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dissertation entitled

The Effect of the Use of Text in Music Instruction
on the Tonal Aptitude, Tonal Accuracy, and Tonal
Understanding of Kindergarten Students

presented by
Diane Marie Lange

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

 

 

Ph. D degree in Music Education

Major professor

 

Date 6/25/99

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THE EFFECT OF THE USE OF TEXT IN MUSIC INSTRUCTION ON THE TONAL
APTITUDE, TONAL ACCURACY, AND TONAL UNDERSTANDING OF
KINDERGARTEN STUDENTS
By

Diane Marie Lange .

A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

School of Music

1999

 

 

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ABSTRACT
THE EFFECT OF THE USE OF TEXT IN MUSIC INSTRUCTION ON THE TONAL
APTITUDE, TONAL ACCURACY, AND TONAL UNDERSTANDING OF
KINDERGARTEN STUDENTS
By
Diane Marie Lange

The purpose of the study was to investigate the effect of the use of text in the
performance of songs and the development of tonal understanding. The problems were:
(a) to determine whether kindergarten students who are taught songs without text will
perform with better intonation than students who are taught songs with text, (b) to
determine whether kindergarten students who are taught songs without text can identify
the resting tone through performance (audiate the tonic) of an unfamiliar song better than
students who are taught with text, (c) to determine whether or not the use of text in song
instruction has an effect on developmental tonal aptitude, (d) to determine whether or not
developmental tonal aptitude has an effect on the intonation performance and ability to
identify resting tone of kindergarten students who are taught songs without text and with
text.

Four intact kindergarten classes (N=S 8) from two elementary schools were
randomly assigned to two groups. Experimental group one received music instruction
primarily with text. Experimental group two received music instruction primarily without
text. All subjects were pre- and posttested using the T onal subtest of Primary Measures
of Music Audiation (PMMA).

Instruction occurred for 24 weeks and consisted of two 30-minute class periods

per week for all students. At the end of the instructional period, the students were audio-
taped performing two criterion songs and performing the resting tone of two unfamiliar
songs. Their performances were rated by three independent judges using a Tonal
Accuracy and Resting Tone rating scale.

Results indicated that students who received instruction with no text tended to
have greater gains in their tonal aptitude than students who received instruction using only
text. Also, there was no significant difference between the text group and the no text
group after 24 weeks of instruction, and on the performance of resting tone. However,
there was significant difference for developmental tonal aptitude. Students with low
aptitude had greater gains in aptitude after instruction than students with high aptitude.

Due to inclusive findings, song instruction should include songs with and without text.

C0pyfight by
DIANE MARIE LANGE
1999

To my parents and husband

for their love and support in all my endeavors.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to thank many individuals who played an important role in the
completion of this study. First, thank you to the administrators, teachers, parents, and
kindergarten students in the Okemos Public Schools for their participation in this study. A
special thank you to Liz Reed and Laurie Harkema, music teachers at two elementary
schools in Okemos. I am very grateful to Liz and Laurie for allowing me to teach their
kindergarten classes for 24 weeks. Their kindness, support, and fi'iendship will remain
with me always. Also, thank you to my three colleagues and fiiends, Suzanne Burton,
Nola Campbell, and Denise Guilbault for their guidance and fiiendship.

Thank you to my guidance committee, Dr. Michael Largey, Dr. John Kratus, and
Dr. Judy Palac for their expertise, flexibility and support throughout this study. I also
wish to thank Dr. Albert LeBlanc and John Martin for their adeptness and humor along
the way.

Words cannot describe how I feel about Dr. Cynthia Taggart, my mentor, fiiend,
and academic advisor. Her teaching, guidance, expertise, emotional support, and
encouragement will not be forgotten. This study could not have happened without Cindy.

Finally, a special thank you to my parents, who encouraged and supported me
throughout my life. The sacrifices you made for me to thrive as a musician will remain
near and dear to my heart. Also, a special thank you to my husband, Don, for his love,
sacrifice, and encouragement throughout my career. Getting up at 3 am. for three years

was a huge sacrifice and I love you greatly for it.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ......................................... ix
LIST OF FIGURES ......................................... xi
CHAPTER ONE
RESEARCH BACKGROUND ................................ 1
Development of the Singing Voice ........................ 1
Traditional Song Instruction ............................. 4
Audiation and Developmental Music Aptitude ............... 6
The Effects of Music Environment and Instruction on
Developmental Music Aptitude ..................... 7
The Effects of Song Instruction With Text Versus No Text ..... l6
Purpose and Problems of the Study ....................... 20
Definitions .......................................... 20
CHAPTER TWO
RELATED LITERATURE ................................... 21
Text Versus No Text Studies ............................ 21
The Goetze Study (1985) ......................... 21
The Smale Study (1987) .......................... 23
The Rutkowski Study (1993) ...................... 26
The Jacobi-Kama Study (1996) .................... 29
The Levinowitz Pilot Study (1989) .................. 32
The Levinowitz Study (1987) ...................... 33
Developmental Music Aptitude Studies .................... 37
The Apfelstadt Study (1984) ....................... 37
The Jordan-DeCarbo Study (1982) .................. 40
The Rutkowski Study (1996) ...................... 42
The West Irondequoit Study (1980) ................. 44
Summary ........................................... 45
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY ......................................... 48
Sample ............................................. 48
Design ............................................. 49
Research Instruments .................................. 50
Procedures .......................................... 51
Data Analysis ........................................ 57

-vii-

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CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND INTERPRETATIONS ......................... 59
Reliabilities of Tonal subtest of PMMA and the Rating Scales . . . 59
ANOVA of Tonal Accuracy Ratings ...................... 59
Interpretations of Tonal Accuracy Ratings .................. 61
ANOVA of Resting Tone Performance Ratings .............. 63
Interpretations of Resting Tone Performance Ratings .......... 64
ANOVA of Developmental Tonal Aptitude Gains Scores ....... 65
Interpretations of Developmental Tonal Aptitude Gains Scores . . 67
Means and Standard Deviations of Tonal Subtest of PMMA . . . . 68
Means and Standard Deviations for Ratings of Tonal Accuracy and

Resting Tone Performance ........................ 71
Interpretations of Means and Standard Deviations ............ 81

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........ 84
Summary of Study .................................... 84

Purpose and Problems ........................... 84
Procedures .................................... 85
Analysis ...................................... 85
Results and Conclusions .......................... 86
Implications for Music Education ......................... 87
Recommendations for Future Research .................... 88
APPENDICES
Appendix A: Tonal Subtest of Primary Measures of
Music Audiation ................................ 92
Appendix B: Tonal Accuracy Rating Scale .................. 93
Appendix C: Bidajr, Biddy .............................. 94
Appendix D: See How I ’m Jumping ....................... 95
Appendix E: Resting Tone Rating Scale .................... 96
Appendix F: Ally Bally ................................. 97
Appendix G: Round and Round .......................... 98
Appendix H: UCRIHS Permission ........................ 99
Appendix 1: Letter to Parents of Kindergarten Students ........ 100
Appendix J: Consent Form for Participation in the Study ....... 101
Appendix K: Repertoire List ............................ 102
Appendix L: Lesson Plans .............................. 103
REFERENCES ............................................ 152

-viii-

 

 

 

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: ANOVA Table for Performance of Biddy, Biddy ............ 60
Table 2: ANOVA Table for Performance of See How I’m Jumping ..... 61
Table 3: ANOVA Table for Composite of Tonal Accuracy ........... 61
Table 4: ANOVA Table for Resting Tone Performance of Ally Bally . . . . 63
Table 5: AN OVA Table for Resting Tone Performance of

Round and Round .................................... 64
Table 6: ANOVA Table for Composite Resting Tone Performance ..... 64
Table 7: ANOVA Table for Gains Scores ........................ 66
Table 8: Tonal Subtest of PMMA Pre-Instruction Results ............ 69
Table 9: Tonal Subtest of PMMA Post-Instruction Results ........... 69

Table 10: Means Table for Gains Scores
Grouping Variables: Aptitude and Treatment ................ 70

Table 11: Means Table for Gains Scores
Grouping Variable: Treatment ........................... 70

Table 12: Means Table for Gains Scores
Grouping Variable: Aptitude ............................ 71

Table 13: Means Table for Bidoy, Biddy
Grouping Variables: Aptitude and Treatment ................ 72

Table 14: Means Table for Biddy, Biddy
Grouping Variable: Treatment ........................... 72

Table 15: Means Table for Biddy, Biddy
Grouping Variable: Aptitude ............................ 73

Table 16: Means Table for See How I ’m Jumping
Grouping Variables: Aptitude and Treatment ................ 73

-ix-

 

 

 

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Table 17: Means Table for See How I ’m Jumping
Grouping Variable: Treatment ........................... 74

Table 18: Means Table for See How I ’m Jumping
Grouping Variable: Aptitude ............................ 74

Table 19: Means Table for Composite Scores for Tonal Accuracy
Grouping Variables: Aptitude and Treatment ................ 75

Table 20: Means Table for Composite Scores for Tonal Accuracy
Grouping Variable: Treatment ........................... 75

Table 21: Means Table for Composite Scores for Tonal Accuracy
Grouping Variable: Aptitude ............................ 76

Table 22: Means Table for Ally Bally
Grouping Variables: Aptitude and Treatment ................ 77

Table 23: Means Table for Ally Bally
Grouping Variable: Treatment ........................... 77

Table 24: Means Table for Ally Bally
Grouping Variable: Aptitude ............................ 78

Table 25: Means Table for Round and Round
Grouping Variables: Aptitude and Treatment ................ 78

Table 26: Means Table for Round and Round
Grouping Variable: Treatment ........................... 79

Table 27: Means Table for Round and Round
Grouping Variable: Aptitude ............................ 79

Table 28: Means Table for Composite Scores for Resting Tone Performance
Grouping Variables: Aptitude and Treatment ................ 80

Table 29: Means Table for Composite Scores for Resting Tone Performance
Grouping Variables: Treatment .......................... 80

Table 30: Means Table for Composite Scores for Resting Tone Performance
Grouping Variable: Aptitude ............................ 81

 

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Example I: Tonal Sequence in Major Tonality ............... 56

Figure Example 2: Cell Line Chart for Gains Scores
Grouping Variables: Treatment and Aptitude ................ 67

 

 

 

 

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CHAPTER ONE

RESEARCH BACKGROUND

The National Standards (1994) state that elementary school students should “sing
independently, on pitch and in rhythm, with appropriate timbre, diction, and posture, and
maintain a steady tempo” (p. 13). However, at a young age, some children have difficulty
performing songs because of the many musical, cognitive, and physical processes that are
necessary for singing. These processes include both those that are needed for language
and those that are needed for music. For instance, musically one has to focus on both the
rhythm and tonal elements of music; physically one needs to be able to manipulate the
larynx, breathing, and correct positioning of the mouth; and cognitively one has to focus
on and remember the words. With this in mind, should music be taught to children
without words so they can focus on both the rhythm and tonal elements of music or

should music be taught to children with words?

121 EIS"!C'

The singing voice is a natural instrument. When children sing, their performance is
a reflection of their audiationl and their ability to manipulate their vocal mechanism. An
infant’s larynx is not naturally set in place until the child is approximately nine months old.

Prior to the larynx naturally setting into place, children are able to vocalize some musical

 

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Audiation is “hearing and comprehending music for which the sound is no longer or may
never have been physically present” (Gordon, 1997a, p. 11).

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intervals by sliding from one pitch to another. However, once the larynx naturally sets in
place, children are able to sing intervals with separations between the sounds (Gordon,
1997a)

Hargreaves (1986) observed children and found that in the first year, children
explore vocally. They vary pitch, change melodic direction, and center on one pitch.
Children in their first year of life develop a personal pitch that is usually the same pitch as
that of their cry. Gordon (1997a) found that once an adult discovers a child’s personal
pitch, he or she should perform songs using that personal pitch as the tonic or dominant of
a key of the song. Children will pay more attention to songs that emphasize their personal
pitch, and its gives them security to have their personal pitch reinforced by an adult
(Gordon, 1997a).

Sloboda (1985) examined children ages 18-months to 2-years-old performing
spontaneous song. He found that 18-month-old children spontaneously sing without text
and generally are not accurate at tonal imitation. However, when children approach 2-
years-old, they start to imitate and use melodic patterns. Children’s performances at this
age are usually lacking in musical syntax and structure.

By age 3- to 4-years old, many children are able to imitate and match pitches using
their singing voices. However, the tonal pitch center often changes during the
performance of a song resulting in modulation (Scott-Kassner, 1993). Gordon (1997a)
believes that it is necessary for children to imitate songs and chants, because imitation is
the readiness for audiation. When children imitate, it is purposeful, consistent, and may or

may not be correct. Further, children learn to discriminate tonal patterns and rhythm

patterns through imitation. During imitation, there is not an understanding of syntax. The
understanding of syntax occurs in audiation.

Children at this age also begin to spontaneously sing and create songs during their
play. Moorhead and Pond (1978) observed that “in spontaneous singing, the child would
sing quietly and alone about everyday things, as though the melody not the words were
more important” (p. 8). Additionally, they described from their observations the
following:

It does not seem necessary for the child to use words at all, and even when he does

use words he is apt to combine these words with nonsense or purely vocalized

phrases in the construction of one song. This in itself seems to indicate, as has
been said above, that the child’s primary purpose here is to create vocal melody

(p. 41).

Moog (1976) showed that at the beginning of spontaneous singing, the sound of
the words and the music were separate entities for a child. However, he observed that
when the text of a melody was extracted, many 5-year-old students failed to recognize a
familiar song. Gordon (1997a) claims that “when children listen to music with words, they
cannot focus on either the music or the words” (p. 41). Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist,
studied children from birth to adolescence and found that children from age 2- to 6- or 7-
years old are in the pre-operational stage of learning. Children in this stage are unable to
focus on more than one thing at a time. Therefore, they have difficulty performing songs
because of the many cognitive processes that are necessary for singing. Yet music

educators are asking children to focus on rhythm, melody, and the words.

I 1" IS 1 .

In traditional music classrooms, song instruction usually involves the use of text.
Sometimes teachers teach songs using visual aides and focus mostly on the words rather
than the music. The visual aids are a representation of the words sometimes using color
coded images and pictures that describe the text. Other times, teachers select songs based
on the text rather than the musical quality of the piece. Some teachers believe that if the
text is humorous or clever, students will enjoy the piece regardless of the musical quality.
Additionally, teachers are often more concerned about the children learning the words
than the qualities of the music they are performing.

Traditionally, songs are taught to children by rote. “The most common
approaches used to teach songs by rote are the part or phrase method and the whole song
method” (Roxmajzl & Boyer-White, 1996, p. 209). These methods usually focus on the
words, especially if the song includes difiicult words or phrases.

The whole song method is used to teach songs that are usually short, repetitive,
and can be imitated after few hearings. For example, a simple eight-measure song with
two similar phrases can be learned after two or three hearings. The song may be
introduced informally during any activity, such as movement, or sung to the children a few
times in a row.

The phrase or part-song method consists of two steps. First, the song is first
presented in its entirety by the teacher. Second, each phrase is sung by the teacher and
echoed by the children. Occasionally, visual aids representing the words are used to teach

the text. In addition, both methods, typically include questions about the text to test the

child’s understanding of the song.

When choosing repertoire for use in the classroom, teachers often choose songs
based upon song text. As a result, sometimes the words are so compelling that children
attend to the text and not the music. For example, Dan Emmett’s song 01d Dan Tucker is
about an old man who washed his face in a flying pan, combed his hair with a wagon
wheel, and died with a toothache in his heel. The song was written for its humorous text,
and when listening or performing the song, most, including adults, attend to the text rather
then the musical elements. This may not be a problem for those who are tonally
competent. However, for those children in the early stages of tonal development, the
words may be the focus rather than the music because of the humorous text possibly
resulting in monotone singing.

During the past few decades, integration of the curriculum has become popular.
Music textbook series, such as Share the Music (1995), include an integrated curriculum
component that “provides an Across the Curriculum activity section after each CORE
lesson for connections to other curriculum areas and themes” (p. viii). When using these
textbooks, music teachers are expected to teach non-musical concepts as a part of music
class. Many of the songs are included to teach historical content or mathematical skills,
not music. When teaching in this context, the focus is on the song text. For instance, the
song Fifty Nifty United States, written by Ray Charles, focuses primarily on naming the 50
states, and as a result the melody is not lyrical and the music becomes secondary.

Unfortunately, some elementary music curriculums include activities that focus on

these extra-musical factors or the teaching of music theory at the expense of developing

audiation. Gordon (1997a) explains that “audiating while you are performing music is like
thinking while you are speaking, and audiating while listening to music is like thinking
about what someone has said and is saying as you are listening to him or her speak” (p.

11). Audiation is fundamental to music aptitude, both developmental and stabilized.

v l i
“Music aptitude is a measure of a student’s potential to learn music” (Gordon,
1997b, p. 41). Everyone is born with music aptitudes, and environmental influences affect
one’s level of music aptitude until one is approximately 9 years old. Around age 9, one’s
music aptitudes stabilize. Prior to age 9, music aptitudes are developmental and
constantly changing as a result of one’s environment.

Gordon (1997b) identified two developmental music aptitudes, tonal and rhythm,
and believes that children can concentrate on only one element of music at a time. For
example, when children listen to a tonal pattern, it needs to be void of rhythm so that they
can make reliable decisions about that tonal pattern (Gordon, 1987). The same is true for
rhythm patterns; they need to be void of pitches so children can make reliable decisions
about the rhythm pattern. Therefore, a valid music aptitude test should be administered to
determine the tonal aptitude and rhythm aptitudes of each child. After one knows each
child’s tonal and rhythm developmental aptitude scores, music instruction should be
adapted to the child’s individual needs.

Audiation is the basis of music aptitude. One’s music aptitude is the extent to

which one can audiate pitches and durations in music and organize them. Children can be

taught to audiate to his or her potential. However, the process of developing audiation
takes time and cannot be acquired immediately. Therefore, good instruction that is

individualized to the child’s needs is crucial in developing audiation.

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Numerous studies have been conducted regarding the effect of the musical
environment and instruction on developmental music aptitudes. Moore (1990) examined

the theory of developmental music aptitudes and the surrounding literature. She found
that music aptitudes are developmental and can be influenced by instruction. Further,
Moore (1990) suggests that “teaching toward the development of music aptitudes places
emphasis upon providing broad and varied musical exposure for exploring and expanding
students’ potential, rather than limiting their experiences to certain exercises or activities
that are readily achieved” (p. 22). The following section includes discussion of many
studies that have been conducted by researchers to determine the extent to which music
environment and/or instruction influences developmental music aptitudes.

Stauffer (1985) investigated the effect of different types of melodic echo training
on the developmental aptitudes of first-, second-, and third-grade students. The students
were randomly assigned into the following melodic echo training groups: (1) no context,
(2) melodic context, (3) harmonic context, and (4) melodic and harmonic contexts. The
treatment consisted of using melodic echo training tapes depending on their assigned
groups for 12 weeks. The instruments used as pretest and posttest measures were the

Primary Measures of Music A udiation (PMMA), a researcher designed Melodic Echo

Test, and a researcher designed T est of Singing Ability. Staufl‘er found no significant
difference between the posttest music aptitudes of the four treatment groups.

Kane (1994) examined the effect of teacher training on the developmental music
aptitudes and musical achievement of kindergarten students. The students were assigned
to one of two groups. The experimental group received tonal preparatory audiation
guidance that involved singing songs in various tonalities without words and echoing tonal
patterns on a neutral syllable. The control group received traditional song instruction in
major and harmonic minor tonalities with words. The students were administered the
PMMA and the kindergarten teachers’ vocal abilities were assessed as a pretest and
posttest measure. Additionally, at the conclusion of instruction, the students received a
singing achievement test. Kane found no evidence to suggest that the treatment had a
greater effect on developmental music aptitudes or singing achievement of kindergarten
students than the control. Additionally, Kane found that kindergarten teachers were
effective teachers for both song instruction and tonal preparatory audiation guidance.

Elliott (1995) investigated the effect of background music on kindergarten
students’ developmental music aptitudes. Five intact classrooms of kindergarten students
participated in the study. PMMA was administered to the students as a pretest and
posttest. The treatment lasted for 14 weeks, with the students in the experimental group
exposed to two hours of background music each day while engaged in classroom
activities. The students in the control group received no exposure to background music.
Elliott found that background music did not effect kindergarten student’s developmental

music aptitudes.

