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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

Teaching the Classification of Vertebrate
Animals by Comparing the Anatomy within
Each System

presented by

Pamela R . Lehman-Nutt

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Masters Biological Science

degree in

 

 

 

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August 10, 1999
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1“ WWW“

TEACHING THE CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATE ANIMALS BY
COMPARING THE ANATOMY WITHIN EACH SYSTEM

By

Pamela R. Lehman-Nun

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
In partial fulfillment of the requirements
For the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Division of Science and Math Education

1 999

ABSTRACT

TEACHING THE CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATE ANIMALS BY
COMPARING THE ANATOMY WITHIN EACH SYSTEM

By

Pamela R Lehman-Nun

This thesis determines whether students understand vertebrate classification better
if they study, compare, and contrast anatomical systems (digestive, reproductive, skeletal,
etc.) versus the typical way this material is taught in the high school. Vertebrate
classification is normally taught by the “Classes” like birds, reptiles, and mammals. I
will compare the vertebrate Classes by their anatomical systems, thereby showing
similarities and difi‘erences within each system. Students used materials I developed at
Michigan State University in 1997. Pretests, posttests, notes, performance evaluations,
educational videos, slides of vertebrate dissections, and laboratory dissections of a
dogfish shark and a pigeon were part of this unit. To evaluate this approach, I focused on
3 higher-level students, 3 middle-level students, and 3 lower-level students over a two-
year period. These students did show significant improvement in their understanding of

the Classes of vertebrate animals after the teaching of this unit.

Copyright by
PAMELA RUTH LEHMAN-NUTT
l 999

To my mom and dad, for always making sure that I knew how important education is.
Thank you.

To my husband and son, Dale and Tyler, for their patience and understanding. I love you
both.

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Dr. Merle Heidemann and Dr. Ken Nadler for all of their
help, knowledge, and patience as I tried to complete my thesis. I would also like to thank
my ihmily and friends for their constant support and understanding of my lack of time
while I finished up my degree.

Last, I would like to thank my tenth grade advanced biology students at Eaton
Rapids High School, the class of 2000 and 2001, for allowing me to carry out my graduate

work with them.

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................. viii
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1
Statement of Problem and Rational for Study ............................................ 1
Demographics of the Classroom ........................................................... 5
Review of Scientific Principles ............................................................. 5
Classification ........................................................................ 6
Comparing Essential Anatomical Systems ....................................... 6
Trends In Evolution ................................................................. 9
IMPLEMENTATION OF UNIT .................................................................. 10
Notes ......................................................................................... 12
Slides ......................................................................................... 12
Weekly-Outline ............................................................................. 13
Audio Visuals Aids .......................................................................... 15
Laboratory Investigations .................................................................. 15
Classification Bingo ......................................................................... 17
EVALUATION ...................................................................................... 18
Pretests ....................................................................................... 19
Posttests ..................................................................................... 22
Analysis of the Pretest and Posttest of Eighteen Target Students: 9/1997-98;
9/1998-99 .................................................................................. 23
Student Questionnaires ..................................................................... 27
Results .............................................................................. 29
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS .......................................................... 34
Aspects of the Unit Effective in Conveying Key Information ......................... 35
Aspects of the Unit that Need Improvement and Strategies Used for
Making Changes ......................................................................... 37
Overall Evaluation ........................................................................... 40

APPENDICES

Appendix A
Notes ................................................................................. 43
Appendix B
Pretest ................................................................................ 74
Appendix C
Posttest - Part I ..................................................................... 78
Appendix D
Pigeon and Dogfish Shark Dissection Questions .............................. 86
Appendix E
Slide Structures .................................................................... 87
Appendix P
Free Response Pretest — 1998-99 ................................................ 92
Appendix G
Daily Calendars ..................................................................... 95
Appendix H
An Example of a Classification Bingo Game Card ........................... 110
Appendix 1
Post Test .......................................................................... 112
Appendix J
Students Questionnaire .......................................................... 120
Appendix K
Student Questionnaire Responses — 1997-98 and 1998-99 ................. 123
Appendix L
Classification Quiz ............................................................... 137
AUDIO VISUAL REFERENCES ................................................................ 139
BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................. 141

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 — Item Analysis of Number Right on Selected Questions of the

Pretest and Posttest — 1997-1998 ..................................................... 20
Figure 2 — Comparison of the 1997-1998 Nine Target Students Test Scores ............... 25
Figure 3 — Comparison of the 1998-1999 Nine Target Students Test Scores ............... 26

Figure 4 — Comparison of Pretest, Posttest and Average Test Scores for
1997-1998 and 1998-1999 ............................................................ 28

viii

INTRODUCTION

A. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM AND RATIONALE FOR STUDY

The goal of my unit was to make understandable a high school science topic that
was hard to teach and complex due to its large content. I chose to teach seven anatomical
systems by comparing each system across various vertebrate Classes. The main question
proposed to students was what are the similarities and dissimilarities of basic anatomical
systems of various Classes of vertebrates?

I chose this problem because I believe that when students are able to compare
difiemnt anatomical systems across organisms, they get a better understanding of the
organism itself and the organism’s evolutionary relationships. I wanted to see if I would
increase my student’s ability to comprehend than when I first taught this unit for five
weeks to tenth grade students in the 1996-1997 school year. No formal comparison is
used to this group due to a change in textbooks and no data were kept on their
performance.

I decided to teach this unit for a total of 2 years (1997-98 and 1998-99). I used
highly organized notes (Beecher, 1988) after researching ways to provide a lot of
information to students. I deleted certain phrases or words so that my students would
have to fill in key words, follow along and listen as Beecher suggested. Beecher also
suggested using a lecture format that allows space in the notes for students to include
additional information as I talked, inserting verbal and nonverbal clues, writing important
material on the blackboard and avoiding informational overload. By doing my notes and

lecture in this forum, I was able to present a large amount of information by using an

 

 

outline form that would be easy to read, understand, and organized according to
appropriate grouping of ideas and flats. As stated by Rogers (1983), “Generalizations
are then presented in a brief but accurate fiamework upon which details of the anatomical
system are in an orderly and predictable pattern. The purpose of the notes is to present
basic concepts of comparative anatomy in a streamlined form that is easily used as a
supplement to classroom work”. Most comparative anatomy books teach one anatomical
system per chapter in too much detail even for a high school advanced biology course.
Students also lack adequate backgromd in chemistry to understand many of the ideas
used in a college comparative anatomy textbook since chemistry is not offered to them
until they are eleventh graders. These comparative anatomy textbooks differ due to the
emphasis put on phylogenic relationships, structure and function, principles of
organization, speciation, or morphology.

In this unit, I also wanted to revisit the theory of evolution studied earlier in the
school year of 1997-98. I wanted my students to apply deductive reasoning to evolution
by recalling premises of natural selection and applying this to vertebrate adaptation. By
looking at the structures of different vertebrate organisms, students should be able to
deduce that many of them have homologous structmes. According to Arnold Klunge
(1977) in his first chapter of Chordate Structure and Function, “Deduction in a logical
sense is the form of reasoning by which a conclusion is derived or inferred from a
physical law, biological theory or principle. In deductive reasoning one begins with a
general truth and seeks to connect it to some individual case by a logical extension”.
This author also believes that by using the comparative approach in studying anatomy,

deductive reasoning must be involved to see a correlation between structure and fiinction.

For most learners, knowledge is constructed. Intellectual sense is made of physical and
biological environments based upon ones experience (Roth, 1993). I wanted my students
to see, based on their own anatomical work, similarities between vertebrate anatomical
systems and imderstand that through adaptations these systems have become modified
and more complex when comparing “lower” to “higher” vertebrates. For example, the
comparative anatomy of the heart and circulatory system is treated, not as evidence for
the evolution of mammals fiom fish and amphibians, but as one aspect of a functional
system, adapted differently in the various Classes of vertebrates for the same basic need
(Griffith, 1962).

My teaching style or the way the class was nm was not changed from previous
years, except for the way I prepared notes for the students. The notes were given in
outline to provide a large amount of well-organized information in a form that was easy
to read. In 1996-97, my students took notes based on material presented on the overhead
withmetalkingandexplainingaslwentthroughthem. Thisisnottheidealwayto
lecture and give notes. Research on note-taking states that the student should copy notes
to ensure that their thought processes do not wander. Those students that do take their
own notes seem to be able to retain information better and recall the information that they
copied down (Beecher, 1988). In this unit, I developed notes with a considerable amount
of information not found in the textbook for my students. Therefore, I had to give the
students prepared notes, as time was constrainted. We then went through these notes on
the overhead projector together in discussion, as I pointed out major ideas and added
some extra notes (Appendix A). The students were still required to do vocabulary

definitions, laboratory dissections, read different sections within their textbook, and

lands-on activities. The latter was crucial since “Hands-on activities are necessary for
developing concrete, experiential background especially for students who have had little
exposure to experiences important for learning about the natural world” (Haury and
Rillero, 1994). Evidence based on science instruction of activities and lab work has
shown effectiveness in fostering scientific literacy and understanding of science
processes and critical thinking (Haury, 1993).

For most of the year I teach a unit by a chapter in the textbook, which is organized
by major ideas such as cellular and molecular biology. Each student is required to define
vocabulary terms on which they will be later quizzed. Worksheets pertaining to the
chapter and ideas that I want to emphasize are discussed. Students do at least one
laboratory activity per chapter, though I usually try to include two laboratory experiments
per clnpter lasting about two weeks. These laboratory experiments develop skills
necessary for problem-solving which helps students investigate based on the logical and
sequential thought processes often referred to as the ‘scientific method’ (Kanis, 1992).
On their own time, my students were to read the chapter and answer the questions that
were asked in every section of the chapter. At the end of every chapter there was a
review consisting of: multiple choice, true/false questions, word relationships, short
answer questions, and critical and creative thinking essay questions. After students
completed the chapter review, the class and I would review for the test together as I
questioned them about main ideas and processes within the chapter. The test for each
chapter consisted of multiple choice, fill in the blank, diagrams and/or tables, short
essays, and at least two critical thinking essay questions. The students were told that they

must read over notes, vocabulary, worksheets, and laboratory activities and look over

their chapter review to adequately study for their test. The vocabulary and textbook
reading activities reinforced the lesson (Haury and Rillero). I wanted to analyze this way

of teaching and make some changes when teaching a complex unit.

B. DEMOGRAPHICS OF THE CLASSROOM

I teach at Eaton Rapids High School located approximately 15 miles south of
Lansing. This is a Class B school consisting of 3200 students in the school district and
1000 students at the ninth through twelfth grade high school. The students at Baton
Rapids are of European ancestry with less that 1% minorities. I chose my advanced
biology tenth grade class for the study of this unit. The first year, the 1997-98 class,
consisted of 27 students: 17 girls and 10 boys. This unit was taught in the last five weeks
of school. Thel998-99 advanced biology class, or the second year of this study,
consisted of 20 students: 14 girls and 6 boys. The unit for this class was taught at the

beginning of the school year.

C. REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES

The scientific concepts explained and demonstrated in this unit are: (1)
classification of an organism, in the case of vertebrates, based on its internal and external
structures; (2) comparison of the ways in which vertebrates carry out their essential life
functions; (3) description of trends in the evolution of vertebrate systems. Background

information on each of the three objectives is presented below.

CLASSIFICATION

To be classified as a vertebrate, the organism must have a combination of four
unique characteristics: (1) a notochord, at least in embryonic development; (2) a pharynx
with slits or pouches in the lateral walls in the embryonic stage at least; (3) a dorsal,
hollow, central nervous system; and (4) a vertebral column.

All vertebrates fall under the kingdom Animalia, the phylum Chordata, and the
subphylum Vertebrata. In the classification scheme, the next taxon is the Classes, which
consists of Agnatha, Chondrichthyes, Osteichthyes, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, and
Mammalia. Each of these Classes is broken up into Orders, Families, Genus, and
Species. For example the classification of a grizzly bear is Kingdom - Animalia,
Phylum - Chordata, Class — Mammalia, Order — Carnivora, Family - Ursidae,

Genus — Ursus, Species -— arctos. Conventional classification is an attempt to relate
hierarchies phylogenetically on genealogical relationships and morphologically. This
classification scheme has been successful over the years, but as new tools for
classification, such as DNA testing, are being developed, organisms are being reclassified

according to relatedness of proteins and DNA sequences.

COMPARING ESSENTIAL ANATOMICAL SYSTEMS
Besides the four unique characteristics, vertebrates share many anatomical
features that can be compared. These features are; the integurnent or skin, the muscular

system, the skeletal system, the nervous system, the reproductive system, the circulatory

system, and the respiratory system.

Integument

The vertebrate skin is unique with two layers consisting of an epidermis and a dermis.
Within these two layers are defensive, phermonal, lubricating, and homeostasis-
maintaining glands. The skin can be modified to become scales, nails, hair, and feathers.
The epidermis of a land vertebrate must protect against dehydration whereas a water

vertebrate must be protected from hydration.

Muscuhr System

There are three types of muscle tissue; smooth, cardiac, and striated. Smooth muscle is
usually found in blood vessels and tubes. Cardiac muscle is striated and only found in
the heart. Cardiac muscle shows characteristics of both smooth and striated muscle.
Both smooth and cardiac muscle are controlled involuntarily by the brain. Striated
muscle appears striped when viewed under the microscope and contains many nuclei.

This muscle type is controlled voluntarily and moves the skeleton when needed.

Skeletal System
The skeletal system is composed of bone, cartilage, and ligaments that make up a strong
fi'amework that provides the shape and protection of the organism. The skeleton itself is

also a place for attachment of muscles that move the jointed framework

Nervous System
A variety of sense organs are found in vertebrates. These monitor the changing

environment, internally and externally. The receptors are responsible for chemical,

electrical and thermostatic change and are widely distributed throughout the body. These
receptors are connected to the brain and regulate the body’s response, thereby enhancing

the ability to survive.

Reproductive System
Reproductive organs include gonads, ducts, accessory glands, storage chambers, and
copulatory mechanisms. All vertebrates are sexual and have either external or internal

fertilization.

Circulatory System
The vertebrate body tissue must be supplied with oxygen and other organic chemicals
and be able to get rid of carbon dioxide and organic wastes. To achieve this the body
contains blood made up of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets and plasma
that run through tubes called arteries, veins, or capillaries. These tubes are named
according to their position in the body and their thickness and elasticity. Blood is
pumped throughout the body by the heart, composed of cardiac muscle, which is located
close to the respiratory system in all vertebrate body plans. Vertebrates can have a two,
three, or four chambered hearts. The top chamber(s) is called the atrium (pl. atria) and
the lower chamber(s) is the ventricle(s).

Fish have a single-loop circulatory system, meaning it goes fi'om the heart to the
gills, to the body, then back to the heart. All the other vertebrates, with the exception of

the salamander, have a double-loop circulatory system. One loop moves blood fi'om the

heart to the lungs and back to the heart with oxygenated blood. The other loop moves

blood to the body, returning it to the heart.

Respiratory System
An exchange of oxygen and waste products like carbon dioxide takes place either in the

gills, skin, or lungs of vertebrates. Some animals use a combination of these organs.

TRENDS IN EVOLUTION

The more primitive an organism, the less complex their anatomical systems tend to be.
Species that evolved later seem to have more advanced features with the exception of

animals that are parasitic. Parasitic animals have a reversed trend. Some lineage’s of

organisms have become more specialized over time with modified structures due to

adaptations that occurred by the process of natural selection or by genetic drift.

