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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

PATTERNS OF SPORT PARTICIPATION AND
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IN URBAN MEXICAN YOUTH

presented by

Shannon R. Siegel

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for. .
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Ph.D. degree in Kinesiology

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PATTERNS OF SPORT PARTICIPATION AND PHYSICAL
ACTIVITY IN URBAN MEXICAN YOUTH

By

Shannon R. Siegel

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Kinesiology

1999

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ABSTRACT
PATTERNS OF SPORT PARTICIPATION AND PHYSICAL
ACTIVITY IN URBAN MEXICAN YOUTH

By

Shannon R. Siegel

The purpose of this study was to assess participation and motivation for sport,
and level and types of physical activity in urban Mexican school youth across
three socioeconomic levels. This study also considered current growth status
(height and weight) to provide an estimate of nutritional status (under- and
ovemutrition) and to place the sample in a secular context. Approximately
1,100 Mexican school youth between the ages of 9 and 18 years participated in
a cross-sectional study involving sport preferences, motivation for sport, and
level of physical activity. Heights and weights were measured and the BMI
calculated for 1,085 subjects of the sample, and the females were asked their
menarcheal status. Older primary school and high school youth (11 = 591)
completed surveys on sport and activity participation. Males and females
differ in sport preferences. Females appear to prefer individual lifetime
activities, whereas males seem to prefer sport activities. Reasons for sport
participation in urban Mexican youth are similar to those for United States
youth, with ”fun” the primary reason for sport participation in urban

Mexican youth. Physical fitness and coaching issues also impact sport

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motivation. However, among reasons for dropping out of sport, urban
Mexican youth appear more concerned about their studies than United States
youth. Urban Mexican males are more ego oriented in their sport motivation
than females, while there is no difference in task orientation. Most males in
this study are in the active category of the PAQ-A, while most females are in
the inactive category. The very active category has the fewest representatives
for both genders. Younger males and females (9-13 years) are consistently
more active than their older counterparts (14-18 years). Urban Mexican male
sport participants have higher activity scores and self-perceived physical
condition than non-participants. Female sport participants have higher
activity scores, self-perceived physical condition and self-perceived activity
levels than non-participants. Sociodemographic and biological variables
account for 1% to 14% of the variance in sport participation status and
physical activity score. The BMI does not differ between sport participants
and non-participants, or between inactive, active and very active activity
categories. The prevalence of males 9-13 years who are at risk of overweight is
38%, and that for females 9-13 is 29%. The prevalence decreases with age. A
positive secular trend in size (stature and body weight) has occurred in

Mexico City youth between 1926 and 1998. No secular change appears in age

at menarche in urban Mexican females.

Copyright by
SHANNON R. SIEGEL
1999

Dedication

To my Dad and Mom,
who taught me that life is
what I make of it, and if I can
imagine it, I can make it happen.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First and foremost, my thanks go to Maria Pena Reyes and Eyra Cérdenas
Barahona for their help in my quest for a dissertation, and for their
hospitality in Mexico City. I am also greatly indebted to many professors and
students at ENAH: Denise Lambaer Urrutia, Martha Hurtado Santoyo, Aida
Pérez Cardenas, Hugo Torres Lopez, Marcela del Olrno Ruiz, and Arturo
Gomez Serrano. Without their help, I would not have a dissertation. I also
thank all of the grade school and high school students who were my subjects,
and my appreciation goes to their teachers for their patience and graciousness
when we disrupted their class lessons. An abundance of thanks also go to my
advisor Dr. Robert Malina, for working with me throughout my graduate
career, and helping me find the focus in work that I truly enjoy. Thanks also
to my committee members Dr. Crystal Branta, Dr. Martha Ewing, and Dr.
Sharon Hoerr for their help and support during the process. And to all my
friends both here at MSU and elsewhere who helped me survive Michigan
winters with a sense of humor (and the ability to snowboard), thank you so
much! Lastly, I would like to thank my family for supporting me,
unconditionally, through everything. The data collection for this dissertation
and its completion were partially funded by grants from the International
Theme Group from the College of Education and a Dissertation Completion

Grant from the College of Education and The Graduate School.

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................

LIST OF FIGURES .....................................................................................................

CHAPTER I '
INTRODUCTION AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Introduction ....................................................................................................
Research Questions .......................................................................................
Significance of Study .....................................................................................
Limitations ......................................................................................................
Delimitations ..................................................................................................

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction ....................................................................................................
Physical Activity and Sport ..........................................................................
Activity Levels and Nutrition ....................................................................
Socioeconomic Status ...................................................................................
Gender ..............................................................................................................
Barriers to Physical Activity ........................................................................
Motives for Participation .............................................................................
Sport Participation .........................................................................................
Activity Assessments ....................................................................................
Growth of Mexican Youth
Stature and Body Weight .................................................................
Body Mass Index .................................................................................
Menarche .............................................................................................
Secular Trends in Body Size ............................................................
Secular Trends in Mexico .................................................................
Summary .........................................................................................................

vii

xi~

xix

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9

9
12
14
16
19
21
25
26

30
31
32
32
33
34

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY
Introduction .................................................................................................... 35
Background on Pollution Levels in Mexico City .................................... 35
Subjects ............................................................................................................. 36
Study Design .................................................................................................... 38
Anthropometry .............................................................................................. 38
Questionnaires
Sports Participation and Motivation Questionnaire .................. 39
Physical Activity Questionnaire for Adolescents (PAQ-A) ....... 40
Test Administration ...................................................................................... 41
Survey Administration ................................................................................ 43
Analyses ........................................................................................................... 45
CHAPTER IV
. RESULTS
Introduction .................................................................................................... 50
Research Questions
Sport Choices (Question 1) .............................................................. 51
Reasons for Participation, Non-Participation and Return to
Sports (Question 2) ........................................................................... 54
Non-School Sponsored Sport .............................................. 56
Goal Orientation ..................................................................... 59
School Sponsored Sport ........................................................ 6O
Discontinuing Sport Participation ...................................... 61
Returning to Sport ................................................................. 62
Physical Activity Levels (Question 3) ........................................... 63
Predictors of Sport Participation and Physical Activity
Levels (Question 4) ........................................................................... 73
The BMI, Levels of Physical Activity and Sport Participation
(Question 5) ......................................................................................... 77
Risk of Overweight and Underweight in urban Mexican
youth (Question 6) ............................................................................ 80
Secular Change (Question 7) ............................................................ 82
Menarche ................................................................................. 85
CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION
Introduction .................................................................................................... 86
Sport Participation ......................................................................................... 86
Sport and Activity Preferences .................................................................... 89
Reasons for Sport Participation .................................................................. 91
Goal Orientation in Sport Participation .................................................... 94
Reasons for Discontinuing Sport ............. . ................................................... 100

viii

Physical Activity ..................................................................... ' ........................ 104

Gender Differences in Physical Activity .................................................... 105
SES Variation .................................................................................................. 107
Parental Activity ............................................................................................. 109
Barriers to Physical Activity ......................................................................... 110
Television and Video Games ...................................................................... 111
Body Size and Overweight ........................................................................... 114
Menarche ......................................................................................................... 120
Secular Trends in Body Size ................................................................ ' ........ 1 21

CHAPTER VI

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
Summary ......................................................................................................... 128
Conclusions ..................................................................................................... 133
Implications for Education ........................................................................... 137
Recommendations for Future Research .................................................... 139

LIST OF REFERENCES .............................................................................................. 218

APPENDIX A:

FORM FOR UNIVERSITY COMMITTEE ON RESEARCH INVOLVING

HUMAN SUBJECTS .................................................................................................. 235

APPENDIX B:

FORM OF SPONSORSHIP FOR ESCUELA NACIONAL DE

ANT'ROPOLOGIA E HISTORIA ............................................................................. 237

APPENDIX C: '

SPORTING GOODS MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION SPORT

PARTICIPATION QUESTIONNAIRE (Spanish/English) ............................... 239

APPENDIX D:

PHYSICAL ACTIVTTY QUESTIONNAIRE FOR ADOLESCENTS

(Spanish/English) ..................................................................................................... 277

APPENDIX E:

CONSENT/ASSENT FORMS (Spanish/English) ............................................... 287

ix

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APPENDIX F:

COMPLETE SPORT PARTICIPATION RESPONSES ......................................... 292

APPENDD( G:

COMPLETE DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR AGE, HEIGHT, WEIGHT

AND THE BMI BY AGE, SEX AND SES ............................................................... 301
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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1. Estimated percentage of underweight, stunting, wasting and
overweight in preschool children (birth to 5 years) in Mexico ........................ 143

TABLE 2. IMECA Ratings for Mexico City ........................................................... 144

TABLE 3. Sample of air contaminants in Mexico City during the time of
the current study ........................................................................................................ 145

TABLE 4. Breakdown of the total sample by school, grade, sex and
SES ................................................................................................................................. 146

TABLE 5. Non-school sponsored sports played by urban Mexican youth
9-18 years of age .......................................................................................................... 147

TABLE 6. Non-school sponsored sports played by urban Mexican youth
by age group ................................................................................................................. 148

TABLE 7. Non-school sponsored sports played by urban Mexican youth
9-18 years by SES category ......................................................................................... 149

TABLE 8. School sponsored sports played by urban Mexican youth 14-18
years .............................................................................................................................. 150

TABLE 9. Descriptive statistics and results of ANCOVAs, with age as the
covariate, of body size, estimated physical activity, television and video

game time, and perceived physical activity and physical condition of sport
participants and non-sport participants ................................................................ 151

TABLE 10. Activities in which urban Mexican youth participate .................. 152

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TABLE 11. Descriptive statistics for the top ten reasons for playing non-
school sponsored sports among older primary school and high school
students ........................................................................................................................ 153

TABLE 12. Descriptive statistics for the top ten reasons for playing school
sponsored sports in high school students..................._. ......................................... 154

TABLE 13. Structure matrix coefficients and explained variance for sport
motivation items for non-school sponsored sports for the combined
sample of urban Mexican school youth (11 = 315) ................................................ 155

TABLE 14. Descriptive statistics and univariate F-tests of gender
differences in sport motivation factors in non-school sponsored sports
among urban Mexican school youth ..................................................................... 156

TABLE 15. Descriptive statistics and univariate F-tests of gender
differences in individual items of motivation in non-school sponsored
sports among urban Mexican school youth ......................................................... 157

TABLE 16. Descriptive statistics by gender for responses to: "I feel most
successful in sports when..." among older primary school and high school
students ........................................................................................................................ 158

TABLE 17. Structure matrix coefficients and explained variance for Task
and Ego orientation items for non-school sponsored sports for the
combined sample of urban Mexican school ......................................................... 159

TABLE 18. Significant independent t-tests of gender differences in
motivation for school sponsored sports among high school students 14-18
years of age ................................................................................................................... 160

TABLE 19. Descriptive statistics for the top ten reasons for dropping out
of sport in high school males and females 14-18 years of age ........................... 161

TABLE 20. Independent t-tests of gender differences in reasons for
dr0pping out of sport among urban Mexican high school students 14-18
years of age ................................................................................................................... 162

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TABLE 21. Descriptive statistics for the top ten responses to the
statement: "I would return to sport if..." in urban Mexican high school
males and females 14-18 years of age ..................................................................... 163

TABLE 22. Responses of urban Mexican high school youth 14-18 years of
age to the statement: "In general, I do not participate in sport or exercise
because..." ..................................................................................................................... 164

TABLE 23. Mean PAQ-A scores of urban Mexican youth by age group and
gender with AN OVAs for differences in PAQ-A by age group ........................ 165

TABLE 24. Mean PAQ—A scores of urban Mexican youth by age group,
gender, and SES category with ANOVAs for differences in PAQ-A by age
group within SES category ....................................................................................... 166

TABLE 25. Distribution of PAQ—A scores by gender in urban Mexican
youth 9-18 years .......................................................................................................... 167

TABLE 26. Distribution of PAQ-A scores in urban Mexican school youth
by gender and by age .................................................................................................. 168

TABLE 27. Relative distribution of physical activity status among urban
Mexican school youth 9-18 years of age by gender .............................................. 169

TABLE 28. Relative distribution of physical activity status among urban
Mexican school youth by age group and gender .................................................. 170

TABLE 29. Means and standard deviations of PAQ-A scores by gender
and SES, and results of ANCOVA with age as the covariate ........................... 171

TABLE 30. Stated reasons of urban Mexican school youth for not being
active during the previous week ............................................................................ 172

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TABLE 31. Results of ANCOVAs, with age as the covariate, for hours of
television viewing and video game playing by age group in urban
Mexican school youth ............................................................................................... 173

TABLE 32. Results of ANCOVAs, with age as the covariate, for hours of
television viewing and video game playing by sport participation status
in urban Mexican school youth 11-18 years of age ............................................. 174

TABLE 33. Results of ANCOVAs, with age as the covariate, for hours of
television viewing and video game playing by activity level in urban
Mexican school youth 9-18 years of age ................................................................. 175

TABLE 34a. Relative frequency of different physical activities for urban
Mexican males (11 = 526) ............................................................................................ 176

TABLE 34b. Relative frequency of different physical activities for urban
Mexican females (n = 559) ........................................................................................ 177

TABLE 35a. Relative frequency of different physical activities for urban
Mexican males 9-13 years (n = 369) ......................................................................... 178

TABLE 35b. Relative frequency of different physical activities for urban
Mexican males 14—18 years (n = 157) ....................................................................... 179

TABLE 36a. Relative frequency of different physical activities for urban
Mexican females 9-13 years (n = 385) ............. . ........................................................ 180

TABLE 36b. Relative frequency of different physical activities for urban ,
Mexican females 14-18 years (n = 174) .................................................................... 181

TABLE 37. Results of the logistic regression of predictors of sport
participation status in urban Mexican school youth 11-18 years of age by
gender ........................................................................................................................... 182

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TABLE 38. Results of the forward stepwise multiple regression of
predictors of PAQ-A score in urban Mexican school youth 9-18 years of
age by gender ............................................................................................................... 183

TABLE 39. Results of the forward stepwise multiple regression of
predictors of PAQ-A score in urban Mexican school youth 9-18 years of
age by gender and SES ............................................................................................... 184

TABLE 40. Results of the forward stepwise multiple regression of
predictors of PAQ-A score in urban MeXican school youth by gender and
age group ...................................................................................................................... 185

TABLE 41. Age and the BMI by activity level and age group in urban
Mexican school youth with results of an ANCOVAs, controlling for age,
for the BMI by level of physical activity within age group ............................... 186

TABLE 42. Age and the BMI by sport participation status in two age
groups of urban Mexican school youth with results of ANCOVAs,
controlling for age, the BMI by level of physical activity within age

group ............................................................................................................................. 187

TABLE 43. Percentages of sport participants in nutritional status
categories within age groups of urban Mexican school youth ......................... 188

TABLE44. Mean PAQ-A scores by nutritional status category within age
groups of urban Mexican school youth ................................................................. 189

TABLE 45. Descriptive statistics for age, stature, weight, and the BMI for
the total sample of urban Mexican school youth by sex .................................... 190

TABLE 46a. Results of ANOVA for age, stature, weight, and the BMI by
SES in urban Mexican males 10, 11, and 16 years ................................................ 191

TABLE 46b. Results of ANOVA for age, stature, weight, and the BMI by
SES in urban Mexican females 10, 11, and 16 years ............................................. 192

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TABLE 47. Prevalence (°/o) of underweight (UW), risk of overweight
(ROW), and overweight (OW) by age and gender in urban Mexican school
youth 9-18 years of age ............................................................................................... 193

TABLE 48. Prevalence (°/o) of underweight (UW), risk of overweight
(ROW), and overweight (OW) by age group and gender in urban Mexican
school youth ................................................................................................................ 194

TABLE 49. Estimated rates of secular change in the heights and weights
of urban Mexican youth from Mexico City, D. F ................................................. 195

TABLE 50. Total number and percentage of females 9-18 years who have
attained menarche in a sample from Mexico City .............................................. 196

TABLE 51. Mean scores for the top ten reasons for playing non-school
sponsored sports among urban Mexican school youth 9-18 years of age,
American youth 10-18 years of age, and a Mexican American subset of the
American sample 10-18 years of age. The data are for genders combined... 197

TABLE 52. Summary of the top ten reasons in order of importance for
dropping out of sport in high school aged Mexican males and females 14-
18 years of age, and in American youth 10-18 years of age ................................ 198

TABLE 53. Descriptive statistics for the top ten reasons for dropping out

of sport in high school aged Mexican youth 14-18 years of age and

Mexican American youth 10-18 years of age. The data are for genders

combined ...................................................................................................................... 199

TABLE 54. Summary of the top ten responses to, "I would return to sport
if..." in order of importance in urban Mexican high school youth 14-18
years of age and American youth 10-18 years of age, by gender ....................... 200

TABLE 55. Descriptive statistics for the top ten responses to, "I would

return to sport if..." in urban Mexican high school youth 14-18 years of age

and Mexican American youth 10-18 years of age. The data are for genders
combined ...................................................................................................................... 201

xvi

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TABLE 56. Estimates of median age at menarche in urban Latin
American girls ............................................................................................................ 202

TABLE 57. Estimated rates of secular change in height and weight in
international samples of youth 5-11 years of age ................................................ 203

TABLE 58. Estimated rates of secular change in height and weight in
international samples of youth 12-18 years of age .............................................. 204

TABLE 59. Descriptive statistics for the reasons for playing non-school
sponsored sports among older primary school and high school males ......... 293

TABLE 60. Descriptive statistics for the reasons for playing non-school
sponsored sports among older primary school and high school
females .......................................................................................................................... 294

TABLE 61. Descriptive statistics for the reasons for playing school
sponsored sports among high school males ........................................................ 295

TABLE 62. Descriptive statistics for the reasons for playing school
sponsored sports among high school females ..................................................... 296

TABLE 63. Descriptive statistics for the reasons for dropping out of sport
in high school females 14 -18 years ........................................................................ 297

TABLE 64. Descriptive statistics for the reasons for dropping out of sport
in high school females 14 -18 years ........................................................................ 298

TABLE 65. Descriptive statistics for responses to the item, "I would
return to sport if..." in urban Mexican high school males 14-18 years ........... 299

TABLE 66. Descriptive statistics for responses to the item, "I would
return to sport if..." in urban Mexican high school females 14-18 years ........ 300

xvii

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TABLE 67. Descriptive statistics of age, weight, stature and the BMI for
males and females in the low SES .......................................................................... 302

TABLE 68. Descriptive statistics of age, weight, stature and the BMI for .
males and females in the middle SES ................................................................... 303

TABLE 69. Descriptive statistics of age, weight, stature and the BMI for
males and females in the high SES ........................................................................ 304

xviii

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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1. Statures of individual boys (top) and age specific means and
standard deviations (bottom) relative to United States reference values
(Hamill et al., 1977). P10, P50 and P90 refer to the 10th, 50th and 90th

percentiles, respectively ............................................................................................

FIGURE 2. Statures of individual girls (top) and age specific means and
standard deviations (bottom) relative to United States reference values
(Hamill et al., 1977). P10, P50 and P90 refer to the 10th, 50th and 90th

percentiles, respectively ............................................................................................

FIGURE 3. Body weights of individual boys (top) and age specific means
and standard deviations (bottom) relative to United States reference
values (Hamill et al., 1977). P10, P50 and P90 refer to the 10th, 50th and

206

207

90th percentiles, respectively ................................................................................... 208

FIGURE 4. Body weights of individual girls (top) and age specific means
and standard deviations (bottom) relative to United States reference
values (Hamill et al., 1977). P10, P50 and P90 refer to the 10th, 50th and

90th percentiles, respectively ................................................................................... 209

FIGURE 5. The body mass index of individual boys (top) and age specific
means and standard deviations (bottom) relative to United States
reference values (Must et al., 1991). P15, P50 and P85 refer to the 15th,

50th and 85th percentiles, respectively .................................................................. 210

FIGURE 6. The body mass index of individual girls (top) and age specific
means and standard deviations (bottom) relative to United States
reference values (Must et al., 1991). P15, P50 and P85 refer to the 15th,

50th and 85th percentiles, respectively ..................................................................

FIGURE 7. Mean stature of Mexico City males (top) and females (bottom)

between 1926 and 1998 ...............................................................................................

FIGURE 8. Mean body weights of Mexico City males (top) and females

(bottom) between 1926 and 1998 ..............................................................................

xix

211

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FIGURE 9. Mean body mass index of Mexico City males (top) and females
(bottom) between 1926 and 1998. The BMI was calculated from individual
values for the current study and from age-specific means of weight and

height for the earlier studies .................................................................................... 214

FIGURE 10. Mean body weights of Mexico City males (top) and females
(bottom) compared to samples from Sonora (Pena Reyes, 1995; Ovando
Hernandez, 1995) and Veracruz, Mexico (Pena Reyes et al., 1999), the

United States reference (Hamill et al., 1977), and the Hispanic Health and
Nutrition Examination Survey (Roche et al., 1990) .......................................... 215

FIGURE 11. Mean statures of Mexico City males (top) and females

(bottom) compared to samples from Sonora (Pena Reyes, 1995; Ovando
Hernandez, 1995) and Veracruz, Mexico (Pena Reyes et al., 1999), the

United States reference (Hamill et al., 1977), and the Hispanic Health and
Nutrition Examination Survey (Roche et al., 1990) ........................................... 216

FIGURE 12. Mean body mass index of Mexico City males (top) and

females (bottom) compared to samples from Sonora (Pena Reyes, 1995;
Ovando Hernandez, 1995) and Veracruz, Mexico (Pena Reyes et al., 1999),

the United States reference (Must et al., 1991), and the Hispanic Health

and Nutrition Examination Survey (Roche et al., 1990). The BMI was
calculated from individual values in each study ................................................ 217

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Physical activity and sport participation by youth have been the focus of
study in many population samples in North America and Europe. In
contrast, few studies have been done in Latin America, specifically Mexico.
While there is a rich historical literature on the growth status of Mexican
children, especially in a nutritional context, participation in physical activity
and sport has not been systematically addressed. Organized sport is a major
component of physical activity in American children; corresponding data are
lacking for Mexico and other Latin American countries.

Sport is a focal point in many countries in the world, ranging from
international competitions to local neighborhood challenges. Depending on
the relative importance of sport in a particular culture, the youth of that
population may invest considerable time and effort acquiring the skills and
proficiencies of a sport. Current participation trends, the structure of youth
sport programs, and the sports available are based primarily on North
American and European models (De Knop et al., 1996). Minimal baseline
data exist regarding sports available, levels of sport participation, and physical
activity for Mexican youth, and for youth in other parts of Latin America.

Participation in leisure time physical activity, and by extension sport,
may be influenced by nutritional status. Using height-for-age as an indicator

of growth history or growth stunting, some data suggest that boys with a

history of undernutrition are not able to keep up with well-nourished boys in
physical activity, including sport activities (Spurr and Reina, 1988). Thus,
nutritional status may influence participation in physical activity, and in
turn, sport.

Estimates of the prevalence of obesity in children in Latin America
ranges from 8% to 33% depending on the study, and obesity is more common
in the middle and lower middle socioeconomic levels (O'Donnell, 1988). In
developed countries, obesity is correlated with low socioeconomic status
(SES); this is not the case in developing countries; obesity is more related to
high SES. Among Brazilian youth 7-12 years of age, 38% of upper class
children were classified as obese (based on two out of three indicators: height,
weight, arm circumference, and the triceps skinfold) in contrast to 12% of
middle class and 4% of lower class children (Arteaga et al., 1982). A study of
1051 Chilean adolescents 13-15 years of age indicated a prevalence of obesity
(weight—for-height) of 41% in girls and 26% in boys (Montecinos et al., 1986).

If childhood and adolescent obesity are increasing, as it appears to be in
some Latin American countries (O'Donnell, 1988), and the Hispanic
population in the Unites States (Troiano and Flegal, 1998), physical activity
may become more important to the youth of these countries. It is, therefore,
important to determine what children are doing with their free time or in
school, whether they are being sufficiently active or inactive, and if they are

not choosing to be active, how can they be motivated to be so.

Currently, Mexico City has a population of approximately 21 million
people. The city is located at an altitude of 2200m (7200 feet), and the
metropolitan area is roughly 500 kmz. The city sits in a valley and is ringed by
volcanoes, which often cause a thermal inversion where the winds cannot
circulate the air over the mountains. Thus, pollution levels are often very
high since the contaminated air cannot escape over the hills. Due to altitude
and pollution in Mexico City, children are often not allowed to play outdoors
for physical education or recess. Thus, the activity levels of youth may be
restricted due to the locale.

Mexico City primary and secondary school youth receive at least one
hour of physical education per week depending on whether they are in a
public or private school (Secretaria de Educacion Publica, 1993), the amount
varies by school for the high school youth. While individual school
administrations make the decisions on physical education for each school,
there is a recommended requirement based on grade level (Secretaria de
Educacion Publica, 1993).

Like many countries, Mexico has basically three socioeconomic levels,
low (hajg), middle (media), and high (311.9)- Socioeconomic status (SES) is
often reflected by region of residence and school choice, as well as opportunity
and access to extracurricular activities. Thus, SES has the potential to strongly
influence an individual’s access to sport and / or physical activity.

The purpose of this study is to assess participation and motivation for

sport, and level and types of physical activity in urban Mexican school youth

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across three socioeconomic levels. This study also considers growth status
(height and weight) of the school youth to provide an estimate of nutritional

status (under- and overnutrition) and to place the sample in a secular context.

Research Questions

1. In what sports do urban Mexican youth 9-18 years of age, across three
socioeconomic levels participate?

a. How do Mexican youth perceive their own participation or
non-participation in sport?

2. Why do urban Mexican children participate in sport? Or conversely,
why do they discontinue participation in sport?

3. What is the level of physical activity among urban Mexican school
youth 9-18 years of age as estimated with a seven-day recall?

4. What sociodemographic (gender, age, SES) and biological (height,
weight, the BMI) variables are predictive of sport participation status
and level of physical activity in urban Mexican school youth?

5. Using the Body Mass Index (BMI) as a proxy for nutritional status,
what is the relationship between nutritional status and physical
activity, including sport participation?

6. What is the current growth status of urban Mexican youth relative
to United States (World Health Organization, WHO) reference data?

7. Have secular changes occurred in the stature, weight and BMI of

Mexico City youth? Has secular change occurred in the age at
menarche of urban Mexican females?

Significance of Study
This study is unique in that it is an international assessment of youth
sports participation. Data on the activity levels and sport choices of Mexican

youth are lacking. The proposed study extends the applicability of sport

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participation surveys into another culture, and provides a basis for cross-
cultural comparison using an established method.

This is a study of school youth using sport as the context. Sport is often
an important component in the lives of many youth throughout the world.
In addition, sport has the potential to favorably influence social and moral
development, and to foster self-esteem and perceptions of competence (Ewing
and Seefeldt, 1996). The results of this study should be comparable to those
from a survey of American youth based on the same methodology (Seefeldt
and Ewing, 1997).

Although information on level of sport participation and activity
across SES is available (e.g., Greendorfer, 1978; Hasbrook et al., 1981; Gottlieb
and Chen, 1985), these issues have not previously been addressed in a
different cultural context, specifically in Mexico. Mexico, like all countries,
has contrasting levels of poverty and wealth. These two extremes, however,
are not distributed evenly in Mexico. A considerable percentage of the
Mexican population lives under conditions of poverty, while a relatively
small percentage lives under conditions of affluence. However, like many
other countries, Mexico has not only a low SES and high SES, but also a
substantial middle class. This study provides baseline information on the
sport participation and physical activity of Mexican school children across the
socioeconomic spectrum.

In tandem with addressing the question of levels of physical activity in

urban Mexican youth, this study also attempts to discern why school youth

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choose to be active or inactive. While health concerns are not the focal point
for most youth when they designate reasons for sport and physical activity
participation (Seefeldt and Ewing, 1997), they do have relevance for health
practitioners, physical educators and coaches. Physical activity is associated
with lower risk of cardiovascular'disease in adults, and activity patterns
established during youth may track into adulthood and, in turn, influence
future health risk factor profiles. There is evidence for increasing trends of
cardiovascular risk factors in Latin American youth (Malina, 1996a), thus
making the potential role of physical activity in health more pertinent. The
results of this study may lend themselves to improving teacher education
approaches and offer curriculum guidelines for physical education classes.
For example, if it is apparent that overweight youth are choosing not to
participate in sport or physical activity, perhaps programs of the schools can
be restructured to target this population and encourage these youth to
participate.

This study provides unique information on the participation and
motivation of girls in sport and on activity levels. Participation rates of
Mexican American females in vigorous activity are often substantially lower
than in other groups in the United States (Andersen et al., 1998). Since there
are many cultural links between Mexican American females in the United
States and Mexican females in Mexico, this study may provide important
insights for sport and activity participation motivation for Mexican American

females.

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Mechanisms underlying ethnic differences in socialization into sport
(which could also be expanded to include socialization into physical activity)
have not been addressed in depth (Gottlieb and Chen, 1985). While the
applicability of this method of labeling to youth in Mexico City is tenuous due
to the fact that students do not officially identify by ethnicity, the
extrapolation of the information gleaned in Mexico may be of relevance to
the United States That is, since sport participation for females in the past has
often been considered inappropriate in the Mexican American culture
(Hasbrook et al., 1981), it is pertinent to ascertain whether this attitude also
occurs in Mexico.

Height and weight provide an indication of the growth status of the
youth. Weight-for-height in the form of the BMI is often used as an index of
current nutritional status (under- and overnutrition), while current height is
an index of nutritional history, especially in developing countries. The
current data also provide a base for examination of secular changes, or lack

thereof, in the body size of urban Mexican school youth.

Limitations
The sample for this study was limited to those schools whose
administrators allowed the questionnaires to be used. However, the results
are informative because very little, if any, sport or physical activity data are
available for Mexican youth. Reliance on self-reported data is an important

limitation of this study. Nevertheless, the survey format allows for a larger

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quantity and greater variety of participants than would individual interviews
or an outside observer. The use of location of specific schools is a crude index
of SES and may lead to some misclassification, although SES determination

was checked against student report of parental occupation.

Delimitations
The sample for the sport and activity survey, and height and weight
was 1095 urban males and females between the ages of 9 and 18 years. The
sample was drawn from three levels of SES in Mexico City. Because the
subjects are school youth within a limited age range and within a specific
geographic region and culture, broader application of the data may not be

appropriate and should be done with care.

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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This study assessed the sport preferences and motivations, level of
physical activity, and body size of urban school youth 9-18 years of age in
Mexico City. As such, the review of literature is divided into two parts, one
relating to physical activity and sport, and the other relating to growth status

and secular change in body size.

Physical Activity and Sport

Regular physical activity has the potential to improve blood pressure,
body composition, and bone density, and to decrease the risk of diabetes,
osteoporosis and hypertension among adults (Pinto et al., 1996). While the
link between physical inactivity and increased risk of various chronic diseases
has been substantiated in adults, the link is more tenuous in youth (Sallis et
al., 1988b; Malina, 1995; Saunders et al., 1997). For example, interage
correlations between physical activity (sport participation) from 13-17 years
and activity status at 30 years of age are relatively low in Belgian males,
ranging from 0.06 to 0.39 (Vanreusel et al., 1993). In addition, the availability
of longitudinal data for measures of health-related physical fitness from
childhood through adolescence is limited, and most interage correlations for

activity and components of fitness are low to moderate (Malina, 1995).

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Nevertheless, physically active youth tend to have a more favorable
cardiovascular risk profile including a higher level of fitness (Pate et al., 1990),
less obesity (Sasaki et al., 1987), and less body fat (Johnson et al., 1956; Dietz,
1983; Klesges et al., 1986).

A myriad of factors have been associated with participation in physical
activity and sport. These range from hereditary to parental support to
environmental concerns. Regardless of causality, however, if children are
encouraged and taught to be active, it may be possible to slow or limit the
onset of several chronic diseases. Many health behavior patterns that are
learned in childhood may impact an individual throughout his/ her lifetime
(Stucky- Ropp et al., 1993). Thus, teaching children to be regularly active has
the potential to be beneficial to their overall health by maintaining an active
lifestyle and by decreasing the likelihood of obesity, hypertension and heart
disease (Strong, 1990).

The transition of healthy active children to healthy active adults
obviously includes the period of adolescence. For the most part, physical
activity levels tend to decrease from childhood through adolescence,
particularly in girls (Centers for Disease Control [CDC], 1993; Malina, 1995).
The percentage of students in grades 9-12 who met the criteria of participating
in vigorous activity 3 or more days per week was 50% for boys and 24% for
girls. While White and Hispanic males had higher percentages of
participation in vigorous activity than African American males, the

percentages of active African American and Hispanic females were lower

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than for White females (CDC, 1993). Some data also indicate that Black
adolescent girls have lower aerobic capacity than White adolescent girls,
which may impact activity levels (Pivarnik et al., 1993).

Data on participation trends in physical activity, the structure of youth
sport programs, and the sports available are based primarily on North
American and European models (De Knop et al., 1996). Little information is
present for Latin America; only Brazil was represented in an international
survey of youth sport (De Knop et al., 1996). In addition, the uniqueness of a
specific country’s sport programs, as well as local cultural preferences, may
limit comparisons among countries.

Physical activity levels of Mexican youth have not been systematically
studied. Because a significant percentage of the Mexican school-aged
population may have been nutritionally compromised during infancy and
early childhood, activity levels may be affected by this nutritional history,
especially in the lower socioeconomic strata (Spurr, 1990). Present food
availability is an additional factor. It should be noted, however, that Mexican
youth span both ends of the nutritional spectrum. While many are
undernourished, a small percentage of the pre—school population is
overnourished (WHO, 1997). The most recent WHO (1997) data for preschool
children in Mexico indicate a prevalence of overweight that approached 4%
in contrast to almost 15% for underweight and 23% for stunting (Table 1).

In a national survey of Brazilian youth 9-17 years, being White and

having an urban residence were associated with a higher BMI than being

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Black or Mulatto, or from a rural area (Sichieri et al., 1995). In addition,
Brazilian girls had a consistently higher mean BMI than boys, and the
disparity increased after puberty. Postpubertal girls (> 13 years) who were of
the higher SES tended to exceed the mean BMI for their United States
counterparts. Using the median BMI from the same national survey and
comparing Brazilian youth with the British, Brazilian girls had lower values
(dos Anjos et al., 1998).

The undernourished segment of the population has associated health
concerns, involving higher mortality and morbidity, and compromised
growth. The overnourished, while a much smaller part of the overall
population, have increased risk of health problems associated with a
sedentary lifestyle, obesity, elevated lipids, diabetes, etc. (Malina, 1996a).
While these risk factors have been linked to adult chronic diseases, their
significance to the health status of children and adolescents remains to be

established (Bar-Or, 1994).

Activity Levels and Nutrition
Physical activity levels are strongly impacted by age, sex, body size
(specifically excess weight for height), health status and nutritional status, to
name several. A certain level of physical activity is apparently necessary to
support normal growth and to maintain functional efficiency of bodily tissues
(Viteri and Torun, 1981; Malina, 1984). Children with protein energy

malnutrition (PEM) often exhibit lower levels of physical activity (Malina,

12

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1984). In developing countries where obtaining food is more difficult, non-
subsistence physical activity is often lower than in countries where food
availability is not an issue.

Differences in activity levels between food / vitamin supplemented and
non-supplemented groups of infants have been reported in Mexico (Chavez
et al., 1972, 1977). Commencing in 1968, the study was conducted with
children in a rural subsistence agricultural community in Mexico. One group
of children was given supplemental food and vitamins, while the other
group had the locally available diet. The non-supplemented infants were
smaller, had lower levels of physical activity, and interacted less with their
mothers (Chavez et al., 1972). The supplemented infants were larger and
more active, and interacted more demandingly with their mothers,
increasing the frequency of mother-child interaction. By 2 years of age, the
difference in physical activity between the supplemented and non-
supplemented children was six-fold. The supplemented children were
consistently more active. Similar results have been found with pre-school
children in Guatemala, although the focus was primarily on the impact of
physical activity on the recovery after severe nutritional insult than on the
impact of supplementation on activity (Viteri and Torun, 1981).

In preschool children, chronic energy deficiency (CED) is associated
with decreased activity, which is apparently the first defensive step against a

reduced rate of growth. In addition, when CED children are active, levels of

13

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vigorous activity are lower than adequately nourished children. More time is
spent standing and sitting than in higher energy cost activities (Spurr, 1990).

Age and nutritional status differences in energy expenditure are
influenced by body size (Spurr and Reina, 1990). Basal metabolic rate and
estimated energy expenditure in approximately 400 nutritionally normal and
marginally malnourished Colombian boys and girls 6-16 years of age were
distinct. Marginally malnourished boys were unable to physically cope with
situations of increased activity above ordinary levels when they were placed
into sport situations (Spurr and Reina, 1988). The smaller body size of the
malnourished, CED, youth allows for reduced energy expenditure, possibly
allowing the child’s body to conserve energy needed for growth and
maintenance of bodily functions rather than expending it in activity.

Growth stunting in childhood may ultimately negatively impact an
individual as an adult and, in turn, the community as a whole due to
reduced capacity for physical work. It is also possible that reduced body size
associated with early undernutrition, may influence subsequent physical

activity and sport at school age.

Socioeconomic Status (SES)
There are only a few studies on habits of physical activity in youth
from different SES levels, whether in Mexico or other locations. Adults in
Pennsylvania showed differences in both job-related activity and leisure time

activity by gender and SES (Ford et al., 1991). Adolescents in the same region,

14

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in contrast, showed different trends (Aaron et al., 1993). Male adolescents
were more active than females and Whites were more active than non-
Whites, but SES was not a determinant of self-reported activity levels in
either males or females (Aaron et al., 1993). In Canadian adults, participation
in organized leisure activity showed a social class gradient, with higher
participation levels in higher SES individuals (Stephens and Craig, 1990).
Links between SES and activity have been observed through the
medium of sport choice and sport participation in the United States. Among
female collegiate athletes (largely in the pre-Title IX era), team sport
participants tended to be from lower SES, while individual and dual sport
participants tended to be from higher SES (Greendorfer, 1978). Data for
female university athletes surveyed between 1985 and 1995 showed similar
trends. The highest SES category had the most participants in swimming,
diving, and tennis, all individual sports. With the exception of one tennis
player, the lowest SES category only had participants in basketball, volleyball,
and track and field (Malina, unpublished data). While track and field is
considered an individual sport, it tends to be more accessible to all SES levels
than more expensive sports such as diving or tennis. These findings are
perhaps related to the time when the surveys were done, the availability of
given sports in various communities and access to them, the cost of sports,
the availability of facilities, as well as the overall interest, health, and skills of
the individuals participating. Title IX may have also had an influence on

what sport opportunities were available for American females.

15

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Level of physical activity in both high and low SES individuals is
inversely associated with age in adults. The nature of the activity is
important in determining the interaction between SES and activity (Cauley et
al., 1991). If the choice is organized sport, levels of participation are higher in
the higher SES, and if the activity is more individualized and non-
competitive (e.g., walking, cycling), levels are higher in the lower SES.

In addition to SES, ethnicity is a factor in sport choice and physical
activity. In a sample of 7th and 8th grade youth in the United States, for
example, White youth were more likely to participatelin individual, aerobic
activities compared to African American and Mexican American youth
(Gottlieb and Chen, 1985). While ethnicity is not used as a descriptor in the
Mexican school system (Pena Reyes, personal communication), differences
between Mexican youth and other ethnic groups may be pertinent. According
to Sallis et al. (1993, p. 895), ”Any studies assessing physical activity levels
need to be replicated in more ethnically and socioeconomically diverse

samples than has occurred in the past.”