Dowdy (1995) conducted a study to determine if movement instruction had an
effect on developmental rhythm aptitude. Two intact classes of second-, and third-grade
students were divided into a control group and an experimental group. The control group
received traditional instruction on rhythm, whereas, the experimental group received the
same lessons but with movement activities instead. The treatment lasted for 12 weeks.
The instruments used as a pretest and posttest measure for both groups were Colwell’s
Music Achievement Test and PMMA. Results indicated that movement instruction did not
significantly increase students’ developmental rhythm aptitude.

Apfelstadt (1984) investigated the effect of melodic perception on kindergarten
students’ tonal aptitudes. The students were randomly divided into one of three treatment
groups. The students in group one received 11 weeks of instruction emphasizing the
development of melodic perception through visual and kinesthetic means, such as playing
the stair-step resonator bells and movement activities. The students in group two received
11 weeks of instruction emphasizing vocal imitation. The students in group three received
11 weeks of instruction without emphasizing perceptual or conceptual development.
Three instruments used for the pretest and posttest were the Tonal subtest of PMMA, the
Boardman Test of Vocal Accuracy, and a rote-singing test. Results showed no
significance between the performance of pitch discrimination as measured by PMMA and
the Boardman Test of Vocal Accuracy. Apfelstadt (1984) concluded that “the results of
this study do not support the notion that melodic perception instruction makes a
significant difference in terms of improving kindergarten children’s aural discrimination or

vocal accuracy” (p. 23).

Jordan-DeCarbo (1982) examined the efiect of “same” and “different”
discrimination techniques on kindergarten students’ aural perception and vocal
performance of tonal patterns. Five intact classes of kindergarten students from three
elementary schools were randomly assigned to two treatment groups. Both treatment
groups received tonal pattern instruction for 11 weeks. The first experimental group
received training of the tonal patterns using the same/different discrimination technique
that involved the students discriminating whether two patterns were the same or different.
The second experimental group received the same tonal patterns as the first group, but
responded through imitation rather than aural discrimination. The instnrments used as
pretest and posttest were the Tonal subtest of the PMMA, the Criterion Singing Test of
10 three-note patterns, and a criterion song. Jordan-DeCarbo found no significant
differences between PMMA scores, ratings on the Criterion Singing Test, and
performances of the criterion song after the 11-week treatment period.

Holahan (1983) investigated “same” and “difl‘erent” instructional techniques on
kindergarten students’ developmental music aptitudes. The students were divided into the
following four groups: (1) teacher labeling tonal patterns as the same, (2) teacher labeling
tonal patterns as different, (3) teacher labeling tonal patterns as the same and different, and
(4) no labeling of patterns. Prior to instruction, the students were administered both the
Tonal subtest and the Rhythm subtest of the PMMA. Following the eight-week tonal
pattern instruction period, the students were administered both the Tonal subtest and the
Rhythm subtest of the PMMA. Holahan found no significant difference between the four

groups of students. However, he found that the developmental tonal aptitude of all

10

students increased significantly alter the instruction period.

Cemohorsky (1991) examined the effect of Rudolf Von Laban’s movement-based
instruction on kindergarten and second-grade students’ rhythm performance and
developmental rhythm aptitude. Prior to instruction, students were administered the
Rhythm subtest of PMMA. Instruction lasted 23 weeks with all students receiving Laban
movement instnrction based upon the following five movement themes: body awareness,
flow, weight, space, and time. Two weeks before the conclusion of instruction, the
students were taught three criterion chants. Following instruction, the students were
administered the Rhythm subtest of PMMA, and each student was individually recorded
performing three criterion chants. Results indicated that movement instruction does not
effect student’s rhythm performance. However, Cemohorsky concluded that movement
instruction does effect the developmental rhythm aptitudes of low aptitude students.

DiBlassio (1984) examined four methods of tonal pattern instruction and four
methods of rhythm pattern instruction to determine which had the greatest effect on
developmental tonal aptitude and developmental rhythm aptitude, respectively. Sixteen
classes of first-grade students participated in the study. The classes were divided into two
groups of eight. One group was administered the Tonal subtest of the PMMA and
received tonal pattern instruction for 12 weeks. The tonal pattern instruction was divided
into the following four combinations of tonalities: Group 1, major and minor; Group II,
major, minor, dorian, and mixolydian; Group III, major, minor, and atonal; and Group IV,
pentatonic. The other group of eight classes were administered the Rhythm subtest of the

. PMMA and received rhythm pattern instruction for 12 weeks. The rhythm pattern

11

instruction was divided into the following four combinations of meter: Group I, duple and
triple; Group II, duple, triple, and combined; Group III, duple, triple, unusual paired, and
unpaired; and Group IV, duple, triple, combined, unusual paired, and unpaired. At the
conclusion of the 12-week instructional period, students were administered the Tonal
subtest or Rhythm subtest of the PMMA, depending on their group classification, to
determine the effect of instruction on developmental tonal aptitude or developmental
rhythm aptitude. No significance was found according to treatment. However, DiBlassio
found that students with low aptitude made greater gains than the students with high
aptitude in both treatment groups.

Jessup (1984) attempted to determine the comparative effects of teacher behavior
on developmental music aptitude, music listening achievement, and performance of songs
of second-grade students. PMMA was administered to students as a pretest measure.
Instruction lasted for 12 weeks with two teachers teaching two classes each. One class of
each teacher employed primarily direct teaching behavior and the other class employed
primarily indirect teaching behavior. The teaching objectives were selected from Book 2
of the Silver Burdett music series. After 12 weeks of instruction, PMMA was
administered as a posttest. Students were also asked to complete items from the Silver
Burdett Music Competency Tests, perform tonal and rhythm patterns, and perform a rote
song. Jessup found that the music aptitude of students with low music aptitude increased
significantly more than that of students with high music aptitude. Also, high music
aptitude students achieved significantly more on rote singing, pattern performance, and

music listening tests than low music aptitude students.

12

In a study conducted by Gordon (1980b), 167 inner-city students in kindergarten
through third-grade were administered PMMA. When comparing inner-city students to
the PMMA standardization sample, the inner-city students scored lower on the tonal test
than the standardization sample. The inner-city third-grade students scored higher on the
rhythm test than the students in the standardization sample. Gordon believes that this is
possibly due to the exposure to rhythm activities in school and out of school for the inner-
city students. The results of the study support the concept of developmental music
aptitudes.

In another study conducted by Gordon (1979), two groups of students from two
different schools were administered PMMA. The students in the Community Music
School attended inner-city schools and had a limited background in formal music
education. The students in the Private Academic School, an exclusive private school,
received two class periods of music a week that included the teaching techniques of Orfi’
Schulwerk, and Suzuki was offered as an elective. Results indicated that the students in
the Private Academic School demonstrated a higher overall developmental music aptitude
when compared to the standardization sample and the Community Music School students.
This is possibly due to the rich musical environment presented at school and the cultural
opportunities presented at home. Additionally, the students in both the Private Academic
School and the Community Music School achieved higher means than the standardization
sample. This is possibly due to an interest in music, which is reflected in the motivation to
attend Community Music School and the rich musical environment at the Private

Academic School. However, the overall differences between the students in the

13

 

 

 

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Community Music School and the students in the standardized group were not significant.
Gordon concluded that the two factors, innate capacity and environment, appear to have
an effect on the developmental music aptitude scores of children.

F lohr (1981) investigated the influence of short-term music instruction on five-
year-old children’s developmental music aptitudes. Twenty-nine children were randomly
assigned to one of three groups. Music-I group received instruction for 12 weeks
concentrating on improvisation. Music-II group received 12 weeks of a typical music
classroom experience that included singing, playing, and moving. The control group
received no music instruction. PMMA was administered to all children as a pretest and
posttest. F lohr found that the PMMA scores of five-year-old students increased
significantly after receiving instruction. The experimental groups’ mean score on the
PMMA improved significantly over the 12-week instruction period and the control
group’s mean scores on the PMMA decreased, though non-significantly, over the 12-week
period. These findings support the theory that developmental music aptitude is influenced
by instruction.

Taggart (1997) investigated the tonal and rhythm developmental music aptitudes
of preschool through second-grade students. Age-appropriate instruction was
administered twice weekly for one academic year. The preschool students’ developmental
music aptitudes were measured using Audie, a test of music aptitude for 3- and 4-year-old
children, prior to and immediately following instruction. PMMA was used as a pre- and
posttest measure for students in kindergarten, first—, and second-grade. She found that

developmental music aptitude scores were significantly higher after instruction, after

14

 

 

kin:

if:

(IO

adjusting for age. Further, the developmental music aptitude scores continued to increase
throughout summer vacation when instruction was no longer taking place.

Gordon (1980a) conducted a developmental music aptitude study with students in
kindergarten through third-grade. Instruction consisted of one to two music periods each
week for one academic school year. The music teachers taught the students according to
the suggestions in Part Six of the Manual for Primary Measures of Music Audiation
(Gordon, 1980a). Results showed that the pre- and post-instructional mean differences
tended to be greater for younger children, and therefore he concluded that developmental
music aptitudes fluctuate with instruction.

Moore (1987) examined the effect of instruction upon second- and third-grade
students’ rhythm aptitude and the students’ developmental music aptitudes. Students
were assigned to either one of two treatment groups or to the control group. The first
treatment group received music instruction emphasizing rhythm and movement. The
second treatment group received music instruction emphasizing singing and listening. The
control group received no music instruction. She found that after 10 weeks of instruction,
the students in the treatment groups displayed significantly higher rhythm aptitude scores
than either of the two control groups. However, the differences in the overall
developmental music aptitude scores were not statistically significant for both treatment
groups. This is possibly because tonal activities were not emphasized during the treatment
period. Moore concluded that students’ rhythm aptitude can be influenced by appropriate
instruction.

Rutkowski (1996) investigated the singing voice and developmental music

15

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aptitudes of kindergarten students. The students were randomly assigned to either the
treatment or control group. Both the control and the treatment group received large-
group instruction that included songs, activities, and games. However, only the treatment
group received instruction that involved small-group and individual singing. Prior to
treatment, the Tonal subtest of PMMA and the Singing Voice Development Measure
(SVDM) were administered. PMMA was administered halfway through the treatment
period and again as a posttest. The SVDM was administered as a posttest. Rutkowski
found no significant difference in the tonal aptitude scores of the two groups. However,
Rutkowski found that “both groups had gains in tonal aptitude mean scores during the
treatment period” (1996, p. 361). Further, she concluded that there is a small relationship
between developmental music aptitude and the use of the singing voice.

Many of these studies indicate that the music environment and/or instruction
influences developmental music aptitudes. Holahan (1983), Cemohorsky (1991), Gordon
(1979, 1980a, 1980b), Flohr (1981), Taggart (1998), and Moore (1987) found that
developmental music aptitude is influenced by instruction. DiBlassio (1984),
Cemohorsky (1991), and Jessup (1984) found that the developmental music aptitude of
students with low music aptitude increased more than that of students with high music
aptitude. These studies substantiate the theory of developmental music aptitude and that

instruction increases developmental music aptitude.

Tim E . "1

When one thinks of vocal music, one thinks of a performance that includes both

16

the text and the music. Both are important because in our society and culture, vocal music
is performed with both the text and the music. However, learning songs with text at a
young age may be difficult for children.

Recently, numerous studies have been conducted regarding the efficacy of teaching
songs with text versus no text. The following studies examine the use of text on the vocal
accuracy of young children. Rutkowski (1993), Smale (1987), Levinowitz (1987), and
Jacobi-Kama (1996) found no significant difference between the use of text and a neutral
syllable. However, Levinowitz (1989) and Goetze (1985) found that students sing with
more accuracy when using a neutral syllable rather than text.

Rutkowski (1993) investigated the use of a neutral syllable versus text when
evaluating first-grade students’ singing voices. The Singing Voice Development Measure
(SVDM) was used to evaluate the singing ranges of 94 first-grade students from
Pennsylvania. She found no significant difference between the singing range of students
when perforating using a neutral syllable than when performing using the text.

Smale (1987) examined 106 preschool students’ ability to sing more accurately
when singing alone or when singing in unison with a vocal model, as well as their ability to
sing more accurately with words or with a neutral syllable. The students performed a
criterion song using the text and the neutral syllable “loo.” The students’ performances
were measured using a Visi-Pitch machine. Smale found no significant difi'erence between
students’ vocal accuracy when using a neutral syllable and when using the text.

Levinowitz (1987) investigated the comparative efi‘ects of song instruction, with

and without words, on the singing achievement and developmental music aptitudes of

17

kindergarten and first-grade students. The students were randomly assigned into the
following three experimental groups: (1) primarily with words, (2) primarily without
words, and (3) only with words. The treatment lasted for one academic year with the
students receiving music for one 30 minute class period each week. The students were
administered both the Tonal and Rhythm subtests of PMMA as a pre- and posttest. Also,
the students were taught two criterion songs, both with words, and were measured using
two rating scales, one for rhythm and one for tonal. Levinowitz found no significant
difference when comparing the students’ singing using a neutral syllable to that of their
singing with the original text. However, she found that kindergarten and first-grade
students with low developmental tonal aptitude had statistically significant gains on the
Tonal subtest of PMMA fi'om pre- to post-instruction than students with high
developmental tonal aptitude.

Jacobi-Kama (1996) studied whether preschool children were more accurate
singers when singing using a neutral syllable than when singing with original text. The
students were randomly assigned into two treatment groups, one of which received the
text method of song instruction and the other of which received the neutral syllable
method. The treatment lasted for eight weeks with the students receiving music twice
weekly for 30 minutes each. One criterion song was taught and the students’
performances were measured using the Singing/Pitch Accuracy Test. Jacobi-Kama found
no significant difference between the use of text and a neutral syllable. However, she did
find that using a neutral syllable with 5-year-old children is efi‘ective.

Levinowitz (1989) examined the relationship between 35 four- and five-year-old

18

 

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students’ ability to sing rote songs and their language development. Specifically, do
students perform rot songs better with words or without words. The treatment lasted for
five months with the students receiving music for one 30-minute class period each week.
During each music class, half of the rote songs were performed with words and the other
halfwere performed using a neutral syllable. Two criterion songs, one with words and
one without words, were taught and the students’ performances were measured using two
rating scales, one for tonal and one for rhythm. Levinowitz found no significant difference
between students’ rhythm performances, but found significant difference between
students’ tonal performances. The criterion song without words was performed better
than the criterion song with words.

Goetze (1985) investigated the effect of using the neutral syllable “loo” versus text
upon the pitch accuracy of group and individual singing. Subjects were first- and third-
grade students in Colorado. They were taught two criterion songs both using the text and
the neutral syllable “100.” Responses were measured using a Visi-Pitch machine. Goetze
found that students sing with more accuracy when using a neutral syllable rather than text.
Goetze, Cooper, and Brown (1990) further examined the use of text and note that “there
is insumcient evidence to conclude whether children sing more accurately with or without
text. The inconsistency of findings suggest that more research is appropriate” (p. 32).

Many of these studies (Rutkowski, 1993; Smale, 1987; Levinowitz, 1987; Jacobi-
Karna, 1996) found no significant difference between the use of text and a neutral syllable.
However, Levinowitz (1989) and Goetze (1985) found that students sing with more

accuracy when using a neutral syllable rather than text. Jacobi-Kama (1996) also found

19

 

 

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that using a neutral syllable with 5-year-old children is effective, although not statistically
significant. Therefore, further research is needed so that conclusive findings are
established.

Errmoseandfimhlemmfjhefitudy

The purpose of this research is to gather information about the effect of the use of
text in the performance of songs and in the development of tonal understanding. The
problems of this study are the following:

1. To determine whether kindergarten students who are taught songs without text
will perform with better intonation than students who are taught songs with text.

2. To determine whether kindergarten students who are taught songs without text
can identify the resting tone through performance (audiate the tonic) of an unfamiliar song
better than students who are taught with text.

3. To determine whether or not the use of text in song instruction has an efl’ect on
developmental tonal aptitude.

4. To determine whether or not developmental tonal aptitude has an effect on the
intonation performance and ability to identify resting tone of kindergarten students who
are taught songs without text and with text.

Definitions
Tonal Aptitude - The potential to achieve tonally in music.
Tonal Accuracy - The ability to sing in tune with some precision

Tonal Understanding - The ability to identify and perform tonic in an unfamiliar song.

20

 

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Studies of the
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tonal aptitud

CHAPTER TWO

RELATED LITERATURE
This study focuses on the effect of the use of text versus no text in instruction
upon the tonal skills of kindergarten students. Additionally, it investigates the efl‘ect of the
use of text on the developmental tonal music aptitude of kindergarten students.
Therefore, the literature that directly relates to this study falls into two categories: (1)
studies of the efl’ect of text versus no text on the singing voice and tonal skills of children,
and (2) studies of the effect of different types of singing instruction on developmental

tonal aptitude.

WW

Several researchers have investigated the effect of the use of text on learning of
songs, specifically in relation to whether students are more accurate singers using a neutral
syllable or text. The following section will discuss studies that relate to the issue of song
instruction with and without text.
W

Goetze (1985) studied the factors affecting accuracy in children’s singing. Her
purpose was to contribute to the knowledge that music teachers have about the
development of singing skills in primary-grade students (p. 3). She investigated the efi‘ect
of using the neutral syllable “loo” versus the use of text on the pitch accuracy of group

and individual singers. Subjects included 165 kindergarten, first- and third-grade students

21

 

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from three elementary schools in Boulder and Denver.

Two melodies were constructed for use in measuring pitch accuracy. Both
melodies included text and were related: one was about a horse and the other was about a
pony. The first melody was short and in duple meter. The second melody was a four
phrase melody in duple meter with the form aaba. Both melodies were pentatonic and
had a range of a fifth from d1 to a‘. The first melody was sung in solo and the second
melody was sung in groups.

Prior to data collection, the investigator taught the melodies to the subjects first
using the text then using the neutral syllable “loo.” “Loo” was chosen as the neutral
syllable because “the mouth cavities maintain a fixed position for the vowel and the tongue
moves between two positions for the consonant” (Goetze, 1985, p. 32). Both criterion
songs were performed twice, once using the text and once using “loo.”

Immediately after learning the two songs, the subjects went into another room in
groups of three for the recording of their responses using a Visi-Pitch machine. A Visi-
Pitch machine supplies a visual display in graphic form and a numerical value in Hertz that
analyzes students responses. After each individual performed in solo and the solo
performances were recorded, three more students joined the first group for the task of
singing in a group.

The frequency of each students’ performance on each note of the melody was
measured by the Visi-Pitch machine. Then, student responses were randomly selected to
establish reliability, which ranged from .96 to .99. The analysis of the Pitch Measure and

the Contour Measure indicated that kindergarten and first-grade students sang more

22

 

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accurately as individuals than in a group. Also, students sang more accurately when
singing with “100” than with text. The largest differences occurred at the kindergarten
level.

Goetze’s research was investigative and examined the factors affecting accuracy in
children’s singing. The criterion songs were performed both with words and without
words, and students always learned the songs with words first. It is possible that the text
distracted students from the melody, and therefore adversely affected pitch accuracy even
after the text was removed. Also, Goetze recorded the students singing the criterion song
on the same day that she taught the criterion song. Possibly the students did not have
adequate time to learn the words and, as a result, sang with better pitch accuracy when
performing using a neutral syllable. Additionally, the criterion song and patterns in
Goetze’s study were both pentatonic. Gordon (1997b) believes that pentatonic lacks a
tonal center because of the absence of half steps and does not have a leading tone, which
would distinguish an objective tonality. DeYarman (1971) found that students who were
instructed and sang in a wide variety of tonalities (i.e., major, minor, dorian, phrygian,
lydian, mixolydian, and locrian) performed criterion songs significantly better than
students instructed in only major and minor. He also found that students performed the
criterion songs significantly better if the criterion songs were in major or minor tonalities.
Therefore, the criterion song might have been performed better if it was in major or minor
tonality, rather than pentatonic.

W

Smale (1987) replicated Goetze’s study with preschool students. The purpose of

23

Smale’s study was to determine whether young children sing more accurately when
singing alone or when singing in unison with a vocal model and whether they sing more
accurately when singing with words than when singing with a neutral syllable (p. 26).
Subjects included one-hundred and six 4- and 5-year-old children in the Musical Trolley
classes at MacPhail Center for the Arts in Minneapolis, Minnesota.

The criterion song was similar to Goetze’s first criterion song, except for the text
and the range. Goetze used a range of d1 to al in her study, whereas Smale used a range
of c1 to g‘. Additionally, the intervals of both songs were the same. Intervals of a third
(Sol-Mi-Sol) and descending seconds (Mi-Re-Do) were found in both duple meter songs.
The text of Smale’s criterion song was about a funny clown. Also, Smale added a second
phrase to balance the song musically, although the second phrase performances were not
used for analysis.