IMPLEMENTATION OF UNIT

I developed a five-week unit on vertebrate anatomy taught to an advanced biology
class in May of 1998 and a revised version of this unit, taught in September of 1998 to
another advanced biology class. The basic biological ideas of this unit, for both years,
were the different anatomical systems within an organism, how the systems are similar
within each Class, and the taxonomic classification of vertebrate animals. Evolution was
emphasized in the first year also. The class met everyday for 55-minute periods. The
components I prepared for this unit were the notes, pretests, posttests, laboratory
dissection questions, and slides of vertebrate dissections. These items are appended.

Teaching of the new unit began in May of 1998 by pre-testing (Appendix B) what
students knew about vertebrate classification, external morphology, and the skeletal and
muscular systems. The results of the pretest were later compared to the posttest
(Appendix C) to see if there was a significant difference between the two. We then
discussed the pretest results in class. I used the pretest as a guide to help me emphasize
information in which students were deficient in knowledge. For this unit the students
were given: key terms for each system, notes, laboratory activities to do, worksheets that
accompanied each anatomical system, movies that showed the difl‘erent Classes,
laboratory dissections of the perch, dogfish shark, and pigeon. The students were also
shown slides of the dissections of the perch, lamprey, dogfish shark, mudpuppy, and
turtle, which I rmde in preparation to teaching this unit.

In preparation for teaching this unit, I extracted laboratory investigations,

activities and background information from a wide source of nuterials. I also developed

10

questions to accompany the dissections of the pigeon and dogfish shark (Appendix D).
To review for the Classes and Orders of vertebrates, I made up a bingo game to help my
students learn the names. All the laboratory investigations were taken from my
classroom textbook and Biology: The Living Science(1998), except for the dissections
which were taken from college comparative anatomy laboratory books ( Harrison, 1970
and Wischnitzer, 1988).

In additional preparation, I had to organize the slides of dissections that I had
taken during my research. The slides were organized in order of their anatomical systems
so as the prepared notes were discussed, specific structures (Appendix E) fi'om each of
the vertebrate classes could be shown to the students.

Before teaching this unit in September of 1998, I modified the pretest and posttest
to be in the form of a free response (Appendix F). I also added a hog and fetal pig
dissection to the unit.

The main focus of evaluation for the first year was observing and documenting
responses fi'om three high-level achieving students, 3 middle-level achieving students and
3 low-level achieving students. I selected the students for each level by their grades in
the class throughout the school year. The higher-level students had an A average, the
middle-level students had a C average, and the low-level students I chose were those
receiving a D/E average in the class. These students were picked at random from each
level, except the D/E students of which there were only three.

In the second year, 1998-1999, three students of each grade average were picked

also. They were not chosen until after the first semester, since this unit was taught at the

11

beginning of the year and I had no baseline grade data on which to base choosing

students for monitoring.

A. NOTES

The notes (Appendix A) used in this unit were developed by me with reference to
many books listed in the bibliography. I spent much time trying to make sure that they
were not inappropriately long or in-depth for my students. The notes were constructed in
outline form to make sure that the general concepts of vertebrate structure and the
characteristics of each Class were organized and easy to read. The students seemed to
like the notes this way, except a few who liked to prepare their own notes. I made
overheads of each anatomical system and, as I discussed the notes with my students, I
1nd them star or underline key ideas. I also added some small pieces of information to
keep their minds from wandering. Most of the students listened very well as evidence
from their responses and questions asked. For the 1998-99 school year, I changed the
notes (Appendix A) by deleting some of the information and having each student fill in

the information as it was discussed in class.

B. SLIDES

I took a series of 35mm slides of dissected vertebrate animals as part of my 1997
summer research experience. The animals that I dissected were a perch, a lamprey, a
mudpuppy, a turtle, and a dogfish shark. I also dissected a cow’s heart with the help of
another graduate student. As I went through each dissection, I stopped at certain points

to label main structures that I wanted my students to know. A list of all the structures

12

labeled can be seen in Appendix E. The slides developed fiom my research were useful,
but did not come out as well as I would have liked. The slide background was too dark
andthe labelsthatl hadplacedonthe animalsweretoo hardtoreadbecause oftheir size.
Thereason fortakingthe slides ofthe dissectionswasto make surethatIhad some visual
materials to show my students. Also, I was not sure if my school could afl‘ord to
purchase all the animals for dissection that I would like to include in my unit. My
students said during the showing and discussion of the slides that the slides were useful

and helped to show them what to look for inside each dissected animal.

C. WEEKLY OUTLINE

This is a short summary of weekly activities for the 1997-98 unit. The activities
listed are those that I provided for the unit. A complete daily calendar for both years can
be seen in Appendix G. For the 1998-1999 school year, two weeks time was added to the

schedule to accommodate a more productive learning environment.

Week 1

During the first week of this unit, my students took a multiple-choice pretest. We
discussed the results of the pretests. The students were given notes on classification,
external morphology, and the skeletal system and we discussed them as a group.

Slides were shown on external morphology of the lamprey, perch, turtle, mudpuppy and

dogfish shark.

l3

Week 2

The notes related to the muscular system were handed out and discussed. The students
examined skeletons and participated in a prepared laboratory investigation defining the
two types of muscle tissue. Students then did a laboratory investigation comparing
vertebrate skeletons of the cat, pigeon, alligator, human and hug. Toward the end of the
week, we looked at prepared slides of difl‘erent muscle and skin cells under the

microscope.

Week 3

At the beginning of the third week, the class reviewed for the classification part of the
test by playing games of classification bingo (Appendix H). The students took the
posttest (Appendix C)for this section after reviewing for it. We discussed the prepared
notes of the nervous system. The pigeon dissection was started on Friday and continued

the following week.

Week 4

At the beginning of the week, we discussed the reproductive, circulatory, and respiratory
systems in detail from the prepared notes handed out. The students participated in two
laboratory investigations: examining an unfertilized egg and comparing different
respiratory system. The pigeon dissection was finished. Toward the end of the week,
the students were shown slides of a dissected cow’s heart and started the dogfish shark

dissection.

14

Week 5

The students finished up the dogfish shark dissection and accompanying questions at the
beginning of the week. Students watched a movie about the classification and unique
characteristics of mammals, and were shown slides of the dissections covering the
respiratory, circulatory, reproductive system of the lamprey, perch, mudpuppy, turtle, and
dogfish shark. Then the students reviewed for the second posttest (Appendix I). On
Friday, after the posttest, all of my students completed a student questionnaire

(Appendix J) asking factual questions and about their perceptions of the unit that they had

just finished.

D. AUDIO VISUAL AIDS

I incorporated a series of Eyewitness videos (Dorling Kindersley, 1994) on the
Classes of vertebrates including; fish, amphibian, reptiles, birds, and mammals. All of
my students found this series to be intellectually motivating and interesting. Personally, I
found the series to be extremely interesting and one of the better series that I have found.
A wide variety of facts, history, and species are shown in each video. The videos

themselves are only thirty-five minutes long so they do not take up an entire period.

E. LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS

All of the laboratory investigations and dissections for this unit are based on
prepared written materials. The laboratory investigations all are fi'om the teacher’s
resources from either of my biology textbooks, Mg and _B_'Q_lggy_' W

published by Prentice Hall (1998). Both book resources were useful since they both have

15

the same authors, Kenneth Miller and Joseph Levine. One of the textbooks, Biology: The
mm; is for a lower level reading ability. When targeting laboratory material
for this unit, a criterion I used was that the content of the laboratory investigation
comparing different vertebrate anatomical systems.

There were five laboratory stations spread around the outside walls of the
classroom. I allowed my students to pick their own laboratory partners, with two or three
in a group. The students in each group knew that they were responsible for completing
the laboratory investigation and for cleaning their station at the end of the period. I
walked around the classroom to each station answering and asking questions concerning
their activity. By walking fi'om station to station, I made sure students were on task,
participating in the laboratory investigation.

The laboratory dissection went very well, except for two aspects. The first
problem was with the pigeon and dogfish shark dissection that I was not able to locate a
dissection guide written to the ability and level of my students. The dissection guides
that I located contained low-level information and not enough detail or were too in-depth
and contained too much detail I ended up using the dissection guide with too much
information from a comparative anatomy dissection guide that normally accompanies a
college textbook. The pigeon dissection and the dogfish shark dissection guides were 20
and 30 pages long, respectively. Neither of these guides were what I truly wanted for my
students due to their length and excess information. My second problem was that most of
the questions that accompanied these dissection guides were about information I did not
perceive to be important to my students so, I developed questions that my students could

answer at the end of their dissection (Appendix D).

16

F. CLASSIFICATION BINGO

I decided to structure a review for the classification part of the posttest by playing
games of classification bingo. My students mentioned that they were having a hard time
remembering taxonomic Classes and Orders. I thought a game with candy rewards
would motivate them enough to learn the different taxa. I made up the game by using
key animals, Classes, and Orders that I had listed on the notes for classification and
placing questions about them on index cards. I shuffled the cards and read off the
questions. I provided a blank bingo sheet for each of them to fill out (Appendix H). The
students had to fill out their bingo sheets with any of the names on their notes. The
students could win across, down, or diagonally. This was a lot of fun. Most of my
students wanted to continue playing all period but I had to review for the rest of the

posttest with them.

17

EVALUATION

The evaluation of this unit was based on both objective and subjective data. In
the first trial (1997-1998) ofthis unit, the students took a pretest and a posttest for the
first part of the unit which was two and one halfweeks long. However, I did not give a
pretest for the second halfof the unit, though a second posttest was taken. This was due
to an end-of-the-year time constraint. I also had to allow time for all of my students to
give feedback on a questionnaire with regards to the unit itself which I gave them after
the unit was completed. All of the data from this questionnaire (Appendix K) were
analyzed after the 1997-98 school year.

The evaluation of the second trial of this unit was completed after the first
semester of the 1998-1999 school year. The students took a different pretest and posttest
than the students of the first year. I changed the pretest/posttest to a free response form
so I could identify misconceptions and make changes to the unit according to the classes
individual needs. The pretest and posttest were exactly the same but neither was used as
a grade for the class. The pretest and posttest were used to evaluate the eflectiveness of
theunit. Thepretestwasadministeredatthebeginning oftheunitandtheposttestwas
taken at the end of the seven weeks. The information pertaining to vertebrate Classes and
Orders of vertebrate animals was given as a quiz (Appendix L), instead of being covered
on the unit test. This change was based on student feedback from the previous year

analysis.

18

A. PRETESTS

The 1997-98 pretest (Appendix A) consisted of 29 multiple choice questions that
were also included on the posttest along with additional multiple-choice questions, two
diagrams, and three essay questions. The results of the pretest show that there were some
questions about material content that the majority of my students did not understand or
have any previous knowledge. These test questions were #1, 5, 7, 9, 13, 16, 18, 24, and
27. Of all my students, anywhere fiom 42% up to 73% of each individual question did
not get answered correctly. The nature of these questions pertained to the taxonomy of
the vertebrate Classes or specific information about each taxonomic Class. Data from an
item analysis of these nine questions for all my students is shown in Figure 1. The figure
shows that most of the questions were answered correctly on the posttest, except #7. My
students scored lower on this posttest question than on the pretest. The reason for this is
that the students guessed correctly on the pretest. On questions #5 and #9, my students
showed a noteworthy improvement in their correct answers on the posttest.

The 1997-98 pretest gave me some insight to what students knew
previously. I found it amazing that some of my students did not know basic information
about vertebrate organs as I expected. The pretest indicated that all of my students scored
in a similar range. Most of the students came to the unit without much background
information on the Classes and Orders of vertebrates. Students guessed when answering
the pretest questions and voiced their fi'ustration to me after they took the test. By having
my students guess on the pretest, I am not sure if they got the question right due to

knowledge or just by chance, therefore I do not believe I received adequate information

19

Number of Students with Correct Answer

20 w

 

18

16 *-

14 -—

12 --—

10 *-

 

0n

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1‘5‘7l9ll3l16

 

 

 

 

18124

 

 

27

 

LI Pretest 9

4j17

3l15 9

8M3

9

 

 

IE1 Posttest 18

 

10l15

 

l

 

15i1614‘12j16il3

 

 

 

 

Figure 1 - Item Analysis of Number Right on
Selected Questions on Pretest and Posttest

20

1997-1998

about their previous knowledge. The pretest results are at best, an overestimate of their
prior knowledge.

The 1997-98 posttest ended up taking longer for students to complete than I
anticipated. One student took all hour to finish the test. The students that took the time
to study did well as I learned fi'om the student questionnaires I gave them. Most of them
said the hardest part was to remember the taxonomic names of the Classes and Orders. I
will change the classification section of this unit to a quiz with reference only to the
vertebrate Classes, Orders and animals within those specific taxon and have the students
take it in the beginning.

The 1998-99 pretest (Appendix F) was a fi'ee response to 11 questions. Each
question pertained to difi‘erent vertebrate anatomical systems. Two of the questions, #4
and #8 on the pretest were hardly ever responded to and if so, only in general terms.
Questions #4 asked what some actions of joints there were and #8 asked what part of the
nervous system is responsible for your ability to blink.

I learned a lot about the student’s previous knowledge and concepts of anatomical
systems on the 1998-99 fiee response pretest. I learned that most of them had no
knowledge of the parts and function of the brain or the actions of the joints. Most of the
students could give me information on the different coverings of vertebrate animals and
could list two of the ways to get rid of wastes. Some students definitely knew more
information than others. Most of these students had one specific science teacher in the
junior high. I had asked them to write down the name of their previous science teachers

sothatIhadageneralideaofwhowasdoingagoodjobatthelower level.

21

B. POSTTESTS

The 1997-98 posttest consisted of the same 29 multiple choice questions that I
used for the pretest, but I included 17 more multiple choice questions, two diagrams that
the students had to analyze, and 3 essay questions. Two of the essays were related to
laboratory investigations that the students had completed. The first essay question asked
students about difi‘erent types of muscle. The second essay question asked the students to
compare and contrast the different skeletal systems of the various vertebrate Classes.

Thefirstdiagramto beanalyzedontheposttestwasbasedonachart showing the
change in population size of the five vertebrate Classes over the last 500 million years.
The students were asked questions about the evolution of certain Classes and the time
periods in which the Classes evolved. The second diagram on the posttest was of a
chicken skeleton. Students were asked to recognize similarities between structures of the
pigeon they had dissected and those of the chicken.

The 1998-99 posttest (Appendix F) was a free response to the same 11
questions given on the pretest. All of the students answered each question. Some of the
students went into great detail to answer the question completely. I believe that this type
of evaluation helped me to see the difference in their starting knowledge to their ending
knowledge. This test was a useful tool, though it took considerable time to read. By
comparing their pretest to their posttest, I could tell that they learned a lot more
information that I could assess on a multiple-choice test. By giving the students a free
response question posttest, I was able to identify gaps in their knowledge and was able to

fill in the blanks missing in their knowledge.

22

C. ANALYSIS OF THE PRETEST AND POSTTEST OF EIGHTEEN

TARGET STUDENTS: 9/1997-98; 9/1998-99

In order to obtain more about student learning, I analyzed the pre- and post- test
data of nine students per year. All of the information presented below is fiom my study
group of nine target students consisting of 3 high-level achieving students, 3 average-
achieving students, and 3 low-level achieving students. These nine target students were
chosen by their consistent grades throughout the first, second, and third quarters of the
1997-98 school year. The high-achieving students maintained a grade of an A, the
average-achieving students maintained a C, and the low-achieving students maintained a
D and/or E average. For the rest of this document, I will refer to the students by a symbol

shown in the key below.

Key for the 1997-98 Nine Target Students:
H1 = high-achieving student #1
H2 = high-achieving student #2
H3 = high-achieving student #3
A1 = average-achieving student #1
A2 = average-achieving student #2
A3 = average-achieving student #3
L1 = low-achieving student #1
L2 = low-achieving student #2

L3 = low-achieving student #3

23

For the 1998-99 school year I chose nine target students by their grades as in the
year before. These students were chosen after the completion of the first semester so that
I could use their testing scores as a measurement of their success. I will refer to them as a

symbol shown in the key below.