Gender
Males and females in the United States often participate in sport and
physical activity at different levels and for different reasons. From the
prenatal period on, males are generally more active than females (Eaton and
Enns, 1986; Malina, 1995). Data on adolescents from the Canada Fitness

Survey (1983) substantiate this trend; 76-77% of males and 68-74% of females

16

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between 10-17 years of age reported being physically active (not including
physical education classes or job-related activity) for > 3 hrs / wk for > 9 mo / yr.
The Campbell Survey (Stephens and Craig, 1990) and the Youth Risk
Behavior Survey (CDC, 1993) also reported differences in activity between
males and females. The CDC survey (1993) of males and females in grades 9—
12 showed 50% of boys and 24% of the girls as vigorously active >3 days per
week. This trend was mirrored in Chile where 71% of males 13-15 years
reported that they were practicing sport, while only 24% of the females were
doing so (Montecinos et al., 1986).

During adolescence, girls are often at a higher risk for dropping out of
sport and reducing physical activity, though many adolescents tend to have
lower activity levels than they did in pre-adolescence (Reynolds et al., 1990;
Pate et al., 1994; Malina, 1995). There is a negative association between
activity and age in American adolescent females 12-16 years of age (Aaron et
al., 1993). Likewise, in Canadian youth 10-14 years of age, 72% of the males
and 49% of the females were classified as active (3+ kcal / kg/ day) in leisure
time activities. For the older Canadian group (15-19 year old males and
females), the numbers were only slightly lower for males, 69%, but a bit more
so for females, 39% (Stephens and Craig, 1990). Although these studies used
different methods for assessing physical activity, the trends are similar.

In a large study in the United States (Ewing and Seefeldt, 1988), the
prevalence of participation in organized sport for youth 10-18 years was 40%

for males and 22% for females. In contrast, higher prevalences were found

17

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for females in a study of 183 middle school students in mid-Michigan;
approximately equal percentages of males (30%) and females (29%) reported
participating in organized sport (Katzmarzyk and Malina, 1998a). Males in
southern California tend to have a significantly higher prevalence of
participation on organized sport teams than females and a higher frequency
of participation in vigorous activity outside of school (Sallis et al., 1996).

Low participation in physical activity and sport is also an issue in the
Mexican American population in the United States, especially among females
(CDC, 1993). Preschool Mexican American children were less active than
White children, and girls were less active than boys during school recesses in
two separate measurement periods two years apart in southern California
(McKenzie et al., 1997). An earlier study showed that Mexican American
preschool children were less active at home than White children, and again,
girls were less active than boys (McKenzie et al., 1992). In an older sample of
5th to 12th grade girls from Massachusetts, Hispanic girls reported lower
activity levels than White and Black girls (Wolf et al., 1993). Because Mexican
American males and females have many cultural characteristics in common
with Mexican males and females, this study of Mexico City youth may
provide insights into their motivation and activity preferences. In addition,
in the Mexican American population, females are sometimes the least active
compared with males, or with males and females of other ethnicities

(Andersen et al., 1998). It thus seems likely that sport participation and

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activity levels are lower in Mexican females than in Mexican males, but at

this point, that is mostly conjecture.

Barriers to Physical Activity

Many barriers, both perceived and actual, exist to physical activity.
Environmental issues range from lack of time to lack of access to an exercise
or sport facility (Pinto et al., 1996). Safety issues are another concern; if a
neighborhood is unsafe, encouraging physical activity may be
counterproductive. A lower likelihood of participating in physical activity
has also been attributed to limited access to physically active role models
(Gottlieb and Chen, 1985; Branta and Goodway, 1996). Financial barriers may
also exist; if a sport or activity is too expensive, whether it is equipment,
registration fees, or transportation, a child's access to sport may be limited by
financial resources.

Barriers may also differ between the sexes. If it is not culturally
acceptable for females to participate in athletics, it will be more difficult for
them to begin or to continue. The same may not be true for boys, since many
cultures find athletics to be an acceptable pursuit for males. Somewhat
related to this problem is a lack of exercise-based knowledge and a lack of
social support for both males and females.

A strong relationship between parental exercise and encouragement
and the child's exercise patterns were found in various studies (Gottlieb and

Chen, 1985; Sallis et al., 1988a; Moore et al., 1991; Klesges et al., 1986).

19

Howey:

of role r

exercise-

 

 

 

 

However, one study showed virtually no relationship between activity habits
of children and parents (Godin and Shephard, 1986). Nevertheless, while lack
of role models, unsafe neighborhoods, lack of social support, and lack of
exercise-based knowledge may impact the physical activity of males and
females, females are often at a higher risk from these barriers (Pinto et al.,
1996). Family influence on gender roles of males and females may also
impact activity (Malina, 1996b).

In a bi-ethnic sample of preschool children, physical activity lifestyle
habits in the home influenced the physical activity levels of the children
(McKenzie et al., 1992). Mexican American children were less active at home
and at recess than White children, spent more time in the presence of
supervising adults, and had less access to active toys (McKenzie et al., 1992).

The influence of family habits on the physical activity levels of family
members cannot be overemphasized. While not necessarily a barrier, it is
possible that low levels of physical activity in a given family, or a low priority
for activity, may act as a deterrent. Preschool children of two active parents
are six times more likely to be active than children of two inactive parents
(Moore et al., 1991). Mother-child correlations ranged from 0.20 to 0.50 for
time spent in physical activity for children aged 10-11 years (Sallis et al.,
1988a). Although genetics may play a factor in physical activity levels in
families, a path analysis of the Quebec Family Study indicated that most of the
variation in habitual physical activity and exercise participation was

accounted for by non-transmissible environmental factors (Pérusse et al.,

20

me.“ A
EOT’DI' ge
a "iv," I
,aluklr i

1950i. A:

mi. .-.,
uLLdenLL

 

 

1989). Almost 30% of the variance in habitual physical activity was accounted
for by genetic transmission, while 12% of the variance in exercise
participation was attributed to transmissible cultural factors (Pérusse et al.,
1989). Although it is difficult to tease out the complex role of family
influences on physical activity levels, the family appears significant and may

contribute to pursuit of physical activity as well as choice of physical activity.

Motives for Participation

Motives for participating in sport and physical activity are multiple,
and vary for children and adults. According to Kenyon (1968a, 1968b), six
factors exist that attract individuals to sport. These include social aspects,
health and fitness aspects, vertigo (risk or challenge), aesthetic elements,
catharsis, and ascetic elements. Beginning with these six factors, others have
tested and modified the wording to make them more applicable to children
and adults (Schutz et al., 1985). For example, the Children’s Attitudes Toward
Physical Activity survey uses seven factors that are mainly a re-organization
of Kenyon's original set (Schutz et al., 1985). Participants at a summer sport
school (n=1138) completed a 30-item survey on motivation for sport
participation (Gill et al., 1983). A factor analysis was used to combine items,
and the resulting dimensions of participation motivation indicated eight
factors: achievement status, team, fitness, energy release, situational factors,

skill development, friendship, and fun (Gill et al., 1983).

21

L‘iilfi dt‘C I
activate;
reference.

competen

 

 

Inherent in the literature on sport motivation is the COncept of
competence, and who is deciding the competence level of a child. Does the
child decide if he/ she is competent at a task (self-referenced, intrinsically
motivated), or does the child rely on others to decide competence (norm-
referenced, extrinsically motivated)? Task motivation theory is also related to
competence (Nicholls, 1984). If a person is task oriented, he / she sees ability
and success in terms of learning, improvement and effort. These qualities
lead to improved mastery and achievement. An ego-oriented individual
believes that a demonstration of competence is dependent upon performing
favorably in comparison to others. Success and competence are subjective
and norm-referenced (Nicholls, 1984; Williams and Gill, 1995). Thus, a
pertinent step in assessing motivation may involve assessing goal
orientation. If a task-motivated child is not learning new skills or perfecting
existing ones, he / she may not be motivated to participate in sport or activity
any longer (Klint and Weiss, 1987).

Using the Motivational Orientation in Sport Scale developed by Weiss
et al. (1986) to assess motivation for physical activity and sport, Biddle and
Armstrong (1992) found that 8-12 year old school boys could enjoy activity for
its own sake more so than school girls of the same age. Boys were interested
in the challenge of sport for its own sake rather than as a measure against
someone else, and they were less interested in pleasing a teacher/ coach.

Active females, on the other hand, appeared to be more extrinsically

22

mofii'aier
mutt r.
Th
mdiiicai
LTTBII'IOYI
t gn' l‘
.0 .rufl
uflmton
I .‘. ..1 .
1&1 mil
adewni
319317. 3C0
Ofientatir
ems, an
I I.-

mdAmc

 

 

motivated. Thus, females may require a higher social compOnent in physical
activity rather than an achievement or challenge-type of situation.

The Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ ) was a
modification of a questionnaire developed from an original academic context
inventory to specifically assess the goal perspective of individuals in relation
to sport (Duda, 1989). There were originally 16 items set on a Likert scale from
unimportant to very important. The items are in response to the statement,
"I feel most successful in sport when..." Currently, the TEOSQ is a 13-item
scale with the items are clustered into task and ego orientation factors and the
mean scores presented for each factor. Mean scores for task and ego
orientation for interscholastic high school athletes (basketball, track and field,
tennis, and softball) were, respectively, 4.28 i 0.5 and 2.89 i 0.9 for males, and
4.45 :1; 0.8 and 2.59 1; 1.0 for females (Duda, 1989). Using the TEOSQ, American
female high school athletes appear to be more task (intrinsically) motivated
and American male high school athletes more ego (extrinsically) motivated
(Duda, 1989).

Age may also impact motivation for sport and activity. Among
competitive swimmers 6-74 years of age, factors such as social status,
significant others, fun, health and fitness, and characteristics of competitive
swimming were rated very differently across age groups. Younger children
ranked fun higher than any other group, while social status was rated higher
by both the older children and the high school group (Brodkin and Weiss,

1990). Other sport motivation studies have found factors such as fun,

23

becomr;

 

and enjoy
Péiliil‘kp I
iiierenc.

Ti“.-

3‘35 3 Sift?

 

3C3\'1f\- (.

 

becoming a good player, making friends, winning trophies, getting exercise,
and enjoying the excitement of competition (Gill et al., 1983; Gould and
Petlichkoff, 1988; McCullagh et al., 1993; Kim and Gill, 1997), however, age
differences were not assessed in any but the Brodkin and Weiss (1990) study.

The parental role in a child's attraction to physical activity and sport
has a strong impact. In a study of fourth grade students, parental physical
activity orientation and encouragement level were as important as influences
as the child's perceived physical competence and gender (Brustad, 1993). In
addition, boys reported higher perceived physical competence than girls. It
was suggested that an increase in girls' perceived physical competence may
need to come from outside support (Brustad, 1993).

Another component is the social desirability of response when
children are asked for their participation motivation. For example, when the
response of fitness is listed first by young children, it begs the question, why
are they placing fitness first? A more important issue may be the child's
concept or definition of fitness. Do young children truly participate in sport
for physical fitness benefits? It seems unlikely; yet in a study of youth 7—14
years, many listed physical fitness as the most important motive for
participating in recreational soccer (McCullagh et al., 1993). In an
environment where the adults value fitness (as they do in Boulder, Colorado,
where the study was done), children may reflect adult sensitivity in their

answers, i.e., they may be telling the adults what the adults want to hear.

24

in the U
..‘s‘nesse
5;:er in

rename.

TTOQTBIR>
A \—

-~ or) a
We};
5r'UA'TSOIe

(I
’V

POT‘t at E

l

(I)

f' -

kelba.
indiCate

’1

‘ t'TE‘Ser

an, m V
dbter.

 

 

Sport Participation

Participation in organized sport is a common activity for many youth
in the United States. Not only do the children participate, but parents, local
businesses, clubs and schools all encourage participation in America. Youth
sports in the United States can be divided into six categories, agency
sponsored, national youth service organizations, club sports, recreational
programs, school sponsored intramural programs, and interscholastic
programs. The largest number of youth are involved in non-school sport
participation (Seefeldt et al., 1992).

In a survey of approximately 8,000 United States youth 10-18 years of
age, 55% reported participating in a non-school sponsored sport (Ewing and
Seefeldt, 1996). Boys participated in baseball (31.1%), basketball (30.9%), and
football (27.3%) more than other sports. Girls, on the other hand, preferred
swimming (26.7%), softball (26.6%), and basketball (22.1%), with volleyball
(21.2%) a close fourth. The percentages of youth who participated in school—
sponsored sport were approximately one-half of those involved in non-
school sponsored sport. Basketball was the most popular school-sponsored
sport at almost all ages, while the most popular free time sports were
basketball and swimming. Other trends from the sport participation survey
indicate a decrease in sport participation with age, and an under-
representation of Hispanic American participants in all youth sports (Ewing

and Seefeldt, 1996).

25

ir'fefadh
as any I“
Expendit‘.
assessed 1
levels of }
aiolescu

chucI'iaI.

gepulaiir
338d mi-
interview
electronic
meiiods .
participa:
sun'eys i."
2993). Di-
it‘v'eloric _

362311-01"

 

Activity Assessments

Physical activity is a multi-dimensional behavior, involving complex
interactions of environment, genetics and personal choice. It can be defined
as any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that results in energy
expenditure (Casperson et al., 1985). Habitual physical activity has been
assessed in many different ways with a variety of instruments. Estimated
levels of physical activity tend to increase from 5-6 years until early
adolescence and then decline in North American and European children
(Bouchard et al., 1997).

A variety of methods exist for assessing physical activity in various
populations (Montoye and Taylor, 1984; LaPorte et al., 1985; Jacobs et al., 1993).
Direct methods for assessing physical activity include questionnaires (self or
interviewer administered), prospective diaries (self or observer recorded), and
electronic monitoring (LaPorte et al., 1985; Paffenbarger et al., 1993). Indirect
methods of assessment include energy intake, estimated body composition,
participation in physical activity, physical and physiological fitness, and
surveys of occupational categories (LaPorte et al., 1985; Paffenbarger et al.,
1993). Despite the varied assessment tools, no single instrument has yet been
developed which is valid and reliable, easy to use, and does not impact
behavior.

Methods for assessing physical activity in adults may not be as useful
for children and adolescents. For example, questionnaires are commonly

used to estimate physical activity in large groups. However, errors in recall

26

are after-

for child
1996;. Q
accessib}

N
aid Oldt
‘I‘IE‘SITOp
or last I:
it his "h1
Et‘ili‘jfy 3

Gal; .- .
TWAA‘ IQL

 

are often significantly greater for children than for adults, and questionnaires
for children younger than ten years of age are quite limited (Montoye et al.,
1996). Questionnaires must have age-appropriate language and concepts
accessible to youth.

Nevertheless, questionnaires are commonly used with youth 10 years
and older, and some inherent problems should be noted. For example, is the
questionnaire estimating an individual's activity today, yesterday, last week,
or last year? Or, is the survey just asking how active an individual is relative
to his/ her peers? When working with youth, the longer the interval between
activity and report, the less accurate the recall (Sallis, 1991). Further, if one
individual's interpretation of heavy exertion is not the same as another
individual’s interpretation, the mismatch between perceptions would impact
the validity and reliability of self-administered questionnaires. There are
multiple non-congruent dimensions of physical activity (Jacobs et al., 1993),
and the questionnaire which is used may determine how much light,
moderate or heavy vigorous activity is reported.

The shorter attention span and lower comprehension of children
relative to adults is also problematic. Many questionnaires require a
breakdown of the day into smaller time segments for activity assessment
(Bouchard et al., 1983), or ask for hours and minutes per day of specified
activities (Kriska et al., 1990). If the questionnaires are labor intensive or too
complex, children may have difficulty using them. In addition, children are

not very good at estimating the passage of time or units of time. School

27

._.. .
..“ Ar 7"
cynu. “

2:33.318

 

 

 

children from 3rd through 6th grades, for example, had diffiCulty in making
accurate time assessments for self-reported aerobic activity (Baranowski et al.,
1984).

Reliability and validity of activity questionnaires in children and
adolescents vary. They often depend on what method of comparison is being
used to measure physical activity. Reliability coefficients for vigorous activity
in 100 junior high school students ranged from 0.87 when the re-test was one
month later, to 0.48 when it was one year later (Aaron et al., 1993). Overall,
reliabilities of physical activity recall in hours per week from the same study
ranged from 0.54 to 0.78. The Bouchard et al. (1993) 3-day protocol had
reliability coefficients of 0.91 for youth 9-18 years when they were re-tested 6 to
10 days later. In 10-20 year olds who were re-tested from 1 to 3 weeks after the
completion of a physical activity recall, reliabilities were 0.37 and 0.35 for the
past year and the past week, respectively (Kriska et al., 1990). Reliability of the
Physical Activity Recall (PAR) over an interval of 7 days ranged from 0.47 to
0.81 in 5th to 11th grade youth, and the coefficients tended to be higher in the
older age groups (Sallis et al., 1993).

The percentages of Pennsylvania adolescents who met the Healthy
People 2000 criterion of 3.5 hours per week of light to moderate physical
activity (United States Public Health Service, 1991) were 93% for White males,
95% for Non-White males, 71% for White females, and 61% for and Non—

White females. Percentages for vigorous physical activity (_>_ 3 days/ week for

28

‘5 = for
«i : .-
nu0;ۤu

activity 1
develops
EDT 0 qi_
and leis:
Kcii'alsix'
one It'eeI
19973)_

£5de ii

19970). T

 

IT : 073
'T : 05;-
Thisica:
Cement
0‘fer the

0‘ age (I.

 

_>__ 20 minutes/ day) were lower, ranging from 31% in Non-white females to
59% for White males (Aaron et al., 1993).

The Physical Activity Questionnaires for Older Children and for
Adolescents (PAQ—C and PAQ-A, respectively) assess moderate to vigorous
activity levels in children and adolescents. These 7-day recall protocols were
developed on Canadian youth at the University of Saskatchewan. They have
8 or 9 questions (depending on the instrument) Which look at activity choices
and leisure time activities over the past seven days (Crocker et al., 1997;
Kowalski et al., 1997a; 1997b). Test—re-test reliabilities for the PAQ—C over a
one week period were 0.75 for males and 0.82 for females (Kowalski et al.,
1997a). Validity coefficients of the PAQ—A for Canadian youth 13-20 years
ranged from 0.33 to 0.73, depending on the comparative tool (Kowalski et al.,
1997b). The PAQ—A was moderately related to an internal activity rating
(r = 0.73), Godin and Shephard’s (1985) Leisure Time Activity Questionnaire
(r = 0.57), a Caltrac motion sensor (r = 0.33), and the Sallis et a1. (1985) 7~day
physical activity recall interview (r = 0.59) (Kowalski et al., 1997b).
Generalizability coefficients for the administration of the PAQ-A three times
over the course of one year were 2 0.85 for the scores of 97 students 13-18 years

of age (Kowalski et al., 1997b).

29

Stature .'
.~\

4.. .. *
.eienpi

 

 

 

Growth of Mexican Youth
Stature and Body Weight

A longitudinal study of growth, nutrition, and psychological
development was begun in Mexico City in the late 19505 by Faulhaber (1976,
1978, 1979, 1989; see also Faulhaber and Saenz-F., 1994; Faulhaber and
Villanueva, 1976). The sample included middle class Mexican school
children in the Federal District from 1957-1970. While the Federal District
children were taller and heavier than rural children in Mexico, they were still
at least one standard deviation below children from the United States
(although closer to samples of British children). However, in relation to
midparent height, the urban Mexican children were comparable to United
States reference data. According to Faulhaber (1976), they were not short due
to possible nutritional deficits (although it is possible that their parents may
have been nutritionally stressed during growth). Additionally, because their
families were relatively prosperous by Mexican criteria and had access to
‘ sufficient food, the children were not considered undernourished. These data
are probably representative of the status of healthy middle class urban
Mexican children.

Children in rural communities in Mexico, on the other hand, are
considerably smaller than their urban peers. This situation likely reflects a
history of lower food availability and poorer overall health conditions in the
rural environments in Mexico. In a series of cross-sectional studies in the

Valley of Oaxaca in southern Mexico, Malina et a1. (1980) studied the growth

30

oi schoc
haght,v
the To ‘Yr
harsar

approxir

Auntie:

My Ma

 

of school children in a Zapotec speaking community. No differences in
height, weight, arm circumference and the triceps skinfold were apparent in
the 10 year span between 1968 and 1978. The rural children were smaller than
their same sex urban middle class peers, and mean statures and weights
approximated the 5th percentiles of United States reference data.

A sample of preschool children in rural Juarez, Mexico were shorter
and lighter than Hawaiian, Mexican American or American White children
(Briley et al., 1979). This may be due to a high incidence of undernutrition;
76% of males and 55% of females were classified as thin, malnourished or
very malnourished when plotted on growth charts from the Institute of

Nutrition of Central America and Panama (INCAP).

Body Mass Index

The body mass index (BMI; weight (kg)/ stature (m)2) is one of several
indicators currently used to estimate the fatness of individuals as well as
chronic undernutrition (Malina et al., 1998). It is the most commonly used
index of weight-for-stature (Roche et al., 1981). However, the BMI does not
differentiate between the relative contributions of fat mass or fat-free mass to
overall body weight. The utility of the BMI as an indicator of underweight,
overweight and / or obesity for children and adolescents has not been
substantiated, but its ease of use makes the BMI a good descriptor. The BMI
can be used as an approximate criterion for overweight, normal weight and

underweight (Malina et al., 1998). Presumably, a high BMI reflects excess

3]

fatness
adiposi
orerm
risk pr.
adults ‘
L'lfTth‘i‘...
The TOR
data or.

equii'oc,

MQHarc'r

matiritj.
BB9 at It
Mexico,
Tie this
“56mg

SecuTar 7

35
during c

‘er SQYI

K

 

fatness (overweight), while a low BMI reflects deficiency of muscle and
adipose tissues (underweight). This criterion can be of considerable use since
overweight and fatness in adolescents are significantly associated with higher
risk profiles for cardiovascular disease and other obesity-related disease in
adults (Himes and Dietz, 1994). Overweight and fatness may also negatively
influence measures of physical fitness and performance (Malina et al., 1995)
The role of overweight for physical activity is not clear. Currently available
data on the energy expenditure of overweight / obese and non-obese youth are

equivocal (Dietz and Gortrnaker, 1985; Sallis et al., 1988b; Beunen et al., 1992).

Menarche

Age at menarche is the most commonly used indicator of sexual
maturity status for females (Malina, 1979). In the United States, the average
age at menarche is 12811.0 years of age (Malina and Bouchard, 1991). In
Mexico, the average age at menarche of middle SES females is comparable to
the United States reference value, while in areas with a high prevalence of
undernutrition, estimated ages at menarche are later (Malina et al., 1977;

Malina, 1990).

Secular Trends in Body Size
Secular trends generally refer to the increase in stature and weight
during childhood and adolescence which have occurred in many populations

over several generations (Tanner, 1962; Van Wierengen, 1986; Malina, 1990).

32

Such tr

all. COL:

mega t.
to occu
optimu
in aver.
deterior
poienti;
Tlllil'lilUI
Status 0
nutritio:
Change _
Si’iiiatjp

Wieren .‘3

Similar ‘

 

Such trends have been recorded since the mid-19th century in many, but not
all, countries of the world.

Secular trends, however, may be positive (as indicated above) or
negative, or they may not be present at all (Malina, 1990). For a positive trend
to occur, the living conditions must have improved enough to allow
optimum growth to occur if it is possible. Negative trends refer to a decrease
in average body size over time most likely because living conditions have
deteriorated. Lack of secular change may relate to the attainment of genetic
potential by the population, or lack of improvement in health and
nutritional conditions sufficient to bring about change. Since the growth
status of children is often considered an indication of the overall health and
nutritional status of a given community (WHO, 1976), a positive secular
change in height and weight is an indication of improved health, nutritional,
sanitation, and socioeconomic conditions in a population (Malina, 1979; Van

Wierengen, 1986; Tanner, 1990).

Secular Trends in Mexico

A positive secular trend in stature and body weight has occurred in
upper middle class Mexican schoolchildren in the 19705 (Ramos Galvan,
1978), compared to school children in the 19205 (Priani, 1929). Several
longitudinal and cross-sectional studies have been conducted with children

in Mexico, both urban (Ramos Galvan, 1978; Faulhaber, 1976) and rural

33

iChé\

thern

semi

Thu,“ 5-
. ‘ : 5:

 

 

(Chavez et al., 1972; Malina et al., 1977). Positive secular trends are evident in

the middle class samples, but are absent in the rural samples.

Summary

Regular physical activity has the potential to improve the health status
of children and youth. As such, encouraging children to begin and maintain
regular physical activity should be a goal of sport, school, and activity
programs. Children and youth participate, or do not participate, in sport and
physical activity for diverse reasons. Gender, SES, availability of resources,
appropriate instruction, and personal preference impact the likelihood of a
youngster choosing or rejecting sport participation or other physical activities.

One specific benefit of regular physical activity is weight maintenance,
and, thus, decreased risk of obesity and possibly obesity related diseases. Since
obesity is a problem in parts of Mexico, as well as elsewhere, structuring
physical activity and sport programs to encourage regular participation may
help prevent overweight in Mexico City children.

A certain level of physical activity appears to be necessary for normal
growth if and when nutritional and social conditions are adequate. The
current height and weight of Mexican youth provides information on their
present nutritional status and the conditions of Mexican society. Given the
economic progress of Mexico over the last half century or so, children and

youth of today should be taller and heavier than those in earlier surveys.

34

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

Introduction

The purpose of this study was to assess participation and motivation
for sport, levels and types of physical activity, and growth status of urban
Mexican school youth across three socioeconomic levels. In addition, growth
status (height and body weight) of the current sample of urban Mexican youth
was placed in a secular context within Mexico.

The focus of the study was school youth resident in Mexico City, the
Federal District of Mexico. Mexico City sits at 200m (7200 feet) and has more
or less chronic problems with air pollution year round. The study was
approved by the University Committee for Research Involving Human
Subjects (UCRIHS, Appendix A) at Michigan State University, and sponsored
by the Escuela Nacional de Antropologia e Historia (ENAH, Appendix B) in

Mexico City.

Background on Pollution Levels in Mexico City
The Indice Metropolitano de Calidad del Aire en Mexico (The
Metropolitan Index of Air Quality in Mexico City) (IMECA) has set norms for
air quality, and for the type of activities that are possible when the levels of

certain gases (such as carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and ozone) are too

35

high (Table 2). IMECA ratings are particularly important in the valley of
Mexico City, as many industries and people reside in the area. At times
during the course of the study, levels of air contamination in Mexico City
were rather high. For example, on Tuesday May 27, 1998, the high ozone
levels were at 220 IMECA points, and 201- 300 is considered poor. There was a
phase 1 pollution alert which meant that extra cars (in addition to the
standard rotating practice which removed cars with license plates ending in 1
or 2, 3 or 4, 5 or 6, 7 or 8 and 9 or 0 on a given day of the week) were pulled off
the road until the pollution levels drop. A phase 1 alert also means that all
scholastic outdoor activities are suspended for the duration of the alert; this
affects the 4 million students of the Federal District. In addition, industrial
activity is reduced by 30%, and the 3.6 million circulating vehicles in the area
are reduced by 40%. Sample levels of contaminants in the air in Mexico City

during the time of data collection are presented in Table 3.

Subjects
Approximately 1,100 (n = 1,095) Mexican school youth between the ages
of 9 and 18 years participated in this study of sport preferences and
motivation, and levels of physical activity. All youth were enrolled in school
at the time of the study. The sample was divided by age, gender, and SES.
The specific targeted ages were 10, 12, 14, and 16 years (roughly 4th, 6th, 8th,

and 10th grades), but the actual data collection resulted in students 9-13 years

36

from

schoi'

 

 

from the primary schools (primaria) and students 14-18 years from the high
schools (W) The breakdown of the sample is shown in Table 4.
Social class was defined with the c00peration of local school authorities
and colleagues at ENAH in Mexico City. Based on the information from
ENAH, the geographic location of the school was the determining factor for
assignment to SES 1 (low class), SES 2 (middle class), or SES 3 (high class). In
addition, the demographic information from the questionnaires helped in
this determination. Both the home delegagig’n and mu; were elicited from
the subjects, so their region of residence was known, and like any city, certain
regions of Mexico City are indicative of class differences. The occupation of
the parents of the study participants was also elicited. While the school of the
subject was the main criterion used to identify his / her SES, parental
occupation was also used. For example, 16 high school aged individuals
originally classified as high SES (SES 3) were changed to the low SES (SES 1)
when the occupations of their parents were considered, i. e., ”employee” or
”worker”. Likewise, high school aged individuals classified in SES 1 whose
parents were listed as doctors, architects, and lawyers were switched to SES 3.
For this second group, 13 individuals were changed from SES 1 to SES 3. For
the younger subjects, youth were only switched from SES 1 to SES 3 if they
listed the occupations of their parents as doctors, lawyers or architects;
changes were not made in the other direction due to many younger youth not
knowing the occupation of their parents. Thus, they often listed their

parents’ jobs as ”employee" or ”worker”, regardless of actual occupation.

37

Overall, 17 youth between the ages of 9 and 12 years were reaSsigned to SES 3.
The middle SES (SES 2) likely has components of both the high and low SES,
although it does appear to differ from both by general parent occupation
status.

Brimarias in Mexico City had no recesses to speak of, though they did
have a lunch break. In the schools observed, there was some ”run and
chase," but mostly socializing. The high school students were not observed
playing soccer or basketball, though they may have had time to do this during
their school day. Many smokers of both genders among the high school

students were observed.

Study Design
The design of this study was a cross-sectional survey of school youth at
selected ages and grades, distinguished by gender and social class. For the
purposes of this study, the sampling unit was the classroom within the

school.

Anthropometry
Chronological age and gender were provided on the demographic
information sheet of the questionnaire, and for the younger children verified
against school records. Decimal chronological age was calculated by
subtracting the decimal equivalents of the measurement date from the

subject’s birth date.

38

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Stature and weight were measured. Stature (cm) was measured to the
nearest millimeter using a GPM anthropometer with the subject standing on
the floor with no shoes and with heels together and weight evenly balanced
on both feet. The measurement was taken from the rear with the subject’s
head in the horizontal plane. The subjects were positioned to stand as
straight as possible, and the measurement was taken at the apex of the skull
on the midline.

Weight (kg) was measured to the nearest 0.5 kg with the subject
standing on the scale in school clothes and no shoes. A correction for the
average weight of school clothes for both boys and girls was calculated by
weighing a sample and using this as the correction factor for mass. For this
particular sample, the correction factor was 1.0 kg. Stature and weight were

used to calculate the BMI, weight (kg)/ stature (m2).

Questionnaires

Sport Participation and Motivation Questionnaire

Questionnaires developed and used to assess the patterns of sport
participation and activities of children in the United States (Ewing and
Seefeldt, 1988) were modified and translated into Spanish for use with
Mexican school youth (Appendix C). Currently, no assessments of congruent
validity exist for this questionnaire. In addition to basic demographic
information, the participants were asked to answer questions regarding

participation in organized sport, reasons for selecting a particular sport or

39

 

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sports, perceived ability in sport, motivation for participation, and reasons for
discontinuing participation in sport. If they had never participated in sport,
they were also asked to consider why. The questions were designed so that
school sponsored sport participants, non-school sponsored sport participants,
and sport ’drop—outs’ could be asked to answer questions addressing sport
preferences. The questions were also designed to tease out what children and
youth consider fun or not fun about sport participation so that teachers and
coaches might learn more about what children want in sport activities.

From 13 to 42 response choices were available depending on the
instrument. For example, the surveys assessing task or ego orientation
consist of 13 items which can aid in categorizing what drives an individual to
participate in sport. The survey which assesses motivation for sport
participation in school and non-school sports has 28 items, while the survey
assessing sport discontinuation has 42 possible items. Regardless of the
instrument used, the questions were set on a 5-point Likert scale ranked from
5 (very important) to 1 (not important at all). The students also had the
option of writing in choices that were not listed on the questionnaires. These

responses were written in blank spaces at the end of each question section.

The Physical Activity Questionnaire for Adolescents (PAQ-A)
The Physical Activity Questionnaire for Older Children and for
Adolescents (PAQ-C and PAQ-A, respectively) was translated into Spanish

and given to all participants (Appendix D). The PAQ-C has been used for

40

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children from 4th to 8th grades, and the PAQ-A for youth frOm 8th through
12th grades. The only difference between the PAQ—C and the PAQ—A is an
item about recess activity. Because the Mexican system does not have an extra
morning recess like the United States and Canadian systems, the PAQ—A was
used for all youth in this study. The PAQ-A attempts to assess levels of
moderate to vigorous physical activity. Physical activities are described as
sports, games, or dances that make one breathe hard, make one's legs feel
tired, or make one sweat (Crocker et al., 1997). The questionnaire asks the
participants to recall the number of times that they performed certain
activities for the previous week. In addition, there are questions regarding
television (TV) viewing, video game playing, and activity levels compared to

peers (Kowalski et al., 1997a, 1997b).

Test Administration
After school authorities granted permission, several schools in Mexico

City were identified with the assistance of colleagues at ENAH. Local school
officials were then contacted and the purpose of the study explained. The
school was asked to provide informed consent for the students to participate
in the study. Subjects were informed of their rights by classroom teachers,
and by the investigators. Each questionnaire also included an assent form
which explained the rights of the subject and requested his / her consent to
participate in the survey. Consent and assent forms (Appendix E) were

distributed to the children and their parents prior to data collection. The

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original forms were translated into Spanish and checked for accuracy and
correct grammar by a Mexican national.

The structure of schools in Mexico includes a primaria, segundaria, and
preparatgria, which are roughly the equivalent of the United States system of
elementary school, middle school, and high school, respectively. The
elementary school has grades 1-6, ranging in age from about 6 to 12 years of
age. The middle school has grades 1-3, ranging in age from approximately 13-
14 years of age, and the high school also has grades 1-3, ranging in age from
15-18 years. However, compulsory schooling only requires students to attend
until they are 16 years of age; therefore, many do not finish the high school
levels. Trade school or college often follow high school.

For the 1996/ 1997 school year, 27,415 students were registered for all
levels of school in the Federal District. Elementary schools had 14,651
students registered, middle schools had 4,809, and high schools had 2,222
(INEGI, 1998). In the original design for this study, the second year high
school students were to be targeted during the first and second weeks (April
20-28); the second year middle school students the second and third weeks
(April 29-May 7); the 4th and 6th year grade school students, the third and
fourth weeks (May 8-May 15); and the focus groups were to be during the fifth
week (May 18-May 22). The fifth week was also the week to return to any of
the schools where questionnaires might have been left. While the
questionnaires were administered to the high schools during the first week,

very little of the remainder of the schedule was completed as planned. All of

42

 

 

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the youth were involved in exams from May 1 through May '20. In addition,
there were many festivals and vacation days within this time period, which
included an administrative slowdown as well. As it turned out, the middle
school students were not available for study at all. Nevertheless, the
elementary school students were surveyed by the end of June, and the
equivalent of 5th grade in the United States was added to the study to increase
the sample size and offset the lack of the middle school students. The above

reasons also account for the focus group sessions not being completed.

Survey Administration

The survey was conducted during the Spring of 1998, after Easter break.
The children completed the sport participation questionnaire and physical
activity recall in their school classrooms. The questionnaires were organized
as follows: the demographic sheet was first, followed by the PAQ-A, followed
by the sport participation questionnaire. All youth were asked to fill out the
demographic information sheet and the PAQ—A. Heights and weights were
measured with a GPM anthropometer and flat scale when the questionnaires
were distributed. All females were asked whether or not they had yet attained
menarche. The students were also asked to write their names, ages and
classrooms on the front sheet of the questionnaire so that the heights and
weights could be recorded more easily.

During a pilot run of the study, it was determined that the sport

questionnaire was too elaborate for the 10 year old group. In addition, since

43

 

 

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the 10 year olds are often just beginning organized sport in Mexico City, many
of the questions did not apply. Thus, for simplification and ease of
comprehension, the 4th and 5th grade students only replied to the
demographic information and the PAQ-A. Heights and weights were
measured, and menarcheal status of the girls was also collected. The 6th
graders completed the demographic information, the PAQ-A, and the section
of the questionnaire on non-school sponsored sport participation. None of
the recruited elementary schools had school sponsored sports. The 6th grade
students also had their heights and weights measured, and the females were
asked about their menarcheal status. The few 14 year old subjects also
completed the demographic information, the PAQ-A, the section of the
questionnaire on non-school sponsored sport participation and reasons for
dropping out. Heights and weights were also measured, and menarcheal
status collected. The 14 year olds did not come from the middle schools as
originally planned; rather, they were split between the 6th grade and high
schools. There are thus very few 14 year olds in the sample. The 15 and 16
year old subjects were asked for the same information as the 14 year olds, with
the possible addition of the school sponsored sport section of the
questionnaire. Prior to collecting data at each of the high schools, the
researcher determined whether the particular school had school-sponsored
sport programs. If not, that part of the questionnaire was dropped to alleviate

confusion. The primary investigator and the assistants checked the

44

questionnaires for completeness prior to leaving each claserom. The

children were assured all information would be kept confidential.

Analyses

Age and sex specific means, medians, and standard deviations were
calculated for height, weight, and the BMI. Responses to the questionnaires
were assessed by age group for most of the analyses. Depending on the
question, age groups were classified into two or three categories. The
grouping of youth 9-13 years and 14-18 years roughly represents the grade
school and high school divisions. The grouping of youth 9-10, 11-13, and 14-
18 years, approximately represents pre-adolescence, mid-adolescence and later
adolescence.

Each research question is subsequently reviewed along with
corresponding statistical treatment of each. The Statistical Program for Social
Sciences version 7.5 was used (SPSS, 1996).

1. In what sports do urban Mexican youth 9-18 years of age, across three
socioeconomic levels participate?

This question required relatively straightforward descriptive analyses
of the sport participation survey, with frequency distributions and central
tendencies being of primary value. Statistical values were calculated by
gender and age, by gender and age within social class, by sport, and by

participant status.

45

2. Why do urban Mexican children participate in sport? Or,
conversely, why do they discontinue participation in sport?

Basic descriptive analyses were used following the sport participation
survey of Ewing and Seefeldt (1988). A MANOVA followed by univariate F-
tests was run to determine if males and females differed in their reasons for
not participating in sport or for dropping out of sport. When the sample size
was not large enough on a given survey instrument to run a MANOVA,
independent t-tests were used to test the significance of differences on specific
items of the surveys. For both the non-school sponsored sport participation
survey and the TEOSQ, exploratory factor analyses were run to determine
whether some of the items could be combined into more general factors. For
the sport participation survey, a MANOVA followed by univariate F-tests was
then run to assess whether males and females significantly differed on the
factors found with the factor analysis. The differences between male and
female responses on the TEOSQ tested for significance with independent
sample t-tests.

3. What is the estimated level of physical activity of urban Mexican
school youth 9-18 years of age as estimated with the PAQ-A?

The PAQ-A was scored in the manner recommended by the authors
(Kowalski et al., 1997a, 1997b). Each item of the PAQ-A is on a 5-point scale.
Averages of the first item (a list of activities) and the last item (a tally of
activities per day of the week) are initially calculated. These means are treated
as individual items and are then summed with the remaining items. The

overall mean of the eight items is the activity score. For this study the last

46

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item was incompletely or incorrectly filled out too often; it was thus dropped
from the overall scoring. The final composite activity scores range from 1-5,
with higher levels of activity corresponding with higher scores on the scale
(Kowalski et al., 1997b).

Five additional items pertaining to hours of television viewing and
video game playing, relative physical fitness, relative physical activity, and
sickness during the week of assessment provide related information, but are
not used in the calculation of the overall activity score (Kowalski et al., 1997a;
1997b). The results for these non-scored items were summarized in a
descriptive manner.

4. What sociodemographic (gender, age, SES) and biological (height,

weight, the BMI) variables are predictive of sport participation status

and level of physical activity in urban Mexican school youth?

