PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. MAY BE RECAU£D with earlier due date if requested. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE 1/93 ammo-9659.14 CREATING A COMMUNITY OF PROFESSIONAL LEARNERS By Elizabeth K. Davenport A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Teacher Education 1999 ABSTRACT CREATING A COMMUNITY OF PROFESSIONAL LEARNERS By Elizabeth K. Davenport This case study examines how teachers of a newly created public school academy changed their teaching practices and beliefs while attempting to promote and sustain learning for all participants in the school environment--teachers, students, parents, and administrators--through African-centered empowered philosophies, goals, and orientation. The goal was to make the school a learning organization for the entire community, while also making the school a place where each member functioned cooperatively and where they were socialized to participate as active members of a professional community. The communal goal was to bring a new visionary school into existence. The professional development practices and the curriculum and institutional changes taking place at the research site used African—centered education as empowering agent for African American students, teachers, family, and the greater community. This study examines teacher change as one staff attempted to adopt a new curriculum and teaching strategies, while simultaneously adjusting to institutional changes which were designed to support and foster professional and community development. Copyright Elizabeth K. Davenport 1999 Children of the Village It takes a village to raise a child. I am the child of the village. I am mothered by village mothers. And fathered by village fathers. I am fed by village cooks. And clothed by village weavers. I am protected by village keepers. I learned from village teachers. I challenge the village warriors And charm the village maids I dance to the village drums And I chant the village songs I worship at village altars. And weep at village pain I hear stories from the village garrotes. And I honor the village elders. I am loved by the village all. And each breath and heart beat Echoes praised to my village God I am a valued African gift Made so by village love Judith Boswell anfie, 1994 iv To the members of my village-Anita, Bridget, Dan, Kathy, Larry, and Molefi. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank my entire doctoral committee, Maenette Benham, Ph.D.: John Dirkx, Ph.D.; Perry Lanier, Ph.D.; Robbie Steward, Ph.D.; and Gary Sykes, Ph.D. for all the time and efforts on my behalf. I would also like to acknowledge the direction of my chairman, Dr. Sykes, whose questioning and probing makes this a better research study; Dr. Benham, who assisted with the formation Of the conceptual framework; and Dr. Dirkx, who provided an understanding of adult learners and learning theory. I would also like to thank my Guidance Committee, especially Susan Melnick, Ph.D. , who crafted my eclectic interests into a graduate program and G. William McDiarmid, Ph.D. , who served on my doctoral and guidance committees until his departure from Michigan State University. Finally, I would to thank the faculty, staff, students, and parents of Sankofa Shule, who for a short time made ‘ Mama Liz’ a welcomed member of their village. vi CHAPTER SEVEN: FINDING AND CONCLUSIONS ................ 158 Indicators of Changes in Instructional Strategies and Teaching Beliefs Due to School Restructuring . . . . 230 Introduction ........................................ 156 Overview of Findings ................................. 160 Conclusions ........................................ 172 Implications of Study .................................. 175 APPENDICES .......................................... 177 A. Correspondence Between Researcher and Sankofa Approving Research ..................... 178 B. Application for Review of a Project Involving Human Subjects .......................... 182 C. Michigan State IRB #96-775 ........................ 189 D. Participation Agreement Form ....................... 191 E. Teacher Interview Protocol ......................... 194 F Interview Consent Form ........................... 197 G. Teacher Demographic Survey ........................ 201 H. Instructions for Teacher Autobiography ................. 204 1. Teacher Interview Guide - Interview 1 .................. 207 J. Teacher Interview Guide - Interview 2 .................. 210 K. Teacher Interview Guide - Interview 3 .................. 213 L. Teacher Interview Guide - Interview 4 .................. 216 M. Focus Group .................................. 221 N. Indicators of Change in Instructional Strategies and Teaching Beliefs ....................... 224 O. P. O BIBLIOG Teacher Activities Checklist ......................... 234 Potential Effects of Curriculum and Instructional Change ...... 236 HY ........................................ 238 viii LIST OF TABLES Table l. Sankofa Shule Implementation Schedule of CORE Curriculum ....... 73 Table 2. Sankofa Shule 1996—97 MAT Reading 2“‘1 Grade ................ 75 Table 3. Sankofa Shule 1996-97 MAT Reading 3"l Grade ................ 77 Table 4. Sankofa Shule 1996-97 MAT Reading 4" Grade ................ 78 Table 5. Sankofa Shule 1996-97 MAT Reading 5“I Grade ................ 79 Table 6. Sankofa Shule MAT Spring 1996-97 Mathematics ............... 80 Table 7. MEAP Math Grade 4 ................................. 91 Table 8. MEAP Reading Grade 4 ............................... 92 Table 9. MEAP Writing Grade 5 ............................... 92 Table 10. MEAP Science Grade 5 ............................... 93 Table 11. Profile of Sankofa Shule Teaching Staff ..................... 97 ix CHAPTER ONE THE PROBLEM Won The last decade has witnessed scores of reportsl critical of American education. These reports have described a weak curriculum, insufficient and/or fragmented instruction, inadequate teacher preparation and professional development, and the growing inefficacy of public education. Other reports2 point to the continuing mediocre performance of American students on tests of basic skills and their leveling and/or deteriorating performance on tests Of higher-order learning as indicators of the need to rethink public schooling. Further, the studies question public schools' ability to adequately prepare American students for the future, especially as compared to students from other industrialized nations.3 Although some researchers, i.e. , Bracey (1997) and Berliner and Biddle (1996), have challenged this crisis of education rhetoric, it has formed the basis of 1 See the National Commission on Excellence in Education Report, "A Nation at Risk” (1983), The commiss'nn on the Skills of the American Workforce's "America's Choice: High Skills or Low Wages” (1990), reports by The Task Force on Education for Economic Growth (1983), The Committee for Economic Development (1985, 1987), and analyzes by scholars and educators such as Cohen (1988), Resnick (1987), Berryman ( 1989), and Raizen (1989). 3 See Natriello, McDill & Pallas, 1990; Chall, Jacobs & Baldwin, 1990; Davis & McCaul, 1990; Harrington and Boardman, 1989; Hargia, 1989; Slavin et al., 1989; Kunisawa, 1988; Berlin & Sum, 1988; Schor, 1988; Corner, 1988; Natriello, 1987; Rumberger, 1987; Levin, 1985. ’ Blomberg (1987), as cited in Heath (1990), surveyed businesses and found that employers were seeking the following kinds of literacy skills: Employers want workers who know how to learn and are well-grounded in fundamental knowledge and who have mastered concepts and skills that create an intellectual framework to which new knowledge can be added. Individuals should be able to draw inferences from a variety of types of information (written and oral), to understand and transmit instructions, to develop alternatives and reach conclusions, and to express their ideas intelligibly and effectively. These skills are adequate for entry-level work, but advancement in many organizations depends on the ability to compose tables and reports, consult source materials, handle mathematical concepts, and control complex equipment and address groups. What many employers now expect of computers ‘ multifunctional and interactive capacities' they also expect of humans in the work place. Collaborative problem identification and solution depends on rapid information exchange, creativity and risk taking. (p. 20) innumerable educational reforms. Further, it is widely accepted that public education has failed a generation of minority, poor, and non-mainstreamed students (American Council of Edueation, 1991; Hale-Benson, 1986, 1994; Hillard, 1989). To meet the aforementioned challenges, changing teacher beliefs and instructional practices to follow the best practice and research has become a major focus for many educational researchers (Darling-Hammond, 1986,1989, 1991, 1994; Fullan, 1982; Holmes Group, 1986, 1991; Sarason, 1982) and practitioners. Despite a multitude of reforms directed at making teacher instruction and schools more transformative for both majority and minority children (Cohen & Ball, 1991; Cuban, 1984), most students are still taught in a traditional manner (Doyle, 1986; Lortie, 1975). This means sitting in a group and listening to a teacher, who lectures to impart knowledge (Jackson, 1968). Today, in most classrooms, teachers still view education as the mere transmission of procedural information (Jackson, 1986). Students are to sit and listen, tasks which are often difficult for African American, poor, and non-mainstream students to master (Trueba, 1988). Therefore, the concept of teachers as learners whose goal is to improve and understand their own practice has emerged as an important part of educational reform (Darling-Hammond, 1991; Fullan, 1982; Holmes Group, 1986, 1991; Sarason, 1982). The concept of a school as a community of learners-students, teachers, administrators and parents—is increasingly being discussed and widely viewed as a means of improving public education for all students (Ibid.). In a community of learners, all participants-—teachers, parents, administrators, and students-are committed to discovering conditions that elicit and support learning and provide for these conditions. In a community of learners, adult and child learning is endemic and mutually visible. This goal (Of a community Of learners) is especially important for teachers who instruct economically, ethnically, and socially diverse students within a continually evolving world. This case study focuses on how teachers in an African-centered ‘ charter school formed a professional community while changing their beliefs, teaching strategies, and practices from a Eurocentric perspective to an African-centered perspective and implementing organizational changes in their school environment through African—centered and empowered philosophies, goals, and orientation. It is also an attempt to understand the dynamics of instructional and curriculum change within a group of schoolteachers who are engaged in new roles: as learners, as researcher-educators, and as leaders, in the implementation of an African- centered curriculum. W51! This case study examines how teachers of this newly created public school academy attended to the aforementioned challenges while attempting to promote and sustain learning for all participants-teachers, students, parents, and administrators. The aim of the school’s African-centered model is for continuous change and learning to take place on multiple levels-teachers, students, administrators, parents, and the greater community-o making the school a learning organization for the entire community while also making the school a place where everyone functions cooperatively; forming a school where each member is socialized to accept ownership for bringing a new visionary school into existence. Therefore, this study focuses on the teaching and learning of the faculty of an ‘ The terms African-centered or Afrocentric are used interchangeably in this dissertation. Afrocentricity is a late twentieth century idea based on the teachings of several African American theorists. 3 African-centered elementary school as they construct a community of professional learners while implementing instructional and institutional changes. In the current case, the development of a professional learning community is part of a school-wide, holistic effort to adopt a new curriculum based on African-centered thought and knowledge. The loeal context is the school community and its effort for improving teaching and learning through an African-centered professional development model.’ If a school were to: 1) create an African-centered environment; 2) make significant changes in pedagogical practices; and 3) change the content, purpose, and organization of the school and its curriculum, then it would also require extensive professional development. This development would be needed because the success of educational innovations that aim to cause changes in what students know and are able to do are critieally dependent on changes in teachers' instructional practices (Fullan, 1982). Therefore, understanding the teachers’ learning and beliefs is important. According to Fullan (1982/ 1991), teachers change their practice along three dimensions: a) use of new or revised materials; b) use of new teaching approaches; and c) the alterations in beliefs. These factors will be used to discuss the possible change in teacher belief and practices occurring at the school. 5' 'fi [5 1 Many educational researchers and moral philosophers have long argued that an educational commitment to community for teachers, as well as for students, produces positive outcomes for students, teachers, and parents, and thus, the greater community 5 A description of the school's professional development model is contained in Chapter 4. 4 (Darling-Hammond, 1994; 1982/1991; Sarason, 1971, 1972). For educators, the dispositions that are necessary for effective practice, such as an ethic of caring for children, appreciation and respect for diversity, and the opportunity for teacher learning and development are best conveyed through community norms (Ibid.). Therefore, institutional structures, processes, and resources Of schools should support the formation of strong professional learning communities that nurture core values, promote professional development, and an ethic of caring for all participants. Effective schools restructuring to meet the needs of all students requires teacher motivation to transform new knowledge concerning student learning, teacher practice, and educational change into reality. A learning community for students, teachers, and parents is a potentially powerful source for changein schools (Darling-Hammond, 1994; Fullan, 1982; Sarason, 1971, 1982). Many educational reforms of the 19808 have focused on restructuring schools and changing teacher beliefs and practices (Carnegie, 1986; Holmes, 1986). These reforms have urged professionalization of teachers based on a belief that students are better served by teachers who are prepared to make responsible, knowledge—based decisions. This research represents an attempt to examine the change in teaching perspective of the teachers from a Eurocentric to an African-center perspective. This change required a school environment that is conducive to teacher learning. An emerging body of research supports the claim that institution-wide professional development is required to support the learning of instructional practices and changing teaching perceptions (See Footnotes 1-3). This type of environment, in turn, requires fundamental changes in the nature and organization of schools. These changes should help and support teachers to learn to teach in new ways, a requirement that has traditionally been met by public school in-service staff development programs. The school’s continuing professional development model was created with the belief that in order to accomplish changes in instructional practice and meet current and anticipated state academic objectives, continuous professional development of the teachers must be an integral part Of the everyday work-life of teachers (Sankofa Charter, 1995 ; Sankofa Annual Report 1996; and Sankofa Annual Report, 1997). Therefore, the connection between a school-wide professional development program and curriculum change (from a Eurocentric to an African-centered curriculum) and the impact on teachers’ beliefs and institutional practices are worthy of in-depth study for several reasons: 1) there is little research that studies teachers’ prospective change from a Eurocentric to Afrocentric prospective; 2) there is little research that assesses the institutional and professional support needed to accomplish this type of institutional, curriculum, and perspective change; and 3) only a few prior studies have assessed the type of environment where fundamental changes, like the one occurring at the research site, can unfold and evolve. In addition, this case study contributes to the larger genre of work on teacher change and school community development. W This is a case study that requires qualitative research methods to examine how teachers in an African-centered elementary charter school, collectively and individually, attempted to examine and alter their teaching, beliefs, and instructional practices from a Eurocentric perspective to an African-centered perspective through the use of African- centered philosophies, goals, and orientation, while simultaneously adopting institutional changes at the school. The general research question for this case study is the following: How (and to what extent) did the individual and collective teacher learning taking place at the school support community formation and the creation of a form of African-centered education at the case study school? To provide a framework for analyzing the changes at the school, two subsidiary research questions guided this inquiry: 0 Did the professional development result in identifiable teaching/belief changes, individually and collectively, in the teaching staff? 0 Did the individual and collective dispositions of the teachers assist in the creation of a learning community? The data describe three areas that may influence and/or impact teaching beliefs and instructional practices of the participant: 0 Changes within teachers, over time, in response to the professional model, their participation in professional development activities, and the institutional changes occurring in the school. This interpretation involves explaining the extent and nature of change for each teacher; 0 Comparisons among teachers on a set of predetermined dimensions of change. This interpretation involves explaining differences and similarities among teachers; and 0 Comparison of beliefs vs. practices (i.e. , instruction) within and between teachers. This interpretation involves explaining discrepancies that might arise between how teachers talk and how they practice, exploring differences across teachers. This set of comparisons required the researcher to keep careful track of individual participants' case histories. It also entailed organizing a conceptual framework around these interpretive matters. III I' lEl'EE'K ll - ' i i First, it is important to understand what the participants knew and believed about themselves, their educational experiences, and African-centered education before this teaching experience. Understanding these perceptions and the world-views of the participants provided a foundation to evaluate possible changes in individual instructional beliefs and teaching at the school. World-views have been described as philosophies that affect individual transaction. The world-view components include group identity, individual identity or self-concept, values, and beliefs and language (Richard, 1985; Tembo, 1985). One's group identity, or collective consciousness, is based on a unique history of development of one’s cultural heritage, while an individual or personal identity is predicated on the cultural elaboration of a self—concept. One's system of values permits meaning in terms of a consensual construed reality as a basis for problem solving and group survival. Finally, language is a potential avenue for the examination of the structure of thinking, for describing feelings, and for understanding the nature of culturally—specific communication. Therefore, participants’ prior knowledge and experience may also influence their ability to change. In evaluating the teachers’ responses and the possible changes to the professional development model, adult learning theories are relevant. What adults learn in the context of formal education does not come from the formalized school program, but includes several other dimensions such as cultural interaction within and outside the school and the cultural experiences taking place within and outside of the classroom. Therefore, to understand the adult learning process, it becomes necessary to understand the process that characterized the educators’ life history prior to the formation and possible change in their knowledge, culture, and value system. The African-centered perspective offered at the research site, according to its charter, provides a global view of world development and the contributions of all people of the world giving rise to self-esteem and confidence in every human with all peoples recognized as one and equal. This perspective requires a new way of thinking and the acceptance of a new knowledge. This knowledge must be found by evaluating any and every idea that is contrary to one's center, which is African (Asante, 1980). Therefore, it is important to determine the participant’s learning perspective and worldview at the beginning of the study to evaluate and analyze the change. iin W Second, it is important to understand what institutional and organizational factors might influence the possible individual and collective changes taking place at the school and the formation of the community. Could providing time each day for teachers to collaborate facilitate the change? Or, would the rotation of the students from one classroom to another and having each teacher instruct by subject facilitate and foster the individual and collective change taking place at the school? What must be compromised, developed, institutionalized (institutional structures) to create change? What processes exist or do not exist and need to be constructed that support the transformation of African- centered educators? models In the following chapters, the teaching and learning in the African-centered elementary charter school will be described, specifically focusing on changes in teacher beliefs and practices. Chapter Two: Review of Relevant Literature sets forth research pertinent to this study. A description of the research methods used in conducting this study is contained in Chapter Three. Chapter Four: The School, Community and Principals ofAfi'ican-centered Education contains a description and analysis of the school, the curriculum, and its surrounding community, In Chapter Five: African-centered Education-Jim Practitioners of Community Formation, Sankofa Shule’s philosophy of African-centered education and its professional development model are reviewed. In addition, this chapter provides a portrait of the leader of this school, Dr. Freya Rivers, as well as the second year faculty, all of whom participated in this study. At the beginning Of the study, all teachers, including Dr. Rivers, provided educational autobiographies and resumes. This information was used to assess the teachers’ beliefs and practices prior to coming to the school and the possible changes in the teaching and instructional beliefs Of teachers. In Chapter Six: Creating a Community of Professional Learners Around African Centered Principles, the elements that existed in the Sankofa community will be discussed and their effect on the eventual community formation. Finally, in Chapter Seven: Findings and Conclusion, the issues involved in the process of learning to teach in an African- centered manner and the forming of professional communities are explored, including the factors that exist at the research site, which may sustain teacher development, and contribute to student achievement. 10 CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE mummies Three literatures intersect and form the foundation of this study. One is the literature of emancipation, liberation, and personal transformation that draws on the work by Friere, Giroux, Asante, Mezirow, and others. The other is the literature concerning teacher change advocated by Darling-Hammond, Fullan, Sarason, and others. The final strand of this research focuses on community and community formation, specifically learning communities (Bellah, 1985; Noddings, 1986, 1996). For the purposes of this research, this can be seen by the responses to three questions: (1) Why did the teachers participate in the creation Of an African-centered charter school?, (2) By what means did the teachers change their teaching and learning from Eurocentric to Afrocentric?, (3) Finally, what was the result Of their endeavors? This research concludes that the intersection Of these theories is the development of community, in this case a professional learning community. In addition, theories concerning transformation, personal and collective, (Asante, 1980; Friere, l970a, 1970b; Mezirow, 1991), and the impact of individual teacher characteristics on a change in practices and beliefs were relevant issues in the development of this community. ' n -- n i The reasons for creating an African-centered charter school are fueled by Critical or Liberation Theory. This theory provided the lens from which the information gathered 11 and collected was analyzed. The critical paradigm is concerned with the totahty of consciousness, alienation, and analysis of social, political, and educational problems or issues. A fundamental concern of this critical paradigm is social transformation aimed at increasing justice, equality, freedom, and human dignity. Critical studies of education (Apple, 1979, 1982; Giroux, 1983) depict the micropolitical arena of schools as microcosms of society where the war between the dominant and the dominated is fought daily. In most schools, the dominant culture is victorious. However, if school knowledge is not directly related to the real world and the cultural knowledge that students bring to school, the dominated are silenced in the classrooms and become silent participants in their edueation. For Friere (1973), education must be a process Of liberation and humanization. African-centered education is based upon several frameworks: critical theory, liberatory/emancipatory theory, transformative learning theory, and African-centered knowledge. The goal of African-centered education is to undo the deleterious effects of ”Eurocentric thought that has infiltrated the minds of the oppressed by dominated members of the society" (Henry, 1994, p. 302). It is simply connecting the cultural, political, and historieal backgrounds and experiences of students with their experiences at school and socializing them in using this information. Dewey (1957), defining the ”moral meaning“ of democracy, wrote that "the supreme task of all political institutions shall be the contribution they make to the all-round growth of every member of society” (p. 9). Therefore, in a pluralistic society, educators can provide students with the ”rich array of experiences that feed the soul by respecting the ways in which individual students nourish their spirits and by supporting activities that allow them to experience deep connection” (Kessler, 1999, p. 52). 12 Most researchers would agree that the curriculum and the instructional process of schools should be connected to the students' experiences and should build upon those (the students’) experiences. The aim is to expand student knowledge and understanding of the world in order to develop competencies for living in a literate and technologically-based society. The usefulness of knowledge gained in school should be identifiable and based on the experiences of students. However, that is not the case in most schools. According to Giroux (1983), traditional education does not address the critical issues of ideology, knowledge, and power. Giroux (1989) believes that the current educational system is highly oppressive and that the educational system Offers little for those who are not rich, white, or native speakers of English. African-centered education is concerned with the effects of the imposition of a unitary, white, elitist worldview upon those Oppressed by it in the educational system, specifically people who are nonwhite, working class, poor, female, or culturally different. Until recently in American education, both the world and knowledge were viewed as an amalgam of separate communities and disciplines, static and independent of each Other. However, different and more dynamic views of the world and knowledge have been gaining momentum in educational settings. Rather than the world being made up of separate and isolated communities, a conception of a more global community has evolved Where people from the entire world interact. This has expanded the view of knowledge. Social constructivists have demonstrated that knowledge is not static, and that disciplines, experiences, and the interactions of individuals/ groups overlap and contribute to the continual construction of knowledge. 13 The newer view [of mind, learning, and knowledge] is ’sociocentric’, still considering the individual and the world but also taking into account the cultural nature of knowledge as a communal human construction that is both formed by and forms human beings... From a sociocentric perspective, knowledge must be viewed as individual and social, personal and public constructions designed to make sense of and provide for effective action in a reactive, malleable yet independently existing reality. (Soltis, 1981, p. 97-98) School knowledge, therefore, must be constantly changing and directly related to the real world and the cultural knowledge that students bring to school which, at the research site, is African American. Critical theorists suggest that schooling must be participatory, transformative, and collaborative. The process of critical self-reflection must be transformative, liberatory/emancipatory, and anti-racist. African-centered pedagogy is also a form of cultural resistance to dominant schooling practices that damage African American children's spirits and self-identities (Lee, 1989). Its goals are to counteract the discourse of schools. It is also pedagogy that emancipates or liberates the thinking of the oppressed, similar to the Friere Theory of Liberatory/Emancipatory Learning and Mezirow’s Theory of Perspective Transformation. African-centered education is also a form Of anti-racist education. Anti-racist education often permeates all subject areas and school practices in schools. Its aim is the elimination of racism in all its various forms. This type of education attempts to equip African American students, as well as teachers, with the analytical tools to critically examine the origins of racist ideas and practice. Finally, it is ”holistic education," which has an "expanded perspective on learning, spiritual foundations of education, contemplative practice“ (Schor, 1998-1999, p. 12). 14 Asante (1987) argues that Afrocentricity ”is above all the total use of a method to effect psychological, political, social, cultural, and economic change” (p. 125). This happens ”when the person becomes totally changed to a conscious level of involvement in his or her own mind’s liberation” (Asante, 1980, p. 56). African-centered education, as taught at the research site, is empowerment through economic self-reliance, and self- effieacy. According to Dr. Rivers (1995), head teacher and principal of the school, the principles of African-centered education represent the empowerment Of the African American family and thus its children utilizing conscientization through education, transformation through ancient ecological and spiritual development, and self-actualization through economic and cultural independence. It represents developing responsible adults in families and empowering them to leave a legacy of talents and economic and academic skills to their children. (p. 7) African-centered education, as taught at the research site, is designed to develop strong, positive, self-concepts which will, in turn, enhance the probability of the youth becoming productive responsible adults and to provide families and students with the knowledge of their Afrocentric heritage and culture to instill the pride, dignity, and values of their ancient African ancestors. In today’s society, African Americans are both socially and politically ineffective and economically powerless. Few African Americans own businesses and are not successful without proper education. Over 50% of all African American children are in poverty and over one-half of all African American families have female heads of households. The majority Of African American communities rely on non-African American communities instead of self-help unity and organization within their own (Hacker, 1992). 15 Therefore, according to Freire, Giroux, and Asante, the primary objective Of education is for the development of critical consciousness by searching with the students for the ideas and experiences that give meaning to their lives and a release from social, polities], and economic powerlessness (Freire, 1970a). These ‘generative themes’ should be organized and ‘re-presented’ dialectically so that the students can understand the links between them, their relationship to the totality of ideas, hopes, values, and challenges Of the epoch, their historical context, their relationship to the community, and their raison d’étre. Only as students come to critically know these themes, as they realize how these themes support or contradict the dominant ideologies, do they see that 'dehumanization, although a concrete historical fact, is not a given destiny but the result of an unjust order" (Friere, 1970a). To Asante (1980), Afrocentricity is a process of transformation. Therefore, his African-centered transformation model presented additional challenges for the teaching staff, who went to and were trained in Eurocentric schools for several reasons. First, it is a theory of social change, which requires individual transformation. Second, it is specifically attuned to and emanates from African American cultural and historical experiences. Third, it requires reflection on individual’s experiences with a possible transformative effect. Asante believes that an individual experiences four levels of transformation before achieving Afrocentricity, with each step representing a different level of identity awareness. The fifth and highest level represents Afrocentricity and not all African Americans will become Afrocentric. The levels of Afrocentric transformation are: 16 1. Skin Recognition-awareness of skin color and heritage as characteristics that distinguish one as a person of African descent. 2. Environmental Recognition-awareness of discrimination and abuse within one’s environment attributed to one’s skin color and heritage. 3. Personality Awareness-recognition Of individual preferences related to one’s heritage. 4. Interest Concern-demonstration of interest in and concern about the issues of people of African descendance. 5. Afrocentricity-awareness of collective and conscious will, and constant struggle to interpret reality from an African-centered perspective. (Asante, 1980, p. 55-56) As previously stated, the Afrocentric transformation model has antecedents in other theoretical constructs that describe the process through which individual consciousness Of one’s cultural and historical identity is liberated from Eurocentric dominance, i.e. , Fanon, Cabral, and Friere. Fanon (1963), for example, wrote of African intellectuals who aligned themselves with “European culture, " thus becoming estranged from their own people, and later attempting to reconnect with their culture. Fanon (1963) described this as "phases of consciousness which is [sic] in the process of being liberated” (p. 220). Cabral (1973) described this attempt as ”returning to the source” (p. 62). Finally, Friere’s theory (1970a) is that personal growth is dependent on political action and reflection and becoming empowered politically, socially, and economically. Friere believes that individuals and groups of individuals become empowered and thus transformed through interaction with their environment through a process of conscientization. The African- centered paradigm not only represents the basis for teacher change, but also the reasons for the tensions that exist within the school environment and the philosophical foundation 17 Of the resulting professional community. Therefore, the questions that the teachers at the research site must ponder are whether: '[In] a society increasingly populated by peoples of color, by those who have known the disdain and domination of the Euro-American world, it would be fascinating to ponder self-love as a religious calling. How are people, beginning in their earliest years, nurtured to act with self-respect and self-responsibility? How are they encouraged to move through the world with a spirit which un-self- righteously challenges everything that threatens to crush the human spirit, the human ability to love ourselves and others? Can we explore such fundamental questions with our students, wondering aloud with them about the fascinating possible spiritual connection between the capacity to love ourselves and the willingness to love and serve others? (hooks & West, 1991, p. 93) bell hooks Pmticalized this advise in W W, stating: As a teacher, I recognize that students from marginalized groups enter classrooms within institutions where their voices have never been neither heard nor welcomed, whether these students discuss facts--those which any of us know--or personal experience. My pedagogy has been to respond to this reality. IfI do not wish to see these students using the ”authority of experience" as a means of asserting their voice, I can circumvent this possible misuse of power by bringing to the classroom pedagogical strategies that affirm their presence, their right to speak, in multiple ways. This pedagogieal strategy is rooted in the assumption that we will all bring to the classroom experiential knowledge, that this knowledge can indeed enhance our learning. (hooks, 1994, pp. 83-84) W Many researchers (Elmore, 1990; Fullan, 1982; Sarason, 1971, 1982) believethat the culture of schools must change to allow ample opportunities for both teacher and student learning. Others (Carnegie, 1986; Holmes, 1986, 1990), believe that the certification and professional development of teachers is directly related to the quality of edueation that students currently receive in America today, indicating that schools must be staffed with professionals who feel confident and powerful enough to make a difference 18 in children’s learning (Ibid.). Empowered teachers will create empowered students. To accomplish this, teachers must include in their teaching and learning environment those dimensions that help children feel capable and in-charge of their learning. In addition, teachers and support staff should believe that all children should learn and they should know strategies that will help them in filling their lessons with socially-valued knowledge that is rich in meaning and understanding (Holmes, op. cit.). Many researchers (Barth, 1990; Elmore, 1992; Sergiovani, 1994) have suggested that two of the goals of schools should be community development and the creation of schools as institutions for continuous change. In these institutions, learning will take place on multiple levels-teachers, students, administrators, parents, and the greater community-- in effect, making the school a learning organization for the entire community (Elmore, 1990; Fullan, 1982; Sarason, 1971/1982). These goals align themselves with the educational idea directed at student, parent, and teacher empowerment and accountability. It also makes schools a place where everyone functions within a community and where all members are socialized to the fact that the school is theirs' and they have the power to make it what they will (Ibid.). The title of this study combines two powerful concepts currently being discussed on the educational reform agenda--teacher professionalism and community development. If one is to think of the professional development Of teachers, one must also consider the creation of a ‘professional community of learners.’ A profession usually means specialized “skill and knowledge of the expert practitioner coupled with an ethieal concern for those one serves” (Sykes et. al., 1997, p. 1). The term ”profession" also symbolizes the enhancement of the capacities of teachers through new forms of professional development, 19 school-wide decision-making, large and small-scale innovations, collaboration within and without of the school, and professionalization of teachers. This professionalism appears to be a promising, even indispensable, way to improve teaching and learning for both teachers and students. To some, teacher professionalism requires the affirmation of three principles in the conduct and governance of an occupation, which are client-oriented and knowledge-based. These are: 1. Knowledge is the basis for permission to practice and for decisions to be made with respect to the unique needs of students. 2. The practitioner pledges his or her first concern is to the welfare Of the students. 3. The profession assumes collective responsibility for the definition, transmittal, and the enforcement of professional standards of practice and ethics. (Darling-Hammond, 1990) Teacher professionalization is part of this equation. This study encompasses the idea of making schools learning organizations. Therefore, promoting and sustaining learning for all participants-teachers, student, parents, and administrators. A learning community for students, teachers, and parents is a potentially powerful source for change in schools (Darling-Hammond, 1986, 1989, 1994; Fullan, 1982 Sarason, 1971, 1982). Many educational reforms of the 19803 have focused on restructuring schools and changing teacher beliefs and practices (Carnegie, 1986; Holmes, 1986). These reforms have urged professionalization of teachers and professional teaching communities based on a belief that students are better served by teachers who are prepared to make responsible, knowledge-based decisions in their classrooms (Ibid.). However, for this to occur, teachers must assume the more difficult, but more rewarding task of managing classrooms in which students are actively engaged in such activities as making 20 presentations, conducting experiments, working in groups, and participating in discussions, as well as working individually (Elmore, 1992). Building a community of professional learners requires teachers who engage in ”continuous inquiry about teaching. They are researchers, students of teaching, who observe Others teach, have others observe them, talk about teaching, and help other teachers. In short, they are professionals" (Barth, 1990, p. 46). 1]]: Problem mg! Characteg'stics of Change How are professional learning communities created and what are their potentials in developing and sustaining educational change? Research on innovation and teacher change indicates that there is a continuous dilemma in institutional and teacher change. Teachers and the school environment are regularly engaged in activities designed to affect change in teacher beliefs and instructional practices in response to external pressures. However, they rarely actually change their essential ways of drinking, learning, and practicing, nor does the organization of the school change itself (Sarason, 1982). Changes are seldom sustained because teachers are rarely active and direct participants in the design and implementation of change. According to Sirotnick (1987), We are led to the organization, e.g., the school as the center of change. We are not lead naively to the school as isolated from its sociopolitical context, able to engage in miraculous self-renewing activities without district, community, state, and federal support. But we are led to where the day-to-day action is, to where with the proper motivation and support the prevailing conditions and circumstances of schools ean be challenged constructively within the context of competing values and human interest. In short, peOple who live and work in complex organizations like schools need to be thoroughly involved in their own improvement efforts, assuming signifieant and enduring organization change is the purpose we have in mind. (p. 25-26) 21 Recently, researchers, at the Center for the Research on the Context of Secondary School Teaching (CRC)° at Stanford University and the Center on Organization and Restructuring of Schools (CORS) at the University of Wisconsin", have explored a variety of contextual factors that affect and shape the development of a professional community within schools. The literature Of organization (Garvin, 1993; Senge, 1990a, 1990b; Watkins and Marsick, 1994) and the literature of advocacy and inquiry (Little, 1990) have demonstrated the importance of collaboration and interdependence among teachers. Professional learning communities are developed within the context Of the school environment. The contextual factors which shape the professional dispositions and are necessary for development of professional communities within schools are: ( 1) cultural and structural characteristics of schools; (2) characteristics Of professional community; (3) dispositions and beliefs among teachers identified normatively as ‘ professional; ’ and (4) ”student learning as measured in a variety of ways” (Sykes et al., 1996, p. 5). Teacher professionalism depends, to a significant degree, on the extent and character Of local teacher community . . . teachers who participate in strong professional communities within their subject area departments or other teacher networks have higher levels Of professionalism as measured in this study, than do teachers in less collegial settings. (Talbert & McLaughlin, 1994, p. 142-43) In a professional learning community, shared norms and values are integral elements of shared vision among the teachers in the school around a set of core values and norms for student welfare and learning. According to the CRC study, the following characteristics are present in a professional teacher community: ‘ Research at CRC concentrated on identifying the contextual factors associated with secondary teachers professional dispositions (see McLaughlin et al., 1990; McLaughlin & Talbert, 1994). 7 This center conducted a series of investigations including a multi-school field study in of a sample of schools engaged in substantial restructuring. 22 Technical culture-shared standards for curriculum, subject matter instruction, and relations with students and school goals. Service ethic-a sense of responsibility and caring for students' academic success. Professional commitment-devotion or allegiance to teaching subject matter and continued growth. Collegial controls-teacher control of performance evaluations and careers.8 The CORS study, however, determined that a school-wide professional community consists of "staff members taking collective responsibility for achieving a shared educational purpose for the school as a whole and collaborating with another to attain it” (Sykes et al., 1997, p. 7). This study determined five characteristics that help shape a professional community within schools: Shared norms and values-the extent of consensus among teachers in the school around a set of values and norms related to student welfare and learning. Reflective dialogue-regular discussions among teachers about curriculum, instruction, and student learning that are both supportive and critical or evaluative. Deprivatization of practice-open scrutiny of individual teachers’ through dialogue, Observation and feedback and examination of school records. Focus on student learning-an emphasis on the quality of student learning as a regular and shared feature Of teacher engagements and activities. Collaboration-a natural outgrowth of dialogue and openness about practice. (Sykes et al., 1996, p. 7) ' This was not included in the final report because none of the schools in the sample had formal sanctioning authority for teachers (Talbert & McLaughlin, 1994, p.131). 23 Both studies indicate that in a teaching professional community, there are regular discussions among teachers about curriculum, instruction, and student learning that are both supportive and evaluative. In addition, the teachers realize that the quality of their learning is a regular and shared feature of teacher engagements and activities. This is reflective dialogue, what Senge ( 1990a) refers to as ”the staggering potential of collaborative/cooperative leaming--that collectively, we can be more insightful, more intelligent than we can possibly be individually” (p. 24). Within a learning culture, critical reflection is the foundation for dialogue which can teach all members of the organization, at all levels, to go beyond their individual understanding of their assumptions and thus, gain a greater understanding or meaning of their goals and collective vision for inquiry and feedback (Senge, 1990a, 1990b). Members themselves share their learning with members Of the community through networked structures and teams, which empower them to make decisions that affect their jobs and the school. Most professional teaching communities also have several cultural characteristics indicated in previous research (See Sykes et. a1. , 1997) such as: a climate of inquiry that encourages teacher engagement in regular study of and reflection on teaching and learning; administratively supported risk-taking, innovative curriculum, varied assessment methods, and shared leadership responsibilities that relied on delegated authority, shared decision- making, and effective management of conflict. Although the development of a ”professional community” supports teachers engaged in changing their practice, the effort to simultaneously build a professional learning community and improve teaching beliefs and practices within the current organizational structure of schools is often too difficult and time consuming for most teachers and schools. 24 Schools must also restructure to meet the needs of students, teachers, parents, and their greater community. TO this point the terms ‘learning community’ and ‘learning organization’ may have appeared interchangeable within this text. However, as this research has noted (see Footnote 9), each Of these terms has a distinct line of research literature and each is relevant to the school reform movement. American schools are institutions similar, but different than, business corporations or associations. The people in schools——students, teachers, and parents--—are its community. Institutions must begin to function as learning organizations and their members must create and then foster the creation of professional communities. Wang: Teacher characteristics have also been found to facilitate institutional and teacher change in practices and beliefs. Factors which have been necessary for lasting change to occur in schools are "institutional motivation, project implementation strategies, institutional leadership, and certain teacher characteristics" (Marsh & McLaughlin, 1978, p. 72). Therefore, the explicit concepts under which teachers, students, and other individuals Operate within schools exert a powerful force in their day-to—day functioning (Gardner, 1990). The words ‘lmowledge’ and ‘beliefs’ are vital elements of learning and self-reflection for both students and teachers. Teachers, in this current atmosphere Of continual educational reform, are being pressured to acquire additional and new knowledge and to test, analyze, and reassess old teaching strategies, practices, and beliefs. Students are required to be more analytical and acquire higher-order thinking and processing skills. 25 Recently, there has been a renewed acknowledgment of the potency of beliefs on teachers‘, students', and individuals' thoughts and actions (Pajares, 1992). One's beliefs permeate one’ s perception Of the world influences, the processes and outcomes of learning, and the impact of children and adults' daily reactions to situations. Of course, teachers' beliefs become apparent in the way teachers define their learning environment or respond to instruction materials and strategies (Ibid.). Beliefs are paradigms that individuals use to make sense of an experience. Beliefs are deeply rooted and difficult to change, which makes understanding teacher beliefs difficult (Pajares, 1992; Schmidt & Kennedy, 1996). However, teacher beliefs are the best indicator of how they will make decisions in the teaching environment (Ibid.). Teacher beliefs effect the development of a professional learning community and change occurring in the school environment. Therefore, teacher motivation is also an important element in teacher professional and community development. The following issues (Dean, 1991) have been held to affect teacher motivation to change: 1. The age of the participant and the stage (early, middle, end) of his/her career; 2. Whether the participant gains satisfaction in students learning something new; teacher enthusiasm for their subject-matter; 3. The receipt by the participant of recognition, interest, praise, and encouragement; 4. A chance to contribute; 5. A decision to take responsibility; 6. The inspiration of others; and career prospects. Motivation will perhaps operate at different times in a teacher’s career; however, the teacher’s commitment to changing the academic achievement of his/her students in 26 his/her community is a strong motivator. ”If members of your organization are committed, the leadership for relating, measuring, learning, redesigning, and standardizing comes from each member. People continually learn and improve their own and others performance” (Senge, 1994, p. 448). Teachers must have both the will and capacity to make institutional changes before changes, professionally or institutionally, will happen (McLaughlin, 1987). Teachers maintain positive attitudes and continue trying to improve despite frustrations when they are motivated and led in a transformative manner. As Dean (1991) suggests, the personal characteristics and experiences that teachers bring to a school may affect their ability to develop into a professional community. W In addition, the experiences and beliefs that a teacher brings to the environment are also important. Friere (1972) believes that to educate is to foster reflection and action upon ‘word’ and ‘world’. Mezirow (1991) believes that perspective transformation begins when we encounter experiences, Often in an emotionally charged situation, that fail to fit our expectations and consequently lack meaning for us, or we encounter an anomaly that cannot be given coherence either by learning within existing schemes or by learning new schemes. (p. 94) Experience is an element of transformative learning and the school’s experiential professional development model provided the teachers with a potpourri Of educational experiences and the time to reflect. Experiences and the time to reflect upon them were 27 aimed at helping the teachers become more aware of critical assumptions in their practice and to actively engage in changing assumptions that were not adaptive or inadequate. Mezirow’s (1991) Theory of Transformative Learning is the process of becoming critically aware of how presumptions have come to constrain the way we perceive, understand, and feel about the world. It is reformulating these assumptions to permit a more inclusive, discriminating, permissible, and integrative perspective and making decisions and acting upon these understandings (Mezirow, 1990). Therefore, it is an appropriate framework to evaluate individual teacher change in this environment. Mezirow's theory (1990) requires "critical reflectivity” which is a thorough analysis of problems, self-awareness, and self-reflection. The process model has several dimensions. One, there is a recognition of existing assumptions, beliefs, and self-interests. Two, there is an event that they can recall or that they experience in the present that somehow disturbs existing assumptions. Three, out of the events and the subsequent reactions to it, a new set of conclusions are drawn which ultimately result in a worldview shift or character change. A worldview shift is synonymous with a paradigm shift or, as Mezirow defines it, a transformation. ”The term has come to be used as a synonym for a model, conceptual framework approach, and worldview shift” (Mezirow, 1991, p. 46). Therefore, transformative learning can result in a ‘returning to the self," which is supplemented by the vantage point of self-awareness, self-reflection, and self-knowledge, where old knowledge can be experienced with a new view (Moustakas, 1994). Reflection is involved in problem solving and problem posing and transformation Of meaning schemes and perspectives. We may reflect on the content of a problem, the process of our problem solving or the premise upon which the problem is predicated. Content and process reflection ean play a role in thoughtful action by allowing us to access consciously what 28 we know about taking the next step in a series of actions. Premise reflection involves a movement through cognitive structures guided by the identifying and judging presuppositions. Through content and process reflection we can change our meaning schemes; though premise reflection we can transform our meaning perspectives. Transformative learning pertains to both the transformation of meaning schemes through content and process reflection and the transformation of meaning perspectives through premise reflection. (Mezirow, 1991, p. 117) Emancipative action or what Mezirow and Friere described as a ”call to action” is some response to or behavior that results from or acts on changes that have taken place in the learner due to a transformative learning experience. The learner is described as experiencing a ”reintegration into society” (Mezirow, 1970) or "equilibrium" (Taylor, 1987). Therefore, whether members of a community have experienced a transformative learning experience or see their participation in the community endeavor as a ”call to action” is a relevant issue for consideration. Scott (1991) explored the nature of transformation of leaders’ expectations in a community organization. Her study identified self-confidence, empowerment, spirituality and a transcended source of power as an outcome of a perspective transformation. This study also attempted to recognize the influence of the context of change, internally and externally and to discuss the significance of intuition, courage, risk, and caring in the learning process. Communities ean be describw as specific cultural-historical formations, constructed within contexts, which depend on psychological, sociological, and environmental conditions. As Williams (1983) has stated, a community has two primary characteristics. On one hand, ”the sense of direct concern", but, ”on the other hand, the materialization 29 of various forms of common organization... " (p. 76). These characteristics are connected to established psychological and sociological ideas concerning learning (Dewey, 1984; Vygotsky, 1978) and current works on community development (Bellah et al., 1996; Noddings, 1996). The idea of a school community development also inscribes the concept of a shared-vision for schools as conceived by Barth, 1990; Raitt, 1995; Senge, 1990a, 1990b and Sergiovani, 1994, among others. However, a review of the literature concerning learning organizations” provides no consensus definition. To some an organization "learns if through its processing of information, the range of potential behaviors [are] changed” (Huber, 1991, p. 89). Learning is organizational or communal when it incorporates the ”combined experiences, perspectives, and capabilities of a variety of [sic] members" (Raitt, 1995, p. 72). However, to this researcher, ‘community’ means people unified on the basis of values and meaning, ethical, professional, religious, and conceptual and that communal learning is an innate ability of this association. More importantly, community has a spiritual unity that is characterized by a mutual acceptance and understanding and an inner disposition of each member to the other. Some educational researchers have focused on the benefits and problems of creating and maintaining a professional learning community (Barth, 1990; Schwab, 1976; Sergiovani, 1994) and of a learning organization within schools (Raitt, 1995; Senge, 1990a, 1990b, 1994). One Of these researchers concluded that schools might be characterized as: ’ Although the terms ‘learning community' and ‘learning organization' appear to be used interchangeably it this study, each of these terms has separate and distinct definitions and research. This paper describes the change taking place at the research site at two levels. One, at the institutional level (the learning organization) and among and between is members (the learning community). 30 A community of persons united by collective understandings, by common and communal goals, by bonds of reciprocal obligation, and by a flow of sentiment which makes the preservation of the community an object of desire, not merely a matter of prudence or a command of duty. Community implies a form of social obligation governed by principles different from those in the marketplace and the state. (Katz, 1987, p. 179) Schwab (1976, p. 237) asserts that: The importance Of community lies in its contributions to three distinct but related factors. It is indispensable to the development of individuality. It is necessary for the maintenance of our social and political structure. It is essential in satisfying conviviality, the interplay of persons as persons without which existence of men as social animals is barren. Schwab (1976) also asserts that "community can be learned" and that ”human learning is a communal enterprise” (p. 235). He states: When the learning is the development of latent capabilities, our first trials are undertaken only with the support of members of our community. Further development occurs only with the support of members of that community. Even ”experience” , as a form of learning, becomes experience only as it is shared and given meaning by transactions with fellow human beings. (p. 235) Schwab believes that there are seven propensities of community. These are: l. A propensity to find, with Others, joint needs and wants which confer on self and others a sufficient identity of purpose and endeavor to constitute an immediate group. 2. A propensity to see others as affording states of character, competence, and habit which complement one’s own, thus marking each person a part of another who is distinctly other. a. Other children differing in ethnic-religious-social class styles, attitudes, and values, as well as children of different talents and abilities. b. Other adults differing in the same ways and affording a variety Of models. 31 3. A propensity to seek realization of the complementarities of self and others by welcoming problems which call for the joining of diverse talents and attitudes. 4. A propensity to recognize other and different groups as bearing the same relations to one another that diverse members of an immediate group bear to one another, and to seek similar realization of the complementarities of these groups. 5. A propensity toward reflection--alone, with another, in a group—on past actions and consequences; their circumstances; the means employed; the desirability of the ensuing gains and losses. 6. A propensity toward service, toward the giving and receiving of comfort in disappointment and congratulation on achievement, a propensity deriving from past actions and undergone with others. 7. A propensity toward accrual of symbols of past achievement of a group, and of past members of it, and the celebration of these persons and moments by way of the symbols accrued. (1976, p. 235) The development Of a learning community is associated with the need to provide internal renewal for schools in the face of a competitive, global environment (Barth, 1990; Raitt, 1995; Senge, 1990a, 1990b; Sergiovani, 1994). Creating a community of professional learners is associated with a reform agenda that advocates a type of teaching and learning which calls for students to ‘examine,’ ‘transform,’ ‘apply’, ‘prove,’ ‘communicate, ’ and ‘solve’ problems and concepts. It is also part of a reform agenda that promotes the development of new knowledge in the teaching and learning of teachers as well as continued research, development, and innovation to engage teachers in collaborations with researchers, innovators, and communities. 32 i ' N r f mm ni ' A sense of community is a ‘habit of the heart’ (Bellah, et a1. 1996). Community construction in the educational setting appears romantic on its face, but it indicates hope that positive changes in American society will involve ethical and humanistic perspectives on self-transformation of individuals--teachers, students, and parents-for the greater society. An edueational community also envisions some Of the desirable features Of community, such as ”a sense of belonging; Of concern for each individual; of individual responsibility for the collective good; and an appreciation for the rituals and celebration of the group” (Noddings, 1996, p. 266-267). In a community, a common language and sense of purpose permits the development Of a common, ethical, spiritual, and moral conscience. One reason for the formation of communities within and without school is "the isolation of individuals--the taboo against talking about spiritual matters in the public sphere-robs people of the courage, of the strength of heart to do what deep down they believe to be right. They think they are alone in facing these issues” (Bolman & Deal, 1995, p. 2). However, some researchers, Noddings (1996), for example, believe that educators should approach this type of reform cautiously. In education writing . . . community is put forward again and again as a redemptive solution. Educators speak and write with enthusiasm-- sometimes with obvious longing--about communities of learners, professional communities, schools as communities, and community partnerships. Some of the same educators fail to recognize that the proliferation of gangs, ethnic collectives, and fundamentalist religions also represent a deep yearning to belong, to be recognized. (Noddings, 1996, p. 246) Noddings (1996) suggests that there are issues that educators must address and resolve in order to get the best out of community formation within schools. She states that 33 ”the only way to regain meaning in an age of suffering from the meaningless, is to have concern as an individual and to participate intelligently in one’s community" (p. 246). However, Bellah, et a1. (1996) would state that intelligent participation is a characteristic of true community formation because a ‘community’ is a group of people who are socially interdependent, who participate together in discussions and decision making and who share certain practices that both define the community and are nurtured by it. Such a community is not quickly formed. It almost always has history, and so is also a community of memory defined in part by its past and its memory of its past. (p. 28) In a community where people are unified on the basis of shared values and meanings, there is a propensity to develop a commitment to receptive attention and a willingness to respond to the legitimate needs of its members. They (members of the community) draw on the collective to do what they cannot do alone. It also reinforces a type of spiritualism--a source of meaning, energy, and achievement--into the school workplace. The words ‘spirit’ and ‘soul’ are often used interchangeably. However, for purposes of this research, this author will use the definition contained in Bolman and Deal’s (1994) W. According to Bolman and Deal (1994, p. 9-10), The soul or spirit is personal and unique-grounded in the depths of personal experiences. Spirit is transcendent and all embracing. It is the universal source, the oneness of all things: God, Yahweh, Allah and Buddha. Soul and spirit are related in the same way as peaks and valleys, male and female. They are ultimately connected. Each needs the other. Folasade Oladélé (1998-1999) believes: Spirit is the spark of life that resides within every human being; it is the connection to the fabric of all life and to the source Of all creation, and it is the essence of what it means to be a human being. Spirit is a gift from the Source, what some people might call the Creator. My first awareness of the significant of spirit began in my childhood home. There the foundation of my own practice as a teacher began. (p. 62) 34 Therefore, Asante, Friere, and Mezirow would agree that children must be taught reading, writing, and arithmetic in a way that spirituality is nourished, not through formal rituals that students practice in school, but by the quality of relationship that is developed between person and world. We can, and must, cultivate an attitude of earing, respect, and contemplation to replace the narrow modernist view that the world is a resource to be exploited (1995-96, p. 5). (cited in Oladélé, 1998-1999) Spirituality provides the educational workplace with a language of moral discourse connecting teachers to their educational goals and vision for children. The African- edueation being developed at the research site recognizes a communal tradition of care: the obligation prior to agency to respond helpfully when needs present themselves; a sense of universality based on needs and feeling, and a common culture and ethnic background. The soul of a school is the "shared feelings that its Objectives are worth sacrifice by those who work in it and by society it serves... A new soul is emerging because without it we cannot deal with new circumstances” (Hall, 1993, pp. 27-28). The changes necessary for American schools is forcing ”us to contemplate the capabilities and limits of humanity in new ways. The future is always derived from the past because people do not change quickly..." (Hall, 1993, p. 8). In this type of school, throughout the curriculum, teachers create a safe environment where students can explore existential questions that appear to have no answers. In addition, teachers can provide experiences that honor students‘ questions and allow students to contribute to the world through school and community service, creative expression, or academic or athletic achievement. In this way, teachers can help students see and create patterns that connect learning to their lives. 35 The domain of meaning and purpose not only is crucial to motivation and learning for students but also is paradoxically simple and uncomfortable for teachers to deal with. Purpose is primarily taught in the curriculum through goal setting and decision making-often with strictly rational techniques. But if the spiritual dimension is omitted or if the inner life of adolescents is not cultivated as part of the search for tools or careers, they will most likely base their decisions on external pressures--from peers, parents, and teachers. (Kessler, 1998-1999, p. 5) Therefore, teachers must evoke the spirituality of any discipline by teaching in ways that allow the ”big story” told by the discipline to intersect with the ”little story" of the student's life. Doing so not only brings up personal possibilities for connectedness but also helps students learn the discipline more deeply. Learning does not happen when the subject is disconnected from the learner's life. (Kessler, 1998-1999, p. 6) S l l I . Q i . Watkins and Marsick (1994) have identified a learning organization as one that learns continuously and can transform itself. It empowers the people, encourages collaboration and team learning and promotes open dialogue, while acknowledging the interdependence of individuals in the organization. Senge (1990a) suggests that a leaming organization can be: . . . Organization[s] where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually learning how to learn together. (p. 3) While Garvin (1993) defines a learning organization as one that is skilled at creating, acquiring, and transferring knowledge and modifying its behavior for new knowledge and insights. TO others (Barth, 1990; Raitt, 1995; Sergiovani, 1994), a learning community can be created by the development Of several conditions similar to 36 those advanced by Garvin (1993); Senge (1990a, 1990b); Marsick & Watkins (1994) such as: Development of a Group Identity. When a professional community develops a collective identity, they are more than individual teachers instructing in a school. It occurs over time as people get to know each other, work together, and perceive each other as individuals. Development of a Common Purpose. The learning community is bounded by a commonality of purpose, shared values and clearly articulated outcomes. Creation of a Caring and Nurturing Environment. People learn more in a caring and nurturing environment where they are able to freely express what they are thinldng and feeling. Flexible Group Roles. Individuals take on different roles within the community, which facilitates the learning process. Each member is seen as a part of a whole. As they move from different roles, there are multiple opportunities for leadership. Transformational Leadership. The leader must value and respect each member’s experience and knowledge. School leadership and the development of professional capacities of all teachers are important considerations in school change. Both definitions of a ‘learning organization’ or ‘learning community’ require schools to reorganize to become places of learning for students, teachers, and parents. Learning, in this type of organization and/or community, means the continuous testing of and transforming of experience into knowledge accessible to its members and relevant to its core purpose. In the introduction of his book, W, Senge (1994) states that ‘learning’ in Chinese means ”continual study and practice" (p. 49). Fullan (1993) suggests that if schools are to be effective learning organizations, they will need to adopt new approaches to control and accountability. He argues that learning organizations are more holistically accountable as they are more systematic. The habits 37 and skills of collaboration are central to the development of schools as learning communities and organizations. Garvin (1993), Watkins and Marsick (1994), and Senge (1990a, 1990b) require the development of several similar core competencies. Garvin (1993) requires systematic problem solving, experimentation, learning from experience, learning from others, and transferring knowledge, whereas Marsick and Watkins (1994) require action-reflection, programs that focus on work, redesign, system thinking, and other mechanisms to learn from customers, and dialoguing. According to (Senge, 1990a, 1990b), to create a learning organization, an organization must develop the following five core competencies (Senge, et a1. , 1994): 0 Personal Mastery-~1earning to expand the organization’s capacity to create the results members most desire, and creating an organizational environment which encourages all of its members to develop themselves toward the goals and purposes they choose. 0 Mental Models--reflecting upon, continually clarifying, and improving the organization’s internal pictures of the world, and seeing how they shape our actions and decisions. 0 Shared Vision--building a sense of commitment in a group, by developing shared images of the future goals, and the principles and guiding practices by which the group hopes to get there. 0 Team Learning-transforming conversational and collective-thinking skills, so that groups of people can reliably develop intelligence and ability greater than the sum of individual members' talents. 