be created to meet the leamer’s needs in a total and fundamental way.
(Cavert 1874) Discussion of movements towards a student-oriented were active and
inspirational as far back as the Penn State Conference of October 1957. (Adams,
Carpenter, and Smith 1957) John lvey of NYU raised the urgency even then of prying TV
from 'a well frozen curriculum“ and focusing on using it to produce “superior learners.“
He questioned the system of student-faculty interaction as traditionally patriarchal or
matriarchal and certainly authoritarian. Like Rogers, he suggested as did many others
then and later that ITV could help to provide the tools to allow students to “learn how to
learn.‘ Discussion on leamlng processes proliferated over the years and were central and
incisive at many of the major ITV conferences and in research papers.

The impact of exploration of Ieaming processes on TV can be gauged by looking
at the distance ITV products travelled from the 50s to the 703 and later. Yarrlngton (1979)
documents some of these changes particularly looking at the work of the Chicago TV
College. The producers of the 1950s and 1960s had brought their meager resources to
their 'talking head“ lecture courses. By the 1970s, the producers had learned enough
from the wide context of improvement to design not just courses on TV but a distinctive
Ieaming experience aimed at both the off-campus, non-traditional learner and the student
studying on campus. Atelecourse was characterized as a “presentation of knowledge and

information through the use of sight, sound, color, and print in a manner designed to

40

stimulate, motivate, clarify and quantify."(17) (Yarrlngton 1979) Producers and educators
had been Influenced by theories of learning processes and had experimented over the
years with a variety of techniques, methodologies, and modes of presentations to meet
the objectives and taxonomies that would make teaching and Ieaming by ITV meaningful
and effective. To bridge the disadvantages and to maximize the advantages, a range of

methodologies were tried and adopted and adapted.

ITV DEVELOPMENTS

In the 503 and early 605 TV courses were primarily simulated classroom lecture-
demonstrations and talking heads or faces. TV college producers and officials who were
educators all began to try to capitalize on the properties of the medium itself particularly
Its potential for bringing the outside world into direct instructional process to support the
pedagogical and andragogical requirements. The fact of the TV teacher began to
disappear from the screens in favor of a "host“ drawn from faculty or from theatre
departments. They would interview experts from the subjects, the subject matter
specialists. The documentary style began to be introduced. The results and findings of
research during the production of Sesame Street by the Childrens Television Workshop
(T CTVVV) began to have effects. (Yarrlngton 1979) A new era in ITV was launched from
the 703 and the experience of TCTVW; audiences were being both entertained and
educated. With the partial disappearance of the teacher/host, the essential functions of
summarizing, synthesizing, and prescribing were transferred to packages of supportive
materials. Support packages sometimes included study guides, textbooks, readings,
reprints of weekly lectures. Learning activities such as keeping journals and writing
assignments began with the emergence of the computer which began to become

important as “tutor." To avoid the impersonaiity of TV, peers, proctors, and teaching

41

assistants began to hold more and more interactive sessions through weekly discussions.
(Yarrington 1979) As was noted earlier, Principles of Learning by ITV were being
developed over the years and central as far back as the Penn State Conference in 1957.
(Adams, et al, 1958) Different Learning Tasks were assigned to students towards the
fulfillment of educational objectives. The student became more and more an active
participant. Summative exams were introduced and evaluations. To Improve ITV in every
respect, there was need for systematic planning and organization.

In 1970 a special report appeared on instructional technology. This was
commissioned by the White House and published by the US. Government Printing Office
under the title TO IMPROVE LEARNING. This invaluable study stressed that a systematic
and comprehensive approach was the key to the contribution technology could make to
the advancement of education. (Yarrington 1979) In 1974 the feeling was that ‘the
educational community can no longer afford to speculate on whether or not to use
Instructional technology. It has come to the point in time where the only alternative Is
how. (Cavert 1974) A society hurtling into the computer and the satellite age,“ said the
report of the Commission on Instructional TV, “can no longer be held back by an
educational system that is limping along at the blackboard and textbook stage of
communication."(18) (Cavert 1974)

TV was still not being used enough in the classrooms despite millions of federal
and foundation dollars spent on improvements. This was a consequence says Cavert of
trying to improve 'IV “in isolation from the basic instructional process." Technical aspects
and production competencies and values improved but not the instructional strategies and
management. Cavert and others began to be critical that ITV was not being used as

competently or as appropriately as was possible. Cavert set out to provide guidelines.

42
In the preface of Dr. C. Edward Cavert's book AN APPROACH TO THE DESIGN

OF MEDIATED INSTRUCTION (1974), Donald Miller is quoted discussing Cavert's
System Approach to educational management in ITV. He suggested a concept that is
slowly permeating the thinking of instructional thinking. According to Miller, the nation
requires the development of “an organic adaptive system" of education. Educational
management must meet new demands, assume new roles, and offer new leamlng
situations. To an extent never before true, schools represent “the singular mechanism for
developing the human capabilities" that these changes demand. Cavert adds “that to an
extent never before true, television with other media of instructional technology can serve
the vital function to meet the demands for change in the development and organization
of these human capabilities.'(19) (Cavert 1974)

Project ASERT (begun in 1965 and further funded in the 1970s) directed by
Nebraska State University’s Dr. Cavert was organized by Nebraska's unique Elementary
and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) Title III. It was prepared at the Great Plains
Nmional Instructional TV Library for the public schools but its influence was far-reaching
for all ITV. The aim was to provide a new and disciplined approach to the design of ITV
to make Ieaming more manageable, efficient, and meaningful to the learner. Attempts
were made to extend the environment for the individual learner through systematic
planning, harnessing of all resources and producing results that could be tested. ITV was
to be moved up to its next stage; it had to move decisively beyond the blackboard.
Attempts were made to make use of remote location production to free the instructional
TV experience of the four walls of a studio. The whole instructional scheme in the Project
evolved around a systematic approach developed in absolute detail. In PROJECT ASERT
it was realized that the instructional product had to be measured in terms of student

Ieaming gains. A shift had to come from producing TV for instruction to designing

43

instruction for TV. (Please see Appendix A for a copy of Cavert’s Design for Mediated
Instruction)

Armed with basic research in Learning Theory and Systems Analysis the architects
of Project ASERT fashioned an approach to instruction. With confidence in the universal
application of these procedures to all ITV, the Great Plains National Instructional Library
continued to support this work after funding for this Project was exhausted. Revisions
over the years were extensive. Cavert was convinced that the approaches of Skinner and
Rogers could be combined. "There is,“ he said, "no aspect of human existence more
complex than learning; and there is no area of human concern more tenuous than causing
Ieaming to happen. Procedures to create conditions favorable for Ieaming to occur could
not only exist in the complete freedom of human WNW) (Cavert 1974) The “gut
level“ feeling of the humanists' "Art of Instruction“ (Rogers' School) and the disciplined
structure of the Behaviorists’ “Science of Instruction” (Skinnerian School) can, he felt, be
combined into a descriptive procedural scheme for instructional design. The original
inflexible linear Skinnerian "atomization" procedural scheme for instructional design
(information broken into small units with stimuli to elicit response and reinforcement) was
absorbed and eclipsed by Crowderian “branched“ programming, which was an offshoot
of Rogers’ theories.

I'When instruction is committed to a given medium, a detailed description of what
Eworked and w_hy can become prescriptive guidelines to what _c__ari_ work and M3121)
(Cavert 1974) He stated that these procedures were not designed merely to be followed
but to be y§e_d; not to become prescriptive shackles but to be descriptive guidelines from
an effort to design Instruction that works. Cavert felt that it is possible to design

Instruction which can do a specific job with predictable results TO HELP PEOPLE TO

44
LEARN. The model presented (see illustration Appendix A) is LEARNER ORIENTED and

concerned first of all with LEARNER NEEDS.

It details all the stages from (1) Goal, (2) Strategies, (3) Structure (see Types of
approaches), (4) Display or Mediation, (5) Diagnosis or Testing/Validation, and (6)
Dissemination with implications/development.

it higher efficiency potentials of mass technology are to be achieved, Cavert and
his team insisted new and more precise design methodologies must be brought to
operational reality. They pointed out that it is clear that high costs are involved and result
from learning ambiguities in the misapplication of conventional classroom design
procedures to the mass media. A cheaper, rational, and massive exploitation of
telecommunication technologies is essential to cope effectively with the combined
explosions of population, knowledge, and expectations of 20th and 21 st centuries.
Cavert's attempt to devise a practical every day method for validating televised learning
materials and the methodological policies emergent as part of this attempt represent a
considerable and significant professional achievement. it was part of the ferment of the
70s and 80s that sought to refine and improve ITV to meet the demands of the new times.
Cavert's first manual with its aims to set out sound comprehensive operational procedures
was extensively revised and improved over the years. The books trace in fine detail the
many faceted and interrelated steps requisite to the rational design, production, and
operational management of a validated Ieaming experience mediated by technology. Not
only does Cavert’s system conform to the current thinking in behavioral change models
of the precise kind associated with men such as Mager (1968) (who was also influenced
by Rogers) but it also capitalizes on the curricular taxonomies devised by Bloom and
Krathwohl, et al. These are more holistic than the earlier linear models and closer to

Rogers' view of the learning needs and processes of the human organism.

45
The three domains of Learning are addressed: (1) the Cognitive, (2) the Affective,

and (3) the Psychomotor. They have been now linked together into a complex but logical
design of relationships which can guide the instructional designer in determining efficient
lesson strategies, more by concrete principle and not only by capricious intuition. As one
of the scholars notes sloppy pedagogy is often hidden under lazy educators' authoritarian
and undisciplined apparent zeal.