The sport participation status part of this question was analyzed with
logistic regression due to the dichotomous nature of the dependent variable.
The independent variables were numerous and included gender, age, SES,
perceived activity status of the parents (as a yes or no designation); height,
weight and the BMI; and the physical activity score. The dependent variable
was sport participation status. Potential predictors of physical activity score
were assessed with a forward stepwise regression using the same independent

variables as above, with the exception of the physical activity score, with the

addition of sport participation status.

47

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5. Using the Body Mass Index (BMI) as a proxy for nutritional status,
what is the relationship between nutritional status and physical
activity, including sport participation?

Gender specific correlations between the BMI and physical activity
score were calculated. The BMI and the PAQ—A were treated as continuous
variables; therefore, a one-way analysis of co—variance (ANCOVA),
controlling for age, was used.

The BMI was also used to classify the sample as underweight (< 15th
percentile), normal weight (15th - 85th percentiles), risk of overweight (2 85th
percentile and < 95th percentile), and overweight (_>_ 95th percentile) (Must et
al., 1991 ; Himes and Dietz, 1994). Partial correlations, controlling for age, were
used to assess the relationship between the BMI and the number of sports in

two age group, 9-13 and 15-18 years. All analyses were gender specific.

6. What is the current growth status of urban Mexican youth relative
to United States (WHO) reference data?

This question required descriptive statistics for height, weight, and the
BMI. Individual and mean values for height and weight were plotted against
the 10th, 50th and 90th percentiles of United States reference data to
determine the relative growth status of urban Mexican youth. The BMI was
plotted against the 15th, 85th and 95th percentiles of United States reference
(Must et al., 1991). Individual and mean values for the BMI were also
compared with United States data (Must et al., 1991) for underweight, and the
Himes and Dietz (1994) criteria for risk of overweight and overweight. The
percentages of individuals classified as underweight, normal weight, risk of

overweight, and overweight are presented.

48

 

7. Have secular changes occurred in the stature, weight‘and BMI of
Mexico City youth? Has secular change occurred in the age at menarche
of urban Mexican females?

The first part of this question was addressed by plotting the present data
against earlier samples from Mexico City (Priani, 1929; Faulhaber, 1989).
Estimated rates of secular change per decade were also calculated.

For the second part of the question, median age at menarche was

estimated using probit analysis. The resulting age was then compared with

the median ages at menarche of previous Mexican and other Latin American

samples.

49

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

Introduction

A 7-day physical activity recall (PAQ-A) was collected, heights and
weights were measured, and the BMI was calculated for 1,085 school students
(526 males, 559 females), 9 -18 years of age, in the Federal District of Mexico
City. Menarcheal status information was collected from females. A
breakdown of the sample by age and by school is shown in Table 4. Sport and
activity participation surveys were collected from 591 of the students. Only
the older primary school students and high school students were asked to
complete the sport participation surveys since the younger students had only
recently began organized sport, and the questionnaires were too difficult for
them to complete.

The following age groups were defined to approximate pre- or early
adolescence (9.0 - 10.99), mid-adolescence (11.0 - 13.99), and later adolescence
(14.0 - 18.99 years). However, for analyses dependent on the BMI and PAQ-A,
only two age groups were used: 9.0 - 13.99 and 14.0 - 18.99 years. The latter
division generally mirrors the age ranges in and the cut-off between primary

school (primaria) and high school (preparatgria) youth.

50

Research Questions

1. In what sports do urban Mexican youth 9-18 years of age, across three
socioeconomic levels participate?

Of the subjects who completed the youth sport participation
questionnaires (n = 591), 124 males (42%) and 190 females (64%) did not
participate in organized non-school sponsored sports at the time of the
survey. A total of 168 boys (58%) and 109 girls (36%) reported that they were
currently participating in organized non-school sponsored sports (Table 5).
The subjects were only counted as sport participants in this category if they
actually listed a sport in which they were currently participating. The
assessment of reasons for participating in sport includes this group as well as
those who previously played sport but who were no longer playing.

The preferred non-school sport for boys is soccer, followed by basketball
and swimming. For girls, the preferred sport is basketball, followed by
swimming. This differs slightly when the sample is divided by age (Table 6)
and SES (Table 7). Percentages in all categories tend to exceed 100% since
many individuals participate in more than one sport. Among males 9-13
years and 14-18 years, respectively, 66 of 80 (83%) and 61 of 87 (70%) prefer
soccer (Table 6). For younger boys, soccer is followed by basketball, swimming,
and skating (both in—line and roller). In older boys, soccer is followed by
swimming,,basketball and American football. Among girls 9-13 years,
approximately equal numbers participate in skating (n = 34, 74%), swimming

(n = 31, 67%), basketball (n = 30, 65%), and volleyball (n = 27, 59%) (Table 6).

51

Among older girls, the majority participate in basketball (n =40, 63%)
followed by swimming (n = 30, 48%), skating (n = 26, 41%), and gymnastics
(n = 24, 38%).

Sport participation in boys and girls by SES is shown in Table 7. Over
all ages (11—18 years), 48 of 95 (51%) of low SES, 83 of 136 (61%) of middle SES,
and 37 of 61 (61%) of high SES boys participate in non-school sports. Soccer is
the most common sport among low and middle SES boys, but ranks third
among high SES boys. Basketball is the second most often indicated sport
among boys in the three SES categories. Interestingly, baseball (which has a
long tradition in Mexico) ranks fourth among low SES boys and sixth among
middle and high SES boys. In contrast, American football has a higher rank
than baseball among middle and high SES boys.

Sport participation in girls by SES is also presented in Table 7. Across
ages 11-18 years, 25 of 96 low SES girls (26%), 55 of 130 middle SES girls (42%),
and 29 of 73 high SES girls (40%) indicate participation in non-school sports.
In all three SES categories, basketball is the top sport for girls. For low and
middle SES girls, the top three sports are skating, swimming and gymnastics.
Volleyball replaces gymnastics among high SES girls.

In contrast to non-school sports, only a small percentage of youth 14-18
years of age participate in school sponsored sports. It should be noted that
most of the youth in school sponsored sports are also included in the sample
for non-school sponsored sport. Only 18 of 292 males (6%) and 19 of 299

females (6%) indicated participation in school sponsored sports. The two

52

most common school sports for males are swimming and basketball, while
the most common school sport for females is basketball, followed by
swimming and soccer (Table 8).

Body size and estimated physical activity of organized sport participants
and non-participants are compared using a series of one way ANCOVAs
within gender, controlling for age, in Table 9. School and non-school
participants are pooled for the analysis. Sport participants and non-
participants do not differ in the BMI, body weight, and time spent viewing
television or playing video games. Male and female sport participants are
significantly younger than non-participants (p < 0.05). Male sport participants
are also shorter than non-participants (p < 0.05). In contrast, males and
females involved in organized sport are significantly more physically active
(p < 0.05) and have a significantly higher self-perceived physical condition
relative to their peers (p < 0.05). Self—perceived physical activity level relative
to peers is significantly higher in female sport participants (p < 0.05), while
the difference in males approaches significance (p = 0.06).

Whether involved in organized sport or not, all 591 individuals who
received the sport participation questionnaires responded to the overall
activity portion of the survey. The number and percentages of subjects who
participate in various activities, whether in school, at home, in church, etc.,
are presented in Table 10. Higher percentages of males and females watch
television than choose to participate in any other category overall. Relatively

more males participate in sport activities outside of school (75%) than in

53

 

 

 

 

(I?

school (61%), while similar percentages of females participate in sport
activities out of school (63%) and sport activities in school (65%). Physical
activities tend to rank higher for males than females. Work also ranks higher
for males than females, although females rank chores in the home slightly
higher than males. As expected, dance classes are ranked considerably higher
by females than males.

2. Why do urban Mexican children participate in sport? Or,
conversely, why do they discontinue participation in sport?

The subsequent section deals with motivations of urban Mexican
youth for participation in sport, for non-participation in sport, for
discontinuing participation in sport, and for returning to participation in
sport (Tables 11 to 23). The ten highest ranking responses in each category for
males and females are presented subsequently; all responses are presented in
Appendix F.

Reported motivations for participation in sport are summarized in
Tables 11 and 12. The categories are non-school sponsored and school
sponsored sports. Only the high school students completed the school
sponsored sport survey because none of the primary schools offered
organized scholastic sports. For non-school sponsored sports, the oldest grade
school children (11-14 years) and high school students (14-18 years) completed
the questionnaire.

For both school and non-school sponsored sports and for both genders,
fun is the primary motivation for sport. After fun, motivations for

participation in sport focus on fitness, exercise, and excess energy,

54

highlighting youth’s interest in sport as a means for physical'activity and
physical fitness. The second reason in three of the four groups is physical
fitness; for example, high school boys rank ”to get exercise” as the second
most important reason for participating in school sponsored sports.

Competition-related motives appear among the top ten reasons for
participation in non-school sports more often for males than for females. For
the smaller sample of high school youth participants in school sponsored
sports, the same three competition related motives appear for males, but they
are ranked higher. Two competition related motives appear among the top
ten for females involved in school sponsored sport, compared to only one in
those involved in non-school sponsored sports. Further, competition related
motives are ranked higher by participants in school sports. Winning does not
appear among the top ten reasons in any of the groups; it ranks instead from
13th to 15th depending on gender and school or non-school sport
participation (Appendix F).

Additional write-in reasons for playing non-school sponsored sports
vary. For males these include: to feel good, to be in the shape I like, to
improve my health, to relax, to practice a skill, for personal defense, to grow
spiritually, because I like it, because I do not want to be inactive, to have
confidence, to play, and to wear Nikes. Additional responses of females for
the question are also variable, although fewer chose to write in a response: to
feel good, because I like it, to be healthy, to offset family stress, to improve, to

get acknowledgment of my ability, and for the enjoyment.

55

Non-School Sponsored Sport

An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was run to determine whether the
items in the non-school sponsored sport motivation instrument cluster into
several more comprehensive factors. A priori, the factors that seem to be
present if the items were logically grouped include: competition, skill,
recognition/ external rewards, social, fitness/ health, and outside activity (e. g.,
”to have something to do”, ”to get out of the house”). A maximum
likelihood analysis with a varimax rotation was performed on the combined
sample of males and females. Although males and females may have chosen
their responses for different reasons, and thus contribute to differences in
loadings and factors, the EPA was run on the combined sample because the
sample size was not sufficient for gender-specific factor analyses.

In the first EFA of the data for genders combined, two items cross-
loaded on more than one factor (loading 2 0.40), "to use the equipment
and / or facilities" and "to play as part of a team". These were removed for the
subsequent analysis. The final EFA resulted in five factors which account for
42% of the variance in the responses of high school students to the question
"why do you play non-school sponsored sports?" One factor consists of only
one item with an adequate loading for inclusion ("to improve my skills").
One item does not, however, constitute a factor, thus it was deleted. Three
items still cross-load on more than one factor 2 0.40 ("to win") or do not pass
the designated loading cutoff of 0.39 ("my parents or close friends want me to

participate" and "to be with my friends"). Consequently, the four factors

56

which resulted from the second EFA are presented with their factor loadings,
eigen values, reliabilities and estimated percentage of variance in Table 13.
The reliabilities of the factors are based only on the items retained in the
second EPA.

The nine items that load on factor one can be termed a recognition or
W. This factor accounts for 17% of the variance in
reasons for participating in non-school sponsored sport. Factor two is a
W with 4 items and accounts for an additional 12% of the variance.
Factor three is a W with three items which account for
approximately 9% of the variance. Interestingly, in urban Mexican youth,
team spirit loads with two competition items, and this factor has a relatively
high reliability (0.78). Factor four is an outside activity factor that also
includes a ""fun item, the internal reliability for factor four is 0.52;
considering the diversity of the three items included in this factor, it is not
surprising that its reliability is low. Factor four accounts for 4.8% of the
variance.

Given the limitations that the second run of the EPA still had items
cross-loading and a factor with only one item, results of the MANOVA of
differences between genders on the factors for sport participation are
potentially of interest. Males and females differ significantly in several factors

identified with the EPA (F(1,305) = 10.86, p < 0.001) (Table 14). Using

57

the univariate F-test, males and females differ significantly in three factors.
Females have a mean score which is higher than that of males on the
recognition / external rewards factor (p < 0.001), while males score higher, on
average, on the competition factor (p < 0.001) and the outside activity/ fun
factor (p < 0.05).

Because the sample size for males and females combined was adequate
for a MANOVA of all items, the combined sample was also analyzed to
determine whether males and females differ in individual reasons for sport
participation. The percentage of variance in responses ranges from 0.01% —
6.0%, with question 4 (”someone I admire played this sport") accounting for
the largest amount of variance. Overall, the sport motivation responses
differ significantly by gender (F26263 = 1.98, p < 0.01). Items that significantly
differ between males and females are summarized in Table 15. The five items
in the sport motivation questionnaire which differ significantly between
males and females are: "someone I admire played this sport", "for the travel
that goes with playing", "to feel important", "to be popular by being a good
athlete", and "to attract boys'/girls' attention". Males score significantly
higher on all five items. Two additional items ("for the team spirit" and "for

the challenge of competition") have F-ratios that approach significance

(p = 0.08), and they are also higher in males.

58

Goal Orientation

The reason that individuals choose to play sport and their motivation
for sport may be influenced by goal orientation. The Task and Ego '
Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ, Duda, 1992) was translated into
Spanish and presented to the 245 students who responded to the non-school
sport questionnaires (older primaria students and preparatgria students).
Note, when time was an issue during data collection, it was invariably the
TEOSQ which was not completed. The descriptive statistics for the TEOSQ
items are summarized in Table 16. The hierarchically ordered responses to
the statement, ”I feel most successful in sport when...” show few differences
between males and females. In general, both males and females obtain their
best results from sport when they do their very best, when they are learning
new skills, and when they are learning something that is fun.

Responses to the TEOSQ questionnaire were also analyzed using an
EFA. Although the factors for the instrument have already been shown in
the literature, whether or not a task orientation factor and an ego orientation
factor would surface in the current sample was unknown. Because the
intercorrelation between factors was relatively low in this sample, (r = 0.23, p
= 0.01), a varimax rotation was used. The sample was combined by gender to
reduce problems associated with small sample sizes.

Two factors emerge with an eigen value > 1.0, and account for 48% of
the variance in task and ego orientation. One item (item 4, ”When I am able

to play better then my teammates”), cross-loads at 0.40 and 0.48 on the EGO

59

and TASK factors, respectively. Thus, item 4 was removed and the analysis
was done again (Table 17). Six items load on the TASK factor, and four items
load on the EGO factor. The TASK factor accounts for 32% of the variance in
sport motivational orientation responses in urban Mexican youth, and the
EGO factor accounts for 17% of the variance. Neither item 3 (”I learn
something that is fun to do”) nor item 10 (”I score more points/ goals or have
the fastest time”) load higher than 0.39, and they are not included. The alpha
scores (reliabilities) for TASK and EGO are 0.82 and 0.76, respectively,
reflecting relatively high internal consistency.

Using independent t-tests, urban Mexican male and female youth do
not differ significantly in Task orientation (3.87 _-t_-_ 0.89 and 3.96 3; 0.88,
respectively). Ego orientation is, on average, lower than task orientation in
Mexican youth, with males (2.56 _t 0.97) scoring significantly higher than

females (2.27 i 0.91), (R240): 2.37, p < 0.02).

School Sponsored Sport

Males and females differ significantly in four reasons for playing school
sponsored sports. There are 28 items in the survey instrument, and the
sample size of school sport participants was too small fOr a MANOVA. Thus,
independent t-tests were run for each reason (Table 18). Males and females
differ significantly on four items, though the sample sizes are small. Females
rank the need ”to have something to do” higher than males. Males, on the

other hand, ”want to go to a higher level of competition” and ”to be popular”

60

more so than females. In addition, boys use sports as a way to attract the

attention of the girls.

Discontinuing Sport Participation

The ’drop out’ category includes only high school students, and a total
of 42 items are included on the instrument. While the order of the choices
differs slightly between males and females, the choices themselves are very
similar (Table 19). The first three stated reasons for dropping out of sport in
males and females are: ”the games and practices are scheduled at times when
I cannot attend,” ”I need more time to study,” and ”the sport requires too
much time.” Pressure, lack of interest, and coaching issues are indicated by
both genders. Interestingly, ”too much emphasis on winning” and ”I was not
having fun” appear among reasons for males, but not among females. In
contrast, ”I did not have the opportunity to play much” and ”the coach only
played his / her favorites” appear in the top ten for females but not for males.
The ”other” category, in which the subjects could write in additional reasons
for dropping out of sport, provides additional insights. For males, other
reasons for dropping out of sport range from ”I wanted to,” ”I wanted to try
something new,” to money issues, and risk of injury. For females, other
reasons include distance from playing, other responsibilities, change of
school, change of coach, and not having time for other, often more

important, activities.

61

Males and females differ significantly on only one reason for dropping
out of sport, while two others approach significance (p <0.08 and p <0.09,
respectively). Females score significantly higher than males on the item
relating to the need for more time to study (tusn = -3.16, p < 0.01) (Table 20).
Males score higher, but not significantly, on items related to having fun and

emphasis on winning.

Returning to Sport

Changes that would make high school youth feel comfortable
returning to sport are summarized in Table 21. The statement was: ”I would
return to sport if...” Males and females rank the choices somewhat differently,
but the choices do not really differ. The need for more time to study is very
apparent among the top four reasons for both males and females. The time
commitment for sport and the distance to games and practice facilities are
additional limiting factors. More playing time is an issue for both genders,
but ranks higher for males (3rd) than females (5th). The role of the coach and
coaching practices are also indicated by the youth: ”I would return to sport if
the coaches understood the players better,” ”the coach was a better instructor,”
and ”the practices were more fun.” Money issues and the need for more
talent surface in the ”other” or write-in category for young males, while
money, return of a former coach, and being able to play again with friends are

the additional items of importance to females that were not among the

original choices for returning to sport.

62

Males and females differ significantly in the item ”I Would return to
sport if... practices and games did not conflict with my studies” (tom = -3.75,

p < 0.001). Females have a higher mean score for this item, which
corresponds with indicated reasons for dropping out of sport.

A related, open-ended question was also included in the activity recall
inventory (PAQ-A). The students were asked to complete the following
statement, ”In general, I do not participate in sport or exercise because...” A
summary of the responses of high school students are given in Table 22. If an
individual recorded more than one reason, he/ she was tallied more than
once; thus the frequencies total more than the sample size. High school
males and females feel they do not have time to be active in sport or exercise
(males, 39%; females, 59%). Other reasons include laziness, (males, 15%;
females, 19%), and dislike of sport and exercise (males, 9%; females, 10%).
Smaller percentages indicate lack of money for sport or exercise (males, 8%;
females, 4%). Interestingly, 16% of the females who responded to the
question indicate an important role for the time commitment of
homework/ schoolwork; in contrast, only one male (3%) indicates homework
as a reason for not participating in sport or physical activity.

3. What is the estimated level of physical activity of urban Mexican
school youth 9-18 years of age as estimated with the PAQ-A?

The PAQ-A was scored in the manner recommended by the authors
(Kowalski et al., 1997a; 1997b), although the last item was dropped due to
response problems. Each item has a 5-point scale, and the composite score is

the average of all eight items. The overall activity score ranges from 1-5, with

63

higher levels of activity corresponding with higher scores on‘the scale
(Kowalski et al., 1997b).

A total of 1,085 youth, 526 males and 559 females 9-18 years of age
completed the PAQ-A. A breakdown of the sample by age and SES is
indicated in Tables 23 and 24, respectively. Mean PAQ—A scores fall in the
middle range and tend to decrease slightly with age (Table 23). The age-
associated decrease in PAQ-A scores is especially evident in later adolescence
(15-18 years). For both males and females significant differences in the PAQ-A
by age group were found using two 1x3 one-way ANOVAs (p < 0.001). Using
a Scheffé post hoc F-test, the PAQ-A score differs significantly between 9-10
and 15-18 year old males (p < 0.001), and 11-13 and 15-18 year old males (p <
0.01). The PAQ—A score also differs significantly between 9-10 and 15-18 year
old females (p < 0.001), and 11—13 and 15—18 year old females (p < 0.001).

When divided by SES within age group, the trends are similar (Table
24). The oldest youth have the lowest scores among both males and females,
regardless of SES. In all but middle and high SES males, the PAQ-A is
significantly different between 9-13 and 15-18 year old males and females.
More specifically, the low SES males differ significantly in PAQ—A between
9-10 year olds and 1548 year olds. Middle and high SES males do not differ
among age groups in PAQ-A scores. Females in low and high SES differ in
PAQ—A score between 9-10 and 15—18 year olds and between 11-13 and 15-18
year olds. The middle SES females only differ significantly between 9-10 and

15-18 year olds. The PAQ-A does not differ, however, by SES within age

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groups for males or females: males 9-13 years, F(2I366)=2.31, p =’0.10, males 15-18
years, Pom): 0.16, p = 0.85, females 9-13 years, F(2,382)=1.58, p = 0.21, and females
15-18 years, F(2'166)=0.04, p = 0.96.

The overall distribution of PAQ—A scores by gender are presented in
Table 25. The data are presented by frequency in each category, 1.0-1.9, 2.0-2.9,
3.0-3.9, and 4.0-4.9; a higher score indicates a higher level of physical activity.
The majority of males (n = 427, 82%) have PAQ-A scores between 2.0 and 3.9,
but only 26 males (5%) are in the 4.0-4.9 category. For females, the majority
have activity scores between 1.0 and 2.9 (n = 447, 80%), and only five females
(1%) are in the 4.0-4.9 category. Across all ages, the average PAQ-A score of
males (2.8 i 0.7) is significantly greater than that of females (2.4 i 0.7), based
on a one-way ANCOVA with age as the covariate (F(1,1083)=80.29, p < 0.001).

The distribution of PAQ-A scores by age group within gender is
presented in Table 26. The four activity categories are about equally
distributed among males in the two younger age groups. However, among
older males, there is a relatively greater percentage in the 1.0-1.9 category.
Overall, the majority of males are in the 2.0-2.9 and 3.0-3.9 categories.

Among females, the percentage of individuals in the 1.0-1.9 category
increases with age, while the percentage in the 2.0-2.9 and 3039 categories
tend to decrease with age. The major age-associated differences occur between
the 11-13 and 15-18 year age groups. The number of girls in the 4.0-4.9

category is small in all three age groups.

65

The PAQ-A scores were also used to classify youth as generally inactive
(< 2.5), active (2 2.5 but < 3.5), and very active (_>_ 3.5). The distributions are
shown in Table 27. Less than one-half of the males (33%), and slightly more
than one-half of the females (53%) are classified as generally inactive. Almost
one-half of the males (48%) are in the active category, while 37% of the
females are categorized as active. The very active category is the smallest for
both males and females, 19% and 9%, respectively.
Corresponding distributions by age group and gender are given in

Table 28. Most of the younger boys are in the active category (n = 80, 49%).
Younger girls, on the other hand, are evenly distributed between the inactive
(n = 89, 46%) and active (n = 86, 44%) categories. One-half of boys 11-13 years
are in the active category (n = 98, 50%), with the remainder being distributed
evenly between the inactive and very active categories. One-half of girls 11-13
years are classified as inactive (96, 50%), although more than one-third

(n = 71, 37%) are classified as active. The oldest boys are evenly distributed
between the inactive (n = 71, 45%) and active (n = 67, 43%) categories. Over
one-half of the oldest girls (n = 114, 63%) are classified as inactive. Small
Percentages of older boys (n = 19, 12%) and girls (n = 7, 5%) are classified as
Very active.

Following the procedures of Kowalski et a1. (1997) to estimate

C0nvergent validity, the PAQ—A scores were compared with one of the

Cll-IESfions in the inventory. The activity rating (AR) required the students to

66

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assess their activity levels relative to others of the same age and gender. The

question was phrased as follows:

I am very inactive compared to others of my same age and sex.

I am less active compared to others of my same age and sex.

I am just as active as others of my same age and sex.

I am a little more active than others of my same age and sex.

I am much more active than others of my same age and sex.

The correlation between the PAQ—A score and the AR in the total sample of
urban Mexican youth is r = 0.45 (p < 0.001). Gender-specific correlations of the
PAQ-A with the AR are 0.37 (p < 0.001) in males and 0.53 (p < 0.001) in
females. The PAQ-A is negatively correlated with age in the total sample

(r = -0.20, p < 0.001), but the age correlation in males (r = - 0.17, p < 0.001) is
somewhat lower than that in females (r = -0.25, p < 0.001), suggesting a greater
decrease in physical activity scores with age in females.

PAQ-A scores by gender and SES category are summarized in Table 29.
Results of the one-way ANCOVA, controlling for age, indicate no differences
in PAQ-A by SES in males or females.

The PAQ—A also has an item that pertains to the determination of
Whether sickness or other events prevented the student from doing his / her
regular activity. This question is not used in the calculation of the overall
aCtiVity score (Kowalski et al., 1997a, 1997b). The reasons indicated for
inaCtivity during the previous week for males and females ranked by
frequency are listed in Table 30. Among males (n = 526), 16% (n = 84) indicate

the flu, general sickness, sore throat and general body soreness in the top four

realsons for not being active during the previous week. The three primary

67

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reasons for 18% (n = 102) of females (n = 559) are flu, general sickness and sore
throat, with homework ranking fourth.

Other questions in the PAQ-A that are not used to calculate the activity
score, but which provide some insight into the activity habits of the Mexican
youth, include questions 8 (perceived physical condition), 10 (perceived
physical activity), 11 (time spent viewing television) and 12 (time spent
playing video games).

Question 8:
My physical condition is excellent compared to others my age and sex.

My physical condition is equal compared to others my age and sex.

My physical condition is worse compared to others my age and sex.

Slightly over one-half of males (n = 300, 57%) feel that they are in better
physical condition than their peers, while females are equally divided in
feeling that their physical condition is better than (n = 239, 44%) or equal to
(n = 275, 49%) that of their peers. By SES, the majority of males in all three
SES categories rank their physical condition as excellent compared to others.
The percentages for low, middle and high SES are 59%, 52%, and 61%,
respectively. Roughly one-half of low and middle class females indicate that
they are equally as fit as their peers, 50% and 52%, respectively. High SES
feIrlales, however, are divided in their perceptions that they are equally as fit

01' more fit than their peers, 45% and 44%, respectively.

Question 10:
I am very inactive compared to others of my same age and sex.

I am less active compared to others of my same age and sex.
I am just as active as others of my same age and sex.

I am a little more active than others of my same age and sex.
I am much more active than others of my same age and sex.

68

For the most part, males and females indicate they are equally active
compared to their peers (n = 233, 44%; n = 243, 43%, respectively). Females,
however, choose the less active response (n = 110, 20%) more often than
males (n = 79, 15%). Within SES category, both males and females feel they

are equally as active as their peers.

Question 11, Television viewing:
I never watch television

0-2 hours per day

3-4 hours per day

5-6 hours per day

7+ hours per day

Question 12, Video game playing
I never play video games

1-2 hours per day

3—4 hours per day

5-6 hours per day
7+ hours per day

For questions 11 and 12, the data were reduced to a more manageable
format. The responses, ”I never watch television” and ”I never play video
games” were not used in calculating an overall estimate of mean hours
watched or played. For television viewing, to some extent, and especially for
video game playing, more females than males stated that they never watched
television or played video games (see below). The remaining responses were
keyed on the midpoints of the indicated ranges. Thus, 0-2 hours was listed as
1 hour of television viewing or video game playing per day, 3-4 hours was
11$th as 3.5 hours, 5-6 was listed as 5.5 hours, and 7 plus was listed as 7 hours.
While this method of tallying causes some information to be lost, it provides

an estimate of time devoted to television viewing and / or video games.

69

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Only 14 males (3%) and 18 females (3%) report never watching
television. These small samples have mean ages of 12.8 _-t_-_ 2.7 and 12.5 i 3.0
years, respectively, and activity scores of 2.3 i 0.7 and 2.7 i 0.83, respectively.
A substantially larger number report never playing video games, 137 (26%)
for males and 290 (52%) for females. Mean ages of these samples are 13.3 -_l-_ 2.7
and 13.0 i 2.7 years, respectively, and mean activity scores are 2.7 j; 0.8 for
males and 2.4 i: 0.7 for females.

The estimated time of television viewing for those who report it is, on
average, 3.1 i: 2.2 hours per day for males, and 2.9 i 2.0 hours per day for
females (F(1’1037)=2.75, p = 0.09). However, males and females differ in time
spent playing video games (F(1'639)=20.05, p < 0.001). Males report playing
video games 2.5 i 2.2 hours per day while females report playing video games
1.8 j; 1.7 hours per day.

Mean television viewing time does not differ by age group among
males (Table 31), but males 9-13 years spend more time playing video games
than males 14-18 years (Fu,378)=7.22, p < 0.01). In contrast, younger females
devote slightly more time to television viewing, but the difference only
approaches significance (F(1524)=3.15, p < 0.08). Time spent playing video
games does not differ between older and younger females.

Mean time spent viewing television and playing video games does not
differ between sport and non-sport participants among both males and

fen‘Iales (Table 32). Time viewing television differs significantly by activity

70

 

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level in males (p < 0.01), but time devoted to video games does not (Table 33).
Inactive males watch significantly more television than active males

(p < 0.05). Interestingly, inactive and very active males watch approximately
the same amount of television. Despite this similarity, however, the
difference in television viewing hours between the active and very active
only approaches significance (p < 0.09). Time spent watching television or
playing video games does not differ among females grouped by activity level
(Table 33).

Of those who watch two hours or less of television per day and who
completed the sport participation questionnaires (n=117), 64% of the males
and 50% of the females are sport participants. For those who watch more
than three hours of television per day (n=135), 75% of the males and 44% of
the females are sport participants. There is thus no trend in males, but
females show a slight decrease in percentage of sport participants with an
increase in hours of television watched per day.

For males who watch television two hours or less per day (n = 246),

29% are inactive, 53% are active, and 18% are very active. For those who
Watch three or more hours per day (n = 276), 36% are inactive, 43% are active,
and 21% are very active. The trends suggest that with an increase in amount
0f television watched per day, more males are in the inactive category, and
feWer males are in the active category. Percentages in the very active category
do not differ. For females who watch two hours or less of television per day

(n = 262), 56% are inactive, 34% are active, and 10% are inactive. For those

71

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who watch three or more hours per day (n = 288), 52% are inactive, 40% are
active, and 8% are very active. There thus does not appear to be a trend in
females that corresponds to the trend in males.

The first item of the PAQ—A is an activity inventory which asks how
many times in the past week the subject participated in a specific activity.
Responses to the item are summarized in Tables 34a and 34b for the total
sample of males and females, respectively. The three top ranking physical
activities for males are soccer (81.9%), running (80.1%), and walking (71.5%).
With a more restrictive criterion (participating in an activity 2 3 times per
week), the order of activities does not change (Table 34a). Dance and aerobics
are the activities with the fewest male participants during the prior week.

Skipping (78.7%), running (74.7%) and walking (73.5%) are the
activities in which a majority of the females participate 2 1 time per week.
The order changes slightly (skipping, walking, running) with the more
restrictive criterion of 2 3 times per week. Depending on the criterion, about
33% and 20% of the females participate in aerobics and dance. Weightlifting,
skateboarding, badminton and American football are the sports in which the
majority of females do not participate (Table 34b). Sports which were added as
write-ins are predominantly martial arts and squash for males, and martial
arts and gymnastics for females.

There are several differences in the reported activities of males when
the sample is divided by age, 9-13 and 14-18 years (Tables 35a and 35b). Soccer

ranks first for younger boys, but fourth for older boys. Fitness activities are

72

more common in older boys, i.e., walking, and running, while sports, i.e.,
soccer and basketball, are among the top three activities for younger boys.

Among females of both age groups, sports are not included among the
top three reported activities in the past week (Tables 36a and 36b). The
primary activities are skipping, running, skating and walking in younger
girls, and walking, skipping and running in older girls. Basketball and
volleyball, ranking fifth and sixth, respectively, are the two sports indicated by
younger girls, while basketball (fourth) and swimming (sixth) are the sports
indicated by older girls.

4. What sociodemographic (gender, age, SES) and biological (height,

weight, the BMI) variables are predictive of sport participation status

and level of physical activity in urban Mexican school youth?

For the prediction of sport participation status, the sociodemographic
variables included age, SES, PAQ-A, and perceived physical activity status of
parents (1=active, =inactive), and biological variables included weight,
height, and the BMI. All variables were entered into a logistic regression with
no specified hierarchy to estimate their impact on sport participation (1=sport
participant, 2=non-sport participant). These specific variables account for only
a small portion of the variance in sport participation, R2 g 0.08 for all
significant variables. The probability of the observed results, -2 log likelihood
(-2LL), is a measure of how well the estimated model fits the data. A good
model would have a small value for the -2LL; however, the log likelihood is

249.6 for males and 252.0 for females. In general, the model does not classify

the data well. Nevertheless, two gender-specific logistic regressions result in

73

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two variables that are significantly predictive for males and only one for
females. Age and the PAQ—A score are significant predictors of sport
participation status for males (R2 = 0.02 and 0.05, respectively), while the PAQ-
A score is the only significant predictor of sport participation status for
females (R2: 0.08). The unstandardized regression coefficients, odds ratios,
and the 95% confidence intervals are presented in Table 37. Thus, physical
activity status only has a small influence on sport participation status in
males and females, and the coefficient is negative for both genders.
Participation in sport was coded as a "1", and non-participation in sport was
coded as a "2"; as the PAQ-A score increases, it is less likely that the sport
participation status will be a "2". Thus, as the PAQ-A score increases, the
likelihood of sport participation increases slightly in both males and females.
Among males, age is another contributor. As age increases in males,
however, the odds are more likely the participation status will be a 2, or that
the male does not participate in sports.

For the prediction of physical activity score, sport participation status
replaced the PAQ—A score in the regression. Results of the forward stepwise
multiple regressions to determine predictors of activity score (PAQ-A) differ
between males and females (Tables 38 to 40). Rather than using gender as a
co-predictor, it seemed more logical to do gender-specific regressions since it is
likely that predictors of activity may differ between males and females.
Neither set of predictors accounts for much of the variance (R2 = 0.04 for

males, and R2: 0.12 for females), and the unstandardized regression

74

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coefficients are not large (Table 38). There are, however, several interesting
differences between males and females. The predictors of activity scores in
~ males include age and perceived physical activity status of the mother, and
both coefficients are negative. As age increases, the activity score decreases,
and if the mother is perceived as inactive (2), the youth‘s activity score
decreases. Age is the strongest predictor of the activity score in males, i.e.,
younger males are more active than older males, and the activity score
increases if the mother is perceived as physically active (1).

The model for females includes age, stature, the BMI and the perceived
physical'activity status of the mother among the best predictors of activity
scores. Age accounts for most of the variance (7%), followed by perceived
physical activity of the mother (3%). Both stature and the BMI each account
for (1%) of the variance. Thus, as age increases, the activity score decreases,
and if the mother is perceived as physically active, the activity score increases.
As the BMI increases, the activity score decreases slightly, but as stature
increases, the activity score increases slightly. In both genders, nevertheless, a
substantial amount of the variance in the PAQ-A score is not accounted for by
the variables considered in this study.

Predictors of PAQ-A scores differ among SES groups and between
genders within SES group (Table 39). The only significant predictor for low
SES males is stature (4% of the variance), which has a positive coefficient,
suggesting that as stature increases, so does activity level. For middle SES

males, only the BMI accounts for a small proportion of the variance (4%), and

75

the coefficient is negative- the higher the BMI, the lower the activity score. In
contrast, perceived physical activity status of the mother accounts for 4% of
the variance in high SES males, and the coefficient is negative; if the mother
is perceived as physically active, the activity score of the boy is higher.

The unstandardized coefficients and significant predictors of physical
activity level for all SES levels of females are also presented in Table 39. The
best predictors for low SES females include age, stature and perceived physical
activity status of the father. Together the three variables account for 13% of
the variance in the PAQ-A score. Age and perceived physical activity status of
the father have negative coefficients, implying that as age increases, activity
scores decrease, and that if the father is perceived as active, the activity score
increases. For middle SES girls, perceived activity status of the mother and
the BMI account for 14% of the variance in activity scores, while in high SES
girls, age and perceived activity status of the father account for 11% of the
variance in activity score. Age and perceived physical activity status of the
father or mother have negative coefficients; as age increases, the activity score
decreases, and if the mother or father is perceived as active, the activity score
increases. Stature, has a positive relationship with activity scores in low SES
females.

Age is a possible confounding variable. Thus, the gender-specific
regressions were run within two age groups, 9-13 and 14-18 years (Table 40).
Less than 5% of the variance is accounted for by any of the variables. The

smaller sample sizes may lead to spurious results if too many variables are

76

entered into the equation. Perceived physical activity status of the mother is
the only predictor of activity scores for younger males, while there are no
significant predictors for older males. The unstandardized coefficient for
mother's activity status is negative; thus, if the mother is perceived as active,
the activity score of the younger boys increases. Both the perceived physical
activity status of the mother and father are significant predictors of physical
activity scores for 9-13 year old girls. Both coefficients are negative. Girls with
an active mother or father tend to be more active, but the amount of variance
explained is only (5%). Stature is the only predictor for older girls, and
accounts for (4%) of the variance in activity scores. Taller females tend to be
more active.

5. Using the Body Mass Index (BMI) as a proxy for nutritional status,

what is the relationship between nutritional status and physical

activity, including sport participation?

Descriptive statistics for the BMI by activity level and age are presented
in Table 41. The majority of younger males are in the active category (47%),
followed by the inactive (30%) and very active (22%)categories. The majority
of older males are inactive (47%), followed by active (41%) and very active
(12%). The BMI does not differ, on average, among activity categories of
males in either age group (Table 41).

Although younger females tend to be more active than older females,
both age groups are predominately inactive. One-half of 9-13 year old and

67% of 14-18 year old females are classified as inactive, while only 11% and

77

4%, respectively, are very active. As in males, the BMI does not differ among
activity categories of females in each age group (Table 41).

Corresponding data for the BMI and age by sport participation status are
presented in Table 42. The majority of younger and older males are sports
participants (82% and 62%, respectively), but participants and non-participants
do not differ in mean BMI in either age group. Most younger females are
sport participants (65%), while most older females are non-participants (61%).
Participants and non-participants do not differ significantly in mean BMI in
either age group. Although mean BMIs do not differ by sport participation
status, it is of interest, perhaps, that median BMIs are higher by one unit in
the small sample of non-participant boys 9-13 years (who are also younger),
and by almost one unit in non-participant girls in both age groups.

Partial correlations between the BMI and the PAQ-A, controlling for
age, are low and not significant for males and females (r = -0.05 and r = -0.02,
respectively). Corresponding partial correlations between the BMI and the
PAQ-A within SES category, controlling for age, are also low, but are
significant in middle SES males and females (r = -0.15, p < 0.05 for both
genders). Correlations for low and high SES groups range from -0.004 to -0.06.
Overall, the correlations are negative, but indicate a negligible relationship
between physical activity as assessed by the PAQ-A and the BMI in this
sample of urban Mexican youth.

Correlations between the BMI and number of sports played are -0.22 (p

< 0.01) for males and -0.10 (ns) for females. Partial correlations, controlling

78

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for age, are lower, -0.15 (p < 0.05) for males and -0.01 (ns) for females. There is
thus a trend in males for the number of sports to decrease as the BMI
increases. There is no trend in females.

The percentages of sport participants in the four nutritional status
categories are presented in Table 43. Nutritional status was classified as
follows: underweight, BMI < 15th percentile; normal weight, BMI 2 15th
percentile and < 85th percentile; risk of overweight, BMI _>_ 85th and < 95th
percentiles; and overweight BMI 2 95th percentile (Must et al., 1991 ; Himes
and Dietz, 1994). The data suggest that the percentages of sport participants do
not differ across nutritional categories, particularly in males, although sample
sizes may influence the trend. Among males 9-13 years who are
underweight, for example, 94% are sport participants. The corresponding
percentages for normal weight, risk of overweight and overweight are 80%,
73% and 87%, respectively. The trend for males 14-18 is similar, though the
percentages of sport participants are smaller. Of females 9-13 years who are
underweight, 75% are sport participants; however, the same is true for those
who are overweight. Females 14-18 years, on the other hand, have fewer
sport participants in each nutritional status category.