0 System Thinking-e way of thinking about, and language for describing and understanding, the forces and interrelationships that shape behavior of systems. This discipline helps groups to see how to change systems more effectively, and to act more in tune with the larger processes of the natural and economic. According to Senge, the core competencies of shared vision, personal mastery, mental models, team learning, and systems thinking, though developed separately, will 38 prove critical to the others' success, just as occurs with any ensemble. Each provides a vital dimension in building an organization that can truly learn and can continually enhance their capacity to realize their highest aspiration (Senge, 1994). He states that productive change is very much a process of mobilization and positive contagion. The current organizational cultures of most schools are unable to support the kind of energy needed to transform their capacity for learning and thinking and to create learning organizations and communities within schools. Continual learning forces individuals to fundamentally rethink the way they view the world—a process that is difficult in part because cultural assumptions predispose them to take certain things for granted rather than reexamining them continually (Schein, 1996). Knowing how to learn is the key that unlocks a future learning culture. The first type of learning, adaptive learning, focuses on problems or gaps between where the community is and where they want to be, how they learn, solve problems, and close the gaps. Generative learning focuses on learning how the group learns. In other words, community members discover that the solution to the problem is contingent on learning new ways of perceiving and thinking about problems, or rethinking cultural assumptions (Schein, 1996). Generative learning is applied across the community to help create and sustain over time a learning culture that supports learning at the individual, group, and organizational levels. However, changing culture is not easy. Organizations and communities must first become aware of their cultural biases and through reflection, dialogue, and inquiry learn to become observers of their own thinking (Senge, 1990a). Senge’s description of transformative learning and the practice of critical reflection detail the potential transformation of personal frames of references, which lay the foundation of a new learning culture. 39 For schools to function as complex, dynamic systems capable of continual learning and growth, they must operate with different premises and structure themselves accordingly. An understanding of the interconnectedness of all aspects of the institutional community would inform and direct decision-making (Senge, 1990a). In this vision, schools would function to increase the capacity of each member and, therefore, the school itself. Thus, schools could organize and reorganize as needed to creatively interface with their surrounding community and its changing needs and conditions. Therefore, educational facilities must redesign their programs to focus directly on developing individual teachers' knowledge base not only for effective teaching, but also for changing the conditions affecting teaching. They must become professional and must learn how to foster continuous improvement in their learning environment. Reforms often fail because of faulty maps of change, underestimating complex problems, over reliance on symbols, superficial solutions, misunderstood resistance, attrition, and misuse of knowledge (Fullan, 1982). According to Mezirow (1991), the practice of action learning is highly suited to helping teachers learn in today’s rapidly changing schools. This type of learning provides a framework for learning from experience that requires critical reflection. In addition, experimental learning, learning from experience, and reflecting on that experience to develop new skills, new attitudes, or new ways of thinking will aid schools as they review successes and failures systematically. It creates a mind that enables schools to recognize the value of productive failure as contrasted to unproductive success (Garvin, 1993). Critical reflection and dialoguing are keys to the development of a professional learning community and learning organization (Garvin, 1993; Marsick & Watkins, 1994; 40 Senge, 1990a, 1990b). Critical reflection is the central process of transformative learning because it is through critical reflection that individuals learn to question and then refrarne or replace assumptions (Cranston, 1996). Success in community and organizational development means recognizing change as a systemic, resource-hungry, locally inspired journey into uncertainty and complex problem solving (Ibid.). Senge states, ”perhaps the most salient reason for building organizations is that we are not only starting to understand the capacities such organizations must possess” (Senge, 1994, p. 5). Schools are niches where people join for purposes of teaching and learning. Common goals and expressed values shape this environment. The learning organization model may help schools deal with the problems of school reform and restructuring, i.e., the fragmentation of curriculum and subject-matter content, the creation of a uniform vision (in this case, African-centered education for academic achievement), the quality of the educational experience to achieve equality in schools for all students, and to assist in the creation of learning environments receptive to teaching and learning and change for all participants. This researcher’s concept of a professional learning community is built on the concepts of development and interdependence. Development suggests that individuals can only change at their pace and organizations can only change as individuals change. Interdependence recognizes that success is dependent on a dialectic process between schools and workplaces, learning and leading. One of the lessons of systemic reform is to adopt strategies that mobilize large numbers of people in new directions. Teachers must be active participants in educational reform as well as participants in institutional and curriculum changes occurring in their environment. Therefore, teachers also must be 41 better prepared to assume leadership roles in their professional development and the school environment. The current factory model system common in most schools must be replaced by a ‘learning organization’ which is more able to adopt systematic change. Senge's concept of the learning organization is a school community that is inherently systemic and non- hierarchical. Students, administrators, and teachers all perform ‘knowledge work’ toward the accomplishment of the organization’s goals--the professional development and growth of all members. In this model, each person brings to the work environment their personal resources, skills, and knowledge to the accomplishment of work and is relied upon to also bring their personal commitment to their work performance, whether they are a student, teacher, or administrator. Therefore, effective professional development programs must provide adequate time for teachers to acquire, practice, and reflect on new concepts and skills, as well as time to collaborate and interact with peers (Fullan & Stiegelbauer, 1992). Conclusion This study looked at community development through several lenses: spirituality, critical/ social transformation or liberation, and teacher change in beliefs and practices. This research literature formed the lens through which one can understand how the teachers came to know themselves as African Americans, as African American men and women, as African American educators, and, finally, as African American liberators. This literature pressed the researcher to ask about teacher transformation: what barriers exist (beliefs/values, institutional structures, assimilation processes through mainstream education, etc) that hinder coming to a truly pure form of African-centered 42 knowing (epistemology) and practice? How does the African educator negotiate (or not) successfully (or not) these tensions. 43 CHAPTER THREE METHODS ministration This case study required qualitative research methods to examine how teachers in an African-centered elementary charter school, collectively and individually, examined and changed their teaching beliefs and instructional practices from a Eurocentric to an African- centered perspective through a school-wide African-centered professional development activities and institutional changes at the school. This case study was an attempt to understand the dynamics of restructuring, institutional and curriculum changes within a group of teachers, collectively and individually, at one school. Robert Yin (1994) provides three examples of when a single-case method is appropriate. First is when the critical case is testing a well-formulated theory. Second is where the case represents an extreme or unique case, and third is the revelatory case. For this study, the revelatory case provided the most pertinent rationale for utilizing this method. Yin (1994) describes the revelatory case study as one ”that the investigator has access to a situation previously inaccessible to scientific investigation" (p. 40). Therefore, this case study was worth conducting because the descriptive information alone would provide crucial information about the curriculum and institutional changes taking place at the African-centered elementary charter school. Although Yin describes other situations in which a single-case study is appropriate, the revelatory case was the most pertinent to this fact situation. However, he says that there is always a potential vulnerability in using the case study method because the potential case may later turn out not to be the fact situation it was perceived to be at the beginning of the process. 44 W The purpose of this study was to investigate the process of change in instructional practices and beliefs in the school environment. ”More specifically, it is an attempt to gain entry into the conceptual world of his/her subject” (Bogdan & Biklen, 1984, p. 34) and the relationship of this conceptual framework on the curriculum changes taking place at the school using a qualitative methodology to investigate changes taking place in this environment. "Meaning" is of essential concern to the qualitative research approach. According to Dirkx (1994): Meaning schemes may be transformed by critical reflection on the process of one's ways of knowing or problem solving. Meaning perspectives are transformed by critical reflection on the premises upon which a problem has been defined. The assumptions for one's social beliefs and ideologies are the focus of critical reflection, and are increasingly recognized within their critical context; how they were acquired, how they affect understanding and consequences in the lives of others. Becoming critically reflective leads to an increasing ability to make one's meaning valued. (p. 354) This qualitative research allowed participants to explain and analyze their teaching beliefs and demonstrate their instructional practices while simultaneously adopting a new curriculum and institutional restructuring. Teachers were also asked to explore the effect of the restructuring and the school development model on instruction and practice. It provided in-depth information concerning the ”change” process taking place at the school. This study attempted to provide different perceptions of the changes and its affect on teaching and learning in the same setting and aimed to capture multifaceted accounts of the changes taking place at the school. This study attempts to recognize the influence of the context of change, internally and externally, and discuss the significance of intuition, courage, risk, and caring in the learning process. 45 This researcher began work in this school in the fall of 1995. The proposal was written and accepted by the researcher’s doctoral committee in the fall of 1996 with data collection beginning December 1996. This case study was undertaken utilizing the paradigm of naturalistic inquiry (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). The primary methods of data collection involved multiple observations, participation in teacher development activities, observations of the adult learning opportunities, and the teaching and learning taking place in the school. In addition, participants provided or participated in: 0 One Demographic Survey-~To obtain sex, age, education, and professional background of teachers (Appendix G). 0 One Teacher Autobiography--To obtain teachers perceptions concerning their educational and professional history. Instructions for the writing of the autobiography are contained in Appendix H. 0 Four (4) semi-structured interviews were conducted with the teachers of 30-45 minute duration-The focus of these interviews was change in teaching and learning practices and beliefs (contained in Appendices I, J, K, and L). 0 One Focus Group was conducted to collectively obtain information from the teachers on changes in teaching and learning beliefs and practices as a group (Focus Group Questions contained in Appendix M). 0 One Potential Effect of Curriculum and Institutional Change Checklist--provided at the end of the survey to objectively test the perceptions of the teachers (Appendix Q). The researcher constructed all questions and survey documents based upon research contained in the Review of Relevant Literature (contained in Chapter Two) and the Conceptual Foundation (contained in Chapter One). All other research instruments are contained in the appendices. 46 Ibekemher The researcher is an eighth year doctoral student in the Teacher Education Department of Michigan State University. Since beginning her program in Curriculum, Policy, and Social Analysis, she has developed a strong interest in the academic achievement of minority students in public schooling and in African-centered education specifically. In the summer of 1995, when she was informed that two African-centered elementary charter schools were opening in her Midwest community that fall, she wrote to both schools expressing an interest in doing doctoral research at each site (Letter contained in Appendix A). The staff at Sankofa accepted her request (Acceptance Letter contained in Appendix A) and she has been a participant-observer, volunteering and substitute teaching since the Opening of this school. 5' S l . The study took place in an urban African-centered charter school located in the southwest section of its Midwest community. The school is a kindergarten to sixth grade public school academy established pursuant to Act No. 416 of the Public Acts of 1994. Participation in the study was opened to all teachers at the school. In the fall of 1996, at the beginning of the data collection phase of the study, information concerning the study was provided to all teachers. University Committee of Research Involving Human Subject (UCRII-IS)” approval was obtained in December 1996 (Appendix C) and every effort was '° UCRII-IS is an Institutional Review Board (IRB). Federal and university regulation requires that all research projects involving human subjects be reviewed and approved by an IRB before initiation. Under the regulations, research is defined as a formal investigation designed to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge. A human subject of research is an individual 1) from whom an investigator obtains data by interaction or intervention or 2) about whom the researcher obtains confidential information. 47 made, while conducting this research, to create a representative sample of the teachers’ perceptions, beliefs, and institutional changes at the school. W The research group consisted of five teachers at the school plus the principal/curriculum developer at the school, Dr. Rivers. " Initially, participation was opened to all members of the staff. However, those included in the final study were all the teachers (those who had primary control in a classroom) who had traditional teaching credentials or previous experience in another environment. There were four men and two women who participated in the final study. WW Data were collected to analyze and explain three areas that would influence and/or impact teaching beliefs and instructional practices of the participant. These are: 0 Changes within teachers, over time, in response to the professional model, their participation in professional development activities and the institutional changes occurring in the school. This interpretation involved explaining the extent and nature of change for each teacher; 0 Comparisons among teachers on a set of predetermined dimensions of change. This interpretation involved explaining differences and similarities among teachers; and 0 Comparison of beliefs vs. practices (i.e. , instructions) within and between teachers. This interpretation involved explaining discrepancies that might arise between how teachers talk and how they practice, together and individually, explaining differences across teachers. " Dr. Rivers has written extensively on African centered education and African knowledge and culture and her written views are included in this dissertation when relevant. 48 This set of comparisons required the researcher to keep careful track of individual participants' case histories. It also entailed organizing a conceptual framework around these interpretive matters. Information was obtained at the beginning of the study by four different means. First, a survey was given to all teachers to obtain general demographic information. Resumes were also requested. Second, an autobiography was requested of all teachers who included information concerning their world-view, prior educational experiences, background, and their views on traditional education. Teachers submitted these autobiographies and resumes before the first interview. At the first two interviews, participants were asked to clarify: 1. Their world-views and relate it to information contained in their autobiography; 2. Their understanding of the African-centered model being taught at the school and the pros and cons of African-centered education; 3. Their best experiences with Eurocentric education and reasons behind its success; and 4. Their understanding of their role as African Americans in a multicultural society and the pros and cons of this type of education as it relates to the teaching of African American children. The aforementioned data sources provided information about the knowledge and beliefs of these teachers, their instructional background and teaching experiences, and previously held beliefs concerning traditional and African-centered education. For the third interview, the interviewees were asked to bring their course outlines (each teacher at the school has constructed their own courses and selected their own teaching and instructional materials) and his/her daily curriculum planner in order to 49 explain their course construction and choice of reading materials as based on their personal definition of African-centered education. Before the fourth and final interview, the researcher observed the teachers in his/ her instructional environment. These observations had been occurring periodically during the research period. The issues discussed in the last interview were 1) how have they changed their instructional strategies during the year; 2) what activities were responsible for their change (if any) in instructional practice; and 3) a comparison of beliefs vs. practices after classroom observation. In addition, any questions that the researcher ascertained from the classroom observation, focus group or school, and/or classroom documents were discussed. At the final interview, teachers were given ”The Potential Effects of Curriculum and Institutional Change Checklist” (contained in Appendix Q) to complete. As a result of the on-going analysis throughout the study, the final interviews allowed the teachers to elaborate and clarify information obtained in the initial interviews and/or focus group. Therefore, emerging patterns, themes, and inconsistencies were discussed during the final interviews regarding the perceptions and beliefs of the participants. Thus, the final interviews provided additional in-depth information. The data from the interviews was transcribed by identifying categories, themes, and events that ' took place at the school during its first two years of existence. The descriptive data generated through school and classroom observations provided information on how teachers changed their teaching and instructional beliefs and practices from a Eurocentric to an African-centered teaching perspective and how this new perspective, beliefs, strategies, and practices were incorporated into their course 50 development and instructional strategies. The aim of the observations was to provide secondary sources of data concerning the changes taking place at the school. The observations also provided additional information for discussion during the semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions. The researcher also took fieldnotes on observations. Finally, there was one focus group scheduled for teachers before the last interview. The focus group was videotaped, transcribed, and responses were categorized and coded. All documents, i.e., teacher curriculum, lesson plans, and reading materials were also collected. The focus group engaged teachers in a conversation model. This technique enhanced, recalled, and revealed additional information. It encouraged participants to higher levels of dialogue, encouraged group interactions that improved the quality of responses, and while not limiting their responses, elicited a natural form of responses from the participants and encouraged perspectives in a socially naturally pattern (Sapp & Temares, 1993; Hendershott & Wright, 1993). Further, ”group conversation" has the potential to reduce tensions, affirm shared cultural perceptions, and provide a way to critically examine participants' emotions and experiences with the aim of contributing to social problem solving. Interview questions were changed for Dr. Rivers and she was not included in the Focus Group. DataAnalxsis Methodology According to Miles and Huberman (1984), a characteristic of qualitative research is that analysis occurs throughout the process. Therefore, the data collection and analysis 51 must be interwoven from the beginning of the research process. The collection of data in this study was sequenced to allow time for data transcription and for researcher time to draw themes, patterns, and issues for further study. The research activities were designed to take maximum advantage of the traditions of continual analysis of data. Initial interviews were used to schedule subsequent research activities. Classroom and school observations and examination of student records and school documents provided an additional perspective and data. Data analysis consisted of examining and categorizing the evidence to address the initial propositions of the study. Raw data from interviews, focus group discussions, school and classroom observations, and participation and Ob servation of extracurricular activities were identified into categories, themes, and events taking place in the school. All interviews were transcribed and reviewed or further coded and categorized. A ranking of categories was established. Initial descriptive coding of categories provided an efficient and effective data process for interpretative analysis of the documents and emerging themes, and patterns of conflict. In analyzing data, every attempt was made to be consistent to the interpretations and perceptions of the teachers. Pattern coding focused on the content of codes. This process of analysis included classifying and categorizing the data into conceptual categories that provided evidence for the researcher to make assertions. Each interview transcription was separated into categories across respondents. Relationships, patterns, and themes were identified. Together with ‘matrix tables’ that helped the researcher in drawing and verifying conclusions organized clusters or distributions. 52 Therefore, data were analyzed at three levels. Initially, the codes were summarized and the data put into conceptual categories. Then pattern coding was used to form surface interpretations. Finally, the data were recombined to gain a better understanding of emergent themes. E' I v l C l' The first level coding occurred after the teachers' biographies, resumes, and surveys were collected. This level coding generated information concerning the teachers’ beliefs and perceptions concerning African-centered education and public education. At this level, the researcher was attempting to determine emergent themes from the respondents that would be contrasted with interviews, class observations, the focus group discussion, and the final survey. The first level coding was central to summarizing the data. Statements in the biographies and information culled from the resumes and initial surveys that were coded depicted the teachers’ educational actions, conditions, and events. The biographies were coded in their margins and these codes were clustered into categories. In constructing the categories, information gained from observations and related literature was used. The researcher highlighted statements indicating their beliefs, perceptions, and intentions, such as ”I think,” ”I believe,” or ”It is my opinion. .." because these would clearly have an impact on their actions regarding the purposed curriculum and institutional changes occurring at the school. For each teacher, the researcher created a set of beliefs. These beliefs are similar to what Miles and Huberman (1984) call 'meanings"--which are “verbal productions of participants that define and direct action" (p. 57). For each teacher, the list of beliefs 53 obtained from biographies was contrasted and compared to the information obtained from interviews, surveys, and the focus group discussions. Interview transcripts and Observations were then reviewed to focus on the frequency of the initial code categories. Although ranking eategories were established to organize the data, the frequency of the response in a category was unimportant. In analyzing the data, the researcher attempted to make consistent interpretations and perceptions of the teachers, individually and collectively. During the last interview, teachers were given a "Potential Effect of Curriculum and Instructional Checklist" (contained in Appendix Q), and each teacher’s completed checldist was matched to the biographical and transcription categories. Information from observations, documents, or participation in professional development events was also used. The first level coding produced an individual composite for each teacher that contained information concerning his or her prior teacher beliefs, perceptions, and practices. Pattemfiodins The pattern code focused on the content of the codes. Each teacher’s interview transcripts were separated into categories and compared and contrasted. Each code represented the event, action, or inference it depicted. The following list of eategories was created from research findings contained in Chapter TWO. 0 Collegiality--Statements or activities indicating the sharing of ideas, research, or teaching strategies. 0 Common! Shared Language—Statements indicating familiarity with African-centered knowledge, culture and history, language, and shared meanings. 54 0 Creativity--Statements or activities indicating the use of professional expertise in African-centered pedagogy coupled with artistry and innovation. 0 Learning Community/Organization--Statements or activities indicating the growth and maturation of the teachers as a cooperative team or unit working on a shared vision. 0 Practice Prior to Coming to Sankofa and Now--Statements or activities indicating a change in teacher practice or beliefs from prior teaching experience. 0 Professional Autonomy--Statements or activities indicating teacher independence judgment, and decision-making by teachers. 0 Professional Development Activities-Statements or activities indieating both the participation and benefits from the aforementioned professional development activities. 0 Professional Expertise-Statements or activities indicating the acquiring of new professional skills and abilities. 0 Sense of Responsibility-Statements or activities indicating the teachers' accountability to the school’s shared vision and its affect on children. 0 Statement of Beliefs-Statements indicating beliefs, perception, and acquired meanings. 0 Stress and Time Restrictions-Statements or activities indicating tensions or time limitations caused by the professional development activities, classroom responsibilities, etc. 1' i i n i il' In qualitative research, validity and reliability does not come from statistical results. Therefore, ”qualitative researchers tend to view reliability as a fit between what they recorded as data and what actually occurs in the setting under study, rather than the literal consistency across different observations” (Bogdan & Bilden, 1992, p. 48). Although the generalizability of a single case study is inherently quite limited, steps can be taken to improve it. The researcher attempted to improve validity and reliability by asking respondents to comment on the researcher's interpretation and by continuous triangulation 55 of the data. In addition, the researcher interviewed more than one respondent about the same event. Dr. Rivers had separate questions and her answers were reviewed separately in order to compare the perceptions of the teachers with the administrator and founder of the school. IimeErame The data were collected from December 1996 to July 1997. The analysis of data was conducted from August 1997 to December 1997. The writing and reporting process began January of 1998. 56 CHAPTER FOUR THE SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY: PRINCIPLES OF AFRICAN-CENTERED EDUCATION Introduction In December of 1993, Michigan became the ninth state in the nation to enact charter school legislation, known as the Public School Academies Legislation Act. '2 Under this Act, charter schools were designated as public schools of choice, which are '2 °' The Revised Michigan Code, Section 308.511 (1) Public school academies; establishment; purposes; scope; Definitions; Education: To improve the public elementary and secondary schools of this state, public school academies may be established within this state‘s system of public schools, as provided under this part, as a means of achieving the following purpose: ' a) To improve pupil achievement for all pupils, including, but not limited to, educationally disadvantaged pupils, by improving the learning environment. b) To stimulate innovative teaching methods. c) To create new professional opportunities for teacher in a new type of public school in which the school structure and educational program can be innovatively designed and managed by teachers at the school site level. d) To achieve school accountability for pupil educational performance by placing full responsibility for performance at the school site level. e) To provide parents and pupils with greater choices among public schools, both within and outside their existing school districts. I) To determine whether state educational funds can be more effectively, efficiently, and equitably utilized by allocating funds on a per pupil basis directly to the school rather than through school district administration. The Revised School Code Section 380.511 states: (2) A public academy is public school under section 2 of article VIII of the state constitution of 1963, is a school district for the purposes of section of 11 of article [X of the state constitution of 1963 and for the purposes of section 1225, and is subject to the leadership and supervision of the state board over all public education under section 3 of article VIII of the state constitution of 1963. A public school academy is a body corporate and is a governmental agency. The powers granted to a public school academy under this part constitute the performance of essential public purposes and governmental functions of this state. (3) As used in this part: as. “Authorizing body" means any of the following that issues a contract as provided in this part.... (vi) The governing board of a state public university. 57 legally independent public schools that operate under contract or charter to an authorized body. Simultaneously, the state also initiated a new system of financing public education, which included the creation of a per pupil foundation grant. This legislation enabled the state to fund charter schools at approximately the same operational level as traditional public schools. The educational reform package was part of market—driven reforms proposed by Governor John Engler, with the purpose of improving the public and elementary schools in the State of Michigan. Edueation in Michigan began a period of educational innovation with the approval of Proposal A in 1994. This proposal shifted the responsibility for school funding from local districts to the State. The proposal also included the following school financing provisions: 0 Local school districts no longer have an independent revenue base, but instead depended on the state for annual appropriations. 0 The annual appropriations from the legislature to each district are based on enrollment rather than property taxes. 0 Students are no longer required to attend schools in the district where they reside. The state provided parents with enrollment options such as charter school and attendance in schools in neighboring districts. As originally devised, charter schools were intended to spur greater educational innovation, both in the charter schools themselves and across the whole public school system. Through both innovation and competition, the hope was that charter schools would lead the traditional public schools to change, benefitting all children, even those who have not switched schools. Over one hundred charter schools are now open in Michigan, providing alternative public education for more than 10,000 students (Mintrom, 58 1997). Sankofa Shule is a charter school developed pursuant to Michigan Public School Academics (Charter Schools) legislation. Public school academies are schools of choice and, therefore, the Michigan charter school law creates a strategic site for the exploration of how teachers develop an innovative form of education known as ”African-centered” or ”Afrocentric” education. This type of education requires a range of changes in teacher thinking and practices. It is also an important loeation in which to view the formation of a ‘professional learning community’, the structures in place in schools (i.e. , professional development activities, scheduling, parent, teacher, and student empowerment, school leadership) to maintain and sustain educational change, and their ultimate effect on student achievement and teacher development. 1111552115291 The research actually began in the fall of 1995, when several African American teachers, teaching assistants, and support staff, accompanied by students and parents, began to collaborate about the teaching and learning of African American students in their mid-west community. The location of this collaboration was the source where most of them were employed, Sankofa Shule. The school is located in a remodeled, three-story, beauty school and the enrollment since 1995 has fluctuated between 125-150 prekindergarten to seventh graders. Since leasing this facility, the administration has remodeled several times to provide classrooms, library, and administrative offices. Subjects for the older students (from second grade on) are taught in classrooms separated by portable dividers. The preschool through first grade 59 classes are taught in the school’s large, open area, multi-purpose room, strategieally divided to allow for the teaching and learning of three different student ability groups. The mission of Sankofa Shule ”is to educate and nurture each and every child to achieve self-esteem and increase their academic achievement” (Sankofa Charter, 1995 and Sankofa Shule Annual Report, 1996, p. 1). Dr. Rivers' philosophy concerning the teacher-student relationship is embodied in a section of the Sankofa Shule parent-teacher contract that each participant must sign. This section states: As a staff person (Teacher, support staff, or administrator) I promise to... I need... l"Respect self and staff *Students who are ready and willing to learn *Respect all students *Respect and support from students *Respect the school and the *Assistance from the staff and administration environment *Removal of barriers which prevent me from ‘Challenge all students to meet their doing my best for students maximum potential *Respect and support from the community ‘Provide clear and frequent communication with parents, students and community ‘Strive for excellence in all endeavors 60 W Sankofa Shule operates under an African-centered paradigm, which places the continent of Africa at the center of learning. The staff utilizes an African-centered curriculum carrying out the ten steps to effective teaching created by Dr. Rivers called Heshima to Hotep. The steps are (1) Heshima (respect) for self, others, and the environment, (2) Expect the best in every child, (3) Success begets success through design, implementation, coordination, and evaluation based on nwds, interest, ability, and purpose, (4) RIP for positive reinforcement by rewarding often, investing time and interest, and praising, praising, praising, (5) TAP when all else fails take away privileges to reinforce rules, order, responsibility, and self-control, (6) Multi-sensory strategies of seeing feeling, hearing, tasting, smelling, dancing, cooking, singing, acting, and any other experiential activity that engages students in active participatory learning, (7) Multi-modal strategies of traditional methods on basal, phonic, language experience, units, and non-traditional modes of individualization, workshop way, whole language, themes, contract, and experiences, (8) Multicultural strategies of respect for knowledge, and inclusion of all cultures, (9) Multi-dimensional perspectives on holistic development of body, mind, and character; and (10) Hotep in the medu neter (hieroglyphics) that signifies the ultimate state of self-actualization by reaching one's maximum potential while serving the community (Sankofa Charter, 1995). The school’s curriculum and professional model is African-centered. Certain principles in African and African American culture have been termed African-centered 61 or Afrocentric. There are many forms of and definitions for African-centered or Afrocentric education. However, this type of curriculum is usually classified as either being immersion or inclusion curriculums. Sankofa’s curriculum is very much like most African American, independent educational K-12 institutions, which usually create an immersion program. In an immersion program, Afiican American students must define themselves by placing African and Afi'ican American knowledge and culture at the center of their environmental system. Therefore, student knowledge begins with and is centered from the African-centered perspective of knowledge, culture, and history. The approach offered at Sankofa differs from the traditional Eurocentric perspective taught in American schools, which is based in the culture, knowledge, and history of Europe and taught from the perspective and interests of the European, white, male, majority. Additionally, while the teaching of character, family values, independence, and self-reliance are controversial subject-matter in most public schools and are generally not taught, the staff and administration of Sankofa make the teaching of these concepts critical and inclusive in the teaching of Afiican American students. Further, at a time when the teaching of character, self-esteem, and responsibility is generally considered passe in public education, African-centered schools, like Sankofa, place a high value on these concepts and stress that these teachings are necessary within the curriculum and in the school environment in order to form and create the character of productive African American citizens. This inclusion of family values, self-reliance, and independence teachings are emphasized because the principles of African-centered education are grounded in 62 Kawaidal3 theory, a synthesis of tradition and reason from nationalist Pan-Africanist, and socialist theory (Karenga, 1980). According to Karenga, they represent the ”minimum set of values [that] African Americans need to build and sustain an Afrocentric family, community, and culture" (Ibid.). As a charter school, Sankofa is vested with the independence to create and teach an immersion African-centered curriculum. In most public schools, which have adopted an African-centered curriculum, this knowledge is taught in an inclusive manner, which simply means adding African-centered knowledge and culture into the traditional scth curriculum. Inclusive African—centered schools have sprung up across the country in urban areas, such as Baltimore, Cleveland, Chicago, and New York, in an attempt to improve minority academic achievement (Henry, 1992). However, immersion curriculums, like the one at Sankofa, are usually the province of private, African American schools (Ibid.). As previously stated, they are many definitions of Afrocentricism and African- centered knowledge. Sankofa’s definition of Afrocentricism is based on Nguzo Saba, which encompasses the following principles: 1 Umoja (Unity)--to strive for and maintain unity in the family and the community, nation, and race; 2. Kujichagulia (Self-determination)--to define ourselves, name ourselves, create for ourselves, and speak for ourselves instead of being defined, named, created for and spoken for by others; 3. Ujima (Collective work and responsibility)--to build and maintain our community together and make our sisters' and brothers' problems our own problems and to solve them together; '3 A philosophical and social movement initiated by Maulanga Ndabezitha Karenga in the 1960’s to reconstruct African values. ‘Kaiwaida’ is a Kiswahili word meaning traditions. 