Key for the 1998-99 Nine Target Students:
H4 = high-achieving student #4
H5 = high-achieving student #5
H6 = high-achieving student #6
A4 = average-achieving student #4
A5 = average-achieving student #5
A6 = average-achieving student #6
L4 = low-achieving student #4
L5 = low-achieving student #5
L6 = low-achieving student #6
The data in Figure 2 is a comparison of the 1997-98 nine target students’ pretest
scores, posttest scores, and their semester average test scores. Remember that these
students were chosen by their grade in the class and for their consistent test scores and
overall grade scores.
The nine 1997-98 target students did not show improvement in their posttest
percentages when compared to the mean of their second semester test percentages. The
average semester test score was 84.3%. Only three of the nine target students showed an

increase in their posttest scores when compared to their average test scores. All of the

24

Percentage Correct

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

90 ——— I

80 ——4 I

70 i— I l I I 1

60 F I I [I I

50* I I I. I. l l I

40 I I I I I I I I I

30 I I I I I I I I I

20 I I I I I I I I I

10— I I

0 a

H1H2H3A1A2A3 L1 L2 L3

IPretest 48 72 55 48 48 41 41 40 55
ClPosttest 90 79 92 L67 58 61 60 72 58
IAverageTests 92 91192l7417017053 63 53

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 2 - Comparison of the 1997-98 Nine
Target Students Test Scores

25

Percentage Correct

120

100

 

80*

20~

H4

H65A4lA5|A6

 

 

 

 

L4 L5

 

L6

 

I Pretest

64

73 I36 l 45

55

45 64

36

 

El Posttest

 

191

 

 

95

82

100

77

 

82 91

68

 

 

IAverage Tests l 90 l 94 l 92

 

70

 

83

 

73

 

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63

 

Figure 3 - Comparison of the 1998-99
NineTtarget Students Test Scores

26

 

three were the low-achieving students. The method of teaching in this thesis could be
beneficial to these lower-achieving students.

These target students did show an improvement in posttest scores compared to
pretest scores. The class average pretest score was 54%. The posttest mean was 76%. A
24% increase shows a clear improvement over their pretest scores. The t-test results fiom
the pretest and posttest shows that the significance or the probability of error to be less
than 0.001%.

The nine 1998-99 target student’s data for the comparison of pretest scores,
posttest scores, and semester average test scores is shown in Figure 3. The entire target
student group showed improvement on their posttest versus pretest scores. The lowest
percentage increase when comparing the pretest to posttest is 22%, which was obtained
by a high-achiever and is to be expected since they scored high on the pretest. The
largest increase, 55%, is shown by average-achiever 2. The class average pretest score
was a 53.8%, the posttest 86.3%, and the class average test scores first semester were
85.8%. These percents show an improvement over last years posttest scores
(Figure 4). All of the nine 1998-99 target students did better on their posttest, just like in

the previous year.

D. STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRES

At the end of the unit I gave all of my students in both years a questionnaire about
the unit. The students were told to comment only on the last five (1997-98) or seven
(1998-99) week unit, but some of them commented on things from the whole school year

in 1997-98. Therefore, I could not include all the students’ comments in my analysis

27

Percentage Correct on Test

 

90

 

60 - —;
50 —
40 -
30 4
20 e

10—

 

 

 

 

 

 

Pretest Posttest ‘ Average
i r l Tests
in 1997-1998 l 54 76 i
‘13 1998-1999 1 54 84 i 85.8

Figure 4 - Comparison of Pretest, Posttest and
Average Test Scores for 1997-1998 and 1998-
1999

 

 

 

 

 

28

unless it directly related to the new unit. I read all of my students’ comments after the
school year ended and some of my discussion and conclusion will come from these
students’ comments. The student questionnaire for the 1998-99 school year was not read
until the completion of the first semester, after the semester grades were issued.

I analyzed all of my eighteen target students’ comments. Below are examples of
responses fi'om four of the eighteen students, two fi'om each year. These are
representative responses. The complete questionnaire results fiom the eighteen target

students can be found in Appendix K.

QUESTIONNAIRE RESULTS:

1. What did you like most about the last unit (five or seven weeks) that we did in
class? Why?
Al - I liked how you went over the notes with us in class and took the time on all of
the information to make sure we understood.
L1 -—1 likedthedissectionsthe most inthetwo lastunits becausethevisual learning
involved in them helped me the most.
H4 — The dissections because you were allowed to really relax and have fun but still
learn things. Also not having to write out the notes.
A4 — I liked the dissections the most. They were interesting because instead of seeing
the pictures you could actually feel and see the body parts.

2. What did you like the least (about this unit)? Why?
H1 - The tests. They had too much information to cram for one test. I think they

should have been broken up. I also didn’t like plucking Fred, our pigeon.

29

A2 - The lack of reference in the book The book couldn’t really help with the
questions on the labs. And not having the lab books to study from.

A4 - I didn’t like the Classes and Orders. It takes me way more time than one night
to remember that information.

A6 - The reading because it is time consuming.

. What did you like about the tests? What didn’t you like about the tests?

H3 - A test is a test; they are always the same. Either you know what you are talking
about or you don’t.

A1 — They were multiple choice and the essays were understandable(liked). They
covered too much material and there was so much information to study that we never
seemed to study the right things.

H5 - I liked the multiple choice on the test because I had a 25% chance. I liked the
dissection labeling the least because you couldn’t study for it.

L4 - What I liked about the tests was that most were multiple choice and if you
studied, you should get it right if you have more options. I didn’t like the long essay

questions because some things we did, we didn’t go over in class much.

. Did the comparison of all the different Classes and systems make sense to you?

Was this hard to compare due to your lack of previous knowledge about
different anatomical systems (like the circulatory or reproductive systems)?

A1 — Yes. It wasn’t hard to compare, it just got a little confilsing with organisms that
are alike and when you ask a very specific question. There could be multiple answers

asfarasweknow.

30

L1 —Most ofthe comparison made sense to me. This washard because ofmy lack of
previous knowledge.

H6 -Ithink ifwe took atest on two ofthemat atirne we could spend more time and
better retain information about the comparison. Yes, the comparisons of different
Classes systems did nmke sense.

L5 — In some Classes the names made sense to me. Yes, due to some lack of

knowledge, it was a bit difficult to make sense of things.

. What would you have liked to seen done differently? Why?

H2 — An in-depth section about the human body would help a lot!

Ll - I would have liked smaller tests when we had to memorize Classes and such
because there was a lot to memorize

H4 — Nothing, it is good. Nothing (was) outrageously hard but, nothing that was
extremely easy.

A5 - It would be easier to learn if you taught amphibians, then everything about them

. Were the labs helpful in your understanding of each unit?

A3 -— Yes, I got to learn more hands on.

L3 — Yes, the labs were very helpful and aided in the understanding of the animals.
However, time constraints were very restraining.

H5 - Yes . The labs gave me an opportunity to see it in real life. Instead ofour
reading about a shark, we get to take one apart. Those types of things help.

L4 - Yes, because you could look at what you are studying more extensively.

31

7. Do you believe that this being the end of the year, that you did not apply yourself
as well as you normally do?
H1 — I think this possibly occurred. It was just harder to push through everything and
to concentrate solely on science things.
L1 — No, actually I worked harder to help bring my grade up.

8. Which do you prefer, going chapter by chapter or trying to see comparison and
differences within the various vertebrate Classes ( the way I did it)?
H2 - Comparisons would be OK if there wasn’t so much (inforrmtion) because there
was so much, I probably preferred going by chapter instead.
A1 — I’d prefer to go by classes, but with more clarity. Some differences were so
minuscule that people constantly got them mixed up.
H4 — Going by chapter. That way it is easier to keep clear which group has what.
L5 — Trying to see comparison and differences within the Classes.

9. Anything else you would like to say or comment on, put in here.
H1 -Ienjoyedthe lasttwo unitsthe best becausethey dealtwithanimalsand
systems.

A6 - The movies on the animals were both informative and interesting.

For the 1998-99 questionnaire, I did not have the students answer question 7, which asks
abouttheunit being atthe end ofthe year, since they didthisunit atthe beginning ofthe
school year. I would have to say that in the 1998-99 year, my students were split on

whether they liked going by chapter or the way the unit was set up, by systems. Most of

the students that preferred the chapter method were my A and B students. Their main

32

reasoning was that then they could read along and knew exactly what to study. In 1997-
98, most of my students liked the fact that we did the unit by a comparison method. They
enjoyed this more due to it being at the end of the school year and that it wasn’t the same

thing they had been doing all year.

33

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

After reading all my students’ questionnaires and listening to comments that they
made throughout the unit, I know that this unit taught them a lot (see Figures 1—4). I was
disappointed that the 1997-98 posttest scores for most of my nine target students were
lower than their average test scores. On the other hand, I was surprised that two of my
low-achieving students performed better than average. I would assume that this approach
might be a better method of relaying information to this group of students. Overall, I do
believe that they liked the way the unit was taught and most agreed that they liked the
comparison of anatomical systems method better than the chapter by chapter method of
organism method in the 1997-98 school year. In the 1998-99 school year, they had
nothing to base this on since it was the first unit that they did.

I was very pleased with the results of the 1998-99 posttest. I believe that the unit
taught my students a great deal. All of my students did very well on this unit and most of
them did better on the posttest compared to their average test scores. I believe that this
unit could become one of my favorites with a few more refinements, which I will discuss
later in this section.

The one piece of information that I did get from hard data was that both classes
scored the same percentage on their pretest, a 54%. I did not notice this information until
I was looking at the graph fi'om Table 4. I was quite surprised about this information. I
can conclude that whether the test was multiple-choice or a free response form, most of
my students came into my classroom with approximately the same basic biology

knowledge.

34

From many of my student’s comments on their questionnaires, I learned that
previous knowledge of the anatomical system was lacking. I have only been teaching in
this school district for two and a halfyears, and I have assumed that vertebrate body
systems were taught in the junior high level. As we proceeded into this unit, I realized
through conversation, group discussions, and tests that they had a lot of misconceptions
about anatomical fimction and structure within different groups of animals. They also
had a lack of knowledge regarding certain anatomical systems. For example, one of my
students did not know that blood cells were produced inside the bone marrow of their
bodies and the functions of the different type of blood cells. This is only one example of
a misconception; many of the students had more. Because these are advanced biology
students, or college preparatory tenth graders, their lack of knowledge of some basic

biology surprised me.

A. ASPECTS OF THE UNIT EFFECTIVE IN CONVEYING KEY

INFORMATION

The most effective aspects of the unit were the notes that I wrote in advance and
handed out and the animal laboratory dissections with questions that accompanied this
unit. This analysis is based on my discussion with students and the answers to the
questionnaires that they all filled out. The notes were typed and given to students to save
time. I do not usually like to simply give my students notes that I prepared as a hand out.
I believe students learn more from participating. My students found the notes to be
useful, because they did not ‘waste’ their time taking notes and they could pay attention

to me as I discussed the content. I received positive comments about the notes on their

35

questionnaires. I found the notes to be helpful because I could get my students to focus
on some key ideas that I wanted to emphasize.

In the 1998-99 school year, the notes were redesigned to leave out key words and
ideas so that the students had to follow along and listen. I had many positive comments
on the notes in the students’ questionnaires in this year also. I found these notes made the
students more involved and pay attention better than did the previous years notes.

From the discussion based on these notes, I noticed a lack of basic knowledge
among my students about some parts of anatomical systems. For example, during our
discussion of the reproductive system in the 1997-98 school year, one of my male
students did not know what the gestation period was for a human. I was shocked to learn
this. We ended up spending an extra halfan hour going over the human reproductive
system and the process of birth. I had no problem with spending the time going over the
human reproductive system, but it nude me realize that only some of my students had
any background about anatomical systems. After this discussion, I asked if any of them
had gone over the human body systems in the junior high and only one-third raised their
hands. Those students that had some previous knowledge all had the same teacher.

The students did say in conversation with me that the slides were helpful but were
hard to see. They said it helped them identify certain structures that they otherwise
would have had a hard time identifying during the dissections.

The animal dissections were extremely engaging for my students and myself. I
found their enthusiasm to be very uplifting. The students would have liked more time to
dissect the pigeon and dogfish shark in the 1997-98 school year, but time restrictions did

not permit this. They also found the chicken wing dissection to be interesting as they

36

looked at the muscles and tendons. They got to break the bone and see its interior, which
many had never seen or noticed before the ‘blood’ on the inside.

The fetal pig and flag dissection was added in the 1998-99 school year and
enjoyed by most. Out of all the animals, the fetal pig was hard for many because they see
it more as a pet. I was glad to be able to incorporate one organism from each Class to
dissect in this unit.

A suggestion made by a 1998-99 student on her questionnaire about dissections
made me wonder. The suggestion she made was that it would be more beneficial to
dissect each animal per system as we were discussing that specific system. I think this
would be beneficial but I have no idea how to keep the aninmls fiom rotting within the

seven-week time frame.

B. ASPECTS OF THE UNIT THAT NEED IMPROVEMENT AND
STRATEGIES USED FOR MAKING CHANGES
There are many things about this unit that I would like to refine. I believe the idea of

teaching various vertebrate Classes by comparing their anatomical systems to be a good

one, but improvements must be made to do this unit well. These include:

1. More time to teach this unit. I believe 6 to 7 weeks would be a more effective time
time. I felt too rusmd to effectively teach the material. The students must have felt
this also. This was accomplished in the 1998-99 school year.

2. More time for dissections, not just 1 or 2 days to study an animal’s anatomical
systems. Some students asked for more time and I could not allow it because of the

time restrictions in 1997-98. More time was given to dissections in the 1998-99

37

school year. If our school district changes the class schedule to a block schedule
format, this would also allow for more time dissecting. This is a possibility for the
2000-2001 school year.

. Since there was a lot of information in the unit, I would like to break the tests up into
smaller tests or quizzes. I probably will put the Classes and Orders on a quiz by
themselves. It was too much information for my students to retain with all the other
information I asked them to learn. The Classes and Orders were made into a quiz for
the 1998-99 school year. The other information will be made into smaller tests for
the year 1999-2000.

. I would like to find some supplementary reading material, which would accompany
the book and explain the additional information that I included in their notes. I have
yet to find anything worthwhile.

. Dissecting a mammal (a cat or fetal pig) would have been helpful to compare and
contrast anatomical systems. This was accomplished in the 1998-99 school year. I
hope to have one representative animal for each Class.

. Small laboratory groups would have been helpful. I had anywhere fiom 3 to 7
students at a station due to a small number of animals to dissect. I would like to have
2 or 3 students per animal When the group gets too large, less learning and more
talking goes on. Usually in a large group only 2 people end up doing the dissection.
Unfortunately, this situation is brought about by the number of students placed in my
classroom and the lack of money in our science department’s budget. I am hoping to
have the opportunity to go on the Internet and to find dissections that my students

would be able to access in our computer classroom. This should put less strain our

38

department’s budget. I would still include 2 or 3 vertebrate animal dissections in the
unit.

7. Since most of my students commented that they did not have a sufficient background
in the different anatomical systems, I will probably have to change the notes by going
through each anatomical system in more detail and providing more background
information by explaining the different organs and their functions. This may be more
helpful if I went through the systems of the human body first so there may be a
correlation between them and other vertebrate organisms. I am hoping to include this
in the school year 1999-2000. This would mean that I would have to redesign some
of the notes and develop additional notes to be used in the beginning of the unit.