Further relevant research published in 1983 includes O'Bryan's THE PROJECT
TEAM IN ITV and his WRITING FOR ITV. His books grew from a comprehensive
conference on The Impact of TV on Learning hosted by the Corporation for Public
Broadcasting (CPB) in Denver, Colorado, in 1978. The conference was attended by
representatives of education, developmental psychology, sociology, research, behavioral
science, and educational technology and communications. From this conference among
other recommendations on utilization, production and research came the urgency for
handbooks to aid production teams in developing ITV since such books did not currently
exist. Here was yet another attempt to systematically organize and design strategies for
the effective production of ITV. The manual was designed for three main audiences; first
it addresses those who must understand the personnel and processes of ITV because
they must make POLICY and FINANCIAL COMMITMENTS. These "gatekeepers' affect
what ITV teams produce especially since they must integrate the financial and personal
resource of ITV into the educational systems. Secondly, the manual serves students and
teachers in communication faculties about how ITV production works, based on the past
experiences of the decades. Thirdly, and the authors say most important, the manual
serves the educators and TV personnel who come together to form a Project Team. For
these people the book develops a Project Team Model assuming that there are specialists

for every task required at every stage. This book is in the tradition of the systematic

46

planning research texts and models and was influenced by Cavert, et al. This Is one of
the informational “maps“ that have emerged over the 803 and 905 in the continuous
research to improve and develop ITV. As the authors note, instructional designers,
researchers, consultants, advisory boards, and utilization personnel all may significantly
affect a program's eventual design and production. With the writer and producer/director,
they form the project team responsible for the development of ITV programs. (O’Bryan
1983) The manual suggests that it is the cooperative model designed to enable the
production team to proceed creatively. it will be seen that one of the key assets of the
IAH 201 Telecourse Series was its cooperative Project Team. Please see the VIDEO
THESIS (1993) for which this Background Paper is being written as partial requirement
for the fulfillment of the Masters of Arts Degree in the Department of Telecommunication,

M.S.U.

THE O’BRYAN MODEL OF A PROJECT TEAM

THE PROJECT LEADER: Sometimes known as the Executive Producer who is
a production-oriented person drawn from among the educators and team specialists.
Principally, a coordinator, the leader schedules, sets policy, budgets and oversees project
management from conception to delivery. The Project Leader may be assisted by a staff
or responsible to a Board of Committee. All members of the Project Team must satisfy
the Leader's requirements for adherence to schedules and to the qualitative standards and
production.

THE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGNER: The ID. has enormous influence over the
style, content, and execution of ITV and this has grown over the years. Many instructional
designers are graduates with Masters and Ph.Ds and are theoretical and practical

specialists in instructional design. The principal tasks are to develop an overall design for

47

the broadcast and non-broadcast materials and to create the writer’s guidebook. This
involves working with the educational and academic specialists to determine the
educational content of the program/s; designing or supervising the design of content and
format of the teacher's guide; and creating the structure and content of the students'
support and practice materials. Determining an instructional style and establishing a
theoretical teaching pedagogy and vieWpoint are also appropriate tasks which however
may be shared with a larger committee. For example, the Instructional designer may
suggest that the contents demand an interactive style, a reality- or fantasy-based script,
a format reflecting a deductive or an inductive approach or a program based on an
eclectic instructional system. The production/s may reflect the 'Leaming System” of the
instructional designer or the committee according to the perspective on Leamlng Theories
espoused. The objectives and taxonomy will be made clear by this professional for the
Team. The behavioral objective must be very explicit if the program is to attain Its
Intended goals. Audience and learner analysis can be most useful here so the
Instructional designer can be efficient.

THE RESEARCHER: Several types of research are often needed by major ITV
productions. Formative research is important and distinct from the program or evaluative
research work. Pretesting of treatments and pilots and developing profiles of target
populations, audiences, and gatekeepers may fall into this portfolio. This is a very key
area of the Project Team and should be carefully chosen, utilized and developed.

Evaluative researchers sometimes called “summative evaluators“ may be part of
fire project team but properly speaking they should be independent of It. Their
assessments would be more objective if they were not part of the original team.

THE PRODUCER: This role has a significant impact at all stages of the

preparation and production. All the high qualities, production values and standards of

48

commercial television will be required. Further to these, creativity and imagination are
essential If educational material is to be also entertaining. Not only the technical quality
or production values must be addressed. The content and the pedagogy have to be
carefully observed and presented within the instructional design agreed upon.

THE DIRECTOR: Executes the actual production, calling the shots and managing
the project team from the time it goes to the studio through the final mastering. Effective
directors tend to be technically proficient people who work very well with their studio
crews. It is necessary for the director to understand the nature and intent of the project
better than any other team member. It is up to the director to draw on the most up-to-date
technological innovations that may be useful and an understanding of how theirjudicious
use can get the best out of scripts, talents, and audiences. The creative execution of the
actual production is of utmost importance.

THE UTILIZATION SPECIALIST: Accountability has become the watch word of
many funding groups. Effective use, not numbers or ratings, provide the data for success
of ITV programs. For this reason, utilization specialists are being built into project teams
at the earliest stages of production. Their work can have a significant impact on whether
or not a program will be accepted by the gatekeepers. These specialists monitor
reception In schools, etc., of pilots or series and their inputs are key to revisions and
recreation of concepts or methodologies. They can also describe the changing needs of
target audiences. Utilization specialists can also affect the ranges of program budgets
based on their surveys and data from station advisory groups.

THE WRITER: Despite their critical importance to a project‘s success, writers are
often not given the recognition they deserve. Writing often becomes subservient to the
instructional designer’s needs to fulfill pedagogical and taxonomical needs and to the

demands of all the other specialists and team members. The writer, however, should be

49

a key person on the production team, from conception of the topic area through final
product of a shooting script. If freelancers are used and they are not on location, a
coordinating writer should be appointed for series production, to ensure continuity and
quality.

SUPPORTING TECHNICAL AND OTHER PROJECT STAFF: The members of
the project team are supported by technical staff either from their departments or from
freelancers. Production crews should be of the best quality available and are usually
variable and not on the Project Team. Post-production personnel should be consistent
and also high quality.

The following is a diagram of the model provided of THE I'N PROJECT TEAM as
suggested by O'Bryan 1983. It is not the only one possible but represents the distillation
of careful work and ideas on the subject. It represents some of the types of areas being
addressed in the 805 and 90 as ITV grows and expands with the globalization of all media

today.

50

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 1. Potential Impact of Agency Staff on ITV
Project Team
Amy Mannsamufl
1
Director of Education Research Director of Production
1 .
l | 1
Utilization Instructional Head Producers
Development Writer &
I Directors
f Technical
[ Freelance warm] MT”!
3 Technical a
Con-Wm *— m‘ Moot Tum mm.
Advisory Boards Specialists
Figure 2. The ITV Project Team
"as m...
Mosaic} m

 

 

 

 

 

 

(22) (O'Bryan 1983)

51
DESIGNING MESSAGES FOR DEVELOPMENT

COMMUNICATION/ELDUCATION

Since this researcher has been consistently and still is interested in the utilization
of media for Development Communication/Education, this section is vital to orienting this
research to the use of developing and under-developed South countries. My first Masters
thesis In Sociology was concerned with communications in the area of a Socio Linguistic
approach for the preparation of Printed Matter in Agricultural (and for Adult/Labor)
Education in the Caribbean. it also recommended further research into the relevant and
effective use of other media such as television and radio and combinations for these
levels of adult education. This present research extends into those areas. The basic
guidelines of IAH 201 for tertiary education may be extended in several directions by
addressing the work in the field of Development Communication and Development
Support Communication. This section concentrates mainly on the significant work of Dr.
Bella Mody, now Associate Professor at Michigan State University in the Department of
Telecommunication, since her book summarizes and far extends the field and can be put
to cogent use in developing countries.

Mody makes us immediately aware of the shifting, changing Paradigm for
education/communication for national development in South countries over the last
decades. Its contexts, findings, and ramifications apply to, and affect, all levels of
education and communication systems. Two approaches which stress external forces as
major players and influences of national development in South countries are Dependency
Analysis and World System Analysis. The latter focuses on the dynamics of the whole
system linked together as an interstate system in a context of globalization of economics,
media, etc., while Dependency Analysis focuses on relationships between the so-called

Third World/South countries' part of the system (the periphery, as Johann Galtung called

52

it, 1971) and the core (or center/First World North, Galtung) countries. The early years
ofthe Paradigm saw theorizing and applications in national development/communication/education stressing
the need to erase traditional society approaches and cultures in favor of the modernity and
commercial benefits of the center countries.

But, Mody points out:

Today, few states are using any mass media to counteract the range of

actors and factors that perpetuate underdevelopment and national

dependency in the Third World. There is hardly any consistent use of

media channels to undo the damage that colonization caused to the self-

concept, culture, political structures and economics of Asia, Africa, the

Caribbean, the Middle East, and Latin America. It is difficult to point to any

state using the mass media consistently over time as part of its strategy to

reduce economic and cultural dependency on First World actors such as

transnational corporations and international lending agencies...the use of

the media for such essential, political cultural and psychological

transformation is rare ..... it is not in the interest of the power

structure...Another (reason) is the limited understanding among economic
planners of the conceptual task of redevelopment of these once-developed

societies.(23) (Mody 1991)

The relevant use of media in education/communication at all levels of South
societies could help to address the problems posed above. “The challenge" as Mody
says, 'is long-tenn holistic and structural." She notes that in the 1970s, “grass roots“
based, people-centered participatory development strategies for educational media
programs for development proposed an entirely different notion of cultural change distinct
from the West to East diffusion models. Freire, the Brazilian educator, outlined a new
methodology that encouraged illiterate adults to participate actively in the transformation
of their world. (see Mody 1991) The internal power structure of South countries still does
not allow the implementation of Freire's “pedagogy of their oppressed" as he called It.
But, its influence has been enormous on all levels of formal and non-formal educators

though It is still to inform official decision-makers in educational systems. But, says Mody,

'the mass media can potentially trigger the individual's reflection and horizontal discussion

53
required within communities for collective action to transform an oppressive world."(24)
(Mody 1991) In Freire’s proposed pedagogy, the teacher or media producer or project
team are no longer the only authorities, but leamers-cum-teacher who both learn and
teach IN DIALOGUE with other fellow learner-teachers.