63 4. Ujamaa (Cooperative Economics)--to build and maintain our stores, shops, and other business and to profit from them together; 5. Ma (Purpose)--to make our collective vocation the building and developing our community to restore our people to their greatness; 6. Kuumba (Creativity)-to do always as much as we can, in the way we can, to leave our community more beautiful and beneficial than we inherited it; and 7. Imani (Faith)--to believe with all our heart in our people, our parents, our teachers, and the righteousness and victory of our struggle (Karenga (1988a) Sankofa students chant these principles daily in the affirmation they say just before they leave each day. The curriculum also reflects the goals set forth by Lee, Lomotey, and Shujaa, (1990) who state that this type of education must: 1. 2. Legitimize African stores of knowledge; Positively exploit and scaffold productive community and cultural practices. . Extend and build on the indigenous language. . Reinforce community ties and idealize service to one's family, community, nation, race, and world. . Promote positive social relationships. . Impart a world-view that idealizes a positive, self-sufficient future for one's people without denying the self-worth and right to self- determination of others. . Support cultural continuity while promoting critical consciousness. (p. 50) According to Dr. Rivers, ”Afrocentricity is necessary for the inclusion of African contributions to the world. The theoretical model of an African-centered perspective presents a global perspective of people, histories, and cultures” (1995, p. 7). According to her, the African-centered model being offered for inclusion in the school‘s curriculum 64 serves as an African cultural frame for self-esteem, economic independence, cultural socialization, and for the survival of the African American family in all their environments (Ibid.). Baba Anthony: But this [African American culture] is something that the students here are entrenched in everyday and I think it goes beyond self- esteem. I think self-esteem issues come into play after a child's esteem has been broken. These children don't know anything else but the heroes that look like them and they learn about others gradually. So, I don't drink the self-esteem issue is such a central thing, but as far as socialization, they understand that it' 3 natural for black people to contribute to world knowledge and black people have always and always will contribute to the advancement of the world civilization, of society. (Focus Group, 6/4/97, P-4) African-centered education also reflects the African or Afrocentric worldview that most of African American students and the teaching staff brought to the school environment and is grounded in the historical experiences of people of African origin. It includes how African and African Americans talk, their learning style, and, their behavior. It views the world from an Afrocentric perspective and not a European one. The Eurocentric perspective is defined as, or having origin from European, western, white, male, perspective of superiority, dominance, and accumulation of wealth. In contrast, Afrocentricity is based on the heritage and the original civilizations of the people of Afriea. In a sense, Afrocentricity is a tool to help African Americans to rediscover truth and self (Asante, 1980; Rivers, 1994, 1995). Dr. Rivers believes that operating only from a Eurocentric perspective cripples children of color because it provides a false sense of white superiority; it is distorted by racism, and neglects the accomplishments of people of color, regions, and women. Since Eurocentric perspective is normally taught in public schools, she believes that African 65 Ameriean children must be taught in an environment where the education of the African Ameriean mind is used as a tool for accomplishment. According to Dr. Rivers (1994, p. 2). Children are not the ones who fail in the edueational system; the system fails them. The miseducation of American students to maintain oppression and power is causing social disorder and chaos in every realm of modern life. Families, communities, cities, states, and countries are disintegrating as the educational system fails to meet the needs of African Ameriean students and fails to train them for a productive life. Abkar (1989) supports this type of practice. He states: The slavery that captures the mind and incarcerates the motivation, perceptions, aspiration, and identity in a web of anti-self images, generating a personal and collective self-destruction, is more cruel than the shackles on the wrists and ankles. The slavery that feeds on the psychology, invading the soul of man. Destroying his loyalties to himself and establishing allegiance to forces, which destroy him, is [an] even worse form of capture. The influences that permit an illusion of freedom, liberation, and self-determination, while tenaciously holding one’s mind in subjugation, is the folly of only the sadistic. (Abkar, 1989, p. 2) Dr. Wade Noble, who has stated that the public school curriculum must be infused to tell the true story of Afiican and African American people, further supports their position. That this infusion is nwded to assert "the inalienable right of African people to: I) exist as a people; 2) contribute to the forward flowing process of human civilization (as contributors and not debtors) and 3) share with as well as shape the world (reality in response to our own energy and spirit)" (cited in Hillard et al., 1990, p. 11). As taught at Sankofa, African-centered education has several elements espoused by Paulo Friere’s liberatory/emancipatory theory of teaching and learning.“ It requires teaching and learning that (1) is situated in the lives of its students, (2) is dialogic, (3) “ A further discussion of Friere's Theory of Emancipatory Learning and African-centered education is contained in the Conceptual Foundation section of the Literature Review. 66 promotes the use of critical literacy, and (4) requires discussion and understanding of the inequalities in school and society of its participants. Friere believes that learning must be situated in the students' culture-their literacy, their themes, and their present cognitive levels. This appears to be a position that Dr. Rivers has embraced with both arms. Both Dr. Rivers and Friere believe that only situated pedagogy can bring critieal study to bear on the concrete circumstances of their student’s life and the immediate conditions for learning to create critical thinking and learning. The curriculum at Sankofa has as its base an African-centered paradigm that defines the world from the perspective of the students’ African origins and the cultures and traditions based on ancient African culture. It is pedagogy situated in the culture and lives of African American students, teachers, and their community. Students at Sankofa are not only taught about their history, but about community and political activism. Therefore, the literature, curriculum, teaching, and learning are based in African-centered knowledge, history, and culture, which assists students’ to develop critical thinking, problem-solving, and higher-order thinking skills. According to Friere, a dialogic class begins with problem-posing discussion and sends powerful signals to students that their participation in the discussion and their role in creating solutions is expected and needed to change their circumstances. Therefore, it requires a change in instructional strategies or beliefs, which encourages students to increase critical thinking skills, problem-solving skills, and higher-order thinla’ng skills by listening, assessing, strategizing, collaborating, and debating. For example, while discussing the problems of peer pressure, Dr. Rivers’ class also read the book 10.2: ’ Bl k P r r (Kunjufu, 1988) and discussed issues like: If 67 being smart is acting white? When you succeed or fail do you attribute it to ability, effort, ease of task, or luck? The older students in Language Arts read and discussed the importance of Richard Wright’s (1940) Hath/c.5911”, James Baldwin’s W“, or W, a play (1964)17 in African American literature. Therefore, the development of critical drinking skills and problem solving abilities are two of the reasons why students at Sankofa have a Logic/Critical Thinking class in their daily schedule. Baba Marcus: We are teaching logic so that the kids can learn it, but sometimes the parents either don’t feel like asking or are scared to ask about it. It is important that a child learns how to think through situations . or problems and learns how to resolve situations. Maybe there should be another name for the class, such as "Problem Resolution, in order to think through things. (Baba Marcus, Interview 11, 3/21/97, p. 3) Baba Fred: I think that I'm always pushing the kids to sort of think for themselves, not to take exactly what is, to be aware of how powerful your centric thinking is and how things can be structured to lead and mislead you. I also stress that they be conscious about their plight and our history. I'm always, even ifI teach language arts, and whatever I get a chance to do...I throw history and government into my lessons whenever I get a chance. (Baba Fred Interview IV, 5/31/97, p. 5) According to Friere, critical literacy arouses critical awareness and desocialization that is accomplished through reading and analysis of critical literacy across the curriculum. It invites teachers and students to problematize all subjects of study and to understand existing knowledge as a historical product deeply invested with the values of those who developed such knowledge, which in American schools are the values of the white European male majority. Far more advanced than most elementary students, students at Sankofa are able to discuss their position in American society, the problems that emanate " NY: Gosset & Dunlap. " NY: Dail Press. '7 NY: Dail Press. 68 from this position, and the actions that they must take to rectify this problem. One day, quite by accident, this researcher met one of Sankofa's student's grandmother at an area market. When the grandmother found out this researcher worked part-time at the school, she chuckled as she told me about the day that she had picked up her grandson from a day at Sankofa and he had told her that ”he had wanted his freedom. " However, the grandmother’s chuckles turned to pride as she retold how her grandson explained to her what the position of African American males is in greater society and what he had to do to make conditions better for all African Americans (Anecdotal Information). Emancipatory/Liberatory teaching requires the choice and selection of reading materials which meet the following objectives: educate for conscientization, transform for spiritual development, actualize for economic and cultural independence, students strive to improve quality of life, students strive for educational excellence, and students strive to change economic dependence (Schor, 1987). At Sankofa, this has meant that students read books, poems and plays, and literature with a message and they are taught to analyze and understand this message and its relevance to African American students. For example, students at Sankofa read African American plays such as Raison in the Sun, Porgy and Bess, and A Soldier’s Story; saw African American movies, i.e., Malcolm X and Cry Freedom; and read fiction and poetrywritten by Nicki Giovanni, James Baldwin, etc., most of which would be considered too mature for most elementary reading or viewing. Dr. Rivers is also constantly correcting distortions in mainstream textbooks through discussions with students, inviting African American scholars and role models, and through her selection of books and other reading materials for children. 69 When I look at curriculum, I’m looking to see whether there are racist issues in the curriculum or the textbooks themselves. One, you look at whether or not there are stereotypes in there. Two, omissions. Three, distortions. There are many things that I look for to see whether or not the books are racist. Uh, most of them are. And so it’s a very difficult choice to make. What we try and do is when we see, once we adopt a book and we see that these issues do appear, we talk to the children about them to make them recognize when racism exhibits itself, so that they can become cognizant of factors that will influence their lives. (Dr. Rivers, Interview 11, 1 4-28-97, p. 1-2) Therefore, inequality in schools and the greater society was discussed Sankofa and was an aeademic interest studied across the curriculum. Topics like: Racism and its efi’ect on American society. Racism is defined as a ”set of attitudes.” It is an ideology that is located in and realized through structures of power relations in the interface between ethnicity and culture; economics and social processes; individuals and institutions. This racism is multi-faceted in terms of the unequal distribution of power. Power and its efl’ect on American society. Power is the ”ability to define reality and to get others to respond to that definition as if it were their own" (Hillard, et al. , 1990, p. xviii). Some people in society have power; others do not. Changing the unequal power in society. Power is also defined in Eurocentrism as money and political influence, which has been internalized and upon concession renders one powerless. Selfknowledge: the aim of critical science. Bubolz defines the aim of critical science "to peel back the surface of the everyday world, to uncover the factors that make people define reality in particular ways, to bring about greater self-knowledge and to lead to action to bring about nwded social change” (Bubolz, 1985, p. 3). Empowerment of the Powerless. Empowerment of the African American students can be realized by defining reality from an Afrocentric perspective for self- knowledge or conscientization, which will lead, to action or transformation and finally to self-actualization, or independence thereby breaking the chain of powerlessness. 70 Teaching in this manner with an Afrocentric curriculum as an alternative to a European focused curriculum is rooted in controversy. " The curriculum of most of the immersion schools like Sankofa Shule usually has six elements, which are: Afrocentric—(pluralistic)-Students learn about their own ethnicity and receive instruction that reflects and respects cultural differences. Multicultural ism extends across subject areas, shows connection, and relates the experiences of African Americans and others to present day conditions. FuturkticuLessons stress 21st century careers and jobs and highlights Afriean Americans and others in these career fields. There is focus upon reparation and employability skill training for high demand areas (i.e. , engineers, computer technicians, and robotics technicians). linguistic-The power of communication is taught by deve10ping oral, written and foreign language skills. Debate, forensics, public speaking, persuasive and expository writing is used to teach students to think critically, to solve problems and to resolve conflicts. Civic--Emphasis is placed upon teaching students to accept responsibility first, for themselves and then for bettering the condition and/or relationships at home, school, and in the community. Forums, town meetings, and discussion groups organized around current issues are conducted for students, parents, and community. Holistic-The curriculum relates to the child as a total person who has cognitive, aesthetic, spiritual and personal needs that must be addressed. Instruction incorporates strategies for meeting the unique needs of males especially in the area of self-esteem and leadership. Pragmatic-Students learn practical, useful skills that promote self—confidence and a sense of accomplishment. Activities that involve building, creating and constructing of an item are used to engender feelings of self-worth and self-esteem. |'In the late 1980’s early 1990’s public African-centered schools and academics were conceived as means of solving the problem of educating and socializing inner city African American males. From a statistical standpoint, their drop out rates, the percentage assigned to special education classes for students with learning disabilities, and their percentage of disciplinary infraction, made African-centered males "at-risk” in most public school system. In 1990, the Detroit Public school system authorized a feasibility study on a proposal to create three male African-centered, academies. In February, 1991 , the Detroit Board of Education passed a resolution endorsing and supporting the creation of a male African-centered academy. However, in 1991, Shawn Garrett and other female plaintiffs argued that the establishment of three public school all-male academies violated the Equal Protection Clause of the United States and Michigan Constitution sued the Detroit Public School system. On August 15, 1991, the United States District court ruled Detroit's all-male academies were unconstitutional and required the schools to admit girls. 71 These elements were evident in Sankofa’s curriculum and are contained in Sankofa’s Charter (Sankofa Shule Charter, 1995). For example, the school’s Kemetic Values (grades K-12) are to: tapes»? ,0!“ Develop consciousness, commitment, and righteousness, and responsibility in respect for self, others, and the environment. Know self to become wise in the balance and order of the world. Develop character through ethical standards of thoughts and actions that lead to respect, honesty, reciprocity, truth, justice, and harmony. Become responsible for self, others, and the environment to protect the future of the world's environments. Use visual aids, media, and technology as tools for gathering information. Communicate ideas and information. Participate in group discussions, social action, and school and community service activities. Technological Outcomes were also part of the Sankofa Charter (1995). The school strives to be technologically current and one of their first and their largest expenditures was for computers. The staff emphasizes the interdisciplinary use of computers and technology across curriculum. The Technology Outcomes for the students (grades K-l2) are: PLUGS”? earn 3‘ Understand the role and impact of technology inclusive of information access and manipulations. Identify uses, problems, tasks; obtaining, organizing, and manipulating information for communication and creative expression. Evaluate and resolve problems by utilizing the appropriate system. Develop skills and aptitudes for efficient and safe use. Describe technology-related careers and the resources needed to technological systems. Use basic terminology and identify components. Analyze and evaluate current and emerging issues related to technology and the effect on national and global issues. Respect self, others and the environment in the use of technological systems. Use systems and apply knowledge. (MCCOP&PS, October, 1991, pp. 25-28) 72 Finally, the school teaches several foreign languages including Japanese, Swahili, Spanish, and French. Unlike most elementary schools, it also has Foreign Language Outcomes. The Foreign Language Outcomes for the Sankofa Shule (grades K-12) are: A. Speak and communicate in one or more language. B. Understand structures and form of a language; recall facts and details; paraphrase and predict; answer questions in the development of listening skills. Speak accurately using correct grammar, dialect, and inflections. Ask and answer questions. Use calendar and time expressions. Read, analyze, explain and identify main ideas. Write words, sentences, phrases, ideas, paraphrases, and essays. Identify important persons from the target culture and their contributions. Recognize compares and contrasts similarities and differences of the target culture to one's own. Describe the influence of the culture on the world. Locate countries and identify geographical features on maps where the target language is spoken. Learn verbal and non-verbal expressions of respect for the target culture. Learn songs and stories of the culture. Participate in activities related to major holidays and special dates celebrated in target culture. es 9 was 9 3" re However, the African—centered environment at Sankofa did not prohibit the discussion of or the appreciation of other cultures. In fact, multiculturalism was enmuraged and was part of the curriculum model. The staff’s acceptance of other cultures and people and its inclusion in the curriculum are demonstrated from the staff’s discussion during the Focus Group and in individual interviews. ‘9 In fact, Sankofa students studied the varied cultural histories of America and celebrated not only African American holidays, but Jewish, Native American, and Mexican American holidays. " This discussion is contained in Chapter Seven: Findings and Conclusions. 73 W The school core academic curriculum is aligned with the Michigan Department of Education (MDE) model core curriculum. This consists of mathematics, reading, science, economics, geography, history, American government, and writing. Each of these subjects is taught from an African-centered perspective. In addition, the school enhances the MDE core by requiring students to take one foreign language (French, Spanish, Kiswahilli, and Japanese) and the teaching of technology, critical thinking, and reasoning classes. Further, curriculum enhancements are offered to students by regularly scheduled drumming, theater, dance, and choir activities (Sankofa Shule Annual Report 1997, p. 14). The following chart illustrates the school’s timetable for adoption of the core curriculum: TABLE 1. Sankofa Shule Implementation Schedule of CORE Curriculum f- — CORE 1995-96 1996-97 TECHNOLOGY - INITIAL DEVELOPMENT MATHEMATICS INITIAL DEVELOPMENT IMPLEMENTED SCIENCE INITIAL DEVELOPMENT IMPLEMENTED WORLD/SOCIAL STUDIES INITIAL DEVELOPMENT IMPLEMENTED LANGUAGE ARTS INITIAL DEVELOPMENT IMPLEMENTED CRITICAL THINKING INITIAL DEVELOPMENT IMPLEMENTED I"FOREIGN LANGUAGE - INITIAL DEVELOPMENT *Foreign Language includes: French, Spanish, Kiswahili, and Japanese “Additional courses are offered in physical education and music. The philosophy of the school is "that all children can learn and will learn to their maximum potential and that every barrier to their success will be eliminated by any means necessary to allow their dreams to be their only boundaries" by providing a holistic program that will produce students who are academically competent, behaviorally confident, and socially conscious in all endeavors (Sankofa Shule Charter, 1995, p. 1). 74 Although the initial focus of the school was at-risk African American males (Ibid.), enrollment is open to all residents of the school district. According to Dr. Rivers, the curriculum and programming of the school is based upon the five stages of human growth which are formulation years (Pre-K), foundation years (K-2), framing years (3-5), finishing years (6-8), and flourishing years (9-12) (Sankofa Shule Charter, op. cit.). Sankofa began in the fall of 1995 with kindergarten, first, second, third, and fourth grade programs. Fifth grade was added in 1996 and the school anticipated adding sixth and seventh grade classrooms in the fall of 1997 with a succeeding grade added each year to the eighth grade. Students’ progress through the curriculum at his or her own pace with individualized instruction provided by the classroom teacher. Once the academic goals for a particular grade or subject have been met, the student moves up to the next level. Therefore, it is not uncommon at Sankofa to see fourth graders reading eighth grade books or second graders doing sixth grade mathematics (Anecdotal Information.) The school’s curriculum is also a developmental program filled with music, art, movement, and creativity to develop the child's readiness level in music, art, movement, and creativity in order to foster readiness skills for future learning. Cooperative teaching and the formation of cooperative groups for students are encouraged for social skill and self-discipline actualization. According to Dr. Rivers (1994), the hypothesis behind the establishment of Sankofa Shule is that students educated in an African—centered perspective and involved in constructive work and leisure activities will become self-actualized and demonstrate positive behavior. It is the goal of the principal and founder of the school that 75 the possible success of Sankofa Shule become a model for public school systems, university teacher training, and further educational and community development. The MEAP tests and the MAT scores demonstrate that students may enter the Sankofa at one level, but show statistically significant growth thereafter (Sankofa Shule Annual Report, 1997, p. 3). In fact, a comparison of 1995-1996 MAT scores and the 1996-1997 MAT scores shows a statistically significant improvement (See Table 2). The total reading scores for student across all grades indicated significant changes in the reading skills of Sankofa students. Fifth graders reading in their designated reading level were 40% , with 60% reading at the sixth grade level, and 20% reading at the seventh grade level (no comparison data). There was no change in the percentage of first graders reading at their designated level. Decreases were shown in the number of first graders reading at the second grade level. Further, the percentage of second graders reading at the first grade level increased 5 % and the percentage of second graders reading at the third grade level decreased 8%, and the largest percentage change in second grade (10% increase) occurred among those reading at the second grade level. While this data shows a decrease in the percentage of third graders reading at the third grade level for the 1997 scoring period, this is attributed in part to the increase in third graders’ reading on a fourth grade level (+5 %) and fifth grade level (+5 %). 76 Table 2. 1996-97 MAT Reading 2nd Grade 1st 2nd 3rd I 1996 I 1997 77 Table 3. 1996-97 MAT Reading 2nd 3rd 4th 5th I 1996 I 1997 78 Table 4. 1996-97 MAT Reading 4th Grade 2nd 3rd 4th 51h I 1996 I 1997 79 Table 5 . 1996-97 MAT Reading 60 5thGraEa 50L .................................... 4o """"" Ell """"""""""""" 3° [if fflffff fffffi 20 1o ................................. Oi ..................... I ........... 5th 6th I 1996/nodata I 1997 7th In regards to MAT mathematics scores, a comparison of total scores for Spring 1996 and Spring 1997 indicate significant changes in scores across all grades. Among first graders, 72 % of the students scored in the average to the above average percentile. This was up from 42% in the Spring of 1996, thus showing an improvement in math skills for first graders. The number of second graders scoring in the average to above average quartile increased from 22% in the Spring of 1996 to 80% in the Spring of 1997. Third graders ranking in the above percentile increased from 18% in Spring of 1996 to 20% in 1997-a 80 small, but important increase. Fourth graders ranking in the average to above average percentile increased from 18% in the Spring of 1996 to 33% in the Spring of 1997. Finally, without comparison figures, 54% of fifth graders scored in the above average to average norm nationally. A final comparison of 1996 and 1997 basic battery scores showed that all grades experienced significant increases in their basic battery scores. Table 6. MAT Spring 1996 & 1997 x athematics 3rd 4th 5th 1996 I 1997 81 The school also has a pre-school program to assist parents with full-time jobs and childcare concerns. In addition, Sankofa also has an extended-day program that allows, according Dr. Rivers, the school's educational intervention strategies to start early in a child's development. She says that the extended-day program, like the regular program, allows the teachers to follow through the same comprehensive, holistic, structured, and disciplined educational/ recreational program that they utilize during the school day (Sankofa Charter, 1995). In the summer, Sankofa Shule has a full-time enhancement program. Although, during the first two years, the summer enhancement program included travel in and around Michigan it is anticipated that eventually there will be summer travel all over the United States (like the regular school program), and other countries (Anecdotal Information). Experiential learning is essential, according to Dr. Rivers, because "people remember 90 % of what they experience and only 10 % of what they read" (Anecdotal Information). She also encourages cooperative learning to increase retention by teaching across disciplines and by developing positive social skills through interaction (Sankofa Charter, 1995). Wales The school has a student population and teaching staff that is one hundred percent African American, attracting students from all over the community.20 Although there is a high degree of socio—economic diversity (the school was established with a loan procured by two lawyers who wanted their children to go to an African-centered school), most of 3’ Public School Academy Law, Section 308.511et seq. that admission to charter schools be opened to all Michigan students. Michigan Public Academies are subject to open enrollment and their enrollment policies and vacancies must be advertised to the general public. 82 the students come from one-parent (primarily matriarchal), low-middle to lower socioeconomic status. In addition, most students qualify under the United States Agriculture Free Lunch Program. Sankofa Shule offers multi—aged, non-graded classes, which place the students at the center of their educational development (Sankofa Shule Charter, 1995). Cultural uniforms are required for the students who attend the school. The school's guiding philosophy is based on the old Afriean Proverb that states, "It takes a village to raise the child”. The student population remained consistent during the research period with a ten percent attrition rate for moves, dissatisfaction with the program, etc. Since the inception of the school, three teachers have left the school.21 1 m 'vi ' Sankofa Shule has also created opportunities of professional growth for its teachers, administrators, and staff through program, materials and research, personal and job development, in-services, workshops, seminars, and travel based on its African-centered empowerment goals. The professional development model is consistent with the school's goal of continuous training with recognized leaders in core cuniculum areas for academically competent students, in African/Kemetic22 culture for behaviorally competent students, and in African/ African Ameriean history for socially conscious students (Rivers, 21Teachers left for personal reasons unrelated to the school and its curriculum. One of the teachers left the school due to homesickness (she was from Ohio). The second teacher married Dr. Rivers' daughter and moved to Atlanta, where she was completing her doctoral studies. The final teacher left to teach in a university setting. ' n The Kemetic proposition is that moral social practice is essential to human development (Karenga, 1990). These aims unite academic excellence and positive character development as co-partners in the education of youth. Thus, this type of education requires a total environment in which all social relationships strive to achieve reciprocity or interdependence. 83 1994). The Kemetic proposition is that moral social practice is essential to human development (Karen ga, 1990). Kemetic theory aims to unite academic excellence and positive character development as w—partners in the education of youth. This type of education requires a total environment in which all social relationships aim to achieve reciprocity or interdependence. The school emphasizes experiential learning in and outside the community for students, teachers, staff and the administration. I . . 1 Ch Besides the curriculum focus, the school has also implemented the following instructional reforms: Expanding the school day to increase opportunities for learning. Extended day classes, summer sessions, team teaching, mentoring and tutoring sessions, and community-based activities along with special programs to ensure that students have opportunities to try and try again until success is achieved. Grouping students for learning. Cooperative learning, cross-age tutoring, grouping together of students of varying abilities to learn materials faster, retain it longer, and encourage the development of critical reasoning power. Teachers instruct by academic matter rather than by grade. From pre-k to second grade, teachers at the school instruct in a traditional elementary school manner—one or two teachers instructing or co-instructing a group of students for an entire day. However, from second grade on, teachers instruct students by their academic subject, allowing the students to experience several teachers each day. They also made the following institutional change to facilitate teacher learning: Teachers are given opportunities within the school day to read, research, and to discuss student problems. Each morning the teachers at Sankofa have an Indiaba, which in Zulu means a very serious discussion, from eight to eight-thirty to read African-centered literature, to discuss African-centered philosophies, etc. 84 WW According to the school's charter, the village of this Midwest town is the focus of the students and is represented at Sankofa through parents, community and school representatives, and teachers in their Harambe team similar, but more inclusive, than most school’s Parent—Teacher Organizations (PTO). The Harambe team suggests workshops, seminars, projects, and travel for teachers and students that will attempt to ensure that all children reach their maximum potential in life (Sankofa Annual Report, 1996). It also organizes, plans, coordinates, and evaluates the empowerment sessions for parents and community participation; decisions made by the team are made by consensus decision- making (Ibid.). According to its charter, Sankofa places the responsibility for its success on teachers, staff, parents, students, and community volunteers through a school-based model of accountability. The school's African-centered empowerment model allows direct-ownership of decisions and empowers participants to make choices for the future of their children. The administration of Sankofa’s goal is to utilize community resources to provide the school with more resources and personnel to better promote the school's holistic ideal. In addition, this ideal is accomplished through planning, organizing, implementing, and evaluating by consensus decisions of the organized school, parent, and community team. Sankofa Shule received a grant from GOALS 200023 for the planning and development of their local school improvement plan based upon the Rites of Passage. The Rites of Passage activities (conducted by caring adult role models) teach men and women 2311. GOALS 2000-The Natioggl Educational Goals Report: Building a Nation of Lama} (1992). 