8. I did not get enough information fi'om the multiple-choice pretest given in the 1997-
98 school year so for the 1998-99 school year I changed the pretest to a free response
instrument. I found this to be a much better tool to look for misconceptions,
misunderstandings, or no previous knowledge of students, even though the students
scored the same on both instruments.

9. I would like to write my own laboratory dissection manuals to accompany the
dissections that my class participates in, so I would have just the right amount of
information for them to learn and study. My students would also be able to take one

of these manuals home for their own personal use.

C. OVERALL EVALUATION
I did not see much difference in my student’s learning in this unit compared to other

units taught in the 1997-98 school year. I do think the idea of teaching my students

39

Classes of vertebrates on a comparative basis is a good one, but I would have to change a
lot of parts of the unit to make it much better, as I stated in the previous list. My students
liked the comparison style because it was different than the way we normally went
through a chapter. By having to make comparisons the students had to have some
previous knowledge of anatomical systems. Many of my students did not have a point
fiom which to start, which was unfortunate for the success of the unit. Like all new units,
a lot of refinement is needed until you believe that the content that you are covering is
worthwhile and meets your objectives.

There are still some refinements needed to make this unit a great one. I would
still like to administer the tests over only two systems at a time and find some more
supplemental reading for my students. I have looked through many high school
textbooks, but none of them cover anatomical systems by comparison of the Classes. My
book does have one chapter that compares the anatomical systems but this would follow
chapters pertaining to each Class.

I believe that the improvements made in the 1998-99 school, listed previously,
helped to make the unit a success. I noticed a change in how the ideas were perceived
and more time was spent learning. The number one improvement was not having a time
restriction. The seven weeks allowed be to spend more time teaching, dissecting, and
questioning the students thought processes. I enjoyed this unit more this year because
there were no time restrictions. I was more prepared and wanted the unit to succeed.

And succeed it did.

40

APPENDICES

41

APPENDIX A

42

APPENDIX A

Teacher Generated Notes—l997-l998

Classification of Vertebrates
Kingdom Animalia

Phylum Chordata
-Notochord and pharyngeal gill slits during at least part of development; hollow
dorsal nerve cord

Subphylum Vertebrata
-most possess a vertebral column (backbone) that supports and protects dorsal
nerve cord; endoskeleton; distinct head with a skull and a brain

A. Superclass Agnatha—jawless fish (A & B only)
-long eel-like bodies and a circular mouth

1. Class Myxini—hagfish
2. Class Cephalaspidomorphi—lamprey

3. Class Chondrichthyes—cartilaginous fish
a. sharks, rays and skates

4. Class Osteichthyes—bone-bearing fish
a. most fish: perch, blue-gill, salmon

5. Class Amphibia—
a. Order Urodela—salamanders
b. Order Anura—fi'ogs and toads
c. Order Apoda—legless amphibians

6. Class Reptilia
a. Order Rhynchoceplmlia—tuatara (only species left)
b. Order Squamata—lizards and snakes
c. Order Crocodilia—crocodiles and alligators
d. Order Chelonia—turtles

7. Class Aves—birds
-about 27 orders (you don’t have to know these—YEAH! !)

43

8. Class Mammalia
a. Order Monotremata—(monotremesy—egg laying mammals
-duck billed platypus, spiny anteater
b. Order Marsupalia—pouched mammals
-opossum, kangaroo, and koals
Placental Mammals:
c. Order Insectivora—insect eating mammals
d. Order Chiroptera—bats
e. Order Primates—monkey, chimpanzee, human
f. Order Edentata—anteater, armadillo
g. Order Lagomorpha—rabbit, pika, hare
h. Order Rodentia—rat, beaver, guinea pig, hamster, gerbil,
squirrel
i. Order Cetacea-—whale, porpoise, dolphin
j. Order Carnivora—dog, seal, cat, bear, raccoon, weasel, skunk,
panda
k. Order Proboscidea—elephants
1. Order Perissodactyla—horse, donkey, rhinoceros, tapir
m. Order Sirenia—manatee, sea cow
11. Order Artiodactyla—sheep, cow, hippopotamus, antelope,
camel giraffe, pig

External Morphology

A. Fish Skin (p. 687 bottom)
1. Scales—modified epidermal skin and fins

2.

3.
4.

Mucous glands—within the epidermis

a. protects from drying out

b. capture prey

c. keeps appropriate internal environment

Photophore—light emitting organ in epidermis and invade dermis
No keratin—a protein

B. Amphibians Skin (p. 692-695 and 700-701)
1. Mucous glands within dermis

a. protects from drying out when on land

2. Granular glands—found in terrestrial toads

a. poisonous or
b. noxious (rotten smelling or irritating)

3. Keratin—not found in aquatic animals

a. require a moist habitat

C. Reptiles Skin (p.707-710 and 715-719)
1. Granular glands—produce either:

a. poisonous or noxious smell

b. pheromones—substance that affects the behavior or physiology of
other organisms
(1) examples: crocodiles-along the back; lizards-encircle vent, smear
it on trees to attract insects

Epidermal scales—thick skin layers

a. overlapping

b. new scale developing underneath (4-5 layers thick)

c. protection—against abrasion (offensively and defensively)

d. helps to thermoregulate

Crocodiles—small heavily thickened, non-overlapping scales.

Turtles—large thin quadrilateral or polygonal scales called SCUTES.

Small non-overlapping scales elsewhere

Lizards and Snakes—two distinctive layers

a. inner layer getting thickened

b. outer layer, hardened which will eventually molt

No molting in crocodiles and turtles. Skin will eventually wear ofi‘ like

human

45

D. Aves Skin—Birds (p. 723-725)
1. Covered of Feather and leg scales
thin integument of epidermis and dermis
no sweat glands
oilorpreengland atbaseoftail
pinna of ear rudimentary
molt usually once a year after nesting

sip-99:1»

E. Mammals Skin (p. 737-739)
1. Body covered with hair; reduced in some
2. Skin contains sweat, scent, sebaceous (oil) and mammary (milk producing)
glands

46

IH. Muscuhr Systems

A. Control of Muscles — 2
l. Vollmtary—you control

a.

striated muscle—looks striped
(1) contains many nuclei
(2) complete coat of this muscle lies beneath skin
(3) divided into dorsal and ventral parts
(4) major function is to move skeleton, or close openings in tissue
(mouth, eyes, etc)
(5) contraction takes place due to nerve cell
(6) made up of thick/thin filaments that alternate
(a) thick — myosin
(b) thin - actin

2. Involuntary—controlled by brain

a.

smooth muscle—NOT striated

(1) single nuclei

(2) digestive tract and interim] organs

(3) in skin

(4) cardiac muscle—special type, found only in heart
(a) one nuclei
(b) found ONLY in the heart

3. General information

a.
b.

C.

all muscles are surrounded by a delicate connective tissue sheath
muscle names can be based on shape (ex. Deltoid), fimction, origin, or
fanciful resemblance

muscle system have become more specific and specialized as you
progress through the animals

B. Attachment Points and Actions of Muscles
1. Tendon—bone to connective tissue
2. Ligament—muscle to muscle
3. Actions: specific movement is its function or action: work in pairs

Free no 9-9 .e‘in

flexion—bending of a joint

extension—opposite of a flex; straighten out joint
adduction—drawing limb toward midline
abduction—away from midline

rotation—rotate a limb

elevation (levator)——closing of jaw
depression—opening of lower jaw
constriction—compressing an opening

C. Muscle Arrangement
1. Parallel

a.

provides the greatest possible excursion of the insertion with minimum
nonphysiological loss of power during contraction

47

2. Pinate-fibered
a. advantageous—more muscles fibers, therefore more power in a given
volume

D. Types of Muscle—3

1. White
a. large diameter
b. not a lot of blood flow to
c. low fit

2. Red
a. small diameter
b. gets a lot of blood flow
c. high fit

3. Intermediatehmixture between red and white
a. mixttu'e of the two above

48

IV. Skeletal System

A. Skeletal System of all Classes

1. Jawless Fish
a. fibrous and cartilaginous skeleton
b. notochord persistent
e. no vertebrae

2. Chondrichthtyes
a. entire cartilage skeleton

3. Osteichthyes
a. skeleton bony
b. vertebrae numerous; end near base of fish
c. tail with upper and lower lobes symmetrical

4. Amphibia
a. bony in most
b. vary in amount of vertebrae in each species
c. ribs present in some, absent or fused to vertebrae in others

5. Reptilia
a. skeleton well ossified or becomes bony
b. ribs with sternum (except in snakes) which form a complete thoracic
c. skull with one occipital condyle-an attachment point between skull and
backbone

6. Aves

fully ossified skeleton with air cavities

skull bones firsed with one occipital condyle

each jaw covered with a horny sheath, forming a BEAK

no teeth

ribs with strengthening processes

tail not elongated

sternum well developed with KEEL or reduced with no keel
(1) muscles attach here

single bone in middle ear

F" serene-99's

49

7. Mammals

a. skull with 2 occipital condyles and secondary bony palate (mouth
region)

b. middle ear with 3 tiny bones
(1) malleus
(2) incus
(3) stapes

c. 7 cervical vertebrae

d. pelvic bone filsed

50

Nervous System
A. Basic role
1. acquaints the organism with its external environment and stimulates the
organisms to orient itself favorably in that environment
2. participates in regulation of internal environment - homeostasis
3. serves as storage site for information

B. Parts of NS.
1. nerves
2. spinal cord
3. brain in association with
a. receptor — sense organs
b. effectors — muscles and glands

C. Division of NS.
1. Central N.S. - brain and spinal cord
2. Peripheral N.S. - cranial

D. Classes
1. Jawless Fish
a. dorsal nerve cord with differentiated brain
b. 8 to 10 cranial nerves

2. Chondrichthyes

brain with 2 olfactory lobes — (smell)

two cerebral hemipheres (controls behavior)

2 optic lobes (sight)

cerebellum (regulates conscious functions like movement)
medulla oblongata (breathing and heart rate: unconscious functions)
10 pairs of cranial nerves

3 pairs of semicircular canals

(1) sense of smell

(2) vibration reception (lateral line system)

(3) electroreception — well developed

serene-99's»

3. Osteichthyes
a. brain with:
(1) small olfactory lobes
(2) cerebrum
(3) large optic lobes
(4) cerebellum
(5) 10 pairs of cranial nerves

51

4. Amphibians
a. small brain well developed
(1) 10 pairs ofcranial nerves
(2) olfactory lobes more sensitive

5. Reptiles
more specialized than amphibians
optic lobes on dorsal side of brain
12 pairs of cranial nerves
small brain
(1) cerebrum larger relative to the rest of the brain
e. Jacobson’s organ -
(1) a specialized olfactory chamber present; highly developed in
lizards and snakes
(2) odors canied to Jacobson’s organ by the tongue

earn»

6. Aves
a. well developed
b. 12 pairs of cranial nerves

7. Mammals
a. Most developed brain; cerebrum highly developed
b. 12 pairs ofcranial nerves

52

VI. Reproductive Systems

A. Reproductive Structures
Ovaries

l.

a.
b.

produce eggs
eggs are discharged into the ovarian cavity by the oviducts

2. Testes

a.
b.

C.

small unless in mating season, except in placental mammals
produce sperm

(1) more numerous by millions

(2) move by flagella

flow into seminiferous tubules before leaving the body

B. Classes
Jawless Fish

1.

a.
b.

external fertilization
both ovaries and testes present, buy only one is flmctional

Chondrichthyes (sharks and rays)

999‘!”

separate sexes

internal fertilization

direct development

types of development could be (three):

(1) oviparous — eggs released outside of female and development of
offspring occurs outside the maternal body

(2) ovoviviparous — eggs are developed within the maternal body
without the additional nourishment from the parent or hatch within
the parent or after laying

(3) viviparous — eggs develop within the female body, with
nutritional aid of maternal parent; offspring are born as juveniles

Osteichthyes (bony fish)

P‘PP‘P

fertilizations usually external
sexes separate

gonads paired
most produce a cyst of sperm; after spawning sex organs collapse until
next year

53

4. Amphibians

a.

b.

Co

d.

separate sexes

internal fertilization

(l) salamanders and legless amphibians
external fertilization

(1) flags and toads

eggs yolky with jelly-like membrane coverings

5. Reptiles

a.

b.

0.

separate sexes

internal fertilization

eggs covered with a calcareous or leathery shells;

(1) extra embryonic membranes (amnion, chorion, allantois) present
during embryonic life

(2) supports young with nourishment during development

d. nolarvalstages

6. Birds

a.

f.

separate sexes

(1) females have left ovary and oviduct only

(2) males have paired testes

internal fertilization

amniotic eg with much yolk and hard calcareous shells
incubation external

(1) young active at hatching

(2) or helpless and naked

sex determination by female

7. Mammals

a.

b.

separate sexes
internal fertilization

(1) embryos develop in uterus with a placental attachment
(a) placenta absent in monotremes (egg-laying mammals)
(b) undeveloped in marsupials

(2) ovulation (release of eggs) controlled by hormone, estrogen

(3) after ovulation, hormone progesterone alters egg so that it may be
fertilized

fetal membranes (three)

(1) amnion

(2) chorion

(3) allantois

(1. young nourished by milk from mammary glands

54

Circulatory System

Blood carries oxygen fiom lungs; nutrients from digestive track and storage sites;
hormones and immunity to disease; and wastes to create homeostasis within the
body.
A. Consists of

1. heart — pump with highly muscular walls made of cardiac muscle

B. Arteries

carry blood away from heart

muscular and elastic

dilate and constrict reflexly; regulate blood pressure
valves to stop back flow

arterioles — small arteries

MPPNE‘

C. Veins (or venous sinuses)
I. carry blood to heart
2. less muscle and elastic tissue; more fibrous tissue can’t constrict
3. have valves to stop back flow

4.

veinules-small veins

D. Capillaries
1. cell walls - one layer thick
2. blood cells go through single file

E. Blood
1. Connective tissue
Human blood is: 55% plasma, 45% cells (red, white and platelets), 90%
oxygen, and 10% dissolved solids

2. Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes)
Oval nucleated in most vert.
No nuclei in most
Contain iron protein: hemoglobin which oxygen attaches to
Produces in center of long bones in red bone marrow
Average life under on month
25 trillion RBC in human body

3. WBC (leukcytes)
Less numerous
Abundant in lymph nodes and other lymphatic tissue
Source on antibodies, fight infection and disease

55

4.

Classes

Platelates (thrombocytes)

Cell pieces involved in clotting

Cell fibrinogen in to help clot

5-10% body weight of amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals
15-30% body weight of fishes

A. Fish

50:59.“?

2 chambered heart-atrium (upper), and vertricle (lower)
smg' le loop system: (heart to gills to body parts to heart)
aortic arches in most

bony fish have arterial and venous system

ectothermic - cold blooded

B. Amphibians

2.

3
4.

3 chambered heart (left and right atrian, ventricle)
ouble loo circulation: through heart, goes to lungs and back to heart and
then to the rest of the body

. skin abundantly supplied with blood vessels

ectothermic

C. Reptiles

three chambered heart

double loop circulatory

usually one pair of aortic arteries

crocodiles (4 chambered heart) mix deoxygenating and oxygenated
ectothermic

V88

4 chambered heart (2 atria and 2 ventricles)
double loop circulatory system

aortic arch is well defined

nucleated red blood cells

endothermic — warm blooded

i

4 chambered heart

double loop

well defined left aorta

red blood cells

a. nonnucleated when mature

b. biconcave — (shape)

5. endothermic

56

VIII. Respiratory System
A. Chief organs in adult vertebrates
1. External or Internal gills-

9‘9 9‘?

water enters and leaves through gill slits (1-7 slits)
surrounded by the operculum, protective gill covering
visible and line up in rows

water is drawn across gills that contain many blood vessels

2. Swim Bladder

a—p 9'1»

may be paired or unpaired

connects to esophagus and lies close to kidneys

composed of elastic tissue and smooth muscle

used chiefly as a hydrostatic organ

(1) if the volume goes up or down, it alters the specific gravity of the
fish, thereby increasing or decreasing it buoyancy

3. Lungs

a.
b.