Mody’s “dialogue-based message design process“ proposed in her book and In a
range of International articles tries to “appropriate the Freirean ideal; media producers and
media audiences teach each other through mandatory pre-production and mid-production
dialogues.“ Her paradigm also draws on other explorations In these directions; for
example, the experiences of the Childrens' Television Workshop which produces SESAME
STREET and which learnt an enormous amount about its audiences and how to really
reach them. Mody stresses that the ideal audience participation-based message design
procedure will be the same whatever the goal or capital-intensity of the medium (posters
or magazines, television or audio cassettes) or the size of the target audience.
'Whenever the target audience is separated from the message design team, there is one
common sense starting place; the audience. “DESIGN WITH THE AUDIENCE. USTEN.
OBSERVE."

FIRST, listen to the audience BEFORE BEGINNING MESSAGE DESIGN

to determine which information the audience needs, and In what form (e.g.,

rational, emotional, folkloric, modern, musical or dramatic) they can process

It most effectively and THEN pretest “draft“ messages on the audience,

mid-production before the messages are produced in final form for

distribution via the mass media. (25) (Mody 1991)

She feels that story boards, scripts, photographs could be first presented to the

community to establish needs. This uses Freieran methods to establish the relevance of

 

message topics and formats through dialogue with a sample of the intended audience.
This approach is relevant to all levels and systems of education. This is developing a

'terminology of the people.“ As earlier presentations of Ieaming theories indicate, this

54

approach is in the evolution of the Phenomenological school of thinking spear-headed by
Rogers. His work, and his 19 principles on human behavior, were “client-centered.“ First,
and foremost, was the notion of the development of an individual’s own sense of reality.
Roger's believed in a man’s ability to adapt and his/her propensity to grow In a direction
that enhances his existence. He also stressed that “the fully-functioning person”, or one
so perceived and allowed the choices, would make creative choices. Mody's audience-
based and audience-participatory paradigm rests on these same concepts. Her work, and
that of those who have influenced her, are in the forefront of pedagogical and
andragogical theorizing of the 19 principles.
No individual change (or national consensus) can take place without this dialogue,
Mody stresses. What is education if it is not change-making? Most media messages are
created to bring about some type of change. This can be a positive/useful or
negative/dysfunctional (for the audience) change. The dialogue is essential
'(a) within groups of people with homogeneous needs,
(b) between groups of people with different needs, and
(c) between the public and planners (e.g., government agencies, private, voluntary
organizations, claiming to meet their needs.(25) (Mody 1991)
Dr. Bella Mody is interviewed on the videotape portion of this thesis

documenting IAH 201.

CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

To document lAH 201 required intensive research and in-depth structuring of the
Video Thesis and the Background paper. Work began in the Fall of 1992. As the Review
of Uterature indicates, a thorough picture of the lTV context of IAH 201 was researched.

The Course was a complex endeavor requiringthe coordination of a large Project
Team. This Team consisted of THE FACULTY OF RECORD COMMITTEE, which was
the body of academe responsible to the CENTER FOR INTEGRATIVE STUDIES which
conceptualized the Course to meet M.S.U. needs. THE PROJECT
DIRECTOR/EXECUTIVE PRODUCER coordinated the Team, which reflected a range of
functions; conceptualization, pedagogy/andragogy, instructional design,
producing/directing, research, writing, visualization through wave-front animation computer
graphics and other graphics, training of the teaching assistants who were the facilitators
of the course, production of the handbook for student use, and the use of electronic mail.
Evaluation is an ongoing process still being addressed.

This researcher worked all of the summer of 1992 with the M.S.U.’s lTV
Department which assisted in the technical processing, research and visualization of the
Course as a Research Officer to Dr. A. Dvorak on the Library, Wdeo Encyclopedia, Slide
and the Special Collections for the visualization aspect of the Course. This allowed an
in—depth appreciation of all the aspects of the preparation and production of the 40
segments of the Course aimed at fulfilling the objectives of the conceptualization of the
IAH 201.

55

56

After clearance with the several departments involved, a shooting schedule was
arranged to begin to capture on-going activities of the Course in action. The Video

Documentary was designed, shot, and edited in 1992 - 1993.

[E SHOOTS TO DgZUMENT THE MESSAGE
C_R_EATION PROCESS OF IAH g9;

1. DR. ALAN FISHER, THE DIRECTOR, CENTER FOR INTEGRATIVE STUDIES on
the Conceptualization and Pedagogy/Andragogy of the Course.

2. DR. ANGELINE DVORAK, EXECUTIVE PRODUCER, PROJECT TEAM
COORDINATOR to develop the total matrix of the systematic process of the
design and production of IAH 201.

3. MR. DICK BRUNDLE, PRODUCER/DIRECTOR of the Course on all the relevant
aspects In this area.

4. THE FACULTY OF DESIGN AND RECORD COMMITTEE (referred to as the
Faculty of Record) in session.

5. DR. KITTY GEISSLER, Faculty on the Committee responsible for developing
Study Materials and for the Training of the Teaching Assistants.

6. THE TEACHING ASSISTANTS IN TRAINING SESSION WITH DR.GEISSLER
AND DR. BAILEY.

7. TEACHING ASSISTANTS IN SESSION WITH STUDENTS IN CLASS VIEWING
PROGRAM AND IN DISCUSSION WITH THE CLASS.

8. WAVE-FRONT ANIMATION TECHNOLOGY BY VICTORIA SAWYER AT
COMPUTER CENTER AND OTHER GRAPHIC ARTISTS.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

M.S.U.

57
AUTUMN SETTING: WITH OR. DVORAK ON HER WAY TO COMPUTER

CENTER. TO MARK PASSAGE OF TIME OVER THE SEASONS FOR THE
DEVELOPMENT OF THE COURSE.

WINTER SETTING: WITH DR. DVORAK GOING TO KRESGE DEPARTMENT
OF ART & COLLECTIONS.

DR. DVORAK AND RESEARCH ASSISTANT INSIDE THE VISUAL ARTS ROOM
WORKING ON SLIDE COLLECTION OF AMERICAN HISTORY.

STUDENT TV CREW BEING TRAINED BY BILL KINNEY OF ITV WHICH SHOT
THE COURSE.

LECTURER DR. R. BAILEY BEING TAPED IN THE PROCESS OF COURSE
SEGMENT RECORDING IN STUDIO.

REMOTES: EXTERIORS. CAMPUS SHOTS.

MS. MARY DUFF SILVERMAN AND THE ELECTRONIC (E-MAIL) MAIL
PROCESS.

STUDENTS IN COMPUTER LABORATORY USING E-MAIL.

ANN HALM KAMMERER ON THE CLOSED-CAPTION PROCESS FOR THE
HEARING IMPAIRED.

USE OF THE TELEPROMPTER.

STUDENTS DISCUSSING IAH 201 WITH A TEACHING ASSISTANT IN THE
STUDIO LOUNGE: FEEDBACK.

DR. BELLA MODY AT THE TOWER GARDEN IN SPRING.

All technical resources were provided by the Department of Telecommunication at

_P_a_rt I: The Systematic Process of IAH 201's Proiect Tm
DOCUMENTARY OUTLJNE
CONCEPTUALIZATION AND PEDAGOGY/ANDRAGOGY (ADULT PEDAGOGY).
Conceptual data was gathered from the interview with Dr. Alan Fisher, Director of
the Center for Integrative Studies (C.I.S.), the department at M.S.U. responsible
for the conceptualization and administration of the Course.

As Dr. Fisher notes, the Pedagogical/Andragogical approach was one in
the tradition of Dr. Carl a Rogers’ Phenomenology detailed In the Review of
Literature. Structure designs were arrived at eclectically drawing on the prevailing
data and experience available in the ITV field after years of research. These are
detailed in the Review of Literature, including the Leamlng Tasks/Activities
considered the most effective. Dr. Dvorak and Dr. Geissler also discuss these
areas of Methodology. Dr. Fisher explains the role of the C.I.S., Its frame of
reference, the curriculum needs of the M.S.U., goals and objectives of IAH 201 to
meet the growing numbers and changing needs of students.

THE ROLES OF THE EXECUTIVE PRODUCER/COORDINATOR OF THE
PROJECT TEAM

These roles are discussed by Dr. A. Dvorak on the documentary tape. She
reviews the conceptualization, funding, the role of the Faculty of Record
Committee, coordination of the Project Team, Methodology, Modes of
Presentation, all of which were part of her portfolio. The Visualization Process
also discussed by Dr. Dvorak includes the use of Wave- Front Animation, Computer
Graphics, Slide and Special Collections. The Course was Closed-Captioned to
allow the hearing-impaired to use it. Dr. Dvorak's broad ranging overview provides

the matrix and systematic organization scheme that is most useful in

58

59

understanding the detailed development and coordination of IAH 201. She

stresses the need for short-term and long-run evaluation. In the documentary, the

passage of time taken to conceive and produce the Course is marked by shooting

Dr. Dvorak in autumn and winter seasons. A spring segment is also Included at

the end of the video.

THE PRODUCING/DIRECTING PROCESS

From a studio and console location, Mr. Dick Brundle of M.S.U.'s lTV Department,

the Producer/Director of the Course, discusses, in detail, all the processes involved

In producing and directing IAH 201. The Course was technically produced in ITV

studios on the M.S.U. campus. Mr. Brundle discusses:

(a) THE LIGHTING SCHEME: Developed to suit most occasions of shooting.