85 that responsible people love themselves, support and care for their families and they must plan each step of their lives so that they can remain on a path to success. Men and women learn strategies to help them deal with the real world via a series of teaching and hands on experiences that are organized into ten areas. These rites are: Personal Rite of Passage-Life is a series of problems to be solved and questions to be answered. You must equip yourself. Life is hard but you cannot quit. Men and women need a vision and a plan for living. Spiritual Rite of Passage-Men and women often exhaust personal wisdom and knowledge needed to overcome problems. You may have to call upon a spirit, a being, and an authority bigger than yourself to help you through. Economic Rite of Passage-Men and women know the power of money and a job. They know how to shop, to save and manage their earnings. They support businesses in their communities to help the community to survive. Emotional Rite of Passage-Men and women must master their emotions and subdue unhealthy, negative, urges. They manage and can communicate in positive ways about their feelings. They do not tolerate violence in a relationship. Physical Rite of Passage—Men and women know how to live healthy. They know how to avoid the major health problems that plague minority citizens (hypertension, stroke, etc). They strive to avoid health- endangering activities (drugs, smoking, premature sex). They act responsibly relative to sexual behaviors. They reject role stereotypes (i.e. , women cook and clean; men earn money and run businesses, etc.). Mental Rite of Passage-Men and women must acquire skills and knowledge in order to overcome life’s obstacles. They must learn to read, compute and think effectively. Politieal Rite of Passage-Men and women understand the political system and how to use it for the benefit of the community. They can agitate, educate, and organize to encourage politicians to act responsibly. Social Rite of Passage—Every man and woman needs to be of service to the community. They identify a cause, a movement, and an issue for personal involvement and work to make things happen. Men and woman plan to leave their mark on the world. 86 Historical Rite of Passage-Strong men and women understand their connections with the past. History provides a legacy of intellectual competence and prideful men and women who contribute mightily to the preservation of this country. Men and women endeavor to carry on the legacy by learning, teaching, building, setting trends, and being more than just consumers. Cultural Rite of Passage-Minority men and women are often cut off or removed from their culture. Values, behaviors, patterns of excellence are missing. Men and women of strength establish connection with their cultural system and identify with cultural values, behaviors, ideas that enable men and women and their families to lead satisfying lives. In the 1995-1996 school year, the local plan initiated programs to achieve the national educational goals and Goals 2000 (Sankofa Shule Annual Report. 1996). The activities created to achieve these goals were: 0 To increase parental involvement through the rites of passage, field trips, and volunteering. 0 To promote an environment free of substance abuse. 0 To demonstrate competency and leadership in the core curriculum by students upon completion of 4, 8, 12. 0 To produce preschool students who are developmentally ready for kindergarten. 0 To promote the holistic ideal of social, emotional and academic growth. 0 To improve teaching techniques and strategies. (Ibid.) W The school adopted the Michigan Department of Education core curriculum to define outcomes to be achieved by students. The curriculum consists of language arts, mathematics, science, social studies, art, music, health, physical education, computer science, and foreign languages. The language arts program is holistic and, therefore, 87 encompasses the total core curriculum. Reading, spelling, penmanship, and language are integral parts of the social studies, health, science, foreign languages, and math programs. The school’s curriculum is divided into thematic“ units that combine aeademic subjects in a holistic tradition. Therefore, according to its charter, individual time units are not explicit because the subjects are taught concurrently. Rather, the total teaching time of language arts, social studies, health, science, math, arts, foreign languages, and physical education is 8:00-12:00 and 1:00 to 4:00, a total of eight hours of daily instruction supplemented with three additional hours of enhancements in the extended-day program. The method of pupil assessment used by Sankofa Shule is the Michigan Education Assessment Program (MEAP) test or an assessment instrument developed in Section 104a of the State School Aid Act of 1979, the Section 388.107a of the Michigan Complied Laws, for state-endorsed high school diploma, or one or more of the nationally normed tests. The assessment used for fifth graders is the Metropolitan Achievement Test or other standardized tests selected along with the MEAP for reading, math, and science at testing at appropriate grade levels. Pupils are assessed on a nine-week basis with parent conferences to allow for parent-teacher-student involvement, responsibility, and accountability. The report lists the expected outcomes from kindergarten through seventh grade in a non-graded card. If a student begins to have difficulty in an area, the teachers make parental contacts and follow- ups. ' ’‘Each year Sankofa chooses a theme, I. e. the solar system, oceans, etc, which is taught interdisciplinary at the school. 88 Student progress is also measured by teacher-created oral and written tests, observation assessments of anecdotal records, checklists, rating scales, participation charts, performance-based assessment of portfolios, interviews, writing, self-assessment, peer group evaluation, self-evaluations, student creations, and demonstration of their critical thinking, and problem-solving competencies in a variety of projects and performances to include science, math, young authors' , and African American History fairs (Sankofa Annual Report, 1996, 1997). According to the school’s charter, these projects provide authentic ways for children to explain how they ean apply knowledge, organize, and see work from beginning to end, showing perseverance and purpose. One of the chief goals of the school is offering individualized instruction by providing individual and small group tutoring as needed to ensure academic success for each and every child at the school. The preschool students at the school do not receive any standardized testing evaluation, but portfolios of progress are maintained. Ihchmmunitx According to statistics provided by the local school district, the majority of the African American students enrolled in Sankofa’s community urban elementary schools were not ‘ proficient’ or ‘ satisfactory’ on the Math, Reading Comprehension, and Science Tests for the 1997-98 school year conducted by Michigan Educational Assessment Program (MEAP). Only 45.7 % of the African American fourth graders were deemed ‘satisfactory’ on the math test. Only 16.8% of African American fifth grade students scored ‘proficient’ on the science test, and 31.8% was ‘ satisfactory’ on the reading test. 89 This is compared to 56.4% of the majority students being ‘ satisfactory’ on the reading test, 72% scoring ‘ satisfactory’ on the math test, and 41.3% scoring ‘proficient’ on the science test. Poor performance in the key sections of the MEAP translates into poor academic performance in later grades. Only 27. 8 % of the African American seventh graders in the public school district were ‘ satisfactory’ on the math test, 4 % of the eight graders scored ‘ proficient’ on the science test, and only 23.9 % of the seventh graders were ‘ satisfactory’ on the reading test. The disparities between the academic performance of majority and minority students continue in high school, but are recently showing improvement. Just over sixty percent (60.4%) of the eleventh grade African Americans, who were taking the MEAP (HST) for the first time received math endorsed results; 56.6% of the African American students received state endorsed results on the science test; and only 43.2 % received state endorsed results on the reading test. This is compared to 80.4% of majority students on the math test, 80.2% on the science test, and 78.8 % on the reading test receiving state endorsements. If 39.6% of the African American high school students cannot receive state endorsements in math, 43.4 % cannot get state endorsed results in science, and 57.8% cannot get state endorsed results on the reading tests, then a significant portion of the minority enrollment in the school district is at-risk for academic failure. If this disturbing trend continues, there will be a generation of young adults in this community who are functionally illiterate. Historically, lack of proficiency in math, science, and reading tests has rendered some citizens unemployable or at least designated to lower paying jobs. 90 In addition, there were over 4500 incidents of suspensions in the district in 1997- 1998 school year. The district’s suspension data breaks down as follows: 18% 1 day or less 14% 2 days 58% 3—4 days 7.6% 1-3 weeks 2.5% 3+ weeks As a result, students who were suspended for one day missed a minimum of five hours per suspension, losing combined total of 22,500 hours of instruction. Slightly fewer than fifty percent (49%) of the students involved in these incidents were African Americans. This is compared to 35 % majority students involved in suspension incidents. As the data demonstrates, a significant number of African American students in the district are at-risk for academic and social failure. 91 Table 7. MEAP Math Grade 4 Satisfactory Moderate Low I Sankofa Shule I State Average However, Sankofa teachers are attempting to change these statistics for the students in their care. As the aforementioned and following charts indicate, Sankofa’s fourth grade students are scoring slightly below the state averages on the Michigan Educational Assessment (MEAP) Reading and Math”, but are excwding the state average in Science. Reading statistics for 1996 indicate that 29.4% of students were reading at a moderate level (compared to a state average of 28. 8%), 23.5 % were reading at a low level compared '5 Math and Reading test are given to the fourth grade. 9 2 Table 8. MEAP Reading 4 50 — 47.1 [- i 40— 30— 20— Satisfactory Moderate Low I Sankofa Shule I State Average to the state average of 22.2%), and 47.1% of the students demonstrated satisfactory reading skills (compared to the state average of 49%). However, MEAP test scores for writing” indicate the 87.5 % of the fifth graders placed ‘proficient’ compared to the state average of 73.4%. Only 12.5% of students were classified, as ‘Not Yet Proficient’ compared to the state average of 26.6%. 3‘ Writing and Science tests are given to the fifth grade. 93 Table 9. MEAP Writing Grade 5 100 80- 60— 40— Profecient Not Yet Profecient I Sankofa Shule I State Average The science data indicate that 37.5 % of Sankofa student scored ‘proficient’ compared to the state average of 36.8% and 37.5% novice compared to 54.3% for the state. The school’s ‘not yet novice’ was 25% compared to the state average of 8.9%. 94 Table 10. MEAP Science Grade 5 Profecient Novice Not Yet I Sankofa Shule I State Average The Sankofa teachers have noted a decrease in student disciplinary problems, as well as a difference in the type of disciplinary problems as compared to the traditional teaching environments. One reason for this reduction ean be found in the Sankofa Parent Contract, which each parent must sign prior to a child's admission to the school. Usually students with persistent disciplinary problems at the school had their behavior corrected with one day of a parent or both parents shadowing his, her, or their child through their class day as per this agreement. 95 The principles of Nguzo Saba are also incorporated in the school's disciplinary policy. The model says that students must respect self, others, and environment for the achievement of truth, righteousness, order, reciprocity, and justice. ”At the school, students are taught to respect all things for there is an order and balance to life. They also learn three basic rules: to respect self, respect others, and respect the environment” (Rivers, 1994, p.10). The principal states that respect means equality and freedom that translate to equal voice and responsibility in making decisions for all involved. Respect means valuing every student by developing curriculum to meet the individual nwds of each student. Finally, respect means success because if one believes children can succeed, they will. (Ibid.) Another reason for this reduction may have been the school’s emphasis on behavioral confidence, which involved student participation in non-violent conflict resolution, health, sexual, and career development. The purpose of these programs was to enhance self- concept, ethical character development, discipline, responsibility, and accountability. During the 1996-97 school year, the school reemphasized its African-centered discipline approach. Upper level students completed and graduated from the Drug Abuse Resistance Education (DARE) program with Michigan State Police. The Morning Affirmation period conducted by teachers included moral lessons and teachers (often using Aesop’s Fables) discussed conflict, good behavior, academics, drugs, violence, obedience, respect, etc. In addition, students read and discussed books or saw videos on drugs, violence, and peer pressure. Overall, the student discipline statistics reported in the 1997 Sankofa Annual were: 96 Drug & Alcohol Free 100% % Of Unwed Parenthood 0% % Of Sexually Transmitted Disease 0% Criminal Involvement 0% 97 CHAPTER FIVE AFRICAN-CENTERED EDUCATION—THE PRACTITIONERS Elimination The Sankofa teaching staff consists of six teachers, including Dr. Rivers, who teach K-8th grade students, one pre-school teacher, and four teaching assistants. A profile of the entire teaching staff shows that the majority of the staff holds Bachelor of Arts degrees with slightly less than half of the staff certified to teach by the State of Michigan. The majority of the staff, 60% , is certified in elementary education. Thirty-three percent have been teaching 3 to 5 years of experience with 10% having 6-10 years of experience (Sankofa Annual Report, 1997). Given that the majority of children enrOlled at the school were in prekindergarten through fifth grade, the majority of the teachers were certified in elementary education. Moreover, the proceeding table shows that most of the teaching staff have taught within the past five years and were teaching in their major area. Dr. Rivers, the leader, is a graduate of Louisiana State University with a Bachelor of Science degree in Speech and Hearing and holds a Master’s of Elementary Education from Southern University of Baton Rouge, Louisiana. She also has an Ed.D. from the George Peabody College of Teacher Education of Vanderbilt University. Her resume is filled with detailed listings of the various African locations she has visited over her lifetime, places such as Senegal, Nigeria, Ghana, and Egypt. Whereas, Baba Anthony, Baba Marcus, and Mama Charlene are Michigan State University graduates, both Baba Fred and Baba Julian come from southern universities. Baba Julian graduated from Louisiana State University in 1979 and received 98 Table 11. Profile of Teaching Staff Type of Certification Number of Years Teaching Experience 1:24:29 Q ‘4 a. .J‘Ia m amt urn I Secondary - Elementary Q] 0- . 1M2 E] Other E] 3to5 I sermon Taught within the Teaching in Last 5 Years Major or Minor Area his teaching certification through a post-baccalaureate program from that same university. Baba Fred is also a graduate of Southern University, with a Bachelor of Arts and Master of Arts in Political Science. Baba Fred has an ABD in Political Science from Clark-Atlanta University. 99 E fiE"' The catalyst and the first phase of Mezirow's Theory of Transformative Learning is a disorienting dilemma--an acute internal/external personal crisis. It was this researcher’s initial hypothesis that this disorienting dilemma would occur as the teachers attended professional development activities, discussion groups, created curriculum in the school environment, and began to teach in an African-centered manner. It did not occur. However, most of the teacher participants, as the biographies indicate, had their transformative learning experience prior to seeking out Dr. Rivers’ vision. In fact, these individual experiences were the impetus for their change from a traditional to a nontraditional educational setting. The professional learning process and the changes that occurred at Sankofa took place pretty effortlessly and without conflict in comparison with most schools and even in comparison with the other Afriean-centered charter school created in this same community in that same year.27 Emancipatory learning, or “a call to action“ is some response to or behavior that results from or acts on changes that have taken place in the learner due to a transformative learning experience. Several statements made by the Sankofa teaching staff in their biographies demonstrated this "call to action. " For example, Baba Julian taught eight years in two major cities where ”teachers were serving as doormats and students, especially African American students, were something even less. " He said that this frustration with his teaching positions led him to Sankofa. Baba Julian said, 2’ Conflict and strife between parents, teachers, administrators, and the Board of Directors marked the first and second year of the W.E.B. DuBois, a pseudonym. Afler their first year operation, the school was put on probation by its chartering institution. 100 I could take the madness no longer... I felt that after the racism I had encountered, especially the institutional-type built into most school systems, it was time to try teaching at this revolutionary charter school or find another line of work. I've always taught in predominantly Afriean American schools. Now I teach without my hands being bound by red tape or fearing dismissal from a despotic administrator. Baba Marcus stated that after teaching in a traditional setting and being a graduate student in a traditional program (Michigan State University) he was seeking a better type of edueational environment for his children and all African American children. A similar story was presented by Baba Anthony in his biography when he said that after years of teaching in traditional programs, he came to Sankofa seeking to use the knowledge of African culture and history that he had gained in college and through his religion. Baba Fred and Mama Charlene, for their first K-12 teaching positions (Mama Charlene had worked in part-time teaching positions and Baba Fred came from university teaching situation) sought out positions that fulfilled specific needs listed in their biographies. In the case of Baba Fred, teaching at Sankofa allowed him to utilize his ”African-centered philosophy toward just about everything, " while Mama Charlene sought the experiential aspects of the vision. Most of the teachers also came to Sankofa with a definable African-centered worldview and were at a similar stage in the formation of their racial identity. An African worldview is the ethos of oneness, of the unity and continuity of all elements of life, emerging from a shared cultural identity derived from Africa and maintained through ”the unique spirit and spiritual being” (Richards, 1985). It is not an individual or idiosyncratic response to experience, but a reaction and response shared by the larger community. 101 Beeause the teachers shared common heritage and events, they were able to bond emotionally, thus forming their cultural society. Being in the same stage of their racial identity formation may have assisted the change process occurring at school and reduced conflicts within the environment. According to William Cross, author of WW Identity (1991), the teachers also came to the school at the same stage of their racial identity formation-«the immersion/emersion stage. Racial identity is embedded in social, cultural, and historical contexts of one community even in adulthood. Cross (1991) says that there are five stages of racial identity: 0 Pre-encounters—-African American children absorb many of the beliefs and values of the dominant or majority culture including the idea that it is better to be white. 0 Encounters--The transition to the encounter stage is usually triggered by an event or a series of events that force the young person to acknowledge the personal impact of racism typieally precipitated by a negative event. This event usually occurs in adolescence and early adulthood. 0 Immersion/Emersion—-1n this phase, the person is energized by new information he/ she is learning that may not have been available to her/ him earlier such as there is more to Africa than Tarzan and more African and African American history than victimization. In the immersion/emersion stage, the person unleams the internalized stereotypes about his or her own group and are redefining a positive sense of self based on an affirmation of one’s racial identity group. 0 Internalization--This stage is characterized by a sense of security about one’s racial identity. He/ she is willing to establish meaningful relationships across group racial boundaries. 0 InternalizationlCommitment--The fifth and final stage is when the individual has found ways to translate knowledge into ongoing action expressing a sense of concern for his race as a group. The teachers at Sankofa appear to have come to the school in the immersion/emersion stage of their racial identity formation where they welcomed information about their culture and 102 history. They also eame to the school with an African worldview. Baba Julian stated in his biography that be valued his race and racial identity. I value knowledge and education. I also value family, community, and children. These (among others) have been ingrained in me since I was a small child. I think these values allow you to live the life of an elementary school teacher and be good at it. This isn't a job. Teaching becomes part of you and requires you to have a lot more to give in return. He listed as the critical incidents that have shaped his perspectives on education, in no particular order of importance, as: 0 Having relatives and friends who were products of big, impersonal, school systems that were under-educated and nus-educated. Bad schools, bad teachers, and the unfortunate situations that occurred while they were in the care of their local public schools changed my people’s lives for the worst. 0 Upon becoming a teacher, I saw what dire straits most children were in socially and emotionally. The nwd these children have is urgent and anyone with eyes, ears, and heart would and should want to do something about it. This caused me to become the type of teacher who wanted to listen to his children. 0 Reading Jonathon Kozol’s W was a real eye opener for me. It told me so much about the conditions of the modern—day urban school. This book will bring tears to your eyes. I no longer wonder why kids dropped out of school after I read that book. It also gave me insight on social conditions that everyone who walks into a classroom should know. 0 My parents and the wonderful teachers I had throughout my educational eareer made me want to share the knowledge that had been shared with me. Baba Julian concluded his biography by stating that he "feels responsible as a citizen of this world, a member of the human race and as an African Ameriean to give back to the world the best I can. For me, this has been teaching. I think the sum total of my life experiences shaped me as teacher and a person.” Whereas Baba Marcus stated in his biography, 103 What prompted me to become a teacher is the disdain and confusion I felt as a student. I am a conscientious Black man and family, my people, and my logic prioritize my life. My realization of how odd my escape from the usual destiny afforded to inner city Black youth with similar histories created a deep compassion for my young brethren seeking escape that almost damns them at birth. In his biography, Baba Anthony said that his total life experience led him to teach at Sankofa. Specifically, it was his school experiences where he had been deprived of adequate African and African American history. He ”attended a school, full of Black people, but yet in [his] history classes [he] never learned about the great contributions of Black people. When he ”attended college and started to be exposed to all of these great books about our heritage, it made learning and teaching about my own people a passion. So the idea of Sankofa was already a part of my thinking and everyday life. " This position was affirmed by Baba Fred who stated that while at Clark-Atlanta University working on his Ph.D., he began to change his worldview somewhat and ”realized that I was gaining an African-centered philosophy toward just about everything. After hearing about Sankofa, its philosophy, and its goals, I knew it would be a great opportunity. " He said in his educational biography that several events/ circumstances that shaped his perspective concerning education. First, his ”experiences have taught [him] that everyone has a story-- abuse, neglect, misfortune, etc. One must still persevere. " Second, one cannot judge a person by looks or certain acts. While teaching at Clark-Atlanta, a student not only came to my class late, but he had missed the first month. Upon seeing him, I immediately stated to myself, ”He won’t be here long. " He became one of my best students. He was not exceptional, but he worked hard! Third, his [Baba Fred’s] family did not make any excuses for him. Therefore, I have a problem with parents who disrespect teachers and allow their 104 children to do the same. These situations have led me to believe that teachers are vitally important; most do what they can, and many do care. However, teachers eannot do it all! A promising education must include family and community input. Since leaving Michigan State, Mama Charlene had taught at a nursery and a before- and after-school program. She had also been a substitute teacher in several school systems. After several part—time teaching experiences, Mama Charlene was looking for a teaching experience where she could ”teach in an experiential manner and help Afriean Ameriean children. " The teachers at Sankofa were just beginning to learn about African history and culture and were at the same phase of their racial identity development. They also had similar school experiences, as a review of their biographies indicates, which left them with the belief that the current educational system did not meet the needs of African American students. This information is supported by individual biographies.28 Barnum Baba Julian, age 31, grew up in Chicago, Illinois. His parents were ”lovers of knowledge and always stressed the importance of learning. " As a child, he attended both parochial (Catholic) and public schools. His all-male Catholic school was "predominately African American. " However, he ”appreciated the diversity of his high school" but the "blemish was [his] introduction to real racism." Baba Julian attended Louisiana State University, graduating with a degree in French in 1979. He received his certification through a post-baccalaureate program from that same university. He taught eight years in . 1' At the mm of the research collection the teachers were asked to write their educational autobiographies per instructions provrded to the teachers by the researcher. They were also asked to provrde copies of their resume. 105 two major cities. Baba Julian was one of two mathematics teachers at Sankofa. He taught mathematics to students in the second through eighth grades. W Baba Marcus is age 27 and the father of three children. He is currently Sankofa’s principal, succeeding Dr. Rivers. He is also the school’s Logic teacher and also teaches mathematics to students in prekindergarten to first grade. A Michigan State University graduate, he is a native of Detroit, Michigan and was the first person in his family to receive a college education. Baba Marcus recalls acting out in school very early. He stated that he realized that part of the reason why I acted out in classes was because of the teachers or what was being taught. If I was not learning something new or being engaged at some level, I rebelled and became disruptive. If a teacher seemed to be only there [in school] to collect a check and acted nonchalant about teaching, I made sure that they earned that check with my disruptive behavior. His behavior changed during his high school years when he transferred to Cass Technical High School (Cass Tech). He began to realize ”that my previous antics would not be tolerated and from my perspective would not be necessary because the classes were much more engaging. " In addition, ”there was no strong desire by the students [at Cass Tech] to prove manhood or attain status through fighting as in my middle school.” It was an academic high school whose focus was on college preparatory classes, rather than social pursuits. This high school ”recessed (kicked out) students and sent them back to their neighborhood schools if they did not maintain a 2.0 average. " Students who got into fights usually faced expulsion and were sent back to their neighborhood schools. "This basically had a sorting effect on those who managed to get past the entrance requirements. Those 106 who did not perform appropriately on an academic or social level were banished. " He decided to become a teacher while at Michigan State University because he started to realize that some of the major problems with inner-city education were mirrored in his own family' s educational history. BabaAnthcnx. Baba Anthony is also a 27-year-old father of three. He is also a graduate of Michigan State University's James Madison College and is Sankofa's Social Studies teacher. Like Baba Julian, he also received his teaching certification in a post-baccalaureate program. He remembers his first educational experiences as being fun. Kindergarten was very fun. We colored, sang, played, and took naps. My teacher, I cannot remember her name, was very nice and gentle. I was her class favorite because I knew all of the answers to her questions, [because] my mother, who is a teacher, had me prepared far beyond my classmates. While others were struggling with their alphabet and shapes, I was reading and performing mathematical functions. Needless to say, I loved kindergarten because I felt important. Things changed when he began first and second grades because he had a teacher named Ms. Wolf and she was "meaner than a ‘wolf. " The eagerness that he felt each day when he went to kindergarten was replaced with the dread he felt going to his first grade class. According to Baba Anthony, his mother had ”me prepared for advanced materials when I entered the kindergarten, and my kindergarten teacher recognized that fact and accommodated my advanced skills. " However, his first grade teacher, Ms. Wolf, did not. "She made everyone in the class go at the same pace, read the same material, and do the same math problems.” He hated it. "I tried to tell her that I already knew this stuff, but 107 she would just yell at me and tell me to sit down.” He began to rebel and talk after he finished his work, disrupting the class. He started getting into trouble in class. During those days, corporal punishment was widely accepted, and he remembers receiving at least one paddling per day. It was like clockwork. I would finish my work far ahead of everyone else. Then I would talk to those still working, and then I would get a paddle. To make matters worse, on the last day of my school in the first grade, we were standing at the door excited about the summer vacation, waiting for the bell to ring, when Ms. Wolf announced that she would be teaching second grade next year. All of us would have her as a teacher again. I ran home. From that point on, Baba Anthony said that school "became a game that was easy to play, but one that I did not enjoy. " The rest of his elementary years were “marked with high grades and the lowest of citizenship marks. After kindergarten, school was downhill. " He recalls middle school as not being much better than elementary school. He was an honor roll student who could not stay out of trouble. Teachers hated to see him coming, because "They could not intimidate me academically. The use of the discipline policy was their only means, and by this time I was immune to paddles and receiving punishments at home. '2’ He believes that his high school years were about as awful as his elementary and middle school years for several reasons. One was the lack of motivated teachers. Second, there was a total absence of African American teachers within the school environment. Third, his school was filled with unmotivated Students. His kindergarten teacher and Ms. Wolf were the only African American teachers that he had ever had and “the sad fact was that the high school that I attended was over 90% African American, yet all I saw were 1' Baba Anthony developed the disciplinary system for the school. 108 these tenured, old, White teachers. Most of the teachers hated their job,“ from his vantage point. “Teachers were constantly being cursed and disrespected, so whatever motivation they may have retained was gone; they were there for a payCheck. " The students had also lost their motivation to learn and, "most of them were in school for social reasons. I hated high school; I couldn’t wait to graduate. I basically taught myself through textbooks and dittos. " However, a couple of good things did happen during high school. First, he stopped getting in disciplinary trouble. Why? Because the other kids were so bad, the little mischiefI was used to doing paled in comparison to them. It was no longer an attention-getter, so I just stopped. I cannot remember ever getting in trouble in high school. Secondly, his athletic skills and practice started to pay off. "I earned 10 varsity letters in track, basketball, and football. This was a new way of getting attention.” Third, he continued to get good grades "primarily because I wanted to keep my mother from nagging at me. My GPA upon graduation was a 3.7 average. " Because of his athletic performance, Baba Anthony earned a full-ride track scholarship to the University of Pittsburgh, and after one year he transferred, on a track scholarship, to Michigan State University. Baba Anthony says that his total life experience led him to teach at Sankofa, specifically, his school experiences. waited. Baba Fred, along with Dr. Rivers, is one of two people teaching Communications Arts/English at Sankofa.30 He is a thirty-one year old graduate of Louisiana State University with a BA and MA in Political Science. He is ABD in Political Science from Clark-Atlanta. He says that his elementary education was basically general. He attended 3° He has since left the school and is teaching in the university setting. 109 a public, predominately African American, elementary school the first three years and a racially balanced school for grades 4 and 5. Generally, he "was very pleased with my education thus far and felt I was progressing quite well. " He moved to a predominately white elementary school for the 6th grade and felt that he was behind the other students. For the first time, Baba Fred was the only African American in his class and did not know what the others knew. ”They were studying things I had never heard of before. Feeling somewhat inferior, I was quickly focused and caught up with the class; I even passed most of them. " Baba Fred recalls that his junior high and high school years were relatively easy and he doesn’t recall having any trouble. He states that he always knew that he wanted to attend college so I prepared myself throughout those years. I graduated from Louisiana State University with a BA in Politieal Science and a minor in English. I did not take education courses since I did not plan to teach at the elementary and secondary level. Baba Fred has been "strongly influenced by my grandmother, a very strong-willed women who always wanted the best for her family. She, as well as other members of my family, encouraged me to do my best. " From the beginning Baba Fred, although committed to the school and the curriculum, was a bit out of place. First, his background and teaching experience were in the university setting. Second, he had never taught elementary school. His Language Arts' classes were the most rigorous and demanding at the school. Students read and wrote daily. The assignments and activities were non-stop. Although his students read and discussed African American and African literature, he, like Lisa Delpit, stressed the importance of grammar and punctuation. He left Sankofa after his first year. 110 Mmasharlcne. Mama Charlene, age 27, is another Michigan State University graduate and the only other female, certified teacher (other than Dr. Rivers) on the staff. Raised in St. Thomas, United States, Virgin Islands, she experienced five critieal incidents that shaped her educational perspective. 