Mean PAQ-A scores by nutritional status for urban Mexican youth are
shown in Table 44. The data suggest that within each age group, males and
females in the four nutritional status categories do not differ in physical
activity scores. But, within each nutritional status category based on the BMI,

9-13 year old males and females, respectively, tend to be consistently more

79

active than 14-18 year old males and females, although sample sizes differ
between younger and older males and females.

Independent sample t-tests were run to determine whether males and
females significantly differ in PAQ—A score within nutritional status category.
Males 9-13 years have significantly higher PAQ-A scores than males 14-18
years in the underweight (tm)=3.81, p <0.001), normal weight (t(271)=2.68, p
<0.01), and risk of overweight (t(98)=2.43, p <0.05) categories. Males do not
differ in PAQ-A score between age groups in the overweight category.

Females differ significantly in PAQ—A score between age groups within
all nutritional status categories, although the overweight category has a small
sample size in one cell which could increase the likelihood of Type I errors.
Nevertheless, females 9-13 years have significantly higher PAQ-A scores than
females 14-18 years in the underweight (t(60)=3.40, p =0.001), normal weight
(t(347,=3.62, p <0.001), risk of overweight (t(%)=3.36, p =0.001), and overweight
(t(4o,=3.75, p =0.001) categories.

6. What is the current growth status of urban Mexican youth relative
to United States (WHO) reference data?

Descriptive statistics for age, height, weight, and the BMI in single year
age groups of urban Mexican males and females are summarized in Table 45.
Individual values and age-specific means and standard deviations are plotted
relative to United States reference values in Figures 1 to 6. Because there are
so few males and females 14 years of age, the means and individual values

are not plotted for this age group. Individual values of 18 year old males and

80

females are plotted, but due to the small sample size, means for the 18 year
olds are also not plotted in the figures.

Mean statures fall close to the United States reference medians from
_9-13 years in males and from 9-12 years in females. Subsequently, mean
statures are below the reference medians at all ages. In later adolescence,
mean statures are near the 25th percentile. In contrast, mean body weights
are slightly above the reference medians from 9-13 years in males and from
9-12 years in females. Subsequently, mean weights of males and females
approximate the reference medians. Given the position of mean heights and
weights relative to United States reference values, mean BMIs are above the
United States reference medians at all ages and in both genders in this sample
of urban Mexican school youth.

Only the 10, 11, and 16 year old age groups have adequate sample sizes
across the three SES categories. The comparison of stature, weight, and the
BMI by gender in these three age groups are summarized in Table 46a for
males and in Table 46b for females. SES differences (using a series of 1x3 one-
way ANOVAs) are significant only among 10 year old males for age. Low SES
boys are significantly younger; otherwise, age, height, weight, and the BMI do
not differ significantly by SES in the three age groups of males and females.
Gender-specific descriptive statistics for age, stature, weight and the BMI for
all ages by SES are summarized in Appendix G.

Given the context of underweight and overweight in the Mexican

population, the sample was partitioned on the basis of the BMI into four

81

nutritional status categories. United States reference values (Must et al., 1991 ;
Himes and Dietz, 1994) for the BMI were used. The four categories were as
follows, underweight (< 15th percentile), normal weight (15th - 85th
percentile), risk of overweight (_>_ 85th but < 95th percentile), and overweight
(_>_ 95th percentile). Age-specific prevalences of underweight, risk of
overweight, and overweight are summarized by gender in Table 47, while the
prevalences in two broader age groups by gender are summarized in Table 48.

The contrast of undernutrition and overnutrition in the sample of
urban Mexican youth is apparent, but overnutrition is more prevalent (Table
48). Among 9-13 year old youth, equal percentages of males and females are
underweight (14%) and at risk of overweight (20%, 19%). However, more 9-
13 year old males (18%) than females (10%) are overweight. Among 15-18
year old youth, fewer females (4%) than males (14%) are underweight.
Percentages of 15-18 year old youth who are at risk of overweight and who are
overweight are only slightly lower in females 14% versus 17% and 3% versus
5%, respectively.

7. Have secular changes occurred in the stature, weight and BMI of

Mexico City youth? Has secular change occurred in the age at

menarche of urban Mexican females?

The current sample of Mexico City youth are, on average, heavier and
taller than two earlier samples of youth from Mexico City. These include an
upper middle class mixed-longitudinal sample of 1,165 males 11-15.5 years

and 1,068 females 10-15.5 years measured between 1977-1980 (for convenience

called 1978) (Faulhaber, 1989), and a cross-sectional sample of school youth

82

(2,550 males and 2,207 females) 9-18 years measured in 1926 (Priani, 1929).
Another large mixed-longitudinal sample of Mexico City youth is that of
Ramos Galvan (1975, 1978), but the sample is largely derived from a private
pediatric practice and the majority are economically better off. Thus, for the
purposes of secular comparison, only the 1926 sample (Priani, 1929) and the
1977-1980 sample (Faulhaber, 1989) were used. Since the earlier studies vary
in SES, the total sample from the current study was used for secular
comparisons by gender. Trends are summarized in Figures 7 to 9. The
sample sizes for 18 year old males and females are small and are not included
in the figures.

The present sample of urban Mexican youth is taller than the school
sample measured in 1926, but the more recent samples from 1978 and 1998 are
only slightly different in mean statures (Figure 7). The current sample of
males is slightly taller than the 1978 sample between 11 and 15 years, and the
current sample of females is slightly taller than the 1978 sample at 10, 12 and
15 years. In contrast, the current samples of males and females are
consistently heavier than the 1926 and 1978 samples, with the exception of the
small sample of 13 year old girls (Figure 8).

The secular comparison of the BMI is limited. BMIs were calculated for
individuals in the current study, and age-specific means were subsequently
calculated. Age-specific mean heights and weights from the earlier studies
were used to estimate the Blvfl at each age for the comparison. The BMI for

males in the current study is consistently higher than those estimated for the

83

1926 and 1978 samples. The data for females are less clear. Females from the
current study have consistently higher BMIs than those estimated for the 1926
and 1978 samples from 9-12 years. However, the difference in the BMI is less
pronounced in adolescence, which is influenced by the small sample sizes of
13 and 14 year old girls in the present study. Interestingly, the BMI in females
from the 1978 sample are greater than those'from 1926 from 10-12 years of age,
but are then smaller in adolescence.

Estimated rates of secular change in weight and height were calculated
from the means of the three samples of Mexico City youth for age groups with
adequate numbers. The estimates are presented in Table 49. Change 'in
stature between 1926 and 1998 (7.2 decades) is estimated at 0.9 cm per decade in
males 10-12 years and 0.7 cm per decade in males 15-16 years. Corresponding
estimates for females are 0.8 cm per decade for girls 10-12 years and 0.6 cm per
decade for girls 15— 16 years. When partitioned between 1926 to 1978
(approximately 5.2 decades) and 1978 to 1998 (approximately 2 decades), the
data suggest a rate of secular change in height of about 1 cm per decade
between 1978 and 1998 in 11-12 year old youth of both genders. This estimate
is slightly greater that the estimated rates for the previous five decades from
1926 to 1978 (about 0.7 and 0.8 cm per decade) for 10-12 year old youth.

Among 15 year old youth of both genders, the estimated rate of secular change
in height from 1978 to 1998 (0.9 and 1.2 cm per decade) is almost double the

estimated rates of secular change for 1926 to 1978 (0.5 and 0.6 cm per decade).

84

The estimated rate of secular change in body weight frOm 1926 to 1998
is 1.2 kg per decade in boys 10-12 years and 1.4 kg per decade in boys 15-16
years. Corresponding estimates for weight in girls 10-12 and 15-16 years from
1926 to 1998 are 1.0 kg and 0.5 kg per decade, respectively. In contrast,
estimated rates of secular change in body weight between 1978 and 1998 are
almost three to five times greater than estimated rates between 1926 and 1978

for both males and females.

Menarche

Of a total 520 females, all but two above the age of 13 (n = 183) had
begun menstruating by the time of the study. The distribution of menarcheal
status in the total sample of girls by age is indicated in Table 50. The median
age at menarche calculated with probits is 12.4 years with a confidence
interval of 12.2-12.7 years.

The median age at menarche for females in Mexico City in 1998 is
slightly earlier than the values of Mexico City girls from the late 19605. An
estimated secular decrease of 0.12 years per decade has occurred in the age of

menarche of Mexico city females.

85

CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION

Introduction
This study considered sport participation, physical activity, and growth
status of urban Mexican school youth 9-18 years of age. Although many
factors influence sport participation and physical activity, ethnicity and
culture are thought to have an important impact (Duda and Allison, 1990).
The overall trends in sport participation and physical activity in urban
Mexican youth are similar to the trends in United States youth, but the details

differ somewhat.

Sport Participation

Of the 591 (292 males, 299 females) students 9-18 years who completed
the sport participation questionnaires, 58% of males and 36% of females
indicated participation in organized sport (school or non-school sponsored).
A survey of United States youth 10-18 years showed percentages of sport
participants of 40% and 22% for males and females, respectively (Ewing and
Seefeldt, 1988). In a study of mid-Michigan middle school students, 30% of
males and 29% of females reported participation in organized sport in mid-
winter (Katzmarzyk and Malina, 1998a). The prevalence of sport participation

in the current study is higher than those previously reported in the literature,

86

and males have a higher prevalence of participation than females. While the
percentages of the Mexican males and females who participate in sport are
seemingly high, perhaps the sample size or the definition of organized sport
accounts for some of the variation. Both school and non—school sponsored
sports are combined in the estimates. It is possible that some boys, and
possibly some girls, included ”pick-up” games in their responses, despite the
requirement in the survey that a coach needed to be present to qualify the
activity as an organized sport. If this is the case, then the responses of
participants versus non-participants may, in fact, be more accurate than was
first believed. That is, the respondents who participate in sport in all forms
may be represented, rather than just those who have a coach and regular
practice. If this is the case, however, the applicability of this survey to other
estimates of sport participation has a limitation.

A shortcoming of the present study was the lack of a question regarding
self-organized sport participation. Soccer, or fmbgl, in Latin America has long
been a street game that children just pick up and play when they have free
time, and they often play every day, or at least on a regular basis. By not
assessing this type of sport activity, information may be lacking on true levels
of participation in sport. In addition, basketball is starting to have a more
informal component in Mexico for both males and females, as is volleyball
for females. If the subjects did indeed count these self-organized games in

their list of sports, then the prevalence of sport participation may not be so

out of line with prior reports. Nevertheless, this interpretation does beg the

87

question of how many Mexican youth participate in organized sport with
regular practices, games or competitions, and a coach or trainer.

The higher percentages of participation in organized sport in Mexico
City youth compared to United States youth, but relatively low levels of
physical activity (especially in the older males and females) as estimated by
the PAQ-A also beg the following questions: How active are these youth in
sport? Do they exercise or train regularly? Do they practice at all? What is the
frequency and duration of training or regular exercise? None of these
questions were really addressed with the instruments used in the study.
Similar questions arise with American youth, and energy expenditure is
rarely documented. In a study of mid-Michigan youth 12-14 years of age, the
percentage of estimated total daily energy expenditure attributed to
participation in organized sport was 20% for males and 16% for females. The
percentage of energy expenditure in moderate-to-vigorous activity which was
attributed to youth sport participation was 55% and 65% for males and
females, respectively (Katzmarzyk and Malina, 1998a). Thus, youth who
participated in organized sport expended more energy in physical activity
than youth who did not participate in organized sport. Thus, if urban
Mexican youth are similar to mid-Michigan youth, the amount of energy
expended by sport participants may be greater than that expended by non-
sport participants. However, urban Mexican youth who participate in sport

do not differ from non-participants in the PAQ-A score. It is possible that the

88

PAQ—A is not as sensitive as the three day diary used in the study of Michigan
youth.

A serious confounder for sport participation and physical activity in
the present sample, is the level of air pollution in Mexico City. Air quality in
Mexico City is generally not very good. During the time of the study, for
example, fires in the state of Chiapas in southern Mexico caused tremendous
respiratory and throat problems in Mexico City. While air contamination is
listed by very few youth as a reason for not participating in sport during the
previous week, there were relatively high percentages of individuals who
mentioned sore throats (13% of males and 10% of females) and flu (14% of
males and 33% of females) as the reason for not participating in sport or
physical activity (Table 30). These may be related to the level of pollution in

Mexico City.

Sport and Activity Preferences

The three top ranking physical activities in which males participate
one or more times per week are soccer, running, and walking. Skipping,
running and walking are the activities in which the majority of the girls
participate one or more times per week.

There are several differences in the reported activities of males when
the sample is divided into two age groups, 9-13 and 14-18 years. Soccer ranks
first among younger boys, but fourth among older boys. It appears that fitness

activities (walking and running) are more common for older boys, while

89

team sports (soccer and basketball) are more important for younger boys.
Fitness and play activities (running, walking, skipping and skating) are
preferred over sports among the top three reported activities for both younger
and older girls.

The results of sport and activity preferences are slightly different if a
more stringent criterion of 2 3 times per week is used to rank activities. The
percentagelof participants changes considerably, but the rank order changes
only slightly. It seems more accurate to use the more strict criterion since
participating in something one or two times a week does not necessarily
mean it is a habitual activity. Participating in something 2 3 times per week,
however, would seem to suggest a more likely preference for an activity
instead of a one time trial. Nevertheless, the differences are so slight that
using a one time per week criterion for this urban Mexican sample would
have been adequate to determine what sports are preferred on a regular basis.

For the sake of comparison with a Brazilian study using a similar
survey instrument (da Silva, 1998), the percentages presented are those for
participating in an activity 2 1 time per week. The top three ranked sports or
activities in which urban Mexican males participate one or more times per
week in the prior week are, in order, soccer (82%), running (80%) and walking
(72%). Younger males, 9-13 years, choose soccer (87%), running (82%) and
basketball (75%) as the top three, while older males, 14 -18 years, choose
walking (78%), running (76%), and soccer (75%). Brazilian males 14 and 15

years indicate similar preferences. The top two sports for males are soccer

90

(76% and 75%, respectively) and running (62% for both ages). In 14 year old
males, walking and bicycling (59%) tie for third, while in 15 year old males
walking is third (55%) and bicycling (53%) is fourth (da Silva, 1998).

Urban Mexican females rank skipping (79%), running (75%) and
walking (74%) as the top three activities in which they participate _>_ 1 time per
week. Younger females, 9-13 years, choose skipping (84%), running (81%) and
skating (74%), and older females choose walking (76%), skipping (67%) and
running (60%). Brazilian girls prefer dancing or walking more than any other
activity, although girls 14 years of age rank dancing first (64%) and walking
second (62%). The reverse is the case for the 15 year old girls: 72% prefer to

walk and 56% prefer to dance (da Silva, 1998).

Reasons for Sport Participation

While males and females may differ slightly in the overall order of
their stated reasons for participating in sport, the top reasons are the same.
Fun is a very important motivation for sport participation in both males and
females, regardless of age or SES. Physical fitness and exercise are also
indicated as important reasons for Mexico City youth to participate in sport.

Males and females differ significantly on four reasons for participating
in school sponsored sports. Females rank the need to have something to do
higher than males. Males want to go to a higher level of competition, to be
p0pular, and to attract the attention of girls. On the other hand, males score

higher than females on five reasons for non-school sport participation. In the

91

non-school sponsored sport category, males are more interested in external
rewards for sport such as travel, attention and popularity.

The top ten reasons given by these urban Mexican youth and like-aged
samples in the United States (Ewing and Seefeldt, 1988) tend to be very
similar (Table 51). United States males and females 10-18 years participate in
sport to have fun as their primary reason. United States youth also indicate
skill, exercise, fitness, competition, and social components as other reasons
for participating in sport. However, United States youth also indicate "to play
as a part of a team" among the top ten reasons for participating in sport, while
urban Mexican youth do not. When the urban Mexican sample is divided by
gender, a social component is present for females, i.e., they play sport to be
with their friends (Table 11).

The United States survey also reports reasons for participation in sport
by ethnicity. Hence, the responses of Mexico City youth can be compared with
Mexican Americans to determine whether the trends in reasons for sport
participation are similar. The top ten responses indicated by the current
sample are presented with the United States sample _of Mexican American
youth (Ewing and Seefeldt, 1988) in Table 51. Mexican American youth 10-18
years also list having fun as the top reason for participating in sport. It is
followed by developing skills and staying in shape. Competition is also
important to the Mexican American youth; much like with the urban
Mexican youth. These two samples indicate three competition-related

reasons among the top ten. Again, ”to play as a part of a team" is present

92

among the top ten for Mexican American youth, but it does not surface
among the top ten reasons of the Mexican sample.

Not surprisingly, males and females in Mexico City prefer to participate
in different sports. Males tend to prefer soccer and basketball, and females
prefer basketball and skating. The different preferences are congruent with
United States data (Branta et al., 1987; Ewing and Seefeldt, 1996). The top
three choices for United States youth 10-18 years of age are baseball, basketball
and American football for males, while girls prefer swimming, softball and
basketball (Ewing and Seefeldt, 1988).

Cultural characteristics help define what activities are popular within a
given group. Among United States adults, urban Blacks and Whites tended
to be more active than Hispanics, who participated in more sedentary
activities such as sitting and talking (Hutchinson, 1987). However, when
participation rates in soccer, basketball, baseball and tennis were assessed,
Hispanics had higher participation rates than the other two groups. The
current study also shows that soccer is the most played sport by males,
followed by basketball, while females tend to participate in basketball more
often than other sports. Hispanic youth 10-18 years of age from various cities
in the United States prefer basketball, baseball, volleyball and swimming; the

data were not, however, partitioned by gender within ethnic group (Ewing

and Seefeldt, 1988).

93

Goal Orientation in Sport Participation

While task orientation and ego orientation factors are evident in this
sample of urban Mexican youth sport participants, the loading of items on
each specific factor does not occur in the same manner as in previous studies
of American high school athletes from several sports (Duda, 1989). American
male and female high school athletes differ significantly in task and ego
orientation; males score significantly higher in ego orientation and females
score significantly higher in task orientation (Duda, 1989). Mean scores for
task orientation for the American high school athletes are 4.28 i 0.47 for
males and 4.45 i 0.80 for females. Mean ego orientation scores, 2.89 1; 0.87 for
males and 2.59 _+_ 0.96 for females, are also higher than those in the current
study, again keeping in mind that the number of items in the factors differs
between studies (Duda, 1989).

In a study of 10-year old British school youth, males scored 3.94 i. 0.39
on task and 3.56 i 0.80 on ego orientation, while females scored 3.89 i 0.80
and 3.14 i 0.76 on task and ego orientation, respectively. Males and females
only differ significantly on ego orientation (Duda et al., 1992). The current
study shows no gender difference in Mexican youth in task orientation
(males, 3.87 i 0.89; females, 3.96 i 0.88), but males score higher for ego
orientation than females, 2.56 i 0.97 and 2.27 i 0.91, respectively. However,
both task and ego orientation scores are, on average, lower than scores for
Duda's (1989) sample of high school athletes, and the ego orientation scores

are lower in Mexican youth than in 10 year old British youth (Duda et al.,

94

1992). Note, however, that it is only possible to observe general trends in this
comparison since the number of items in the studies differs. The analysis for
the current study used a modified TEOSQ, with two items dropped due to
cross-loading and failure to reach the criterion.

Cultural variation may also contribute to the observed differences. For
example, in a study of Korean middle school athletes (13.9 i 0.92 years), using
a different modification of the TEOSQ, task orientation scores were 4.01 :t 0.58
for males and 3.96 i 0.54 for females. The ego orientation scores were 3.59 _-I;
0.73 for males and 3.46 1; 0.63 for females (Kim and Gill, 1997). The Korean
males and females did not differ significantly on either task or ego
orientation. While the ego orientation scores of Korean youth are
substantially higher than those in both the current study and that of Duda
(1989), this may again be due to the modification of the factors, since only 10
of the 13 items were used in the Korean study. Due to the fact that this was a
group of interscholastic athletes, and their success depended on being
externally judged as better than other athletes, the ego orientation may have
been higher than it would be in samples that were not athletes.

A comparative study of 67 Jordanian and 65 American youth (males
and females 11-17 years of age) showed that Americans and Jordanians
differed in stated reasons for sport participation and goal orientation
(Hayajneh, 1989). Top reasons for sport participation among Americans
included having fun and learning new things, while popularity, travel and

the social components of sport were top reasons for Jordanians. In addition,

95

American youth showed more task orientation in achievement motivation
and Jordanians showed _more social approval (ego) orientation (Hayajneh,
1989). However, the questions were not part of an established instrument, but
rather were developed and modified specifically for the Jordanian population.

Another consideration is the relationship between the task and ego
orientation factors. While Duda (1989) did factor analyses with both
orthogonal and oblique rotations, since the correlation between factors was
quite low, an orthogonal rotation was ultimately used. In over 70 published
studies which used the TEOSQ, or a translated version of it, an orthogonal
rotation of the factors was ultimately used during the factor analyses (Duda
and Whitehead, 1998). The factor analysis for the current study was also run
with an orthogonal rotation due to a relatively low inter-factor correlation
(r = 0.23, p = 0.01); however, this may not be the most appropriate method for
all studies. In both the current study and that of Kim and Gill (1997), the
factors were both positively and significantly correlated with each another. It
may be that urban Mexican youth, and possibly Korean youth as well, are
linking items differently than American youth. For example, the ”fun” item
did not score high enough on either factor in the current study to qualify for
inclusion. This may be because the population associates fun with task and
Ego, not just with one or the other.

Considering that studies of motivation for sport and goal orientation
have been conducted across sport and with many United States populations,

it is interesting that cross-cultural work with the instruments has only

96

recently been reported. The results also beg the question: What does fun
mean in different cultures? The factor analyses of both the sport motivation
questionnaire and the TEOSQ in the current study showed that the data do
not fit the hypothesized structure of either the sport participation factors or
the TEOSQ well. Kim and Gill (1997) also noted this with Korean youth and
thus used a specifically modified version of the TEOSQ. It may be that a
modified version of the TEOSQ and the sport motivation questionnaires
would also be more appropriate for Mexico.

It seems logical that the American form of the TEOSQ, 13 items which
load onto task orientation and ego orientation factors, does differ from one
sample to another, particularly when there is also cultural variation. Urban
Mexican females, for example, group competition items with social items. It
may be that competition is only used in a social context in Mexico for females.
The qualitative differences which appear in the responses of urban Mexican
youth to the TEOSQ (in contrast to those of American youth) are consistent
with the argument of Maehr and Nicholls (1980). The authors argue that
surveys, concepts, and task orientation models developed for American
youth are insufficient for understanding the nature of achievement
motivations of youth in other countries (Maehr and Nicholls, 1980). While
achievement orientation for sport does exist in Mexico City youth, it may be
that the TEOSQ is not the appropriate tool to assess it. Success and failure are
culturally-specific concepts, whether in sport, business, or life in general.

Within the United States, for example, Mexican American children have

97

been found to stress cooperative behavior when their motivation is assessed
in a scholastic context (Knight and Kagan, 1977), and they may be less
competitive than either Black American or Anglo American children in a
scholastic context (Kagan and Zahn, 1983). Behavioral choices of Mexican
Americans may also hold true for Mexican nationals, but the current study
was not developed to ascertain this. Rather than continuing to use the
TEOSQ in the Mexican population, it may be more beneficial to first
determine what constitutes success and failure in sport in Mexican culture. Is
playing enough? Or must one play well? Or must one win?

An additional point which may contribute to the differences in task
and ego orientation scores between the Mexican, American, and Korean
studies is sport participants versus athletes. While the urban Mexican sample
was sport participants, the other two samples contained high school and
junior high school athletes. The American sample included athletes from
basketball, track and field, tennis, and softball. The Korean sample included
athletes from a wide range of sports from basketball to wrestling; the Korean
athletes were very active in their sports, participating for an average of 28.0 i
9.5 hours per week. The results from the sample of British school children,
however, appear more similar to the current study because the British
children were described as sport participants. It is possible that there may be
no quantitative difference between those who are sport participants and those

who are athletes in the two studies, they may all consider themselves

98

athletes. However, the question does arise of whether athletes view their task
and ego orientation differently than sport participants.

Another possibility is that more than two factors exist in goal
orientation in sport for some populations. When the TEOSQ is used with
non-elite samples (such. as recreational sport or physical education classes),
the task orientation domain sometimes splits into two factors rather than
one. This tendency is often not discovered with confirmatory factor analyses,
or when a two factor-solution EFA are run (Duda and Whitehead, 1998).

The cultural specificity of the factors used to assess sport motivation
orientation or motivation for participation should also be considered. It is
difficult to compare across studies if different factors for participation are
used, much like the issue between Mexican males and females in the specific
items that load on factors for both the TEOSQ and the sport motivation
questionnaire. It was not possible to statistically compare males and females
when gender-specific factor analyses were run. While factor 1 was a
recognition/ external rewards factor and had nine items for males, the
recognition/ external rewards factor for females had only six items.
Comparisons, therefore, can only be done in a qualitative manner. It seems
logical that instruments developed in one country may not give the same
results in another country; therefore, qualitative assessment of the differences
may be a necessity. Again, the problems with the instruments may be in their
cultural-specificity. It is not unlikely that success and enjoyment in sport

means one thing in the United States, but could mean something rather

99

different in Mexico, although similarities also exist. However, when females
in Mexico group social items with competition items, and this trend does not
appear in American youth, it makes cross-cultural comparisons more difficult

to assess quantitatively.

Reasons for Discontinuing Sport

The age trends in sport participation for the current study mirror, to a
large extent, those in the United States (Ewing and Seefeldt, 1996). The
decline in sport participation and level of physical activity with age probably
reflects many things. For example, high school age students may just have
too many other things going on in their lives. While after school jobs are
rather common in the United States, they appear to be less so in Mexico City.
However, domestic chores and homework seem to be much more important
in the responses of the Mexican students. Homework demands also increase
as a child progresses through school. Thus, it makes sense that the older
students would devote more time to study than younger students. In the
context of variation in physical activity among United States girls of different
ethnic groups, Wolf et a1. (1993) suggested a possible devaluation of physical
activity in Hispanic and Asian females, or possibly more emphasis on
academics in the two cultures.

The time commitment of sport is a major concern for urban Mexican
youth. Mexican youth are apparently concerned that sport participation takes

up too much time, and that it may decrease the time available for study. But,

100

females indicate the need for more time to study than males. Coaching
concerns, pressure to win and lack of interest also surface as reasons for
discontinuing sport.

Concerns related to coaching also surfaced as reasons for dropping out
of sport for American youth (Ewing and Seefeldt, 1988). Canadian males and
females 7-19 years of age who discontinued sport participation stated that the
emphasis of the program was the problem. The program was too serious,
with too much emphasis on winning and being the best. Coaching factors
such as. favoritism, yelling at players, leaving people out, and pushing too
hard also contributed to discontinuation of sport (Orlick, 1974).

Using gender-specific samples for both urban Mexican and the total
sample of United States youth (Ewing and Seefeldt, 1988), the order differs for
the top ten reasons for dropping out of sport, but few of the items differ (Table
52). Mean scores are not provided for the United States youth; hence, they are
not presented for the Mexican youth in this table. While urban Mexican
males dropped out because they could not make it to practices and games and
because they needed more time to study, American males dropped out
because they were no longer interested and because the sport was no longer
fun (Ewing and Seefeldt, 1988). Time commitment, pressure, and coaching
issues were also common to males and females, both Mexican and American.
At variance with the United States data, urban Mexican males and females
dropped out of sport because they could not afford to play and practice in their

Sport year round. In addition, Mexican females dropped out because they did

101

not get to play much. In contrast to the Mexican youth, American males and
females discontinued sport participation because they were tired of playing
and because they felt that the coach played favorites (Ewing and Seefeldt,
1988)

When the reasons for dropping out of sport reported by Mexican
American youth and the current sample are compared, the top ten responses
do not appear to differ very much (Table 53). For Mexican Americans, the fact
that they were not having fun was the most important reason for dropping
out of sport. Coaching issues, time issues, emphasis on winning and too
much pressure were also listed. Though in a slightly different order, all of
these issues are also pertinent to urban Mexican youth. In addition, Mexican
youth dropped out of sport because they wanted to participate in other, non-
sport activities, and they could not afford to play and practice all year-round.
The items which appear as reasons for discontinuing sport for Mexican
American youth, and which are not among the top ten reasons for Mexican
youth, are that Mexican American youth perceived their ability at the sport as
less than other players, and that the coach only played his / her favorites
(Ewing and Seefeldt, 1988).

Comparisons of the top ten changes which would cause youth to
return to sport are presented for. Mexican and American youth in Table 54.
Mexican youth would return to sport if it did not interfere with their studies
(ranked lst for males and females), while American youth would return to

sport if practices were more fun (ranked 1st for males and females). Three

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items which are on the top ten for Mexican youth are not on the list for
American youth and three items on the list for American youth are not on
the list for Mexican youth. Mexican youth want closer or more numerous
practice facilities, less demand on their time, and more variation in the
competition level available in the leagues. American youth want the coaches
to yell less and to understand the game better, and want less emphasis on
winning in the sport program (Ewing and Seefeldt, 1988). It appears that
Mexican youth feel that they do not have enough access to places to play
sport, while this is not a primary problem for American youth. However,
this may represent an urban stricture more than a cultural difference.
Responses to the statement ” I would return to sport if...” in urban
Mexican and Mexican American youth are presented in Table 55. Changes in
sport which would make Mexican American youth return to sport include
making the practices more fun, better understanding from coaches, more
playing time and less conflict with time needed for schoolwork (Ewing and
Seefeldt, 1988). Less emphasis on winning is also important for Mexican
American youth if they are to return to sport, this item is not in the top ten
for urban Mexican youth. On the other hand, time conflicts and reducing the
demands of sport characterize the top five responses indicated by Mexican

youth before they would return to sport.

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Physical Activity

Mean scores on the PAQ-A in the current sample of males and females
14-18 years are 2.6 i- 0.7 and 2.2 i 0.7, respectively. They are similar to mean
scores for Canadian youth 13-20 years, 2.5 _+_; 0.7 for males and 2.1 i. 0.5 for
females (Kowalski et al., 1997b), and slightly higher than mean scores for 14-15
year old Brazilian adolescents, 2.2 i 0.5 and 2.0 i 0.6, for males and females,
respectively (da Silva, 1998). In addition, both the current study and the
Brazilian study deleted the last item which is a frequency of how many times
per week activities are performed. Thus, the small differences between
Mexican youth and Canadian youth may be methodological. The Brazilian
youth, however, seem to be less active than either of the other two groups,
although the age range is restricted compared to the other two studies.
Nevertheless, it may also be that a larger age range would give activity scores
closer to those of the Mexican and Canadian samples. Activity levels may be
decreasing in Brazilian youth 14-15 years of age.

The correlations between the PAQ—A and the activity rating (question
10 in the PAQ-A) are similar in urban Mexican youth (r = 0.45) and urban
Brazilian youth (r = 0.40) (da Silva, 1998), but lower than the correlation in
Canadian youth (r = 0.65) (Kowalski et al., 1997b). Again, the small differences
could be the exclusion of the last item in two of the studies, or it could be due,
in part, to the smaller Canadian sample.

Activity choices in the instrument, the phrasing of the questions in

translation, and the restricted scale for scoring each question perhaps

104

contribute to the variation in scores. The activity choices were modified for
both the Brazilian and Mexican studies, but culturally specific items that
would alter activity scores may have been inadvertently omitted. For
example, among high school boys in southern California, weight lifting is a
very common activity (Sallis et al., 1996); yet in the setting of Mexico City, it
was one of the least popular choices for both males and females.
Weightlifting, therefore, had a large percentage of non-participants. Another
sport or activity may have received a higher percentage, and in turn may
have increased activity scores. Soccer, for example, had high percentages of
participation for urban Mexican males; if it had been omitted from the
survey, the sample would have appeared less active. The best way to

~ determine what sports might have been missed would be to ask the youth to
list the sports in which they participate, rather than providing the sports. A

more accurate assessment could then feasibly be made.

Gender Differences in Physical Activity
In Mexico, a somewhat heavier female body image is seen as more
healthy and desirable than in the United States (Harris and Koehler, 1992).
Exercise is also reportedly less accepted for females than males in the Mexican
American culture (Sallis et al., 1988a; Sowers et al., 1995). The urban Mexican
school age females in this study are less likely to be sport participants and are
likely to have lower levels of physical activity, especially among high school

girls. In the past, Mexican girls between 12 and 15 years of age were expected

105

to give up their friends and play habits, and devote themselves to household
chores (Lewis, 1960). While this is no longer the case, the 15th birthday
(quince ms) of Mexican females is still of particular importance in the
culture. The formalized stylistic celebration of this birthday is often a church
ceremony followed by a reception to which the quincefiera and her da_m_a_s
(ladies) are escorted; the guingefiera then dances with all of her male kin. A
new long dress, heels, and jewelry of an adult all indicate that this is the
entrance of the quincefiera into young womanhood. Following this
celebration, the young woman may now be formally courted by a boyfriend
(Fisher, 1973). While most celebrations are no longer as formal, the birthday
itself is still celebrated and the idea of this being a transition from child into
young woman is still honored (Werner, 1997).

In addition, adolescents in many countries, both male and female,
have lower levels of physical activity than pre-adolescents (Reynolds et al.,
1990; Pate et al., 1994; Malina, 1995). There is a negative association between
physical activity and age in adolescent females and males (Aaron et al., 1993;
Ewing and Seefeldt, 1988; Andersen et al., 1998), and results of the current
study are consistent. In the current study of urban Mexican youth, the
association between activity score and age is -0.17 in males and -0.25 in
females. While females are less active than males, the relative decline with
age appears similar.

Adolescents often have other things in their daily routines than sport

and physical activity. Females in Mexico City seem especially concerned

106

about their grades, to the extent that they often choose not to play sport so as
not to compromise their studies. While in the past, females in Latin America
did not continue their education much past high school (Sivard, 1995), this
may be changing in Mexico. The mean number of years in school increased
for both males and females between 1970 and 1990. In 1970 the mean number
of years in school was 5.44 for males and 4.43 for females. In 1990 the
respective means were 8.02 years for males and 7.25 years for females (INEGI,
1992). Perhaps the need of females to keep up with their studies is due to

their desire to continue in school.

SES Variation

There are few differences in sport preferences among youth in the
three SES categories used in the present study. However, the choices are
ordered somewhat differently by SES. Soccer, basketball, and swimming are
the top three choices for males of all three SES categories, but soccer is first
and basketball second for low and middle SES males, while swimming is first
for high SES males, basketball second and soccer third. Track and field ranks
6th, 10th and 11th for low, middle and high SES males, respectively, and
tennis ranks 10th, 8th, and 5th, respectively. In an early study by Greendorfer
(1978), female college athletes in the lower SES tended to be team sport
participants, while individual and dual sport participants were more likely to
be from a high SES. In addition, adults from a low SES background in the

United States indicated higher preference for individualized, non-

107

competitive sport (Cauley et al., 1991). Although the current study was with
youth 9-18 years instead of college students or adults, the results of activity
preference in urban Mexican youth showed that lower SES males seem to
prefer team sport activities slightly more than higher SES, but the trend is not
apparent in females.

High SES urban Mexican males preferred to participate in swimming
more than 'low and middle SES levels (84% for high SES, 43% for middle SES
and 38% for low SES). Boys in the middle and low SES groups preferred
soccer. The sample size for the high SES was smaller than for the other two
categories, and perhaps this preference only applies to swimming, in contrast
to other individual versus team sports. As in other countries, swimming in
Mexico City is rather costly in time and money. For the most part,
participation in swimming in Mexico City must be practiced at private clubs;
thus, access for low and middle class youth may be limited. The trend for
tennis is the same, with high SES males ranking it higher than youth in the
other two categories.

For females, the top three activity choices are basketball, skating and
swimming for low, middle and high SES categories, although high SES
females rank swimming second, while the other two categories rank it third.
Gymnastics is ranked fourth for the low and middle SES females, and
volleyball is fourth for the high SES females. In contrast to males, females
did not seem to rank the individual sports of tennis and track and field

differently by SES category. Low, middle and high SES females ranked track

108

and field 5th, 11th and 6th, respectively, while tennis was ranked 11th, 6th,

and 8th, respectively. The access to practice facilities and coaches may differ by

social class, and thus influence sport preferences, the current study was not

designed to assess this possibility.

Parental Activity

There is a positive relationship between parental exercise and a child's
exercise patterns (Gottlieb and Chen, 1985; Moore et al., 1991). However, the
current study looked at the question a bit differently. Perceived activity status
of the youth’s mother (as a yes/ no answer to 'is your mother active?‘ and 'in
what sport is she active?') was a significant predictor of activity level for
males and females, although it only accounted for a small percentage of the
variance (1% to 7%). This seems logical. It may be that in societies where
athletic females are not a completely accepted norm, the influence of a
regularly active mother might be strong for her daughters. For males in the
current study, perceived activity status of the mother also predicted activity,
but to a lesser extent (1% of the variance). However, in high SES females, the
perceived physical activity status of the father was also a predictor of activity
score (4% of the variance).

In another study, preschool children of active mothers and fathers
were 5.8 times more likely to be active than children whose parents were

inactive (Moore et al., 1991). In contrast, a study of United States grade school

109

boys and girls showed no correlation between children’s self-report of activity
and their parents exercise habits (McMurray et al., 1993). The same study also
found a weak link between the mother's self-reported activity and the \OlO2
max of her children. For 11-14 year old American girls, participation in
community sport, enjoyment of school physical education classes, race, and
perception of mother's activity level were significant predictors of vigorous
physical activity (Trost et al., 1997).

The influence of family members on the activity of youth cannot be
overemphasized; nor should it be disregarded when educators are trying to
get and keep youth involved in sport or physical activity. Parents and friends
serve as significant role models in many aspects of an individual’s life. Sport
and activity levels are often affected by this influence (Anderssen and Wold,
1992; Bungum and Vincent, 1997). Familial and outside support also
contributes to the maintenance of regular exercise patterns. In addition,
when families are active together, it becomes an activity sharing event, which
tends to prolong the involvement in activity. Lack of parental activity, even
in preschool children, may already be influencing activity levels of the

children (Sallis et al., 1988).

Barriers to Physical Activity
In the current sample, females tend to be less active than males, and
older females (15-18 years) are the least active of all groups. Future research

and application may need to focus on ways to alter these trends. Adult

llO

women in Mexico run the same risks for diabetes, obesity and cardiovascular
risk factors as do men (Sowers et al., 1995). It would only benefit the female
portion of the population if they were taught as youngsters how to be active
and how to maintain a physically active lifestyle.

For 11-14 year old girls in South Carolina, self-efficacy in overcoming
barriers was a significant predictor of vigorous and moderate to vigorous
physical activity. Overcoming barriers was also a predictor for vigorous
physical activity in boys (Trost et al., 1997). The perceived barriers, however,
differed between genders. Similar to the current study of urban Mexican
females, overcoming barriers related to homework obligations were primary
for the United States sample of girls. The activity of the boys, on the other
hand, was more closely linked with their confidence in their ability to be

active despite poor weather conditions (Trost et al., 1997).

Television and Video Games

The estimated time of television viewing in the current sample of
Mexico City youth is 3.1 i 2.2 hours per day for males and 2.9 _t. 2.0 hours per
day for females. Of those who reported playing video games the average time
spent per day is 2.5 i 2.2 hours for males and 1.8 i 1.7 hours for females.
Mean time spent viewing television and playing video games does not differ
between sport and non-sport participants, and there is no consistent pattern of
differences among youthlclassified by physical activity level. Males and

females do not differ in television viewing time, but they do differ in time

111

spent playing video games; males spend more time playing video games in
both the younger (9-13 years) and older (14-18 years) age groups (Table 31).