(b) THE SET: Designed with a classicism plus modern abstract panels and
artifacts that span many time periods. This parallels the Course's concern
with a range of historical periods.

(c) He notes that there are about 25 different stages to proceed from the raw
materials of a lesson to the finished product.

(d) RECORDING FACULTY: After preparations of first stage manuscripts.

(e) SCRIPT TEXTS: Developed adding Narrative and making cuts after
decisions at Production meeting with Dr. Dvorak.

(f) SUBMASTERING of the script is discussed in detail. It Is the preparation
and logging process of scripts to determine where audio and visual
components will be placed. The script is completed except for the opening

titles, computer graphics, music, and credits.

(9)

(h)

(I)

G)

(k)

(I)

(m)

60
THE VISUALIZATION PROCESS: Ranging from the use of still pictures,

slides, video encyclopedia and other clips, maps, graphs to computer
graphics. He explains, at this point, the Logging process to inset visuals.
TELEPROMPTER USE by faculty was discussed. He details the
preparation of lectures initially on computer disc or hard copy and the
transcriptions from audio cassettes.

CHARACTER GENERATOR: Full-screen titles break the commentary Into
logical parts.

MUSIC TRACKS: Are laid down and then the AUDIO TRACKS.
MASTERING: The process is described. It is the Final Mix complete with
opening titles, computer graphics, appropriate music and credits. The
Audio Engineer balances everything at this point.

CLOSED CAPTIONING: Is done to allow the Hearing Impaired to enjoy
IAH 201.

Mr. Brundle explains the importance of the PROGRAM INFORMATION
SHEET that is finally made up and forwarded to the Programming Staff and

Administration for record and accountability purposes.

THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHING ASSISTANTS

Dr. Kitty Geissler of the Department of English, and a member of the Faculty of

Record Committee, discusses the roles of the Graduate Teaching Assistants who

teach the Course.

(8)

TRAINING SESSIONS are held with the Teaching Assistants In the

summer, and weekly, with the help of Dr. R. Bailey.

(b)

(C)

(d)

61
USE OF THE HANDBOOK which was developed for the students by her

to guide them on what is expected of them at the video and discussion
sessions.

Class time is structured by the Teaching Assistants so that three
days are used for viewing programs and one day for discussion.

As FACILITATORS, the Teaching Assistants lead the discussions and
encourage students at the LEARNING TASKS: The keeping of the
journals; the reading and writing assignments.

It Is explained that the video component is a media text and text
books of history and literature are also required to support the Learning
Tasks. A continuous writing assignment is used as a way of Ieaming and
of engaging with the historical and other materials of the course.
MIDTERM AND FINAL EXAMINATIONS are administered by the Teaching
Assistants. This is a collaborative process with students themselves

suggesting questions and so being key to the development of the Course.

THE VISUALIZATION PROCESS

COMPUTER AND OTHER GRAPHICS

The development of graphic materials and computer-generated visuals is detailed

by Ms. Victoria Sawyer of the M.S.U. Computer center and other graphic artists

who formed a team themselves to produce suitable wave-front animations, graphs,

maps, and charts.

LIBRARY RESEARCH yielded a wealth of still pictures from the many and Special

Collections. These were also sources of footage and basics for dramatizations by

local and student artists who made vital contributions to the visualization of

lectures.

62

SLIDES from various collections stored at the Kresge Art Center were invaluable
sources of visuals also.

VISUALS of various types were ordered from catalogues or borrowed from other
universities when relevant and available.

6. THE USE OF ELECTRONIC MAIL (E-MAIL)

Mary Duff-Silverman from the center of Integrative Studies explains the use of E-
Mail as a mode of interactive communication and as a teaching and feedback tool.
A computer work-station with a modem allows the connection of computers across
campus. First, the Faculty of Record members used E-Mail to communicate
among themselves. Then they began to use it to communicate with the Teaching
Assistants who then began to use it among themselves and then with their
students for fast, safe, and efficient communication. The use of E-Mail proved a
great time-saver. It is widely used in universities and colleges in the USA. for
teaching purposes and personal contact. It is part of the Interactive process being

used today in education wherever computers are available.

PART 2: EVALUATION DESIGN OF lAHggl
As Dr. Dvorak points out on the video, evaluation is an essential and ongoing part
of the evolution of a course as innovative as IAH 201. Both long and short term
evaluations are envisaged and in process. In the short term, there is first of all the
feedback to the graduate teaching assistants received from students and discussed in the
weekly sessions held with faculty. At the end of the course, students are asked, as In
other courses, to complete the course service forms which consist of a list of questions.

See Appendix for a copy of the questions.

63

The Faculty of Record Committee expects to conduct evaluation exercises over
the next three years. They review the videos in light of comments and criticisms.
Already, some changes have been made in some of the segments and In some of the
assignments. They re-read the readings required in the context of student performances
and make suitable changes. M.S.U. formal evaluation is planned when off-campus and
other faculty will be asked to critique the developing course. The aim is enhancement and
improvement at all times.

For the OBJECTIVES and a DESCRIPTION of the lAH 201 Course, please see

Appendix.

CHAPTER IV

SUMMARY OF FIIQINGS

This chapter relates In Part I the findings on IAH 201 to the Review of Literature
and to the Objectives of this study. In Part II a brief summary of some responses Is
Included.
fart—I

All three objectives of this research were fulfilled. Please see the Wdeo
Documentary which this background paper accompanies.

OBJECTIVES

1. To systematically document in detail the systematic DESIGN and MESSAGE
CREATION PROCESS of making ITV - IAH 201, M.S.U. 1992/1993 for the
purposes of providing a basic guide to making ITV.

2. To provide a record of IAH 201 for archival purposes.

3. To Introduce, in addition to Objective l, the concepts of the AUDIENCE

PARTICIPATION/BASED approach to the production of mediated forms of

Instruction such as IAH 201 to provide a theoretical frame oriented to the

development of IN for developing countries.

FINDINGS
HISTORICAL EVOLUTION
This section is concerned with the context of IAH 201 as explicated in Chapter II.
IAH 201 is very much in the tradition evolved over the years by producers of mediated

forms of instruction In the medium of video although it attempts Innovations. Levenson's

65

(1945/52) 15 observations on the usefulness of TV at all levels of school systems are
vindicated: (p.4) IAH 201 is timely; conquers space; gives students a sense of
participation through its methodology; is an emotional force in the creation of desirable
attitudes as the student Feedback section on the video indicates; integrates the learners
experience through Learning Tasks challenges and improves upon dogmatic teaching
through its Innovative, visualized, and mediated form of instruction; demonstrates M.S.U.'s
creative approach to teaching the community; allows through small group discussion
periods and the use of E-Mail, a closer observation of individual students than possible
In packed and distant university classrooms; utilizes sound and also sight and activities
for teaching; offers a closed-captioned service for the hearing-impaired students; and,
centrally teaches the skills of reading, writing, and comprehension through a multi-
disciplinary approach to history. The Course extended teachers availability extensively,
providing access to guest and other lecturers most students might not otherwise
experience.
METHODOLOGY

With reference to Kumata’s findings (1956), IAH 201 Feedback from students
documented on the video indicates that students feel they are learning very much from
the Course; from the amount of information made available, the mode of delivery via
multimedia on video, visualizations and from the students' very active participation. The
methodology of lectures by video, Ieaming tasks, keeping journals, reading and writing
assignments, and interaction through discussion utilized since the 505 appears to be
successful from the reports of the faculty involved, the teaching assistants, and the
students themselves. There are some criticisms, of course, and problems reported by
some students. Some complained of heavy work-loads. Many, however, so far, appear

to be happy with the non-formal approach and flexibility that allowed for fulfillment of

66

assignments. Most students said they learned a lot from the extent of knowledge made
available. See Feedback section on the video. Further evaluations will, no doubt, provide
more and more Indications and possibilities for improvements.

Has history been well taught in IAH 201 by video? It appears, from student and
teaching feedback, that video aptly suited the muItI-disciplinary approach to teaching US.
and World History. This innovative and creative approach of the Course was highly
praised. Video allowed a richly visualized process and this is very much appreciated. As
one student says on the video, “It’s US. History told from many points of view...the US.
History they never told us about in high school years..." It is history brought alive from
many different points of view. See Feedback Section of Video.

DEVELOPING CONCEPTS

M.S.U.’s Compendium published in 1968 appears to be very relevant still to IAH
201. Firstly, as it points out about TV, there is “no magic," but apparently a “competent,
well-coordinated team of producers, teachers, and technicians.“ The systematic Design
of Mediated Instruction (Cavert 1974) and The Project Team concepts (O'Bryan 1983) are
both utilized by IAH 201 progenitors, and these are discussed later on In this chapter.
Video, as used in the Course, is a “complex electronic medium...a device." The
teacher/lecturer is central to the excellences of the Course. He has to, and is trying to,
master the medium of ITV, fully aware of the added complexities of mass communication
as a teaching tool. Students growing up in the TV age have wider horizons, Ieam
independently, and demand more of communication and communicators and of mediated
Instruction such as IAH 201. These characteristics, which the Compendium recorded as
far back as the 60s, have been considered in the design of the Course. Feedback on IAH

201 already indicates that continued success will depend upon "the wisdom and Ingenuity

67
of administrators, the ability and skill of communicators, and the intent and aptness of

viewers." (McKune1969)
PEDAGOGY/ANDRAGOGY (ADULT PEDAGOGY)

According to Dr. Alan Fisher, Director of the Center for Integrative Studies at
M.S.U., the office responsible for developing IAH 201, the andragogical (pedagogy for
adult education) approach was based on Carl Rogers' Phenomenological tradition.