1) Her elementary school experience of having the same teacher for several grades; 2) The experiential (hands-on) training she obtained during her student teaching; 3) The parent-teacher relationship that her own parents and teachers developed; 4) The teaching of her third grade teacher whom she seeks to emulate; and 5) Her belief shaped by prior experience, that learning should transcend the classroom. She came to Michigan in the late 19803 to attend Michigan State University. She "was culturally and environmentally shocked. I hated the weather. The people were different and unfriendly. " In her junior year, she was accepted into the Academic learning Program. She was the token African American student in what was considered the “so- called" best program in the College of Education. "The classes were boring and were focused on reflections rather than on the hands—on experience the teachers were advocating. They wanted us to be multi-sensory teachers, integrating all subjects; however, the classes did not reflect what we were supposed to do. " Like Baba Fred, Mama Charlene' s background and cultural history appeared to limit her acceptance of African—centered education. However, she immediately adjusted to the cooperative and experiential nature of African-centered education. ”Cooperation and decision-making”, she said, ”were two of the most important skills kids can develop. They 111 learn to work in the classroom and have a sense of solidarity while accomplishing academic tasks together. " For the most part, their personal history of being African American in the American public school system and their personal sense of empowerment fueled the changes that were occurring at the school. This shared history and similar personal characteristic of the teaching staff may have helped to reduce conflict in the educational environment and facilitate the change process. mm However, the fuel for the changes or its ignition or spark was Dr. Rivers’ sense of empowerment or her eall to action which began early in her childhood. She was also in her internalization/ commitment state of her racial identity formation , which was appropriate for the leader-teacher role she assumed at the school. She created Sankofa based upon her lifelong commitment to African-centered education and political/social activism. In her educational biography, Dr. Rivers, describes her education as beginning at two years of age when her working parents sent her to nursery school. At four, she started at her Aunt’s (she was the principal and the teacher) one-room schoolhouse that educated students from pre-K all the way through eighth grade. At that one-room schoolhouse, Dr. Rivers recalls competing in spelling bees and reading competitions with seventh and eighth grade students. Her formal education began the next year, when her mother enrolled her in a Catholic elementary school, St. Francis. At the Catholic school, she was skipped to the second grade. Dr. Rivers credits the education she received in her Aunt’s school for the grade promotion. ”They wanted to move me up higher, but my mother didn‘t like the 112 idea of skipping it [first grade] at all because she thought my age just was not appropriate. " In her second year at St. Francis, she remembers being in a regular, structured, program that "just drove me up the wall because I always wanted to read more and do more in school. It seemed like I was always being held back because you ean only read a sentence at a time with seventy kids in the room. " Very large classrooms characterized her elementary education. In fact, in my second grade year, there were eighty kids; in my third grade year there were seventy kids; in my fourth grade year we had gone down to like sixty; and by sixth grade I think we had like fifty-four kids in a room to one teacher. And all of us learned. So, it was amazing, but they did it because of the structure and each child got a chance to read one line. The number of children in her classroom did not bother her; however, she was a frustrated student. She was bored with the tedium and day-to—day learning environment she found in her classroom. Her frustrations with education continued throughout her elementary school years because, as she remarked, "I wanted to read the whole story and the whole book and I couldn't do it, so I was always very disgusted and just kind of sat in the back of the room and stayed out of trouble until the fourth grade." Like most frustrated students, she started getting into trouble. From fourth grade through her junior year in high school she recalls being put out of school every year by teachers who could or would not adjust to her needs as a student. I wasn't really, well, yeah, I guess I was kind of bad, but I was always getting into things, basically 'cause I was bored... I would challenge teachers if they said something. If I didn't believe it or I thought that they were incorrect, I would challenge them. I would challenge world order and everything else; it just didn't make any sense. If it didn't go along with my philosophy, I was up there challenging it. So, people were always putting me out of class or school. In sixth grade, at St. Francis, the teacher really was a dummy; she didn’t know what she was doing and I challenged her and she told me to either go back to my seat or leave the class, so I stood up and 113 said, ‘How many kids are going with me?’ So, halfof the class walked out. Out of fifty-four kids, twenty of us got put out of school or suspended for two weeks. But I was the only one not to return to school the next year. After her middle school years, Dr. Rivers’ parents intervened and enrolled her in Southern High, a hybrid school, experimental, school-«half-private and half-public run by Southern University in Baton Rouge. At Southern High in seventh and eighth grade, I had the most wonderful teacher in my entire life, Mrs. W...[S]he seemed to know what each child nwded. The other thing that I liked about her was she let us explore our creativity. We created our own lesson plans. We created plays and television skits. We had murals that we made scenes that we created. We created animals and exhibits. It was a wonderful two years. This woman never ran out of ideas. And I think if I had to say, ”Where did I get my idea of the multi-sensory techniques that we use in the program?", it would have to be from her. I've never gotten over that experience and I think if any school should be run. . . Where children really run the school because of their creativity, things happen. So after that, then we had in high school, I go from this wonderful creative program in seventh and eighth grade to, again, a high school program where you sit behind a desk and you're dictated to. Being a child of the South, Dr. Rivers experienced racism early. During her teens, she was on the frontline of the Civil Rights movement participating in the integration of Robert E. Lee High School. I was one of twenty-eight students that integrated the high school in Baton Rouge. There were only four blacks; I was the only [black] female out of about two thousand students. That was a horrendous experience. . .. Anybody that's ever been through an integrating experience. . it's just horrible. The summer following graduation from high school, she integrated Louisiana State University (L.S.U.) ”which was another horrendous experience. After that I left L.S.U. and then went to Howard University for two years, dropped out of college, went back, and finally finished at Louisiana State University in 1971." 114 After receiving her B. A. , she enrolled at Southern University in the Masters of Arts program through Teachers’ Corps, which she describes as a "fantastic educational experience“ because she got on—the job training working in schools during the day and obtaining educational theory and strategies in the course work at night. The Teachers' Corps' students worked in teams, six interns with a master teacher in same school, with two interns assigned to a classroom. She enjoyed the creativity, freedom, and experiential nature of the program. Comparing it to the experience she had with her seventh/eighth grade teacher, Mrs. W., Dr. Rivers stated, And, again, we were allowed to use our own creativity. So, here we were in a nontraditional educational teacher-training program, which didn’t stifle us. We went in with all of our ideas believing every child can learn, which is what most peOple think until they go through teacher education programs and they train you to think that they can't. In Teacher Corps, she soon realized that the white teachers, as well as the African American ones in the program, had none or just limited knowledge of African Ameriean history and culture and she ended up becoming a consultant to all of the interns on this subject. By the conclusion of the Teacher Corps experience, she was elected as intern representative and went to Washington, D.C. to represent their interests and make sure that African American history and culture classes would be included in future programs. She graduated with a Master's in one year. From her earliest experiences as an elementary teacher she learned that there ”is no one program that works with all of the children. So, you can't just use one program and say, ‘This is the way to teach reading.’ You must use a variety of different approaches.“ Therefore, after completing her Master's, she enrolled in an off-campus doctoral program 115 at George Peabody College of Vanderbilt, taking courses every other weekend in New Orleans and receiving her Ed.D. in 1979. Her biography concluded with the five critical (”life changing”) events in her educational history. The first critical event she believes that influenced her as a person and teacher was the teacher she had in the seventh and eighth grade. ”She made education a wonderful experience. Had I not had her, I probably never would have enjoyed my educational experience, but she was fantastic. " The second was the Teacher Corps experience at Southern University. ”I think it allowed me the freedom to be creative in learning how to teach and not stifling me like most teacher education programs do. " She cites her doctoral program at Vanderbilt as the third critical event ”because not many universities offer that kind of off-campus experience that doesn’t require you to just sit in a desk and listen to a professor all day. Again, it gave me a chance to be creative.” The fourth critical event was the experience of actually going into classrooms during her year- long Master’s program and seeing children that don't know anything and there's nothing wrong with them; just that they haven't been taught. I think that was the most gut-wrenching experience I’ve ever had in my life. I can still recall my second class of second graders, who didn't even know their names, couldn't write their names; something's wrong with this. And that‘s when I went back to my master teacher and said, ”Sister Bruce, how do you teach reading?" And I sat at the foot of a master teacher to learn. Dr. Rivers' believes that all these experiences, combined with the experience of being ”put out of school every year because of teachers who were not able to understand a creative child and how to cope with her differences, “ led her to become the teacher that she is today. However, ultimately, she believes that the responsibility for who she is ”goes back to my family. My mother's an educator, my father's a dentist, but he's been involved 116 in civil rights all of his life, so that has to be where I get my drive for working with black children and trying to teach the African American experience. " D B. , If . All groups’ learning ultimately reflects someone's original values, concerns, and ideas of what is distinctive and important and what is not. When any group is first created or when it faces new tasks or problems, the first solutions proposed to deal with these concerns reflect the individual assumptions of the founding leader, in this case, Dr. Rivers. As the founding leader, Dr. Rivers is the source of beliefs, values, and assumptions for Sankofa. Founders like Dr. Rivers usually have a major impact on how the group defines itself and ”solves its external adaptation and internal integration problems” (Schein, 1992, p. 212). According to sociologists, any group must solve the problems of l) survival in adaptation to its external environment and 2) integration of its internal process to the ability to continue and to adapt. The founding leader’s ideas come into play as the original source for the new organization. These ideas come from Dr. Rivers. As the person with the original idea, she has a lot of influence on the direction of the organization and she uses her cultural history and personality to fulfill these ideas. Like most leaders, Dr. Rivers has a high level of self—confidence and determination. Her vision of Sankofa was African-centered based on her belief in Afrocentric education as a means of improving the academic achievement of African American students. Dr. Rivers summarized her beliefs concerning African-centered education in a book written a few years prior to opening Sankofa Shule that she gave to each teacher at Sankofa’s first orientation in 1995. In that book she states: 117 [An] Afrocentric perspective is essential for educational excellence to attain excellence and peace. The infusion of an Afrocentric perspective will not be easy but is vital for the future of the children. "The opening of American minds must be a high priority topic” (Hillard, Stewart, & Williams, 1989). The first objective is to change the way people perceive themselves. Lenore Bennett, Jr. states ”if you want to change a situation, you have to change the image that men have of themselves and their situation” (Manhubuti, 1978, p. 1). The second goal [of an African-centered education] is to provide students and people of the world with the truth of history. At current time these truths are omitted, distorted, stereotyped, and presented as lies. Finally, the third goal is to recognize the traditions and cultures through an Afrocentric perspective for the future of all people, the world, and all its environments (Nobel, 1990 in Rivers, 1993, pp. 1-2). According to Dr. Rivers, to teach in an African-centered manner means several things. First, the acceptance of her concept of African-centered education that is based upon the readings and teachings of Molefi Asante, Asa Hillard, and Maulana Karenga. It also requires knowledge and acceptance of three grounding principles based upon the 31 9 principles of Maat the principals of Kemet,32 and the principles of Nguzo Saba.33 It also means .. . that we teach from an African-centered perspective, focusing on ourselves, black people, as the agent of the curriculum. Everything else is peripheral to us. Not that we don’t study everything else in the world, but we look at it from our perspective first. Then we try to view it from the eyes of the other cultures. In doing this you must look at a time line to make sure that you understand the frame of reference. (Dr. Rivers, Interview 11, 4-28-97, p. l) Sankofa is the fulfillment of a lifelong dream. In 1995, when Dr. Rivers had the opportunity to take advantage of the new charter school legislation, she took a leave of absence from her public school teaching position (she later retired from the District) to " Respect self; respect others and environment. ’2 Kemet the principles of Ancient Egypt -truth justice, righteousness, order, balance, and reciprocity. Or Egypt the terms are used interchangeably in the school. ’3 Nguzo Saba is based on the principles of unity, self-determination; collective work and responsibilities, cooperative economics, purpose, creativity, and faith. 118 create Sankofa Shule. In fact, she is not only the architect of Sankofa’s curriculum, but of another African-centered charter school in this same Midwest community less than one mile from Sankofa. In creating both curriculums and charter school proposals submitted to Central Michigan University, Dr. Rivers relied on her extensive background in African and African American history and culture."4 She believes that students, teachers, and parents are the agents of the Sankofa curriculum and that to teach African American students one must look at the total time line of African and African American history-mot the period of African capture, slavery, and independence in America. The third part of her concept of African-centered education encompasses how you teach the children. At Sankofa, she stressed that the teachers instruct in a multi-sensory, multi-modal, and multidimensional” manner, because there is not one way to teach any particular subject that you’re going to succeed with everybody. But if you use a lot of different ways to teach children, maybe you could reach them in one of those ways. (Dr. Rivers, Interview II, 4-28-97, p. 1) Her staff echoed this belief when asked by this researcher to describe their African- centered philosophy. Baba Fred stated: I believe that you have to place Africa in the center of everything that you are involved in, regardless of subject. My area is political science, so at Clark we studied politics the way we would anywhere else, but we placed it from an African point of view. Therefore, we can see the dynamics, conflicts, and contradictions, using the experience of black people as a primary example. I believe that we are doing that here with just about everything--history, science, etc. , to make sure that our contributions are recognized and taught. (Baba Fred, 3/21/98, p. 1) Baba Marcus also offered a similar, but different definition. My African-centered philosophy is still developing. When I was in college I believed that I was African-centered, that I was down for the cause, but I think that so This information was obtained from her resume, interviews, and via personal observation and will be used in this dissertation when relevant. ”This mode of teaching is recommended by most psychologists. 119 it's changed a lot for me now after being exposed to a lot of literature and materials that I hadn't previously been exposed to. I'm now looking at things from a historical point of view. I think there have been a couple of things that occurred recently that have really shaped and changed my view of what Afriean-centered means--my participation in the Million Man March and actually going to Egypt. These two events have had an impact on what I believe being African-centered is. I believe you don't necessarily have to agree with everyone else who is African American on what is done or how it's done, but you have to have that focus and centeredness where you have a love of things that are African-centered and love for yourself and knowing about yourself. That doesn't necessarily make you homogeneous or the same as everyone else who considers himself African-centered. (Baba Marcus Interview 1, 3/19/97, pp. 1-2) Finally, Baba Anthony’s definition also indicated a shared vision by members of the staff: Well, African-centeredness is no different from any other people's view, except African Americans because I don't think we view ourselves as actual players in history and in civilization. We view ourselves as spectators. Well, Afrocentrism makes us the agent in history and makes us the agent in math, it makes us the agent in English, and we looked at these and other subjects from that perspective, looking at events through our eyes. So when we view World War II, we look at it, as the black people would have seen it. That's only natural. If you went to Chinese school, they’d view World War II from the Chinese perspective... I did a study when I was in college comparing the British view of the revolutionary war as compared to the American view. The British view the revolutionary war as a minor insurrection, while the Americans viewed it as the War of Independence. So, the perception that you view something from determines how you analyze and how you understand it. Slavery wasn't a good thing for us so we have to look at it from our perspective. Therefore, Afrocentrism is no different than any other people’s viewpoint of their surroundings and environment. It just makes us the participants and the agents instead of the spectators. (Baba Anthony Interview 1, 3/20/97, p. 1) Dr. Rivers states that the values that most strongly affected and directed her adult professional life are her African-centered values, which she teaches at the school. These are the values that her family instilled in her. According to Dr. Rivers, One of the most profound quotes from our African culture is "I am because we are, and because we are, therefore I am." I don't exist in isolation. I 120 only exist because of the family that I came from, and that family is the community that created them, that I exist in. Therefore, I need a total community to exist and that community also needs me. (Dr. Rivers, Interview H, 4/28/97, p. 1.) Therefore, she believes that it is important for her to teach these same values to the Afriean American students, making African-centered education more than an educational theory, but a way of life. She tries to live the Kemetic principles of truth, justice, righteousness, order, balance, harmony, and reciprocity. Those are the truths that we operate from in the school; the ethical values that you must have to be human. The rules of the school: respect self, others, and the environment, and the Nguzo Saba. Those are the principles and the values that I live by, and I hope to instill them in the children. I truly believe that if you could ever get even a small portion of our society to try and live by ethical principles, we'll make a better world that can exist in harmony. (Dr. Rivers, Interview 11, 4/28/97) p .1.) According to Dr. Rivers, the mission of the school is to provide leadership for African American families by knowledge, spirituality, entrepreneurship, and the opportunity for an enhanced Afrocentric quality of life. The need to develop and challenge our families and youth is demonstrated in the increase in crime, unemployment, deaths, substance abuse, and underachievement in education. Assisting families to become self- productive, self-actualized adults who are empowered to assume responsibility for themselves, their children and their people is the traditional heritage stated in the old African proverb, ”I am because we are and because we are, therefore, 1am. (Rivers, 1995, p. 3) In regards to learning environment, she believes her role as a leader is Basically to facilitate the process. To make sure that we have competent staff, that our materials are bias-free and to assist them whenever they need assistance, whether it's in subject matter area or African-centeredness or classroom discipline. 1 really don't like to go in and tell people how to run a classroom. If I hire you, I expect that you have the expertise to do it. I don't mind assisting people, but I'm not a person that goes in on a day-to- day basis. I pretty much hire people with those leadership qualities so that 121 they can go in and get the job done. And then every morning we do have the staff meetings where we get together as a group and discuss concerns [study African thought and knowledge], to make sure that we operate as one and basically, that's all that I do. I'd like to remain in that type of position, as a facilitator. (Dr. Rivers, Interview III, 6/30/97, p. 3) 122 CHAPTER SIX CREATING A COMMUNITY OF PROFESSIONAL LEARNERS AROUND AFRICAN-CENTERED PRINCIPAIS Ininainctica The teachers joined the staff of Sankofa Shule because of their belief in African- centered education as a means of improving the academic and personal development of the African American students in their community. Initially, as they went about their day-to- day activities, research ideas concerning the professional development of teachers, creating learning communities or organizations did appear to apply to this researcher’s observations. However, as the observations continued, the teachers’ actions and interactions, the teachers’ engagements with students, parents, and themselves, and the strategies that began to develop for teacher and student learning, all began to direct this researcher to these areas. Sankofa did not have a history like most schools. It was a new institution--a brand new entity. Therefore, the individualistic culture that exists in most schools, with small groups or individual teachers producing work concerning school goals and then reporting to a committee or the school as whole, did not have a chance to develop. Dr. Rivers had ‘hand picked’ her teachers from people she had previously known or worked with-«it was her team--and, for the most part, that is how they functioned. An added incentive for all staff members was their fervent belief in African-centered education. Therefore, they had a shared vision and the motivation to make it work at the beginning of their employment. Initially, the staff felt overwhelmed by the task confronting them--creating and implementing an African-centered curriculum, environment, and culture, while also creating a new institutional structure. However, the teachers worked hard. In addition, 123 they maintained their focus on the goal by daily meetings and bi-monthly professional development activities. The visits from African-centered theorists, educational researchers, and philosophers not only kept the teachers focused on their goals, but it often energized them. Training teachers to impart the appropriate cultural knowledge and ideological perspectives into their instruction is not an easy task. Mainstream university and teaching programs, on the whole, do not prepare teachers to be responsive to diverse cultural concerns in their instruction (Ball & McDiarmid, 1990) and they certainly do not instruct teacher candidates on African-centered pedagogy.” Therefore, the professionals of this newly chartered elementary public aeademy had a unique, but daunting task to incorporate these changes in their environment. '1' its -u 1.1 ' ulm-- lt‘ ' '..._t a! J. . u The teachers’ official professional development began two days prior to the beginning of school in the fall of 1995 when the teachers arrived at Dr. Rivers’ house for a two-day orientation. African-centered reading and teaching materials are limited. Therefore, the‘teachers who began teaching at the Sankofa in 1995 committed to three things: 1) to learn more about African and African American knowledge, culture, and history, 2) to devote the time necessary to establish their personal expertise in Afriean— centered education, and 3) to utilize this personal expertise in creating and constructing curriculum and then sharing this information with their colleagues. " This researcher could find no college that includes instruction on African-centered pedagogy in their educational program. 124 Dr. Rivers described her professional development activities as follows It is also experiential, that's why I believe in taking them out. I took them to Kemet’7 and we're hoping to go to West Africa. We bring in the real people, to do workshops with them, or we take them to workshops to see the real peOple. So, the experiential model definitely works, because you're going to remember it if you're involved in it. The multi-sensory model works, the African-centeredness, the concepts of the Ngum Saba, where we get together and practice unity. (Interview 111, 6/30/97, p. 8) Baba Julian confirmed this statement when he was asked to describe the professional development activities. It is an African-centered experiential, professional development model. I feel that each of us adapts that particular experiential model to our own personalities, to our teaching styles, to our wants and desires, and to the needs of out students'. So, for me, I’ve tried to make it as experiential as possible, attending as many conferences as possible and researching and writing whenever possible. (Interview IV, 5/31/97, p. 1) One of Sankofa‘s goals for its staff is their attendance at conferences, workshops, seminars, and in-services in general education, African-centered education, and courses geared to his/her academic subject area. The type of activities and strategies that made up the professional development activities at Sankofa are: 0 Short Courses 0 Conferences 0 Long Courses 0 Professional Development Days/Training"8 ’7 Dr. Rivers uses the term Kemet and Egypt interchangeably. Kemet is the ancient name of Egypt. She and most members of the school community use these terms interchangeably. " Their professional development day visits have included presentations by Asa Hillard, Ph.D.; Molefi Asante, Ph.D.; Claude Anderson, Ph.D.; Ben Chavis, Ph.D.; Haki Mandhubuti, Ph.D.; and Mr. John 'Kinderman' Taylor. In the 1996-97 school year, Nikki Giovanni, poet; Dr. Ben Carson, famous black surgeon; Charles Finch, famous Egyptologist; and Asa Hillard visited the teachers and students again. 125 0 Group Activities 0 Observations The emphasis and focus of these activities were African-centered learning, knowledge and culture; the teaching and learning of African students; and enriching the teachers’ academic subject area knowledge. Professional development was a means to maintaining the professional community and keeping the staff focused on its organizational goals. Student and teacher learning was part of the everyday work inside and outside this school through a variety of formal and informal learning experiences- training and sharing workshops, teacher interactions, etc. The professional development practices and the curriculum and institutional changes taking place at the research site used African-centered education as empowering agent for African American students, teachers, family, and the greater community. Continuing Professional Development (CPD) has been defined as education, training, and support within a portfolio of activities, which aims to: 0 enable students to be educated more effectively 0 add professional knowledge 0 improve professional skills (Dean, 1991). Professional development is a combination of training and support that meets three kinds of institutional and teacher needs: 0 Institutional needs-developing the skills and knowledge to teach effectively and grow as professionals, 0 Department, year, or group needs-developing common approaches and sharing expertise within a team situation, and, 0 Whole-institutional needs-establishing common values that determine school policies (Ibid.). 126 Research on innovation and teacher change indicates that there is a continuous dilemma in institutional and teacher change. Teachers and the school environment are regularly engaging in activities designed to effect change in teacher beliefs and instructional practices in response to external pressures, but they seldom change their essential ways of thinking, learning, and practicing, and the organization of the school itself (Sarason, 1982). Changes are seldom sustained because teachers are rarely active and direct participants in the change. Fullan has stated "it is possible to change on the surface by endorsing goals, using specific materials and even imitating the behavior without specifically understanding the principles for change" (p. 40). However, to understand the principles of change educators must ”redesign the workplace so that innovation and improvement are built into the daily activities of teachers” (p. 353). Changing the environment and making it conducive for learning is another step in creating a professional development environment. The flexibility of the schedule and the provisions for common planning time allows teachers to work together as they personalize instruction and integrate study across subject areas. The guideline that had to be followed was that no team decision could affect others in the school without those affected being involved in some manner in the decision making process. (Burback & Figgins, 1992, pp. 14-15). From the very first day of its existence, the teachers at Sankofa have had an Indiaba, which in Zulu means "a very serious discussion,” every morning to read African- centered literature, to discuss African-centered philosophies, and then to figure out how to incorporate these ideas into their curriculum (Dr. Rivers, Interview 1, 4/14/97, p. 2). They also had in-house professional development activities and all teachers were encouraged to attend outside conferences and seminars to increase their academic subject teaching skills 127 and abilities and African-centered knowledge. The first year, the teachers’ readings were directed at learning and understanding Egyptian and African history and culture39 in preparation for their trip to Egypt in the summer of 1996. The second year, the teachers’ discussions focused on Molefi Asante’s African W (1996) and their chief concern was incorporating the information contained in this text with their previous knowledge of African-centered lmowledge and culture that they had learned in their first year and gained on their trip to Egypt. The teachers at the school were taught information about student learning styles in conjunction with information concerning Afrocentricity. According to Dr. Rivers, learning styles of students are different."0 Therefore, teaching strategies and methods must also be different. She stressed that teachers try a multitude of methods, strategies, and techniques to facilitate the students’ educational success. She believed that to reach every child, teachers must know more than one way to teach students because there is no universal teaching strategy that will affect all children. According to Dr. Rivers (1994, p. 53), Some children will hear the way and others will not. Some feel the way and some may smell it. Others may see it but still some have to taste it. Some may have to sing, and some may have to dance, but others may write and more may read the way. Others may draw the way and some may use all the ways while a few may do only a few ways but the way must be facilitated in a multi-sensory approach or the students that only know one way will fail. ” In the first year teachers read books for their preparation of their Egyptian trip, i.e., W W. Aftimfilm md 1L___i_rfroccntri6't . so Learning styles are an individual's approach to learning and studying. Although all children at the school are African American, each child came to the school with individual learning characteristics that must be taken into account by the instructor. 128 Therefore, Dr. Rivers believes that teachers should be eclectic in teaching strategy and not become dependent on one teaching strategy for aeademic success. She believes that teachers must utilize a multitude of strategies and processes in the classroom that are effective in reaching whole groups, small groups, and individual students, and mastering basal, whole language, thematic units, contracts, and experiential teaching methods. She believes that students should also be given different types of work in the classroom environment such as ”class work, independent work, homework, learning centers to explore, creative development centers, cross-peer tutoring, cooperative learning and many more. The list becomes inexhaustible” (Rivers, 1994, p. 57). At Sankofa, from its inception, the work schedule, the workplace, and the conditions existed within the environment to get their work--creating an African-centered charter school-~done. From the very first day that they were hired, each teacher knew that they were responsible for curriculum construction for their own students and across disciplines and that this responsibility was an on-going process. That, according to Dr. Rivers, "designing and teaching curriculum was not static” (Anecdotal Information). However, one of the drawbacks of this type of instruction was the limited number of reference materials available for African-centered culture, knowledge, curriculum, and teaching. In addition, teachers had to research to incorporate African-centered information into their subject area. Because of this, each teacher had to research information in addition to his or her teaching duties at the school. Further, one of the chief goals of the school was offering individualized instruction for its students. Research and the writing of curriculum were on going activities. In the two years this researcher was a participant-observer-researcher and substitute teacher at Sankofa, the 129 curriculum was constantly changing in an attempt to take advantage of new strategies, research, or new information (Fieldnotes). For example, as a result of a visit to the Marcus Garvey School in Los Angeles to attend their science and mathematics workshop, the Sankofa teachers began to target mathematics. They have now created a new enhanced mathematics curriculum. This curriculum, Wins, is an individualized program designed and written by Sankofa and was piloted by Sankofa and another school in Atlanta in the 1998-1999 school year. The program is based on methods that the Sankofa teachers have found successful in teaching their students. First, it is experiential; second, it includes rhythm, rap and rote memorization. Third, it includes advanced mathematics, such as geometry and algebra, in the elementary curriculum. Fourth, it includes the multimodal, multisensory techniques the school advoeates. A statement provided by Baba Fred during the Teacher Focus Group supported the importance of the continual curriculum development process. I think our most significant change, collectively, is when a model somewhere is recognized and someone brings that model back to us and says, "Okay, somebody's doing this, we need to be there” and we just do it. I think that's our most significant change. (Focus Group, 6/4 /97, pp. 6-7) Teachers at Sankofa were trained from the very beginning of their employment to be educator/researchers and they were hired into an environment where teacher learning was not only promoted, but they were assisted and encouraged to learn about the teaching profession and work to improve their professional skills. This, coupled with their commitment to the school’s vision, facilitated change in the school environment. 