Television viewing and video game playing are forms of physical
inactivity, and as such have public health relevance. Some data suggest that
those who watch more television are fatter (Dietz and Gortmaker, 1985;
Andersen et al., 1998), while others find no relationship (Robinson et al.,
1993). There is a weak but significant relationship between television
viewing time and obesity among males and females 12-17 years from the
third cycle of the National Health Examination Survey (NHES), 1966-1970
(Dietz and Gortmaker, 1985). Data for youth 8-16 years assessed in the third
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES HI), 1992-
1994, suggest that viewing television for four hours per day was not associated
with the BMI or trunk skinfolds in females. However, males and females
with a higher BMI and trunk skinfolds reported watching more television on
the previous day (Andersen et al., 1998). On the other hand, no meaningful
relationship was found for either television time and obesity, or television
time and baseline activity levels for 6th and 7th grade adolescent females in
northern California (Robinson et al., 1993).

Data from the Quebec Family Study (QFS) 1978-1981, showed that
Canadian boys 9-18 years spent 2.3 hours per day watching television and girls
spent 2.4 hours per day (Katzmarzyk et al., 1998). When broken down by age
group, males 9-12 years in the QFS watched 120 i 62 minutes of television per

day and males 15-18 years watched 123 _t 75 minutes per day (Katzmarzyk et

112

al., 1998). Urban Mexican males 9-13 years from the current study watched an
estimated 192 i 138 minutes per day and males 15-18 years watched 179 i 126
minutes per day. For females 9-12 and 15-18 years of age from the QFS, the
mean time watching television was 112 i 67 and 125 i: 80 minutes per day,
respectively (Katzmarzyk et al., 1998). Urban Mexican females 9-13 years
watched an estimated 186 i: 132 minutes per day and those 15-18 years
watched 150 i 102 minutes per day. Thus, the estimate of time spent
watching television for urban Mexican males and females is higher than for
Canadian youth, although the studies are also separated by almost 20 years in
time and television viewing has become more prevalent. In Mexican youth,
however, the younger age groups of both sexes appear to watch more
television than the older groups. The older Canadians, on the other hand,
appear to watch more television than the younger Canadians.

The analysis of the QFS study also found no significant relationship
between time spent viewing television and estimated moderate to vigorous
physical activity. The partial correlations, controlling for age, are -0.13 for
males '9-12 years, -0.04 for males 13-15 years, and -0.16 for males 16-18 years
(Katzmarzyk et al., 1998a). In the current study of urban Mexican youth, the
correlations between time spent watching television and the PAQ—A are also
not significant, and are slightly lower than those from the QFS study: -0.05 for
males 9-13 years and -0.03 for males 15-18 years. The correlations for females
from the QFS study are -0.09 for females 9-12 years, 0.04 for females 13-15

years, and -0.09 for females 16-18 years (Katzmarzyk et al., 1998a). The current

113

sample of Mexican females also show no trend. For females 9-13 years, the
partial correlation between the time spent watching television and the PAQ-
A, controlling for age, is < 0.001, and that for females 15-18 years it is -0.05.
Part of the objection to excess television time is that there is less time to
participate in physical activity, and many more opportunities to consume
excess calories. The current study, however, showed no difference in time
spent watching television by sport participation status in urban Mexican
youth. The obverse of this is shown in Mid-Michigan male and female
middle school students, 12- 14 years, who participated in organized youth
sport; the sport participants watched significantly less television per day than

non-participants (Katzmarzyk and Malina, 1998a).

Body Size and Overweight

Mean statures of urban Mexican youth fall close to the United States
reference medians from 9-13 years in males and from 9-12 years in females;
they are below the reference medians at older ages (Figures 1 and 2). Mean
body weights are slightly above the reference medians for 9-13 year old males
and for 9-12 year old females, but they approximate the reference medians at
older ages (Figures 3 and 4). On average, the BMIs of urban Mexican youth
are above United States reference medians at all ages (Figures 5 and 6). The
small samples of 13 and 14 year old youth may limit the comparisons between

the current study and other studies at their ages.

114

Mean weights of urban Mexican youth are compared With those of
youth 6-12 years from Sonora in northwestern Mexico (Pefia Reyes, 1995;
Ovando Hernandez, 1995) and Veracruz on the central gulf coast of Mexico
(Pena Reyes et al., 1999) in Figure 10. The sample from Sonora includes 293
males and females 6-11 years of age, and that from Veracruz includes 346
males and females 7-12 years of age. All three Mexican samples exceed the
United States reference medians for body weight (Hamill et al., 1977). They
also exceed the medians for Mexican Americans in the Hispanic Health and
Nutrition Examination Survey (HHANES; Roche et al., 1990). The Mexican
youth, however, are more similar to the Mexican Americans than the United
States reference values which are based primarily on American White youth.
Stature does not appear to differ among the three Mexican samples, Mexican
American youth, and the United States reference values (Figure 11).

Mean BMIs of the current sample for 9-12 year old youth are plotted
against those from Sonora (Pena Reyes, 1995; Ovando Hernandez, 1995) and
Veracruz, Mexico (Pena Reyes et al., 1999) in Figure 12. The mean BMIs of the
three recent samples from different regions of Mexico are rather similar, and
are greater than both the United States reference (Must et al., 1977), and
HHANES (Roche et al., 1990). Thus, the present sample of urban Mexican
youth is not atypical. Rather, the data for Mexico suggest an emerging public
health issue with increased levels of overweight in Mexican youth.

The percentage of urban Mexican youth classified as overweight (BMI 2

95th percentile of United States reference values, Himes and Dietz, 1994)

115

appears high (Table 48). The problem seems to be especially apparent in the
younger children in this sample, particularly males. Eighteen percent of
males 9-13 years are classified as overweight compared to only 5% of males 15-
18 years. Corresponding percentages for females by age group are 10% and 3%,
respectively. The percentage of the sample at risk of overweight (2 85th and <
95th) is also rather high, 20% of males 9-13 years and 17% of males 15-18 years.
The prevalences for girls are similar, 19% for the younger girls and 14% for
the older girls.

The prevalences of overweight in Mexican American males 6-11 and
12-17 years from NHANES III (BMI 2 95th percentile NHES II and NHES III)
are 17.4% and 14.6%, respectively (Troiano and Flegal, 1998). The
corresponding data for females are 14.3% and 13.7%, respectively (Troiano
and Flegal, 1998). Compared to Mexican American youth in NHANES HI, the
prevalence of overweight (BMI _>_ 95th percentile) is lower in the current
sample of urban Mexican youth, with the exception of males 9-13 years, who
are equivalent to the NHANES III sample.

The current study of urban Mexican youth seems to have much in
common with the prevalence of obesity in Native Americans, although
different cut-off points are used to indicate overweight. Estimates of the
prevalence of obesity (2 90th percentile of WHO reference values) in male
Native Americans ranges from 14% in a Chippewa group to 74% in an

unidentified southwest tribe. Prevalence of obesity in female Native

116

Americans ranges from 11% in the Chippewa to 78% in the Southwest tribe
(Malina, 1993; Broussard et al., 1991).

A secular change towards increased adiposity over time seems to have
occurred. Self-reported heights and weights from a health survey of
adolescent Native Americans (including Alaskan Natives) revealed that
24.5% of the males and 25.0% of the females 12-18 years of age had BMIs >95th
percentile of age- and sex- specific United States reference values, and were
thus classified as obese (Broussard et al., 1991). A First Nation Canadian
sample of youth 5-19 years had a prevalence of risk of overweight and
overweight (2 85th percentile NHANES H) of 28.6% for males and 29.4% for
females (Katzmarzyk and Malina, 1998b). While relatively high compared to
Canadians of European descent from the same community, the percentages
for males are still less than the sample of urban Mexican males 9-13 years
(38%). Urban Mexican females 9-13 years have a prevalence of the risk of
overweight and of overweight which approximates that of the First Nation
sample (29%). The older age groups of urban Mexican youth have lower
prevalence of BMI 2 85th percentile (22% for males and 17% for females).
Note, however, these comparisons are limited because the First Nation data
were not partitioned by age group comparable to the present study.

In the context of sport and activity, there are no differences in the BMI
of sport participants and non-sport participants in this sample of urban
Mexican youth. The BMI also does not differ among Mexican youth classified

as inactive, active and very active based on the PAQ-A. It might be expected

ll7

that those with a higher BMI would be less likely to participate in sport and
would have lower levels of physical activity, at least at the extreme ends of
the distribution.

The BMI is a ratio of weight-for-height, with no indication given of
what contributes to the weight, especially excess weight-for-height. The
concern is that the excess weight is in the form of fat; however, some of the
current sample (particularly if they are athletes or just more muscular) may
be heavy for their height due to increased muscle mass, not fatnessf In
addition, the ratio of lean to fat mass changes with growth and maturation so
the BMI is not as accurate for youth as for adults. Nevertheless, the partial
correlations for the BMI and the PAQ-A are negative and significant for the
current sample of urban Mexican males (r = -0.17) and females (r = -0.25),
implying that as the BMI increases, physical activity decreases. Despite their
lower level of physical activity, the data for Brazilian youth show similar
correlations between their PAQ scores and the BMI, r = -0.16 for males and
r = -0.11 for females (da Silva, 1998). This is contrary to what was found in a
portion of the NHANES IH sample. The BMI and the sum of two trunk
skinfolds were similar in boys and girls who were highly active compared to
those who participated in little physical activity (Andersen et al.,1998).

Data from HHANES (1982 to 1984) show trends similar to those in the
current sample. While body weight and the BMI of Mexican American youth
from HHANES are higher than the United States reference median, the

stature of males and females older than 12 years are lower (Roche et al., 1990).

118

The prevalence of overweight in the current study appears to be less than in a
recent national study of adolescents who were measured between 1994 and
1996, although the age categories differ. In a longitudinal assessment of
~14,000 adolescents from 7th to 12th grade, 32% of the Mexican American
males and females 13-18 years of age have a BMI 2 85th percentile from
NHANES I (Popkin and Udry, 1998).

Percentage of overweight (BMI 2 85th percentile of NHES I) in youth
from New York City (1989-1990) is 40% in second grade males and 34% in fifth
grade males. For the girls, the percentages are 35% and 30%, respectively.
More males are overweight than females, and overweight is associated with
Hispanic origin. About 50% of the youth are of Puerto Rican ancestry.
Among Hispanic youth, 45% of second grade youth and 40% of fifth grade
youth are overweight (Melnik et al., 1998).

The prevalence of risk of overweight (BMI 2 85th percentile of NHES I)
in the older urban Mexican youth (15-18 years) approximates that of Mexican
university students (Casillas and Vargas, 1996). In 15-18 year old urban
Mexican youth, the risk of overweight (BMI 285th percentile < 95th
percentile) for males and females is 17% and 14%, respectively. In the sample
of Mexican university students, it is 18% for both males and females. The
prevalences. of overweight (BMI 2 95th percentile) in the sample of 15-18 year
old Mexican males and females are 5% and 3%, respectively, and for Mexican
university students they are 4% and 3%, respectively (Casillas and Vargas,

1996)

119

Menarche

Median age at menarche, estimated by probits, for the current sample of
Mexico City females is 12.4 years, with confidence intervals (CI) of 12.2 to 12.7
years. Comparative status quo estimates from other urban regions in Mexico,
Brazil, Venezuela, and Argentina, are similar (Table 56). Menarcheal ages of
several urban Mexican samples from the 19605 and early 19703 indicate
median ages at menarche ranging between 12.55 to 12.76 years for samples
ranging in size from 400 to almost 1000 (Malina et al., 1977). A later study of
151 Mexico City females followed longitudinally showed a mean age at
menarche of 12.3 i 1.1 years (Faulhaber, 1984), while a cross sectional study of
almost 6,500 Argentinean schoolgirls yielded a median age at menarche of
12.53 i. 0.05 years (Lejarraga et al., 1980). A review of growth studies in
Venezuela from 1936-1972 revealed a median age of 12.7 years for all studies,
although the age changes slightly with SES. The Venezuelan assessment also
noted a secular decrease in age at menarche of 0.4 years per decade from 1936-
1972 (Lopez Contreras et al., 1981). A probit estimate of Brazilian girls showed
mean ages at menarche ranging from 12.2 i 1.2 to 12.8 i 1.2 years, depending
on SES. The population median for this sample of almost 3500 was 12.6 i 1.3
(Colli, 1988). While median age at menarche in rural areas of Latin America
is higher, the urban populations appear to be consistent. It is likely that the
access to food, sanitation, and medical services in urban centers is relatively
consistent across Latin America, so that ages at menarche would not be

differentially impacted; in rural areas, this may not be the case.

120

The median age at menarche for females in Mexico City is not
markedly different from earlier surveys of urban girls in the region of Mexico
City, however, there is a slight difference. The data from the earlier studies
were collected in the mid to late 19605 based on the publication of the reports.
For the purposes of convenience, secular change was estimated between 1968
and 1998. The data suggest a slight secular decline of about 0.12 years per
decade. This decline may be related to the secular gain in height of 15 year old
girls from 1978 to 1998, which is 0.9 cm per decade (Table 49). The estimated
rate of change in age at menarche is somewhat less than those reported for
European and United States populations, although secular change has ceased
in many of these countries since the 19505 and 19605 (Eveleth and Tanner,
1990). Between 1880 and 1960, the mean age at menarche in European
populations declined by ~ 0.25 years per decade (Tanner, 1977). The decline
has been approximately the same in samples from the United States over the
last century (Eveleth and Tanner, 1990; Malina, 1990). Between 1870 and the
19505, the mean age at menarche for United States females declined by an
estimated 0.24 years per decade, there has been no significant change since the
19505 in American White girls (Wyshak and Frisch, 1982; Herman-Giddons et
aL,1997)

Secular Trends in Body Size

Mean weight and height have increased among Mexican school youth

in the past 72 years, with greater gains in the last 20 years, particularly in body

weight (Table 49; Figures 7 and 8). The gain in weight from 1978 to 1998 has

121

implications for the increasing prevalence of obesity in Mexico. In addition,
there appears to be a slight secular decline in the age at menarche among
urban girls in Mexico.

The current sample of Mexico City school youth approximates the
mean statures and weights of the upper middle class sample of described by
Ramos Galvan (1975). This sample is largely derived from a private pediatric
practice and the majority are economically well off. However, the fact that
the current sample is as heavy and as tall as the sample of Ramos Galvan
(1975) is an indication of improved living conditions in Mexico City.

Relative to other populations in Europe and North America, the
estimated rates of secular change in the height of urban Mexican males are
comparable at younger ages, but less in adolescence. Estimated rates of secular
change in height and weight from various samples and time periods
throughout the world are presented in Tables 57 and 58. The estimated
secular gain of European and North American school age males and females
between 1880 and 1950 is about 1.0 cm in height per decade in childhood (5-7
years) and 2.5 cm per decade during adolescence (Tanner, 1977). For samples
from Japan, Western Europe, Australia, Canada and the United States, the
magnitude of the estimated secular increase in height over the last century is
1.3 cm per decade for boys and girls in late childhood (8-10 years) and 1.9 cm
per decade at mid-adolescence (12-14 years) (Meredith, 1976). Estimated rates
of secular change in stature for Mexican Americans from Brownsville in

south Texas are slightly higher for 9-10 year old males (1.6 cm per decade) and

122

substantially less for adolescents (0.2 cm per decade). The estimated rates of
change in height is less for females over the same time period and for the
same ages (Malina et al., 1987). For English and Scottish youth 5-11 years of
age, the estimated rate of change in height between 1972 and 1990 is 0.7 cm per
decade for English boys and 1.3 cm per decade for Scottish boys. For English
girls, the estimated rate of change is 0.5 cm per decade, and for Scottish girls it
is 1.2 cm per decade (Hughes et al., 1997).

The estimated secular change in stature between 1926 and 1998 in the
current sample of urban Mexican males 10-12 years are comparable to those in
other parts of the world (Table 57). On the other hand, the estimated rates for
changes in height are less for urban Mexican adolescents than those for
European and North American samples, but greater than those for Mexican
American samples in south Texas (Table 58).

Samples of Norwegian, Canadian and American males 10-18 years
were surveyed over intervals of 40-47 years (Meredith, 1976). The gain in
height for Norwegian 10 year olds between 1920 and 1960 was 10.2 cm, for
Canadian Whites between 1892 and 1939 it was 7.9 cm, and for American
Whites between 1880 and 1922-1924 it was 6.2 cm (Meredith, 1976). For
adolescent males (16 years), the respective gains in height were 9.6 cm, 8.4 cm,
and 6.5 cm (Meredith, 1976). Estimated differences in stature for Mexican
American males from Brownsville, Texas between 1928 and 1983 were 5.3 cm
for 9-10 year olds and 1.0 cm for 15-16 year olds (Malina et al., 1987). Urban

Mexican males 10-11 years in 1998 are 7.2 cm taller than Mexican boys in 1926

123

and 2.8 cm taller than Mexican boys in 1978. The adolescent "Mexican males
(15-16 years) from the current study are 5.2 cm taller than Mexico City
adolescent males in 1926 and 2.5 cm taller than those in 1978.

A similar comparison of school age females in Norway, Canada and
the United States indicated the following trends. The average gain in height
for 10 year olds was 8.7 cm for Norwegian girls (1920 to 1960), 7.6 cm for
Canadian Whites (1892 to 1939), and 5.4 cm for American Whites (1880 to
1922-1924) (Meredith, 1976). For 16 year old girls from the same samples, the
gains in height over the time span were 5.5 cm, 3.8 cm, and 2.1 cm,
respectively. Estimated differences in stature for Mexican American females
between 1928 and 1983 were 4.0 cm for 9-10 year olds and -1.4 cm for 15-16 year
olds (Malina et al., 1987). The change in height in the current sample of
urban Mexican females 10-11 years is 6.8 cm between 1926 and 1998, and 4.2
between 1998 and 1978, while the current sample of adolescent Mexican
females (15-16 years) is 4.9 cm taller than Mexican girls in 1926 and 1.8 cm
taller than Mexican girls in 1978.

Estimated rates of secular change in weight are also presented in Tables
57 and 58. Between 1928 and 1983, Mexican American school youth 9-10 years
of age in south Texas gained an estimated 1.4 and 1.3 kg per decade in males
and females, respectively (Malina et al., 1987). For adolescents 15-16 years, the
changes over the same time period were less, 0.9 kg per decade in males and

0.8 kg per decade in females (Malina et al., 1987). The estimated secular

124

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change in weight in the current sample approximates that of the earlier
sample of Mexican American youth in south Texas.

The increase in the prevalence of risk of overweight and overweight
over time is not isolated to urban Mexican youth. The last 20 years have seen
increases in the prevalence of overweight throughout the United States as
well (Troiano and Flegal, 1998). In fact, even within the 6-year course of
. NHANES IH, the data suggest an apparent trend toward an increase in
prevalence of overweight for most of the ages assessed (Troiano and Flegal,
1998). Intrasurvey estimates comparing the prevalence of overweight in the
first three years of NHANES HI (1988-1991) to the last three years showed an
increase of ~2% to 6% for most of the sex, age and racial groups (Troiano at al.,
1995; Troiano and Flegal, 1998).

Similar to the estimated change in the BMI of 9-13 year old urban
Mexican youth over time, weight-for-height indices for English and Scottish
females indicates an increase in 6-11 year olds between 1980 and 1990. The
greatest increase occurred in 9-10 year old females. Slight increases also
occurred in the weight-for-height of males 9-10 years. The estimated secular
change was greater in the Scottish youth than in the English youth (Hughes et
al., 1997). A sample of 7 year old Swedish youth showed no secular change in
the BMI between 1940 and 1950, while a negative trend was apparent from
1950-1970. But from 1970 to 1990, the estimated change in the BMI was

positive in both males and females (Cemerud, 1993).

125

 

 

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Results of an assessment of secular change in weight-for-height
measures in youth in the United States have been equivocal. Between 1879
and 1970, nine year old American boys showed no secular increase in weight-
for-height beyond that associated with a more rapid rate of growth and
maturation. The weight for height of American youth 6-17 years remains
proportional across time (Himes, 1979). According to Harlan et al. (1988), I
there has been no secular change in the BMI in youth 12-17 years of age over
the time span of 1960-1980.

The estimated secular trends in body weight and the BMI for Mexican
youth appear to mirror those of more recent Mexican American samples.
Mexican American youth 1-18 years measured in NHANES 111 (1988-1994) are
significantly heavier and have significantly higher BMIs than Mexican
Americans from HHANES (1982-1984) (Ryan et al., in press).

While the easy explanation for increased prevalence of overweight is
that the population is currently eating too much, and not expending enough
of the excess calories, none of the United States surveys have reported a
consistent increase in caloric intake among youth. Therefore, low levels of
physical activity become even more pertinent to the health of the children.
Unfortunately, data are not apparently available to determine whether urban
Mexican youth are consuming more or fewer calories than in the past.

In the current sample of urban Mexican youth, the estimated increase
in the BMI relative to earlier Mexican samples is of interest (Figure 9). It is

likely that the transition from a diet based on tortillas and beans to one where

126

 

 

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high salt and fat fast foods are readily available and affordable has contributed
to the increase in weight and the BMI over time. The lower level of physical
activity in city dwellers relative to rural residents may also be a contributing
factor. Until fairly recently, even central Mexico was predominantly agrarian,
and physical labor often provided food to eat. However, the fact that it is the
younger age group of urban Mexican youth (9-13 years) which has the higher
prevalence of individuals with elevated BMIs is of interest. It may be that
economic changes which have occurred in Mexico in the last two decades
have been recent and profound enough to benefit the younger school youth
with improved accessibility to food and health care, but may have not
impacted the 15-18 year old youth. Perhaps the reason why the prevalence of
risk of overweight and overweight is less in youth 15-18 years is because at the
time that they were young children the last economic crisis in Mexico
occurred, and the crash of the ”economic miracle” in the early 1980’s may

have impacted their growth potential (Lustig, 1992).

127

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CHAPTER VI
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS

Summary

The purpose of this study was to assess participation patterns and
motivation for sport, and level and types of physical activity in urban
Mexican school youth 9-18 years. In addition, height and weight were
measured to provide an estimate of growth status. Demographic information
(sex, chronological age, neighborhood of residence, grade in school, parental
occupation, and perceived activity status of parents) were obtained. A 7-day
physical activity recall was completed, and heights and weights were
measured for 1095 school youth 9-18 years. Sport participation surveys were
completed by 591 of the students. The sport participation surveys included
items on sport choices, reasons for participation, reasons for discontinuing
participation, reasons for feeling successful in sport, and reasons to return to
sport. The BMI was also calculated from heights and weights, and the females
were asked about their menarcheal status.

The analyses included descriptive statistics (means, standard
deviations, medians, frequencies, and differences between means) for each
variable. Multiple regressions were run to determine what sociodemographic
and biological variables predicted sport participation status and activity level

of the youth. To determine whether differences existed between the

128

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responses of males and females on the questionnaires, multiple analyses of
variance were used, or if the sample was too small, independent t-tests were
used.

Mexican school youth play a variety of sports and most are non-school
sponsored. Only a small percentage participate in school sponsored sports.
Soccer is the most popular sport for males as a whole and by age or SES.
Basketball is also very popular with Mexico City youth, both males and
females. Sport participants and non-participants do not differ in the BMI,
body weight, television viewing time or time playing video games. Sport
participants do, however, have higher activity levels, higher perceived
physical condition, and higher perceived physical activity.

Using a portion of the PAQ—A to assess sport and activity preferences
and weekly participation, soccer and basketball are the preferred sports for
males to play one or more times per week. Running, walking, skipping and
bicycling are activities in which males also like to participate, regardless of
age. Females prefer basketball or volleyball, and their activities of preference
also include skipping, running, walking, and skating. The older girls prefer
dancing over skating.

There is high interest in basketball among both males and females in
Mexico City. While soccer is by far the favorite sport for boys in this sample,
basketball is the second preferred team sport for all ages and the three levels
of SES. For females, basketball is the preferred team sport for all ages and

levels of SES.

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responses of males and females on the questionnaires, multiple analyses of
variance were used, or if the sample was too small, independent t-tests were
used.

Mexican school youth play a variety of sports and most are non-school
sponsored. Only a small percentage participate in school sponsored sports.
Soccer is the most popular sport for males as a whole and by age or SES.
Basketball is also very popular with Mexico City youth, both males and
females. Sport participants and non-participants do not differ in the BMI,
body weight, television viewing time or time playing video games. Sport
participants do, however, have higher activity levels, higher perceived
physical condition, and higher perceived physical activity.

Using a portion of the PAQ-A to assess sport and activity preferences
and weekly participation, soccer and basketball are the preferred sports for
males to play one or more times per week. Running, walking, skipping and
bicycling are activities in which males also like to participate, regardless of
age. Females prefer basketball or volleyball, and their activities of preference
also include skipping, running, walking, and skating. The older girls prefer
dancing over skating.

There is high interest in basketball among both males and females in
Mexico City. While soccer is by far the favorite sport for boys in this sample,
basketball is the second preferred team sport for all ages and the three levels
of SES. For females, basketball is the preferred team sport for all ages and

levels of SES.

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Fun is a very important motive in sport participation for both males
and females, regardless of SES or age group. Physical fitness and exercise are
also indicated as important reasons for Mexico City youth to participate in
sport. Females in this sample appear particularly concerned that sport not
interfere with time needed for studies or homework. This response is present
in the indicated reasons for discontinuing participation and in conditions for
returning to sport. Males do not appear as concerned with their studies.

Males and females differ significantly in various individual items of
non-school sport participation, school sport participation, reasons for
dropping out of sport, and reasons for returning to sport. Males score higher

than females on five reasons for non-school sport participation: "someone I

admire played this sport, for the travel that goes with playing, to feel
important," "to be popular by being a good athlete," and " to attract

boys'/girls' attention." On the other hand, males and females differ on four
reasons for participating in school sponsored sports: ”to have something to

I! ll

do,” ”to go to a higher level of competition, to be popular by being a good
athlete,” and ”to attract boys’/girls’ attention.” Males score higher than
females on ego orientation, but the genders do not differ on task orientation.
Among reasons for dropping out of sport, time commitment is a major
concern for both males and females. Coaching-related issues, pressure to win
and lack of interest also surface as reasons for discontinuing sport. Females

also feel they need time to study more so than males. Reasons that would

make males and females comfortable returning to sport are similar to the

130

 

th

th

reasons for discontinuing sport. If the sport required less time commitment
and did not interfere with other activities, males and females would return.
Coaching issues are also indicated in this category. Females rank the item
about practices and games interfering with studies significantly higher than
males.

Levels of physical activity, as estimated with the PAQ-A, vary between
2.0 and 3.9 in both males and females. Mean scores are lower in the older age
group 15-18 years, regardless of gender or SES. More females than males are
categorized as inactive (inactive, < 2.5, active 2 2.5 and < 3.5, very active, 2
3.5). The average PAQ-A score of males (2.8 i 0.7) is significantly higher than
that of females (2.4 i. 0.7). Younger boys and girls have higher percentages in
the active category than the older groups, but the very active category has the
lowest representation, regardless of gender, age group, or SES. The BMI does
not differ among youth classified by level of physical activity.

Results from specific questions of the PAQ-A show that, on average,
males feel they are in better physical condition than peers, while females feel
their physical condition is equal to or better than peers. For the most part,
males feel they are equally as active as peers, but females appear more likely
than males to report that they are less active than peers.

Different demographic and biological variables are predictive of sport
participation and level of physical activity. However, the variables account
for only a small proportion of the variance in sport participation status or

level of physical activity. The PAQ-A score and age are the best predictors for

131

 

 

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sport participation status in males, and the FAQ-A by itself is. the best
predictor in females. Age and perceived physical activity status of the mother
are the significant predictors of physical activity scores for males, although the
percentage of variance accounted for is only 4%. Age, stature, the BMI and
perceived activity status of the mother are the best predictors of physical
activity score for females, accounting for 12% of the variance. When grouped
by SES level and age group within gender, the predictors of physical activity
scores include age, perceived physical activity status of the mother and / or the
father, the BMI, and stature. The variance accounted for ranges from 1% to
14% depending on whether there are single or multiple predictors.

Of those who completed the sport participation questionnaires, more
younger than older males are sports participants than not (82% and 62%,
respectively). Sports participants are slightly older than non-participants
among younger males (9-13 years). The BMI does not differ between male
sport participants and non-participants in both age groups (9-13 and 15-18
years). The majority of females 9-13 are sport participants (65%), but most
older females are non-participants (39%). Female sport participants and non-
participants do not differ in age and the BMI in either age group.

School youth of Mexico City are now heavier and taller than youth in
1926 and 1978. However, the current sample has an elevated BMI. Median
age at menarche for urban Mexican females is 12.4 years (CI=12.2-12.7 years).

This median differs slightly from other Latin American urban samples.

132

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Between 1967 and 1998 a secular decline in age at menarche has occurred in

Mexico City; the estimated rate is 0.12 years per decade.

CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn within the limitations of this
study. The conclusions are presented as responses to the research questions
from chapter one:

1. In what sports do urban Mexican youth 9-18 years of age, across three
socioeconomic levels participate?

Males and females differ in their sport preferences. Females appear to
prefer individual activities, and males seem to prefer sport activities.

2. Why do urban Mexican children participate in sport? Or,
conversely, why do they discontinue participation in sport?

Reasons for sport participation in urban Mexican school youth are
similar to those indicated by United States youth. Fun is the primary reason
for sport participation in urban Mexican youth. Physical fitness and coaching
issues are also of concern. However, in reasons for dropping out of sport,
urban Mexican youth appear more concerned about their studies than United
States youth, females more so than males. The primary reason urban
Mexican males drop out of sport is because ”the games and practices were
scheduled at times when I could not attend”, and females felt they needed
more time to study.” In addition, urban Mexican males are more ego
oriented in their sport motivation than females. There is no difference in

task orientation.

133

 

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3. What is the level of physical activity among urban Mexican school
youth 9-18 years of age as estimated with a seven-day recall?

Most males in this study are in the active category of the PAQ-A, while
most females are in the inactive category. The very active category has the
fewest representatives for both genders. Younger males and females (9-13
years) are consistently more active than their older counterparts (15-18 years).

Male sport participants have higher activity scores and self-perceived
physical condition than non-participants. Female sport participants have
higher activity scores, self-perceived physical condition, and self-perceived
activity levels than non-participants.

4. What sociodemographic (gender, age, SES) and biological (height,

weight, the BMI) variables are predictive of sport participation status

and level of physical activity in urban Mexican school youth?

The sociodemographic and biological variables used in this study are
limited predictors of sport participation status and physical activity score.
They only account for 1% to 14% of the variances.

Age, SES, PAQ-A, the perceived physical activity status of parents,
weight, height, and the BMI account for only a small portion of the variance
in sport participation status, R2 g 0.08 for all significant variables. Age and the
PAQ—A score are significant predictors of sport participation status for males
(R2 = 0.02 and 0.05, respectively), while the PAQ-A score is the only significant
predictor of sport participation status for females (R2 = 0.08).

For the prediction of PAQ-A score, neither set of gender specific

predictors accounts for much of the variance (R2 = 0.04 for males, and R2 = 0.12

for females). For males the significant predictors are age (3% of the variance)

134

and, perceived physical activity status of the mother (1%). FOr females, the
predictors include age, stature, the BMI and the perceived physical activity
status of the mother among the best predictors of activity scores. Age
accounts for most of the variance (7%), followed by perceived physical activity
of the mother (3%). Both stature and the BMI each account for (1%) of the
variance.

Predictors of PAQ-A scores differ among SES groups and between
genders within SES group. The only significant predictor for low SES males is
stature (4% of the variance). For middle SES males, only the BMI accounts for
a small proportion of the variance (4%). Perceived physical activity status of
the mother accounts for the same amount of the variance in high SES males
(4%). The best predictors of PAQ-A score for low SES females include age,
stature and perceived physical activity status of the father (13%). For middle
SES girls, perceived activity status of the mother and the BMI account for a
similar portion of the variance in PAQ-A scores (14%), while in high SES
girls, age and perceived activity status of the father account for a slightly
smaller amount of the variance in PAQ-A score (11%).

5. Using the Body Mass Index (BMI) as a proxy for nutritional status,

what is the relationship between nutritional status and physical

activity, including sport participation?

The BMI does not differ between sport participants and non-

participants, or among inactive, active, and very active youth of both genders.

135

 

 

 

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6. What is the current growth status of urban Mexican youth relative
to United States reference data?

Mean statures fall close to the United States reference medians from 9
13 years in males and from 9-12 years in females. In later adolescence, mean
statures are near the 25th percentile. Mean body weights, however, are
slightly above the reference medians from 9-13 years in males and from 9-12
years in females. Subsequently, mean weights of males and females
approximate the reference medians. Mean BMIs are above the United States
reference medians at all ages and in both genders in this sample of urban
Mexican school youth.

Among 9-13 year old youth, equal percentages of males and females are
underweight (14%) and at risk of overweight (20%, 19%). However, more
9-13 year old males (18%) than females (10%) are overweight. Among 15-18
year old youth, fewer females (4%) than males (14%) are underweight.
Percentages of 15-18 year old youth who are at risk of overweight and. who are
overweight are only slightly lower in females 14% versus 17% and 3% versus
5%, respectively.

7. Have secular changes occurred in the stature, weight and BMI of

Mexico City youth? Has secular change occurred in the age at menarche

of urban Mexican females?

A positive secular trend in body size has occurred in Mexico City youth,
with a resultant increase in the BMI. This increase has occurred more so in

weight than in height in the past 20 years. There has been a slight secular

decrease in the age at menarche in urban Mexican-females.

136

Implications for Education

Lack of access to exercise facilities and lack of time were indicated by the
current sample of urban youth as barriers to exercise and sport. Perhaps
school or community recreation programs can be developed that incorporate
activities. Children and youth should be taught from earlier ages that it is
healthy and more productive for them to take some time to participate in
physical activities between study sessions. Schools should be encouraged to
teach physical education and/ or offer sport activities, perhaps through an
intramural program, to develop skills in order to sustain an active lifestyle.
This may be particularly important for high school age school age girls who
reported low activity scores.

The results of the current study suggest that most girls 9-18 years prefer
lifetime activities such as walking and running to organized sport activities.
Thus, community programs directed toward offering these activities on a
regular basis, in a safe place, may be the best direction to take. An instructor
in California found that dance was preferable to standard physical education
classes for African American and Hispanic adolescent girls. A program was
developed to provide aerobic activity in the form of dance for the targeted
adolescents (Flores, 1995). Since the program did achieve the goals of
improving aerobic capacity and improving attitudes toward physical fitness
and activity, it may be a good model for older girls in Mexico City who ranked
dance as fifth on the list of preferred activities.

For males, organized sports should be offered. Both males and females,

137

 

 

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however, are concerned with the time commitment of sport and seem to
prefer a more recreational approach to sport and activity. If a community
recreation program could be set up which offers activities, supervision, and a
safe place for participation, Mexican youth may choose to participate in sport
and physical activity more often.

The secular increase in weight and the BMI suggest a less active
lifestyle, more caloric intake, and possibly poorer food choices among
Mexican youth. Teaching youth good nutritional habits in the context of
physical education or health classes can begin to address these issues. In
addition, using scheduled breaks such as lunch time for activity can help
increase activity time for youth. Activities do not always have to be organized
by an adult, but if equipment and space can be provided, and youth
encouraged to use part of their free time for activity, it is possible to decrease
sedentary time. The importance of activity in physical education classes ‘
cannot be overemphasized. For some youth, the only time they are truly
active is in a physical education class. Thus, the classes need to be structured
to teach skills to the youth so they may skillfully pursue activities outside of
class, and to get them sweating and moving around in class.

While financial concerns may also be a barrier to activity, it seems as
though some of this can be solved without too much stress. Sport and
activity do not have to be organized to be effective. Even just walking to
school when the weather is nice could increase activity levels to some extent,

providing it is a safe environment. When done on a regular basis, a 15-

138

minute walk to school can become a reasonable start to an active lifestyle.
Mexico City, of course, has its own particular barriers, with the pollution level
and automobile traffic being major problems. Thus, an activity program set-
up inside the schools, possibly in the morning before class, could encourage
physical activity. Even just a free hour in morning to walk or run around the
gym could be helpful in increasing overall activity levels of youth. Since the
program could be run through the school, and the supervision possibly

provided by the school or volunteers, the costs could be minimized.

Recommendations for Future Research

One of the main issues found during the course of data collection was
the non-familiarity of Mexican youth with the standardized questionnaire
format. Very few scholastic tests in Mexico are of the sort encountered in the
United States, such as multiple choice. Thus, the younger groups needed
substantially more time than was expected to complete the questionnaires. In
part to resolve this issue, and in part because the next step needs to be taken,
further research needs to look at the answers to specific open-ended questions
regarding sport and activity in Mexico City youth. For example, how are sport
participants viewed in Mexican culture? Does this perception differ for male
versus female sport participants? The questions could be verbal or written,
but more in an essay style format than a 'circle the response' style. Granted,
this will mean a greater time investment for both subjects and researchers

since responding to open ended questions and using qualitative analyses

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takes more time than other methods. But the information gained will add
substantially to the overall knowledge base of why youth participate in sport
and physical activity, or why they do not. In fact, it can also solve some of the
problems with survey instruments not being culturally-specific.

Questions regarding what children do in their free time to determine
’pick-up’ activities organized by children would also be a good topic to address
in urban Mexican youth. Available sport programs may not meet the needs
of all those who wish to participate, but there are other options for physical
activity. Determining all of the activities in which youth participate may help
guide teachers, coaches and parents in developing programs to encourage
participation by greater numbers of youth.

The prevalence of overweight in Mexican youth 9-13 is high relative to
other samples of youth. The causes underlying this trend need to be
ascertained. Since the risk of overweight in United States adults appears to be
higher in those who were overweight as children or adolescents, it is
important to determine whether this is also the case in Mexico City.

The task and ego orientation constructs from the TEOSQ instrument
seem to vary in different cultures. It would be useful to see how they differ,
on which items, and if the survey instrument needs to be modified for use in
other cultures.

A very pertinent issue which was overlooked in the current study:
What is the prevalence of smoking in urban Mexican youth? From personal

observation, prevalence is rather high, but exact numbers and when students

140

 

 

 

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start to smoke would be very useful information since smoking can severely
impact activity levels.

Positive secular changes in height and weight have occurred in Mexico
City youth in the last 72 years. Currently, however, there is no information
on whether it has occurred in rural communities. An assessment of the
growth status of rural Mexican youth to determine the presence or absence of
secular change could provide insight to the overall health status of rural

Mexican society.

141

TABLES

142

 

 

 

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Table 1. Estimated percentage of underweight, stunting, wasting and
overweight in preschool children (birth to 5 years) in Mexico.

 

 

Underweight“ Stuntingb Wastingc Overweight"
sex 0/0 0/o 0/o 0/o
Males 13.8 22.7 6.5 3.8
Females 14.7 22.8 5.6 3.6
Total 14.2 22.8 6.0 3.7

 

aWeight-for-age < -2 SD for international reference median value
bHeight-for-age < -2 SD for international reference median value

‘ Weight-for-height < -2 SD for international reference median value
d Weight-for-height > 2 SD for international reference median value
Adapted from WHO (1997).

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145

Table 4. Breakdown of the total sample by school, grade, sex, and SES.