C.

rune

main point of gas exchange in most terrestrial species

oxygen passes through the trachea into the bronchial tubes and
eventually to the alveoli

at the alveoli is the point where oxygen and carbon dioxide is
exchanged with the capillaries

become more complex as you progress through the vertebrates
lungs are unequal in size

one may be absent, usually paired

4. Skin

a.

b.

extensive in or out of the water by amphibians (90% excreted through
their skin) and fish that lack scales
release urea through pores

B. Classes
1. Jawless Fish

a.
b.

5-16 pairs of gills and a single pair of gill apertures in hagfish
7 pairs in lamprey

2. Chondrichthyes

a.
b.
c.

5-7 pairs of gills with separate and exposed gill slits
no operculum
no swim bladder or lung

57

. Osteichthyes

a. gills supported by bony gill arches and covered by operculum
b. swim bladder often present with or without duct connected to pharynx

. Amphibians

a. lungs (absent in some salamanders)

b. skin

c. gills in some, either separately of in combination with the two above

. Reptiles
a. lungs
b. NO gills
c. Cloaca used for respiration by some
(1) posterior chamber of digestive tract, receiving feces and urogenital
products

. Aves

a. slightly expansible lungs, with thin air sacs among the organs and
skeleton
b. syrinx (voice box) near junction of trachea and bronchi

. Mammals

a. lungs with alveoli and voice box (larynx)

c. soft tissue separates the air and food passages

d. muscular diaphragm for air exchange separates thoracic and abdominal
cavities
(l) contracts-expels air
(2) relaxes-lungs fill with air

58

APPENDIX A

Teacher Generated Notes—19984999

External Morphology
A. Fish Skin (p. 687 bottom)
1. -modified epidermal skin and fins
2. Mucous glands—within the epidermis
a. protects fiom drying out
b. capture prey
c. keeps appropriate internal environment
3. —light emitting organ in epidermis and invade dermis
4. No keratin—a protein

 

B. Amphibians Skin (p. 692-695 and 700-701)
1. Mucous glands within dermis
a. protects from drying out when on land

 

 

 

2. —found in terrestrial toads

a.

b. (rotten smelling or irritating)
3. Keratin—not found in aquatic animals
5.

 

C. (p.707-710 and 715-719)
1. Granular glands—produce either:
a. poisonous or noxious smell

b.

 

 

(1) examples: crocodiles-along the back; lizards-encircle vent, smear
it on trees to attract insects
2. —thick skin layers
a.
b. new scale developing underneath (4-5 layers thick)
0. —against abrasion (offensively and defensively)
d.
3. Crocodiles—small heavily thickened, non-overlapping scales.
4. Turtles—

 

 

 

 

5 . Lizards and Snakes—two distinctive layers
a. inner layer getting thickened
b. outer layer, hardened which will eventually molt

 

59

. Aves Skin—Birds (p. 723-725)
1. Covered of Feather and leg scales
a. thin integument of epidermis and dermis
b.
c.
d. pinna of ear rudimentary
e.

 

 

 

. Mammals Skin (p. 737-739)
1.

 

2.

 

 

60

H.

Muscular Systems

A. Control of Muscles - 2

1.

—you control

 

a.

a.

striated muscle—looks striped
(1)
(2) complete coat of this muscle lies beneath skin
(3) divided into dorsal and ventral parts

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(1)

(5)

(6) made up of thick/thin filaments that alternate
(a)
(b)

2. Invollmtary—controlled by brain
—NOT striated

(1) single nuclei

(2) digestive tract and internal organs

(3)

(4) -special type, found only in heart
(a) one nuclei
0))

 

3. General information

a.

b.

c.

 

muscle names can be based on simpe (ex. Deltoid), function, origin, or
fanciful resemblance

muscle system have become more specific and specialized as you
progress through the animals

B. Attachment Points and Actions of Muscles

l

2. Ligament—

—bone to connective tissue

3. Actions: specific movement is its function or action: work in pairs

P‘Q‘i H9 99 9‘!”

flexion—bending of a joint

—opposite of a flex; straighten out joint
adduction—drawing limb toward midline

abduction—away fiom midline

rotation—

elevation (levator)—closing of jaw

—opening of lower jaw
constriction—compressing an opening

 

61

 

 

a. provides the greatest possible excursion of the insertion with minimum
nonphysiological loss of power during contraction

 

a. advantageous—more muscles fibers, therefore more power in a given
volume

D. Types of Muscle—3

1. White
a.
b. not a lot of blood flow to
c.

2.
a. small diameter
b. gets a lot of blood flow
c.

3. Intermediate—mixture between red and white
a. mixture of the two above

 

 

 

 

62

Advanced Biology
Read pages: 713-714, 728, 743, and 837-842

IH. Skeletal System
A. Skeletal System of all Classes
1.

 

a. fibrous and cartilaginous skeleton
b. notochord persistent
c.

 

2. Chondrichthtyes
a.

 

b.)

. Osteichthyes

a.
b.
c. tail with upper and lower lobes symmetrical

 

 

4. Amphibia
a.
b. vary in amount of vertebrae in each species
0.

 

 

5. Reptilia
a. skeleton well ossified or becomes bony
b.

 

 

c. skull with one occipital condyle-an attachment point between skull and
backbone

 

 

skull bones firsed with one occipital condyle
each jaw covered with a horny sheath, forming a BEAK

 

ribs with strengthening processes
tail not elongated

(1)
single bone in middle ear

 

 

r: temps-pee

63

 

skull with 2 occipital condyles and secondary bony palate (mouth
region)

. middle ear with 3 tiny bones

(1)
(2)
(3)

 

 

 

. 7 cervical vertebrae

 

IV.

Reproductive Systems

A

 

1. Ovaries

a. produce eggs
b.

 

 

a. small unless in mating season, except in placental mammals

b. produce sperm
(1)
(2)
c. flow into seminiferous tubules before leaving the body

 

 

B. Classes

 

a. external fertilization

b. both ovaries and testes present, buy only one is firnctional

2. Chondrichthyes (sharks and rays)

a.
b. internal fertilization
c. direct development
d

 

 

. (1) - eggs released outside of female and

development of offspring occurs outside the maternal body

(2) — eggs are developed within the maternal body
without the additional nourishment fiom the parent or latch within
the parent or after laying

(3) — eggs develop within the female body, with
nutritional aid of maternal parent; offspring are born as juveniles

 

 

. Osteichthyes (bony fish)

a fertilizations usually external

b.

c.

d. most produce a cyst of sperm; alter spawning sex organs collapse until
next year

 

 

65

 

c.

d.

separate sexes
internal fertilization
(1)

(1)
eggs yolky with jelly-like membrane coverings

 

 

 

. Reptiles

a.
b

C.

en

separate sexes

 

eggs covered with a calcareous or leathery shells;
(1)

 

 

(2) supports young with nourishment during development

 

.Birds

separate sexes
(1)
(2)
internal fertilization

amniotic eg with much yolk and hard calcareous shells

 

 

 

(1) young active at hatching
(2) or helpless and naked

 

 

separate sexes
internal fertilization
(1)

 

 

(a) placenta absent in monotremes (egg-laying mammals)
(b) undeveloped in marsupials
(2)

 

(3) after ovulation, hormone progesterone alters egg so that it my be
fertilized

fetal membranes (three)

(1)
(2)
(3)
young nourished by milk fiom mammary glands

 

 

 

66

V. Respiratory System
A. Chief organs in adult vertebrates
l.
a. water enters and leaves through gill slits (1-7 slits)

 

 

visible and line up in rows

P-PF"

 

2. Swim Bladder
a.
b. connects to esophagus and lies close to kidneys
c.
d. used chiefly as a hydrostatic organ
(1)

 

 

 

3. Lungs
a.

 

b. oxygen passes through the trachea into the bronchial tubes and
eventually to the alveoli

 

 

d. become more complex as you progress through the vertebrates
. lungs are unequal in size

2'50

 

 

a. extensive in or out of the water by amphibians (90% excreted through
their skin) and fish that lack scales
b.

 

B. Classes
1.
a. 5-l6pairsofgillsandasinglepairofgillaperturesinhagfish
b. 7pairsinlamprey

2. Chondrichthyes
a. 5-7 pairs of gills with separate and exposed gill slits
b.
c.

 

 

 

 

a.

 

b. swim bladder often present with or without duct connected to pharynx

67

. Amphibians
a.
b. skin
c.

 

 

. Reptiles
a.

b.
c. Cloaca used for respiration by some

(1)

 

 

 

. Aves
a. slightly expansible lungs, with thin air sacs among the organs and
skeleton
b.

 

. Mammals
a.

 

b. soft tissue separates the air and food passages
c.

 

 

(l) contracts-expels air
(2)

 

68

VI. Nervous System
A. Basic role
1. acquaints the organism with its external environment and stimulates the
organisms to orient itself favorably in that environment
2. participates in regulation of internal environment -

 

3. serves as storage site for information

B. Parts of NS.
1.
2. spinal cord
3. brain in association with
a.
b. effectors — muscles and glands

 

 

C. Division of NS.
1. Central N.S. -
2. Peripheral N.S. -

 

 

D. Classes
1.
a. dorsal nerve cord with differentiated brain
b. 8 to 10 cranial nerves

 

2. Chondrichthyes
brain with 2 olfactory lobes - (smell)

 

2 optic lobes (sight)

cerebellum ( )
medulla oblongata ( )
10 pairs of cranial nerves

3 pairs of semicircular canals

(1)
(2) vibration reception (lateral line system)
(3)

serene-99:1»

 

 

 

a. brain with:
(1) small olfactory lobes
(2) cerebrum
(3)
(4) cerebellum
(5)

 

 

69

4. Amphibians
a.

 

(1) 10 pairs ofcranial nerves
(2) olfactory lobes

5. Reptiles
a. more specialized than amphibians
b

 

 

c. 12 pairs of cranial nerves
d.

 

(1) cerebrum larger relative to the rest of the brain
e.

 

(l) a specialized olfactory chamber present; highly developed in
lizards and snakes
(2) odors carried to Jacobson’s organ by the tongue

 

a. well developed
b. 12 pairs of cranial nerves

7. Mammals
a.
b. 12 pairs of cranial nerves

 

70

Circulatory System

Blood carries oxygen fi'om lungs; nutrients fi‘om digestive track and storage sites;
hormones and immunity to disease; and wastes to create homeostasis within the
body.

A. Consistsof
1. heart-

 

 

carry blood away fi'om heart

 

dilate and constrict reflexly; regulate blood pressure
valves to stop back flow

3"?pr

 

C. Veins (or venous sinuses)

 

2. less muscle and elastic tissue; more fibrous tissue can’t constrict
3.
4. veinules-small veins

 

D. Capillaries
l.
2. blood cells go through single file

 

 

Human blood is: 55% plasma, 45% cells (red, white and platelets), 90%
oxygen, and 10% dissolved solids

2. Red Blood Cells ( )
Oval nucleated in most vert.

 

 

Contain iron protein:
Produces in center of long bones in red bone marrow
Average life under on month

 

 

3. WBC ( )
Less numerous
Abundant in lymph nodes and other lymphatic tissue

 

 

71

Classes

4. Platelates( )
Cell pieces involved in clotting

 

5-10% body weight of amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals
1.5-30% body weight of fishes

A. Fish

1. -atrium (upper), and vertricle (lower)
2. (heart to gills to body parts to heart)
3. aortic arches in most

4. bony fish have arterial and venous system

5.

Amphibians

1. (lefi and right atrian, ventricle)

2. : through heart, goes to lungs and back to heart and
then to the rest ofthe body

3. skin abundantly supplied with blood vessels

4.

 

 

 

Reptiles
1. three chambered heart
. double loop circulatory

 

 

2
3.
4.
5. ectothermic

ves

(2 atria and 2 ventricles)

double loop circulatory system
aortic arch is well defined

 

 

MPPNF>

 

Mammals
l.
2.
3. well defined left aorta
4. red blood cells
a.
b.
5. endothermic

 

 

 

 

APPENDIX B

73

APPENDIX B

Advanced Biology: Pretest
Classification/Integument/Skeleton/Muscles

. An animal can be a typical vertebrate without having

a. a notochord c. a bony skeleton
b. a hollow dorsal nerve cord d. pharyngeal slits
. During the development of most vertebrates, the notochord is replaced by a
a. spinal cord c. backbone
b. large artery d. large vein
. If a vertebrate has moist skin but lacks scales and claws it is probably a (an)
a. amphibian c. osteochthyte
b. coelacanth d. chondricthyte
. Two groups of fish in the class Chondrichthyes is
a. sharksandrays c. skatesandlatuneria
b. lampreys and hagfish d. carps and chimaeras
. The coelacanth is a member of the only living species of
a. lungfish c. jawless, armored fish
b. lobe-finned fish (1. cartilaginous fish
. Snakes belong to the order
a. Squamata c. Crocodilia

b. Rhyncocephalia d. Chelonia

. One adaptation that enables reptiles to live out of water is the development of

a. moist, smooth skin c. four legs

b. dry, scaly skin d. toes with claws
. The dorsal part of a turtles shell is the

a. plastron c. carapace

b. allantois d. chorion
. In birds, the chest muscles are attached directly to the

a. sternum c. keel
b. rib cage d. backbone

74

10. The only surviving member of the order Rhyncocephalia is the
a. sea turtle c. tuatara
b. Komodo dragon d. cobra

11.Flightfeathersareatypeof

a. oily feather c. powder feathers
b. down feathers d. contour feathers
12. Egg-laying mammals are
a. monotremes c. placental mammals
b. marsupials d. extinct
13. The chest cavity is expanded by chest cavity muscles and by the
a. diaphragm c. heart
b. hmgs d. abdomen
14. Whales and dolphins are in the order
a. Cetacea c. Chiroptera
b. Sirenia d. Lagomorpha

15. All animals in the order Artiodactla have
a. no molar teeth c. one toe on each foot
b. long canine teeth (1. two toes on each foot

16. Each of the following is used to classify mammals into orders except
a. their method of reproduction c. the structure of their teeth
b. whether they are herbivores d. the type of bones in their head

17. If an amphibian has a tail after it undergoes metamorphosis, it is probably a
a. toad c. snake
b. fi'og d. salamander

18. As adults, both frogs and toads have
a. hind legs for jumping c. a two-chambered heart
b. fiirly short tails d. a single-loop circulatory system

19. The jawless fish include
a. skates and rays 0. skates and lampreys
b. lungfish and rays (1. lampreys and hagfish

20. The tuatara is the only surviving member of the order

a. Crocodilia c. Squamata
b. Chelonia d. Rhyncocephalia

75

21. The only place on Earth that lacks reptiles are very
a. hot areas c. dry areas
b. cold areas (1. wet areas

22. The ventral part of a turtle’s shell is the
a. flipper c. plastron
b. allantosis d. carapace

23. The term that is least closely related to the other is
a. contour feathers c. general body feathers

b. down feathers d. flight feathers
24. The most primitive mammals are
a. marsupials c. monotremes
b. primates d. placentals
25. To release heat from their body when necessary, mammals use their
a. sweat glands c. fur
b. fat tissue (1. hair

26. The size of the chest cavity increases when the
a. libs move down c. diaphragm contracts
b. air leaves the lungs d. abdominal cavity contracts