As that process of Ieaming indicates (see p. 5 of this research) Ieaming from the
Phenomenological view point is concerned with (1) the development of an individual's own
sense of reality; (2) those Internal forces which cause him/her to ACT and (3) the
development of the individual's own self-concept of himself as a person who acts. This
requires an adapting, ACTIVE, PARTICIPATING learner who is a “fully-functioning person“
to use Rogers' term and goal. This is what IAH 201 demands of its student Ieamers.
Only time will tell whether, in fact, the learners are making “creative choices“I and being
'balanced, synthesized and realistic“ in all the assignments and requirements in relation
to material to which he/she is exposed.

A climate of innovation pervades IAH 201 in its andragogy and methodology to
stimulate learners to strive to inquire, question, experiment, and explore the Course's
parameters In depth. In an attempt to provide a wide range of perspectives on US.
History, the Course appears to be encouraging students to "realize that no knowledge
gives any basis for security“ as Rogers points out it should; and, perhaps also attempting
to produce ‘true students;" real leamers...the kind of individuals who can live
'Phenomenologicaliy,“ in "delicate, but ever changing balance between what Is presently
known and the flowing, moving, changing problems and facts of the future." (Milhollan

and Forisha 1972). What Rogers stressed was the kind of educational resource that

68

encourages a very wide and deep self-initiated Ieaming process as does the methodology
of IAH 201 with its several assignments and requirements.
ITV DEVELOPMENTS

In the 1970s, as noted with the Influences of the experiences of THE CHILDRENS’
TELEVISION WORKSHOP, audiences began to be both entertained and educated. From
some of the students’ responses recorded, more of this could have been attempted by
IAH 201. With evaluations and reorganizations, some of this may be more addressed.
Perhaps the use of the AUDIENCE PARTICIPATORY approach in pro-production stages
might contribute concepts and Ideas on what would both educate and entertain student
populations. Only evaluations, feedback, and pre-production research, pre-testing and
recreating could establish relevant directions here. Nonetheless, IAH 201 did adopt
several of the developing experiences gained by other educators and experiments over
the last decades and years.

Summarizing, synthesizing, and prescribing were to become part of the tasks of
packages of supportive materials for ITV series. Study guides, textbooks, readings,
keeping of journals, and writing assignments became an established part of ITV from the
1957 experiments to the 1970 methodologies being developed across the US. in schools
and colleges. These aspects have been absorbed by IAH 201, and are fully part of Its
methodology. Also, the use of peers, proctors, and teaching assistants holding Interactive
sessions have also been adopted by the Course planners.

SYSTEMATIC DESIGN OF MEDIATED INSTRUCTION

Cavert's (1974) system approach (also developed by others) to educational
management in lTV appears also to have had some impact on the shaping of IAH 201.
The M.S.U. Faculty of Record Committee of IAH 201 was, it would appear, the systematic

focus of management of the Course. As in Cavert's orientation, the Committee is

69
apparently attempting to develop LEARNER ORIENTED education. Please see Cavert's

design in the Appendix.

A similar approach to detailed planning was attempted for the Course.

THE SYSTEMATIC DESIGN
OF

IAH 201

THE PROJECT TEAM

 

M.S.U.‘S Center for Intepative Studies

I

[AH 201 Faculty of Record Committee

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Executive Pmdum/koject Team Coordinator

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Instructional Design
Producing Mmfins Prom“ Subject Matter Specialists
(lecturers)
Consultants a
Adm“? m” Visualization Process

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

it hAreas The? .__]
esearc caching
B—Matl
Wafflecordl

 

 

[Teaching Assistants]

 

70
THE PROJECT TEAM

In 1983 O'Bryan detailed the roles of members of a PROJECT TEAM required for
the systematic design, development, and producing of efficient ITV. IAH 201, as Dr.
Dvorak, the Executive Producer notes on the video, was the result of total teamwork. On
the video area of this thesis, she details the processes of the IAH 201's Systematic
Design and Project Team. All aspects and functions of the model Project Team (O’Bryan

1983) accounted for in the personnel and functioning of the Course.

DESIGNING MESSAGES FOR DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION

This Audience Based/Participatory approach (Mody, et al, 1991) was not
addressed by the methodology of IAH 201. It may be that evaluation and feedback may
prove it useful in the future. This theoretical framework was introduced to orient the very
useful basics of IAH 201's growth and production to the uses of developing countries.
Lacking the history of and traditions involved in the development of ETV/ITV present in
the USA. that IAH 201 can draw upon, those developing countries have to create their
own relevancies even as they draw on the knowledge, technology, and media experiences
of the post-industrial societies such as the US. Dr. Mody’s essential and useful work that
has proven itself already in many Third World countries is documented in her recent book
and many scholarly articles. The findings of her research documented In the video
MAKING ITV are essential to shape the documentary to a wider than US. audience and
Ieamers. Her watch words, “DESIGN WITH THE AUDIENCE, LISTEN, OBSERVE,” will

be invaluable findings to guide the development of making ITV In the Third World.

71

Page II: Resgonses to Video Documentary IAH 291
SUMMARY

 

As part of the evaluation instrument of MAKING ITV; IAH 201 video documentary,
three administrators/educators, two of whom are actively Involved in ITV were asked to
respond to questions. (See Appendix for list of questions) Dr. Kent Creswell, Director of
M.S.U.'s ITV Department, Mr. Dick Brundle, Producer/Director of IAH 201 and of
M.S.U./ITV, and Mrs. Oumatie Marajh Lindahl, a Caribbean Teacher/Research Assistant
for the M.S.U. Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies and Assistant Coordinator
for Its Caribbean overseas Summer Course and PhD. Candidate, were asked for their
comments on the video documentary.

OUES‘HON 1: Does the documentary clearly present in detail the concepts and design
and message creation process of IAH 201?

It was felt that the documentary did indeed clearly demonstrate the above. The
clearly labelled sectionalizing of the different aspects of the process was appreciated.
One viewer thought that perhaps too much material was given and another felt that this
was useful. Another viewer suggested that it would be helpful if administrators/viewers
talk directly with IAH 201 experts also to discuss ”any other problems or concems' noted
In the process.

Question 2: Does the documentary present clearly the aspects of the audience
based/participation approach?

The information was adequately covered. One viewer felt it could have been more
concise. Another said that this type of linkage would have to be an essential part of the
discussion If this (IAH 201) were to be replicated in other parts of the world. “While some
developing countries may not have all the resources to take advantage of this type of

teaching the video does raise some important issues involved in technology transfer'.‘

72

More Integration of this section into the first part of the documentary was mentioned as
a possibility but no one suggested how and if this was really possible.
QUESTION 3: Are there areas which you would change/expand/contract/omit?

Two viewers felt that presenting both the Administrative aspects and Production
aspects of the Course In one documentary perhaps made it too long and too much
lnfonnation for one viewing although this is vital for archival purposes. Another did not
think this was too serious though some editing of commentaries could be done in any
future effort. A visual flowchart (provided in the background paper) was suggested to
show how the various components are dependent on one another. The two television
practitioners were concerned about some production values, music balances, use of titles,
absence of narrative, although this was a clear matter of choice of structure.
OUESflON 4: Would an Administrator/Educator considering a similar video course find
the documentary useful?

Yes. One viewer felt that two versions for future projects might be considered;
I'one pretty much like the present program. A second shorter version" which would be a
summary of the first. After seeing the shorter version, administrators would refer staff and
faculty to see the longer version for additional insights and information in detail. Another
viewer felt that the "portions defining the role of the academic community will be very
useful...(but)...adminIstrators could care less about TV production design. Their concern
is with content and how much money and human resources are required.“ The Third
World respondent felt that both administrators and educators would welcome this style of
teaching. “As a tool for use in a region such as the Caribbean, it also has great potential,

especially if there are no major financial difficulties.”

73
QUESTION 5: Other comments.

Technical comments included Opening (with Warren Cohen) good choice for
opening orientation; music balance poor in parts; classroom cutaways good; one title too
short; audio too low In part of training segment; omit E-Mail segment. The same viewer,
however, noted, "I would give the Producer an ’A’ for effort on the project. It is obvious
that a great deal of thought and energy has gone into its development.” Another viewer
wanted more material included on the E-Mail process. Another viewer noted that 'I think
this type of documentary begins to explore some of the strategies that educators would
be forced to come to terms with in the near future (in the Third World) and therefore is

very relevant and a timely contribution to the field."

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY OF PROCEDUR§§

To utilize this Thesis effectively, it is suggested that administrators/educators
considering the production of ITV especially for use in Third World countries might find the
following suggestions of procedure useful.

'Production excellence can occur when the process Is well

managed...Video production is a cumulative process. Each activity results

In materials and Influences that build on one another so that the quality of

the whole depends on the quality of the parts." (26) (Smith 1991)

There are four phases of production:

I. Design
ll. Preproduction
Ill. Production
IV. Postproduction
I. DESIGN requires the Idea/Purpose outline of the Course under consideration. A
Project Plan should be developed after the basics of a Project Team are chosen.
This plan must include the following issues:
State of Purpose
Target Audience clearly defined with consideration of
Feedback/Participation design.
Communication Objective
Program Content
Format

Program Elements

Program Use

74

75

Financial Matters

Technology

Locations

Personnel

Time Frame

Evaluation

The first seven of these categories constitute a PROGRAM NEEDS
analysis and the remaining issues relate to a PRODUCTION NEEDS analysis. For
a complete discussion of the preceding production elements, see Smith 1991 . The
Program/s or series and the production aspects together are referred to as a
'Project.“

The development of a Project Team will have to be tailored to the particular
Institution/s involved. There are, however, certain necessary areas to be
addressed, and the following are suggested:

SYSTEMATIC DESIGN OF MEDIATED INSTRUCTION

CENTER OF MANAGEMENT - concerned with Conceptualization, Funding, and
Accountability.

COMMITTEE OF DESIGN AND RECORD - responsible for development
Pedagogy/Andragogy, Instructional Design, Methodology and weekly
management. Consultants and advisors would work at this level.