130 As the following interview quotes indicate, the teachers realized that their commitment to the vision also required a commitment to study, research, and, additioml professional development. Baba Anthony: Well, we have to do research. We have to find out what our people were doing during certain historical events and compare it to what Europeans were doing at the same time. We have to find out who were the first black mathematicians, how did math develop among black people, how did literature develop in Africa as well as in America during and after slavery? So, it takes a lot of research because the standardized books do not have this material and take information strictly from a white, European perspective. So, research is definitely the key. (Baba Anthony Interview 1, 3/20/97, p. l) Baba Julian: The construction of curriculum in this school has been totally African-centered. I have been working night and day as far as learning more about the early roots of mathematics. Being a mathematics teacher and knowing that math probably originated in North Africa, energizes me to educate myself as much as I possibly can about my cultural heritage so that I can discuss math concepts [and African-centered cultural knowledge, history, and culture] on a third, fourth, and fifth grade level. I try to interject information about our cultural heritage in my lessons as much as possible, i.e. , the history of a particular operation or math discipline. However, this curriculum requires I research and study in order to inform my students. (Baba Julian Interview 1, 3/19/97, p. 2) Baba Marcus: My biggest problem is that I have to educate myself more because I did not receive an African-centered education. What I have to do is go above and beyond the normal [teaching responsibilities of public school teachers]. I mean, there are a million and two responsibilities at this school- «by being a charter school, by being a new school, by being African- centered. There are so many things we have to do. We are educating ourselves daily in an African-centered manner, but not necessarily an African-centered way to instruct math. Therefore, I have reading and studies to review how to teach in African-centered manner. I just have to find the time. That to me is my biggest tension now finding the time in which to study, research, and translate that research into math instruction 1(- 5. That's the only problem I have at this point--time. I plan to use my summer to educate myself better in the history of mathematics in an African- centered manner. I have the materials to do it now, and just have to find the time. (Baba Marcus, Interview 111, 4/30/97, p. 4) 131 The school’s goal of continual learning not only contributed to the formation of a learning community at Sankofa (Sankofa Charter, 1995). Continuous leaming helped Sankofa maintain their course—an African-centered charter school-and their mastery of the principles of learning practices and strategies may well have been the reason. Dr. Rivers’ vision and the stast individual and collective commitment to this vision held the teachers together and directed their actions. In recruiting her teachers, Dr. Rivers selected teachers with similar goals, purposes, and interests. She created a team. Because of their personal sense of empowerment, motivation, and commitment to the shared vision, they were able to create African-centered curriculum and implement this curriculum on behalf of Sankofa's students. These morning meetings or Indiaba helped keep the staff focused on mental models, which were created at the meetings, which focused on African-centered reading and instruction for the academic staff. Baba Marcus: 1 think the morning meetings when we talk about what's going on in the school everyday is very important. If there's a problem that needs to be corrected or if there's a situation that's rising, we discuss it. That's probably the most signifieant way we monitor a situation. . . . We talk about what we could probably do, what we could probably change or what adjustments we should make in order to alleviate that problem or overcome it in some way. And that's what I mean, when we discuss all those issues along those types of lines. (Focus Group, 6/4 /97, p. 7-8) In addition, workshops were held to reaffirm and maintain these African-centered and teaching models within the community. The school also made a series of institutional changes (described in Chapter Four), which facilitated the creation and implementation of curriculum and the use of new teaching strategies and practices. However, this change was not automatically apparent. Most of 132 the teacher participants described their previous teaching as traditional. Included in this definition of traditional teaching was lecturing, the use of groups for instruction, focusing on independent skills, and practicing and answering questions. However, teaching at Sankofa required the mastery of an Afiican-centered curriculum using multisensory, multi- model, multi-dimensional strategies--a daunting task. Experiential teaching and learning was the primary teaching strategies. The experiential component of the curriculum was easy for most teachers to accomplish, the other elements were harder to develop. Experiential teaching is customarily taught and promoted in most Colleges of Education. Therefore, it is a teaching strategy that is easily understood by most teachers. When initially observed, the teachers appeared to be using old techniques and practices to frame new knowledge. For example, Baba Anthony was observed teaching African countries and capitals by putting students in teams and playing Jeopardy in order to rehearse and recall prior knowledge. Mama Charlene’s students out out pictures of planets and pasted them on construction paper and made mobiles when she was teaching students about the solar system. These examples indicate that at first the Sankofa teachers caste their new experiential knowledge in traditional ways. In effect, putting new wine in old bottles. However, as the teachers attended workshops, were visited by African-centered scholars and speakers, were exposed to more African-centered models, and were able to discuss their practice and teaching strategies, the teaching at Sankofa changed. One major 133 impetus was their trip to Egypt, where they received first-hand experience of the history, culture, and knowledge that they had been teaching their students.‘I Over the research and observation period, Mama Charlene, the teacher with the least amount of teaching experience, seemed to change her teaching practices the most. She immediately tried new approaches, including new ways of grouping students, the use of multi-sensory and multi-model teaching strategies, etc. Sometimes these efforts failed, but she appeared to be continually making small steps to teach in an innovative African- centered manner. The teachers also began to create innovative strategies geared to the learning styles of their students. When first observed, Mama Charlene’s classroom appeared to be too out of control for true learning to take place. However, as the observations continued, she gained control of her class and became the most experiential teacher, taking students to the river to collect water samples to demonstrate pollution, and creating a garden to study plant life. She, and the other teachers, began to use rap, rhythm, and rhyme with the children to memorize facts and to retain information. The teachers all became more innovative in the use of experiential teaching and learning, making their Midwest community a prominent part of their learning process. Mama Charlene: I believe that the professional development model has helped me to teach more holistically. I do not use just one strategy in the classroom. For example, I just don’t use reading with the group, and expect that all ldds will learn because you know they pick up different t0pics differently. So, I think I am evolving as a holistic professional. I have learned to do a multitude of strategies, i.e., reading writing, listening, sensory, multi-sensory activities are very important. I also create models, and mobiles, to try and make learning real for them. They create poster “ All the teachers at Sankofa, including Baba Fred and Julian who taught the second year, went to Egypt. In addition, this researcher also accompanied the group. 134 boards, depending on whatever topic that we are working on. We also use the computer, videos, television, etc. , depending on the activity. (Mama Charlene Interview IV, 6/ 13 I97, p. 1) Baba Anthony was the most advanced teacher in using multi-sensory/multi-modal teaching strategies and practices. His class was constantly making historical presentations and writing plays, which they performed, for the Sankofa community. As the Social Studies teacher, he also had a wealth of previously obtained and new knowledge concerning African and African American history and culture to teach his students and the skills from prior teaching experience to enact the changes required by the curriculum. Baba Anthony: It is very easy for me to infuse African-centered knowledge into my curriculum and lesson, but some think we just learn about ourselves, but that's not the case. The case is that we're trying to give them proper information. When an American history teacher in the public schools teaches about the unjustness at the hands of King George, they are not teaching them [their students] to hate British people. That's an historical fact. But if we uncover some of the subtle truths about slavery that aren't being portrayed in most books, that goes deep into the idea that we still fear Caucasian people. Anything that seems to conflict with them being a total . and complete power kicks in our slave mentality and the protection mode comes out. (Baba Anthony, Interview 11, 5/15/97.p 3.) Baba Marcus valued the program and its curriculum. However, because his class, ‘Critical Thinking and Problem Resolution’ was new, it was often unclear how change was being implemented in his own practice. However, his class discussions were filled with dialogue between him and his students geared to enhancing their problem-solving abilities. It was the most unconventional and conversational class in the building. When he co-taught with the math teacher, Baba Julian, the discussions became more mathematical in nature and subjects like probability, statistics, and averages were discussed. 135 Finally, of the two teachers who came the second year, Baba Fred, despite never teaching in an elementary school, had the easiest time creating and implementing an African-centered curriculum. Baba Fred: Okay. It's very easy, fortunately for me, in Language Arts because when we're doing literature and poetry, we always begin with African Americans or African writers and poets. Maya Angelou, Nikki Giovanni, James Baldwin, and what they have to say about race and various topics. We take African American poets, for instance, Nikki Giovanni, and compare what she says to Walt Whitman or Shakespeare. So, it's very easy for me to always bring African and African American writers into the classroom and compare their works with others. Now, with grammar it's a little bit more difficult because grammar's just standard, it's just basic parts of speech, punctuation, that sort of thing, but we'll use sentences that have sort-of African themes. The younger classes are doing the eight parts of speech. They're constructing cartoon characters for the verb, noun, pronoun, etc. They make their cartoon characters black to resemble themselves or their friends or their family members so you'll see Afros, braids, and that sort of thing. (Baba Fred, Interview 11, 3/21/97, p. 3) However, Baba Julian, who came to Sankofa with the most teaching experience, struggled to incorporate African-centered knowledge, history, and culture into his lessons or to teach in an African-centered manner because mathematics, as a subject area, was resistant to the infusion of African-centered information, knowledge, and culture. Therefore, his success was limited. In addition, he still had to teach the CORE curriculum and prepare students for the MEAP. Baba Julian: Yes, I am still struggling-J do not know whether you were going to ask this latter, but I am still struggling with incorporating African- cantered knowledge into my math lessons. Time is required in addition to class preparation time. . . and I am constantly going to the library on my own time to pick up additional information. To be an effective teacher I attempt to incorporate the information that I receive from the library and from the community. (Baba Julian Interview IV, p. 2, 5/31/97) The teachers who entered Sankofa that first and second fall were for the most part novice teachers who were still being inducted into the profession. Most teachers at Sankofa 136 had less than four years of teaching experience and the average age of the teachers was 29 years old. Therefore, most had not been inducted into a traditional public school environment. Nor had they been inducted and mentored by teachers who set limitations for their students. This fact is important because when teachers are asked to describe the process in which they learned to teach, most teachers begin by talking about their first job. College education courses and student teaching are secondary to their initial teaching experience and it is the collective wisdom among teachers that one learns by teaching (Kennedy, 1991). 'n ° n r Teaching at the school was a commitment-based effort in which the teachers had made a choice to participate in this environment because they believed it is right for them. ”If members of your organization are committed, the leadership for relating, measuring, learning, redesigning, and standardizing comes from each member. People continually learn and improve their own and others performance” (Senge, 1994, p. 448). This commitment will be enhanced when teachers see how change is better for the students. At the most general level, the problem of promoting changes in teacher practice is a problem of promoting learning in adults. Adults seldom learn new skills or attitudes on demand. . . . External demand is largely ineffective in stimulating learning; the motivation to learn must come from within. (Elmore & McLaughlin, 1988, p. 42) The goal of the school was for an African-centered individualized program, which is a daunting task for any classroom teacher. Individualization by the educator is necessary for success. Individualization is a contract of expectation. The contract monitors individual program and plan strategies and alternatives for success for accomplishing the 137 expectations. The student knows the expectations and the hurdles to cross to reach the finish line. Each student has personal time with the instructor for designing, implementing, coordinating, and evaluating. The plan is designed based on the needs, implemented on the student’s interests, and evaluated on the educational purpose. Plans are made by students to meet the needs, the interests, and ability of each other. Students are provided opportunities for success. (Rivers, 1995, pp. 22-23) Dr. Rivers’ vision for the school also promoted experiential, multicultural, multi- sensory, and multi-modal teaching strategies. Therefore, there was an apparent difference in culture, environment, and strategies practiced by the teachers immediately. Baba Fred: It [my strategy] has changed somewhat in that I believe in more of an experiential approach. I believe in using all different types of techniques to get children to learn. Therefore, in that aspect my teaching strategy has kind of changed. I used to be more driven toward, ”Okay, it's out there, kids should have the initiative you know, the stamina to kind of get it on their own. " Now, I believe in pushing them a little bit harder in applying and using other different types and techniques, rather than just coming in and lecturing and whether they get it, they get it, whether they don't, they don't. So, I've kind of changed in that way (Baba Fred Interview IV, 5/31/97, p. 2) At Sankofa students were working individually, in small groups, and as a whole class sharing ideas. Teachers were developing teaching and learning strategies across disciplines and implementing them into the classroom. Discussion and the development of critical thinking skills was the prominent feature of each classroom The teachers met daily and genuine collaboration took root. In daily discussions, they focused on school goals and the greater understanding of all subjects; becoming familiar with new instructional models; providing a supportive environment for students while simultaneously creating a new institutional structure. Each teacher brought his/her expertise to the teaching and learning environment and to their discussions. As their biographies indicated, they also brought their experience of being African American in the 138 America’s Eurocentric public school system. This provided them with personal knowledge of the special needs of their students. Each teacher also brought questions about the new curriculum, uncertainties about how it would be accepted by students as well as parents, and curiosity about whether the curriculum would be effective. A portion of every daily meeting was focused on learning more about African-centered knowledge and history. In the Indiaba, there were constant discussions, sometimes arguments, about which strategy would be effective or ineffective in this or that class or which readings to assign, or what would be the theme for a particular term. In addition, each teacher was constructing his or her own curriculum by conducting individual research. Teachers came into the morning meeting with new information that they had found in the library or discovered at a recently attended seminar. From the start, the teachers at Sankofa were a cultural community. The teachers and the students were all African American. However, by the end of this research and observation period, they had gone a long way to the formation of a professional community of learners as well.‘2 These teachers had the desire to make changes in order to positively affect the academic achievement of the students in their eare. They believed that African- centered education would create a more meaningful environment. Therefore, they were open and receptive to new ideas, willing to experiment, and ready to inquiry about new ways of teaching in an African-centered manner. Finally the teachers shared with each other what they knew about teaching, learning, and leading. They were colleagues. a This researcher witnessed the first two years of this school‘s development. It is anticipated that this school will continue to develop and evolve over the course of its existence. 139 The teachers exhibited strong signs of interdependence and collegiality (Little, 1990). They routinely shared ideas and materials, assisted and supported each other in instruction, assessment and curriculum, and evaluated and assessed each other’s performance. Each marking period the teachers evaluated their own and their peers' performance. The administration was also evaluated and the school also assessed the satisfaction of their students, teachers, and parents. A major reason for this interdependence was Dr. Rivers’ insistence upon cooperative learning and teaching. Therefore, there was workplace value placed on this type of teaching and this value extended beyond the school and was affected by their beliefs concerning what was good not only for the school, but for the greater community. The ‘It takes a whole village to raise a child’ philosophy which permeated the entire school environment, created a school-wide philosophy which found individualism without total community success repugnant (Bellah et a1. , 1985). Sankofa was governed and the teachers taught as members of a village. The underlying principles were of independence and interdependence, striving for the academic achievement of all children. The Sankofa teachers came to the educational environment with their personal sense of empowerment fueled by their previous perspective transformation. Teachers who believe that they, as individuals and as teachers, can develop strategies to further student learning have the will to continue looking for better ways. The trust element, which characterized all successful collaborations, was evident at Sankofa early. One major reason may have been their natural collegiality due to their similarities in backgrounds and experiences. This social collegiality was the foundation of their trust, which assisted in the teachers’ formation 140 and maintenance of a professional community of learners. From the inception of the school, the teachers saw themselves as colleagues, as collaborators. When teachers become colleagues, they are committed, they share a vision and goals, and they are interdependent within the school environment. Baba Julian: My definition of a learning community is probably my most drastic change. Before I came to Sankofa, it was ‘my room,’ ‘my kids,’ ‘the students in my classroom;’ was always my focus. Now I view the entire Sankofa community as my responsibility, my community. It starts with pre-school and it ends with the eldest child here. This is a very close knit-atmosphere; we are all familiar with each other; brothers and sisters and even spiritual brother and sisters. We try to foster relationships between older and younger kids for mentorship, for modeling, for academic help. Therefore, my view has broadened considerably. (Baba Julian Interview IV, 5/31/98, p. 2) Baba Anthony: A learning community is a group of people who work through whatever problems they have to reach their goal. I think a lot of people come together with the same idea, but they don’t have the vision or the perseverance to foresee problems and ability to solve them. The major difference here is we have created some type of camaraderie, we like each other. And that is why ideas do not die here. A lot of researchers don’t do a lot on that. They want to know about data and figures. But if people like each other and have a genuine concern for each other, then a lot of the problems that researchers are looking for can be overcome by just patience and forbearing. A learning community, is a group of people with a common goal. It is a group of people who have the willingness to look over whatever problems that may come up to eventually get to that goal. (Baba Anthony Interview IV, 5/31/98, p. 2) Fullan (1982) has proposed three categories of teacher change: the use of new or revised materials; the use of new teaching approaches; and the alteration of beliefs about students, learning curriculum and other matters central to the school’s functioning. The teachers at Sankofa evolved in this matter, but their change was far more complex than that anticipated by Fullan and affected a wider range of factors. From the school’s conception, the teachers and staff realized that the creation of a learning community meant starting from 141 day one with orientation activities to build a school with classroom norms for inquiry and reflection. For example, this school began with an orientation concerning how to teach in African-centered manner; these discussions have continued systematically through its limited school existence. Each day, the teachers met to discuss Afriean-centered readings, teaching and learning strategies, and the needs of their students. The school’s goal was to increase the academic achievement of the students in their care through an African-centered curriculum. Although they were given Dr. Rivers’ outline for the African-centered curriculum, they were constantly rethinking curriculum, using multiple strategies involving more students in the construction of knowledge, and creating learning communities within their classrooms. This has led to the teachers continually assessing their progress and then rethinking their strategies and practice, using different multiple strategies, and finding new ways for students to construct knowledge. Therefore, the ways and means of creating learning communities were under constant evaluation. Baba Marcus: It would have been nicer to have been asked that question [concerning the learning community] at the beginning of my time at Sankofa. This is a difficult question because I guess my concept right now (of a learning community) is probably going to be changing every year. The more I learn about teaching and the more I develop as a teacher, it will of course change. But right now, a learning community is something that is always changing or becoming almost chameleon-like to provide for the needs of the child or to provide for the needs for the school, whatever that might be. It is something that allows for growth not just among children but among teachers also. I don't see it as being constrained in any real way. There is always some possibility for addition to it, and there’s no true perfect learning community. It's like having a perfect tree; a tree is always growing, so it's never the same thing. Or, a river is always flowing, it's always changing. That's how I see a learning community. (Baba Marcus Interview IV, 5/31/97, p. 2) At the beginning of this study, this researcher offered a definition of community. She stated that a community 142 was people unified on the basis of values and meanings, ethical, professional, religious, and conceptual and that communal learning is an innate ability of this association. More importantly, to this researcher community has a spiritual unity that is characterized by a mutual acceptance and understanding and an inner disposition of each member to the other. By the end of this research observation period, all elements of this definition were evident in the Sankofa community. These were teachers who came together to talk about their curriculum, their practice, the academic achievement of their students, but also to ask the deeper questions about issues that affected their lives. The teachers were constantly questioning: What does it mean to be African American in a Eurocentric world? What do you teach African American children to prepare them for this world? What was required from them as African American teachers, mentors, and parents to teach in an African- centered manner? They did not always agree on the answers to these questions, but they did agree to continually strive to assist the student to find the answer to questions that they (the students) felt worth asking about their lives. This constant searching and questioning was the foundation of the school’s spiritualism. In fact, this spirit or spirituality acted as synergy for the activities that occurred at the school. This synergy came from the African- centered philosophies and theories, which were the foundation of the school’s curriculum. Dr. Rivers states: As a leader that's one of the most difficult tasks because we have really never acted in business from an African-centered viewpoint. To try and run a program from an African viewpoint have been not only a learning experience, but also a difficult one, because you have to try to counteract not only the way you've been taught, but also the way you've acted all of your life. One is consensus decision-making". Even though it's my vision, I can't just mandate that everybody think and act a certain way and so we sit down and discuss issues and we come to a consensus so that we operate as one. Everything that we do is based on the ethical principles of Ma’at, ‘5 Sankofa operates through an empowerment site-based model of accountability. 143 or the Nguza Saba, and that's how we judge things, everything we do is based on these principles. We look at those seven principles of Kwanzaa to make sure that we are operating within an African-centered mode. We evaluate staff and the school and everything on those seven principles. One of the other things as a leader is that I look at this school as village and try to work with parents and try to resolve their problems and help them to resolve their problems as they relate to the school. That's been difficult because it would be easier just saying, ‘Well, that's not my problem.’ Another is even with staff, with family, with a village in Africa. Therefore you bring the children to work because basically your work is within the village so everyone shares the responsibility of children. We’ve begun to develop that here where teachers are bringing their babies in and it's difficult to work in an environment and see babies around. I’m trying to make all of this mesh, and it does. But it's a change in thinking, it's a change in behavior, and every time we tackle new issues like that we have to regroup, we have to re-program our minds on how to react to a new situation. So, being a leader in this situation has been difficult, but I'm enjoying it and I think all of us are learning to adapt and are getting more in touch with ourselves, because this is the way we used to be. (Dr. Rivers, Interview IV, 6/30/97, p. 5) Therefore, the school established spirituality based on African-centered principals, which provided the workplace with a language, a moral discourse, connecting teachers to their educational goals and vision for children. This spirituality recognized a communal tradition of care: the felt obligation prior to agency to respond helpfully when needs present themselves, a sense of universality based on needs and feeling, and a common culture and ethnic background. Teaching and learning at Sankofa required teachers to connect to their students with both their hearts and souls, because spiritual questions were embedded not only in the subjects they taught, but also in their own lives. This school emerged as a community because all members of the school shared real concerns about their lives. The school’s spirituality sprang from its quest for interconnectedness in their lives and in the school’s curriculumuthe infusion of Afi-iean-centered philosophy. It was not something that they ‘brought in ’or ‘added to’ the curriculum; it was at the heart of the curriculum, and 144 of everything they taught. When Sankofa children were taught history, it was not taught as "dead facts” , but to emphasize life lessons and the students’ proud past and future. Their science class was taught to demonstrate their connection to nature and its place in their lives. Literature was chosen not only to engage their imagination, but their thoughts about their opportunities. I] E if: E l E E . I C . This study’s major findings are that the teachers’ participation in school-wide African-centered professional development activities and the institutional changes made at the school led to the adoption of African-centered teaching strategies and practices. However, the teachers’ acceptance of these teaching strategies and beliefs were facilitated by the their predisposition (inclinations) to African centered knowledge, culture, and history that they brought to the school environment. These predispositions were: 0 Each of the teachers either knew Dr. Rivers or knew of her vision of African- centered education and accepted this vision prior to assuming employment at the school. 0 Each teacher actively sought out Dr. Rivers' vision of an African-centered school. 0 Each participant came to the environment with the belief that the current educational system did not meet the needs of African American students. 0 Each participant had a definable African-centered world-view and/or perspective and was at the same stage in their racial identity formation. 0 Most of the teachers, except Dr. Rivers and Baba Julian, were novice teachers. 0 Each participant saw their professional participation in the school environment as a way of contributing to the community by increasing the academic achievement of African American students. 145 Once in the school environment, the institutional changes facilitated and supported the change in teaching beliefs, strategies, and practices. These institutional changes had multiple effects: 0 Teachers had time to concentrate on improving their subject- matter skills and abilities. (The amount of time varied with the subject taught.) 0 Teachers began to look at different strategies and ways of teaching in order to reach all students in their classroom. 0 Teachers read and research more because of their commitment to share information daily. Their predisposition, the institutional changes, and the day-to—day interactions facilitated in the teachers forming a professional learning community. The community formation was affected by and effected the teachers’ predispositions to African-centered education, knowledge, and culture and the institutional changes enacted by the school. The characteristics of this community formation were the development of: A Technical Culture Service Ethic Professional Commitment A Collaborative Environment Collegial controls Professional development at the school was a means to maintaining the professional community and keeping the staff focused on the organizational goals. The professional development model of Sankofa’s ultimate goal was changing the school’s culture to support and foster continuous, daily learning for both adults and students. Student and teacher learning was part of the everyday work going on inside and outside of this school through a variety of formal and informal learning experiences: training and sharing workshops, teacher-teacher interaction, one-to-one assistance through coaching and mentoring, 146 meetings, trying out new approaches, observing and being observed, individual and team planning, monitoring results as well as the teaching and learning of elementary students. The teachers came to the educational environment with their personal sense of empowerment fueled by their previous perspective transformations. Teachers who believe that they, as individuals and as teachers, can develop strategies to further student learning have the will to continue looking for better ways. The Sankofa teachers had daily examples of students who were achieving better academically due to their curriculum. This belief appears to be supported by statements made by them during the interview process, anecdotal information, observations, and statements made by Dr. Rivers during her interviews. She stated that she believed that her staff was seeing the affect of teaching in an African-centered manner upon the students in the classroom; watching their reactions, watching their growth; and looking at the test scores rise. When they came back“ and saw the Metropolitan [test scores]... few weeks ago, it blew us away. . . . The model definitely works. (Dr. Rivers, Interview V, 6/30/97, p. 3). The Sankofa teachers worked long hours because in addition to their teaching and school responsibilities, they also had to do research concerning African-centered knowledge and culture to incorporate this information into their lessons. The ease in which this information was incorporated was dependent on the subject they were teaching. Simply by its nature, African—centered knowledge, culture, and history is easier to infuse into some subjects than others. Therefore, the Social Studies and the Language Arts teacher had fewer problems integrating African-centered knowledge in their lessons and curriculum. The logic teacher, the mathematics, and the science teacher expressed problems concerning integration of African-centered knowledge. They had difficulty in finding materials, “ Spring Break 1997. 147 problems with integrating these materials into their lessons, and finding time to do proper research. Teachers who had the easier time infusing African-centered knowledge and culture had more time to work on their teaching strategies and practice as The Potential Effects of Curriculum and Instructional Change Checklist result confirmed. This led to the following findings: 1. The teachers changed certain beliefs as result of their professional development. These data indicate teacher change in the following areas: 0 The type of knowledge needed to impact upon student learning and achievement 0 Beliefs about who can learn and how students learn 0 How knowledge is constructed in the classroom environment 0 The type of teaching strategies necessary to create a learning environment. At Sankofa, teachers shifted their teaching and learning practice from Eurocentric to African-centered. These are teaching and learning strategies and practices geared to the needs of African American children. The school had no special education classes. Children worked at their own pace. As Dr. Rivers stated, ”Our individualized program allows students to work at their own speed. We do not label children. We set individual hurdles for each child to allow them to succeed (Dr. River, Interview IV, 6/30/97l, p. 4). The professional development activities and the African-centered experts that visited the school fortified each of the teacher’s beliefs in African-centered education and its impact on student learning. Baba Julian: My instructional methods and techniques that I use have drastically changed. I have incorporated strategies and teaching practices that I would not have incorporated into my teaching in prior school years. I’ve added concepts associated with African-centered education. I've been able to teach more or less on a one-to—one, hands-on level than I have ever done before because of the smaller class size. I am learning more and more 148 each day because of the books that I read; the conferences that I've been to; the techniques that I have incorporated into my teaching that I've seen other teachers use that work. The biggest way that my teaching has changed probably has been in one of the most difficult aspects of change in teaching, which are my honest efforts to try to meet each child on the level that they are functioning academically when they come to me. I honestly tried to do this before, but with limited success. Most teachers will tell you that it is the most difficult aspect of teaching--you teach to the middle class--some students will be bored because it is too easy; some students will be struggling-«but you teach to the mainstream. Now, I really make a concerted effort to meet each child on his/her individual level. It almost killed me this year, but I've provided work on their level for as many different children as possible. I did not give blanket instruction like I have been guilty of in previous teaching positions. (Baba Julian Interview IV, 5/31/97, p. 2). This comment demonstrates Baba Julian’s change on two levels. One, in his belief in the type of information necessary for each student to learn and second, on its implementation. It also indicates acceptance of Dr. Rivers’ belief in multi-sensory, multi- modal, and multi-dimensional instruction. The teachers changed in this manner individually and as a group. The teachers’ changes in instructional beliefs and practices were verified by their reswnses to the Wants When surveyed, the Sankofa teachers responded that their current practice included the following activities: Analyze practices and effects 100% of the teachers Argue over theory, philosophy, approach 100% of the teachers Ask for help for specific problems 100% of the teachers Assign materials and books 100% of the teachers Credit new ideas and programs 60% of the teachers Critique other teachers 100% of the teachers Describe to other new approaches or strategies for teaching 60% of the teachers Design curriculum or course outlines 100% of the teachers 2. The interdisciplinary approach to teaching practiced in the school environment afforded the teachers the opportunity to work together to develop learning 149 experiences that focus on the needs of their students, their academic requirements, and practice new teaching strategies. This led to multiple effects: 0 Formal and informal sharing of information and teaching and strategies 0 Observing and evaluating each other’s African-centered practice 0 Increased co-teaching and teaching across disciplines 0 Increased creativity and innovation - Increased stress due to increased research and school responsibilities. The interdisciplinary approach to teaching advocated by Dr. Rivers and continually practiced in the school environment afforded the teachers the opportunity to work together to develop learning experiences that focused on the need of their students, their aeademic requirements, and to practice new teaching strategies. The interdisciplinary curriculum provided more diverse options and moved students from rote learning toward synthesizing information. Baba Marcus: I have a greater appreciation for it [interdisciplinary teaching] because I can see where a child, especially elementary school age, when he! she is going from class to class may receive disconnected information. This way things are being connected between those classes and it is easier for that child to learn. It's almost like you are bombarding that child with information. One person might be saying, ”two plus two equals four;" another teacher might be saying, ”four minus two equals two;" ”another person might be saying "one plus three equals four, " but it's all coming from different directions. However, it is related to the same thing. So that child, no matter what, is going to pick up some information dealing with that issue, whether we're talking about Michigan in science, Michigan in math, Michigan in technology, or whatever class that child is in, or just coming up with Michigan words in Swahili or whatever. Then that child is being bombarded and will learn something about Michigan that week. So it' s like almost a synergetic reaction where one plus one does not necessarily equal two, it equals three, because the collective is more than the individual parts. It [interdisciplinary learning] reinforces what we've been doing, but it also kind of helps the children out, too. The students are getting two different perspectives of the same issue, but this method allows them to integrate the 150 information. For example, this week we were talking about sketching and I've been teaching sketching. We talk about the geometric shapes involved, try to see things not necessarily as what they are, but as the shape they are. A church is a rectangle with a triangle on top and a house is the same thing or a tree is kind of like a circular shape with a cylinder at the bottom. So I try talking about that. But when you ean get Baba Julian [the mathematics teacher] to integrate the concept of geometry with that, we ean start talking about the volume of the different shapes, ratio of sizes, how the top of the church can't be bigger than the base of the church or whatever. And it works well with about any other thing that you do, or that I've done with critical thinking. When we start talking about probability in games, I'm teaching them how to play Monopoly where you (the mathematics teacher) talk about the probability of rolling a three on the dice, so how many different ways you can roll a three. Or we can talk about what strategy is and we start talking about the possibilities you can get with a chess game, what are possible end games you can have with the possible starting plays you can have. Therefore, it works out well for both of us. (Baba Marcus Interview IV, 5/31/97, p. 2) The interdisciplinary curriculum gave the Sankofa teachers the opportunity to interact more with other teachers and tap their individual and communal creativity. The result was a school climate that promoted cooperation, not only for teachers, but for students also. As a result of the interdisciplinary teaching, relations increased between subjects. as well as teachers. W W demonstrated that a majority of the Sankofa teachers exchanged teaching assignments with other teachers, gave advice to other teachers and aides when requested, and co-taught and/or were involved with other teachers in cooperative learning experiences. This collegiality was also supported by the previous results of W Curdculnmaadhlmgnalflangechesflist which demonstrated that most, if not all the teachers participated in collaborative activities at the school such as analyzing their practice and its effects, arguing over theory, philosophy, and approach, attending in-services as a 151 group, defending or explaining a specific classroom practice; discussing issues and different approaches, etc. The aforementioned findings indieate the complex nature of change and the interdependence of the professional teaching community and the organizational structure in fostering and sustaining change. Creating a community of professional learners requires personal and professional motivation to change; a goal of improved student teaching and learning; and instructional supports within the school community to support change. 