27. The pelvic girdle of the fish evolved into:
a. the shoulder bones of the amphibians
b. the pelvic bones
c. the legs and pelvis region
d. the arms and shoulder blade region

28. Birds that catch prey in sharp talons and have pointed beaks are:
a. herbivores c. omnivores

b. carnivores d. detritus feeders

29. The most important characteristic in classifying an animal as a mammal is the
presence of:
a. a backbone c. fur
b. mammary glands d. canine teeth

76

APPENDIX C

77

APPENDIX C

Advanced Biology: Posttest
Classification/Integument/Skeleton/Muscles

. An animal can be a typical vertebrate without having
a. a notochord c. a bony skeleton
b. a hollow dorsal nerve cord d. pharyngeal slits

. During the development of most vertebrates, the notochord is replaced by a
a. spinal cord 0. backbone
b. large artery (1. large vein

. If a vertebrate has moist skin but lacks scales and claws it is probably a (an)
a. amphibian c. osteochthyte
b. coelacanth d. chondrichyte

. Two groups of fish in the class Chondrichthyes is
a. slmrks and rays c. skates and latuneria
b. lampreys and hagfish d. carps and chimaeras

. The coelacanth is a member of the only living species of
a. lungfish c. jawless, armored fish
b. lobe-finned fish d. cartilaginous fish

. Smkes belong to the order
a. Squamata c. Crocodilia
b. Rhyncocephalia d. Chelonia

. One adaptation that enables repitles to live out of water is the development of
a. moist, smooth skin c. four legs
b. dry, scaly skin d. toes with chws

. Thedorsalpartofatmtles shellisthe

a. plastron c. carapace
b. allantois d. chorion

. In birds, the chest muscles are attached directly to the

a. sternum c. keel
b. rib cage (1. backbone

78

10. The only surviving member of the order Rhyncocephalia is the
a. sea turtle c. tuatara
b. Komodo dragon d. cobra

11.Flightfeathersareatypeof

a. oily feathers c. powder feathers

b. down feathers d. contour feathers
12. Egg-laying mammals are

a. monotremes c. placental mammals

b. marsupials d. extinct

13. The chest cavity is expanded by chest cavity muscles and by the
a. diaphragm c. heart

b. lungs d. abdomen

l4. Whales and dolphins are in the order
a. Cetacea c. Chiroptera
b. Sirenia d. Lagomorpha

15. All animals in the order Artiodactyla have
a. no molar teeth c. one toe on each foot
b. long canine teeth d. two toes on each foot

16. Each of the following is used to classify mammals into orders except
a. their method of reproduction c. the structure of their teeth
b. whether they are herbivores d. the type of bones in their head

17. Ifan amphibian has a tail after it undergoes metamorphosis, it is probably a
a. toad c. snake
b. fiog d. salamander

18. As adults, both flags and toads have
a. hind legs for jumping c. a two-chambered heart
b. fairly short tails d. a single-loop circulatory system

19. The jawless fish include
a. skates and rays 0. skates and lampreys
b. lungfish and rays d. lampreys and hagfish

20. The tuatara is the only surviving member of the order

a. Crocodilia c. Squamata
b. Chelonia d. Rhyncocephalia

79

21. The only place on Earth that lacks reptiles are very
a. hot areas c. dry areas
b. cold areas d. wet areas

22. The ventral part of a turtle’s shell is the
a. flipper c. plastron
b. allantosis d. carapace

23. The term that is least closely related to the other is
a. contour feathers c. general body feathers

b. down feathers d. flight feathers
24. The most primitive mammals are
a. marsupials c. monotremes
b. primtes d. placentals
25. To release heat from their body when necessary, mammals use their
a. sweat glands c. fur
b. fit tissue d. hair

26. The size of the chest cavity increases when the
a. ribs move down c. diaphragm contracts
b. air leaves the lungs d. abdominal cavity contracts

27. The pelvic girdle of the fish evolved into:
a. the shoulder bones of the amphibians
b. the pelvic bones
c. the legs and pelvis region
d. the arms and shoulder blade region

28. Birds that catch prey in sharp talons and have pointed beaks are:
a. herbivores c. omnivores

b. carnivores d. detritus feeders

29. The most important characteristic in classifying an animal as mammal is the presence
of:
a. a backbone c. fur
b. mammary glands d. canine teeth

80

Advanced Biology
Part B - ext. morphology/skeletal/muscular/classification

30. A preen gland at the base ofthe tail ofa bird contains
a. poison c. mucous
b. pheromones (1. oil

31. What kingdom do vertebrates belong to
a. Monera c. Animalia
b. Vertebrate d. Chordata

32. An example of an animal that does not molt is a
a. snake c. lizard
b. crocodile d. amphibian

33. Mucous glands are used for
a. capture prey c. keeps approximate internal environment
b. protect fi'om drying out d. all of the above

34. Birds have skeletal systems that are
a. ossified c. fibrous and cartilaginous
b. cartilaginous d. ossified with air cavities

35. An occipital condyle is
a. a fused skull
b. attachment point between a skull and vertebral column
c. abone inthe middleear

d. the keel

36. An animal with large quadrilateral or polygonal scales called scutes is a (an)
a. alligator c. turtle

b. lizard d. snake

37. A gland that produces a poison or noxious smell is
a. mucous c. pheromone
b. keratin d. granular

38. The thin integument of the bird is composed of the
a. dermis c. epidermis and dermis
b. epidermis d. none of these

39. An example of an animal with a skeleton composed completely of cartilage is a

a. lamprey c. blue-gill
b. skate d. hagfish

81

40. Mammals skin contains

 

a. sweat glands c. sebaceous glands
b. scent glands d. all of the above
41. Birds have number of bones in their middle car.
a. 1 c. 3
b. 2 d. 4
42. A characteristic of the mammal skeleton in
a. 2 middle ear bones c. 10 cervical vertebrae
b. pelvic bones fused d. a skull with 1 occipital condyle
43. Two types of control of muscle is
a. smooth and cardiac c. voluntary and involuntary
b. striated and smooth d. striated and smooth
44. Which class has no teeth?
a. Osteichthyes c. Reptilia
b. Amphibia d. Aves

45. Ananimalwiththe bodycoveredwithhair isa(an)
a. Aves c. Reptile
b. Mammal d. Amphibian

46. Which muscle arrangement will have a longer endurance?
a. striated c. pinnate

b. parallel d. smooth

47. On a chicken, the muscle of the breast is
a. red c. intermediate
c. white

48. Your blood vessels are
a. smooth muscle c. striated muscle
b. cardiac muscle d. voluntary

49. The action of muscle movement is by the filaments
a. tendons and ligament c. ligaments and myosin
b. tendons and actin d. actin and myosin

50. A general statement about muscles:
a. less specialized and specific through the animal kingdom
b. move specialized and less specific
c. become more specialized and specific through the animal kingdom
d. stay very similar in all animals

82

Interpreting Diagrams:

The chart shows changes in the populations of live classes oI vertebrates over the last 500
million years. The thickness at the line indicates the relative number 01 organisms living at a
particular time.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Period
Recent V [ \ I
Cenozoic
9'3 Tertiary I
r -—l
Cretaceous
Mesozoic 4 _
9'3 Jurassic
Triassic L L ‘
Permian
i
5 ii 3
Carbonit- g
OrOus g .8 g
, o 8
Paleozmc i '
era Devonian Q >/
/ «I \4 l
5 a.
: SllUflaf‘. g '
; e 1
. O'dOVlClan l
l

 

 

51. During what period didthe amphibians evolve?

 

52. Did the Osteichthyes evolve from early placoderm-type fish or an early
Chondrichthyes type fish?

 

53. Which class or classes of fishes have increased greatly in number in recent years?

 

54. Wlnt class of armored, jawless fishes is completely extinct?

 

83

 

55. In the figure above, what is the function of the structure labeled C?

 

56. What is the structure labeled A?

 

57.1nthefigure, isthestructureofBalegbone orananklebone? Why?

 

ESSAYS:
1. What characteristics would enable you to distinguish a salamander and a small lizard?

2. Explain the difi‘erent types of muscles, what they affect, how they work, how they are
attached, and their different actions.

3. Difi‘erentiate between the forearms ofthe human, cat, crocodile, flag and bird.
Explain their difi‘erences and similarities.

APPENDIX D

85

10.

APPENDIX D

PIGEON DISSECTION QUESTIONS

Name three of the most distinctive structural characteristics of a bird.

Whatvalueareairsacsinabird?

State the structure and function of the crop in a bird.

Describe the beak of the pigeon. Is there any unique characteristics shown?

What organ in the bird compensates for its lack of teeth? Name and describe
internally and externally this organ.

After cutting the heart lengthwise how many chambers did you see?

List in order the digestive system of the pigeon.

Describethestructm'eofaboneaflerbreakingit.

Whatistheadvantagetoabirdbeingcoveredinfeathers?

How is it that a bird can walk on its hind legs so easily?

86

APPENDIX D

DOGFISH SHARK DISSECTION QUESTIONS

State three ways in which the shark is structurally different fi'om most
invertebrates.

State the finction of the lateral line system.

Name some of the structures on the integument (skin) of the shark.

Name the parts of the sharks’ heart.

In what structures do the male and female sharks reproductive systems differ?

Name the parts of the typical gill.

Trace the path food would take through the dogfish shark. What accessory organs

are helpful to the digestive system?

What is the two dark-colored structru'es covering most of the digestive tract?

How is the stomach and intestine different internally? Of what significance are
they different?

87

APPENDIX E

APPENDIX E

LIST OF STRUCTURES CONTAINED IN SLIDE DISSECTIONS

TURTLE

CARAPACB
MOUTH
ESOPHAGUS
LARYNX
BRONCHUS
SIOMACH
BLADDER

LARGE NIESTINE
SMALL IN'IESTINE
CLOACA
PANCREAS

GALL BLADDER
LIVER

PLASTRON

LEGS

TAIL

PERCH

SCALES
MOUTH

GILLS

SPINAL CORD
KIDNEY

SWIM BLADDER
VERTEBRA
MUSCLE
GONADS

ANUS
SIOMACH
IN'IESTINES
GALL BLADDER
LIVER
ESOPHAGUS
HEART

EYES
OPERCULUM
FINS

89

DOGFISH SHARK

SCALES
GILL SLI'IS

ANAL FIN

EYES
PECIORAIJPELVIC FINS
MOUTH

SPINAL CORD

KIDNEY

SWIM BLADDER
VERTEBRA

MUSCLE TISSUE
GONADS

ANUS

SIOMACH

INTESTINES

GALL BLADDER

LIVER

ESOPHAGUS

HEART

EYES

M UDPUPPY

EARS
EXTERNAL GILLS
LEGS
EYES
VERTEBRA
MU SCIE
NI‘ESTINES
HEART
GONADS
STOMACH
ESOPHAGUS
LIVER
GALL BLADDER
SPINAL CORD
KIDNEY
ANUS

LAMPREY

HEAD

TAIL FIN
MUSCLE
MOUTH
VERTEBRA
GILL SLITS
EXTERNAL SKIN

COW HEART

LEFT ATRIUM

RIGHT ATRIUM

LEFT VENTRICLE
RIGHT VENTRICLE
AORTA

PULMUNARY ARTERY
SEPIUM

VALVES
TENDONS

APPENDIX F

91

APPENDIX F

Advanced Biology: Pretest
Vertebrate Unit - 1998-99

. Describe the path blood flows through the body. Try to be specific.

. What system is used for defense and helps to collect lost fluid?

. What do bones produce?

. List some actions of joints?

. How are animals classified (Put into smaller categories)?

. What causes our bodies to move? Explain.

7. What are the different types of coverings on animals? How are they important to
each animal?

8. What part of your nervous system is responsible for you to blink?

9. List the major parts of the brain. List each parts fimction.

10. List some of the difl‘erent types of ways animals breathe and get rid of waste
products?

11. Do all animals reproduce the same way? If not, describe the difi'erent ways animals
reproduce and have their young.

93

APPENDIX G

MONDAY:

ACTIVITY:

TUESDAY:

ACTIVITY:

APPENDIX G

DAILY CALENDAR — 1997-1998

WEEK 1

Check for previous knowledge on classification, the muscular
system, external morphology, and the skeletal system
Pre-test

Go over pre-test

Discuss the usefulness of classification systems

Identify the different taxa that make up the classification system
developed by Linneaus

Discuss how taxa Show evolutionary relationships among different
organisms.

List the function of the integument.

Discuss the different characteristics of the integument of all
classes.

Notes on classification and external morphology

Slide show on external structures of each vertebrate class

Demonstration: How do we classify fish

95

WEDNESDAY:

A TIVITY:

THURSDAY:

ACTIVITY:

FRIDAY:

ACTIVITY:

MONDAY:

AQIMIX;

TUESDAY:

Describe the basic characteristics of fish
Explain how different animals can be, even within the same Order
Movie: Fish

Comparing external morphology of primate hands

Explain how fish carry our essential life functions

Laboratory Dissection: Perch

List the parts and functions of the skeletal system

Describe the structure of different skeletal systems

Notes on the skeletal system

Laboratory: Comparing primates—looked at external and internal

similarities

WEEK 2

Describe the similarities between the different classes skeletons

Laboratory: A comparison of vertebrate skeletons

Describe how a typical amphibian carries out its essential life
functions

Describe the structure of bone

Movie: Amphibians

Worksheet on what is in a bone

96

WEDNESDAY:

THURSDAY:

ACTIVITY:

FRIDAY:

ACME

MONDAY:

TUESDAY:

Describe the structure and firnction of each of the three muscles
State several specific locations of each of the three muscle types in
the human body

Notes on muscles
Demonstration: Show the different types of muscle tissue

Short Laboratory: Defining the two types (red and white) muscle

tissue

Predict what is the main purpose of the skeleton
Describe the three types of muscles

Laboratory: Skin cells and muscle cells under the microscope

Describe the interaction of muscles, bone and tendons

Laboratory Dissection: Chicken wing

WEEK 3

Review for Classes and Orders
Bingo on classification (Classes and Orders)

Quiz over key terms

Identify the distinguishing characteristics of reptiles

Compare the similarities and differences of some specific reptiles

97

ACTIVITY:

WEDNESDAY:

ACTTVIZII Y:

THURSDAY:

ACTIVITY:

FRIDAY:

MONDAY:

ASLUYILY;

Movie: Reptiles

Start the review for test

Reconstruct learned knowledge

Review for test

Reconstruct learned knowledge

Test

Identify the two major divisions of the nervous system
Describe the function of the nervous system

Describe the changes that occur across the cell membranes of a
Neuron during the transmission of a nerve impulse

Go over post-test

Notes on nervous system

Demonstration: How the nerve cell works

Start Pigeon Dissection

WEEK 4

Finish Pigeon Dissection

98

TUESDAY:

AQIDIIIX;

WEDNESDAY:

THURSDAY:

FRIDAY:

Discuss the function of the reproductive system
Notes on the reproductive system

Laboratory: Examining an unfertilized chicken egg

Name and discuss the structures of the male and female
reproductive systems
Laboratory: Under a microscope, look at the ovaries and testes of

the cat and rat

Describe the main characteristics of the class Aves

Explain the homeostatic functions performed by blood tissue
Describe the blood cells and their functions

Describe the types of blood vessels involved in circulation
Movie: Birds

Notes on the circulatory system

Demonstration: Goldfish’s circulatory system under the
microscope

Show slides of dissected cow heart

Describe the structure of the respiratory system
Explain how gases are transferred between the respiratory system

and the circulatory system

ACTIVITY:

MONDAY:

ACTIVITY:

TUESDAY:

ACTIVITY:

WEDNESDAY:

ACTIVITY:

THURSDAY:

A TY:

FRIDAY:

ACTIVITY:

Notes on respiratory system
Demonstration: How the swim bladder fimctions

Start Dissection of dogfish shark

WEEK 5

Finish dogfish shark Dissection

Describe the main characteristics of mammals

Movie: Mammals

Start to review for the test

Reconstruct learned knowledge

Review for the test

Reconstruct learned knowledge

Test

Evaluate the unit on the vertebrate classes

Student questionnaire on how the unit went

100

DAYl:

ACTIVITY:

DAY 2:

ACTIVITY:

DAY 3:

ACTIVITY:

DAY 4:

DAILY CALENDAR - 1998-1999

WEEK 1
Check for previous knowledge on all vertebrate systems.
Pretest

Go over pretest

Discuss the usefulness of classification systems

Identify the different taxa that make up the classification system
developed by Linneaus.