 

 

School Grade Males Females SES”
JA 4 34 40 1
JA 5 28 40 1
JA 6 15 20 1

J] 4 22 36 1
JJ 5 26 26 1
JJ 6 26 20 1

Prepa 2 HS" 55 63 1
EM 4 18 13 2
EM 5 14 14 2
EM 6 16 16 2
GV 4 15 15 2
GV 5 20 20 2
GV 6 20 10 2

Prepa 8 HS" 52 59 2
RG 4 4 9 2
RG 5 5 11 2
RG 6 l7 8 2

Prepa 6 HS" 57 53 3
PA 4 11 23 3
PA 5 31 33 3
PA 6 5 5 3
PN 4 14 10 3
PN 5 13 9 3
PN 6 8 16 3

 

"High School
"SES 1, low; SES 2, middle; SES 3, high.

146

Table 5. Non-school sponsored sports played by urban Mexican youth.

 

 

 

 

Males (n = 168) n - %
Soccer 128 - 76
Basketball 97 58
Swimming 80 48
American Football 57 34
Baseball 49 29
Skating 47 28
Tennis 39 23
Volleyball 37 22 .
Bowling 28 17
Track and Field 26 15
Gymnastics 24 14
Wrestling 15 9
Other (martial arts, squash, racquetball) 44 26
Females (n = 109) n %
Basketball 70 ' 64
Swimming 61 56
Gymnastics 47 43
Volleyball 47 43
Skating 47 43
Tennis 28 26
Soccer 27 25
Track and Field 20 18
Bowling 18 17
Baseball 17 16
American Football 17 16
Wrestling 9 8

Other (dance, martial arts) 36 33

 

147

Table 6. Non-school sponsored sports played by urban Mexican youth by age

 

 

 

 

group.
Males

9-13 years (n = 80) n % 14-18 years (n = 87) n %
Sbccer 66 83 Soccer 61 70
Basketball 53 66 Swimming 49 56
Swimming 38 48 Basketball 42 48
Skating 30 38 American Football 26 30
Baseball 29 36 Baseball 21 24
American Football 28 35 Tennis 19 22
Tennis 20 25 Volleyball 19 22
Volleyball 17 21 Skating 17 19
Bowling 15 19 Bowling 13 15
Track 8: Field 14 18 Track 8t Field 12 14
Gymnastics 13 16 Gymnastics 11 13
Wrestling 11 14 Wrestling 4 5
Other a 25 31 Other ‘ 21 24

Females

9-13 years (n = 46) n % 14-18 years (n = 63) n %
Skating 34 74 Basketball 40 63
Swimming 31 67 Swimming 30 48
Basketball 30 65 Skating 26 41
Volleyball 27 59 Gymnastics 24 38
Tennis 22 48 Volleyball 20 32
Gymnastics 21 46 Soccer 13 21
Baseball 15 33 Track 8: Field 10 16
Soccer 14 30 American Football 7 11
Bowling 12 26 Bowling 6 10
American Football 10 22 Tennis 6 10
Track 8: Field 10 22 Wrestling 2 3
Wrestling 6 13 Baseball 2 3
Other b 16 35 Other b 23 37

 

aKarate, kung fu, tai kwan do, squash, racquetball.

bHawaiian dance, jazz dance, karate.

148

 

 

 

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Table 7. Non-school sponsored sports played by urban Mexican youth 9-18

 

 

 

 

years by SES.
Males

Low (n = 48) n % Middle (11 = 83) n % High (n = 37) n %
Soccer 39 81 Soccer 67 81 Swimming 31 84
Basketball 22 46 Basketball 51 61 Basketball 24 65
Swimming 18 38 Swimming 36 43 Soccer 22 59
Footballc 13 27 Footballc 28 34 Football‘ 16 43
Baseball 11 23 Skating 26 31 Tennis 14 38
Track 8: Field 9 19 Baseball 24 29 Baseball 14 38
Skating 9 19 Volleyball 19 23 Bowling 12 32
Wrestling 8 17 Tennis 19 23 Volleyball 12 32
Volleyball 6 13 Bowling 15 18 Bowling 8 22
Tennis 5 10 Track 8: Field 12 14 Gymnastics 8 22
Bowling 5 10 Gymnastics 12 14 Track and Field 5 14
Gymnastics 4 8 Wrestling 5 6 Wrestling 2 5
Other“ 7 15 Other“ 27 33 Other“ 11 30

Females

Low (n = 25) n % Middle (n=55) n % High (n = 29) n %
Basketball 17 68 Basketball 35 64 Basketball 18 62
Skating 10 40 Skating 34 62 Swimming 17 59
Swimming 10 40 Swimming 34 62 Skating 16 55
Gymnastics 6 24 Gymnastics 30 55 Volleyball 12 41
Track 8: Field 4 16 Volleyball 29 53 Gymnastics 11 38
Soccer 3 12 Tennis 19 35 Track and Field 10 34
Volleyball 3 12 Bowling 14 25 Soccer 10 34
Footballc 3 12 Soccer 14 25 Tennis 7 24
Baseball 2 8 Baseball 12 22 Football‘ 5 17
Bowling 2 8 Football‘ 9 16 Baseball 3 10
Tennis 2 8 Track 8: Field 7 13 Bowling 2 7
Wrestling 2 8 Wrestling 3 5 Wrestling 2 7
Other 6 24 Other 22 40 Other 11 38

 

“Karate, kung fu, judo, squash, racquetball.
bHawaiian dance, jazz dance, karate.
cAmerican Football

149

 

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Table 8. School sponsored sports played by urban Mexican youth 14-18
years.

 

 

 

 

Males (n = 18) n %
Swimming 14 78
Basketball 11 61
Volleyball 8 44
Soccer 7 39
Baseball 6 33
Skating 5 30
Bowling 5 30
Tennis 5 30
American Football 4 22
Gymnastics 1 5
Other “ 3 17

Females (n = 19)

Basketball 13 68
Swimming 9 47
Soccer 8 42
Track and Field 6 32
Volleyball 6 32
Gymnastics 5 26
Tennis 2 11
Otherb 8 42

 

“Karate, kung fu, judo.
bDance, judo.

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151

Table 10. Activities in which urban Mexican youth participate.

 

 

 

 

Males (n = 292) n %

Watch television 251 86
Hang out with friends 238 82
Biking, walking, skating 232 79
Informal games 225 77
Chores (at home) 2.23 76
Sport activities outside of school 219 75
Going to parties 218 75
Going to the movies 214 72
Talking on the phone 206 71
Playing video games 202 69
Sport activities in school 179 61
Music classes 162 55
Seeing my girlfriend 117 40
Youth groups 78 26
Work ’ 74 25
Drama classes 71 24
Church activities 70 ' 24
Dance classes 38 13
Females (n = 299) n %

Watch television 246 82
Chores (at home) 239 80
Talking on the phone 238 80
Hang out with friends 237 79
Biking, walking, skating 230 77
Going to the movies 230 77
Going to parties 230 77
Sport activities in school 193 65
Informal games 190 64
Sport activities outside of school 188 63
Music classes 160 54
Playing video games 128 43
Seeing my boyfriend 111 37
Dance classes 111 37
Drama classes 83 28
Youth groups 74 25
Church activities 70 23
Work 38 13

 

152

Table 11. Descriptive statistics for the top ten reasons for playing
non-school sponsored sports among older primary school and
high school students.

 

 

 

 

Males n M SD

To have fun 184 4.34 1.06
To be physically fit 184 4.31 1.05
To get exercise 184 4.10 1.10
To get rid of energy 184 3.99 1.21
To improve my skills 186 3.95 1.24
To do something at which I am good 184 3.89 1.26
To learn new skills 185 3.89 1.33
For the excitement of competition 184 3.79 1.36
For the challenge of competition 182 3.60 1.38
To go to a higher level of competition 184 3.55 1.56
Females n M SD

To have fun 131 4.37 1.08
To be physically fit 129 4.28 1.40
To get exercise 127 4.22 1.02
To get rid of energy 129 4.15 1.09
To improve my skills 130 3.96 1.27
To do something at which I am good 128 3.92 1.20
For the excitement of competition 128 3.91 1.28
To learn new skills 129 3.90 1.26
To have something to do 129 3.38 1.39
To be with my friends 128 3.35 1.32

 

153

Table 12. Descriptive statistics for the top ten reasons for playing
school sponsored sports among high school students.

 

 

Males n M SD
To have fun 33 4.30 1.05
To get exercise 33 4.24 0.87
To get rid of energy 33 4.21 1.08
To be physically fit 33 4.18 1.16
To go to a higher level of competition 33 4.03 1.16
For the excitement of competition 33 4.00 1.15
To improve my skills 33 3.85 1.15
For the challenge of competition 33 3.82 1.18
To learn new skills 33 3.79 1.17

To do something at which I am good 33 3.67 1.32

 

 

Females n M SD
To have fun 26 4.58 0.90
To be physically fit 26 4.42 0.99
To get rid of energy 26 4.54 0.71
To get exercise 26 4.31 1.09
For something to do 26 4.12 1.14
To do something at which I am good 26 4.04 1.00
For the challenge of competition 26 3.96 1.11
To improve my skills 26 3.93 1.02
For the excitement of competition 26 3.93 1.16
To play with the team 26 3.73 1.25

 

154

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157

Table 16. Descriptive statistics by gender for responses to: "I feel most
successful in sports when..." among older primary school and high school
students.

 

 

 

 

Males n M SD
I do my very best 146 4.34 0.91
A new skill I learn really feels right 148 3.92 1.21
I learn a new skill and it makes me want to practice more 146 3.87 1.23
Something I learn makes me want to practice more 145 3.86 1.23
I learn something that is fun to do 146 3.76 1.03
I learn a new skill by trying hard 146 3.65 1.28
I work really hard 146 3.62 1.26
I score the most points/ goals or have the fastest time 146 3.43 1.38
I can do better than my teammates 145 3.35 1.32
I am the best 146 2.72 1.39
The other cannot do as well as me 146 2.63 1.23
I am the only one who can to the play or skill 146 2.49 1.19
Others mess up and I do not 146 2.42 1.29

Females

I do my very best 97 4.44 1.00
A new skill I learn really feels right 97 4.07 1.18
I learn something that is fun to do 97 4.03 1.06
Something I learn makes me want to practice more 94 4.02 1.15
I learn a new skill by trying hard 96 3.84 1.22
I learn a new skill and it makes me want to practice more 96 3.80 1.23
I work really hard 94 3.53 1.37
I score the most points/ goals or have the fastest time 95 3.43 1.23
I can do better than my teammates 95 3.14 1.33
I am the best 94 2.36 1.41
The other cannot do as well as me 95 2.33 1.24
I am the only one who can to the play or skill 95 2.33 1.17
Others mess up and I do not 96 2.01 1.12

 

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164

Table 23. Mean PAQ—A scores of urban Mexican youth by age
group and gender with ANOVAs for differences in PAQ-A by age

group.

 

 

 

Age Group n M SD F
Males
9-10 175 2.8 0.7 11.14:"a
11-13 194 2.9 0.7
15-18 157 2.6 0.7
Females
9-10 195 2.6 0.6 18.71"b
11—13 190 2.5 0.7
15-18 174 2.1 0.7
*p < 0.001

a Post-hoc Scheffé tests show that activity scores of males differ
between 9-10 years and 15-18 years (p < 0.001), and between 11-13
years and 15 -18 years (p < 0.01).

Post-hoc Scheffé tests show that activity scores of females differ
between 9-10 years and 15—18 years (p < 0.001), and between 11-13
years and 15 ~18 years (p < 0.001).

165

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Table 25. Distribution of FAQ-A scores by
gender in urban Mexican youth 9-18 years.

 

 

Activity Category 3 n %
Males
1.0-1.9 73 14
2.0-2.9 242 46
3.0—3.9 185 35
4.0-4.9 26 5

Females

1.0-1.9 161 29
2.0-2.9 286 51
3.0-3.9 107 19
4.0-4.9 5 1

 

a The PAQ-A ranges from 1-5, with 1 being
very inactive and 5 being very active.

I67

Table 26. Distribution of PAQ-A scores in urban Mexican
school youth by gender and by age.

 

 

Age Groups
9-10 11-13 15-18

Activity Category 3 n % n % n %

Males

1.0-1.9 17 10 19 10 37 24

2.0-2.9 84 48 83 43 75 48

3.0-3.9 66 38 78 4O 41 26

4.0-4.9 8 5 14 7 4 3

Eemales

1.0-1.9 39 20 47 25 75 43

2.0-2.9 110 56 98 52 78 45

3.0-3.9 45 23 42 22 20 11

4.0-4.9 1 1 3 2 1 1

 

a The PAQ-A ranges from 1-5, with 1 being very inactive

and 5 being very active.

168

Table 27. Relative distribution of physical activity status among
urban Mexican school youth 9-18 years of age by gender.

 

 

Activity Category a
Inactive Active Very Active
n % n % n %
Males 173 33 251 48 102 19
Females 300 53 210 37 50 9

 

alnactive < 2.5, active 2 2.5 < 3.5, and very active 2 3.5.

169

Table 28. Relative distribution of physical activity status among
urban Mexican school youth by age group and gender.

 

 

Age Group
Activity 9-10 11-13 I 15-18
Categrya n % n % n %
Males
Inactive 52 3O 50 26 71 45
Active 80 49 98 50 67 43
Very Active 37 21 46 24 19 12
Eemales
Inactive 89 46 96 50 114 65
Active 86 44 71 37 53 53
Very Active 20 10 23 12 7 5

 

aInactive < 2.5, active _>_ 2.5 < 3.5, and very active 2 3.5.

170

Table 29. Means and standard deviations
of PAQ—A scores by gender and SES,
and results of ANCOVA with age as

the covariate.

 

PAQ-A Scores

 

SES n M SD F
Level
Males
Low 206 2.9 0.7 2.24
Middle 181 2.8 0.7
High 139 2.7 0.7
Females
Low 245 2.5 0.7 0.62
Middle 175 2.4 0.7
High 140 2.4 0.7

 

I71

Table 30. Stated reasons of urban Mexican school youth for not
being active during the previous week.

 

 

 

 

Reasons
Males (n = 84) n °/o
Generally sick (diarrhea, colds, cough, etc.) 19 22.6
Influenza 12 14.3
Sore throat 11 13.1
Soreness (body parts hurt, headache, injuries) 10 11.9
Homework or studying 9 10.7
Other (went to movies, on a trip, did not want to, surgery.) 6 7.1
Chicken pox and measles 5 6.0
Stomach problems 4 4.8
Inclement weather (which includes contamination levels) 4 4.8
Hepatitis 2 2.4
Asthma 1 1.2
Unknown 1 1.2
Females (n = 102) n °/o
Influenza 34 33.3
Generally sick (diarrhea, colds, cough, etc.) 18 17.6
Sore throat 10 9.8
Homework or studying 9 8.8
Soreness (body parts hurt, headache, injuries, etc.) 6 5.9
Other (went to movies, on a trip, did not want to, surgery) 6 5.9
Asthma 6 5.9
Stomach problems 5 4.9
Chicken pox and measles 3 2.9
Other health issues (low glucose, allergies) 2 2.0
Inclement weather (which includes contamination levels) 1 1.0
Unknown 2 2.0

 

172

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Table 34a. Relative frequency of different physical activities for urban
Mexican males 9-18 years of age (n = 526).

 

 

 

Frequency of physical activity per Total Rank"
week percentage“
Activity None 1-2 3-4 56 7+ 1 2 1 2
Soccer 18.1 11.2 13.7 15.4 41.6 81.9 70.7 1 1
Running 20.0 17.9 21.9 17.5 22.8 80.1 62.2 i 2 2
Walking 28.5 20.2 16.3 12.9 22.1 71.5 51.3 3 3
Skipping 27.8 20.5 18.6 10.8 21.3 71.2 49.7 4 5
Basketball 31.6 18.4 15.7 15.7 18.4 68.2 49.8 5 4
Bicycling 39.7 16.3 13.7 9.7 20.5 60.2 43.9 6 6
Am. Football 55.9 17.1 11.4 6.8 8.7 44.0 26.9 7 7
Swimming 57.4 16.2 8.9 7.4 10.1 42.6 26.4 8 8
Volleyball 57.4 19.4 9.5 6.8 6.8 42.5 23.1 9 9
Skating 58.7 18.6 8.7 5.9 8.0 41.2 22.6 10 10
Baseball 63.7 13.6 7.8 5.3 9.5 36.2 22.6 11 10
Weights 66.9 15.6 7.6 4.4 5.5 33.1 17.5 12 12
Skateboard 74.7 10.5 4.8 4.8 5.3 25.4 14.9 13 13
Badminton 83.5 6.8 4.4 2.8 2.5 16.5 9.7 14 14
Aerobics 87.3 5.7 3.6 1.5 1.9 12.7 7.0 15 15
Dance 94.5 2.7 0.9 1.1 0.8 5.5 2.8 16 16

 

"Total % 1 and Rank 1 = Percentage and rank of activities a 1 time per week. Total % 2 and
Rank 2 = Percentage and rank of activities a 3 times per week.

176

Table 34b. Relative frequency of different physical activities for urban
Mexican females 9-18 years of age (n = 559).

 

 

 

Frequency of physical activity per Total Rank‘
week percentage"
Activity None 1-2 3-4 5-6 7+ 1 2 1 2
Skipping 21.3 17.7 18.1 15.7 27.2 . 78.7 61.0 1 1
Running 25.4 21.1 21.5 14.0 18.1 74.7 53.6 2 3
Walking 26.5 17.9 18.6 11.8 25.2 73.5 55.6 3 2
Basketball 38.5 20.2 12.0 11.8 17.5 61.5 41.3 4 4
Skating 41.0 20.0 11.8 9.7 17.5 59.0 39.0 5 5
Volleyball 48.1 17.7 13.2 8.9 12.0 51.8 34.1 6 6
Bicycling 52.4 18.2 9.7 8.1 11.6 47.6 29.4 7 7
Swimming 58.1 14.7 9.3 6.8 11.1 41.9 27.2 8 8
Aerobics 67.4 12.3 8.6 5.4 6.3 32.6 20.3 9 10
Dance 70.1 9.3 6.3 5.2 9.1 29.9 20.6 10 9
Soccer 72.6 12.3 6.6 3.6 4.8 27.3 15.0 11 12
Baseball 75.8 10.0 5.9 4.5 4.7 25.1 15.1 12 11

Am. Football 87.5 2.5 5.2 2.7 2.1 12.5 10.0 13 13

Badminton 89.3 3.8 3.4 1.1 2.5 10.8 7.0 14 14
Skateboard 89.3 4.5 3.0 1.8 1.4 10.7 6.2 15 16
Weights 90.5 3.0 2.9 2.1 1.4 9.4 6.4 16 15

 

"Total "/0 1 and Rank 1 = Percentage and rank of activities a 1 time per week. Total °/o 2 and
Rank 2 = Percentage and rank of activities 2 3 times per week.

177

Table 35a. Relative frequency of different physical activities for urban
Mexican males 9-13 years of age (n = 369).

 

 

 

Frequency of physical activity per Total Rank"
week percentag"
Activity None 1-2 3-4 5-6 7+ 1 2 1 2
Soccer 13.3 7.6 14.1 14.1 50.9 86.7 79.1 1 1
Running 18.4 ' 15.4 22.8 17.6 25.7 81.5 66.1 2 2
Basketball 24.7 19.7 16.3 17.9 21.4 75.3 55.6 3 3
Skipping 28.5 19.2 17.1 10.3 24.9 71.5 52.3 4 5
Walking 31.2 21.4 15.4 12.2 19.8 68.8 47.4 5 6
Bicycling 32.5 14.1 15.2 11.9 26.3 67.5 53.4 6 4
Am. Football 45.5 19.2 15.4 8.4 11.4 54.4 35.2 7 7
Skating 48.2 22.8 10.8 7.6 10.6 51.8 29.0 8 10
Volleyball 51.8 20.9 9.2 8.9 9.2 48.2 27.3 9 11
Baseball 52.8 17.1 9.8 7.0 13.3 47.2 30.1 10 8
Swimming 55.6 14.6 8.9 8.4 12.5 44.4 29.8 11 9
Skateboard 69.1 11.1 6.5 6.2 7.0 30.8 19.7 12 12
Weights 64.5 17.6 8.1 4.1 5.7 33.0 15.4 13 13
Badminton 77.5 9.2 5.9 4.1 3.2 22.4 13.2 14 14
Aerobics 87.8 4.6 3.5 1.9 2.2 12.2 7.6 15 15
Dance 94.9 2.7 1.1 0.8 0.5 5.1 2.4 16 16

 

"Total % 1 and Rank 1 = Percentage and rank of activities 2 1 time per week. Total % 2 and
Rank 2 = Percentage and rank of activities _>_ 3 times per week.

178

Table 35b. Relative frequency of different physical activities for urban
Mexican males 14-18 years of age (n = 157).

 

 

 

Frequency of physical activity per Total Rank"
week percentage"

Activity None 1-2 3-4 5-6 7+ 1 2 1

Walking 22.3 17.2 18.5 14.6 27.4 77.7 60.5 1 1
Running 23.6 23.6 19.7 17.2 15.9 76.4 52.8 2 2
Soccer 26.1 26.8 22.3 12.1 12.7 73.9 47.1 3 4
Skipping 29.3 19.7 i 12.7 18.5 19.7 70.6 50.9 4 3
Basketball 47.8 15.3 14.6 10.8 11.5 52.2 36.9 5 5
Bicycling 56.7 21.7 10.2 4.5 7.0 43.4 21.7 6 6
Swimming 61.8 19.7 8.9 5.1 4.5 38.2 18.5 7 7
Volleyball 70.7 15.9 10.2 1.9 1.3 29.3 13.4 8 9
Weights 72.6 10.8 6.4 5.1 5.1 27.4 16.6 9 8
Am. Football 80.3 12.1 1.9 3.2 2.5 19.7 7.6 10 10
Skating 83.4 8.9 3.8 1.3 1.9 15.9 7.0 11 11
Aerobics 86.0 8.3 3.8 0.6 1.3 14.0 5.7 - 12 12
Skateboard 87.9 8.9 0.6 1.3 1.3 12.1 3.2 13 15
Baseball 89.2 5.7 3.2 0.7 0.6 10.2 4.5 14 13
Dance 93.6 2.5 0.6 1.9 1.3 6.3 3.8 15 14
Badminton 97.5 1.3 0.6 - 0.6 2.5 1.2 16 16

 

*Total % 1 and Rank 1 = Percentage and rank of activities 2 1 time per week. Total % 2 and
Rank 2 = Percentage and rank of activities a 3 times per week.

179

Table 36a. Relative frequency of different physical activities for urban
Mexican females 9-13 years of age (n = 385).

 

 

 

Frequency of physical activity per Total Rank"
week percentage"
Activity None 1-2 3-4 5-6 7+ 1 2 1 2
Skipping 16.1 17.4 17.9 17.4 31.2 83.9 66.5 1 1
Running 18.7 19.0 22.9 16.4 23.1 81.4 62.4 2 2
Skating 26.2 21.3 15.3 12.2 24.9 73.7 52.4 3 4
Walking 27.5 19.2 19.7 11.4 22.1 72.4 53.2 4 3
Basketball 29.9 20.3 11.4 15.1 23.4 70.2 49.9 5 5
Volleyball 37.4 18.4 16.4 11.9 15.8 62.5 44.1 6 6
Bicycling 42.1 18.7 11.1 11.4 16.6 57.8 39.1 7 7
Swimming 55.1 11.9 9.6 7.5 15.8 44.8 32.9 8 8
Aerobics 65.2 12.5 8.8 6.8 6.8 34.9 22.4 9 9
Baseball 65.7 13.0 8.1 6.5 6.8 34.4 21.4 10 10
Soccer 72.2 10.6 7.3 4.2 5.7 27.8 17.2 11 11
Dance 73.8 9.4 4.9 4.4 7.5 26.2 16.8 12 12
Am. Football 83.4 6.0 3.6 3.9 3.1 16.6 10.6 13 13
Badminton 85.7 4.7 4.4 1.6 3.6 14.3 9.6 14 14
Skateboard 86.0 5.2 4.2 2.6 2.1 14.1 8.9 15 15
Weights 89.6 3.4 2.9 2.3 1.8 10.4 7.0 16 16

 

"Total % 1 and Rank 1 = Percentage and rank of activities a 1 time per week. Total °/o 2 and
Rank 2 = Percentage and rank of activities 2, 3 times per week.

180

Table 36b. Relative frequency of different physical activities for urban
Mexican females 14 -18 years of age (n = 174).

 

 

 

Frequency of physical activity per Total Rank
week Percentage"
Activity None 1-2 3-4 5-6 7+ 1 2 1 2
Walking 24.1 14.9 16.1 12.6 32.2 75.8 60.9 1 1
Skipping 32.8 18.4 18.4 12.1 18.4 67.3 48.9 2 2
Running 40.2 25.9 18.4 8.6 6.9 59.8 33.9 3 3
Basketball 57.5 20.1 13.2 4.6 4.6 42.5 22.4 4 5
Dance 62.1 9.2 9.2 6.9 12.6 37.9 28.7 5 4
Swimming 64.9 20.7 8.6 5.2 0.6 35.1 14.4 6 7
Volleyball 71.8 16.1 6.3 2.3 3.4 28.1 12.0 7 8
Aerobics 72.4 12.1 8.0 2.3 5.2 27.6 15.5 8 6
Soccer 73.6 16.1 5.2 2.3 2.9 26.5 10.4 9 9
Skating 73.6 17.2 4.0 4.0 1.1 26.3 9.1 10 10
Bicycling 75.3 17.2 6.3 0.6 0.6 24.7 7.5 11 11
Weights 92.5 2.3 2.9 1.7 0.6 7.5 5.2 12 12
Baseball 95.4 3.4 1.1 - - 4.5 1.1 13 13
Skateboard 96.6 2.9 0.6 - - 3.5 0.6 14 15
Am. Football 96.6 3.4 - - - 3.4 0.0 15 16
Badminton 97.1 1.8 1.1 - - 2.9 1.1 16 13

 

"Total % 1 and Rank 1 = Percentage and rank of activities a 1 time per week. Total °/o 2 and
Rank 2 = Percentage and rank of activities 2 3 times per week.

181

Table 37. Results of the logistic regression of predictors of sport
participation status in urban Mexican school youth 11-18 years of

 

 

age by gender.
Item Unstandardized Odds Ratio 95% Confidence
Coefficients Intervals
Males
PAQ—A -O.92 0.4 0.3 - 0.6
Age 0.38 1.5 1.1 - 1.9
Females
PAQ-A -1.29 0.3 0.2 - 0.5

 

182

Table 38. Results of the forward stepwise multiple regression of
predictors of PAQ—A score in urban Mexican school youth 11-18 years of
age by gender.

 

 

Unstandardized R2 R2
Coefficients Change
Males
Age -0.04 0.03 0.03 0.00
Mother's Activitya -0.16 0.04 0.01 <0.01
Females
Age -0.10 0.07 0.07 0.00
Mother's Activitya -0.22 0.10 0.03 0.00
Stature 0.01 0.11 0.01 <0.01
BMI —0.91 0.12 0.01 <0.03

 

a'Perceived physical activity status of the mother.

183

Table 39. Results of the forward stepwise multiple regression of predictors
of PAQ-A score in urban Mexican school youth 9-18 years of age by gender
and SES.

 

Unstandardized R2 R2 Change p

 

Coefficients
Males
L w E
Stature -0.01 0.04 0.04 <0.01
Mi d E
BMI -1.87 0.04 0.04 <0.01
Hi E .
Mother's Activitya —0.26 0.04 0.04 <0.03
Females
Lew SES
Age -0.12 0.09 0.09 0.00
Father's Activitya -0.21 0.11 0.02 0.01
Stature 0.01 0.13 0.02 <0.05
i l E
Mother's Activity“ -0.36 0.07 0.07 <0.01
BMI -2.27 0.14 0.07 <0.01
High SES
Age -0.08 0.07 0.07 0.00
Father's Activitya -0.30 0.11 0.04 0.01

 

aPerceived physical activity status of the mother or father.

184

Table 40. Results of the forward stepwise multiple regression of predictors of
PAQ-A score in urban Mexican school youth by gender and age group.

 

 

Unstandardized R2 R2 p
Coefficients Change
Ma 5
213m
Mother's Activitya -0.20 0.02 0.02 < 0.01
Females
2-13 years
Father's Activitya -O.18 0.04 0.04 0.01
Mother's Activitya -0.15 0.05 0.01 <0.05
14—18 years
Stature 0.02 0.04 0.04 <0.02

 

aPerceived physical activity status of the mother or father.

185

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192

Table 47. Prevalence (°/o) of underweight (UW), risk of overweight
(ROW) and overweight (OW) by age and gender in urban Mexican
school youth 9-18 years of age.

 

 

Age Group n U W * ROW" OW”
Males

9 45 9 16 24
10 130 10 21 15
11 124 18 27 17
12 60 18 10 20
13 11 18 - 18
15 28 11 14 4
16 93 11 17 5
17 19 26 16 5
18 3 - - -

Eemales

9 62 18 15 13
10 133 15 17 11
11 118 16 21 8
12 61 7 25 7
13 11 9 9 -
15 26 - 23 4
16 116 5 13 3
17 22 - 17 -
18 4 - - -

 

* Underweight, BMI < 15th percentile; risk of overweight, BMI a the 85th and < the 95th
percentiles; overweight, BMI _>_ the 95th percentile.

193

Table 48. Prevalence (°/o) of underweight (UW), risk of
overweight (ROW) and overweight (OW) by age group and
gender in urban Mexican school youth.

 

 

Age Group n UW" ROW" OW"
Males
9.0-13.9 370 14 20 18
15.0-18.9 150 14 17 5
Legacies
9.0-13.9 386 14 19 10
15.0-18.9 167 4 14 3

 

* Underweight, BMI < 15th percentile; risk of overweight, BMI 2 85th and
< 95th percentiles; overweight, BMI 2 95th percentile.

I94

Table 49. Estimated rates of secular change in the heights and
weights of urban Mexican youth from Mexico City, D. F.

 

 

Males Females
Age Height Weight Height Weight
(yrs) (cm/dec) (kg/dec) (cm/dec) (kg/dec) '
1 - a
10-12 0.9 1.2 0.8 1.0
15-16 0.7 1.4 0.6 0.5
192 - 1 7 b
10-12 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.6
15 0.5 0.7 0.6 0.0
1978 - 1298c
11-12 1.0 2.5 1.1 2.4
15 1.2 3.2 0.9 2.8

 

alBased on the current study (1998) and Priani (1929).
bBased on Faulhaber (1989) and Priani (1929).
cBased on the current study (1998) and Faulhaber (1989).

195

Table 50. Total number and percentageof females 9-18 years
who have attained menarche in a sample from Mexico City.

 

 

Age M SD n yes %
9 9.8 0.2 60 1 2
10 10.5 0.3 124 9 8
11 11.5 0.3 107 17 16
12 12.3 0.3 45 24 53
13 13.3 0.2 8 7 88
14 14.6 0.4 5 5 100
15 15.6 0.2 26 26 100
16 16.5 0.2 116 115 99
17 17.2 0.2 24 24 100
18 18.4 0.1 4 4 100

 

ayes: those who have attained menarche.

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FIGURES

205

Stature, cm

Stature, cm

190-

180-

170‘

160q

150'q

140

130-

 

 

 

120 I I I I I I I I
13 14 15 16

Age, years

190-
180-
1701
160q

150-

 

 

 

120 I I I I I I I
9 1O 11 12 13 14 15 16

Age, years

I I l

17 18 19

Figure 1. Statures of individual boys (top) and age specific
means and standard deviations (bottom) relative to United States
reference values (Hamill et al., 1977). P10, P50 and P90
refer to the 10th, 50th and 90th percentiles, respectively.

206

Stature, cm

Stature, cm

 

 

 

190-
180-
.
170- P90
160‘ .P50
o'P1O
150- '
140-
130-
120“ i I I I I
910111213141516171819

Age, years

190'-

180A

 

170-

160-

 

150-

140-

 

130‘

 

 

120 I I I I I I I I I I
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Age, years
Figure 2. Statures of individual girls (top) and age specific
means and standard deviations (bottom) relative to United States

reference values (Hamill et al., 1977). P10, P50 and P90
refer to the 10th, 50th and 90th percentiles, respectively.

207

Weight, kg

Weight, kg

100-

100-

20

 

 

 

 

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Age, years

P90

P50

P10

 

 

l l l l l l I r l l
9 1O 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Age, years

Figure 3. Body weights of individual boys (top) and age
specific means and standard deviations (bottom) relative to

United States reference values (Hamill et al., 1977). P10,
P50 and P90 refer to the 10th, 50th and 90th percentiles,
respectively.

208

Weight, kg

Weight, kg

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

100-
90-
80-4 .. o.
70«
60‘
50-
40-
30-1
20'1
910111213141516171819
Age, years
100-
90-
80-
P90
P50
P10
20 l l l l l l l I l 1
910111213141516171819

Age, years

Figure 4. Body weights of individual girls (top) and age specific
means and standard deviations (bottom) relative to United States
reference values (Hamill et al., 1977). P10, P50 and P90
refer to the 10th, 50th and 90th percentiles, respectively.

209

BMI, kg/m2

BMI, kg/m2

40-

35-

 

 

 

4o-

35-

30-

25-

20-

 

 

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Age, years

P50
P15

 

1
1o 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Age, years

Figure 5. The body mass index of individual boys (top) and age
specific means and standard deviations (bottom) relative to United

States reference values (Must et al., 1991).

P15, P50 and P85

refer to the 15th, 50th and 85th percentiles, respectively.

210

BMI, kg/m2

BMI, kg/m2

40-

 

 

 

910111213141516171819
Age, years

40-
35-

30-

 

 

910111213141516171819
Age, years
Figure 6. The body mass index of individual girls (top) and age
specific means and standard deviations (bottom) relative to United

States reference values (Must et al., 1991). P15, P50 and P85
refer to the 15th, SOth and 85th percentiles, respectively.

211

Stature, cm

Stature, cm

   

 

 

180-
170-
160-
150-
140_ ' ------- 1926 (Pr1an1,1929)
------- 1978 (Faulhaber,1989)
130- ’0"
v' — 1998 (Current Study)
120 I I I I I I I I I 1

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Age, years

  

180-
170-
160‘
150-
140... """" 1926 (Priani,1929)
I ' o
f," """" 1978 (Faulhaber,1989)

130' 'o"

r' — 1998 (Current Study)
120 1 I I I I l l l I ‘1

 

 

910111213141516171819
Age, years

Figure 7. Mean statures of Mexico City males (top)
and females (bottom) between 1929 and 1998.

212

Weight, kg

 

 

80-

70-

60-

50-

Weight, kg

40-

 

80-
70-
60-
505
40-
,." ,.v’ "““"" 1926 (Priani,1929)
30- ”..”-"‘7 ------- 1978 (Faulhaber,1989)
b-""
1998 (Current Study)
I I I I I I I I I j

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

   

 

 

Age, years
/’ ------- 1926 (Priani,1929)
30. fir" ------- 1978 (Faulhaber,1989)
" 1998 (Current Study)
I I l I I I I I I fl

 

910111213141516171819
Age, years

Figure 8. Mean body weights of Mexico City
males (top) and females (bottom) between 1929
and 1998.

213

 

 

 

 

 

 

35-
30-
NE 25‘
Ba
x
3' 20-
m
15: ------------ 1926 (Priani.1929)
....... 1973 (Faulhaber,1989)
1998 (Current Study)
10 I I I I I T I I I j
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Age, years
35-
30-
N 25—
E
c»
x
3' 20-
m _,.
15-
....... 1978 (Faulhaber,1989)
1998 (Current Study)
10 I I I I I l ' ' I I
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Age, years

Figure 9. Mean body mass index of Mexico City males (top) and
females (bottom) between 1929 and 1998. The BMI was calculated
from individual values for the current study and from age-specific
means of height and weight for the earlier studies.

214

Weight, kg

Weight, kg

70-

60-

Sonora

Veracruz .

Current Study

   
  

 

 

 

 

 

50‘ US Reference """"
HHANES
40-
30"
20 I fl 1 I I
8 9 1O 11 12 13
Age, years
60-
50-
40-
30-
20 I I I f I
8 9 1O 11 12 13
Age, years

Figure 10. Mean weights of Mexico City males (top) and females (bottom)
compared to samples from Sonora (Pefia Reyes, 1995; Ovando Hernandez,
1995) and Veracruz, Mexico (Pefia Reyes et al., 1999), the United States
reference (Hamill et al., 1977), and the Hispanic Health and Nutrition
Examination Survey (Roche et al., 1990).

215

Stature, cm

Stature, cm

    

 

 

 

 

 

1 7O -
""""" Sonora
mm" Veracruz
1 60 -
Current Study .r'”
1 50 .. """" US Reference
1 40 -
1 30 -
1 20 I 1 I l 1
8 9 10 1 1 12 1 3
Age, years
1 7O -
1 60 -
150-
1 40 -
1 30 -
120-
1 10 I l l I 1
8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3
Age, years
Figure 11. Mean statures of Mexico City males (top) and females (bottom)

compared to samples from Sonora (Pefia Reyes, 1995; Ovando Hernandez,
1995) and Veracruz, Mexico (Pefia Reyes et al., 1999), the United States
reference (Hamill et al., 1977), and the Hispanic Health and Nutrition
Examination Survey (Roche et al., 1990).

216

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

3 5 - Sonora ---------
V6 rac ru 2 ...‘“Wmouo...
3 O -
Current Study
US Reference -------
NE 2 5 -
E) H-IANES
5‘ 2 o -
ID
1 5 -
1 O I r I I I
8 9 10 11 ‘2 13
3 5 - Age. years
3 O -
N 2 5 -
E
C)
x
5' 2 o -
CD
1 5 -
1 0 I I I I I
8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3

Age. years

Figure 12. Mean body mass indices of Mexico City males (top) and females
(bottom) compared to samples from Sonora (Pefia Reyes, 1995; Ovando
Hernandez, 1995) and Veracruz, Mexico (Pefia Reyes et al., 1999), the
United States reference (Must et al., 1991), and the Hispanic Health and
Nutrition Examination Survey (Roche et al., 1990). The BMI was calculated
for individual values in each study.

217

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234

APPENDIX A

UNIVERSITY COMMITTEE ON RESEARCH INVOLVING
HUMAN SUBJECTS FORM

235

 

GWEEM:
RESEARCH
AND
GRADUATE
STUDIES

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48824-1046

517/355-2180
FAX: 517/432-1171

(moan Slate University
i Inshluhonal Diversify
Excellence :71 Aaron

IS an affrrnquve-acfrm,
’ODDOIlI/fllfy Inst/101100

    
  

MICHIGAN STATE

UNIV

ERSITY

March 17, 1998

TO: Robert M. Malina
213 IM Sports Circle

RE: IRB#:

98-143

TITLE: PATTERNS OF SPORT PARTICIPATION AND PHYSICAL

ACTIVITY IN MEXICAN YOUTH

REVISION REQUESTED: N/A
CATEGORY: l-C
APPROVAL DATE: 03/17/98

The University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects'(UCRIHS)
review of this project is complete.. I am pleased to adVise that the

rights and welfare of the human aubjects appear to be adequately
rotected and methods to obtain informed consent are appropriate.

herefore,
above.

RENEWAL :

REVISIONS:

PROBLEMS/
CHANGES:

the UCRIHS approved this project and any revisions listed

UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year, beginning with
the approval date shown above. Investigators planning to
continue a project beyond one year must use the green renewal
form (enclosed with t e original agproval letter or when a
project is renewed) to seek u date certification. There_is a
maXimum of four such expedite renewals pOSSible. Investigators

wishing to continue a project beyond that time need to submit it
again or complete reView.

UCRIHS must review any changes in procedures involving human
subjects, rior to initiation of t e change. If this is done at
the time o renewal, please use the green renewal.form. To
revise an approved protocol at an other time during the year,
send your written request to the CRIHS Chair, requesting reVised
approval and referencing the project's IRB 8 and title. Include
in your request a description of the change and any revised
instruments, consent forms or advertisements that are applicable.