Smale taught the criterion song to the classes with the text first. She asked the
children what the song was about. Once given a response, she brought in a cardboard
clown figure to reinforce the text of the song. Then, she sang the criterion song using the
neutral syllable “loo.” Smale told the children that it was the song about the clown. The
children were asked to “think the words, but just sing ‘loo’ on the outside” (p. 33).

Smale sang the song three times using the neutral syllable “loo” and at least
fourteen times using the text. Next she introduced a microphone and explained how it is
used. Then, one child at a time was recorded in a private room performing four singing
tasks: “(a) singing the first phrase as an echo to the investigator, [Individual Text, IT]; (b)

singing the phrase in unison with the investigator, [Unison Text, UT]; (c) singing the

24

phrase as an echo, but using the syllable ‘loo’ instead of the text, [Individual ‘Loo,’ IL];
and (d) singing the phrase in unison with the investigator, using the syllable ‘loo,’ [Unison
‘Loo,’ UL]” (Smale, 1987, p. 32). Prior to all singing, the investigator sounded a
resonator bell on the pitch g‘, and then asked the child to echo her. Half of the children
were asked to echo the phrase first using “loo” and the other half were asked to echo the
phrase first using the text.

The analysis consisted of the collected tape segments for each child for the four
vocal tasks. Sixteen recorded samples of the criterion song sung by the investigator were
arbitrarily selected fiom the first, middle, and last recording sessions. Examination of the
frequencies of these samples determined that the investigator had provided an accurate
model for the children to echo or sing with in unison.

Smale concluded that there was no significant difi’erence in pitch accuracy between
the performance of children singing the song using a neutral syllable and children singing
the song with text. However, upon closer inspection, through the use of two-dimensional
crosstabulations, she found that children tended to be more accurate when singing the
neutral syllable “100” than singing the text. Further, children sang more accurately alone
than when singing in unison with a vocal model.

Smale’s study was investigative and data collection occurred on the same day as
instruction. Possibly the students may not have learned the song adequately after a
handful of hearings. Ifthe students had more time to learn the songs before data
collection, the students may be audiating the criterion song rather than imitating. Also, by

having the students echo Smale and sing in unison with Smale, one does not know if the

25

 

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students have learned the song, can audiate the song, or if they are only imitating the song.
Further, Smale’s criterion song was in pentatonic. Students may not have had enough
informal exposure to major and minor to impose a tonality on the pentatonic song.
W

Rutkowski (1993) also investigated the use of a neutral syllable versus text when
evaluating children’s singing voices. Subjects were 94 first-grade students from
Hollidaysburg, Pennsylvania. They received music once a week for 30-minute class
periods in kindergarten and once a week for 40-minute class periods in first-grade.
However, when the data was collected, the students had only received music in the first-
grade for a few weeks.

The Singing Voice Development Measure (SVDM), designed by the investigator
in 1984, was used to evaluate the singing range rather than the intonation of children.
Rutkowski (1993) stated that “in most cases, proper use of the singing voice is a
prerequisite to singing in tune” (p. 7). Therefore, the SVDM is an instrument to evaluate
children’s use of singing voice.

The SVDM consists of an eight measure duple song in minor tonality and a rating
scale. The text of the song describes a bird in a tree that flies through the sky. However,
the song in its entirety is not taught. One measure patterns are extracted fiom the song
and are individually taught to the children. A five-point rating scale is used to evaluate

the singing range of children based upon their performances of patterns from the song.

26

The singing range scale is the following:

1 — “Presinger” does not sing but chants the song text.

2 — “Speaking-range singer” sustains tones and exhibits some sensitivity to pitch

but remains in the speaking voice range (usually A2, the A below middle C, to C3,

middle C).

3 — “Uncertain singer” wavers between speaking and singing voice and uses a

limited range when in singing voice (usually up to F3).

4 — “Initial range singer” exhibits use of initial singing range (usually D3 to A3).

5 — “Singer” exhibits use of extended range (sings beyond the register lift: B-flat3

and above) (Rutkowski, 1996, p. 357).

The students prepared for the SVDM in a large group, following the exact
procedure that was used for individual testing. The testing procedures consisted of the
following:

1. Play the first pattern on the tone bells or piano (“see the bird).

2. Sing the first pattern for the children with the text or “burn.” Do not use any

accompaniment.

3. Have the children echo. Again, do not use any accompaniment.

4. Repeat steps 1-3 with each pattern.

5. Do not pause in between any of the above steps (Rutkowski, 1993, p. 8).

During individual testing sessions, students would echo the teacher singing
patterns from the criterion song into an audio-tape recorder. When singing, all of the

students used both the text and the neutral syllable “bum.” During the testing, half of the

27

students
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students sang the patterns with the neutral syllable first followed by the text and the other
half of the students sang the patterns with the text first followed by the neutral syllable.
Students’ performances were rated by two judges who had prior experience with the
SVDM. The intra- and interjudge reliabilities ranged fi'om .85 to .89.

There were no significant differences between the use of text and a neutral syllable
in students’ singing ranges, although the mean for the performances using a neutral
syllable was higher than the mean for the performances using words. Therefore,
Rutkowski (1993) concluded that “some children sing better when they are not asked to
sing words, perhaps since singing words is too closely related to their speech patterns,
while other children do not find singing words a problem” (p. 5).

Rutkowski studied the use of text in a brief, one-time singing performance of
students rather than instruction over an extended period of time. Rutkowski, like Goetze,
used one melody with both text and a neutral syllable instead of two similar melodies, one
for text and one for a neutral syllable. Using one melody does not give the researcher
enough information about the singing range of students. With that specific song, are the
students focusing on the text instead of the music? Possibly the words of the particular
song are distracting students fiom the melody and the patterns in the song. Are students
able to find their singing voice with a different melody that has difl‘erent contour and
phrasing? Also, the words used for the patterns did not make sense individually; they
were parts of one whole song that were taken out of context. So, when using the words,
extracting “look up now” from the description of the bird in the song does not make

sense. It would be more logical to have the students sing the complete song and then rate

28

ll

lh—J

their performances. In addition, the patterns were performed as an echo activity with the
teacher singing first and then recording the subjects’ responses on an audio-cassette
recorder. Therefore, there is a possibility that the students were imitating the teacher
rather than audiating, because the whole song was not performed by the students.
W

Jacobi-Kama (1996) studied whether children were more accurate singers when
singing using a neutral syllable than when singing with original text. Her subjects were
eighty-nine 3-, 4-, and 5-year-old children who were enrolled in three preschools in
eastern Maryland. She randomly assigned the students to two treatment groups, one of
which received the text method of song instruction and the other of which received the
neutral syllable method. The students in the text method group learned the music and text
simultaneously. The students in the neutral syllable method learned the music using a
neutral syllable that was later replaced by the traditional text. The neutral syllable was
changed each time during the treatment sessions to prevent the syllables from becoming a
“type of text” for the students. The syllables used with this treatment group were “100,”
“lah,” “moo,” “mah,” “toh,” “nee,” “koo,” and “burn.”

The students received music for two 30-minute class periods per week. “The
treatment occurred over an eight week period for a total of twelve class sessions” (Jacobi-
Kama, 1996, p. 7). All instruction was taught by the investigator.

All students were taught the criterion song What ’11 I Do With The Baby-0, either
using text or neutral syllable, depending on their treatment group. In week nine, Posttest I

was administered individually. The students met with the investigator and performed the

29

criterion song by echoing two measure phrases and the whole song, using either text or a
neutral syllable depending on the treatment group. All of the students’ performances were
recorded using an audio-cassette recorder.

In week 11, following a week’s break, the treatment groups were switched. The
students in the neutral syllable group were taught the criterion song What ’11 I Do With The
Baby-0 with text and the students in the text method group were taught the criterion song
What ’11 I Do With The Baby-0 using a neutral syllable. The same criterion song was used
for both Posttests. Then, Posttest II was administered in week 12 using the same method
used for Posttest 1.

Students’ performances were measured using the Singing/Pitch Accuracy Test.
The Singing/Pitch Accuracy Test consisted of the students performing the criterion song
two times for each administration. The first performance was a phrase performance,
during which the students echoed the investigator in two measure phrases. During the
second performance, the students echoed the investigator singing the complete song. The
two performances of the criterion song were rated based on the accuracy of pitch. The
test did not measure the correctness of the rhythm or the correctness of the text.

Two rating scales were designed, one for the phrase performance and one for the
whole song. The phrase performance rating scale consisted of a nine-point rating scale
ranging from “at pitch” to “no sung response.” The whole song rating scale consisted of
five-points ranging from “maintains a single tonality throughout total performance” to “no
sung response.”

For both Posttest I and Posttest II, the students’ composite score comprised three

30

(I.

subscores. The first subscore was the rating of the performance of each individual’s
phrases. Judges listened to the four phrases of the criterion song and rated the students
using the nine-point rating scale. Then, the judges listened to the performance of the
whole song and used the nine-point rating scale to rate each phrase in the context of the
whole song as well as the five-point rating scale. Therefore, the second and third
subscores were derived from the performance of the whole song.

Three judges scored the performances using the Singing/Pitch Accuracy Test. The
interjudge reliabilities ranged from .80 to .99. Then, attest for independent samples was
calculated. Jacobi-Kama found no significant differences in the children’s singing
accuracy between the two treatment groups. However, a Repeated Measures Analysis of
Variance revealed a significant difference between age level, method, and time of test for
the Singing/Pitch Accuracy Test. Therefore, she concluded that, 4-year old children sang
more accurately when using text, no differences were found in 5-year-old children’s
accuracy of singing with a text or neutral syllable, and preschool children were more
accurate when singing in phrases rather than when singing the whole song.

Jacobi-Kama’s study, unlike those of Goetze, Smale, and Rutkowski, was
experimental and related to instructional methods rather than performance with and
without text. The criterion song was from the traditional folk literature; however, the
song was pentatonic rather than diatonic. Also, Jacobi-Kama had the students echo her in
the phrase method and the whole song, so the students possibly may have been imitating
rather than audiating. In addition, Jacobi-Kama’s study consisted of a treatment lasting

eight weeks. It is possible that the short duration of her treatment period affected her

31

results.
I] I . . El 5 l IIEEE:

Levinowitz (1987, 1989) conducted research that is the most closely related
to the present study. She conducted a pilot study (1989) to determine if there was a
relationship between a young child’s ability to sing rote songs and his or her language
development. Specifically, she was interested in whether children who have below
average language development attend to the words of the song or the musical elements.
Subjects included thirty-five 4- and 5-year old students from two classes of an upper-
socioeconomic Caucasian suburban nursery school. For five months, the investigator
taught the two classes one day a week for 30-rninute class periods. During the last month,
two criterion songs were taught. One song was taught with words and the other using a
neutral syllable. Both songs were in triple meter, major tonality, and started with an
anacrusis.

Data collection consisted of recording the subjects performances of the criterion
songs using an audio-cassette recorder. Half of the subjects sang the songs using text first
and then sang using a neutral syllable and the other halfof subjects sang using a neutral
syllable first then using text. These performances were rated using two rating scales, one
for rhythm and one for tonal. Also, the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test was
administered to assess the students language development.

The interjudge reliabilities for the tonal rating scale ranged from .78 to .87 and the
reliabilities of the rhythm rating scale ranged from .84 to .90. Levinowitz found no

difference in the accuracy of the rhythm performances of the two songs but showed a

32

difference in their tonal performances. The song without words was performed with
greater tonal accuracy than the song with words. Levinowitz also found no relationship
between young children’s language development and their performances of rote songs
with or without words. Therefore, she concluded that children should receive song
instruction both with words and without words.

987

Levinowitz (1987) conducted a second study following her pilot. The problems of
this second study included the following: “(1) to determine the comparative effects of
song instruction with and without words on levels of developmental music aptitudes of
children in kindergarten and first grade, and (2) to determine the comparative effects of
song instruction with and without words on the singing achievement of children in
kindergarten and first-grade” (p. 5).

Subjects were students from three kindergarten classes and three first-grade classes
from diverse ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds in an urban parochial school. The
exact number of subjects was never stated. The subjects were pretested using both the
Tonal and Rhythm subtests of the Primary Measures of Music Audiation (PMMA). Then,
subjects were randomly assigned to three experimental groups. The subjects assigned to
the experimental groups were taught by the investigator for one 30-minute class period
each week for one academic year.

Students in experimental Group I were taught songs primarily with words. No
more than two songs without words were sung during any one 30-minute class period.

Students in experimental Group II were taught songs primarily without words. No more

33

Ell

CD

it

r2

than two songs with words were sung during any one 30-minute class period. Those in
experimental Group III were taught songs only with words. The only difference between
Group I and Group HI was that Group I sang one or two songs each class period without
words whereas Group III sang only songs with words.

The songs taught to each group during the treatment period were in a wide variety
of tonalities (all except Locrian) and meters. The technique Levinowitz used to teach the
songs was consistent for the three groups. First, she established tonality and then sang the
song. The students were encouraged to sing along but were not forced.

The two criterion songs were taught to all three experimental groups during the
last month of instruction. Both songs included the text and were composed specifically
for this study. One song was in major tonality and ranged from c1 to d“. It was in triple
meter, with an anacnrsis at the beginning. The other song was in harmonic minor and
ranged from (11 to d“. It was in duple meter. Both songs were similar in rhythmic and
melodic contour and harmonic structure.

The students were administered the Rhythm and Tonal subtests of the PMMA as a
posttest. A revised tonal and rhythm rating scale from the pilot study was used to rate
singing performances of the subjects. These rating scales were both constructed by the
investigator. The interjudge reliabilities between the two judges on the tonal rating scale
ranged from .84 to .94 and from .70 to .93 for the rhythm rating scale.

The pretest and posttest PMMA scores were organized into 2 three-factor designs
to determine the comparative effects of the singing instruction with and without words on

the tonal and rhythm developmental music aptitudes of children in kindergarten and first-

34

grade. In the three-factor design, the treatments were the different methods of instruction,
the level included the tonal and rhythm aptitude scores, and the time was the year from
pre-instruction to post-instruction.

Results showed a two-way interaction between level of aptitude and time both
tonally and rhythmically. For all groups, the mean gains on the Tonal subtest of PMMA
were significant for students with low developmental tonal aptitude. However, there was
no difi’erence for students with high developmental tonal aptitude. For all groups, the
mean gains on the Rhythm subtest of PMMA was significant for students with low
developmental rhythm aptitude but not for students with high developmental rhythm
aptitude.

With regard to tonal achievement, the students who learned songs primarily
without words had higher observed means than the other two experimental groups.
However, the difl’erences were not significant. Also, no differences were found between
the tonal achievement of students with both low and high developmental tonal aptitude.
Rhythm achievement analysis found that students who sang primarily without words had
significantly higher observed means than the other two groups. These findings are
opposite from her pilot study. Levinowitz found students’ tonal achievement without
words higher than students’ rhythm achievement in her pilot study, whereas in this study,
she found students’ rhythm achievement without words was significantly higher than
students’ tonal achievement. Therefore, further research is necessary to determine
whether text interferes with music learning.

Levinowitz’s (1987) study was experimental and examined the use of text on

35

Singing achievement and the developmental music aptitudes of kindergarten and first-grade
students. She used two criterion songs, one in major and one in minor, that were
composed rather than from the traditional folk literature. Levinowitz might have wanted
to choose quality folk songs that have a limited range for children and have withstood the
test of time rather than composed songs for her criterion songs. However, she wanted to
use unfamiliar songs with the students and, as a result, composed two songs for her study.
Also, the tonal rating scale used by Levinowitz rates students on the use of singing voice,
intonation of patterns, and the ability to perform the resting tone in the context of a song
rather than rating students on their tonal accuracy. Additionally, Levinowitz had three
experimental groups: (1) singing primarily with words, (2) singing primarily without
words, and (3) singing only with words. The first and the third experimental groups are so
similar to one another that both may not be necessary.

Goetze’s (1985) and Smale’s (1987) studies were investigative. Both Goetze and
Smale taught their criterion songs on the same day as data collection so one does not
know if the students are imitating the researcher or if they are audiating. Rutkowski
(1993) studied the use of text in a brief one-time singing performance of students, rather
than examining the effect of the use of text in instruction of students over an extended
length of time. Jacobi-Kama’s (1996) study consisted of a treatment period of eight
weeks, which may not have been long enough for preschool children to achieve
significance. Additionally, Jacobi-Kama had the students echo her in the phrase method
and the whole song during data collection rather than have the students sing the criterion

song without the aid of the investigator. Finally, Levinowitz’s (1987, 1989) study is most

36

closely related to the present study. However, Levinowitz had one experimental group
too many. Experimental group one and three were so similar that they could have been
combined. Also, data collection consisted of two composed songs rather than songs from

the traditional folk repertoire.

El lll'l'lSl'

Several researchers have examined the effect of music instruction on
developmental tonal aptitude (Apfelstadt 1984, Jordan-DeCarbo 1982, Flohr 1981,
Taggart 1998, Moore 1987, Rutkowski 1996, Gordon 1980a). Gordon’s theory that
music aptitude, both tonal and rhythm, is developmental and fluctuates until approximately
age nine, depending upon the quality of the musical environment and instruction, has been
substantiated by others. The following section include studies that substantiate the theory
that instruction increases developmental tonal aptitude. Still, there are conflicting views as
to the influence of instruction on developmental tonal aptitude.
WM

Apfelstadt (1984) investigated the effect of instruction on the auditory
discrimination of pitch and vocal accuracy of kindergarten students. The problems of the
study were: “(1) Is there a relationship between performance on tests of pitch
discrimination and vocal accuracy and gender? (2) Is there a relationship between vocal
accuracy and home musical environment? (3) Is there a relationship between pitch
discrimination and vocal accuracy?” (Apfelstadt, 1984, p. 17)

Subjects included three intact classrooms of kindergarten students (n=6 1) fi'om

37

Madison, Wisconsin. The students were placed in one of three groups. Group one
consisted of students receiving vocal instruction emphasizing the development of melodic
perception through visual and kinesthetic means, such as playing the stair-step bells and
movement activities. Experimental group two consisted of vocal instruction emphasizing
imitation. Students in group three, the control group, received vocal instruction without
emphasizing perceptual or conceptual development. The two experimental groups were
from one school and were taught by the investigator. The control group was from another
school, comparable to the experimental groups’ school in socioeconomic level, and was
taught by another music specialist.

Prior to treatment, the investigator distributed a questionnaire to parents to obtain
information about each students’ musical backgrounds. The questions inquired about:
“(1) Parent/sibling involvement with music in and out of the home, (2) Child’s
involvement with music in and out of the home, and (3) Type of musical equipment
(including instruments) in the home” (Apfelstadt, 1984, p. 17). Also prior to treatment,
Apfelstadt spent a 3 1/2 week orientation period with the students so they could become
familiar with the investigator and reduce test anxiety. During the orientation period, no
pitch training was reinforced.

Following the orientation period, the students were pretested using the Tonal
subtest of PMMA, the Boardman Test of Vocal Accuracy, and a rote-singing test. The
Boardman Test of Vocal Accuracy consists student reproduction of 20 melodic patterns
after hearing each sung on an audio-cassette tape three times. The rote-singing test

consisted of the student choosing a familiar song to sing to the investigator.

38

Treatment lasted for 11 weeks with the experimental group receiving music two
30-minute class periods a week and the control group receiving music two 20-rninutes
class periods a week along with a 30-minute recreational singing period per week.
Lessons plans for the experimental groups were identical except that those for group one
emphasized song instruction kinesthetically, visually, and instrumentally, while those for
group two emphasized song instruction without reinforcement of pitch contour or
direction; only duration of sounds within a melodic pattern was emphasized. The control
group was activity-oriented and did not include instruction that referred to musical
elements such as pitch or duration.

At the end of the 11-week instructional period, the students were posttested using
the Tonal subtest of PMMA, the Boardman Test of Vocal Accuracy, and a rote-singing
test. PMMA and the Boardman Test were identical to those tests given earlier. The rote-
singing test included two criterion songs rather than allowing the student choosing his or
her song.

Two independent judges rated the two criterion songs and correlations ranged
from .99 to 1.0 on the pretest and were .99 on the posttest. Upon analysis, using attest
on pre- and post-instruction scores, Apfelstadt found that gender did not affect test
performance. Further, there was no relationship between performance on tests of pitch
discrimination as measured by the Tonal subtest of PMMA and the Boardman Test of
Vocal Accuracy. Apfelstadt found that poorer singers came fi'om homes without quality
musical environments and better singers came from homes with quality musical

environments.