Discuss how taxa Show evolutionary relationships among difl‘erent
Organisms

Notes on classification

Demo: How we classify fish

Classifying mammals

Review for classification

Play bingo for most of period

Vertebrate Quiz on Classes, Orders and animals

List the firnction of the integument

Discuss the different characteristics of the integument of all classes

101

ACTIVITY:

 

DAYS:

W

DAYl:

AQTMIX;

DAY2:

AQIIYIIX;

DAY3:

ACTIVITY:

Notes on external morphology (integument)
Slide Show on external structures of each vertebrate class
Laboratory investigation: Examining the Typical Mammalian

Body Covering.

Discuss the different characteristics of the integument of all classes

Looking at fiogS/toads with different skin colors/types

WEEK 2
Describe the basic characteristics of fish
Explain how different animals can be, even within the same Order
Movie: Fish
Comparing external morphology of primate hands
Classifying mammals

Explain how fish carry out essential life finctions

Dissection of perch

List the parts and function of the skeletal system

Describe the structure of different skeletal system

Notes on the skeletal system

Laboratory investigation: comparing primates fi'om gorillas to

humans - looked at extemal and internal similarities.

102

 

ACTIVITY:

DAYS:

ACTIVITY:

DAYl:

DAY2:

AC 1m 1 Y:

DAY3:

Describe the similarities between the different Classes and their
skeletal systems

Laboratory: a comparison of vertebrate skeletons

Describe how a typical amphibian carries out its essential life
firnctions

Describe the structure of bone

Movie: Amphibians

Look at what a bone consists of

WEEK 3
Examine the external and internal anatomy of a fiog

Dissection of a frog

Examine the external and internal anatomy of a frog

Finish frog dissection

Describe the structure and function of each of the 3 types of
muscle
State several specific locations of each of the three muscle types in

the human body

103

ALIWTTY:

DAY4:

ACTIVITY:

DAYS:

ACTIVITY:

DAYl:

ACTIVITY:

DAY 2:

ACTIVITY:

Notes on muscles
Demonstration: Show the different types of muscle tissue

Short laboratory: Defining the two types (red and white) muscle

tissue

Predict what is the main purpose of the skeleton
Describe the three types of muscles

Laboratory: skin cells and muscle cells under the microscope

Describe the interaction of muscles, bone, and tendons

Laboratory Dissection: chicken wing

WEEK 4
Identify the distinguishing characteristics of reptiles
Compare the similarities and differences of some specific reptiles
Movie: Reptiles
Investigating how reptiles regulate the temperature of their bodies
Exploring the body temperature of birds

Reconstruct learned knowledge

Review for test

104

DAY4:

ACTIVITY:

DAY 5:

ACTIVITY:

DAY 1:

DAY2:

mum‘s;

Reconstruct learned knowledge

Test

Reviewing previous knowledge

Go over posttest

Identify the two major divisions of the nervous system

Describe the function of the nervous system

Describe the changes that occur across the cell membranes of a
neuron during the transmission of a nerve impulse.

Go over post-test

Notes on nervous system

Demonstration: how the nerve cell works

Start Pigeon Dissection

WEEK 5
Describe the main characteristics of the class Aves

Finish Pigeon Dissection

Discuss the function of the reproductive system

Notes on the reproductive system

Laboratory: examining an unfertilized chicken eg

105

 

ACTIVITY:

DAY4:

ACTIVITY:

DAYS:

ACTIVITY:

DAY 1:

DAY2:

ACTIVITY:

Name and discuss the structures of the male and female
reproductive system
Laboratory: under a microscope, look at the ovaries and testes of

the cat and rat.

Describe the internal and external structures of a Shark

Start dogfish shark dissection

Describe the internal and external structures of a shark

Finish dogfish shark dissection

WEEK 6
Describe the main characteristics of the class Aves
Explain the homeostatic functions performed by blood tissue
Describe the blood cells and their functions
Describe the types of blood vessels involved in circulation
Movie: Birds

Notes on the circulatory system

Explain the function and structure of the circulatory system
Demonstration: goldfish’s circulatory system under the
microscope.

Show slides of dissected cow heart.

106

 

DAY 4:

ACTIVITY:

DAYS:

ACTIVITY:

DAY 1:

ACTIVITY:

DAY2:

ACTIVITY:

Describe the structure of the respiratory system

Explain how gases are transferred between the respiratory system
and the circulatory system

Notes on respiratory system

Demonstration: how the swim bladder functions.

Explain how gases are transferred between the respiratory system
and the circulatory system

Lab: Observing the respiration in fish

Describe the main characteristics of mammals.
Movie: Mammals

Start dissection of fetal pig

WEEK 7
Describe the main characteristics of mammals.

Fetal pig dissection

Describe the main characteristics of mammals

Fetal pig dissection

107

DAY 4:

ACTIVITY:

DAY 5:

ACTIVITY:

Reconstruct learned knowledge.

Review for the test

Reconstruct learned knowledge.

Test

Evaluate the unit on the vertebrate classes

Student questionnaire on how the unit went

108

APPENDIX H

109

APPENDIX H

AN EXAMPLE OF A
CLASSIFICATION OF BINGO GAME CARD

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

B I N G O
salamander Amphibia Frog turtle bird
Chiroptera primate lamprey shark Marsupalia
carnivora Osteichthyes FREE Aves lizard

beaver monotreme edentata rabbit Mammalia
koala crocodilia Reptilia manatee cow

 

 

 

 

 

110

 

APPENDIX I

111

APPENDIX I

Advanced Biology: Test — Part H
Vertebrates: Reproduction/Nervous/Circulatory/Respiration

. A fish or amphibian that lays eggs is
a. oviparous c. ovoviviparous
b. viviparous d. nonviparous

. The circulatory system of an adult amphibian has a
a. single loop 0. two-chambered heart
b. double loop d. four-chambered heart

. The parts of the fish’s brain involved primarily with the sense of smell are the
olfactory lobes and the

a. cerebellum c. optic lobe
b. cerebrum d. medulla

. Each of the following serves as an organ of gas exchange in frogs, toads, and many
salamanders except the

a. skin c. lungs

b. mouth cavity (1. gills

. Most fish breathe by pumping water first
a. over the gill filaments c. through the protective gill cover, the operculum
b. through pharyngeal slits d. throughthe mouth

. In fishes, the part of the brain that coordinates movements involved in swimming is
the

a. medulla c. cerebellum

b. olfactory lobe d. cerebrum

. Almostall fishthatareactive duringtheday have
a. excellent color vision c. excellent hearing
b. large eyes (1. electricity detectors

. Amniotic eggs are found among

a. amphibians and birds c. reptiles and amphibians
b. birds and reptiles d. amphibians, reptiles and birds

112

9. In birds, the area of the digestive system in which food is stored is the
a. gizzard c. crop
b. small intestine (1. upper stomach

10. Birds are unable to remove oxygen fiom air during exhalation because they have
a. lungs c. a three-chambered heart
b. air sacs d. a four-chambered heart

11. Animals whose hard-shelled eggs develop outside the body
a. exhibit external fertilization c. are ovoviviparous
b. exhibit hermaphroditism d. are oviparous

12. The circulatory system of every reptile has a
a. single loop c. three-chambered heart
b. double loop d. four-chambered heart

13. The part of your brain that coordinates your movements as you swim is the
a. cerebrum c. medulla

b. optic lobe d. cerebellum
14.1fananimalisclassifiedasamammal, itmustbe
a. ectothermic c. oviparious
b. endothermic d. viviparous
15. Egg laying mammal are
a. monotremes c. placental mammals
b. marsupials d. extinct
16. Each side of the mammalian heart consists of
a. two atria c. one atrium and one ventricle
b. two ventricles d. two atria and two ventricles

17. In dogs, horses and humans, nutrients oxygen, carbon dioxide, and wastes are

exchanged between the embryo and the mother through the
a. placenta c. chorion
b. amnion d. allantois

18. The mammalian heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the
a. brain c. intestine
b. lungs d. kidneys
19. The platypus is classified as a lmmmal because the female

a. lays eggs c. nurses its young on milk
b. is ovoviviparous d. is fertilized internally

113

 

20. Thepartofthebrainyouareusingtoreadandunderstandthisquestionisthe
a. cerebellum c. medulla
b. olfactory lobe d. cerebrum

21. When the blood leaves the lungs, it
a. is oxygenated c. flows to the brain
b. is deoxygenated d. flows to he kidneys

22. When the diaphragm contracts,
a. the chest cavity collapses c. air rushes into the lungs
b. the abdominal cavity collapses d. air rushes out of the lungs

23. In mammals, the composition and levels of body fluids are controlled by the

a. lungs 0. blood
b. kidneys d. heart
24. Ectotherms must obtain the heat they need
a. by producing it c. from their bodies
b. fiom the environment (1. from food

25. A heart with a partial partition in the ventricle is found in most
a. birds c. mammals
b. amphibians d. reptiles

26. The lungs of mammals contain many thousands of bubblelike structures called
a. alveoli c. bronchial tubes

b. bronchi d. gills
27. Vertebrates that have a single-loop circulatory system have a (an)
a. one-chambered heart c. three-chambered heart
b. two-chambered heart (1. four-chambered heart
28. Almost all vertebrates practice
a. asexual reproduction c. internal fertilization
b. sexual reproduction d. external fertilization

29. In a mammalian heart, blood is moved through the lung loop by the
a. upper chambers c. left chambers
b. lower chambers d. right chambers

30. Vertebrates in which fertilized eggs develop outside the mother’s body are

a. viviparous c. ovoviviparous
b. oviparous d. nonviparous

114

31. The cerebellum is best developed in
a. fish and amphibians c. reptiles and birds
b. amphibians and reptiles d. birds and mammals

32. To breathe, adult amphibians, unlike larvae, use their
a. gills c. ceca
b. skin d. lungs

33. In the circulatory systems of adult amphibians, the first loop carries
oxygen-poor blood to the lungs

oxygen-poor blood to the ventricles

oxygen-rich blood fiom the body

oxygen-rich blood to the ventricles

999'?“

34. In fish, blood from the muscles and organs collects in the
a. atrium c. ventricle
b. sinus venosus d. aorta

35. The circulatory system of a fish has a

a. single loop c. Single-chambered heart
b. double loop (1. three-chambered heart
36. In fiogs and toads, the part of the brain that coordinates movements involved in
jumping is the
a. cerebrum c. medulla
b. cerebellum d. olfactory lobe

37 . Birds maintain an extremely efficient gas exchange system because they have
a. air sacs c. feathers

b. paired ovaries d. cloaca
38. Reptilian eggs, unlike amphibian eggs
a. are fertilized externally e. have a jelly-like covering
b. are shed in water d. have a leathery shell
39. A four-chambered heart is found among reptiles in the
a. Chelonia c. Rhyncocephalia
b. Crocodilia d. Squamata

40. Snakes have a pair of special organs in the roof of their mouth that aids in the sense of
a. sound c. smell

b. sight d. taste
41 . To control their body temperature, reptiles cannot

a. bask inthesun 0. hide underarock
b. change their metabolic rate d. absorb heat from the environment

115

 

42. An endotherm uses more food than an ectotherm of the same size because the
endotherm
a. has a lower metablic rate c. has a lower body temperature
b. lacks effective insulation d. burns more calories to generate heat

43. The blood pumped from the bear to the lungs
a. is oxygenated c. returns to the kidneys
b. is deoxygenated d. returns to the liver

44. The heartofamammalhas
a. one atrium and one ventricle c. one atrium and two ventricles

b. two atria and one ventricle (1. two atria and two ventricles

45. The mammalian circulatory system consists of
a. one open circuit c. two open circuits
b. one closed circuit (1. two closed circuits

46. Body fimctions such as breathing and heart rate are under the control of the

a. cerebrum c. medulla
b. spinal cord d. cerebellum

116

Advanced Biology Name
Test -Part 113 Date Hour
Vertebrates:

 

   

1. What label has been given to the keel?

 

2. What is the structure labeled i?

 

3. What label has been given to the structure that often contains bits of gravel that aid in
digestion?

 

4. The excretory and reproductive systems open into a single structure. What label has
been given to this structure?

 

117

Essay Questions:

1. Describe the digestion system of the dogfish shark. Give details of the internal
structures and their shape and function. Try to do this in order, starting with the
mouth.

2. Explain the different types of blood cells found in the mammalian body, their
function, where they are found, how they are produced. Then, give the difl‘erent types
of circulatory systems found in animals and their hearts structure.

118

APPENDIX J

119

Advanced Biology Name

1.

APPENDIX J

STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRE

 

What did you like most about the last two units that we did in class? Why?

What did you like least? Why?

What did you like about the tests? What didn’t you like about the tests?

Did the comparison of all the difi‘erent classes and systems make sense to you? Was
this hard to compare due to your lack of previous knowledge about difl‘erent systems
(like the circulatory or reproductive systems)?

120

. What would you have liked to seen done differently? Why?

. Were the labs helpful in your understanding of each unit?

. Do you believe that this being the end of the year, that you did not apply yourself as
well as you normally do?

. Which do you prefer, going by chapter or trying to see comparison and differences
within the classes (the way I did it)?

. Anything else you would like to say or comment on, put it here.

121

APPENDIX K

122

APPENDIX K

STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRE RESULTS - 1997-98:

1. What did you like most about the last two units that we did in class? Why?

H1—

H3—

Al—

L1-

L2—

L3—

I liked doing the dissections because I need to do them sooner or later if I
go on to vet school

I liked the dogfish shark dissection because it was fun to stick my fingers
through the gills, make his heart pump, and open up his mouth and insides.
It was the best dissection of the year!

I liked how you went over the notes with us in class and took time on all
of the information to make sure we understood.

The notes were typed out for us, not as many worksheets and work to turn
in, and certain dissections, but not all.

They were more involved and had fewer bookwork

I liked all the labs. They were cooler because we got hands on and I could
learn more.

I likedthedissectionsthe most inthetwo lastunitsbecausethevisual
learning involved them helped me the most.

They were interesting and hands on.

I enjoyed the dissections because it was hands on and we got to learn no

just on paper but on real life.

123

2. What did you like the least? Why?

H1-

The tests. They had too much information to cram for one test. I think
they should have been broken up. I also didn’t like plucking Fred, our
pigeon

Combination. Big 4 page note tests, they should be broken up into 4
quizzes maybe. And the pigeon dissection, it was too much like a

household pet to cut up.

H3 —I didn’t like how much information you gave us to learn in such little time. I

Al-

A3...

L1—

L2—

L3—

felt like I was extremely rushed to learn all the information for the tests.
The dogfish shark dissection, it was nothing much to follow and I think all
it did was waste time. Not having too much time to review.

The lack of reference. The book couldn’t really help with the questions on
the labs. And not having the labs to study fi'om.

The tests. They were too hard.

The tests because I do not take tests very well.