Should either of the followin arise during the course of the
work, investigators must noti UCRIHS promptly: (1) roblems
(unexpected Slde effects, comp aints, etc.) involving uman
subjects or (2) changes in the research environment or new
information indicating greater risk to the human sub ects than
existed when the protocol was previously reviewed an approved.

If we can be of any future hel , please do not hesitate to contact us
at (517)355—2180 or FAX (517)4 2-1171.

Sincerely,

avid E. Wright,
CRIBS Chair

DEW:bed

  
   
 

Ph.D.

c: Shannon Siegel

236

APPENDIX B

FORM OF SPONSORSHIP FOR ESCUELA NACIONAL
DE ANTROPOLOGIA E HISTORIA

237

(AIIINI/AIHI $3

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“POSEEDORES' DE LE YENDAS ”

Mexico, D.F. a 11 de marzo de 1998

LIC. JOSE LUIS BALMASEDA BECERRA
DIRECTOR GRAL. DE LA ESCUELA NACIONAL
PREPARATORIA U.N.A.M.

P R E S E N T E

Por medio de la presente me pennito solicitar a usted la autorizacion para
aplicar las encuestas sobre patrones de panicipacion y abandono de los deportes en
clubes o equipos en la poblacion escolar dc educacion media superior, cuyas edades
estén comprendidas entre los 15 y los 18 afios. Estas encuestas son parte del
proyecto “Antropologia y Deporte” registrado en esta Escuela por las profesoras
Eyra cardenas Barahona y Maria Eugenia Pefia. Uno de los objetivos de esta

i11véstigacién es el de evaluar la efectividad de los programas deportivos para
jévenes.

En la medida en que es indispensable contar con el mayor numero posible dc
encuestas realizadas que pennitan un analisis real del problema, consideramos de
suma importancia su aval para llevarlo a cabo en las Escuelas bajo su jurisdiccién.

Sin otro particular 16 reitero las segundades dc mi atenta y distinguida
consideracion.

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APPENDIX C

SPORTING GOODS MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION SPORT
PARTICIPATION QUESTIONNAIRE (Spanish/English)

239

Patrones de Participacion y Abandono de los deportes en
Clubes o Equipos Escolares

Introduccion

A muchos entrenadores, maestros, y administradores deportivos les interesa saber
si 105 programas deportivos para nifios y jovenes son efectivos (como por ejemplo los
equipos de pequefia liga en beisbol, futbol soccer, tenis o natacién) y si satisfacen las
necesidades de cada persona en su comunidad, si estan de acuerdo a los distintos niveles
economicos y clases sociales, ademas de conocer las razones por las cuales nifios y jo’venes
dejan de practicar los deportes

Con el propésito de conocer lo que te gusta y lo que te disgusta acerca de los
deportes, solicitamos tu ayuda. Deseamos saber acerca de tus experiencias en los deportes
y por que no participas en deportes o haces ejercicio. Que es lo que te gusta de tu
entrenador, de tu equipo y del deporte que practicas, y Que es lo que N O te gusta. Tus
respuestas sinceras nos ayudaran a mejorar los programas y las oportunidades para todo los
que participan en deportes en general.

Este estudio abarcara estudiantes de escuelas seleccionadas del Distrito Federal. Tu
participacion en el estudio es voluntaria. Tus respuestas son muy importantes y nos
ayudaran a promover cambios en los programas para que se ajusten mejor a tus
necesidades. Si aceptas participar en el estudio tus respuestas son confidenciales (no se
comentaran con los entrenadores, amigos o padres). Este NO es un examen y no tiene nada
que ver con tus calificaciones en la escuela. Si no quieres participar en el estudio no hay
ningl’m problema. Pero queremos que sepas que lo que tu piensas es muy importante y por
ello quisieramos que contestes lo mas preciso que te sea posible. Si hay alguna palabra que
no entiendas por favor pide ayuda y con gusto te explicaremos.

Agradecemos mucho tu ayuda y disposicion a participar, ya que eso nos ayudara a
conocer tus experiencias en los deportes.

N ombre

Edad

Grupo

Peso

Estatura

240

Instrucciones

Por favor usa un lapiz del mimero 2 para contestar las siguientes preguntas. Para
cada pregunta, llena el circulo que corresponde a la mejor respuesta a cada pregunta. Pocas
preguntas requieren que escribas tu respuesta, en esos casos habra algunas lineas para tu
respuesta. Si no entiendes la pregunta pide ayuda a quien te de el cuestionario.

 

Edad boy: 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Fechadenacimiento:
/ /
Dr’a Mes Afio
Sexo: lMasculino 2 Femenino Grado escolar:
Primaria: 1 2 3 4 5 6
Secundaria: 1 2 3
Preparatoria: 1 2 3

Nombre de la escuela

 

LEn relacién a los compafieros de grupo de tu mismo sexo, como te consideras?:
1 MAS ALTO que los demas 2 IGUAL que la mayorr’a

3 MAS BAJO que los demas

gEn relacién a los compafieros de grupo de tu mismo sexo, como te consideras:
1 peso MENOS que los demas 2 peso IGUAL que la mayorl’a

3 peso MAS que los demas

Algunos datos generfles 50er la fm'lia y lo que hage
LDénde vive? (En que parte de la ciudad, delegacion, colonia)

 

Ocupacién del padre Ocupacién de la
madre

 

gNt’lmero dc hiios en la familia?
LQue lugar ocupas entre tus hermanos (lo., 20. etc) del mayor al
menor?

 

LTus padres practicaron algun deporte en Ios afios anteriores?
Madre Sr’ No
Lque deporte?

 

Padre Si No
(gque deporte? '

 

(,Cuando practicas deportes tienes que ir a algun parque, gimnasio o campo
deportivo lejos de tu casa? Sf No

LExplica que tan lejos esté (en tiempo o distancia, 1 hora, 2 hs o 1 km, 10 km 0 mas)?

 

241

Nombre
I. Cosas que me gusta hacer

 

Instrucciones: Lee las actividades enlistadas a continuacion. Si te encuentras realizando
esas actividades en este periodo, encierra en un circulo-- “1”. Si realizaras durante los
préximos meses de este afio, encierra en un circulo—- “2”. Si realizaste esta actividad el afio
anterior , pero ya no la realizas, encierra en un circulo--“3” . No marques aquellas
actividades que no hayas practicado nunca.

AQQ'VICIQCICS Lo estoy Hare mm Lo hice e1 aflo pasado
haciendo gum en algt'm momento pero Wham.
Clases de mfisica 1 2 3

(tocar instrumento o cantar)

Trabajar l 2 3
(empacando o vendiendo periodicos)

Quehaceres domésticos (barrer,

limpiar, tirar la basura, etc) 1 2 3
Grupos juveniles (e.g., Scouts, Guias ) 1 2 3
Juegos o partidos inforrnales 1 2 3
(entre amigos)
Clases de baile/ballet l 2 3
Otros pasatiempos 1 2 3
(computacion, arte,trabajos manuales)
Teatro escolar 1 2 3
Actividades deportivas en la escuela 1 2 3
Actividades deportivas fuera de la escuela 1 2 3
Actividades organizadas por la iglesia

(coros, clases, deportes, etc.) 1 2 3
Salir con el novio/novia 1 2 3
Ir a] cine l 2 3
Salir a fiestas 1 2 3
Ver TV 1 2 3

242

Actividades Lo estoy Hare 9519 afio Lo hicc el aflo pasado
haciendo Qth’Q en :11an momento pero yam.

 

 

Video juegos 1 2 3
“Salir con amigos” 1 2 3
Andar en bicicleta, patinar, caminar 1 2 3
Hablar por teléfono 1 2 3
Usar Internet 0.... 1 2 3
Otras: 1 2 3
(lista de actividades)
l 2 3
1 2 3

 

II. Experiencias en deportes que _M sean escolares

Diversos grupos fuera de la escuela (Como por ejemplo en los deportivos, parques
recreativos, las iglesias, IMSS, YMCA, CONADE) ofrecen actividades deportivas alas
que te puedes integrar. Si haz participado en alguna de esas actividades, queremos que
pienses como fue tu experiencia para contestar las siguientes preguntas.

Sflifin A.
1. Algunas vez has jugado en algun equipo deportivo (con
entrenador) que haya sido organizado fuera de la escuela? (por ej.
deportivo, parque recreativo, IMSS,YMCA, iglesia)?

1 Si 2 No
2. Como entraste a1 equipo...

1. Fuiste seleccionado por to habilidades

2. No pasaste or seleccion

3. Estas pensando en jugar algun deporte de equipo fuera de la escuela en
este periodo, 0 en algun momento este afio?

1 Si 2 No

243

Seccion B. Historia de experiencias deportivas no-escolares

Para cada deporte listado a continuacion encierra en un cfrculo lo que
corresponda, si alguna vez haz practicado e1 deporte, o te haz inscrito a algun club, si antes
jugaste pero ahora ya no practicas el deporte como parte de un equipo 0 club.

 

 

Actualmente Probé pero Estuve Numero dc afios
practico no me aceptaron pero ya no dc participar antes

Demrte :Ldsnsm cn 13111199 112229 MIL!

l. Beisbol 1 1 l

2. Basquetbol 1 1 1

3. Boliche 1 1 1

4. Patinaje 1 l l

5. Futbol Americano 1 l l

6. Gimnasia l 1 ' 1

7. Futbol Soccer 1 l 1

8. Nadar/Bucear 1. l 1

9. Tenis 1 l 1

10. Atletismo 1 1 1

11. Voleibol 1 1 1

12. Lucha l 1 1

13. Otros 1 l 1

(lista de deportes)
14. 1 1 1
15. 1 l 1

 

 

Si ya no perteneces a algt’m equipo que NO SEA ESCOLAR pasa a la
PARTE III en la pagina 14.

333355.112. De los deportes de equipo que marcaste arriba selecciona
3610 el deporte que tu consideras que es el mejor juegas (con mas habilidad).

De los deportes no escolares escribe e1 nfimero (1 - 15) del que tti consideras es el
que mejor juegas en esta linea.

244

El deporte que mejor juegas fuera de la escuela, apor qué lo juegas? Considera
cada una de las razones que mejor lo explican en la lista que sigue, por cada razon
encierra en un cfrculo el numero que corresponda a1 grado de importancia que tiene
para ti.

10.
11.
12.

13.
14.
15.
16.
17.

Muy Al go Poco Nada
Importante Importante Importante Importante Importante

Para mejorar rnis destrezas 5 4 3 2 1
Para estar con mis amigos 5 4 3 2 1
Para ganar 5 4 3 2 1
Porque alguien que admiro
juega ese deporte 5 4 3 2 1
Porque hay que viajar
para jugar 5 4 3 2 1
Para jugar con el equipo 5 4 3 2 1
Por la emocion de
competir 5 4 3 2 1
Porque mis padres o
amigos quieren que yo
participe 5 4 3 2 1
Para aprender nuevas destrezas 5 4 3 2 1
Para hacer algo en lo soy bueno 5 4 3 2 l
Para emplear mi energl’a 5 4 3 2 1
Por las recompensas, por ejemplo
trofeos 4 3 2 l
Para hacer algo de ejercicio 5 4 3 2 1
Para tener a1 go que hacer 5 4 3 2 1
Por e1 espiritu de equipo 5 4 3 2 1
Para sentirme importante 5 4 3 2 1
Para ir a competencias
de mas alto nivel 5 4 3 2 1

245

18.

19.
20.

21.
22.

23.

24.
25.

26.
27.
28.

 

 

Muy Algo Poco Nada
Importante Importante Importante Importante Importante

Para ser popular por
ser buen deportista 5 4 3 2 1
Por el reto de la competencia 5 4 3 2 l
Porque me agradan
los entrenadores 5 4 3 2 1
Para divertirme 5 4 3 2 1
Para usar el equipo
y las instalaciones 5 4 3 2 1
Para llarnar la atencién de
las muchachas/muchachos 5 4 3 2 1
Por el reconocimiento 5 4 3 2 1
Para estar en buena
condicion fisica 5 4 3 2 1
Para salir de casa 5 4 3 2 1
Otras 5 4 3 2 1
Otras 5 4 3 2 1
Secgién D. De todas las razones enlistadas arriba, Lcual es la MAS importante

de todas para que tu participes en el deporte que mejor realizas FUERA DE LA
ESCUELA?

Escribe el mimero que corresponda (1 - 28). a esa razén en esta linea.
LDurante cuantos afios (o meses) haz jugado este deporte?

LComo calificarr’as tu habilidad en el deporte que mejor practicas fuera de la escuela
comparado con los otros miembros de tu equipo?

1 2 3 4 5
muy mala mala igual buena muy buena

246

gQue tan importante es para ti seguir perteneciendo a ese equipo?

5 4 3 2 l
muy algo poco no es
importante importante importante importante importante

gQué tan satisfecho te sientes de tu experiencia jugando en deporte que mejor
realizas fuera de la escuela?

1 2 3 4 5
nada poco algo satisfecho muy
satisfecho satisfecho satisfecho satisfecho

Algunas veces los entrenadores nos preguntan que quieren decir los deportistas

cuando dicen que quieren divertirse en el deporte. Si seleccionaste los nfimeros 4 o 5 para
el Numero 23, “para divertirme”, (,que significa divertirse en el deporte para ti?
Si seleccionaste 1, 2, or 3, PASA a la pregunta 6.

(Que es lo que note divierte de practicar los deportes fuera de la escuela?

247

Motivos para participar en el deporte

Para explicar que hace que tengas buenos resultados en el deporte o actividad fisica encierra
en un circulo e1 nfimero que mejor indica tu motivacion.

Siento que mis resultados son mejores en el deporte cuando...

No tan Poco Algo Muy
Importante Importante Importante lmportame Importante

1. Aprendo una nueva destreza que me 1 2 3 4 5
hace practicar mas.

2.Soy el finico que puede mostrar e1 juego 1 2 3 4 5
o la destreza.
3. Cuando aprendo algo que es divertido. l 2 3 4 5
4. Cuando puedo hacerlo mejor que rnis

compafieros de equipo. 1 2 3 4 5
5. Aprendo una nueva destreza con gran esfuerzo. 1 2 3 4 5
6. Los demas no pueden hacerlo tan bien como yo. 1 2 3 4 5
7. Trabajo muy intensamente. l 2 3 4 5
8. Soy el mejor 1 2 3 4 5
9. Cuando aprendo algo, eso me hace 1 2 3 4 5
ir y practicar mas.
10. Anoto mas puntos/alcanzo metas o logro 1 2 3 4 5

el mejor tiempo

1 l. Aprender una nueva destreza me hace sentir bien.1 2 3 4 5
12. Otros se equivocan y yo no. 1 2 3 4 5
13. Pongo mi mejor esfuerzo. 1 2 3 4 5

248

Nombre
III. Experiencias en deportes En tu escuela

Si tu escuela tiene equipos deportivos (Si la escuela cuenta con entrenadores,

proporciona uniformes y se organizan competencias con otras escuelas) o equipos,
responde la pregunta l y todas las otras preguntas que se apliquen a tu caso.

Seccign A l. Alguna vez haz jugado en algun equipo deportivo
(con entrenador) patrocinado por tu escuela?

1 Si (PASAala Seccion B) 2 No

2. Eres miembro de alguno de los equipo deportivos de tu escuela? o
piensas entrar a1 equipo de tu escuela?

1 Si 2 No
Secgion B. Historia de la experiencia en deportes escolares

Nos interesa conocer los deportes que practicas actualmente o que
paracticaste.Para cada uno de los deportes que se enlistan abajo, encierra en
un circulo si alguna vez haz practicado e1 deporte, si haz entrado a algun
club para practicar e1 deporte, o si haz jugado alguna vez pero ya no lo

juegas con algun equipo 0 club.
3:21;?“ Emfi'é’pm pfiiigvfano §e“'$2'?c?§ar“£;ies

2mm; 2mm en mm mm 21212212
1. Beisbol 1 1_ l __
2. Basquetbol 1 1 1 __
3. Boliche - 1 l 1 __
4. Patinaje 1 1 l __
5. Futbol Americano 1 1 1 _—
6. Gimnasia 1 1 l __
7. Futbol Soccer 1 1 1 _—
8. Nadar/Bucear 1 1 l __
9. Tenis 1 1 1 __
10.Atletismo 1 1 1

249

Actualmente Probe' pero 'Estuve Numero dc afios

 

 

practico no me aceptaron pero ya no de participar antes

m Mann: en mum 12:29 51:13:19

1 1. Voleibol 1 1 l

12. Lucha 1 1 1

13. Otros 1 1 l __

(lista de deportes)
l4. 1 1 1
15. 1 1 1

 

Seccion C. De los equipos deportivos organizados por tu escuela en
los cuales haz participado, selecciona el deporte que tu consideras es el que mejor juegas
(en el que tienes mas habilidad).

Escribe el numero del deporte patrocinado por tu escuela (1 - 15)
que mejor juegas en esta linea. .

El deporte ESCOLAR que mejor juega por qué Io juegas?.
Considera cada una de las razones que mejor lo explican

en la lista que sigue, por cada razon encierra en un circulo el mimero

que corresponda al grado de importancia que tiene para ti.

Muy Algo Poco Nada
Importante Importante Importante Importante Importante

l . Para mejorar rnis destrezas 5 4 3 2 1
2. Para estar con rnis amigos 5 4 3 2 1
3. Para ganar 5 4 3 2 ‘ l
4. Porque a1 guien que admiro

juega ese deporte 5 4 3 2 1
5. Porque hay que viajar

para jugar 5 4 3 2 1
6. Para jugar con el equipo 5 4 3 2 l
7. Por la emoci6n de

competir 5 4 3 2 1

250

10.

11.
12.

13.
14.
15.
16.
17.

18.

19.
20.

21.
22.

23.

24.
25.

Porque rnis padres o
amigos quieren que yo
participe

Para aprender nuevas
destrezas

Para hacer algo en
lo soy bueno

Para emplear mi energia

Por las recompensas, por
ejemplo trofeos

Para hacer algo de ejercicio
Para tener algo que hacer
Por el espiritu de equipo
Para sentirme importante

Para ir a competencias
de mais alto nivel

Para ser popular por
ser buen deportista

Por el reto de la competencia

Porque me agradan
los entrenadores

Para divertirme

Para usar e1 equipo
y las instalaciones

Para llamar 1a atencion de
las muchachas/muchachos

Por e1 reconocimiento

Para estar en buena
condicion fisica

Muy
Importante Importante Importante Importante Importante

MMMLIIM

251

A-fih-h-b

Algo

MWWUJUJ

Poco

NNNNN

Nada

Muy Algo Poco Nada
Importante Importante Importante Importante Importante

 

26. Para salir de casa 5 4 3 2 1
27. Otras 5 4 3 2 1
28. Otras 5 4 3 2 1

 

Seccién D. De todas las razones enlistadas antes, cual es la razon MAS
importante para que tu participes en el deporte ESCOLAR que
mejor juegas? Escribe el mimero ( 1 - 28) que corresponda
a esa razon en este linea.

1. Durante cuantos afios (o meses) haz jugado este deporte?
2. Como calificarias tu habilidad en tu mejor deporte escolar comparado con los otros
miembros de tu equipo? .
1 2 3 4 5
muy mala mala igual buena muy buena
3. Que tan importante es para ti seguir perteneciendo a ese equipo?
5 4 3 2 1
muy algo poco no es
importante importante importante importante importante
4. (Que tan satisfecho te sientes de tu experiencia jugando en tu mejor deporte en la
escuela?
l 2 3 4 5
nada poco algo satisfecho muy
satisfecho satisfecho satisfecho satisfecho
5. Algunas veces los entrenadores nos preguntan que quieren decir los deportistas

cuando dicen que quieren divertirse en el deporte. Si seleccionaste los mimeros 4 o 5 para
el Numero 23, “para divertirme”, (,qué significa divertirse en el deporte para ti?
Si seleccionaste l, 2, or 3, PASA a la pregunta 6.

6. {Que es lo qué note divierte de practicar los deportes en la escuela?

252

Nombre

IV.

 

Informacién acerca de los Deportes que he dejado de practicar

Muchos de nosotros hemos jugado mas de un deporte cuando estabamos creciendo.
Sin embargo, por diversas razones abandonamos o dejamos de practicar uno o mas
deportes. Deseariamos saber cuales son los deportes que haz dejado de jugar, por
que los dejaste, y que te gustaria cambiar acerca de los deportes en los que at’m
participas.

Seccion A.Diversas razones pueden haber provocado que dejaras de practicar
algun deporte. Quisieramos saber por qué lo dejaste. Indica cual es el deporte
escolar o no escolar que dejaste de practicar mas recientemente. Indica de que
deporte se trata y por favor responde las siguientes preguntas. Piensa algunos
minutos que es lo que sientes y que fue lo que pensaste cuando tomaste la
decision de dejar de practicarlo.

1. Escribe el mimero del deporte no-escolar (1 - 15) que dejaste de practicar
mas recientemente en esta linea.

2. Cuando practicabas el deporte, que tanto tiempo te perrnitian jugar o estar en una
competencia?

O l 2 3 4
ningt’m muy poco algun mucho casi todo
tiempo tiempo tiempo tiempo el tiempo

3. (En comparacion con tus compafieros de equipo, la ultima vez que practicaste
ese deporte, como crees que eras?

1 MAS alto que los demas 2 IGUAL que la mayoria
3 MAS BAJO que los demas

4. (En comparacién con tus compaiieros de equipo, la filtima vez que practicaste
ese deporte, como te eras?

1 pesaba MENOS que los demas 2 pesaba IGUAL que los demas
3 pesaba MAS que los demas

5. [Que tan satisfecho estabas con tu experiencia practicando este deporte?

l 2 3 4 5
nada poco algo satisfecho muy
satisfecho satisfecho satisfecho satisfecho

253

6. {Que tanto disfrutabas practicar ese deporte?

5 4 3 2 1
muchisimo bastante algo un poco casi nada

. 7. g, C6mo consideras tu habilidad para este deporte en comparacion con el resto de

los miembros de tu equipo?

1 2 3 4 5
muy mala mala igual buena muy buena
Seccién B. A continuacién enlistamos algunas de las razones por las cuales

algunos deportistas dejan de participar en ciertos deportes. Piensa en cada una de
ellas y selecciona el mimero que mejor indique que tan importante fue cada una de
las razones para que tu dejaras de participar en los deportes escolares o no-escolares
que se encontraban en el nfimero 1, de la lista en la pagina 12.

No tan Poco Algo Muy
Importante Importante Importante Importante Importante

a. Ponian demasiado énfasis

f.

en ganar l 2 3 4 5
. Mi entrenador no era
buen instructor 1 2 3 4 5
. No me divertia. l 2 3 4 5
. Me sentia muy
presionado(a). 1 2 3 4 5
. Siempre estuve en un
equipo perdedor l 2 3 4 5
Este deporte requiere
demasiado tiempo 1 2 3 4 5
. Practicar e1 deporte
no mejoraba mi aptitud
fisica. l 2 3 4 5
Practicar e1 deporte 1 2 3 4 5
representaba mucho stress fisico
para mi (p.ej., lesiones).
. No era tan buen jugador 1 2 3 4 5

como los demas en ese deporte

254

No tan Poco Algo Muy
Importante Importante Importante Importante Importante
j. E] entrenador Siempre me
gritaba cuando cometia errores 1 2 3 4 5

k. El entrenadortenia sus
jugadores preferidos 1 2 3 4 5

1. Las practicas y los juegos
eran abum'dos. 1 2 3 4 5

m. Ya no tenia interés en
ese deporte. l 2 3 4 5

n. Los jugadores en ese deporte
son demasiado rudos. l 2 3 4 5

o. No tuve oportunidad de
jugar mucho. 1 2 3 4 5

p. Los juegos y los entrenarnientos
estaban programados en horarios

a los que no podia asistir l 2 3 4 5
q. No me gustaba el entrenador] 2 3 4 5
r. Nunca me senti parte

del equipo. 1 2 3 4 5
s. Mis compar‘ieros de equipo

no me querian. 1 2 3 4 5
t. Queria participar en otras

actividades no deportivas. 1 2 3 4 5
u. Tenia que trabajar 1 2 3 4 5

v. Mi padre no queria que
jugara. 1 2 3 4 5

w. Mi madre no queria
que jugara. 1 2 3 4 5

x. Estaba cansado de jugar
y de entrenar. l 2 3 4 5

255

No tan Poco Algo Muy
Importante Importante Importante Importante Importante

y. Este deporte me impedia
practicar otros deportes. l 2 3 4 5

2. No habia deportes que estuvieran
de acuerdo a mi edad. l 2 3 4 5

aa. Me sentia avergonzado por
la forma en que se me veia
con el uniforme de juego l 2 3 4 5

bb. Necesitaba mas tiempo
para estudiar. l 2 3 4 . 5

cc. No podia comprar
e1 equipo. l 2 3 4 5

dd. No era 10 suficientemente
bueno para seguir jugando. 1 2 3 4 5

ee. No podia cubrir los juegos y
entrenamientos todo el afio 1 2 3 4 5

ff. No estaba mejorando
rnis destrezas 1 2 3 4 5

gg. Jugar no me permitia estar
en buena forma. l 2 3 4 5

hh. No podia estar con
rnis amigos l 2 3 4 5

ii. No me gustaba viajar 1 2 3 4 5

jj. Mis amigos no querian
que yo jugara l 2 3 4 5

k. En nuestro grupo no habia
suficiente espiritu de equipo 1 2 3 4 5

11. No estaba aprendiendo
nuevas destrezas 1 2 3 4 5

mm. No reconocian
mi esfuerzo 1 2 3 4 5

256

No tan Poco Algo Muy

. Importante Importante Importante Importante Importante
nn. No me sentia importante

 

jugando en ese equipo 1 2 3 4 5

00. No representaba ningt’ln esfuerzo l 2 4 5

pp. Mi entregador gritaba demasiado 1 2 3 4 5

qq. Otras l 2 3 4 5
(por favor enlistar)

Seccién Q. Cambios a los programas deportivas escolares y no-
escolares

1,81 volvieras a practicar e1 deporte que indicaste antes que habias abandonado
que te gustaria que cambiara para que lo disfrutaras 0 para hacer que tti
participaras mas en el deporte?. Por favor califica cada una de las siguientes
afirrnaciones que se enlistan a continuacién en funcion de la importancia de
los cambios para hacer que tti participes de nuevo en el deporte.

No tan Poco A1 go Muy
Importante Importante Importante Importante Importante
Volveria a jugar si:
a. el entrenador fuera
un mejor instructor. 1 2 3 4 5
b. hubiera menos énfasis
en ganar. 1 2 3 4 5
c. el deporte estuviera
de acuerdo a mi edad. 1 2 3 4 5
d. practicararnos menos. 1 2 3 4 5.
e. pudiera jugar mas. 1 2 3 4 5
f. e1 entrenador entendiera
mejor e1 deporte. 1 2 3 4 5
g. e1 entrenador no
gritara tanto 1 2 3 4 5

h. juegos y practicas se prograrnaran
en otros horarios. 1 2 3 4 5

1. las practicas fueran
mas divertidas. 1 2 3 4 5

257

No tan Poco Algo Muy

. Importante Importante Importante Importante Importante
j. 105 entrenadores entendieran

mejor a los jugadores. l 2 3 4 5
k. no les permitieran a mis

padres venir a los juegos. l 2 3 4 5

1. la temporada fuera. 1 2 3 4 5
mas corta
m. rnis padres no me. 1 2 3 4 5
presionaran.

n. que hubiera mas opciones de equipos para
competir con jugadores de
mi mismo nivel. 1 2 3 4 5

o. que no me 1 2 3 4 5
lastimaran en el juego.

p. el equipo fuera menos

 

costoso. 1 2 3 4 5
q. Si pudiera jugar en una

equipo mixto . 1 2 3 4 5
r. si hubiera instalaciones

mas cercanas. 1 2 3 4 5
5. el deporte no demandara

tanto tiempo. 1 2 3 4 5
t. e1 deporte no necesitara

equipo especial. 1 2 3 4 5
u. las practicas o juegos

no interferieran con mi 1 2 3 4 5

tiempo libre
v. las practicas o juegos no

afectaran mis estudios. 1 2 3 4 5
w. Otras 1 2 3 4 5

(por favor enlista)

258

Participation and Drop-out Patterns in American
Agency-sponsored and Interscholastic Sports

Introduction

Many coaches, teachers, and sport administrators are interested in understanding
how effective youth sport programs (for example, Little League baseball, soccer, tennis,
and swimming) are in meeting the needs of the youth in their community. In particular,
questions have been raised as to how effective sports programs are in meeting the needs of
girls and people of differing economic/social classes. In addition, a lot of young people
have been dropping out of sports. Coaches, teachers, sport administrators and parents
want to know why.

To learn what youth like and do not like about sports, we are asking for your help.
We would like to know about your experiences in sport and why you are not participating
in sport or physical activity. What do you like about your coach, team and sport? What do
you NOT like? Your honest thoughts to some of these difficult questions will help us to
improve sport programs and opportunities for all of you.

This survey involves students in selected schools throughout the Federal District.
Your participation in this survey is voluntary. However, your responses are important and
will help us to change sports programs to better meet your needs. As a participant in this
survey, please understand that your responses are confidential (they will not be shared with
your coaches, friends or parents). This is NOT a test and will not count in any of your
school grades. You have the right to stop participation at any time. What you think is
important and we would like you to answer the questions as accurately as possible.
Therefore, if there are words you do not know or understand, ask your teacher for help.

We really appreciate your willingness to help us learn more about the sport
experiences you have had.

259

Directions

Please use a Number 2 pencil to answer the following questions. For each
question, blacken the circle of the best answer for the question. A few questions require
that you write the answer on the lines provided. If you do not understand a question,
please ask your teacher for help.

 

Your age today: 9 10 11 l2 l3 14 15 16 Birthdate:
/ /
Day Month Year
Sex: lboy 2 girl Grade in school:
Primaria: 1 2 3 4 5 6
Secundaria: 1 2 3
Preparatoria: 1 2 3

Name of your school

 

Compared to most of your classmates who are the same sex, are you:
1 TALLER than most 2 about the SAME as most
3 SHORTER than most
Compared to most of your classmates who are the same sex, do you:
I weigh LESS than most 2 weigh about the SAME as most
3 weigh MORE than most
A Little background information on your family and life
Where do you live? (in what region of the city?) Delagacion
Colonia
What do your parents do for a living? :Mother
Father
Number of children in your family? Which number are you ?
Were your parents ever active in sports??

Mother Yes No
Which sport(s)?

 

Father Yes No
Which sport(s)?

If you play sports, how far is it from your house to the sports field, or the place you
practice?
km minutes driving time

 

260

1. Things I like to do

Directions: Read each activity listed below. If you are currently doing the activity or
will be doing the activity later this year, circle the “1”. If you did the activity last year, but '
will NOT be doing the activity this year, circle the “2” Skip those activities that you have
never done.

I did last year but
I am or will be will NOT be doing

Activities doing this year this year
Musical instruments or singing I 2

lessons
Have a job (e.g., delivering newspapers,

work for pay) 1 2
Sport team NOT sponsored 1 2
by my school (e.g., Jr. Pro, AAU)
Chores at home (e.g., mowing lawn,

taking out trash) 1 2
Youth clubs (e.g., Scouts, Guias ) l 2
Playing pick-up games 1 2
Dance lessons 1 2
Classes for fun (e.g., computer, art) 1 2
School counsel or governing activities 1 2
(asociacion de los alumnos)
Drama club or school plays 1 2
Intramural sports 1 2
Sport lessons (e.g., tennis, swimming) 1 2
Sport camps/schools (e.g., basketball, soccer)1 2
Church-related activities (e.g.,choir,

classes, sport teams, etc.) 1 2
Dating 1 2
Going to movies 1 2
Parties 1 2
Watching TV 1 2
Playing video games 1 2

261

I did last year but

 

 

I am or will be will NOT be doing
Activities (cont) gging this yea this year
“Hanging out” with friends 1 2
Bicycling, rollerblading, walking 1 2
Talking on the telephone 1 2
Surfing the Net or visiting chat rooms 1 2
Others: 1 2
(list activity)
1 2
1 2

 

11. Sport Experiences N91 Sponsored By Your School (NON-SCHOOL)

Many groups outside of schools (such as parks and recreation, churches, YMCAs,
YWCAs, Jr. Pro, AAU) provide sport teams for you to join. Think about your
experiences on these teams and answer the following questions.

Sgtig A.
1. Have you eye}; played on a sport team (with coaches) that was
organized by groups outside your school (e.g., parks & rec, YM/YWCA,
Jr. Pro, AAU, PAL, churches)?
1 Yes (Go to Question 2) 2 No' (SKIP to PART HI, p. 8)

2. Are you a playing on a sport team outside your school now or do
you plan to join one this year?

1 Yes 2 No
Segti n B. History of non-school sport experiences
For each sport below, blacken the appropriate circle if you have ever tried

out for the sport, if you have joined a club to participate in the sport, or if
you have played but are no longer playing the sport as part of a team or

club.
Currently Tried out for Joined, but
playing but did not Joined a club am no longer
52921 111153.923 JsLiILmEteam mm ml in
1. Archery 1 1 1 l
2. Baseball 1 1 1 1
3. Basketball 1 1 1 1

262

Currently Tried out for Joined, but

 

 

playing but did not Joined a club am no longer

m this smrt join the team to parflsipats glam
4. Bowling 1 l 1 1

5. Cross Country 1 1 1 1

6. Equestrian Events 1 1 1 1

7. Field Hockey 1 1 1 1

8. Figure Skating 1 1 1 1

9. Football (Tackle) 1 l 1 1

10. Gymnastics 1 1 1 1

11. Soccer 1 l 1 1

12. Softball 1 1 1 1

l3. Swimming/Diving 1 1 1 1
' 14. Tennis 1 l 1 1

15. Track and Field 1 1 1 1

16. Volleyball 1 1 l 1

17. Wrestling 1 1 1 1

18. Other 1 1 l 1

(list sport)
19. 1 1 l 1-
20. 1 1 1 1

 

If you are NO LONGER a member of a NON-SCHOOL sport team, go to
PART III on page 9.

Mail. Of the sport teams checked above that you have played on,
select the sport that you think you play the best (have the most ability).

Write the number of the sport outside of school (1 - 20) you play best on this
line.

 

For yourmn outside of school why do you play this sport? For
each of the following reasons, circle the number in the column that best
describes how important the reason is for your playing on this team. Please
blacken one circle for each reason.

263

AWN

10.
ll.
12.
l3.
14.

15.
l6.
17.
18.
19.

20.

21.

To improve my skills
To be with my friends
To win

Someone I admire
played this sport

For the travel that
goes with playing

To stay in shape

To play as part of
a team

For the excitement
of competition

My parents or close

friends want me to
participate

To learn new skills

To meet new friends

To do something I’m good at
To get rid of energy

For the rewards, such as
trophies

To get exercise

To have something to do
For the team spirit

To feel important

To go to a higher
level of competition

To be popular by being
a good athlete

For the challenge of competition

264

Very

5
5
5

MMLIILIIM

MMMLIILII

5

4
4

4

Ab-hh-b

AkA-b-h

Somewhat . A Little
Important Important Important Important

3
3
3

wwwwu

WWWUJUJ

2
2
2

NNNNN

NNNNN

Not at all
Important

1
1
l

Very Somewhat A Little Not at all
Important Important Important Important Important

 

 

 

22. I like the coaches 5 4 3 2 l
23. To have fun 5 4 3 2 1
24. To use the equipment
and/or facilities 5 4 3 2 1
25. To attract boy/girls’ attention 5 4 3 2 1
26. For the recognition 5 4 3 2 1
27. To be physically fit 5 4 3 2 l
28. To get out of the house 5 4 3 2 1
29. Other 5 4 3 2 1
30. Other 5 4 3 2 l
Sgtign 2. Of all the reasons listed previously, what is the MOST important
reason for your participating in your best NON -SCHOOL sponsored sport? Write
the number (1 - 30) of the reason on this line.
1. How many years have you played this sport?
2. How would you rate your ability in your best non-school sport compared to other
players on your team?
1 2 3 4 5
very poor poor same good very good
3. How important is it to you to remain a member of this team?
5 4 3 2 1
very somewhat a little bit not at all
important important important important important
4. How satisfied are you with your playing experience in your best non—school sport?
1 2 3 4 5
not at all a little somewhat satisfied very
satisfied satisfied satisfied
5. Coaches often ask us what athletes mean when they say they want to have fun in

their sport. If you circled a 4 or 5 for Number 23, “to have fun”, what is fun about
playing your sport? If you circled a 1, 2, or 3, Go to Question 6.

6. What is NOT fun about playing your best N ON-SCHOOL sport?

265

111. Sport Experiences Within Your School

If your school sponsors sport teams (that is, provides coaches, uniforms and a
schedule of games with other school) or intramural teams (that is, scheduled games after
school in which you play teams from your own school) answer question land all other
questions that apply to you. IF YOUR SCHOOL DOES NOT SPONSOR
SPORTS OR INTRAMURAL TEAMS GO TO PART IV, PAGE 12.

Section A. 1. Have you ever played on a sport team (with coaches)
sponsored by your school?

1 Yes (SKIP to Section B) 2 No (SKIP to PART IV)

2. Are you a member of your school’s sport teams or do you plan to
join a sport team in your school?

1 Yes 2 No
MB. History of school sport experiences
For each sport below, blacken the appropriate circle if you have ever tried

out for the sport, if you have joined a club to participate in the sport, or if
you have played but are no longer playing the sport as part of a team or

CIUb. Currently Tried out for Joined, but
playing but did not Joined a club am no longer
5.293. 21mm 2mm 22222121222222: 121mg
1. Baseball 1 1 1 1
2. Basketball 1 1 1 1
3. Cross Country 1 l 1 1
4. Equestrian Events 1 l l l
5. Figure Skating 1 1 1 1
6. Gymnastics 1 1 1 l
7. Soccer 1 l 1 1
8. Softball 1 1 1 1
9. Swimming/Diving 1 1 1 1
19. Tennis 1 1 1 1
10. Track and Field 1 1 i 1 1
1 1. Volleyball 1 l 1 1
12. Wrestling 1 l 1 1

266

13. Other 1 l 1 i 1
(list sport)

14. l l l l
15. ' l l 1 1

If you are NO LONGER a member of a SCHOOL sport team, go to PART
IV, page 12.

Secg'gn C. Of the sport teams sponsored by your school you have
joined, select the sport that you think you play the best (have the
most ability).

Write the number of the sport sponsored by your school (1 - 15)
you play best on this line.

 

For your best SCHOOL sport, why do you play this sport? For each of the
following reasons, blacken the number in the column that best describes how
important the reason is for your playing on this team. Please blacken one circle for

each reason.
Very Somewhat Slightly Not at all
Important Important Important Important Important

1. To improve my skills 5 4 3 2 1
2. To be with my friends 5 4 3 2 1
3. To win 5 4 3 2 1
4. Someone I admire

played this sport 5 4 3 2 1
5. For the travel that

goes with playing 5 4 3 2 1
6. To stay in shape 5 4 3 2 1
7. To play as part of a team 5 4 3 2 1
8. For the excitement

of competition 5 4 3 2 1
9. My parents or close friends want

me to participate 5 4 3 2 1
10. To learn new skills 5 4 3 2 1
l 1. To meet new friends 5 4 3 2 1
12. To do something I’m good at 5 4 3 2 1
13. To release energy 5 4 3 2 1

267

 

 

14. For the rewards, such
as trophies

15. To get exercise

16. To have something to do

17. For the team spirit

18. To feel important

19. To go to a higher
level of competition

20. To be popular by being
a good athlete

21. For the challenge of competition

22. I like the coaches

23. To have fun

24. To use the equipment
and/or facilities

25. To attract boy/girls
attention

26. For the recognition

27. To be physically fit

28. To get out of the house

29. Other

30. Other
Seawall.

for your

1.

How many years have you played this sport?

Very

5
5
5

Ur MMMLII

MMMMMM

reason on this line.