EXECUTIVE PRODUCER/COORDINATOR OF PROJECT TEAM - acting as
liaison between Management areas and the rest of the Project Team.

PRODUCER/DIRECTOR - response for all aspects of the Producing/Directing

Process to develop and fulfill the goals of the instructional design.

76
SUBJECT MATTER SPECIALISTS - would be necessary to prepare basic teaching

materials and, in as many cases as possible, to present the material on
video. Efficiencies would develop with practice and experience.
Stimulating interest in video teaching and providing time release
arrangements would encourage faculty to contribute and participate.

VISUALIZATION PROCESS AREAS - depending on finance available, this area
could be expanded or contracted as possible to include areas mentioned
in thesis and/or other areas. Newly-available computer software (Video
‘toaster") and technology could replace wave-front animation high costs.
Researchers would support the choice of still photographs, slides, and
other graphics.

TEACHING ASSISTANT TRAINING CONSULTANTS - would be responsible for
training the teaching assistants and for developing the Study materials
based on the methodology envisaged.

ELECTRONIC MAIL AND CLOSED CAPTIONING FOR HEARING-IMPAIRED IF
FINANCES ALLOW

FEEDBACK MECHANISMS - should be built in at every stage and from every
area, including the audience. E-Mail is not essential unless computers are
readily available. Direct contact and face-to-face exchanges are still some
of the best forms of communication although not as time-saving as
electronic mail systems.

PREPRODUCTION

All the various requires requirements of the Preproduction stage of video

production must be married to the Mody Audience-based/Participatory approach.

At this, the earliest stage, she suggests that it is effective to go to the audience

77

before any scripting is begun. In the Third World developing countries most
educational material, including audio-visual teaching aids of various kinds have
been prepared by educators who assume they know what their
audiences/viewers/Ieamers need to know. A lot of it has failed or been only
marginally effective. The new paradigm of development support communication
begins with the learner and his/her needs. Dr. Mody suggests that the degree of
communication achieved is a function of the relevance of the information to the
particular audience. The appropriateness of the treatment/presentation/form of the
lnfonnation is also central to ensure real communication. For too long the
audience has been "invisible," unknown and so beyond and outside real contact.
(See Mody 1991) Human beings, she feels, put up barriers and filters to protect
themselves from overwhelming, irrelevant, and foreign material and information
especially where it conflicts with their own world views. In the formation of a
history and experience of ITV in the Third World, it is essential to create a mode
and model relevant to audience needs, drawing eclectically on the experiences of
other countries but essentially tailoring concepts and ideas to provide indigenous
forms and models.

Dr. Mody suggests that the basis of the audience-based dialogue
methodology is first to LISTEN in the initial preproduction stages to audiences In
order to create relevant and effective teaching tools; e.g., videos or video series.
This Is known as “resourcing the audience” which then becomes a “sender source“
In the communication process. Instead of a top down approach, this one begins
from the bottom. The audience ceases to be mute and becomes active at the
preproduction and midproduction planning stages as partners and feedback

mechanisms all at once. It would now be possible to utilize a wide variety of

78

cultural realities that will assist in establishing emphatic communication between
the educator and learner clients. To OBSERVE the lifestyles and values of
different segments of the audience helps producers and directors to decide how
to communicate. The media selected, topics, words, gestures, musics, characters,
settings will all be influenced by these early strategies of exchange. This
information from audiences is also Invaluable to the instructional designers and
designers of pedagogy/andragogy and methodology.

PRODUCTION

This stage has its own rationale technically and in terms of the chosen content.
All the stages of production will have to be followed from SubMastering to the

Logging process. Dr. Mody's approach is also most relevant here. She suggests

that you:

1. Design a creative-persuasive strategy to package the meanings to be
shared. Audience needs will be foremost in the strategy developed.

2. Write specifications for every message describing its goal, content, and
recommend format/treatment.

3. After scripting, proceed to produce a sample or pilot program.

4. Pretest the sample on the audience. Work from the feedback.

5. Modify the message design according to pretest findings and then proceed
with final production.

POSTPRODUCTION

All the stages of video postproduction will be observed to the Mastering of the

videos. Feedback from the leamers/audience will be essential. Ongoing

evaluation is necessary to ensure that message is achieving its goals.

Modifications may be necessary and further editing to modify or rectify programs.

‘IO.

11.
12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

79
END NOTES

Levenson, William B., Teaching Throggh Radio ang Televism Rinehart & Co.,
N.Y., 1945/52, p. 22.

Callahan, J.W., Television in School College and Commgnihi, McGraw-Hill Book
Co., N.Y., 1953, p. 8.

lbld., p. 9.

lbld., p. 12.
lbld., p. 13.
lbld., p. 15.

Pennsylvania State University (Carpenter/Greenhill, et al, eds.), Instructional
Television Research Penn., 1955, p. 1.

 

Kumata, Hideya, An Inventory of ITV Research, M.S.U., Michigan, 1956, pp. 4-18.
lbld., Appendix B, p. 1.

McKune, Lawrence E., ed., National Comgendium ofTelevislon Education, Vol. 15,
M.S.U. Continuing Education Service, University of the Air, Michigan, 1968, p. iv.

Cassirer, Henry, (UNESCO), Television Teaching Today, France, 1960. pp. 6970.
Meaney, John W., Televised College Courses, Ford Foundation, 1962, p. 26.

Millholan, F., and Forisha, B. E., From Skinner to Rogers, Professional Educators
Publications, Inc., Nebraska, 1972, p. 31.

lbld., p. 32.
lbld., pp. 99-114.
ibid., (Rogers in Millholan & Forisha), p. 117.

Yarrington, Roger., ed., Using Mass Media for Learning, DC, 1979, p. 6.

Cavert, C. Edward, An Aggroach to the Design of Mediated InstructionI Prgject
ASERT, Washington, DC, 1974, p. xiii.

lbld., p. xiii
lbld., p. e.

lbld., p. 1.

23.

24.

25.

80

O’Bryan, Kenneth G., The Project Team in IT\L Corporation for Public
Broadcasting, Washington, DC, 1983, pp. 10-11.

Mody, Bella, Designing Messages for Develogment Communication, Sage
Publications, New Delhi, 1991, p. 25.

lbld., p. 27.

lbld., p. 13.

81
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adams, John C., et al, editors, College Teaching by Television, Report of a Conference
sponsored jointly by the Committee on Television of the American Council on
Education and the Pennsylvania State University in 1957. American Council on
Education, D.C., 1958.

Bloom, Benjamin S., et al, editor, Taxonomy of @cational Objectives| Handbook I;
ngnitive Domain, David McKay Company, Inc., N.Y., 1956.

Brown, James A., Television “Critical Viewing Skills; Major Media Literacy Projects in the
US. and Selected Countries. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, 1991.

Callahan, Jennie Waugh, Television in School, College ang Commgnity, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, N.Y., 1953.

Cassirer, Henry (UNESCO), Television Teaching Today, 1960.

Cavert, C. Edward, An Approach to the Design of Mediated Instruction, The Association
for Educational Communications and Technology, Project ASERT, Washington,
D.C., 1974.

Galtung, Johann, Members of Two World_s, Columbia University Press, 1971.

Griffith, B. L., and MacLennan, Donald W., Imgrovement of Teaching by Television,
Proceedings of the National Conference of the National Association of Educational

Broadcasters at the University of Missouri, University of Missouri press, 1964.

Hillard, Robert L., Writing for Television and Radio Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1984.

 

Iser, Wolfgang, The Act of Reading. A Theory of Aesthetic Resmnse, The John Hopkins
University Press, 1978.

Kumata, Hideya, An Inventory of ITV Research, M.S.U., ETC, 1956.

Levenson, William 8., Teaching Through Radio and Television, Rinehart & Co., Inc., N.Y.,
1945/1 952.

Mager, Robert F., Developing Attitude Toward Learning, Fearon Publishers, Palo Alto, CA,
1 968.

McKune, Lawrence E., ed., National Comgendium of TV Education, Vol. 15, M.S.U.
Continuing Education Service, University of the Air, 1968.

Meaney, John W., Televised College Courses, A Report about the College Faculty
Released Time Program for Television Instruction, Ford Foundation, 1962.

82

Millholan, Frank, and Forisha, B. E., From Skinner to Rogers, Contrasting Approaches to
Education, Professional Educators Publications, Inc., Lincoln, Nebraska, 1972.

Mody, Bella, Designing Messages for Development Communication, An Audience
Participation-based Approach, Sage Publications, New Delhi, 1991.

Murphy, Judith & Gross, Ronald, Learning By Television, The Fund for the Advancement
of Education, 1966.

O'Bryan, Kenneth G., The Project Team in ITV, Corporation of Public Broadcasting,
Washington, D.C., 1983.

Pennsylvania State University, (Carpenter/Greenhill, et al), Instructional Television
Research, The Fund for the Advancement of Education, 1955.

Turabian, Kate L., A Mangal for Writers, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1955-1973.

Wood, Donald N. & Wylie, D. G., Educational Telecommunications Wadsworth Publishing
Co., CA, 1977.

 

Yarrlngton, Roger, ed., Using Mass Mecflg for Learning, AACJC Task Force on the Uses
of Mass Media for Leamlng, D.C., 1979.

Zigerell, James J., A Guide to Telecourses and Their Uses Coast Community College
District, 1986.

 

83
APPENDIX A

Description of the Course
IAH 201

IAH 201, the US. and the World, is a course which considers the United States
and Its people within a global context. It looks at the international relations which have
helped shape events In the Western Hemisphere since the initial contacts between
Europeans and the people Columbus called Indians. It studies the movement of peoples
Into and within that portion of North America which became the United States—early
Immigration, voluntary and involuntary, from Europe and Africa and later immigration from
Asia, Latin America, and all parts of the world. It examines the movements of ideas and
cultures, trade and commerce, literature and art, power and conflict which have prompted,
accompanied, or developed from these migrations. It looks at the various roles the US.
has played In the international community during its history and the various ways US.
citizens have understood their country's place among the nations of the world.