39

Apfelstadt recommended that the study be replicated using two experimental
groups taught identically rather than two experimental groups taught differently.
However, she recommended that the experimental groups be tested differently, one group
would have visual representation of pitch and the other group would not. Also,
Apfelstadt’s experimental groups were taught by two teachers rather than by one teacher.
It seems that Apfelstadt did not account for the differences in teaching style and
presentation of two different teachers. Further, Apfelstadt recommended designing
another measurement tool to measure perception of melodic direction rather than using
PMMA. This makes sense, because PMMA is not designed to measure melodic direction
perception.

W2)

Jordan-DeCarbo (1982) examined the training of same and difierent techniques on
kindergarten students’ aural perception, vocal performance of tonal patterns, and aural
abilities. Specific questions included: “(1) Does involving children in a decision-making
process (discerning same or different) affect aural discrimination and singing of selected
tonal patterns? (2) Does sex of kindergarten children interact with aura] ability as
measured by aural discrimination and singing? (3) Does readiness training that includes
the singing of songs and resting-tone recognition influence aural ability as measured by
aural-discrimination and singing? (4) Does reinforcing tonal patterns with songs that
provide a tonal framework influence aural discrimination and singing?” (Jordan-DeCarbo,
1982,p.238)

Subjects were 89 kindergarten students fi'om three schools in northeastern Ohio.

40

Students were randomly assigned to one of two groups. Experimental group one
consisted of tonal pattern instruction using same/different discrimination techniques that
involved the students discriminating whether two patterns were the same or different. The
second experimental group received the same tonal patterns as the first group, but
responded through imitation rather than aural discrimination. The treatment lasted for 11
weeks with three 20-minute sessions per week.

The students were administered three tests, the Tonal subtest of PMMA, the
Criterion Singing Test of ten 3-note patterns, and a Criterion Singing Test song
immediately prior to and after the instructional period. The Criterion Singing Test (CST)
was constructed by the investigator and consisted of two parts: ten 3-note patterns and a
song. The test measures vocal performance ability. The ten patterns on the first part of
CST were selected from the Tonal subtest of PMMA. Of the ten patterns, eight of the
tonal patterns were taught during the instruction period. The second part of CST included
students’ choosing a familiar song to sing for the investigator.

Data analysis consisted of an independent variable, the technique, and three
dependent variables: Tonal subtest of PMMA, CST pattern ratings, and CST song
ratings. A three-way analysis of variance (AN OVA) was conducted to determine if there
was a difference between the two experimental groups. Jordan-DeCarbo found no
significant difl’erences between PMMA scores, ratings on the CST three-note patterns, and
performances of the CST song. Further, a MANCOVA was conducted and produced no
significant interactions or main effects. However, J ordan-DeCarbo found that there were

significant gains from pre- to post-instruction on both aural perception and singing scores.

41

“Based on the results of the study, it could not be determined specifically whether the gain
was due to the effect of the training or maturation” (Jordan-DeCarbo, 1982, p. 247). She
also found that girls scored significantly higher than boys.

Jordan-DeCarbo’s study included an ll-week instructional period, which may not
have been long enough for kindergarten students. Jordan-DeCarbo (1982) stated that “the
kindergarten age level cannot be overlooked as a critical year of development” (p. 247),
yet she only spent 11 weeks teaching students tonal patterns. Possibly if she spent more
time instructing the students, she would have found significant differences. Also,
instruction included primarily tonal patterns and some song instruction rather than both
tonal pattern instruction and many songs in a wide variety of tonalities and meters so that
tonal patterns can be reinforced in classroom activities.

WWW

Rutkowski (1996) examined kindergarten students’ singing voices and
developmental music aptitudes in large-group, small-group, and individual settings. The
students (n=99) were from one public school in central Pennsylvania and were randomly
assigned to either the treatment group or control group. The treatment group received
instruction that included songs, activities, and singing games in a small group and
individual setting. The control group received the same instruction as the treatment group
but only in a large group setting. The lesson plans were the same for both groups.
Instruction lasted for nine months with the students receiving music once a week.

Since Rutkowski was interested in the differences between the treatment and

control groups’ tonal aptitude scores, she administered the Tonal subtest of the PMMA as

42

a pretest, midtest, and posttest. Also, the Singing Voice Development Measure (SVDM)
was administered to the students as a pretest and posttest.

Results indicated no significant difference between the pre- and post-instruction
administration of the Tonal subtest of PMMA for the treatment and the control group.
However, “both groups had gains in tonal aptitude mean scores during the treatment
period” (Rutkowski, 1996, p. 361). On the pre- and post-instruction administration of
SVDM, there was a significant difi‘erence between the two groups. The treatment group
had significantly higher means than the control group.

Therefore, Rutkowski concluded that there is a small positive relationship between
developmental music aptitude and the use of the singing voice. Also, she recommended
that individual or small-group singing activities be incorporated into music lessons to
improve singing achievement in young children. Further, Rutkowski (1996) recormnended
that “research with young children conducted for only a short period of time may result in
premature conclusions” (p. 363).

Rutkowski had the students echo the teacher singing the patterns from the
criterion song during individual testing sessions, rather than having the students sing the
song in its entirety without the aid or imitation of the investigator. By having the students
sing alone, she would have known if they are audiating rather than imitating. Also,
Rutkowski met with her students once a week for nine months. As a result of working
with students in her study, Rutkowski recommended, instruction should be shorter and

more frequent to be effective.

43

1W

A study of developmental aptitude and effective instruction was conducted by
Gordon (1980a) in West Irondequoit, New York. In April of 1978, PMMA was
administered to 873 students enrolled in kindergarten through third-grade in nine
elementary schools of West Irondequoit. Approximately two weeks later, PMMA was
administered for a second time for practice effects from taking the test. The differences
between test-retest means were negligible, and the standard deviations remained the same.

All students’ PMMA test scores were given to the muSic teachers during the
summer, so that they could become familiar with the scores before instruction began in
September. Once instruction began, “the teachers followed the suggestions provided in
Part Six of the Manual for the Primary Measures of Music Audiation for teaching to
children’s individual musical differences in accordance with their test scores” (Gordon,
1980a, p. 109). Likewise, the parents were instructed on providing appropriate informal
and formal music instruction at home. For example, students who received Composite
percentile ranks of 80 and above were strongly encouraged to engage in special music
instruction outside of school as a supplement to regular music instruction.

During the 1978-79 school year, the students received one or two music periods
each week. In April of 1979, PMMA was administered for a third time. The results from
students who had taken the test three times were used for analysis in this study.
Therefore, 523 students’ scores were analyzed.

The mean differences fiom 1978 and 1979 were compared. Gordon (1980a) found

that the mean difl’erences tended to be greater for younger children, with larger difference

44

associated with the Rhythm test than with the Tonal test. This is possibly due to the
teachers concentrating more on rhythmic activities than tonal activities.

Finally, correlations were computed for students’ 1978 and 1979 scores. Gordon
(1980a) noted that “the coefiicients are considerable lower than the test-retest reliabilities .
. . as they should be as a result of fluctuating music aptitude due to intensive exposure and
instruction over a period of 8 months” (p. 110). Therefore, it was concluded that
developmental music aptitude scores do fluctuate with different types of instruction and
that music aptitude scores do increase when instruction is individualized. Further Gordon
concluded that the younger the child, the more he or she will profit from individualized

instruction.

Summm

The findings of the studies on the use of text versus no text when learning and
performing songs are not conclusive enough to supply music educators with definitive
knowledge that can be used when developing curricular goals and instructional techniques.

This research project investigates the effects of difi’erent instruction on tonal
accuracy of kindergarten students. It differs fi'om other research in the following ways:

1. The study was conducted for a longer period of time and instruction occurred at more
frequent intervals. Rutkowski (1996) recommends that research with young children
should include shorter and more frequent sessions to be more effective. She emphasizes
that “research with young children conducted for only a short period of time may result in

premature conclusions” (Rutkowski, 1996, p. 363). Therefore, the present study was

45

conducted over 24 weeks with the students receiving music for two 30-minute class
periods each week.

2. Four diatonic criterion songs, two in major tonality, one in minor tonality, and one in
dorian tonality were extracted from the traditional folk repertoire as opposed to pentatonic
or composed songs. Pentatonic songs have no leading tone, and any of the five tones
could be audiated as the tonic. Unless children have a sense of tonality, for major and
harmonic minor which have leading tones, they will be unable to establish a sense of
tonality for pentatonic (Gordon, 1997a). Quality diatonic folk songs that consist of a
limited range for kindergarten students and text that is not compelling were used for the
criterion songs.

3. Since DeYarrnan (1971) found that students performed significantly better when
instructed in a wide variety of tonalities, the present study consisted of song instruction in
a wide variety of tonalities to give the students a large musical vocabulary. Folk repertoire
was chosen for song instruction. Songs included the following tonalities: major, minor,
dorian, mixolydian, and lydian. Locrian was not used because this tonality is not prevalent
in our society.

4. Since Rutkowski (1996) and J acobi-Karna (1996) had the students imitate them during
data collection, the present study had the students sing the resting tone of two unfamiliar
melodies as opposed to imitating the investigator or singing phrases and songs. None of
the studies examined looked at the students’ ability to audiate the tonality of songs. Some
researchers had the subjects echo the investigator and therefore the students possibly were

imitating instead of audiating. The present study investigated if the text distracts the

46

students’ from being able to audiate the tonality and perform the resting tone of unfamiliar
melodies from folk literature.

5. Gordon (1980a) found that music aptitude scores do increase when instruction is
individualized, and that the younger the child, the more he or she will profit fiom
individualized instruction. Therefore, the instruction was individualized according to each
student’s tonal music aptitude score. The students were pretested using the Tonal subtest

of PMMA and the investigator had knowledge of those scores.

47

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY
The procedures in this study were designed to (a) determine the effect of the use of
text on the intonation of song performance and the performance of resting tone, (b)
explore the effect of the use of text on developmental tonal music aptitude scores after 24
weeks of instruction, and (c) determine whether or not there is an interaction between
aptitude and the use of text or no text in instruction. The sample, design, research

instmments, and data analysis will be discussed in this chapter.

Sample

The sample for this study was 64 kindergarten students from two elementary
schools in Okemos, Michigan. As a result of absences during treatment, 6 students were
excluded from the study. Therefore, the sample size for data analysis was 58 students.
Kindergarten students in the Okemos School District received music twice a week for 30-
rrrinutes each class period. Prior to the study, the students received music instruction from
their regular music teacher for only two to four class periods, because the study began at
the beginning of the academic year. The students ranged in age from 4- to 6-years-old and
were representative of suburban populations in which most of the families were from the
middle to higher socio-economic class. One elementary school consisted of families from
the higher socio-economic class, whereas, the other elementary school consisted of

families fiom the middle socio-economic class. The students in this study were

48

predominantly Caucasian.

Design

Four intact classes from two elementary schools participated in the study. The
investigator randomly assigned the classes to two experimental groups. One class from
each elementary school constituted one experimental group and received music instruction
primarily with text. The remaining two classes, one from each school, constituted the
other experimental group and received music instruction primarily without text. The
treatment was administered for 24 weeks, and all four classes were taught by the
investigator. During music instruction, the regular music teachers either assisted the
investigator or observed the classes. Also, during the 24-week instructional period, the
kindergarten teachers and music teachers in each school allowed the researcher to make
up any music sessions that were missed due to assemblies, snow days, or holidays. As a
result, the four kindergarten classes received the same amount of instruction throughout
the 24 weeks.

Instruments used for measurement were the Tonal subtest of the Primary
Measures of Music Audiation (PMMA) to measure developmental tonal aptitude and two
author-designed rating scales to measure students’ tonal accuracy when performing a song
and ability to perform resting tone. The Tonal subtest of PMMA was administered to the
students in both groups as a pre- and posttest measure. The Tonal Accuracy rating scale

and Resting Tone rating scale was used at the end of the 24-week instructional period.

49

Researchlnstmmems

The Primary Measures of Music Audiation (PMMA) was developed by Edwin
Gordon in 1971, published in 1979, and revised in 1986. It is a valid test of musical
potential for kindergarten, first-, second-, and third-grade students. PMMA is called a test
of audiation rather than aptitude because the students for which the test was developed
have developmental music aptitudes that fluctuate as a result of the continuous interaction
between a student’s innate capacities and the environment.

PMMA consists of two subtests: Rhythm and Tonal. Since this study focuses on
tonal development, only the Tonal subtest of PMMA (see Appendix A) was administered.
The Tonal subtest of PMMA does not require formal language, numbers, or music reading
skills and takes 20 minutes to administer. The test is delivered on an audio-cassette
player, and the students are asked to listen to determine whether two patterns are the same
or different. The test consists of 40 questions that are identified on the answer sheet using
pictures (i.e., hat, spoon, apple, boat). Under each picture are two answer boxes. In the
top answer box there are two smiling faces. In the bottom answer box there are two
faces, one smiling and one frowning. If the student identifies the two patterns as the same,
he or she is asked to circle the top box with the two smiling faces. If the patterns are
different, the student is asked to circle the bottom box with the two faces that are
different. The test begins with four practice examples. Items 1 through 12 consist of two-
note patterns. Items 13 through 38 consist of three-note patterns. The last two items
consist of a four-note pattern and a five-note pattern. There are five seconds in between

each item, during which the child marks the answer sheet. The Tonal subtest lasts

50

approximately 12 minutes. The specific directions of the test are read to the students
rather than being pre-recorded because Gordon (1986) found that young students were
unable to keep up with recorded directions. Further, Gordon (1986) found that some
kindergarten students worked best when the tape recorder was stopped and they were
allowed to stand, stretch, or relax when taking PMMA.

The Tonal Accuracy rating scale (see Appendix B) was author-designed and used
for rating the performance of the criterion songs Biddy, Biddy (see Appendix C) and See
How I ’m Jumping (see Appendix D). It was a continuous, or hierarchical, rating scale
with five criteria. The rating scale did not measure the correctness of rhythm or of text; it
measured the tonal accuracy of students’ performances. The Resting Tone rating scale
(see Appendix E) was author-designed and used for rating the performance of resting tone
to two unfamiliar songs, Ally Bally (see Appendix F) and Round and Round (see
Appendix G). It was a continuous, or hierarchical, rating scale with five criteria. The
judges gave each student one score for the Tonal Accuracy rating scale and one score for

the Resting Tone rating scale.

Procedures

After the proposal was accepted by the researcher’s guidance committee, a copy of
the proposal was submitted to the University Committee on Research Involving Human
Subjects (UCRIHS). After permission for conducting the research was granted by
UCRIHS (see Appendix H), the researcher submitted a copy of the proposal to the

Okemos Public Schools, received permission for conducting research, and distributed

5]

information about the research study to kindergarten parents in two elementary schools
(see Appendix I). The letter was accompanied by a consent form (see Appendix J) that
parents were asked to sign and return to the researcher if they were willing to have their
child participate in the study. Participation in the study was entirely voluntary, and a child
could withdraw from the study or refuse to respond at any time with no penalties. The
researcher ensured confidentiality of all student responses. Eight consent forms were not
returned to the researcher, so those children did not participate in the study.

Prior to the administration of the Tonal subtest of the Primary Measures of Music
Audiation (PMMA), the investigator met with the students for one music class period in
order to get to know them. The testing took place at the beginning of the school year
during a scheduled music class period.

The researcher wrote the names of the children and the month and year at the top
of the answer sheets of the Tonal subtest of PMMA before test administration. During
administration of PMMA, both the school music specialists and the investigator were
present to assist students with any difficulties. The music specialists and the investigator
made sure that all of the children were on the correct item. Students were instructed to
keep their finger on the object of the item to be answered. For example, if the object was
an apple, the student was instructed to keep his or her finger on the apple while both
paired patterns of the item was performed, then circle the appropriate answer and put his
or her finger on the next object, such as a car. No talking or humming was allowed during
the test, because it would interfere with the concentration of some of the students.

However, the investigator occasionally needed to stop the tape to make sure that

52

everybody was on the correct item and allow the students to stretch and relax. The
testing, including distributing and collecting answer sheets, pencils, and clip boards took
approximately 20 minutes.

The students in both experimental groups received two 30-minute music classes
per week for 24 weeks. The first experimental group consisted of two kindergarten
classes, one class from each school, and received instruction primarily using the text of the
song repertoire. No more than two songs per class period included instruction without
text. The second experimental group consisted of the remaining two kindergarten classes,
one from each school, and received song instruction primarily without text. No more than
two songs per class period included instruction with text.

Repertoire (see Appendix K) and lesson plans (see Appendix L) for both
experimental groups were identical, except that one included the text to songs and the
other did not include text. Both groups followed the philosophy of Edwin Gordon’s
Music Learning Theory and the teaching techniques of Orff Schulwerk.

Music Learning Theory is a theory of how one learns music and instruction
according to Music Learning Theory includes two parts: learning sequence activities and
classroom activities. During learning sequence activities, new skills such as solfege and
reading music are introduced through pattern instruction. In classroom activities, content
such as major, minor, duple and triple are taught and reinforced. Orlf Schulwerk
techniques, such as playing instruments, movement, and body percussion, were used
during classroom activities.

Music instruction for this study included folk songs in a wide variety of tonalities

53

and meters and chants in a wide variety of meters. Songs were taught using bean bags,
rhythm sticks, and various pitched and unpitched Orlf instruments. Movement activities,
such as continuous fluid movement, walking to the beat, and simple circle dances, were
also incorporated into each lesson plan. Each class began with a hello song and included
reinforcement of the resting tone and tonal pattern instruction. Patterns were
individualized to each student’s developmental tonal aptitude score. Additionally, the
researcher prepared the students for the task of resting tone performance by singing the
resting tone at the end of most songs during the 24-week instructional period. Other
activities included tossing a bean bag or gesturing to a student to perform the resting tone
individually during the performance of songs in all tonalities.

The folk songs used for instruction consisted of a vocal range fiom dl to al for
comfortable singing of children. Studies have continued from the 19303 to the present
about the vocal ranges of children. They have generally found the same results, that
children’s ranges are lower than assumed and expand with age. Wassum (1979) found a
mean span of vocal range that was wider in compass. She found that first-grade students
could sing a range of an octave or more and that this range increased with age. However,
Gordon (1997b) observed that the characteristic singing voice extends from d1 and above
and that most favor the pitches f" and g‘. Gordon firrther states that if students sing
higher through the middle break (approximately b"1 to d‘”), their throat muscles tighten.
To go lower than c1 might force the student to use his or her speaking voice rather than
singing voice. Therefore, song instruction consisted of songs with a vocal range fi'om d1

to a‘. Occasionally, the songs contained pitches that went above the middle break and as

54

low as c1 to increase the vocal range of those students who had found their singing voices.
Six weeks before the end of the treatment period, two criterion songs, Biddy,
Biddy and See How I ’m Jumping, were taught with text to students in both experimental
groups. Biddy, Biddy was in major tonality and See How I ’m Jumping was in minor
tonality. At the end of the 24-week period, students were individually audio-taped
performing the two criterion songs. Prior to individual testing, the researcher prepared the
students by having them sing in groups and individually into a microphone. The
researcher told them that “everyone will be allowed to sing the two songs, Biddy, Biddy
and See How I ’m Jumping, into a microphone alone.” Students were taken individually by
the researcher, out of their regular music class, led to an adjacent room, and audio-taped
while singing the two criterion songs. The researcher and the setting were non-
threatening to the students because they were familiar with the researcher, who had been
their music teacher, and the students had been to the room where the individual sessions
occurred. Solo singing was a common practice during music classes, so singing in solo for
the researcher was not unusual. Prior to audio-taping, the student played the resonator
bells in the tonality of the song he or she was about to sing. Then, the researcher sang the
proper tonality sequence before the child sang the criterion song. For example, if the
student was to sing, Biddy, Biddy, he or she played the d1 and a1 resonator bells. Then,
the researcher turned on the audio-cassette player and sang the appropriate tonality
sequence (see Figure 1) on a neutral syllable and gestured for the student to sing Biday,
Biddy. During the audio-taping of the individual sessions, the researcher switched the

order of the two criterion songs after each student so that one tonality was not always

55

performed first.

Figure Example I. Tonal sequence in major tonality

 

Rea - dy Sing

After the students were audio-taped perfomring the two criterion songs, they were
audio-taped performing the resting tone of two unfamiliar songs. One song, Ally Bally,
was in major tonality and the other song, Round and Round, was in dorian tonality. These
songs were tape-recorded by the researcher to insure consistency of the presentation.
Small and McCachern (1983) found that children were able to match pitch with a female
model better than with a male. Therefore, the researcher, who is a female, performed the
two songs. Additionally, the students were familiar with the researcher as a vocal model.
When the researcher audio-taped the songs, she paused for five seconds in the middle of
each song and for five seconds at the end of each song to allow the student to perform the
resting tone.

During the individual testing session, the students listened to the two songs on an
audio-cassette player, and, when the tape paused, the researcher gestured to the student to
sing the resting tone. The researcher switched the order of the two songs after each
student.