 

4
4
4

& #AA-l-‘s

AA-hAA-h

Somewhat Slightly
Important Important Important Important

3
3
3

U.) wwwm

wwwwww

participating in your best SCHOOL sponsored sport?
number (1 - 30) of the

 

2
2
2

N NNNN

NNNNNN

Not at all
Important

1
l
1

Of all the reasons listed above, what is the MOST important reason

Write the

How would you rate your ability in your best school sport compared to other

2.
players on your team?
1 2
very poor poor

same

268

4
good

5
very good

5.

How important is it to you to remain a member of this team?

5 4 3 2 1
very somewhat a little bit not at all
important important important important important

How satisfied are you with your playing experience in your best school sport?

1 2 3 4 5
not at all a little somewhat satisfied very
satisfied satisfied satisfied

Coaches often ask us what athletes mean when they say they want to have fun in

their sport. If you circled a 4 or 5 for Number 23, “to have fun”, what is fun about
playing your sport? If you circled a 1, 2, or 3, Go to Question 6.

6. What is NOT fun about playing your best SCHOOL sport?
IV. Information about Sports I Have Stopped Playing
Many of us have played more than one sport when we were growing up.
However, for all kinds of reasons we have had to drop out of one or more sports.
We would like to know what sports you have stopped playing, why you stopped
playing, and what you would change about the sport to stay involved.
Section A. Background Information on Sports
For each sport below, blacken the appropriate circle if you have ever tried
out for the sport, if you have joined a club to participate in the sport, or if
you have played but are no longer playing the sport as part of a team or
club.
Currently Never Joined, but Number of
playing played am no longer years played
_po_S rt mm 1121;512:212 1mm: l29_o__sl.u_tf re 1 i
l. Archery l 1 1
2. Baseball 1 l 1 _
3. Basketball 1 l l _
4. Bowling 1 l 1 _
5. Cross Country 1 l l __
6. Equestrian Events 1 1 1 1 _

269

Currently Never Joined, but Number of

 

 

 

 

 

playing played am no longer years played
Bpgg this sport this smrt plaflg Qfore I quit
7. Figure Skating 1 1 l
8. Football (Tackle) 1 1 l _
9. Gymnastics 1 1 1 __
10. Soccer 1 1 1 _
11. Softball 1 1 1 _
12. Swimming/Diving 1 1 1 _
13. Tennis 1 1 1 __
14. Track and Field 1 ' 1 1 __
15. Volleyball 1 l 1 __
16. Wrestling 1 1 l __
17. Other 1 1 1 __
(list sport)
18. 1 1 1 __
19. l 1 1 _
20. 1 1 1 __
Secg'gg B. There are many reasons that may cause you to stop playing a sport.

We would like to know why you stopped. Select the school or non-
school sport you have stopped playing the most recently. Please
identify the sport and answer the following questions. Take time to
think about how you felt and what you thought when you decided
to stop playing.

1. Write the number of the school or non-school sport (1 - 20) you stopped
playing most recently on this line.

 

2. When you stopped playing, how much playing time or competitive opportunities
were you receiving?

0 1 2 3 4
none very some a almost
of the time little of the lot of the all the time
of the time time time

270

3. Compared to most of your teammates when you last played this sport, were you:
1 TALLER than most 2 about the SAME as most
3 SHORTER than most

4. Compared to most of your teammates when you last played this sport, did you:
I weigh LESS than most 2 weigh about the SAME as most
3 weigh MORE than most

5. How satisfied were you with your playing experiences in this sport?

1 2 3 4 5
not at all a little somewhat satisfied very
satisfied satisfied satisfied satisfied

6. How much did you enjoy being an athlete in this sport?

5 4 3 2 1
very much a lot somewhat a little not at all

7. How would you rate your ability in this sport compared to the other members of
your team?

1 2 3 4 5
very poor poor same good very good

Section C. Below is a list of reasons why athletes have stopped playing certain
sports. Think about each reason and rate how important each reason was for your
stopping play in the school or non-school sport you listed in item # 1 on page 12.

Not at all A little Somewhat Very
Irnportant Important Important Important Important

. Too much emphasis was

placed on winning. 1 2 3 4 5
. My coach was a poor

teacher. 1 2 3 4 5
. I was not having fun. 1 2 3 4 5
. Participation placed too

much pressure on me. 1 2 3 4 5

. I was always on a losing
team. 1 2 3 4 5

271

Not at all A little Somewhat ‘ Very
Important Important Important Important Important
f. This sport required too

much time. 1 2 3 4 5
g. Participation was not
improving my physical
fitness. 1 2 3 4 5

h. Participation placed too
much physical stress on
me (e.g., injuries). 1 2 3 4 5

i. I was not as good a player
as the others in my sport. 1 2 3 4 5

j. Coach always shouted at me
when I made an error. 1 2 3 4 5

k. Coach played only his/her
favorite players. 1 2 3 4 5

l. Practices and games were
boring. - l 2 3 4 5

m. I was no longer interested
in this sport. 1 2 3 4 5

n. Players in this sport are too
rough. I 2 3 4 5

o. I didn’t get to play very
much. 1 2 3 4 5

p. Games and practices were
scheduled at times when I

could not attend. I 2 3 4 5
q. I did not like the coach. 1 2 3 4 5
r. I never felt like I belonged
with the team. 1 2 3 4 5
8. My teammates did not

like me. 1 2 3 4 5

t. I wanted to participate in
other non-sport activities. 1 2 3 4 5
u. I wanted to get a job. 1 2 3 4 5

V. My father didn’t want me
to play. 1 2 3 4 5

272

Not at all A little Somewhat ' Very
Important Important Important Important Important
w. My mother didn’t want
me to play. 1 2 3 4 5

x. I was tired of playing and
practicing. l 2 3 4 5

y. This sport conflicted
with other sports I wanted

to play. 1 2 3 4 5
2. No sport was offered for
my age group. 1 2 3 4 5
aa. I felt embarrassed by how
I looked in the uniform. l 2 3 4 5
bb. I needed more time to
study. 1 . 2 3 4 5
cc. 1 could not afford the
equipment. 1 2 3 4 5
dd. I wasn’t good enough to
keep playing. 1 2 3 4 5
cc. I could not afford to play
and practice year round. 1 2 3 4 5
ff. I was not improving my
skills 1 2 g 3 4 5
gg. Playing did not allow me
to stay in shape. 1 2 3 4 5
hh. I did not want to be
part of a team. 1 2 3 4 5
ii. I could not be with my
friends 1 2 3 4 5
jj. I did not like the traveling l 2 3 4 5

kk. My friends did not want
me to play 1 2 3 4 5

11. Our team did not have
enough team spirit 1 2 3 4 5

m. I yvas not learning new
Skllls l 2 3 4 5

273

nn. I did not receive enough
recognize l 2 3 4 5

00. I did not feel important
playing on this team 1

pp. It was not challenging 1
qq. My coach yelled too much 1

NNNN
bamboo:
AhA-fi
UILIIUILII

rr. Other 1
(please list)

Sectign D. Changes to school or non-school sport programs

If you could start playing the sport you listed above as having dropped out
of, what would you like to change to either make your experience more

enjoyable or to keep you involved in the sport? Please rate each statement
below as to how important the change is to get you to play the sport again.

Not at all A little Somewhat Very
Important Important Important Important Important

1 would play again if:
a. the coach were a better
teacher. 1 2 3 4 5
b. there were less emphasis
on winning. 1 2 3 4 5
c. the sport were offered for
my age group. 1 2 3 4 5
d. we practiced less. 1 2 3 4 5
e. I could play more. 1 2 3 4 5
f. the coach understood the
sport better. 1 2 3 4 5
g. the coach didn’t yell as
much 1 2 3 4 5
h. games and practices were
scheduled at different times. 1 2 3 4 5
1°. practices were more fun. 1 2 3 4 5
j. coaches understood the
players better. 1 2 3 4 5
k- my parents were not allowed
to come to games. 1 2 3 4 5
l. the season were shorter. 1 2 3 4 5

274

111. parents stopped pushing me. 1 2 3 4 5

11. there were more leagues so
the other players were closer

to my ability level. 1 2 3 4 5
o. I would not get hurt. I 2 3 4 5
p. the equipment were less

expensive. 1 2 3 4 5
q. I could play in a coed

league. 1 2 3 4 5
r. there were more or closer

facilities. 1 2 3 4 5
s. the sport did not take so

much time. 1 2 3 4 5
t. the sport did not need

special equipment. 1 2 3 4 5
u. practices or games did not

conflict with my social life. 1 2 3 4 5
v. practices or games did not

conflict with studies. 1 2 3 4 5
w. Other 1 2 3 4 5

 

(please list)
V. Motivation to participate in sport

Think about a time that you felt successful in sport or doing a physical activity. For each of
the statements below, blacken the number that indicates how much each is a reason for
your feeling successful (use the same scale as above...1 = not at all important and 5 = very
important).

I feel most successful in sport when....

1. I learn a new skill and it makes me want to practice more. 1 2 3 4 5
2. I’m the only one who can do the play or skill. 1 2 3 4 5
3. I learn something that is fun to do. 1 2 3 4 5
4. I can do better than my teammates. 1 2 3 4 5
5. I learn a new skill by trying hard. 1 2 3 4 5
6. The others can’t do as well as me. 1 2 3 4 5
7. I work really hard. 1 2 3 4 5

275

8. I’m the best. 1
9. Something I learn makes me want to go and practice more. 1

10. I score the most points/goals or have the fastest time 1

11. A new skill I learn really feels right. 1
12. Others mess up and I don’t. 1
13. I do my very best. 1

276

NNNNNN

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«#AAA-h-b

LIILIILIIUILIIM

APPENDIX D

PHYSICAL ACTIVITY QUESTIONNAIRE FOR ADOLESCENTS
(Spanish/English)

277

N ombre

 

NOTA. Si no participas en deportes u otras actividades parecidas,
quisieramos saber por que no lo haces. Usa el espacio que sigue para
decirnos por que no participas en deporte danza 0 ese tipo de actividades.

Completa el siguente enunciado:

No estoy muy activo durante el dia porque .....

Tambien nos interesa saber sobre las actividades que realizaste durante 10$ 7 dias de la
filtima semana. Incluyendo deportes o danza, ballet actividades que te hayan hecho sudar,
que hayas sentido el cansancio en las piemas, o juegos que te hayan hecho respirar con mas
intensidad como saltar, correr, trepar, andar en bicicleta u otras parecidas.

1. INSTRUCCIONES. LHaz realizado algunas de las siguientes actividades en
los riltimos 7 dias (durante la ultima semana)?. Si las haz realizado, cuantas veces? Encierra
en un circulo solo e1 mimero que corresponda en cada renglén.

Actividfi Qgrg 1g _3;4, 5-_6 7 veges 9 mgs
Andar en bicicleta 0 1 2 3 4
Patinar 0 1 2 3 4
Caminar para hacer ejercicio O 1 2 3 4
Trotar o clorrer O l 2 3 4
Andar en patineta O 1 2 3 4
Aerobicos 0 1 2 3 4
N adar 0 1 2 3 4
Beisbol o softbol O l 2 3 4
Danza/Ballet O 1 2 3 4
Levantar pesas O 1 2 3 4
Futbol Americano O l 2 3 4
Badminton O 1 2 3 4

278

U!

_6 7 veges Q mas
Futbol Soccer
Brincar
Voleibol
Basquetbol

Otras 1

 

Actividad m _l_;_2
O
O
O
O
O
0

p—i
I
N N N N N N If:

3
3
3
3
3
3

A-b-h-fi-Ah

Otras 1

 

2. (En los ultimos 7 dias cuando estas en clase de Educacion fisica
con que frecuencia haces mucha actividad (Jugar fuerte, correr, saltar, lanzar)?

No tengo clases de Educacion Fisica

 

Siempre muy fuerte marca
Algunas veces 5610
Con mucha frecuencia una
Siempre

3. (En los tiltimos 7 dias, que fue lo que hiciste con mas frecuencia durante el
recreo o e] descanso?

Estar sentado (platicando,leyendo , haciendo tareas)

Estar de pie 0 caminar marca
Correr o jugar un poco solo
Correr o jugar bastante una

Correr o jugar fuerte casi todo el tiempo

279

4. {En los ultimos 7 dias, cuantos dias, saliendo (1; la escuela practicaste deportes,
danza, ballet, o participas en juegos de mucha actividad?

ninguno

1 vez a la semana marca
2 o 3 veces por semana $610
4 veces a la semana una

5 veces a la semana

5. [En los filtimos 7 dias, durante cuantas tardss practicas danza, ballet, otros
juegos o deportes de mucha actividad?

ninguno

1 vez a la semana marca
2 - 3 veces a la semana solo
4- 5 a la semana una

6-7 veces a la semana

6. gBrrlafiltunasemana cuantas veces en total practicaste deporte, danza, ballet o
juegos de mucha actividad?
ninguno
1 vez __ marca
2 - 3 veces __ solo
4- 5 veces __ una

6 o mas veces

280

7. De las siguientes frases cual describe mejor lo que tu hiciste los filtimos 7 dias
**Lee las CINCO frases antes de decidir cual es la que te describe mejor**

A) Todo o casi todo mi tiempo lo paso

haciendo cosas que no requieren de ningr’rn esfuerzo
(como por ejemplo ver TV, hacer tarea, jugar con la
computadora o video juegos)

B) Una o dos veces en la semana hice ejercicio
en mi tiempo libre (por ejemplo deportes, correr,
nadar, andar en bicicleta, aerobicos)

C) Con frecuencia (3-4 veces en la semana) hice
ejercicio en mi tiempo libre

D) Con bastante frecuencia (5-6 veces por semana)
hice ejercicio en mi tiempo libre.

E) Casi todo los dias siempre (7 veces en la
ultima semana hice ejercicio en mi tiempo libre.

8. Como te encuentras en cuanto a condicién fisica comparado con los compaiieros
de tu rmsma edad y sexo?

Mi condicién fisica es excelente marca
Mi condicion fisica es menor que la de los demas solo
Mi condicion fisica es peor que la de los demas una

9. LEstuviste enferrno en la ultima semana, o tuviste algun problema que te
impidiera. realizar de manera normal tus actividades y ejercicios?

Si
No

Si tu respuesta es si, que te lo impidi6?

 

281

10. (En comparacion con otros compar‘ieros de tu misma edad y sexo, que tan
fisicamente activo estuviste, tomando en cuenta los ultimos 7 dias?

Estuve muy inactivo comparado con otros

Estuve menos inactivo que los otros marca
Estuve tan activo como otros $610
Estuve un poco mas activo que los demas una

Estuve mucho mas activo que los demas

1 1. En la ul’ tima semgra, cuanto tiempo viste la television cada dia?

0-2 horas __ marca
3-4 horas __ 5610
5-6 horas __ una
7 or mas

No veo nunca TV

12. MW, cuanto tiempo jugaste con videojuegos cada dia?
0-2 horas __ marca
3-4 horas __ 8610
5-6 horas __ una
7 or mas

No juego nunca videojuegos

MUCHAS GRACIAS

282

NOTE If you do not participate in sport pr other activities, we want to
flow why. Please complete the following sentence.

 

I am not very active during the day because....

V . We are also trying to find out about your physical activity levels for the last 7 days
(in the last week). This includes sports or dance that make you sweat or make your legs
feel tired, or games that make you breathe harder, like skipping, running, climbing,
bicycling, and others

1. DIRECTIONS. Have you done any of the following activities in the past 7
days (last week)? If yes, how many times? Circle one number per row.

 

Acfiv_ity _Z_e_;r_'9, 1:2 3:4 fl 7 timss pr mpre
Bicycling O l 2 3 4
Rollerblading O 1 2 3 4
Walking for exercise 0 1 2 3 4
Jogging or running 0 1 2 3 4
Skateboarding O 1 2 3 4
Aerobics O 1 2 3 4
Swimming 0 1 2 3 4
Baseball or softball 0 l 2 3 4
Dance 0 l 2 3 4
Lift weights 0 l 2 3 4
Football 0 l 2 3 4
Badminton 0 1 2 3 4
Soccer 0 l 2 3 4
Skipping O 1 2 3 4
Volleyball 0 1 2 3 4
Basketball 0 1 2 3 4
Ice skating O 1 2 3 4
Other 0 l 2 3 4
Other 0 l 2 3 4

 

283

2. In the last 7 days, during your physical education (PE) classes, how often were
you very active (playing hard, running, jumping, throwing)?

I don’t do PE _—

Hardly ever __ check
Sometimes __ one
Quite often __ only
Always

 

3. In the last 7 days, what did you normally do at lunch (besides eat eating lunch)?

 

Sat down (talking, reading, doing school work)

Stood around or walked around check
Ran or played a little bit one
Ran around and played quite a bit only

Ran and played hard most of the time

4. In the last 7 days, how many days right after schml, did you do sports, dance
or play games in which you were very active?

none _—

1 time last week __ check
2 or 3 times last week __ one
4 times last week __ only

5 times last week

5. In the last 7 days, on how many svenipgs did you do sports, dance, or play
games in which you were very active?

none __
1 time last week __ check
2 - 3 times last week _ one

4- 5 times last week __ only

6—7 times last week

284

6. On the last weeken_d, how many times did you do sports, dance, or play games
in which you were very active

none __
1 time __ check
2 - 3 times __ one

4- 5 times __ only

6 or more times

 

7. Which one of the following describes you best for the last 7 days?
**Read ALL FIVE statements before deciding on the one answer that describes
you**

A) All or most of my free time was spent
doing things that involve little physical effort
(e. g., watching TV, doing homework,
playing computer or video games

B) I sometimes 1-2 times last week) did physical
things in my free time (e. g., played sports, went
running, swimming, biking riding, did aerobics),
check

C) I often (3-4 times last week) did physical things
in my free time.
one

D) I quite often (5-6 times last week) did physical things

E) I very often (7 or more times last week did physical things
in my free time.

 

8. How fit (in good shape do you think you are compared to other your age and

sex?

Very fit __

Fitter than most __ check
Less fit than most __ one
Very unfit __ only'

285

9. Were you sick last week, or did anything prevent you from doing your normal
physical activities?

Yes
.NO _

If yes, than what prevented you?

 

10. Compared to other children of your age and sex, how would you rate yourself
as to how physically active you were in the last 7 days?

I was much less active than others

I was a liple less active than others check
I was amut the same as others one
I was a ligle more aetive than others only

I was mueh mere active than others

 

11. On an average day, I watch TV and/or play video games for

 

 

I don’t watch TV or play video games

1-2 hours per day check
34 hours per day one
5—6 hours per day __ only

7 or more hours a day

THANK YOU

286

APPENDIX E

CONSENT/ASSENT FORMS (Spanish/English)

287

Estimados padres de familia:

Nos encontramos realizando un estudio en el Distrito Federal, acerca de los
intereses de los nifios y jovenes en los deportes. Estos estudios se realizan en colaboracion
entre el Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia y el Instituto para el estudio del
deporte en nir‘ios y jovenes, de la Universidad Michigan State en los Estados Unidos. Nos
interesa saber que deportes se practican, por que eligen ciertos deportes, y con que
frecuencia en promedio por semana hacen ejercicio, ademas de conocer su estado de
crecimiento a traves de datos como el peso y la estatura. Este estudio puede proporcionar
datos muy importantes sobre las preferencia de los nifros y jovenes en cuanto a deportes,
los niveles de actividad fisica y el estado de su crecimiento que pueden ser de utilidad para
quienes organizan y conducen los programas de actividad fisica y deporte para nifios y
jovenes en general. Por este medio solicito autorizacion para que su hijo/hija sea incluido en
el estudio, que comprende: la medicion del peso y la estatura que son simples y no
producen dar‘io alguno, solo les pediré quitarse los zapatos y sweter o chamarra para un
mejor registro de tales datos. Ademas les pediré llenar un cuestionario en el que se incluyen
datos generales y sobre su participacion en los deportes, que los motiva a hacer deporte,
que les gusta o les disgusta, les pedire que recuerden las actividades realizadas en el curso
de la ultima semana antes del estudio y lasregistren en el forrnato del cuestionario. Ademas
nos gustaria platicar con ellos para conocer su opinion sobre los problemas que han
experimentado, o si han contado con el apoyos del medio que les rodea para hacer ejercicio
o participar en los deportes, que diferencias hay entre la participacién de hombres y mujeres
en los deportes en México y otras preguntas similares.

A través de este escrito solicito su aceptacion para que su hijo (a) participe en el
estudio. Los datos que se obtengan con este trabajo seran utilizados en conjunto y no de
manera individual para el estudio y como parte de una tesis profesional por una de las
investigadoras, Shannon Siegel, de tal manera que la informacion es confidencial.

Atentamente,

Shannon R Siegel
Estudiante de Doctorado

Le agradeceremos proporcionamos algunos datos generales que nos serviran para ubicar
las caracteristicas de los grupos del estudio en general

Nombre del nifio (a)
Lugar y fecha de nacimiento
LDonde vive?(Delegaci6n, colonia)
Ocupacion del padre Ocupacion de la madre
Ingreso, favor de seleccionar e1 mimero que corresponde al rango de ingreso promedio.
(1) un salario minimo (2) De 2 a 3 salarios minimos (3) 4 o mas salarios minimos.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Ingreso Padre Ingreso Madre
Edad Padre Edad Madre
Numero de hijos en la familia Edades
g, Practican o practicaron los padres algt’rn deporte?
Padre Si No Madre Si No
(gCual? Padre Madre

 

 

Estoy de acuerdo en que mi hijo (a) participe en el estudio
No estoy de acuerdo en que mi hijo (a) participe en el estudio
Nombre del hijo (a)

Firma del padre Fecha

288

Estimado participante:

Nos encontramos realizando un estudio en el Distrito Federal, acerca de los intereses de los
nifios y jovenes en los deportes. Estos estudios se realizan en colaboracion entre e1 Instituto
Nacional de AntrOpologia e Historia y el Instituto para el estudio del deporte en nifros y
jovenes, de la Universidad Michigan State en los Estados Unidos. Nos interesa saber que
deportes se practican, por que eligen ciertos deportes, y con que frecuencia en promedio
por semana hacen ejercicio, ademas de conocer su estado de crecimiento a traves de datos
como el peso y la estatura. Este estudio puede proporcionar datos muy importantes sobre
las preferencia de los nir‘ios y j6venes en cuanto a deportes, los niveles de actividad fisica y
el estado de su crecimiento que pueden ser de utilidad para quienes organizan y conducen
los programas de actividad fisica y deporte para nifios y jévenes en general.

La medicion del peso y la estatura son simples y no producen dafio alguno, solo te pediré
quitarte los zapatos y sweter o chamarra para un mejor registro de tales datos. Ademas te
pediré llenar un cuestionario en el que se incluyen datos generales y sobre tu participacion
en los deportes, que te motiva a hacer deporte, que te gusta y que te disgusta, te pedire que
recuerdes las actividades realizadas en el curso de la ultima semana antes del estudio y las
registres en el formato del cuestionario. Ademas nos gustaria platicar contigo para conocer
tu opinion sobre los problemas que haz experimentado, o si haz contado con el apoyo de
tus padres, 0 del medio que te rodea para hacer ejercicio o participar en los deportes, que
diferencias hay entre la participacién de hombres y mujeres en los deportes en Mexico y
otras preguntas similares.

A través de este escrito solicito tu aceptacién para participar en el estudio. Los datos que se
obtengan con este trabajo son 5610 para presentar un trabajo en mi universidad y la

informacion es confidencial, solo yo (Shannon R Siegel), como investigadora responsable
del estudio manejare’ los datos.

Si durante el estudio decides ya no participar puedes dejar de hacerlo, esto no representara
ningt’m problema, castigo o reclamacién por parte de ninguna persona.

Agradezco mucho tu cooperacion para la realizacion del presente trabajo

Atentamente,

Shannon R Siegel
Estudiante de Doctorado

Firrna del participante Fecha

289

Dear Parents:

Greetings, my name is Shannon R Siegel and I am a graduate student at Michigan State
University in the US. I am working on a research project with my advisor, Dr. Robert M
Malina, and I would like to ask whether your child can participate. I am undertaking a
study of sport participation, motivation and physical fitness levels of the children of Mexico
City. I am interested in what sports children are playing, or not playing, why they chose
those sports over others, how much physical activity they have 1n an average week, and
their heights and weights so I can assess their growth status. The study will provide basic
information on the sport preferences, physical activity levels and growth status of youth in
Mexico City.

Measurements will include weight and height; all measurements are non-invasive and do
not require the removal of clothing (except for shoes, sweaters, jackets, etc.). The survey I
am asking your child to fill out asks just a few demographic questions such as age, sex,
and area of residence. The sport participation portion of the questionnaire asks questions
about why your child participates in sport, or why he/she does not. The physical activity
recall asks your child to remember what kind of activities he/she participated in during the
previous 7-day period. In addition, your child may be asked to participate in a small focus
group which will look more deeply into questions regarding barriers to physical activity,
overall attitude to sports in general, parental support of sport and activity participation, and
cultural issues surrounding girls participating in sport in Mexico.

I am asking you to grant permission for your child to participate in this survey. All
information on your child is confidential and will be available only to the primary
researcher (Shannon Siegel). I would also appreciate if you would check one box for
rnirninum household salaries for demographic information. Thank you for your
cooperation.

 

Sincerely yours,

Shannon R Siegel

Ph.D. Candidate

My child may be included in the study
My child may not be included in the study

 

 

 

 

 

 

Child's name

Parent's signature Date
1-2 Minimum salaries Do you play sport? yes no What
Sport(s)?
3-4 Minimum salaries Birthdate of your child? (MID/Y)
5-6 Minimum salaries Birthorder of child?

6+ Minimum salaries

290

Dear participant,

I am asking if you will consent to be surveyed for my study of sport participation,
motivation and physical fitness levels of the youth of Mexico City. I am interested in what
sports and activities you are playing, or not playing, why you might choose certain sports
over others, how much physical activity you might have had in an average week, and your
height and weight so I can assess your growth status. The study will provide basic
information on the sport preferences, physical activity levels and growth status of youth in
Mexico City.

I will measure your weight and height; both measurements are non-invasive and do not
require the removal of clothing (except for shoes, sweaters, jackets, etc.). The survey I am
asking you to fill out asks just a few demographic questions such as age, sex, and area of
residence. The sport participation portion of the questionnaire asks questions about why
you participate in sports, and which sports, or why you do not. The physical activity recall
asks youto remember what kind of activities you participated in during the previous 7-day
period. In addition, you may be asked to participate in a small focus group which will look
more deeply into questions regarding barriers to physical activity, overall attitude to sports
in general, parental support of sport and activity participation, and cultural issues
surrounding girls participating in sport in Mexico.

I am asking you to consent to participate in this survey. All your information is
confidential and will be available only to the primary researcher (Shannon R Siegel).

You may choose to stop your participation at any time and you will not be penalized in any
way. Thank you for your cooperation.

Sincerely yours,

Shannon R Siegel
Ph.D. Candidate

Participant's signature

 

Date

 

291

APPENDIX F

COMPLETE SPORT PARTICIPATION RESPONSES

292

Table 59. Descriptive statistics for the reasons for playing non-school sponsored
sports among older primary school and high school males.

 

 

n M SD
To have fun 184 4.34 1.06
To be physically fit 184 4.31 1.05
To get exercise 184 4.10 1.10
To get rid of energy 184 3.99 1.21
To improve my skills 186 3.95 1.24
To do something at which I am good 184 3.89 1.26
To learn new skills 185 3.89 1.33
For the excitement of competition 184 3.79 1.36
For the challenge of competition 182 3.60 1.38
To go to a higher level of competition 184 3.55 1.56
To play as part of a team 186 3.44 1.45
To be with my friends 186 3.40 1.24
Towin 185 , 3.39 1.47
For the team spirit 183 3.32 1.50
To have something to do 184 3.30 ' 1.44
For the recognition 184 2.92 1.51
For the rewards, such as trophies 185 2.88 1.52
Someone I admire played this sport 186 2.77 1.68
To get out of the house 182 2.75 1.51
To use the equipment and/ or facilities 183 2.73 1.46
To be popular by being a good athlete 184 2.67 1.53
To fell important 184 2.64 1.52
For the travel that goes with playing 183 2.40 1.51
My parents or close friends want me to participate 182 2.32 1.49
To attract girls' attention 183 2.16 1.42
I like the coaches 181 2.16 1.30

 

Note: The fill-in or “other” category is discussed in the text.

293

 

Table 60. Descriptive statistics for the reasons for playing non-school sponsored
sports among older primary school and high school females.

 

 

n M SD
To have fun 131 4.37 1.08
To be physically fit 129 4.28 1.40
To get exercise 127 4.22 1.02
To get rid of energy 129 4.15 1.09
To improve my skills 130 3.96 1.27
To do something at which I am good 128 3.92 1.20
For the excitement of competition 128 3.91 1.28
To learn new skills 129 3.90 1.26
To have something to do 129 3.38 1.39
To be with my friends 128 3.35 1.32
To go to a higher level of competition 129 3.35 1.47
For the challenge of competition 128 3.27 1.47
To play as part of a team 128 3.20 1.48
To win 129 3.20 1.45
For the team spirit 128 2.97 1.41
To get out of the house 128 2.71 1.44
For the recognition 126 2.69 1.44
For the rewards, such as trophies 129 2.59 1.44
To use the equipment and/ or facilities 128 2.46 1.39
My parents or close friends want me to participate 128 2.30 1.43
To feel important 127 2.21 1.28
To be popular by being a good athlete 128 2.09 1.22
Someone I admire played this sport 129 ' 1.96 1.38
I like the coaches 126 1.93 1.11
For the travel that goes with playing 127 1.88 1.31
To attract boys' attention 128 1.77 1.14

 

Note: The fill-in or “other” category is discussed in the text.

294

Table 61. Descriptive statistics for the reasons for playing school sponsored

sports among high school males.

 

 

n M SD
To have fun 33 4.30 1.05
To get exercise 33 4.24 0.87
To get rid of energy 33 4.21 1.08
To be physically fit 33 4.18 1.16
To go to a higher level of competition 33 4.03 1.16
For the excitement of competition 33 4.00 1.15
To improve my skills 33 3.85 1.15
For the challenge of competition 33 3.82 1.18
To learn new skills 33 3.79 1.17
To do something at which I am good 33 3.67 1.32
To be with my friends 33 3.55 1.35
For the team spirit 33 3.45 1.30
To play as part of a team 33 3.33 1.55
To win 33 3.33 1.36
To have something to do 33 3.27 1.35
To use the equipment and/ or facilities 33 3.13 1.31
For the recognition 33 2.93 1.39
To get out of the house 33 2.82 1.31
for the rewards, such as trophies 33 2.79 1.24
To feel important 33 2.73 1.31
To be popular by being a good athlete 33 2.70 1.33
I like the coaches 33 2.58 1.35
Someone I admire played this sport , 33 2.45 1.44
To attract girls' attention 33 2.42 1.30
For the travel that goes with playing 33 2.27 1.28
My parents or close friends want me to participate 33 2.18 1.40

 

Note: The fill-in or “other” category is discussed in the text.

295

Table 62. Descriptive statistics for the reasons for playing in school sponsored
sports among high school females.

 

 

n M SD
To have fun 26 4.58 0.90
To be physically fit 26 4.42 0.99
To get rid of energy 26 4.54 0.71
To get exercise 26 4.31 1.09
For something to do 26 4.12 1.14
To do something at which I am good 26 4.04 1.00
For the challenge of competition 26 3.96 1.11
To improve my skills 26 3.93 1.02
For the excitement of competition 26 3.93 1.16
To play with the team 26 3.73 1.25
To learn new skills 26 3.69 1.19
For the team spirit 26 3.58 l 1.36
To be with my friends 26 3.38 1.33
To go to a higher level of competition 26 3.35 1.35
To win 26 3.1 1 1.45
To use the equipment and / or facilities 26 3.04 1.27
To get out of the house 26 2.85 1.29
For the recognition 26 2.69 1.35
For the rewards, such as trophies 26 2.50 1.39
To feel important 26 2.27 1.15
I like the coaches 26 2.15 1.12
To be popular by being a good athlete 26 1.96 1.15
For the travel that goes with playing 26 1.85 1.08
Someone I admire played this sport 26 1.81 1.02
My parents or close friends want me to participate 26 1.69 0.74
To attract boys' attention 26 1.54 0.76

 

Note: The fill-in or “other” category is discussed in the text.

296

Table 63. Descriptive statistics for reasons for dropping out of sport in high school males
14-18 years.

 

 

. n M SD
The games and practices were scheduled at times when I could not attend 69 2.74 1.49
I needed more time to study 67 2.69 1.58
The sport required too much time 71 2.62 1.53
Too much emphasis was placed on winning 70 2.61 1.47
I was not having fun 70 2.57 1.62
There was too much pressure 71 2.56 1.49
My coach was a poor teacher 70 2.53 1.58
I could not afford to play and practice year round 67 2.43 1.52
I was no longer am interested in this sport 69 2.29 1.46
I wanted to participate in other non-sport activities 69 2.28 1.53
Coach played only his/ her favorite players ' 70 2.16 1.43
I was tired of playing and practicing 70 2.14 1.35
Practices and games were boring 70 2.14 1.29
This sport conflicted with other sports I wanted to play 68 2.13 1.42
I did not get to play very much 69 2.13 1.36
I was not as good a player as the others in my sport 70 2.09 1.39
My friends did not want me to play 68 2.06 1.34
Participation was not improving my physical fitness 69 2.00 1.35
Participation placed to much physical stress on me (e.g. injuries) 70 1.99 1.26
I never felt like I belonged with the team 69 1.96 1.34
I did not want to be a part of a team 67 1.94 1.18
I was not improving my skills 68 1.93 1.31
I was not learning new skills 68 1.84 1.24
Coach always shouted at me when I made an error 70 1.83 1.15
Our team did not have enough team spirit 69 1.80 1.15
Playing did not allow me to stay in shape 68 1.78 1.20
I was not good enough to keep playing 67 1.78 1.19
I did not like the coach 69 1.77 1.33
Players in this sport are too rough 69 1.77 1.78
It was not challenging 68 1.76 1.26
I was always on a losing team 70 1.74 1.11
I did not receive enough recognition 68 1.69 1.03
My teammates did not like me 70 1.67 1.15
I did not feel important playing on this team 67 1.64 0.96
I could not afford the equipment 69 1.64 1.07
My father id not want me to play 69 1.57 1.19
I did not like the traveling 68 1.50 1.00
No sport was offered for my age group 68 1.50 0.92
I wanted to get a job 68 1.44 0.97
My mother did not want me to play 69 1.43 1.02
I felt embarrassed by how I looked in the uniform 68 1.40 0.79
I could not be with my friends 69 1.35 0.74

 

Note: The fill-in or “other” category is discussed in the text.

297

Table 64. Descriptive statistics for the reasons for dropping out of sport in high
school females 14 -18 years.

 

 

n M SD
I needed more time to study 86 3.49 1.54
The sport required too much time 87 2.98 1.44
The games and practices were scheduled at times when I could not attend 88 2.92 1.53
I could not afford to play and practice year round 86 2.80 1.53
There was too much pressure 88 2.61 1.49
My coach was a poor teacher 88 2.43 1.54
I did not have the opportunity to play much 88 2.40 1.47
I wanted to participate in other non-sport activities 88 2.36 1.50
I was no longer am interested in this sport 87 2.29 1.54
The coach played only his/ her favorite players 88 2.23 1.44
Too much emphasis was placed on winning 88 2.22 1.32
Participation placed too much physical stress on me (e.g., injuries) 88 2.18 1.38
I was not having fun 87 2.14 1.50
Participation was not improving my physical fitness 88 2.05 1.40
My friends did not want me to play 87 2.01 1.42
I was not improving my skills 87 2.00 1.38
I was not as good a player as the others in my sport 88 2.00 1.15
I was tired of playing and practicing 88 1.97 1.27
I was not learning new skills 87 1.97 1.39
I did not want to be part of a team 87 1.93 1.16
It was not challenging 85 1.91 1.44
This sport conflicted with other sports I wanted to play 87 1.90 1.29
I never felt like I belonged with the team 87 1.86 1.33
Our team did not have enough team spirit 87 1.86 1.40
Practices and games were boring 88 1.86 1.22
I was not good enough to keep playing 87 1.86 1.29
I did not like the coach 87 1.86 1.37
Coach always shouted at me when I made an error 87 1.85 1.20

I did not feel important playing on this team 85 1.82 1.28
I was always on a losing team 88 1.76 1.20
I did not receive enough recognition 86 1.73 1.14
Playing did not allow me to stay in shape 86 1.63 1.15
87

No sport was offered for my age group 1.59 1.11
I could not afford the equipment 86 1.56 1.15
My father did not want me to play 88 1.56 1.18
I felt embarrassed by how I looked in the uniform 87 1.55 1.03
My mother did not want me to play 87 1.54 1.18
Players in this sport are too rough 88 1.53 1.03
My teammates did not like me 87 1.53 1.02
I could not be with my friends 87 1.40 0.97
I wanted to get a job 88 1.39 0.94
I did not like the traveling 87 1.36 0.93

 

Note: The fill-in or “other” category is discussed in the text.

298

Table 65. Descriptive statistics for responses to the item, "I would return to sport if..."

in urban Mexican high school males 14-18 years.

 

 

n M SD

The practices or games did not conflict with my studies 66 3.29 1.53
The games and practices were scheduled at other times 66 3.11 1.49
I could play more 66 3.00 1.61
The practices or games did not interfere with my social life 66 2.89 1.63
The sport did not demand so much time 66 2.86 1.54
The practices were more fun 66 2.83 1.64
There were more or closer practice facilities 66 2.70 1.64
There were more leagues so the other players were closer to my ability level 66 2.71 1.60
The coaches understood the players better 66 2.62 1.57
The coach were a better instructor 66 2.53 1.62
The coach understood the sport better 66 2.47 1.54
The coach did not yell as much 66 2.24 1.51
The sport were offered for my age group 66 2.02 1.33
There were less emphasis on winning 66 2.00 1.31
The equipment were less expensive 65 1.98 1.33
Parents stopped pushing me 66 1.95 1.35
We practiced less 66 1.92 1.31
I would not get hurt 66 1.91 1.39
The sport did not need special equipment 66 1.88 1.28
I could play in a coed league 65 1.80 1.33
The season were shorter 66 1.72 1.15
My parents were not allowed to come to the games 66 1.70 1.14

 

Note: The fill-in or “other” category is discussed in the text.

299

 

Table 66. Descriptive statistics for responses to the item, "I would return to sport if..."
in urban Mexican high school females 14-18 years.

 

 

n M SD

The practices or games did not conflict with my studies 83 4.17 1.29
The games and practices were scheduled at other times 83 3.37 1.43
The practices or games did not interfere with my social life 83 3.01 1.46
The sport did not demand so much time 83 2.86 1.49
I could play more 83 2.80 1.53
There were more or closer practice facilities 83 2.78 1.64
The coach were a better instructor 82 2.68 1.59
The coaches understood the players better 82 2.67 1.55
The practices were more fun _ 83 2.66 1.60
There were more leagues so the other players were closer to my ability level 83 2.25 1.54
The coach understood the sport better 82 2.24 1.49
The sport were offered for my age group 82 2.15 1.47
I would not get hurt 83 2.11 1.47
The coach did not yell as much 82 2.01 1.40
I could play in a coed league 83 1.93 1.31
Parents stopped pushing me 83 1.90 1.36
There were less emphasis on winning 82 1.85 1.28
The sport did not need special equipment 83 1.83 1.30
The season were shorter 83 1.73 1.06
The equipment were less expensive 83 1.73 1.16
We practiced less 81 1.62 1.07
My parents were not allowed to come to games 83 1.40 0.88

 

Note: The fill-in or “other” category is discussed in the text.

300

 

APPENDIX G

COMPLETE DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR AGE, HEIGHT,
WEIGHT AND THE BMI BY AGE, SEX AND SES

301

 

 

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