The US. and the World is organized historically, but as a course In Interdisciplinary
Arts and Humanities, it takes a variety of approaches. Scholars In history, political
science, anthropology, literature, art history, philosophy, and women’s studies have
cooperated to develop a course which addresses social, political, intellectual, and cultural
dimensions of the US. and its international relations.

Interwoven throughout the course are a number of themes, including the following:

The place of the United States in the International political system.
Migration and its effects.

Intercultural and interracial contact, conflict, and consciousness.
Economic transformations and socio-economic class.

Political power, its distribution and use.

84

Ideology: individualism, authority, and community.
Technology.
Gender roles, relationships, and structures.
International movement of ideas.
Understandings and misunderstandings among governments, societies,
and individuals.
Schedule
SEGMENT GUESTS TITLE

America and Europe on the Eve of Contact

L1 -2 Cohen/White Discovery?
L1 -3 Fisher European View of the World
L2-4 Cohen/White Cultural Contact

Conquest and Colonization

L2-5 Cohen/Pollard Latin America: Before and Alter
European Contact

L2-6 Cohen/Stewart Early North American Colonies
Cohen/Reed (includes Slavery)

18th Century British Colonial Society

L3-7 Stewart The World in Economics and
Cohen/Omoto Art (Bridge)
Cohen

L3-8 Arch 18th British Colonial Society:

Religion and Literature

L3-9 Stewart The Road to Revolution

SEGMENT
Nation Building

L4-1O

L4-1 1

L4-12

85
GUESTS

Cohen

Levine/Steidle/Reed

Cohen/White

On the Eve of the Civil War

L5-13

L5-14

L5-15

Bailey
Beard
Bailey/Levine/Fine

Cookingham
Bailey
Bailey/Levine/Fine

King
Bailey

CMI War and Reconstruction

L6-1 6

L6-17

L61 8

The New Empire
L7-19

L7-20

L7-21

The New Tide
L8-22

L8-23

L8-24

Cohen/Pressly
Cohen

Hixson

Lammers
Fine** (7-16)

Cohen/LeFeber

Cooke-Johnson
Waltzer (Ellis Island)

Waltzer*** (7-23)

TITLE

The Diplomacy of the American
Revolution

The New Republic

Westward Expansion

America Awakening

The Industrial Revolution and
America

Plantation Life and Slavery

The Civil War and Uncoln
The Diplomacy of the Civil War

Reconstruction

World Imperialism
American Industrialization

An American Empire

Chinese American Immigration
European Immigration

Jim Crow and the Myth of the
Melting Pot

SEGMENT

86
GUESTS

Emergence of Modern America

L9-25

L926
L927

Modernism Received

L1 0-28

L1 0-29

LO-30

Pollack
Stanford

Lammers

Cohen

Seaton
Stanford

Bailey***
Hine***

Ladenson“ (7-15)

Days of Crlsls and Challenge

L1 1-31

L1 1-32
L1 1-33
Defining America
L1 2-34

L1 2-35

L12-36
Redefining America
L1 3-37

L1 3-38

L1 3-39

Bailey****

Cohen/Waltzer/Hixson

Cohen

Cohen/Waltzer

Cohen/Tucker

Cohen/Leffler

Bailey“

Cohen/LaFeber

Cohen

TITLE

Modernism and Progressivism

World War I

Wilson v. Lenin

Modemism In Literature and Art

Urbanized America

Women's Movement and Peace
Movement

Causes and Characteristics of

, the Depression

New Deal

The Road to War

Holocaust and Hiroshima

Decolonization and Third World
Revolution

Origins of the Cold War

Children of Light, Children of
Darkness

Temptations of the Third World

Vietnam and Afghanistan

87
SEGMENT GUESTS TITLE

Approaching the 21st Century
L14-40 Hixson The New Right

Instructors of Record*** Into the 21st Century

”Scheduled with date
in"'Scheduled with no date
1mm“‘Produced/no guest
@prse Materials
Videos:

There are 40 different videos for the course. Like lectures, these videos offer
professors’ knowledge and interpretation of various aspects of American history, literature,
and culture. Unlike lectures, these videos offer the perspectives of a number of different
professors as well as audio and visual supporting material: music, art, maps, dramatic
readings, on-site footage, and dramatic recreations.

Videos are shown at three of four class sessions each week. Each lasts about 30
minutes. If students want to watch a particular video again, each video is shown at
several scheduled times on the MSU cable network.

Texts:

The Makings of America; The United States and the World Vols. 1 & 2

 

The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin, by Benjamin Franklin

Iola Leroy, by Frances E. W. Harper

The Book of Daniel by E. L. Doctorow

 

88
Additional Materials to Purchase:

Three-ring loose-leaf binder and lined paper (preferably college rule), both 8-1/2"
x 11

Pocket folder for turning In Journal

Spiral notebook with approximately 200 pages to be purchased jointly by Group
Notebook team members.

Study Guides:

At the end of the Student Handbook are a number of Study Guides, used to
prepare for Video Days. Each guide includes the reading assignment expected to be
completed before each video, a list of issues to consider when reading, and a synopsis
of the video. The first guide in the Handbook gives a detailed explanation of the various
categories of information that each of the later guides provide.

There are a total of 40 Study Guides. The first Installment appears at the end of
the Handbook. During the course of the semester, there was a need to purchase
additional Installments of the Handbook that contained the remaining Study Guides.
Day-By-Day Schedule:

This schedule listing due dates for Study Guide assignments, Journals, Group
Notebook, and examinations is distributed by the instructor.

OBJECTIVES

IAH 201, the United States and the World, offers undergraduates a common
opportunity to think critically about the unities and diversities of the American experience
from pre-Columbian times to the present on the basis of historical, literary, artistic, and
other cultural materials. It uses primary-source readings, video texts, class discussions,
museum visits and substantial amounts of student writing to broaden and deepen
understanding of the peopling of what is now the United States by successive waves of
Immigration, and of the processes by which the American nation has been made and
remade In response to internal and external challenges and opportunities.

Students completing the course should have acquired (1) a sizeable body of

knowledge about the factors making for unity and diversity in American life; (2) a

89

perspective on the experience and contributions of Americans that takes account of
race/ethnicity, gender, and socio-economic condition; (3) an appreciation of the ways In
which the arts, literature, and history help to illuminate our national past; (4) an
understanding of America’s relations with other countries and international focuses; and
(5) extensive practical experience of forming and expressing their own views of course

materials through small group discussion and frequent written exercises.

90
IAH 201 STUDENT EVALUATION

On bubble sheet provided, please Indicate your section number, gender, and

respond to the following questions. DO NOT fill In Name or Student Number.
Please use #2 pencil and follow 'Directions for Marking.‘

Possible responses to questions 1 through 25 (except where noted) are: (1) superior; (2)

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

very good; (3) good; (4) inadequate; (5) inferior.

Amount you learned in the course.
Your ability to relate course themes and issues to one another.
Contribution of Study Guide questions to your understanding of the readings.

Contribution of your writing in the course to your understanding of the readings
and videos.

Your general Impression of the videos.

Your impression of the technical quality of the videos (e.g., sound quality, camera
work, graphics).

Usefulness of E-Mail (PILOT) in communication and writing in this course.
Amount Ieamed from Kresge Art Museum projects.
Had you been In an art museum previously? 1 = yes; 2 = no.

Extent to which this course offered an Integrated approach to arts and humanities
(mix of literature, art, history, religion).

Extent to which this course offered you new concepts and perspectives on the
United States.

Extent to which you talked with other students outside of class about course
materials and Issues.

The T.A’s interest in teaching this course.
The T.A's concern with your Ieaming.
The T.A.'s encouragement to students to express opinions.

The T.A.’s stimulation of class discussion.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

91

Your interest In learning the course material.
Your general attentiveness in class.
Your general enjoyment of the course.

What grade do you expect to receive in IAH 201? (1) 4.0; (2) 3.5 or 3.0: (3) 2.5
or 2.0; (4) 1.5 or 1.0; (5) 0.0.

On average how many hours per week did you devote to study for IAH 201
(beyond the 4 hours of class): (1) 12+ hours; (2) 10—11; (3) 8-9; (4) 6-7; (5) 5 or
fewer.

On average how many hours per week do you devote to study for all of your
courses, IAH 201 Included (beyond the hours in class): (1) 25+ hours; (2) 20-24;
(3) 15-19; (4) 10-14; (5) less than 10.

How do you study most often for examinations in this course? (1) on your own;
(2) in small groups of students from various sections; (3) in a group of students in
my own section; (4) with my E-Mail group notebook partners.

On average, how many hours a week are you employed? (1) 5-10 hours; (2) 10-
15 hours; (3) 15-20 hours; (4) more than 20 hours; (5) I do not hold a job.

What Is your overall GPA? (1) 1.9 or less; (2) 2.0-2.3; (3) 2.4-2.8; (4) 2.9-3.3; (5)
3.4-4.0. ‘

What is your class level? (1) Freshman; (2) Sophomore; (3) Junior; (4) Senior.

Did you transfer to MSU or enter as a beginning Freshman? (1) transfer; (2)
beginning Freshman.

Please respond to questions 28 and 29 in the blank areas on the bubble sheet. You
may use both sides of the sheet.

28.

29.

Was there any particular theme, issue, or item of information in the course that you
found especially Interesting or surprising? What was it (or what were they)?

Do you have any other comments on IAH 201?