The 24 page lab packets. It was just too darn long.

I didn’t like having to learn all the names that I’ll never know anyway and

I don’t think it’s practical information.

3. What did you like about the tests? What didn’t you like about the tests?

H1—

H2-

H3-

Nothing.
Nothing.
A test is a test; they are always the same. Either you know what you are

talking about or you don’t.

124

A1 — They were multiple choice and the essays were understandable. They
covered too much material and there was so much information to study
that we never seemed to study the right things.

A2 - They were easier to study for and the questions were clearer. They were
difficult; there was a large amount of information to memorize. It was
more memorization not intelligence.

A3 — I liked absolutely nothing about the tests.

L1 — I liked the multiple choice and the essays the most. I liked the diagrams

1‘

the least.
L2 — I liked the multiple choice. I didn’t like the points assigned to the essays.
L3 — Tests were long and it was also too specific regarding names and not
practical regarding life. It was nice to have the information on stufl‘ with
actual experience with dissections.
4. Did the comparison of all the difl'erent classes and systems make sense to you?
Was this hard to compare due to your lack of previous knowledge about

different systems (like the circulatory or reproductive systems)?

H1 — The comparison was not too difficult, but sometimes it got tough because I
didn’t know a lot about the systems

H2 - It somewhat made sense but it was hard to compare because most was
new.

H3 — The comparison did make sense to me because I had enough previous

knowledge of the systems to be able to comprehend all of the information

125

Al—

A3-

L1—

L2—

L3—

Yes. It wasn’t hard to compare, it just got a little confusing with
organisms that are alike and when you ask a very specific question. There
could be multiple answers as far as we know.

Yes. No, I had basic knowledge and your explanation were logical

No, the comparisons made a lot of sense. No.

Most of the comparisons made sense to me. This was hard because of my
lack of previous knowledge

Yes. No.

The comparisons were comprehendible however, the memorization was

difiicult and not understandable to me.

5. What would you have liked to seen done differently? Why?

H1—

H2-

H3-

A1—

I can’t really think of anything. Everything was taught well and pretty
much well laid out.

An in-depth section about the human body would help a lot!

I think that you should have given each class their own page (on notes)
with their own system on it. When they were all separate like they were,
they kind of hard to remember individual characteristics of classes.
Make the tests more selective and using less information so that it
wouldn’t be as confusing. Take out pointless labs and dissections.

No lab practicals. They are difficult to understand and they don’t seem to
serve a purpose.

I would have liked the chance to retake tests. I think my grade would be

better.

126

L1—

L2-

L3-

1 would have liked smaller tests when we had to memorize classes and
such because there was a lot to memorize.

The notes. Give them to us all the time.

Not so much memorization on classes and orders. More things that are

practical and pertain more to the human species.

6. Were the labs helpful in your understanding of each unit?

H1—

H3—

Al—

A2-

A3-

L1-

L2-

L3—

Yes, the labs were helpful to me because I got to actually see what we
were discussing.

Yes. 4
Yes, because they gave me a first hand look at all of the systems, so I
understood them a little better.

For the most part, no. I think they took too much time away from
studying and some didn’t help anyone to learn at all.

Yes, they put what we were learning in a realistic frame.

Yes, I got to learn more hands on.

The labs were very helpful in my understanding the units.

Yes, then I would remember the lab when it came to the tests.

Yes, the labs were very helpful and aided in the understanding of the

animals. However time constraints were very restraining.

127

7. Do you believe that this being the end of the year, that you did not apply yourself
as well as you normally do?

H1 - I think this possibly occurred. It was just harder to push through
everything and to concentrate solely on science things.

H2 — Possibly, but I did try to study like I normally did I guess. It was just
harder.

H3 — Yes, I slacked off more, but due to softball I tend to try to get stuff done
faster and work a little bit harder.

Al — No, if anything I am applying and studying more and harder.

A2 — I think I applied myself more.

A3 — No, I applied myself enough to keep up my grades and still be able to do
extracurricular activities.

Ll - No, actually I worked lmrder to help bring my grade up.

L2 — No, This class was very intense and difficult.

L3 — Yes, I started getting spring fever and slacked off on some of my work

8. Which do you prefer, going chapter by chapter or trying to see comparison and
differences within the vertebrate Classes (the way I did it)?

H1 — I guess I like both ways but I’m glad that we changed things up a little.
We needed to do something different after an entire year of the same
thing.

H2 — Comparisons would be ok if there wasn’t so much because there was so

much, I probably preferred going by chapter instead.

128

H3 — Seeing the comparison helped to learn the information, but I think I like
going chapter more.

A1 — I’d prefer to go by classes, but with more clarity. Some differences were
so miniscule that people constantly got them messed up.

A2 — Seeing the comparisons

A3 — I don’t see a difi‘erence.

L1 — I liked the way you did it better than going by chapter.

L2 — Trying to see comparison and differences within the classes.

L3 — I can’t honestly answer that question because I never tried the chapter
method.

9. Anything else you would like to say or comment on, put it here.
H1 — I enjoyed the last units the best because they dealt with animals and

systems.

129

STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRES - 1998-99:

1. What did you like most about the last two units that we did in class? Why?
H4 — The dissections because you were allowed to really relax and have fun but still
learn things. Not having to write out the notes
H5 — I enjoyed the dissections the most. That was because it was a hands-on activity.
H6—Onething isforsure,Ilearnedalot! Ilikedthewayitwaslaidoutandtheway

we took notes and discussed them.

 

A4- I liked the dissections the most. They were interesting because instead of seeing
pictures you could actually feel and see the body parts.
A5 — They best part ofcourse was the dissections. I learn better whenI have to do
something hands on and real.
A6 - The dissections, because it was interesting. (You) learn the animals up close.
L4—Onthelasttwo units,thethingsl likedmostwerethedissectionsbecauseitwas
very interesting to look at the animals we were studying.
L5 — I liked learning about the nervous system because I enjoy exploring the realm of
thought, so to speak.
L6 — We got to dissect. I thought that was cool. I think that’s a good way to learn.

2. What did you like the least? Why?
H4 — Test because you really did not have that good of an idea what the essays were

going to be about. Although that is really just part of school I guess.

130

H5 — I liked handwriting the notes the least. Writing it out as compared to filling in
blanks doesn’t help at all. (Note: This class had to copy notes off the overhead due to
out copy machine being out of service for a day)

H6 — I least liked the fact that on out second test, the one over circulatory, nervous,
respiratory, and reproductive systems, we had 4 major systems to study for. It would
have been better I think if spent more time on two at a time for a test. Otherwise it
feels a little rushed.

A4 — I didn’t like the Classes and Orders. It takes me way much more time than one
night to remember that information.

A5 - Some of the worksheets were redundant and didn’t apply very much.

A6 - The reading because it is time consuming.

L4—ThethingsI like leastwerenothing. Ithinkthatallwere equal. (Iamnot sure
what this statement meant)

L5 — There really wasn’t anything I liked least. I enjoyed everything pretty equally.

L6 - Probably the vocabulary, because it was so long.

. What did you like about the tests? What didn’t you like about the tests?

H4 - The multiple choice. The essays because I am used to just regurgitating the
essays when I have been given the questions earlier. All around, not knowing the
essays ahead of time is good for us. It requires us to study more information.

H5 —I liked the multiple choice on the tests because I had a 25% chance. I liked the
dissection labeling least, because you couldn’t study for it.

H6 — I liked the format of the test with multiple choice and 2-4 essays.

131

A4 - The tests were taken before I forgot most the information, although I hate doing
the essays.

A5 — The fact you gave easy to comprehend essays. The multiple choice focused too
much on reading assigned instead of class work.

A6 - I liked the multiple choice. I did not like the essays.

L4 - What I liked about the tests was that most were multiple choice and if you
studied you should get it right if you have more options. I didn’t like the long essay
questions because some things we did, (we didn’t) go over in class much

L5 — I didn’t like much about the tests. The only thing I didn’t like was taking them.
L6 -— I liked the multiple choice on the tests but I didn’t like the essays.

Did the comparison of all the different classes and systems make sense to you?
Was this hard to compare due to your lack of previous knowledge about
different systems (like the circulatory or reproductive systems)?

H4 — Yes. No.

H5 — It rmde sense, but it was hard to compare, not because of lack of knowledge, but
because we were comparing so many different Classes.

H6 - Like (I wrote) in question #2. I think if we took a test on two of them at a time,
we could spend more time on and better retain information about the comparisons.
Yes, the comparisons of different Class systems did make sense.

A4 -It took awhile for me to understand because I didn’t have much knowledge
before.

A5-Itwasn’thardbutitwasn’thowlwould liketolearnit.

132

A6 — The comparisons made a little bit of sense. My lack of previous knowledge
contributed to this.

L4—Thecomparisonsdid make sense eventhoughitwasveryhardtomemorizeas
many Classes and Orders that were there were.

L5 - In some Classes the names made sense to me. Yes, due to some lack of
knowledge, it was a bit diflicult to make sense of things.

L6 — No, the name are way too confiising. Yes, it was hard to compare.

. What would you have liked to seen done difl’erently? Why?

H4 — Nothing, it is good. Nothing outrageously hard but nothing that was extremely
easy.

H5 — I would have like to have seen it taught by chapters and not by systems.
H6-Iwould liketo seethedissectionsbecomparedtothesystemswearelearning.
I feel if we could focus on making those connections, we might understand
application better.

A4 — I don’t really think there is anything you should change.

A5 - It would be easier to learn if you taught amphibians, then everything about
them, like how there systems are. Then maybe mammals and all (of) their systems. I
thought it wasto broadto compare betweenthem all. It would (be) easyto compare
later afier we learned them individually.

A6 — I am not sure.

L4—Ithinkthatthereshouldbeless Classes studiedatatimebecauseittakesawhile
to memorize them.

L5 — Nothing at all

133

L6 — Nothing, you did everything fine.

. Were the labs helpful in your understanding of each unit?

H4 - Not really, they were just fim. You really did not learn a whole lot in the labs.
Yes, they were cool and you learned a little but, a lot of information just went in one
ear and out the other.

H5 - Yes. The labs gave me an opportunity to see it in real life. Instead of just
reading about a shark, we got to take one apart. Those types of things help.

H6 —1 found some of the labs, such as the lizard/time of day and the birds heart
rate/weight, to be not useful in my understanding of the units.

A4 — I love doing labs because they help me understand more deeply than
worksheets.

A5 - Yes, they were helped a lot.

A6 - Yes, they were.

L4 — Yes, because you could look at what you are studying more extensively.

L5 - They helped somewhat.

L6 — Yes, they helped.

. Do you believe that this being the end of the year, that you did not apply yourself

as well as you normally do?

Note: Since this class did the unit at the beginning of the year, they were not asked to
answer this question

. Which do you prefer, going chapter by chapter or trying to see comparison and
differences within the vertebrate Classes (the way I did it)?

H4 - Going by chapter. That way it is easier to keep clear which group has what.

134

 

H5 -1 would have preferred going by chapter. That would have made things a lot less
confusing and helped me to understand a little better.
H6 — I like your way. Looking at a system and comparing that system between
Classes.
A4 - I liked seeing the comparison and differences because it helped me understand.
A5 — Chapter I think.
A6 - I like the way you did it better.
L4 - I think that going by chapter might be easier, althoughI can’t be sure because we
haven’t tried that.
L5 - Trying to see comparison and differences within the Classes.
L6 - I don’t know. We haven’t gone by chapter.

9. Anything else you would like to say or comment on, put it here.
A6 - The movies on the animals were both informative and interesting.
L4 - I think that we should be given a chance to take things over like tests so we have
a better chance of earning a better grade.
L5 — Keep up the enthusiasm and fine work.
L6 — I think you’re a cool teacher, you’re not mean and your class isn’t boring. But

it’sjust hardto understand a lot ofthis stuff.

135

APPENDIX L

136

APPENDIX L

Advanced Biology ~ Classification Quiz -

1. What Kingdom are we studying?

 

2. Birds are in the class

 

3. Alligators belong to the Order

 

4. Give an example of the Class Chondrichthyes.

5. The Superclass of jawless fish is

 

6. Salamanders, frogs and toads belong to the Class

 

7. What Order are the egg-laying mammals?

8. The Order Chiroptera is the

 

9. The kangaroo, koala, and opossum are examples of the Order

 

10. Give an example of the Order Primate.

11. The beaver is an example of the Order

 

12. The bony fish are in the Class

 

13. Give an example of a Lagomorph (Order).

14. The cat and dog are examples of the Order

 

15. What is the only animal in the Order Proboscidea?

l6. Turtles are the only animals in the Order

 

l7. Lizards, alligators, and turtles belong to this Class

 

18. The Order Anura contain the

 

19. Hagfish belong to the Class

 

20. All the animals we will be studying belong to the Subphylum

 

137

AUDIO VISUAL REFERENCES

138

AUDIO VISUAL REFERENCES

Eyewitness: Amphibian Videocassette. BBK Wildvision, BBC Lionheart Television,

and DK Vision, 1994. 35 min.

Eyewitness: Bird. Videocassette. BBK Wildvision, BBC Lionheart Television, and DK
Vision, 1994. 35 min.

Eyewitness: Fish. Videocassette. BBK Wildvision, BBC Lionheart Television, and DK
Vision, 1994. 35 min.

Eyewitness: Mammal. Videocassette. Dorling Kindersley Ltd. and BBC Worldwide
Americas, 1996. 35 min.

Eyewitness: Reptile. Videocassette. BBK Wildvision, BBC Lionheart Television, and
DK Vision, 1994. 35 min.

139

BIBLIOGRAPHY

140

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Beck, D. Elden. Invertebrate @logy Lgmratory Workmgk. Minneapolis: Burgess
Publishing Company, 1960.

Beecher, Jeff. “Note-Taking: What Do We Know about the Benefits”. 1988. Online.
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Cherney, Elaine, et a1. Achieving Academic Success: A mg g Skfl l_s Handmgk.
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Griffin, Donald R., Animal Structure m Function. New York: Holt, Rinehart and
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Harrison,BruceM., _: : = '
St. Louis: The C. V. Mosby Company, 1970.

 

Haury, David L., “Teaching Science Through Inquiry”. Online. The Educational
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Haury, David L., and Peter Rillero, “Perspective of Hands-On Science Teaching”.
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Hildebrand, Milton. W. New York: John Wiley and Sons,
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Hopkins, P. M., Inmductign to Zglggy; A Lgmratog Maggi. Englewood, Colorado:
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Hyman, Libbie Henrietta. Commtive Vertebrate fltomy. Chicago: The University
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141

 

Kanis, Ira B., “Science-Based Problem-Solving Activities for the Upper Elementary
Grades.” Science Activities. Fall, 1992:].

Kent, George C., arative o f the Vertebrates. St. Louis: Times
Mirror/Mosby College Publishing, 1987.

Kesselman-Turkel, Judi and Franklyn Peterson. Note-Tal_ong' Made @y. Chicago:
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Klunge, Arnold G., Chgrdge Structure and F ungtrg' 9,. New York: Macmillan Publishing
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Miller, Kenneth R., and Joseph Levine. Biology. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1995.

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Miller, Kenneth R., and Joseph Levine. Biology: The Living Sgieng. New Jersey:
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Rogers, Frances A., Q0mpar_ative Vertebrate Anatomy: An mtline Text. Springfield,
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Roth, W. M., “Problem-Centered Learning for the Integration of Mathematics and
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Tama, Carrol M. “Critical Thinking: Promoting It in the Classroom”. June 1989.
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Winchester, A. M., Biology Laboratogg Manual. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown
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Wischnitzer, Saul. Atlas and Dissection Guide for Comtive Anatomy. New York:
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143

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