Three qualified independent judges listened to and rated all of the students’

56

recorded performances of the two criterion songs using an author-designed Tonal
Accuracy rating scale. The same three judges listened to and rated all of the students’
recorded performances of the resting tone using an author-designed Resting Tone rating
scale. The judges were music teachers pursuing their Ph.Ds. in music education and had
not taught any of the students participating in the study. Prior to the actual rating of
performances, the rating scales were pilot-tested. The interjudge reliabilities were found
to be .98 for Tonal Accuracy and .99 for Resting Tone, reflecting a great degree of

agreement among the three judges.

DataAnalxsis

Means and standard deviations were computed for pre-instruction and post-
instruction PMMA scores, as well as gains scores, of both treatment groups and for scores
on the Tonal Accuracy and Resting Tone rating scales. In addition, split-half reliabilities
corrected for length with the Spearrnan-Brown Prophecy formula were computed for the
Tonal PMMA scores of the pre- and post-instruction administration as were the interjudge
reliabilities of the Tonal Accuracy and Resting Tone rating scales.

To determine whether kindergarten students who are taught songs without text
perform with better intonation than students who are taught songs with text, a two-way
analysis of variance (treatment x aptitude level) was conducted to determine whether any
significant differences existed between the two treatment groups. If significant differences
occurred favoring the use of no text when teaching songs, findings would add to the body

of research that students sing with more accuracy when using a neutral syllable rather than

57

text. Ifnon-significant differences were found, several speculations would be made on the
possibility of song instruction including both songs with and without words. Possibly
words do not interfere with students’ learning of songs and it does not matter if song
instruction is with or without words.

To determine whether kindergarten students who are taught songs without text
can identify the resting tone through performance (audiate the tonic) of an unfamiliar song
better than students who are taught with text, and the role of developmental tonal aptitude
in performance of resting tone, a two-way analysis of variance (treatment x aptitude level)
was conducted to determine whether any differences occurred between the two treatment
groups. If significant differences occurred favoring the use of no text, findings would add
to the body of research that supports the theory of Piaget’s pre-operational stage, that
children cannot focus on more than one thing at a time. Iffindings favored the use of text,
then song instruction that includes the use of text does not interfere with one’s ability to
audiate the resting tone or the tonic. Therefore, teachers can pick literature that has
compelling text because the text does not interfere with music learning.

In order to determine the effect of the use of text in song instruction on
developmental tonal music aptitude, a two-way analysis of variance (treatment x aptitude
level) was conducted to determine whether any significant difi‘erences existed between the
two treatment groups or aptitude levels of the two groups. Ifsignificant differences
occurred favoring either the use of text or no text on song instruction, several conclusions
might be drawn on the effect of song instruction using text or no text on developmental

tonal music aptitude. The a was set at .05 level for all analysis.

58

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND INTERPRETATIONS

WWW

Split-half reliabilities were computed for the pre- and post-instruction Tonal
subtest of PMMA for both treatment groups. The split-half reliabilities coefficients for the
pre- and post-instruction of PMMA in the present study were similar to, but were higher
than, the ones reported in the PMMA Manual. The reliability coefficient reported in the
PMMA Manual for the Tonal subtest was .85. The administration reliability coefficients
for the Tonal subtest were .93 and .91 respectively.

At the conclusion of the 24-week instructional period, students’ performances of
the criterion songs and resting tone were rated by three independent judges. Interjudge
reliabilities were found to be .85 for Biddy, Biddy, .74 for See How I ’m Jumping and .79
for the two songs combined, reflecting a high level of agreement among the three judges.
Interjudge reliabilities were found to be .87 for Ally Bally, .7 8 for Round and Round and
.82 for the two songs combined, again, reflecting a high level of agreement among the
three judges.

NEW

In order to determine whether kindergarten students who are taught songs without

text perform with better intonation than students who are taught songs with text, a two-

way analysis of variance (treatment x aptitude level) was conducted, and a was set at .05.

59

At the beginning of the study, the students were randomly divided into two treatment
groups, text and no text. As a result of the pre- and post-instruction administration of the
Tonal subtest of PMMA, the students were divided into two aptitude levels, high and low.
The students were placed in the high aptitude group if they attained a raw score of 28 or
higher on the Tonal subtest of PMMA. The low aptitude group consisted of those
students with raw scores 27 or lower. Neither the interaction nor the main effects reached
significance on either of the song performances alone or in the composite scores (see
Table 1, Table 2, and Table 3).

Table 1

ANO VA Table for Performance of Biday, Biddy

 

DF SS MS F P
Treatment 1 2.070 2.070 .203 .653
Aptitude 1 14.965 14.965 1.471 .230
Treatment x Aptitude 1 14.680 14.680 1.443 .234
Residual 54 549.299 10.175

 

*p < .05

60

Table 2

AND VA Table for Performance of See How I ’m Jumping

 

 

 

 

DF SS MS F P
Treatment 1 9.965 9.965 .214 .214
Aptitude 1 20.968 20.968 3.326 .073
Treatment x Aptitude 1 1.265 1.265 .201 .655
Residual 54 340.394 6.304
*p < .05
Table 3
AND VA Table for Composite of Tonal Accuracy

DF SS MS F P
Treatment 1 11.130 11.130 .344 .559
Aptitude 1 51.669 51.669 1.599 .211
Treatment x Aptitude 1 15.727 15.727 .487 .488
Residual 54 1745.073 32.316
*p < .05
I . [I l i B .

Results agree with Levinowitz’s (1987, 1989) findings that there is no significant

difference between the text and no text treatment groups. One reason that could account

for the non-significant differences between the two groups of students is the difference of

aptitude at the beginning of the study. The students in the text treatment group had higher

mean scores on pre-instruction administration of PMMA than the no text treatment group.

61

This could have occurred because the students in the no text treatment group possibly did
not understand the directions of PMMA at the time of pre-instruction administration.
Another reason that could account for non-significant differences between the two groups
of students is the behavior of the students in the no text group. The students in the no text
group had discipline problems and, as a result, the daily lesson plans were not always
completed. In other words, the no text group did not accomplish as much as the text
group. The students in the text group always completed all of the activities on the lesson
plan, whereas the students in the no text group sometimes completed the activities on the
lesson plan.

There was no difference in singing performance accuracy according to aptitude
level. However, the main effect for aptitude for See How I ’m Jumping (see Table 2)
approached significance (.073). These findings concur with Rutkowski (1996), who found
that there is a small relationship between developmental music aptitude and the use of the
singing voice. Perhaps the low aptitude students are less likely to develop their singing
voice than the high aptitude students. Possibly, the students who had found their singing
voice might have had higher developmental tonal aptitude than those students who have
not found their singing voice.

The present study was conducted over a 24-week period. Possibly a longer
treatment period would have resulted in significant differences. Also, the sample size for
the study was 58 kindergarten students, meaning that there were only approximately 15
students in each statistical cell. Perhaps, a larger sample size might have resulted in

significant differences.

62

511D!!! [E . I E l] E.
In order to determine whether kindergarten students who are taught songs without
text can identify the resting tone through performance better than students who are taught
songs with text, a two-way analysis of variance (treatment x aptitude levels) was
conducted, and a was set at .05. Results, as shown in Table 4, Table 5, and Table 6,
indicated that the two-way interaction was not significant, nor were the main effects for
treatment or aptitude for ratings of the resting tone performance for individual songs and
for the composite ratings.
Table 4

AND VA Table for Resting Tone Performance of Ally Bally

 

DF SS MS F P
Treatment 1 3 .005 3.005 . 1 56 .694
Aptitude 1 4.180 4.180 .217 .643
Treatment x Aptitude 1 25.673 25.673 1.330 .253
Residual 54 1042.165 19.299

 

*p < .05

63

Table 5

ANO VA Table for Resting Tone Performance of Round and Round

 

 

 

 

DF SS MS F P
Treatment 1 1 1.843 1 1.843 .931 .339
Aptitude 1 12.779 12.779 1.004 .320
Treatment x Aptitude 1 1.193 1.193 .094 .760
Residual 54 687.173 12.725
*p < .05
Table 6
ANO VA Table for Composite Resting Tone Performance

DF SS MS F P
Treatment 1 23.012 23.012 .675 .414
Aptitude 1 3 5.965 35 .965 1.056 .308
Treatment x Aptitude 1 37.117 37.117 1.089 .30]
Residual 54 1839.879 34.072
*p < .05

I 'EE'IEE E'

Results indicated that the two-way interaction was not significant, nor were the

main effects for treatment or aptitude. Maybe the students did not have enough informal

instruction in the performance of resting tone. The students had a 24-week instructional

period during which resting tone was stressed on a regular basis. However, the students

may not have grasped the concept sufficiently. Also, the development of resting tone in

64

unfamiliar tonalities, such as dorian, might have led to non-significance. The means for
the performances of resting tone in major tonality was higher then the means for the
performances of resting tone in dorian tonality. Possibly a longer treatment period,
including performance of resting tone in unfamiliar tonalities, would have resulted in
significant differences. Also, the sample size for the study was 58 kindergarten students.
Perhaps, a larger sample size might have resulted in significant differences.

Another reason for non-significance could be the development of the singing voice.
Perhaps the students could not manipulate their singing voices to accurately perform the
resting tone. Many students’ initial attacks of the resting tone were not in tune, but ended
up in tune after the students slid his or her voice up or down to the accurate pitch. More
time and practice audiating and performing of resting tone might have produced different
results.

During the individual sessions of resting tone performance, the students were
fascinated with the fact that it was the investigator’s voice on the audio-tape recorder.
Many students made comments such as “Wow, that really is you?” and possibly did not
listen closely to the tonality. Perhaps, they were focusing on the investigator’s voice and
not the music. Also, when it was time for students to sing the resting tone, when the tape
paused, they would stop and say “What am I supposed to do?” Possibly, they did not
listen closely to the resting tone directions and therefore did not accurately perform the
resting tone.

”1:!” E]: l II “.15. S

In order to determine whether the use of text in song instruction has an effect on

65

developmental tonal aptitude, a two-way analysis of variance (treatment x aptitude level)
was conducted, and a was set a .05. Results (see Table 7) indicated no significant
difference for interaction or for treatment. However, there was significant difference for
aptitude. Students with low aptitude had higher gains than did students with high
aptitude.

Table 7

ANO VA T able for Gains Scores

 

DF SS MS F P
Treatment 1 54.984 54.984 1.327 .254
Aptitude 1 452.311 452.311 10917“ .001
Treatment x Aptitude 1 120.360 120.360 1.330 .094
Residual 54 1042.165 19.299

 

*p < .05

The interaction of treatment with aptitude approached significance (p = .094). As
can be seen in Figure 2, the low aptitude students who were in the no text group tended to
gain more than low aptitude students in the text group, although this gain did not create a

significant interaction.

66

Figure 2
Cell Line Chart for Gains Scores

Grouping Variables: Treatment and Aptitude

 

Call Bar Chart
Grouplng Varlablels): Treatment
8pm By: Aptltuda Level

 

.a .5
o N

1 A
v——1

I I-Ihh
I Low

Coll Mean for Galn Scores
:5 a

 

Text No Text

 

 

 

Results provide some support for Levinowitz’s (1987, 1989) findings that low
aptitude students have greater gains in developmental tonal aptitude than do high aptitude
students. This is not surprising because of the phenomenon of regression toward the
mean. Those students who scored very high or very low, are more likely to score closer
to the mean when re-tested.

It is possible that no significant differences were found because of classroom
management issues. The students in the no text treatment group displayed more

management problems than those in the text treatment group. The students in the no text

67

group were generally more active and less attentive than those students in the text group.
As a result, students in the no text group did not accomplish as much as the text group.
The daily lesson plans were not always completed for the no text group whereas, the daily
lesson plans were always completed for the text group. It is possible that the students in
the no text group had discipline problems because song instruction consisted primarily of
no text, and at this age, text is important to students because they need something
cognitive to hold on to when listening and performing songs. Perhaps, for management in
the classroom, some song instruction should include text.

The students in the text treatment group had higher mean scores on pre-instruction
administration of PMMA than the no text treatment group. This could have occurred
because the students in the no text treatment group possibly did not understand the

directions of PMMA at the time of pre-instruction administration. Possibly the difference

in scores might have resulted in non-significance.

 

Means and standard deviations for the pre-instruction treatment scores of the
Tonal subtest of PMMA are presented in Table 8. The mean scores of the text treatment
group (n=29) tended to be higher than those of the no text treatment group (n=29) on the
pre-instruction administration of PMMA, although these differences were found to be
statistically non-significant. Standard deviations for the no text treatment group were
larger than the ones for the text treatment group, indicating a greater variability of scores
in the no text group.

Means and standard deviations for the post-instruction treatment scores of the

68

Tonal subtest of PMMA are presented in Table 9. PMMA post-instruction mean scores
for the no text treatment group were slightly higher than the text treatment group.

PMMA post-instruction mean scores were higher for both groups than pre-instruction
scores. The standard deviations of the post-instruction scores for the text treatment group
were slightly larger than those of the pre-instruction scores, whereas the standard
deviation of the post-instruction scores for the no text treatment group were considerably
smaller than those of the pre-instruction scores.

Table 8

Tonal subtest of PA/fll/IA Pre-Instruction Results

 

 

n M S
Text 29 26.34 7.70
No Text 29 24.17 10.06

 

Table 9

Tonal subtest of PM Post-Instruction Results

 

 

n M SD
Text 29 30.07 8.71
No Text 29 30.59 6.07

 

Presented in Table 10, Table 11, and Table 12 are the means and standard
deviations of the gains scores for the treatment groups, divided according to aptitude
level. The low aptitude students gained more than the high aptitude students in both

treatment groups. However, the low aptitude students in the no text group tended to gain

69

more than the students in the other three groups. The students in the no text treatment
group with low aptitude tended to exhibit greater gains in developmental tonal aptitude
from pre- to post-instruction than students with high aptitude.

Table 10

Means Table for Gains Scores

Grouping Variables: Aptitude and T reatrnent

 

N M SD
High, Text 17 2.941 3.363
High, No Text 14 2.000 4.707
Low, Text 12 5.667 8.424
Low, No Text 15 10.533 8.400

 

Table 11
Means Table for Gains Scores

Grouping Variable: T reatrnent

 

N M SD
Text 29 4.069 6.017
No Text 29 6.041 8.025

 

70

Table 12
Means Table for Gains Scores

Grouping Variable: Aptitude

 

 

N M SD
High 31 2.516 3.982
Low 27 8.370 8.607
u 1 o 1' o .’l«. o o 1 1° 0 n . 1.10.

The means for the criten'on song Biddy, Biddy are found in Table 13, Table 14,

and Table 15, and the means for the criterion song See How I ’m Jumping are found in

Table 16, Table 17, and Table 18. The composite means are found in Table 19, Table 20,

and Table 21. The students in the no text treatment group with low aptitude sang with

slightly better tonal accuracy on the criterion song Biddy, Biddy than students in the other

three groups. Whereas, the students in the no text treatment group with high aptitude

sang with slightly better tonal accuracy on the criterion song See How I ’m Jumping than

students in the other three groups.

71

Table 13
Means Table for Biddy, Biddy

Grouping Variables: Aptitude and Treatment

 

N M SD
High, Text 17 9.824 2.942
High, No Text 14 9.833 3.433
Low, Text 12 8.429 3.652
Low, No Text 15 10.467 2.774

 

Table 14
Means Table for Biddy, Biddy

Grouping Variable: Treatment

 

N M SD
Text 29 9.828 3.095
No Text 29 9.483 3.334

 

72

Table 15
Means Table for Biddy, Biddy

Grouping Variable: Aptitude

 

 

 

N M SD
High 31 9.194 3.301
Low 27 10.185 3.039
Table 16
Means T able for See How I ’m Jumping
Grouping Variables: Aptitude and Treatment

N M SD
High, Text 17 8.824 2.038
High, No Text 14 10.333 2.387
Low, Text 12 8.286 2.813
Low, No Text 15 9.200 2.783

 

73

Table 17
Means Table for See How I ’m Jumping

Grouping Variable: Treatment

 

N M SD
Text 29 9.448 2.277
No Text 29 8.759 2.786

 

Table 18
Means Table for See How I ’m Jumping

Grouping Variable: Aptitude

 

N M SD
High 31 8.581 2.391
Low 27 9.704 2.628

 

74

Table 19
Means Table for Composite Scores for Tonal Accuracy

Grouping Variables: Aptitude and Treatment

 

N M SD
High, Text 17 18.647 4.729
High, No Text 14 16.714 6.305
Low, Text 12 19.500 6.895
Low, No Text 15 19.667 4.981

 

Table 20
Means Table for Composite Scores for Tonal Accuracy

Grouping Variable: Treatment

 

N M SD
Text 29 19.000 5.625
No Text 29 18.241 5.755

 

75

Table 21
Means Table for Composite Scores for Tonal Accuracy

Grouping Variable: Aptitude

 

N M SD
High 31 17.774 5.488
Low 27 19.593 5.786

 

The resting tone performance means for Ally Bally are found in Table 22, Table
23, and Table 24 and for Round and Round in Table 25, Table 26, and Table 27. The
composite means are found in Table 28, Table 29, and Table 30. The students in the text
treatment group with low aptitude more accurately performed the resting tone on the song
Ally Bally than students in the other three groups. The students in the no text treatment
group more accurately performed the resting tone on the song Round and Round than the

students in the other three groups.

76

Table 22

Means Table for Ally Bally

Grouping Variables: Aptitude and Treatment

 

 

 

N M SD
High, Text 17 8.118 4.091
High, No Text 14 9.000 4.788
Low, Text 12 10.000 4.134
Low, No Text 15 8.200 4.539
Table 23
Means T able for Ally Bally
Grouping Variable: Treatment

N M SD
Text 29 8.897 4. 143
No Text 29 8.586 4.594

 

77

Table 24
Means T able for Ally Bally

Grouping Variable: Aptitude

 

 

 

N M SD
High 31 8.516 4.366
Low 27 9.000 4.377
Table 25
Means Table for Round and Round
Grouping Variables: Aptitude and Treatment

N M SD
High, Text 17 6.765 3.597
High, No Text 14 8.000 4.285
Low, Text 12 6.143 3.302
Low, No Text 15 6.800 3.121

 

78

Table 26
Means Table for Round and Round

Grouping Variable: Treatment

 

 

 

N M SD
Text 29 7.276 3.872
No Text 29 6.483 3.169
Table 27
Means Table for Round and Round
Grouping Variable: Aptitude

N M SD
High 31 6.484 3 .424
Low 27 7.333 3.658

 

79

Table 28
Means Table for Composite Scores for Resting Tone Performance

Grouping Variables: Aptitude and Treatment

 

N M SD
High, Text 17 15.118 5.633
High, No Text 14 15.143 6.632
Low, Text 12 18.000 6.150
Low, No Text 15 14.800 4.960

 

Table 29
Means Table for Composite Scores for Resting Tone Performance

Grouping Variable: Treatment

 

N M SD
Text 29 16.310 5.923
No Text 29 14.966 5.723

 

80

Table 30
Means Table for Composite Scores for Resting Tone Performance

Grouping Variable: Aptitude

 

 

N M SD
High 31 15.129 5.999
Low 27 16.222 5.646
I . E1 1 I S 1 ll: . .

Results ( see Table 11) indicated that the no text group had greater gains between
pre- and post-instruction administration of PMMA. Perhaps, these results could have
occurred because the students in the no text group did not understand the test directions
during the pre-instruction administration of PMMA. Or, possibly the students in the no
text group had greater gains between pre- and post-instruction administration of PMMA
because of instruction without text.

The students with low aptitude had greater gains between pre- and post-instruction
administration of PMMA (see Table 12). Perhaps the low aptitude students had greater
gains than the high aptitude students because of the individualized instruction according to
each student’s developmental tonal aptitude score. Gordon (1980a) found that
developmental music aptitude scores do fluctuate with different types of instruction and
that music aptitude scores increase when instruction is individualized. Therefore,
individualized instruction is crucial for those students with low developmental tonal

aptitude.

81

The means for See How I ’m Jumping (see Table 16) were slightly lower than the
means for Biddy, Biddy (see Table 13) except for those students in the no text treatment
group with high aptitude. Even though both songs were taught for the same amount of
time, See How I ’m Jumping was difficult for students. See How I ’m Jumping does not
have two similar phrases like Biddy, Biddy. Also, it has potential for becoming a never-
ending song, because the last phrase is similar to the first phrase and, as a result, the
students had difficulty knowing when to stop singing. When recording students’
performances of the two criterion songs, many students had difficulty performing See How
I’m Jumping. They-would stop singing for a variety of reasons: (1) they could not
remember the melody, (2) they could not remember the words, or (3) they did not
remember how the song ended. As a result, tape recording the students’ responses for See
How I ’m Jumping took twice as long as Biddy, Biddy. Also, See How I ’m Jumping was
in minor tonality whereas Biddy, Biddy was in major tonality. Possibly the reason for the
lower means was that students were not as comfortable singing in minor as they were
singing in major.