92

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'l‘hankYou foragreeingtorespondtotheVideomAKmGrrlh adoasuentary
on the MESSAGE CREWI'ICN Princess of M.S.U.'s IAH 201, an integrated Arts and
amenities course on 0.8. HISTORY All) 111:: mp (1992/93) as part of my Thesis
evaluation. The (bjectives of this dcmsneritary are :
1. '1!) systematically docurient in detail the systanatic mm and W mum
PROCESSOFIAHZM asabasicguidetothosewhornaybeinterestedinproducing
this type of ITV, instructicnal televisim.

2. '1!) provide a recordof IAH 201 for archival purposes.

3. lb introduce in addition to Objective 1, the concepts of Erie mimics-arise: /
PARI'ICIPA'IUZY approach to the production of mediated instruction to provide a
theoretical frame and orientation for ITV in developing countries.

I appreciate both your time and contribution. Please respond to the following
questions and add any further contents you would like.

Does the documentary clearly present in detail the weigh and Message Creation
Process of IAH 201 ?

Doesthedoalrentaryclearlypresmtthecaiceptsoffliemmsml
PAR'I‘ICIPA'KRY approach to the productim of mediated instnictim ?

Are there areas which you would charge/expand/contract/aait/afi ?

In your opinionnmld an adninistratcrleducator considering a similar video
course findthedocurientaryuseful ?Pleaseexplainwhyardloruhynot.

Doyouhaveanyothercoiimentsaboutthisdocunentary?

(Please leave about a half page between each answer to each questicri.)

I

Sincerely,

. '/ ‘ '
~ ‘. {flirts/((EX/AI/

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nose m : 337/8148.

94
RESPONSE TO VIDEO ON IAH 201 FOR MARINA MAXWELL

Kent Creswell
Asc. Director, Broadcasting Services; Ast. Prof., Telecommunication

Does documentary clearly present (DESIGN AND MESSAGE CREATION)?

Yes. In addition, it will be helpful for viewers to talk directly with IAH 201 experts,
asking them to discuss “any other problems or concerns you noted in the process."

Does the documentary present (AUDIENCE BASED PAR'flClPATORY)?

Yes, by Dr. Mody. It's OK as is, but this section by Dr. M seems “tacked on.‘I
There Is probably a way to better integrate it into the program, but I won't get into that
here.

Are there areas which you would change...

Yes. The following suggestions are for future documentaries of this kind, not the
present tape. It isn't absolutely necessary that M. Maxwell make these changes in her
documentary. 1) I would tighten up/further edit some of the comments made by guests.
Although it Isn‘t serious or often, there is redundancy or repetition in some remarks. Thus,
the program is a bit too long. 2) Music is too loud under some of the spoken sections.
3) Titles come in abruptly at times during program as guests talk. 4) Opening for program
Is too long.

 

Would an administrator find documentary useful?

Yes. However, I would recommend (for future student projects of this kind) that
TWO versions be created. One pretty much like the present program. A second shorter
version (10 min.?) would use a narrator and would provide a SUMMARY of the longer
tape. After seeing the shorter version (which some administrators would prefer), they
might refer some of their faculty or staff to see the longer version for additional Insights.

mew

Best wishes from Kent Creswell!

‘ INSTRUCTIONAL

TELEVISION ' ~v

 

 

 

East stream 1212 $17)!!! 2!!) raisins: 7124
I 2 1”3 Lansliig, - 0 - 0 -
“8w 9

MEMORANDUM

TO: Marina Maxwell ,
FROM: Dick Brundle .

SUBJECT: Evaluation remarks - Documentary: IAH 201

Question I: Doesthedocumentaryclearlypiesentindetailflieoonoeptsthedesign
and messageereationprooessoflAl-I 201?

1hedocumerrtaryceruinlypiesentsindetailthenessegeuiddesign
prooessforthiscourse. I'vereviewedtheprogramtwioeandamnot
surethemessagewaspresentedasclearlyasitmight. lhsveafeeling
thattheiewassomuehinfonnationgiventhsttherewasalackof
clarity.

Question2: DoesthedocumentaryclearlypresenttheconceptsoftheAudience-
based/Participatoryappioachtotheproductionofmediatedinsuuetion?

1heinformationwasadequatelycoveredboweveritoouldhavebeen
moreooncise (academic peopletendtogetlong-winded).

Question 3: Worddanadminisuatorleducatorconsideiingasimilarvideoootmefind
the documentary useful?

Ithinkdioseportionsdefiningtheroleoftheacademicoommunitywill
beveryuseful. Myexperienoeisthatadministratorsoouldareless
aboutTVproductiondesign. 'Theiroonoerniswithcontentandbow
much money and human resouroearerequired.

Question 4: Are there areas which you would change/espendloonu'acUomit?

PerhapsthehardestthingforaProduceristoeditotitmaterialshot
(mostly because material left on the cutting-room floor represents lot
of time, effort and expense). Ifeeltbeprojecthassuffered givingthe
audiencemoreinformstionthsnnecesnrytosatisfythegoslot‘the
P7081“!-

noun-“wanna-

96 Pagetwo

Theprogramattemptedtoprovideinformationonnotonlytbedesign
ofatelecoursebutalsothevariouscomponentsinnmningthecotu'se
in the classroom (issues not directly involved in the video component).
Both PRODUCTION (including scripting) and COURSE
ADMINISTRATION are valid for consideration but I think it’s too
much for one viewing.

Thisisbywayofsayingthatlwouldhavereducedthestatedgoalto
either defining production design or administration - not both. I would
have shortened some of the interview comments perhaps substituting
narrativeinordertoprovide informationinamoreooncise manner.

I would have added a visual flow chart to show various components and
how all components are dependent on one another.

Final Comments.

Iwould givethe Produceran 'A' foreffortontheproject. Itis
obvious thatagreetdealofthoughtandenergyhasgoneintoits
development. Whatfollowsarefrommynotesaslviewedthe
P70813111:

- Opening (with Warren Cohen) good choice foropening orienmicn.
- Musicbalance-poor. Musicbackgrormdtooloudanddistracting.
- Tight close-ups on individuals distracting.

- CIassroomcut—awayshotsgood. CampussbotswithA. Dvorak

shouldbeeliminated-distractinganddonotenhancewhatisbeing
heard.

- ScenewithsecretaryinFisher’sofficeisawkwardandshouldbe
eliminated.

- Transitions between subject areas inconsistent (some used titles,
othersdid not). Onetitle ('ProjectTeam') lefton screen forless
than 1 second. -

- Omit 'E-Mail' segment.

- TIA training segment - audio too low.

- InterviewinUnionBuilding-whoisinterviewer?

97
RESPONSES TO VIDEO ON IAH 201

Name: Oumatie mafia, Ph.D. Candidate, Dept. of Park and Recreation
Resources/Urban Studios

Position: Instructor, Dept of Park and Recreation Resources: Research
Assistant, Center for Latin American and Caribbean ltudies; mmdary lcbool
roaches) Trinidad, £978-1985.

1. Does the documentary clearly present in detail the Design and Message Creation
Process of IAH 201?

I felt that this process was clearly demonstrated in the video, with the different
sections very clearly labelled and treated separately. The technical aspects I found to
be especially well done, and this is an area where most people involved in educational
video production would appreciate some clear-cut guidelines. A tremendous amount
of resources (both financial and human) were utilized in the creation of IAH 201 which
can clearly be beneficial to a wider range of users.

2. Does the documentary clearly present the concepts of the AUDIENCE-
BASEDIPARTICIPATORY approach to the production of mediated instruction?

This was also clearly presented although parts of this process were better linked than
others. For example, the implications of the use of electronic mail by students to
communicate with their teaching assistants was not as fully explored in the video and
more lnfonnation about this would be useful. The linkage between the ideas
presented by Bella Mody and the first part of the video was not as clear, although this
type of linkage would have to be an essential part of the discussion if this were to be
replicated (successfully!) in other parts of the world. While some developing countries
may not have all the resources to take advantage of this type of teaching the video
does raise some of the important issues involved in "technology transfer".

98

3.. Are there areas which you would change/expandlcontractlomitladd?

There was some slight tension throughout the video between the dialogue about the
promotion of the video as an innovative and creative tool for IAH classes (more of e
marketing/advertising approach) and the technical aspects of how such an instrument
is developed. It is always a challenge when objectives such as providing an archival
record (which I thought was excellently done in this video ) and providing guidelines
for production of instructional television competes with the desire to validate the
program. There were moments when the director demonstrated this type of conflict.
Some more lnfonnation on the evaluation of the course would also add to the strength
of the video.

4. In your opinion, would an administrator/educator considering a similar video course
find the documentary useful? Please explain why and Ior why not.

Both administrators and educators would welcome this style of teaching, if only for the
tremendous amount of material that it attempts to cover, certainly more than any one
person could do. As a tool for use in a region such asthe Caribbean, it also has
great potential, especially if there are no major financial difficulties.

Do you have any other comments about this documentary?

I think this type of documentary begins to explore some of the strategies that
educators would be forced to come to terms with in the near future, and therefore is
very relevant and a timely contribution to the field.

99

Evaluation Instrgment of Thesis

1. Thesis Committee of M.S.U.

Mr. Bob Albers, Academic Advisor
Executive Producer, WKAR-TV, Channel 23
M.S.U. Lecturer In the Department of Telecommunication

Dr. Angelina Dvorak

Executive Producer of IAH 201

Assistant Professor In the College of Arts 8 Letters/M.S.U. Computer
Laboratory

Dr. Bella Mody
Associate Professor of the Department of Telecommunication, M.S.U.

and Author of Designing Messages for Development Communications, 1991

2. Commentary was invited from other individuals. An educator, Mrs. Omati Maraj
of the Caribbean commented. '

Technical Executives of ITV were invited; Dr. Kent Crimwell, Director of MSU’s
Department of ITV and Mr. Dick Brundle, Producer/Director of IAH 201. (See p.
85 for Response Questions.)

The Thesis was defended before the Thesis Committee before final submission to
the Graduate School of M.S.U.