Results for the performance of resting tone indicated that students in both
treatment groups performed the resting tone for the major song, Ally Bally (see Table 22),
more accurately than that of the dorian song, Round and Round (see Table 25). Even
though the performance of the resting tone in many tonalities was reinforced during the
24-week instructional period, the students’ mean scores for Round and Round were lower
than Ally Bally. Since the students in the present study were in kindergarten, they

probably have not had suflicient exposure to different tonalities besides major before

82

entering school. Further, low aptitude students are less likely to have developed their
singing voices than students with high aptitude. Therefore, Gordon (1997a) believes that
kindergarten students, who have not had informal instruction in unusual tonalities to teach
audiation, probably have not developed a singing voice. As a result, one does not know if
the child can audiate the resting tone and not manipulate his or her singing voice or if a
child cannot audiate the resting tone yet. Perhaps that is why it was more diflicult for the

students to audiate the resting tone in dorian tonality than in major tonality.

83

CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Presented in this chapter are a summary of the study, conclusions, and implications

for music education. Also included are recommendations for further research.

Summanmfthdiudx
Bummifimhlems

The purpose of this research is to gather information about the effect of the use of
text in the performance of songs and in the development of tonal understanding. The
problems of this study are as follows:

1. To detemiine whether kindergarten students who are taught songs without text
will perform with better intonation than students who are taught songs with text.

2. To determine whether kindergarten students who are taught songs without text
can identify the resting tone through performance (audiate the tonic) of an unfamiliar song
better than students who are taught with text.

3. To determine whether or not the use of text in song instruction has an efl’ect on
developmental tonal aptitude.

4. To determine whether or not developmental tonal aptitude has an efi‘ect on the
intonation performance and ability to identify resting tone of kindergarten students who

are taught songs without text and with text.

84

Procedures

The sample for this study was 58 kindergarten students from two elementary
schools. The students were randomly assigned to one of two experimental groups. One
class from each elementary school constituted one experimental group and received music
instruction primarily with text. The remaining two classes, one from each school,
constituted the other experimental group and received music instruction primarily without
text. The Tonal subtest of PMMA was administered to both groups by the investigator
during the first week of the study.

The students in both experimental groups received two 30-minute music classes
per week for 24 weeks. Lesson plans for both experimental groups were identical except
that one included the text to songs and the other did not include text.

At the end of the 24-week instructional period, the Tonal subtest of PMMA was
administered again to the students in both experimental groups. All students were
individually audio-taped performing the two criterion songs, See How I ’m Jumping and
Biddy, Biddy. After the students were audio-taped performing the two criterion songs,
the students were audio-taped performing the resting tone of two unfamiliar songs, Ally
Bally and Round and Round. Their performances were rated by three independent judges
using a Tonal Accuracy and Resting Tone rating scale.

Analysis

Means, standard deviations, and split-half reliabilities were computed for the T onal

subtest of PMMA pre-instruction and post-instruction scores of both experimental groups,

as well as the means, standard deviations, and reliabilities for the criterion songs and

85

resting tone performance ratings.

In order to determine whether kindergarten students who were taught songs
without text perform with better intonation than students who were taught songs with
text, a two-way analysis of variance (treatment x aptitude level) was conducted. To
determine whether kindergarten students who were taught songs without text can identify
the resting tone through performance of an unfamiliar song better than students who were
taught with text, a two-way analysis of variance (treatment x aptitude level) was
conducted. To determine whether the use of text in song instruction had an effect on
developmental tonal aptitude, a two-way analysis of variance (treatment x aptitude level)
was conducted.

Resultundfionclusions

Students with low developmental tonal aptitude who received instruction with no
text tended to have greater gains in their tonal aptitude than did students who received
instruction using only text. These findings are similar to Rutkowski’s (1993) and
Levinowitz’s (1987, 1989), that the students in the no text group performed better than
the students in the text group.

It was found that there was no difference between the text group and the no text
group after 24 weeks of instruction. Levinowitz (1987, 1989) also found no difl'erence
between the text and no text groups after nine months of instruction. Possibly, singing
while using the text, does not make a difference on the tonal accuracy of kindergarten
students. However, Rutkowski (1996) found that there is a small relationship between

music aptitude and the use of singing voice.

86

There was no difference between the text group and the no text group on the
performance of resting tone. Possibly, the students need a longer instructional period
emphasizing the performance of resting tone in a wide variety of tonalities. More research
is necessary on the performance of resting tone in unfamiliar tonalities.

Students who received instruction with no text tended to have greater gains in
their tonal aptitude than students who received instruction using only text. These results
are similar to Levinowitz’s (1987, 1989) findings and, as a result, conclude that song
instruction should include songs with and without text. Most of the time, music teachers
pick kindergarten repertoire based on the text rather than the musical quality. Therefore,
no text instruction, which is more beneficial to those students with low developmental
tonal aptitude, should be included into music instruction. However, song instruction
primarily without text may cause some problems with classroom management. Students,
at this age, need a mixture of songs with text and without text for management in the

classroom.

1].. fill'El'

Results regarding the efl‘ect of the use of text in the performance of songs and in
the development of tonal understanding, revealed only trends in the use of text on tonal
accuracy. Since the findings were mostly non-significant, further research is needed.

The trends of the this study suggest that the use of no text increases the tonal
aptitude of those students with low developmental tonal aptitude. It is essential for those

students that song instruction include songs without text. Therefore, music teachers

87

should include some songs without text in every lesson plan for those students with low
developmental tonal aptitude. The repertoire for songs without text can be chosen from
traditional folk literature. Music teachers can perform many different folk songs on a
neutral syllable in a wide variety of tonalities and meters to accommodate those students
with low developmental tonal aptitude.

Resting tone is crucial for the development of audiation. Students need informal
exposure to resting tone performance in a wide variety of tonalities. It is essential that
resting tone be sung on a neutral syllable, for this age group, at the end of many songs in
a wide variety of tonalities.

Finally, kindergarten classroom teachers usually include music into their students’
daily routine, and the songs are usually sung with text. If kindergarten classroom teachers
sang some songs without text, students with low developmental tonal aptitude might

benefit fi'om the mixture of song instruction.

WWW
Results of the present study suggest that song instruction without text aids in the
development of tonal aptitude for those students with low developmental tonal aptitude.
Although results did not reach significance for tonal accuracy, performance of resting
tone, or developmental tonal aptitude, tendencies suggest that song instruction include
songs with and without text. Further research is needed to determine the effect of the use
of text in the performance of songs and the development of tonal understanding.

Gordon (1997a) recommends not using text with very young children. He believes

88

that when songs are taught with text, the children either focus on the words or on the
music. Therefore, replication of the present study with children of different age levels is
needed. More research is needed so that conclusive findings are established for the use of
text on song instruction.

Some of the comparable research studies (Goetze 1985, Levinowitz 1989) suggest
that instruction using a neutral syllable rather than text is beneficial to young children.
Possibly, the small sample size may have hindered finding statistical significance, or, the
short instructional period. Replication of the present study with a larger sample size and a
longer instructional period may be necessary for conclusive results.

The performance of resting tone is essential for students’ development of audiation
in different tonalities. Replication of the study with an unfamiliar voice singing the
unfamiliar songs rather than a familiar adult may be necessary for conclusive results.
Therefore, further research is needed to determine whether text or no text affects the
performance of resting tone.

Finally, the criterion songs should be similar to one another and have the students
perform the songs with and without words. If the students with low developmental tonal
aptitude performed songs without text, would they have sung more accurately than with
the text? Possibly, the students in the no text group should have been given the
opportunity to perform a song without text since the instructional period included songs
without text. If there was a criterion song without text, the no text group would not have

been disadvantaged. More research is needed to determine whether the use of text in song

89

instruction efl’ects tonal accuracy, audiation of the resting tone, and developmental tonal

aptitude.

9O

APPENDICES

91

APPENDIX A

Tonal subtest of Primary Measures of Music Audiation

 

 

 

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92

APPENDIX B

Tonal Accuracy Rating Scale

TONAL ACCURACY RATING SCALE
Criterion Songs: Biddy, Biddy & See How I ’m Jumping

The song was accurately performed with correct intervals, good intonation,
and a sense of tonality throughout.

The song was performed with mostly correct pitches, melodic contour, and
a sense of tonality.

The song was performed with approximate intervals, melodic contour, with
some sense of tonality.

The song was performed with some pitch change but no sense of tonality.

The song was performed with the speaking voice.

93

APPENDIX C

Biddy, Biday

 

Bid - dy, bid - dy, hold on, lost my gold ring

 

One go to Kings - ton, come back a - gain.

 

Bid - dy, Bid - dy, hold on. lost my gold ring,

 

One go to Kings - ton, come back a - gain.

94

APPENDIX D

See How I ’m Jumping

 

See how I'm jump - ing, jump - ing, jump - ing!

 

See how I'm bounc - ing like a ball! You did- n't know Icould
m

    

jump so high. You did - n't know I could stand so still.

 

See how I'm jump - ing, jump - ing, jump - ing!

 

When I am tir - ed, down I fall.

95

APPENDIX E

Resting Tone Rating Scale

RESTING TONE RATING SCALE
Unfamiliar Song: Ally Bally & Round and Round

The student accurately performs the resting tone in the middle and at the
end of the song.

The student approaches the resting tone at each point in the song and the
initial attack is not in tune but ends up in tune.

The student does not accurately perform the resting tone in the middle of
the song, but accurately performs the resting tone at the end of the song.

The student approaches the resting tone at each point in the song but
performances are not in tune.

The student does not accurately perform the resting tone.

96

APPENDIX F

Ally Bally

 

Al - ly bal - 1y, al - ly bal - ly bee,

 

Sit- tin' on your dad- dy's knee. Greet- in' for a

 

wee pen - ny, To buy some Coul - ter's can - dy.

97

APPENDIX G

Round and Round

 

Round and round the Earth is turn - ing,

 

tum - ing al - ways round to mom - ing, and from morn - ing

 

98

 

GRADUATE
STUDIES

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FAX: 517/432-1171

APPENDIX H

UCRIHS Pemtission

MICHIGAN STATE

UNIVERSITY

August 26. 1998
To: C thia Ta art
252 Music gIdg.

RE: IRE“: 98-539
TITLE: THE EFFECT OF THE USE OF TEXT IN THE PERFORMANCE

OF SONGS AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF TONAL
UNDERSTANDING OF KINDERGARTEN STUDENTS
REVISION REQUESTED: N/A
CATEGORY: l-A, 8
APPROVAL DATE: 08/25/98

The.University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects'(UCRIHS)
reView of this prOJect is complete. I am pleased to adVise that the
rights and welfare of the human subjects appear to be adequately
protected and methods to obtain informed consent are appropriate.
lheregorgé the UCRIHS approved this project and any reVisions

iste a ve.

RENEWAL: UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year, beginning with
the approval date shown above. Investigators planning to
continue a prOJect be ond one year must use the green renewal
form (enclosed with t e original approval letter or when a
progect is renewed) to seek u te certification. There is a
max1mum of four.such expedite renewals ssible. Investigators
wishin to continue a prOJect beyond tha time need to submit it
again or complete reView.

REVISIONS: UCRIHS must review any changes in procedures involving human
subjects, rior to initiation of t e change. If this is done at
the.t1me o renewal, please use the green renewal form. To
reVise an approved protocol at an 0 her time during the year
send your written request to the CRIBS Chair, requesting reVised
approval and referenCing the project's IRB 8 and title. Include
in our request a description of the change and any revised
ins ruments. consent forms or advertisements that are applicable.

PROBLEMS]
CHANGES: Should either of the followin arise during the course of the

work, investi ators must noti UCRIHS romptl :

(unexpected sIde effects, comp aints, ego.) inzolvihg figgiems
subjects.or (2).changes in the research environment or new
information indicating greater risk to the human sub ects than
eXisted when the protocol was previously reviewed an approved.

If we can be of any future hel , lease do not hesitate to conta
at (517)355-2180 or FAX (517)452- 171. Ct “8

11:02.0} ’+~

David E. Wright, Ph.D.
UCRIHS Chair

DEflzbed

cc: Diane M. Lange 99

APPENDIX I

Letter to Parents of Kindergarten Students
Dear Parents,

I am writing to ask permission for your child to participate in my research study which
is in firlfillment for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in music education at Michigan
State University. The purpose of my research is to gather information about the effect of
the use of words in the performance of songs and the development of tonal understanding.
I want to find out if there is a difference in the intonation of students who are taught songs
without words and the students who are taught songs with words. I also want to see if a
child's tonal music aptitude correlates with the use of words or no words. Finally, I want
to determine whether students who are taught songs without words can identify the
resting tone (the tonic) of an unfamiliar song with words than do students who are taught
with words.

The study will be conducted over a twenty-four week period using two existing
kindergarten music classes. The Tonal subtest of the Primary Measures of Music
Audiation (PMMA) will be administered to students as a pretest and posttest. The
PMMA is a developmental music aptitude test designed for grades K-3. In the Tonal
subtest, the children will be asked to listen to each of the paired patterns to determine
whether they sound the same or different. At the conclusion of the twenty-four weeks, the
students will perform two criterion songs into a tape player to be rated by two
independent judges to determine whether students who are taught songs without words
will perform with better intonation than do students who are taught with words.

One class will serve as the first treatment group and will receive song instruction using
primarily words. The other class will serve as the second treatment group and will receive
song instruction primarily without words. Please know that your child will continue to
receive the same excellent instruction in both treatment groups and will continue to grow
musically.

All aspects of your child's performance will be kept confidential. Participation is
entirely voluntary, and participants will be at no risk. I hope you will approve your child's
participation in my study, and you can indicate by signing and returning the attached
consent form. Once I have your permission, I will explain the study to your child and he
or she will have the option of participating or not. If you have any questions or concerns
about this study, please call me at 337-1856.

Sincerely,

Diane M. Lange

100

APPENDIX J

Consent Form for Participation in the Study

W

Please return this form to me if you consent to your child's participation in my study.

I have read the explanation attached and hereby consent to my child's participation in your
study on the effect of the use of words in the performance of songs and the development
of tonal understanding. I understand that participation in this study is voluntary, and that
my child is free to withdraw fiom the study at any time without penalty, and that my child
can refuse to answer any question or refuse to participate in any procedures. I understand
that my child's performance will remain confidential in this study, that his or her verbal
assent will be obtained as a precondition of participating in this study, and that my child's
name will not appear in any report of results. Within these restrictions, I understand that
when the study is completed the overall results of it will be made available to me upon
written request.

Child's Name:

 

Child's Birth Date:

 

Parent or Legal Guardian's Signature:

 

Date:

 

101

APPENDIX K

Repertoire List

Aiken Drumm

Sally Go Round the Sun
Who Stole My Chickens and My Hens?
Mallets in the Air
Donkeys Love Carrots
Bluebird

Lavender’s Blue

Ha! Ha! Thisaway
Sandy Land

My Dreidel

See the Pony Galloping
Jolly Old St. Nicholas
Hot Dog

The Snow Man

We Wish You a Merry Christmas
Ostinato Song

Long, Long Ago

Little Train

Tick Tock

“M” is for Mary

Biddy, Biddy

Sarasponda

Mary Ann

Little Red Hen

Canoe Song

La La La La

Stirring Our Brew
Halloween is Here at Last
Skin and Bones

Nanny Goat

Hanukkah is Here

Burn Little Candles
Debka Hora

Hullaballo

All the Pretty Little Horses
Dinosaur Diet

The Jolly Miller

102

See How I’m Jumping

Haul Away Joe

Carrion Crow

Noel Nouvelet

An Elephant and a Chimpanzee
Hilly Milly

Little Wind

Drunken Sailor

Bengy

Song of the Pirates

Peas

Sam, Sam, the Butcher Man
Postman

Grandma

Frog Went A-Courtin’

Old Joe Clark

I’m Gonna Put on my Walkin’ Shoes
Molly Bann

Clap, Clap, Clap Your Hands
Rig a Jig Jig

Bubblegum

Rain, Rain Go Away

Star Light, Star Bright

Oh My, No More Pie

1 Hear the Train

Humpty Dumpty

Engine, Engine

2-4-6-8

5 Little Pumpkins

Grandma Bear fi'om Delaware
We’re Gonna Go, Go, Go
Hickory Dickory Dock

Ali Baba and the 40 Thieves
Snow Fell Softly Through the Night
Hickety Pickety

APPENDIX L

Lesson Plans

LESSON PLAN #1

. Give Tonal subtest of PMMA (pretest)

. Discuss proper use of bean bags
- don’t throw higher than head
- never throw at anyone

. AIKEN DRUMM (Major/Duple)
Use bean bags — balance and continuous fluid movement.
Sing lots of resting tone.

. CANOE SONG (Minor/Duple)
Pretend to be in a canoe and paddle to macrobeats

. GOODBYE EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

103

LESSON PLAN #2

l. HELLO EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

2. AIKEN DRUMM (Major/Duple)
Use bean bags — balance and continuous fluid movement
Sing lots of resting tone

3. CANOE SONG (Minor/Duple)
Pretend to be in a canoe and paddle to macrobeats

4. MINOR PATTERN INSTRUCTION (Arpeggioed Tonic and Dominant)
Have students sing patterns individually and as a group.
Arpeggioed I & V

5. PEAS (Lydian/Triple)
Use rhythm Sticks and sing lots of resting tone

6. I HEAR THE TRAIN (Unusual Chant) — use tambourine as an aural cue
Walk to macrobeats

7. GRANDMA (Mixolydian/Triple)
Define resting tone and reinforce by stopping the song at various spots and have
the students sing resting tone individually and as a group.

8. RIG A JIG JIG (Multi-tonal/Multi-metric) — Text with both groups
Walk and gallop
Discuss self space and shared space

9. LA LA LA LA (Minor/Duple)
Move arms continuously

10. SALLY GO ROUND THE SUN (Major/Triple)
Circle dance without any explanation (right, left, in, out)

11. GOODBYE EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

104

LESSON PLAN #3
1. HELLO EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

2. HAUL AWAY, JOE (Dorian/Triple)
Pretend to rock in a rocking chair (sitting) — sing lots of resting tone
Stand up and rock forward and backward —— then sway back and forth

3. PEAS (Lydian/Triple)
Use rhythm Sticks and sing lots of resting tone

4. TRIPLE PATTERN INSTRUCTION (neutral syllable “bah”)
Have students chant patterns individually and as a group.

5. LA LA LA LA (Minor/Duple)
Move arms continuously

6. AIKEN DRUMM (Major/Duple)
Use bean bags — balance and continuous fluid movement.
Sing lots of resting tone.

7. MAJOR PATTERN INSTRUCTION (Arpeggioed Tonic and Dominant)
Have students sing patterns individually and as a group.

8. GRANDMA (Mixolydian/Triple)
Students sing the resting tone individually when “R.T. the Crab” is tossed to them.

\0

. SALLY GO ROUND THE SUN (Major/Triple)
Circle dance without any explanation (right, left, in, out)

10. GOODBYE EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

105

LESSON PLAN #4

. HELLO EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

. FOLLOW THE LEADER TO RECORDED MUSIC: YOU ARE MY SUNSHINE —
TRACK #4 DIXIE
Keeping macrobeat on legs, head, feet . . .

. PEAS (Lydian/Triple)
Use rhythm sticks and sing lots of resting tone

. MALLETS IN THE AIR CMajor/Duple) — B section duple chant

Text with both groups!

Pantomime playing instruments using rhythm sticks

Pantomime playing instruments using imaginary mallets
Demonstrate playing instruments — xylophone

Students play xylophones on B section only (leave all of the bars on)

. GRANDMA (Mixolydian/Triple)
Students sing the resting tone individually when “RT. the Cra ” is tossed to them.

. DONKEYS LOVE CARROTS (Major/Duple)
Keep macrobeats on legs

. GOODBYE EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

106

LESSON PLAN #5

1. HELLO EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

2. HUMPTY DUMPTY (Triple Chant)
Chant poem and freeze at end
Do triple patterns between repetitions of the chant. Have students chant patterns
individually and as a group.

3. DONKEYS LOVE CARROTS (Major/Duple)
Keep macrobeats on legs — teach the word “macrobeat”

4. MAJOR PATTERN INSTRUCTION (Arpeggioed Tonic and Dominant)
Have students sing patterns individually and as a group.

5. GRANDMA (Mixolydian/Triple)
Students sing the resting tone individually when “RT. the Crab” is tossed to them.

6. WHO STOLE MY CHICKENS AND MY HENS? (Major/Duple) -— Text with both

groups
Snap, clap, pat, . . . on the rests

7. RAIN, RAIN GO AWAY (Pentatonic/Duple)
Explore on xylophones in C pentatonic

9. LA LA LA LA (Minor/Duple)
Rock from side to side
Stand and rock forward and backward
Stand and sway from side to side

9. GOODBYE EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

107

LESSON PLAN #6

l. HELLO EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

2. HUMPTY DUMPTY (Triple Chant)
Chant poem and walk to macrobeats — freeze
Students echo triple patterns individually and as a group when frozen

3. DONKEYS LOVE CARROTS (Major/Duple)
Keep macrobeats on legs — transfer to xylophone C & G (set up in C pentatonic)

4. PEAS (Lydian/Triple)
Use rhythm sticks and sing lots of resting tone

5. WHO STOLE MY CHICKENS AND MY HENS? (Major/Duple) — Text with both

groups
Snap, clap, pat, . . . on the rests

6. HAUL, AWAY JOE (Dorian/Triple) — No text both groups
Rock back & forth
Stand and sway back & forth

7. RIG A JIG JIG (Multi-tonal/Multi-metric) — Text with both groups
Walk — gallop

8. LA LA LA LA (Minor/Duple)
Use bean bags — balance and continuous fluid movement.

Sing lots of resting tone.

9. GOODBYE EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

108

LESSON PLAN #7

1. HELLO EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

2. BENGY (Phrygian/Duple)
Use bean bags — balance and continuous fluid movement.
Sing lots of resting tone.

3. STAR LIGHT, STAR BRIGHT (Pentatonic/Duple) — Text with both groups.
Explore on glockenspiels

4. I BUILT MY LADY A FINE BRICK HOUSE (Major/Duple) — Text with both
groups.
Circle game. Teacher sings song and taps the students hands to macrobeats while
walking around the circle. At the end (on the last two macrobeats), the teacher
grabs the arms of two children and they have to sit down. The winner is the
student left standing and gets to pick and play an unpitched instrument to
macrobeats on the Goodbye Song.

5. HUMPTY DUMPTY (Triple Chant)
Students play macrobeats on the hand drum

6. CANOE SONG (Minor/Duple)
Pretend to be in a canoe and paddle to macrobeats

7. ENGINE, ENGINE (Duple Chant)
Walk to macrobeats — Walk to microbeats (teach the word “microbeats”)

8. GOODBYE EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

109

LESSON PLAN #8

1. HELLO EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

2. AIKEN DRUMM (Major/Duple)
Students sing resting tone individually when “RT. the Crab” is tossed to them.

3. MAJOR PATTERN INSTRUCTION (Arpeggioed Tonic and Dominant)
Have students sing patterns individually and as a group.

4. 2-4-6-8 (Duple Chant)
Students play macrobeats on the tambourine

5. BENGY (Phrygian/Duple)
Use bean bags — balance and continuous fluid movement.
Sing lots of resting tone.

6. BUILT MY LADY A FINE BRICK HOUSE (Major/Duple) — Text with both groups
Circle game. Winner gets to play unpitched instrument to macrobeats on Goodbye
Song.

7. ENGINE, ENGINE (Duple Chant) — Text with both groups
Sitting say CHI-I for macrobeats, then CHH for microbeats. Switch back and forth
between macrobeats and microbeats.
Teach the term “audiation” using the audiation cards (singing voice and light bulb).
Have students say the poem when they see the singing voice and think (audiate)
the poem when they see the light bulb.

8. FOLLOW THE LEADER TO RECORDED MUSIC: YOU ARE MY SUNSHINE —
TRACK #9 WHEN IRISH EYES ARE SMILING
Keep the macrobeat and microbeat all over body (i.e., legs, shoulders, feet . . .)

9. GOODBYE EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

110

LESSON PLAN #9

l. HELLO EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)
Teach chord root accompaniment on neutral syllable “bum”

2. ENGINE, ENGINE (Duple Chant) —— Text with both groups
Review macrobeat & microbeat — keep on legs
Review word “audiation” & use audiation cards to say/audiate the poem

3. STIRRING OUR BREW (Minor/Triple)
Continuous Fluid Movement — stirring
Pretend to make soup and add different items

4. MINOR PATTERN INSTRUCTION (Arpeggioed Tonic and Dominant)
Have students sing patterns individually and as a group.

5. FROG WENT A-COURTIN’ (Mixolydian/Duple)
Use rhythm sticks and sing lots of resting tone

6. I BUILT MY LADY A FINE BRICK HOUSE (Major/Duple) — Text with both

groups
Circle game. Winner gets to play unpitched instrument on Goodbye Song.

7. BENGY (Phrygian/Duple)
Students sing resting tone individually when “RT. the Crab” is tossed to them.

8. MOVE AND FREEZE TO RECORDED MUSIC — WORLD DANCE BEAT
TRACK #1

9. GOODBYE EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

111

LESSON PLAN #10

1. HELLO EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)
Review chord root accompaniment on neutral syllable “bum”

2. STIRRING OUR BREW (Minor/Triple)
Continuous fluid movement — stirring.
Pretend to make soup and add different items.

3. FROG WENT A-COURTIN’ (Mixolydian/Duple)
Use rhythm sticks and keep the macrobeat and the microbeat.

4. COBBLER COBBLER (Major/Duple) — text with both groups
Continuous fluid movement with arms during A section.
Keep macrobeats on legs during B section.

5. DUPLE PATTERN INSTRUCTION
Have students chant patterns individually and as a group.
Group and solo

6. I BUILT MY LADY A FINE BRICK HOUSE (Major/Duple) -— text with both

groups
Circle game. Winner gets to play unpitched instrument on Goodbye Song.

7. HUMPTY DUMPTY (Triple Chant)
Students play macrobeats on the triangle and finger cymbals

8. BENGY (Phrygian/Duple)
Students sing resting tone individually when “RT. the Crab” is tossed to them.

9. BLUEBIRD (Major/Duple) — resting tone
Circle. Weave in and out of circle. When 1 tap a student on the shoulder or stop

in front of them, he or she should sing the resting tone.

10. GOODBYE EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

112

LESSON PLAN #11

. HELLO EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)
Review chord root accompaniment

. COBBLER, COBBLER (Major/Duple) — Text with both groups
Continuous fluid movement with arms during A section
Keep macrobeats on legs during B section

. STIRRING OUR BREW (Minor/Triple)
Continuous fluid movement — stirring
Pretend to make soup and add different items.

. HALLOWEEN IS HERE AT LAST (Minor/Duple)
Students explore and play unpitched instruments — 2 wood blocks, 2 tambourines,
2 guiros, and 2 hand drums

. SKIN AND BONES (Minor/Triple) — Text with both groups
Sing the song for them.
Use ghosts to show melodic direction on “000” part.

. GOODBYE EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

113

LESSON PLAN #12

. HELLO EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)
Review chord root accompaniment

. FIVE LITTLE PUMPKINS (Duple Chant) — Text with both groups
Do poem with finger play

. STIRRING OUR BREW (Minor/'l‘riple)
Continuous fluid movement — stining
Pretend to make soup and add different items.

. HALLOWEEN IS HERE AT LAST (Minor/Duple)
Students explore and play unpitched instruments — 2 wood blocks, 2 tambourines,
2 guiros, and 2 hand drums

. SKIN AND BONES (Minor/1” riple) — Text with both groups
Use ghosts to show melodic direction on “000” part

. GOODBYE EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

114

LESSON PLAN #13

. HELLO EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

. COBBLER, COBBLER (Major/Duple) — Text with both groups
Continuous fluid movement with arms during A section
Keep macrobeats on legs during B section

. MAJOR PATTERN INSTRUCTION (Arpeggioed Tonic and Dominant)
Have students sing patterns individually and as a group.

. BENGY (Phrygian/Duple)
Students sing the resting tone individually when “RT. the Crab” is tossed to them.

. FROG WENT A-COURTIN’ (Mixolydian/Duple)
Use rhythm sticks and sing lots of resting tone

. LAVENDER’S BLUE (Major/Triple) — No text with both groups
Continuous fluid movement with scarves

7. SCARF DANCE TO RECORDED MUSIC: PAUL WINTER’S VOICES OF A
PLANET

Track #1 Appalachian Morning

8. SAM, SAM, THE BUTCHER MAN (Lydian/Duple) — Text with both groups

Discuss what’s funny in the song — teach using rote song procedure

9. DEVELOP A MOVEMENT VOCABULARY

Have one child demonstrate and then everyone
walk
run (jog)
tiptoe
gallop
jump
hop
skip

10. GOODBYE EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

115

LESSON PLAN #14
1. HELLO EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

2. SAM, SAM THE BUTCHER MAN (Lydian/Duple) — Text with both groups
Use rhythm sticks and sing lots of resting tone

3. 2-4-6-8 (Duple Chant)
Students play macrobeats on the wood block

4. LAVENDER’S BLUE (Major/Triple) — No text with both groups
Continuous fluid movement with scarves

5. SCARF DANCE TO RECORDED MUSIC: GUNILD KEETMAN COLLECTION
Track #7 Spielstucke

6. I BUILT MY LADY A FINE BRICK HOUSE (Major/Duple) -——- Text with both

groups
Play game

7. BENGY (Phrygian/Duple)
Use bean bags — balance and continuous fluid movement
Sing lots of resting tone

8. GOODBYE EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

116

LESSON PLAN #15

1. HELLO EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

2. LAVENDER’S BLUE (Major/Triple) — No text with both groups
Continuous fluid movement with scarves

3. SCARF DANCE TO RECORDED MUSIC: GUNILD KEETMAN COLLECTION
Track #7 Spielstucke

4. I BUILT MY LADY A FINE BRICK HOUSE (Major/Duple) — Text with both

groups
Play game

5. SAM, SAM, THE BUTCHER MAN (Lydian/Duple) — Text with both groups
Review song
Keep macrobeats then keep microbeats

6. ROMPER STOMPER, AND BOO (Movement: Strong/Gentle)
Introduce elephants: Romper — jogging
Stomper — heavy, strong
Boo — light, gentle
Introduce birds and monkeys

7. FROG WENT A-COURTIN’ (Mixolydian/Duple)
Use rhythm sticks and sing lots of resting tone

8. GOODBYE EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

117

LESSON PLAN #16

1. HELLO EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

2. ROMPER, STOMPER, AND BOO (Movement: Strong/Gentle)
Do movement story

3. I BUILT MY LADY A FINE BRICK HOUSE (Major/Duple) — Text with both

groups
Play game

4. GRANDMA (Mixolydian/Triple)
Use rhythm sticks and sing lots of resting tone

5. CANOE SONG (Minor/Duple)
Students play tonic tremolo on xylophones (D) — teach the word “tremolo”

6. GOODBYE EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

118

LESSON PLAN #17
l. HELLO EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

2. CARRION CROW (Dorian/Duple)
Keep macrobeats, then microbeats

3. DONKEYS LOVE CARROTS (Major/Duple)
Keep macrobeats on legs
Transfer to xylophones ( C & G)

4. MAJOR PATTERN INSTRUCTION (Arpeggioed Tonic and Dominant)
Have students sing patterns individually and as a group.

5. GRANDMA BEAR FROM DELAWARE (Multi-metric Chant) — Text with both

groups
Ask questions about text
Rock seated, then rock standing (and/or sway)

6. OLD JOE CLARK (Mixolydian/Duple) — No text both groups
Use rhythm sticks and sing lots of resting tone

7. I BUILT MY LADY A FINE BRICK HOUSE (Major/Duple) — Text with both
groups
Play game

8. GOODBYE EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

119

LESSON PLAN #18

l. HELLO EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

2. CARRION CROW (Dorian/Duple)
Keep macrobeats on legs
Transfer to D & A on bass xylophone

3. WHO STOLE MY CHICKENS AND MY HENS? (Major/Duple) — Text with both

groups
Snap, clap, pat on rests
Transfer to unpitched

4. POOR BENGY (Phrygian/Duple)
Students sing the resting tone individually when “RT. the Crab” is tossed to them.

5. I BUILT MY LADY A FINE BRICK HOUSE (Major/Duple) — Text with both

groups
Play game

6. OLD JOE CLARK (Mixolydian/Duple) — No text with both groups
Use rhythm sticks and sing lots of resting tone

7. GOODBYE EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

120

LESSON PLAN #19

l. HELLO EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

2. I BUILT MY LADY A FINE BRICK HOUSE (Major/Duple) — Text with both
groups

Teach instrument parts through body percussion (4 beats each)

Play unpitched on song — eight beats to slide to next instrument part

3. SAM, SAM THE BUTCHER MAN (Lydian/Duple) — Text with both groups
Use rhythm sticks and sing lots of resting tone

4. HA! HA! THISAWAY (Major/Duple)
Teach form through movement
non-Iocomotor movement — A section
Iocomotor movement — B section

5. WE’RE GONNA GO, GO, GO (Duple Chant)
Walk & fi'eeze

6. VOICE EXPLORATION
Follow scarf with voice

7. GOODBYE EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

121

LESSON PLAN #20

1. HELLO EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

2. NANNY GOAT (Minor/Duple) — Text with both groups
Explore on xylophones

3. MINOR CONVERSATION WITH PUPPETS
MINOR PATTERN INSTRUCTION WITH PUPPETS (Arpeggioed Tonic and
Dominant)
Have students sing patterns individually and as a group using a puppet.

4. WE’RE GONNA GO, GO, GO (Duple Chant)
Walk and fi'eeze

5. HA, HA THISAWAY (Major/Duple)
Teach form through movement
Non-Iocomotor movement — A section
Locomotor movement — B section

6. OLD JOE CLARK (Mixolydian/Duple) — No text with both groups
Use rhythm sticks and sing lots of resting tone
Keep both macrobeats and microbeats

7. VOICE EXPLORATION
Follow scarf with voice

8. SCARF DANCE:
Dance to Track #8 — Yellow Jackets: Run for your life

9. GOODBYE EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

122

LESSON PLAN #21

. HELLO EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

. NANNY GOAT (Minor/Duple) —— Text with both groups
Explore on metallophones

. VOICE EXPLORATION
Follow scarf with voice
Give everyone a scarf and have their scarf follow their voice.

. HA, HA, THISAWAY (Major/Duple)
Non-Iocomotor movement — A section
Locomotor movement — B section

. SAM, SAM, THE BUTCHER MAN (Lydian/Duple) — Text with both groups
Pass one bean bag around the circle and when it stops, that person has to sing the
resting tone '

. WE’RE GONNA GO, GO, GO (Duple Chant)
Walk & freeze

. SANDY LAND (Major/Duple)
Keep macrobeats and microbeats on the rhythm sticks.

. GOODBYE EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

123

 

LESSON PLAN #22
1. HELLO EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

2. HANUKKAH IS HERE (Minor/Duple) —— Text with both groups
[Page T238 Macmillan-McGraw Hill: Share The Music]
Explain Hanukkah — talk about the song

Keep macrobeats on legs
Keep microbeats on legs

1/2 of the class keep macrobeats on legs
‘/2 of the class keep microbeats on legs
Switch

3, BEAUTIFUL PRINCESS
Voice exploration

4. NANNY GOAT (Minor/Duple) — Text with both groups
exploration on xylophone
exploration on metallophones

5. DUPLE CONVERSATION WITH PUPPETS
DUPLE PATTERN INSTRUCTION WITH PUPPETS
Have students chant patterns individually and as a group using a puppet.

6. BENGY (Phrygian/Duple)
Pass one bean bag around the circle and when it stops, that person hast to sing the
resting tone.

7. HA, HA THISAWAY (Major/Duple)
Non-Iocomotor movement — A section
Locomotor movement — B section

8. GOODBYE EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

124

LESSON PLAN #23
. HELLO EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

. MY DREIDEL (Major/Duple) — Text with both groups
[Page T239 Macmillan-McGraw Hill: Share The Music]
Keep macrobeats on legs

Keep microbeats on legs

. HANUKKAH IS HERE (Minor/Duple) — Text with both groups
[Page T238 Macmillan-McGraw Hill: Share The Music]
Play simple bordun to macrobeats (D & A) on xylophones and metallophones

. SEE THE PONY GALLOPING (Major/Triple)

[Page T118 Macmillan-McGraw Hill: Share the Music]
Figure out what phrases are the same

Walking and Galloping

Demonstrate first

. NOEL NOUVELET (Dorian/Duple) — No text both groups
Use bean bags — balance and continuous fluid movement
Sing lots of resting tone.

. GOODBYE EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

125

LESSON PLAN #24

1. HELLO EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

2. BURN LITTLE CANDLES (Minor/Duple) — Text with both groups
A — song
B — speech and place paper flames on Menorah

3. NOEL NOUVELET (Dorian/Duple) — No text with both groups

4. JOLLY OLD ST. NICHOLAS (Major/Duple) — Text with both groups
[T241 Macmillan-McGraw Hill: Share the Music]
Sing song and explain that it has 3 verses.
Figure out what happens during each verse

5. DEBKA HORA (Minor/Duple)
Use rhythm sticks and sing lots of resting tone

6. MINOR PATTERN INSTRUCTION WITH PUPPET (Arpeggioed Tonic and
Dominant)
Have students sing patterns individually and as a group using a puppet.

7. HOT DOG (Major/Unusual)
Walk to macrobeats and freeze

8. GOODBYE SONG (Major/Duple)

126

LESSON PLAN #25
. HELLO EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

. NOEL NOUVELET (Dorian/Duple)
Listen to the four phrases and identify what phrases are the same

. ACTIVE LISTENING LESSON
Chinese Dance from the Nutcracker Suite
Use plastic flowers to show melodic direction

. DEBKA HORA (Minor/Duple) — No text both groups
Identify the phrases that are the same (1 & 4 and 2 & 3) — everyone creates a
macrobeat movement using the rhythm sticks

. THE SNOW MAN (Major/Duple) — Text with both groups
[T237 Macmillan-McGraw-Hill: Share the Music]
Grow slowly as the melody goes up

Melt slowly at the end

. HULLABALLO (Minor/Triple)
Play the maracas — sing lots of resting tone

. MOVE & FREEZE TO RECORDED MUSIC
Track #1 Deck the Halls from Mannheim Steamroller

. GOODBYE EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

127

LESSON PLAN #26

. HELLO EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

. HULLABALLO (Minor/Triple)
Play the maracas and sing lots of resting tone

. ACTIVE LISTENING LESSON

T repak from the Nutcracker Suite

Listen for sections that sound the same.
Show visual and listen again.

Discuss the pictures (painters palate and feet)
Do movement to recording

. JINGLE BELLS (Major/Duple) — Text with both groups
[T236 Macmillan-McGraw-Hill: Share the Music]
CD 5:21

Students play the jingle bells on the chorus

. MOVE AND FREEZE TO RECORDED MUSIC
Track #1 Deck the Halls fi'om Mannheim Steamroller

. THE SNOW MAN (Major/Duple) — Text with both groups
[T237 Macmillan-McGraw-Hill: Share the Music]
Continuously grow and melt — do not stop moving

. WE WISH YOU A MERRY CHRISTMAS (Major/Triple)

Keep macrobeats

Keep microbeats

'/2 the class keep macrobeats and ‘/2 the class keep microbeats — switch

. GOODBYE EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)

128

LESSON PLAN #27

. HELLO SONG (Pentatonic/Duple)

. AN ELEPHANT AND A CHIMPANZEE (Dorian/Duple)
Continuous fluid movement
B section improvised duple chant

. RHYTHM UNIT 1 SECTION A CRITERION 1

. BODY AWARENESS — IMAGINARY LITTLE FRIEND
Put imaginary fiiend on parts of body and walk without it falling off
Put on shoulder, foot, hand, and find their own place

. OSTINATO SONG (Major/Duple) — Text with both groups

. HICKORY DICKORY DOCK (Triple Chant) — Text with both groups

Do poem and teach if necessary

Teach ostinato — have the class do the ostinato while the teacher does the poem.
Switch.

. OLD JOE CLARK (Mixolydian/Duple) — No text with both groups
Use rhythm sticks and sing lots of resting tone

. BUBBLEGUM (Multi-tonal/Multi-metric)
Grow and pop

. LONG, LONG AGO (Major/Duple) — No text with both groups
Creativity in Improvisation

Track #1 — sing bass line (CD sings melody)

Track #2 — sing melody (CD sing bass line)

Track #3 — line up at the door

10. GOODBYE SONG (Major/Duple)

129

LESSON PLAN #28

. HELLO SONG (Pentatonic/Duple)

. AN ELEPHANT AND A CHIMPANZEE (Dorian/Duple)
Flow (free) — stir with various parts of the body

. RHYTHM UNIT 1 SECTION A CRITERION 1

. BODY AWARENESS — SHAKE BODY PARTS/FREEZE
Make a shape (statue)
Use tambourine as an aura] cue — shake hand, arm, leg, body

. HICKORY DICKORY DOCK (Triple Chant) — Text with both groups
Keep macrobeats on legs — transfer to tic toc block or wood block
Review ostinato “tick tock goes the clock”

Have the class do the ostinato while the teacher does the poem

. BUBBLEGUM (Multi-tonal/Multi-metric)
Grow and pop

. POSTMAN (Lydian/Duple) — Text with both groups
Teach the song using rote song procedure

. LONG, LONG AGO (Major/Duple) — No text with both groups
Creativity in Improvisation

Track #1 — sing bass line (CD sings melody)

Track #2 — sing melody (CD sings bass line)

Track #3 — line up at the door

. GOODBYE SONG (Major/Duple)

130

LESSON PLAN #29

. HELLO SONG (Pentatonic/Duple)

. LITTLE TRAIN (Major/Duple)
Keep macrobeats on legs

. TONAL UNIT 1 SECTION A CRITERION 1

. HICKORY DICKORY DOCK (Triple Chant) — Text with both groups
Play glockenspiels after word “one” and “down”

Play hand drum after word “two” and “boo”
Play triangle after word “three” and “Wheel”

. POSTMAN (Lydian/Duple) — Text with both groups
Play macrobeats [F & C] on metallophones

. OLD JOE CLARK (Mixolydian/Duple) —— No text with both groups
Use rhythm sticks and sing lots of resting tone.

. MOVE & FREEZE to recorded music — World Dance Beat
Track #1 TriAtma

. LA LA LA LA (Minor/Duple)
Use bean bags — balance and continuous fluid movement

Sing lots of resting tone.

. GOODBYE SONG (Major/Duple)

131

LESSON PLAN #30
1. HELLO SONG (Pentatonic/Duple)

2. LITTLE TRAIN (Major/Duple)
Play macrobeats [F & C] on xylophones

3. TONAL UNIT 1 SECTION A CRITERION 1

4. ALL THE PRETTY LITTLE HORSES (Minor/Duple) — No text with both groups
Dance with scarves

5. OH MY, NO MORE PIE (Pentatonic/Duple) — Text with both groups
[T269 Macmillan-McGraw-Hill: Share the Music]
Echo patterns into the microphone

6. I’M GONNA PUT ON MY WALKIN’ SHOES (Mixolydian/Duple) — Text with both
groups
Also put on: jumpin’ shoes, joggin’ shoes, slidin’ shoes . . .

7. HAUL AWAY, JOE (Dorian/Triple) — No text with both groups
Transfer of weight — sway from side to side

8. GOODBYE SONG (Major/Duple)

132

LESSON PLAN #31

1. HELLO SONG (Pentatonic/Duple)

2. LISTENING LESSON — CALL CHART: BALLET OF THE UNHATCHED
CHICKS
Listen and follow chart

3. SAM THE BUTCHER MAN (Lydian/Duple) — Text with both groups
Teach ostinato #1
See if the class can independently sing the ostinato while the teacher sings the
song.

4. RHYTHM UNIT 1 SECTION A CRITERION 1

5. ALL THE PRETTY LITTLE HORSES (Minor/Duple)
Transfer of weight — sway from side to side

6. POSTMAN (Lydian/Duple) — Text with both groups
Play macrobeats [F & C] on metallophones

7. GOODBYE SONG (Major/Duple)

133

LESSON PLAN #32

 

l. HELLO SONG (Pentatonic/Duple)

2. TICK TOCK (Major/Duple)
Use rhythm sticks and keep macrobeats and microbeats
Sing lots of resting tone

3. RHYTHM UNIT 1 SECTION A CRITERION 1

4. LABAN: TIME/SLOW
Make a statue and change slowly to the sound of the tambourine

5. SAM THE BUTCHER MAN (Lydian/Duple) — Text with both groups
Review ostinato #1
Transfer to xylophones

6. HUMPTY DUMPTY (Triple Chant)
Audiate and chant — use audiation cards

7. I’M GONNA PUT ON MY WALKIN’ SHOES (Mixolydian/Duple) — Text with
both groups
Walk, jump, jog . . . Have students choose the type of shoes

8. GOODBYE SONG (Major/Duple)

 

134

 

LESSON PLAN #33
. HELLO SONG (Pentatonic/Duple)

. TICK TOCK (Major/Duple)
Keep macrobeats/microbeats on legs

Switch game — switch from macrobeats to microbeats without me telling them
(they need to watch me)

. TONAL UNIT 1 SECTION A CRITERION 1

. “M” IS FOR MARY (Major/Duple) — Text with both groups
“0” is for Oscar

“B” is for Bianca

“P” is for Percy

“C” is for Cindy

. HILLY MILLY (Dorian/Duple)

Students sing the resting tone individually when “RT. the Crab” is tossed to them.

. DINOSAUR DIET (Minor/Duple) — Text with both groups

Ask questions about the song — teach rote song procedure
Walk like heavy dinosaurs

. MOLLY BANN (Mixolydian plus raised 7"‘/Triple)
Transfer of weight alone and with a partner

. GOODBYE SONG (Major/Duple)

135

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LESSON PLAN #34

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1. HELLO SONG (Pentatonic/Duple)
2. THE JOLLY MILLER (Minor/Triple)
Stop the song at various spots and have the students sing resting tone individually

and as a group.

3. TONAL UNIT 1 SECTION A CRITERION 1

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4. BIDDY, BIDDY (Major/Duple) — Text
Teach using rote song procedure

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5. LABAN: TIME/FAST

Make a shape/statue and change quickly to the sound of the tambourine (hit
quickly)

6. SEE HOW I’M JUMPING (Minor/Duple) — Text
Use rhythm sticks and keep the macrobeats and microbeats

7. ALI BABBA AND THE FORTY THIEVES (Duple Chant)
Pound the floor on “forty thieves” followed by an improvised chant

8. MOLLY BANN (Mixolydian plus raised 7"‘/Triple)
Rocking while sitting

9. GOODBYE SONG (Major/Duple)

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136

LESSON PLAN #35

. HELLO SONG (Pentatonic/Duple)

. BIDDY, BIDDY (Major/Duple) — Text
Review song
Teach chord root accompaniment

. RHYTHM UNIT 1 SECTION A CRITERION 1

. SEE HOW I’M JUMPING (Minor/Duple) — Text
Teach using rote song procedure

. LABAN : SPACE/DIRECT

Use a pretend paint brush. Make a dot on the wall and walk in a straight line to
that spot.

[Be carefiil not to touch anyone]

. THE JOLLY MILLER (Minor/Triple)
Stop the song at various spots and have the students sing resting tone individually
and as a group.

. ALI BABBA AND THE FORTY THIEVES (Duple Chant)
Pound the floor on “Forty Thieves” followed by an improvised chant

. SONG OF THE PIRATES (Phrygian/Multi-metric)
Walk and then sway from side to side

. GOODBYE SONG (Major/Duple)

137

LESSON PLAN #36

. HELLO SONG (Pentatonic/Duple)

. BIDDY, BIDDY (Major/Duple) —- Text
A. Audiate parts of the song — count how many phrases in the song
Alternate singing of phrases (my turn — class turn)
B. Teach chord root accompaniment
C. Pass around a bean bag and when it stops, that person sings the resting tone

. RHYTHM UNIT 1 SECTION A CRITERION 1

. LABAN: SPACE/DIRECT
Use a pretend paint brush. Make a pretend dot on the wall and walk in a curvy
line to that spot.

. SEE HOW I’M JUMPING (Minor/Duple) — Text

A. Roll the ball on “see” and “you” (Count how many times we’re going to roll
the ball)

B. Sing the song into the microphone

. ALI BABBA AND THE FORTY THIEVES (Duple Chant)
Pound floor on “Forty Thieves” followed by an improvised chant

. SARASPONDA (Major/Duple)
Keep macrobeats, microbeats and sing resting tone

. LABAN: TIME/ FAST & SLOW
Have the students do what the tambourine tells them (move fast when the
tambourine is struck and slowly when the tambourine is shaken).

. GOODBYE SONG
Sung by an individual in the class into a microphone

138

 

LESSON PLAN #37

. HELLO SONG (Pentatonic/Duple)

. SARASPONDA (Major/Duple)
Review the song
Play a tonic ostinato on the xylophone

. TONAL UNIT 1 SECTION A CRITERION 2

. SEE HOW I’M JUMPING (Minor/Duple) — Text
Pretend to bounce and catch a ball to macrobeats while singing the song. Ask
them to try singing the song at home with a real ball.

. LABAN : WEIGHT/GENTLE
Have the students pretend to walk around a baby’s nursery. Have them describe
their movements.

. BIDDY, BIDDY (Major/Duple) — Text
Sing the song and review chord root accompaniment (Teacher sings song while
students sing chord root accompaniment — Switch).

. ALI BABBA AND THE FORTY THIEVES (Duple Chant)
Pound floor on “Forty Thieves” followed by an improvised chant

. GOODBYE SONG
Sung by an individual in the class into a microphone

139

LESSON PLAN #38
. HELLO SONG (Pentatonic/Duple)

. BIDDY, BIDDY (Major/Duple) — Text
Review song and chord root accompaniment. [Teacher sings the song while
students sing the chord root accompaniment — Switch]

. TONAL UNIT 1 SECTION A CRITERION 2

. SNOW FELL SOFTLY THROUGH THE NIGHT (Triple Chant)
Teach chant through body percussion:

phrase I - snap

phrase 2 - clap

phrase 3 - pat

phrase 4 - tiptoe

. SEE HOW I’M JUMPING (Minor/Duple) — Text
Review song and keep macrobeats in feet, then microbeats on legs, combine.

. OLD JOE CLARK (Mixolydian/Duple) — No Text Both Groups
Play simple bordun (macrobeats) on xylophone

. BENGY (Phrygian/Duple)
Students sing the resting tone individually when “RT. the Crab” is tossed to them.

. GOODBYE SONG
Sung by an individual in the class into a microphone

140

 

LESSON PLAN #39

. HELLO SONG (Pentatonic/Duple)

. SEE HOW I’M JUMPING (Minor/Duple) — Text
Sing through the song a few times and keep the macrobeats on legs.

. RHYTHM UNIT 1 SECTION B CRITERION 1

. SNOW FELL SOFTLY THROUGH THE NIGHT (Triple Chant)
Review chant with body percussion
Audiate with body percussion.
Transfer to instruments:
phrase I - woods
phrase 2 - drums
phrase 3 - shakers and scrapers
phrase 4 - metals

. BIDDY, BIDDY (Major/Duple) — Text
Review song and chord root accompaniment. [Teacher sings the song while
students sing the chord root accompaniment — Switch]

. LITTLE WIND (Dorian/Duple)
Teach song — keep macrobeats in feet, microbeats on legs, then combine.

. HICKETY PICKETY (Usual Combined Chant)
Do the chant and do any patterns (duple or triple) for the class. Have students
chant patterns individually and as a group.

. BENGY (Phrygian/Duple)
Students sing the resting tone individually when “RT. the Crab” is tossed to them.

. GOODBYE SONG
Sung by an individual in the class into a microphone

141

LESSON PLAN #40

. HELLO SONG (Pentatonic/Duple)

. BIDDY, BIDDY (Major/Duple) — Text
Review song and chord root accompaniment. '/2 of the class sing the song and the
other ‘/2 of the class sing the chord root accompaniment — Switch.

. SEE HOW I’M JUMPING (Minor/Duple) — Text
Sing through the song a few times.

. LITTLE RED HEN (Major/Duple)
Tell the story using the song

. RHYTHM UNIT 1 SECTION B CRITERION 1

. THE JOLLY MILLER (Minor/Triple)
Students sing the resting tone individually when “RT. the Crab” is tossed to them.

. MARY ANN (Major/Duple)
Keep macrobeats then keep microbeats. '/2 class keep macrobeats and the other '/2
keep microbeats — Switch.

. HICKETY PICKETY (Usual Combined Chant)
Do the chant and do any patterns (duple or triple) for the class. Have students
chant patterns individually and as a group.

. CLAP, CLAP, CLAP YOUR HANDS (Mixolydian/Duple)
Keep macrobeats on legs during A section
Play recorder on B section.

10. GOODBYE SONG

Sung by an individual in the class into a microphone

142

LESSON PLAN #41

. HELLO SONG (Pentatonic/Duple)

. SEE HOW I’M JUMPING (Minor/Duple) — Text
Sing through the song a few times.

. BIDDY, BIDDY (Major/Duple) — Text
Review song and chord root accompaniment. ‘/2 of the class sing the song and the
other ‘/2 of the class sing the chord root accompaniment — Switch.

. TONAL UNIT 1 SECTION A CRITERION 2

. MARY ANN (Major/Duple)
Keep macrobeats then keep microbeats. Transfer to instruments: the macrobeats
are played on the guiro and the microbeats are played on the maracas.

. FROG WENT A-COURTIN’ (Mixolydian/Duple)
Use rhythm sticks and keep macrobeats and microbeats.

. ALL THE PRETTY LITTLE HORSES (Minor/Duple)
Students sing the resting tone individually when “RT. the Crab” is tossed to them.

. HICKETY PICKETY (Usual Combined Chant)

Do the chant with movement (i.e., Hickety Pickety Bumble Bee, Can you move
your elbows with me — while moving the elbows do an improvised chant in either
duple or triple.)

. GOODBYE SONG
Sung by an individual in the class into a microphone

143

LESSON PLAN #42

. HELLO SONG (Pentatonic/Duple)

. SEE HOW I’M JUMPING (Minor/Duple) — Text
Sing through the song a few times.

. BIDDY, BIDDY (Major/Duple) — Text
Sing through the song a few times.

. TONAL UNIT 1 SECTION A CRITERION 2

. DRUNKEN SAILOR (Dorian/Duple) — No text both groups
Use rhythm sticks and keep macrobeats and microbeats

. OSTINATO (Review Ostinato Song)

HUMPTY DUMPTY (Triple Chant) — review poem

Teach ostinato (Sat on a wall, had a great fall)

Teacher says the poem while students chant the ostinato — Switch

. HA, HA, THISAWAY (Major/Duple)

Review Iocomotor and non-Iocomotor movement
Non-Iocomotor movement — A section
Locomotor movement —— B section

. GOODBYE SONG
Sung by an individual in the class into a microphone

144

 

LESSON PLAN #43

. HELLO SONG (Pentatonic/Duple)

. SAM, SAM THE BUTCHER MAN (Lydian/Duple)
Pass one bean bag around the circle and when it stops, that person has to sing the
resting tone.

. RHYTHM UNIT 1 SECTION B CRITERION 1

. TICK TOCK (Major/Duple)

Keep macrobeats/microbeats on legs

Switch game — switch from macrobeats to microbeats without the teacher telling
them (students need to watch the teacher)

. BIDDY, BIDDY (Major/Duple) — Text
Review chord root accompaniment. Have ‘/2 of the class sing the chord root
accompaniment and the other ‘/2 sing the song.

SEE HOW I’M JUMPING (Minor/Duple) -— Text
Sing the song into a microphone — pass it around to those who are interested in
singing solo

. I’M GONNA PUT ON MY WALKIN’ SHOES (Mixolydian/Duple)
Walk, jump, jog, slide, . . . Have students choose the type of shoes

. CINDERELLA (Duple Chant)
Teach poem using rote song procedure

. GOODBYE SONG
Sung by an individual in the class into a microphone

145

LESSON PLAN #44

1. HELLO SONG (Pentatonic/Duple)

2. CINDERELLA (Duple Chant)
Review chant
Teach ostinato

3. RHYTHM UNIT 1 SECTION B CRITERION 1

4. TEDDY BEAR (Pentatonic/Duple) h
[Macmillan McGraw-Hill Page T181]
Teach song and add movements

5. SEE HOW I’M JUMPING (Minor/Duple) — Text
Discuss a ferrnata and where it is in the song

 

6. BIDDY, BIDDY (Major/Duple) —— Text 1
Play inside/outside game. When I show a picture of someone singing, the students
sing the song. When I show a picture of a lightbulb, the students audiate the song.

7. BELL HORSES (Three-tone/Duple)
[Macmillan McGraw-Hill Page T82-T83]
Teach song and keep macrobeats on legs

8. DINOSAUR DIET (Minor/Duple)
Walk like huge dinosaurs and little dinosaurs

9. SCARF DANCE (CD 2:29) — Ballet of the Unhatched Chicks from Pictures at an
Exhibition
Move with scarves using continuous fluid movement

10. GOODBYE SONG
Sung by an individual in the class into a microphone

146

LESSON PLAN #45

. HELLO SONG (Pentatonic/Duple)

. BELL HORSES (Three-tone/Duple)
[Macmillan McGraw-Hill Page T82-T83]
Play simple bordun (macrobeats) on xylophones or metallophones (D & A)

. CINDERELLA (Duple Chant)
Review chant and ostinato

. BIDDY, BIDDY (Major/Duple) — Text
Perform the song in small groups to the class —— use a microphone

. TONAL UNIT 1 SECTION A CRITERION 2

. SEE HOW I’M JUMPING (Minor/Duple) — Text
Play inside/outside game. When I show a picture of someone singing, the students
sing the song. When I show a picture of a lightbulb, the students audiate the song.

. BUBBLE GUM (Multi-tonal/Multi-metric)
Grow & Pop

. BUNNY HOP (CD 5:40)

[Macmillan McGraw—Hill Page T251]
Teach the movements to the song in self space

. GOODBYE EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)
Have everyone in the class sing the resting tone before lining up at the door.

147

 

LESSON PLAN #46
. HELLO SONG (Pentatonic/Duple)

. BIDDY, BIDDY (Major/Duple) — Text
Sing the song into a microphone — pass it around to those who are interested in
singing solo

. TONAL UNIT 1 SECTION A CRITERION 2

. SEE HOW I’M JUMPING (Minor/Duple) —— Text
Perform the song in small groups to the class — use a microphone

. BELL HORSES (Three-tone/Duple)
Play microbeats on jingle bells

. POSTMAN (Lydian/Duple)
Students sing the resting tone individually when “RT. the Crab” is tossed to them.

. BUNNY HOP (CD 5:40)
[Macmillan McGraw-Hill Page T251]
Review the movements in self space. Do as a circle dance.

. GOODBYE EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)
Have everyone in the class sing the resting tone before lining up at the door.

148

LESSON PLAN #47

. HELLO SONG (Pentatonic/Duple)

. SEE HOW I’M JUMPING (Minor/Duple)
Stand in a circle holding hands. Swing arms to the macrobeat and sing the song

. BIDDY, BIDDY GAME (Major/Duple)
Play the circle game using a toy ring.

. POSTMAN (Lydian/Duple)
Toss a bean bag to the students and when they catch the bean bag, they have to
sing the resting tone.

. MOVE AND FREEZE TO RECORDED MUSIC
Mack the Knife fi'om The Essential Ella Fitzgerald

. GOODBYE EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)
Have everyone in the class sing the resting tone before lining up at the door.

149

LESSON PLAN #48

. HELLO SONG (Pentatonic/Duple)

. BIDDY, BIDDY (Major/Duple) — Text
Play the circle game using a toy ring.

. SEE HOW I’M JUMPING (Minor/Duple) — Text
Sing the song into a microphone — pass it around to those who are interested in
singing solo

. REVIEW NAMES AND SYMBOLS OF UNPITCHED INSTRUMENTS
Hand drum

Guiro

Triangle

Tambourine

Wood block

. POSTMAN (Lydian/Duple)

Play the Postman game

4-6 students get a letter from the postman (students have to sing the resting tone
to get the letter from the teacher)

Students get instrument on the back of the letter to play either the macrobeats or
microbeats (teacher decides)

. BUNNY HOP (CD 5:40)
[Macmillan McGraw-Hill Page T251]
Perform the dance as a group.

. GOODBYE EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)
Have everyone in the class sing the resting tone before lining up at the door.

150

LESSON PLAN #49

. Give Tonal subtest of PMMA (posttest)

. POSTMAN (Lydian/Duple)
Play the postman game.

. SEE HOW I’M JUMPING (Minor/Duple) — Text
Sing the song through once and explain to the students that they will be singing
this song into a microphone by themselves the next class.

. BIDDY, BIDDY (Major/Duple) — Text
Sing the song through once and explain to the students that they will be singing
this song into a microphone by themselves the next class.

. GOODBYE EVERYBODY (Major/Duple)
Have everyone in the class sing the resting tone before lining up at the door.

151

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