3. Teachers believed that they could personally affect student academic achievement through their individual and collective efforts. This resulted in multiple effects: 0 Increased motivation to learn new African-centered knowledge, culture, and history and teaching strategies 0 Increased innovation and creativity in their teaching and practice 0 Increased incidents of teacher autonomy and judgement. The Sankofa teachers came committed and motivated to accomplish Dr. Rivers’ vision of an African centered charter school. Motivation operates at different times in a teacher's career; however, these teachers were committed to changing the academic achievement of the students in their community. It was a strong motivator to continue change and they were constantly relating, measuring, learning, redesigning, and standardizing this goal in an attempt to improve their own and their student's performance. The Sankofa teachers had both the will and capacity to make institutional changes. They were able to maintain positive attitudes and continue trying to improve despite frustrations beeause they were motivated to accomplish their communal goal. 4. Teachers did not believe that their African-centered curriculum prevented the infusion of multicultural knowledge, culture, and history or that a multicultural 152 curriculum would not benefit from being infused with more African-centered knowledge, culture, and history. Noddings (1997), in her commentary on community, stated that there is a problem associated with ethnocultural communities created to the exclusion of the mainstream, whose sole purpose is to separate rather than unite people. However, this was not the goal of this school. The African-centered environment at Sankofa did not prohibit the discussion of/or the appreciation of other cultures. In fact, multiculturalism was encouraged and was part of the curriculum model. This acceptance of other cultures and people are demonstrated from the following excerpt from the 6/4/98 Focus Group: E: Some of you have already hit on this, but let’s go back to the philosophy of the school. I mean, your program is African-centered in a multicultural world where people are emphasizing the need for multiculturalism. How is the philosophy of African-centered different in this school than, say, or compared to, any other programs you've been in? Baba Marcus: To any other standard program or any other multi-cultural program? E: Yes, any other standard program, or any multicultural, or African- centered or whatever programs you previously taught in. Baba Marcus: Well, I've done some work down at the Malcolm X Academy in Detroit and I've done some work in other places in Flint and in Lansing. When you start bringing up issues of multiculturalism, African-centered-ism, and mainstream or standard education, you start getting a lot of different opinions because there are a lot of different opinions and definitions about those terms. I know in my class I teach with an African-centered twist and try incorporate African-centered things, but sometimes I might find it necessary to talk about dominoes, or when I’m doing some simple addition or matching or whatever then that’s definitely an Asian concept. Or I might talk about different things and what I try to do is if its something that’s definitely from a different culture, I will bring it up to students as being from a different culture. Or when I integrate other cultures into my lesson, Baba Fred: I think that if people think you are African-centered they think that all you do is teach black this, black that, and everything has got be black, 153 black, black! And my belief is that it's in the center, you place it in context, and you give it the attention where it’s never been given before, where curriculums haven't even been developed. What we are used to is having Black History Month in February and that was that. My first black author was Gwendolyn Brooks, only because I had an eighth grade English teacher who was black, who said we were going to read it. That’s the only reason why and I was lucky to have her. People think, ”well, you’re Afi'ican-centered, but you don’t appreciate other cultures. " To me, it’s been the Europeans who’ve been so European-centered, Eurocentric, denouncing everybody else’s culture and put theirs' at the top, the apex of the pyramid and everybody else is below. .. . Baba Anthony: I agree with multiculturalism if it’s properly done. However, multiculturalism is basically been Eurocentric ideology surrounded with a few tan and brown and black pictures in the book and then you mask it as multiculturalism. But I think for multiculturalism to work, there has to be equal representation of all cultures, not just a blurb on page fifty-five for the Asians, a blurb on page eighty-five for the Africans. Baba Marcus: Half a chapter. Baba Anthony: Half a chapter, you said half a chapter. It has to be equal. And I don’t think that European scholars are mature enough to do that. But black people, especially in America, are in a very unique situation. We were slaves, which means we were stripped from all the knowledge of our culture, our pe0ple, and where we come from, so we’re really doing America a favor, something that she should have done a long time ago. And in order to have integration, the root of the word integration is “integer," and integer is a whole number. You can’t take a people who were divided up and split into fractions and integrate because we’ll become a part of somebody else’s whole. 80, we have to remake black people again in order for there to be true multiculturalism because how can there be multiculturalism when we don’t know our own culture? Baba Julian: Someone cannot teach you a culture they know nothing of. And for my experience in the public school systems, cultural education was nil. I’ve undergone on-going in-service and teacher this, and teacher that since 1988, and I’ve never had a cultural workshop until I came to Sankofa, and that was on my own culture. And it was a shame that I had to wait that long in the context of an educational system to learn more about my own culture. Anytime before that, it would be something that I’d done on my own. Teachers are not receiving cultural in-services in this country and [and because of this] Eurocentric thought prevails and it will always prevail. What we do now is to arm our children with the converse and say, ”This is what we did. You’re not going to learn it anywhere else, but this is what we did. And this is what we do and this is what we’re capable of.” (pp. 2-3) 154 Therefore, the Sankofa teachers did not believe that the acceptance of and appreciation of other cultures would distract from the school’s goal of an African-centered elementary charter school to increase the academic achievement of the students under their care. 5. All of the teachers were able to articulate the benefits of the curriculum. These benefits included increased teacher creativity and freedom; the ability to create curriculum geared to the needs of their students, the ability to rectify the effects of socialization, and a decrease in disciplinary problems. The teachers, as a whole, felt that their curriculum provided them with the freedom to act more creatively and to create curriculum for the needs of their students. Baba Marcus: Well, from my perspective what makes the school different along the lines of curriculum construction is that we pretty much have the freedom to decide what we want to integrate into our curriculum. We can push a little harder in certain directions and we can try to make it more interesting for the children with those efforts. That's something that I really appreciate. I have pretty much free control over how to integrate stuff into the curriculum. I mean there are still limitations. We want to make sure we cover everything as much as possible. (Focus Group, 6/4/97, p. 7) Baba Fred: . . . You have the Afriean—centered concept then you go out and you find things and you work around it, rather than just going to some big, thick book that tells you what you’re supposed to do this week and what you’re supposed to do this nine weeks. So, the freedom and ease of it, it sort of allows you to be a lot more creative. (Focus Group, 6/4/98, p. 7) The teachers also believed that their African-centered curriculum resulted in a decrease in disciplinary problems. During the Focus Group, the teachers made the following comments concerning this topic. Baba Anthony: I just think the school doesn't allow for much deviation outside of what's proper in behavior. Of course, you have some of the little things, like someone talking about someone else, and that kind of stuff. But, as far as fights and stuff, that's almost unheard of here. Cursing, disrespecting teachers, that kind of stuff is almost unheard of. So, I think that the philosophy and the curriculum have a lot to do with it as well. 155 Baba Marcus: I have to agree with Baba Anthony. I mean, the fights that I saw when I was teaching in [another] elementary school where they had something totally different from what we would call fights here. A fight here might be a push and then the other student touches the student back, but after that it's over. In public schools, I've seen it go out into the streets, get carried over into their own neighborhoods and everything else like that. Here it's just to a lesser degree. I mean, the things that we consider behavior problems or discipline problems here are minor, super-minor infractions compared to what happens in a regular elementary school. At Sankofa, our problems are students who are talking too much, or students that might be talking out of turn. That, again, probably goes back to children being energetic, where public schools might call them hyperactive or whatever. But whatever you want to label our children, I mean, there's a way to deal with it and there's a way to overcome that and still educate that child... . If you look at a regular public school, you‘d see that the child stays with pretty much the same teacher all day long. You would think that they would have more control over those children having them all day long, where we get to catch stuff and nip it in the bud. You look at the way we have it. We keep the children for what--one hour each day? And we have fewer incidents and fewer problems and potentially there's more of a probability to have more problems since the kids are moving from teacher to teacher and each teacher doesn't know how that child was doing earlier. But we haven't had any problems like that. So, you have to give credit to something that's going on here. I think that a good part of it's been Baba" Anthony's"s star-sheet system, but I think a good part of it has been just the whole structure. I think reaffirrnation might not get as much credit, but if you keep having that child saying certain things over and over again about why they're here every morning and having them repeat it at the end of the day; pretty soon it'll start to sink in. I believe that they soon realize that we need unity, that we need to cooperate in certain ways, and that we live by certain principles. They realize that we have certain things that we hold as a priority for ourselves. (p. 3) The aforementioned findings indicate the complex nature of change and the interdependence of the professional teaching community and the organizational structure in fostering and sustaining change. Creating a community of professional learners requires as All teachers at Sankofa are called 'Marna' (female) or ’Baba' (male). “ Baba Anthony’s star pyramid system consists of giving each student a sheet consisting of three pyramids at the beginning of each week. Teachers give students stars for good behavior and staying on task in and outside of class. On Thursday evening, the star sheets are collected and students who meet specific set standards are given special treats and privileges on Friday. 156 personal and professional motivation to change; a goal of improved student teaching and learning; and instructional supports within the school community to support change. 157 CHAPTER SEVEN FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION Intmdnctinn This single-case study focused on how teachers in an African-centered charter school attempted to change their beliefs, teaching strategies, and practices from a Eurocentric perspective to an African-centered perspective while implementing institutional changes in their school environment through African-centered, empowered, professional development activities. This case study attempts to understand the dynamics of instructional and curriculum change within this group of teachers. This change in teachers, collectively and individually, in one school, was examined and the results of this case-study were synthesized, focusing on the Afriean—centered elementary teachers who are engaged in new roles: as learners, as researcher-educators, and as leaders in the implementation of an African-centered curriculum and socially, empowered, professional development activities. This researcher used Friere's Theory of Emancipative/Liberatory Learning (1970) to examine the change in teacher beliefs and practices and Fullan’s (1982) Theory of Teacher Change to examine the teacher modifieations or changes in that same area. Finally, Mezirow's (1991) Theory of Perspective Transformation provided a framework for evaluating the ways and means of the change or lack of change in the teachers' perspectives and/or beliefs. The teachers' responses from interviews and focus group questions, as well as classroom observations, and the researcher's participation and observation of professional development activities were the foundation of the research. School documents (i.e. , the 158 school charter, the annual report, proposals, etc.) were collected and analyzed. In addition, teacher documents were also collected including their resumes, class curriculums, and lesson plans. The observations and collected materials helped the researcher to form questions for the teachers' interviews. Finally, the results of The Potential Effects of Curriculum and Instructional Change Checklist (Appendix Q) were compared and contrasted to the previously received data and a framework for reporting the data was created. For Friere and Mezirow, knowledge is continually created and re-created as people reflect and act on the world. Paulo Friere (1970) proposed that adult personal growth is dependent on a relationship between political action and reflection. Friere believes that adults learn and grow best when the learning is experiential with an opportunity for reflection. Through political, social, and economic action an individual can be transformed through a process of conscientization,47 which requires reflection on that action. Friere believes that there is an interrelationship between personal and social transformation with individual adults moving toward conscientization. Mezirow's Theory of Perspective Transformation describes the cognitive process that Friere calls critical consciousness. According to Mezirow (1990), perspective transformation is the shift in an individual's meaning perspective or worldview orientation. Reflection is integral to a perspective transformation which “may occur in a classroom, in social action groups and or boardroom” (Scott, 1992, p. 49). ‘7 Conscientizstion is the rejection of an oppressive consciousness, awareness of the oppressive situation, and finding one’s own language to redefine and transform reality. 159 At the research site, these theories can be viewed concurrently with Fullan's (1982) findings concerning teacher change, which suggest that teacher change has three dimensions: a) use of new or revised materials, b) the use of new teacher approaches and/or strategies, and c) a change in beliefs and outcomes. At Sankofa, the teachers were creating and implementing an African-centered curriculum, which required the revision of old materials and the acquisition of new ones, the utilization of new approaches or strategies, and eventually a change in belief systems of the teachers. At first glance, the findings derived from the data fit into the framework of traditional research concerning changes in teacher beliefs and practices and institutional change at the school. At Sankofa, the teachers were given free will to learn and construct their practice and curriculum at their own pace. The goal of African-centered curriculum taught at the school, as well as the professional development activities, was knowledge of African-centered history and culture, self-knowledge, and empowerment. This empowerment fueled change, providing the basis for commitment to the vision, and spurred creativity in teacher practices and beliefs. Sankofa had a new educational identity. It did not have to operate or respond to change like most schools. Schools usually attempt to maintain the status quo to minimize uncertainty within the work environment, concentrating on improving existing routines or structures, rather attempting to formulate radically different ones. This results in teachers adding new practices on to old ones (McLaughlin, 1990). These are called ”first order changes, " which improve the efficiency of the school without upsetting what already existed 160 (Cuban, 1990). These types of changes, however, only solve short-term problems. Therefore, fundamental (second-order) changes in instructional practices are unlikely to luppen because the goal of improvement is lost as the teachers focus on achieving the goal of the add-on to old practice (Ibid.) However, the faculty of Sankofa was faced with creating a curriculum and professional developments activities for a new public school entity and had no old organizational structure to protect. Therefore, they attempted fundamental changes by creating a place where quality work for students and high professional standards for teachers were maintained through various ongoing learning activities. An essential factor in developing the school culture was the belief that teachers' work must be honored, supported, and trusted before they could honor students (Sankofa Charter, 1995). The traditional research concerning teacher change in beliefs and practices is not totally applicable to what was occurring at the research site. The conceptual foundation of this research was the work of Bellah (1996), Friere (1971), Mezirow (1981), Noddings (1986), and Senge (1990a and 1990b) concerning the formation of learning organizations and learning communities and the conditions to sustain lifelong learning and the empowerment of all participants. A learning community encourages collaboration and team learning (Barth, 1990). Senge sees a learning organization as one “where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of drinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually learning how to learn together” (Senge, 1994, p. 3). Within a learning culture, critical reflection is the foundation for dialogue which can teach all members of the organization, at all levels, to go beyond their individual 161 understanding of their assumptions and thus gain a greater understanding or meaning of their goals and collective vision for inquiry and feedback. Members then share their learning with members of the community through network structures and teams, which empower them to make decisions that affect their jobs and the school. At Sankofa, the teachers were empowered on several levels--in their classroom, in the school environment, in their own learning. This empowerment fueled the changes occurring at the school. Continual learning was emphasized as they discussed new African-centered knowledge, culture, and history, as well as African-centered teaching models. The similarities of the teachers were additional factors in their ability to form a professional community. A review of the initial data confirmed the teachers eame to Sankofa with similarities that facilitated their acceptance of the African-centered curriculum and environment. They had similar backgrounds, culture, and worldviews. In addition, most of the teachers not only knew Dr. Rivers, but also each other prior to accepting a position at the school. Most were friends, who went to college together, were on the same college track team, attended the same church, or took their children to the same nursery. Therefore, they had a shared history prior to coming to the school. Their work at Sankofa just continued this history. Because of this previous association, their communications were more open and honest. As Baba Anthony stated, "the major difference here is we have created some type of earnaraderie, we like each other” . Most teaching communities do not have the opportunity to know and trust each other or to develop the trust necessary for collaboration to occur. Therefore, these predispositions allowed them to create a professional community directed at the school's goals more easily because they were able to collaborate with each other from the beginning. 162 Because of these dispositions, their communication was honest and they felt free to challenge each other and openly disagree with each other's views. In fact, a peer evaluation system for teachers, parents, and administrators was conducted each marldng period at school. They did not always agree with each other, but when conflicts did arise, each member was encouraged to discuss their ideas and seek a resolution. This type of discussion and resolution created a supportive environment, which encouraged change while facilitating community formation. It is this researcher's belief that these teachers easily adjusted to this new teaching style and were able to create new practices and curriculum because of their personal sense of empowerment and commitment to the vision, which they brought to the school. In addition, similarities in worldview and being at a similar stage in the formation of their racial identity, also fueled the community development and the change occurring at the school. All the teacher participants at the research site came to the school with an African- centered worldview. An African worldview is the ethos of oneness, of the unity and continuity of all elements of life, which emerges from a shared African Ameriean cultural identity derived from Africa and maintained through ”the unique spirit and spiritual being“ (Richards, 1985, p. 211). It is not an individual or idiosyncratic response to experience, but a reaction and response shared by the larger community. Sharing common heritage and events creates emotional bonds (between and among the people) thus, forming their cultural society. This similarity in outlook may have allowed this group of teachers to form a professional community because they were already a cultural one. If teachers come to an environment with a common vision, educational philosophy, and similar levels of commitment to change, their cultural and ethnic background may make community 163 development easier. African-centered knowledge, culture, and philosophy not only provided the educational foundation for the change, but were also the basis for spiritual development. This spiritualism required that the teachers to give ”gifts from the heart that breathe spirit” into the school and was a "spiritual quest" (Bolman & Deal, 1994, p. 12) to find the best solutions to the educational problems of their students. Current organizational cultures are unable to support the kind of learning needed to transform teachers' capacity for learning and thinking and to create new learning organizations. Therefore, the administration and staff at Sankofa restructured their school daily to accommodate this process. Finally, the teachers at Sankofa developed and fostered a professional learning community. They developed several conditions essential to community: 1) Development of Group Identity; 2) Commitment to the Vision; 3) Caring and Nurturing Environment; 4) Similar Worldview and Background; 5) Flexible Group Roles; 6) Transformational Leadership; and 7) An Ethic of Caring and Spirituality. WW From the beginning, the members of the Sankofa teaching team were a community because of their similarities in worldview and being at the same stage of their racial identity formation. The school required each teacher to research and write their subject curriculum. In addition, although Dr. Rivers and the Board of Directors planned professional development activities, individual teachers also had to locate workshops, seminars, etc. to improve their subject and African-centered knowledge. Finally, the teachers met each day to discuss African—centered knowledge, history, and culture. Therefore, they were continually learning on several levels as well as teaching. 164 These activities assisted the teachers in developing a collective identity. They were more than individual teachers teaching at an African-centered charter school. They became a group that was making a significant impact on their own and their students' learning. Their similarities helped them to bond quickly with a minimum of unhealthy conflict. As they bonded, the group began to see itself as part of an interdependent community of learners. That is not to say that there were not problems at Sankofa. As Baba Anthony jokingly said about the limited space the school provided and the hours that each teacher spent with each other and at the school (ten to twelve hours a day)-"Familiarity often breeds contempt. " But Baba Julian best described the collective and overriding view of their process when he said, "Sankofa becomes your life. " A group identity is important to the development of strong group members. In the case of Sankofa, the teachers came committed and motivated to accomplish Dr. Rivers' vision of an African-centered charter school. Their similarities in background, beliefs, and perceptions allowed them to express their views freely, listen and respond to each other, and to explore options in an open, safe, nurturing, environment. However, these teachers were not simply followers; pe0ple ”finding their identify in the group because with it they have no viable self" (Noddings, 1997, p. 247). These teachers argued, discussed, and compromised about the education of the children in their community. African-centered edueation bought them together, but they did not always agree on its direction or approach. 165 For the Sankofa teachers, commitment emerged as a major component of their experience. According to Senge, schools must function as learning organizations to be able to adopt systematic change. Students, administrators, and teachers all perform ”knowledge work" toward the accomplishment of the organizations' goalsuthe professional development and growth of all members. In this model, each person brings to the work environment their personal resources of skills and knowledge to the accomplishment of this work and is relied upon to bring their personal commitment and responsibility to their work performance, whether they are a student, teacher, or administrator. Members share equally in responsibility for making the group work based on their shared visions. In this ease, the learning community began to develop with the teachers' acceptance of each and every element of Dr. Rivers' vision and their commitment to actively engage in professional development. This commitment was expressed on several levels at Sankofa. Teachers' commitment to research and write curriculum, their commitment to continual learning, their commitment to teach in an African-centered manner; and their commitment to meet every day to discuss new information concerning African—centered teaching, learning, etc. Therefore, there was a commitment to their self, to the process, to the group, to the individual teachers that made up the group, and to the Sankofa students. As the group evolved, there was a high level of reciprocity. However, as a whole, the degree of commitment to their goal appeared to be consistent among most group members. Teaching at the school was a commitment-based effort in which the teachers had made a choice to participate in this environment because they believed it was right for them. 166 C' III'E' The Sankofa teachers conducted their work in an environment that encouraged creativity and risk-taking. As a whole, their communication was honest and they felt free to challenge each other and openly disagree with each other's views and seek a communal resolution. This type of resolution is only possible in the context of a supportive and collaborative environment. Obtaining teacher commitment to a vision requires that both teachers and administrators actively support their work and communicate to each other about what they see as worthwhile in both their work and life. The teachers at Sankofa created a new curriculum, professional development activities, and a school day that accommodated both teacher and student learning. At Sankofa, the school administration and the teachers recognized that if teachers are to change their practice, they must be provided with the opportunities to learn about change and how it will affect daily work. Teachers saw a need for change and were committed to learning new ideas and ways of learning. This commitment was enhanced when teachers saw how the change was better for students. As the process continued, the teachers developed self- efficacy, confident about their ability to carry out change, and saw the change as professionally practical. 5”] ll!!!’ IE! 1' Most of the teachers also came to Sankofa with a definable African-centered worldview and were at a similar stage in the formation of their racial identity. Being in the same stage of their racial identity formation may have assisted the change process occurring at school and reduced conflicts within the environment. Racial identity is embedded in 167 social, cultural, and the historical contexts of one community even in adulthood. The teachers, being of the same race and at the same stage of their racial identity formation, assisted in the development of community. W Every member of the teaching team was part of a whole and saw himself or herself as interchangeable. They took on different roles, which assisted the group's learning process. Their ability to serve in different roles and functions relieved tension and kept the group on task because no group member' s role or responsibilities were ever fixed. This was evident in the functioning of the school. Dr. Rivers saw herself as a facilitator of the educational efforts taking place in the environment. She fostered the leadership abilities of her staff by allowing each of the teachers to take lead roles whenever possible; i.e. , sometimes Mama Charlene was the leader of a discussion or activity; other times Baba Julian or Baba Marcus, etc. The staff worked long hours, but the workload was constantly shifting in an attempt to distribute it evenly among the teachers. f ' r hi The leader plays a significant role in the development of a learning community. As the leader, Dr. Rivers facilitated the process by paying attention to the group's dynamics and not letting any member dominate and manipulate others. Her style of facilitation had a lot to do with how the group functioned. Dr. Rivers, as the leader and the developer of the vision, encouraged critical discourse on how the group would accomplish its work together. As the leader, she valued and respected each member's experience and 168 knowledge and encouraged group members to begin to see the value in the knowledge of others as well as themselves; becoming more open, strafing their knowledge, learning from others, and creating new knowledge with others. Transformational leaders, like Dr. Rivers, provide the proper focus for the learning and change occurring in the environment by helping staff members develop and maintain a collaborative professional school culture, fostering teacher development, and helping staff solve problems more effectively. Therefore, effective teacher development can affect the ways teachers personally change the organizational culture and use a systems-thinking approach to problem-solvin g in their workplace environment. A transformational leader, like Dr. Rivers, also provides a focus and framework for school restructuring. Transformational school leaders can help the staff in the development of collaborative and professional behaviors within the school culture, create conditions favoring teacher development, and enhance the staff's collective and individual problem-solving capacities. A transformational leader focuses on teamwork within the school environment and seeks comprehensive school improvement. 'n i ' i Sankofa was a community that was created with an ethic of caring and an almost zealot—like passion for the principles of African—centeredness. The term "caring” has a multitude of formal and informal meanings. Noddings (1986) has characterized ”caring” as relational, reciprocal, situated, and the result of commitment. Gilligan (1982) emphasized that those who care most recognize that they have a ”moral imperative to discern the ‘real and recognizable trouble’ of this world” (p. 100), while Buber (1985) 169 emphasizes a specific need which comes from caringuthe need for liberation. Like Friere, Buber believes caring is personal and spiritual phenomenons with full liberation the result of the release of power. Caring, as conceived and nurtured at Sankofa, can best be described as familial. Teachers, teaching assistants, and other staff members were called Mama (female) and Baba (male) and the school, like most urban schools, was filled with siblings. However, at Sankofa, as Baba Julian noted, there were also ”spiritual brothers and sisters and spiritual mothers and fathers. " Nobles (1974b) has stated that the African American family system can be thought of as African in nature and American in nurture. Noddings (1997) would appear to agree. She states "... the Black Mother—a figure of great strength in Afriean- I I‘ American communities. Mother' in this context is an honorary title, one granted to those who extend beyond their own families” (p. 266). The family and its importance in the liberation of African Americans is emphasized at Sankofa. Therefore, at Sankofa, fanrily was both nurtured and natural. In addition, African-centered knowledge and culture assisted the development of community. This spirit came from teaching their students about the spirit of their ancestors, people of African heritage who had overcame insurmountable odds to excel and succeed. Embedded in their practice were aspects of the soul ”emotional vitalism, spontaneity, natural tendencies, rhythm, and spiritualism” (Oladélé, 1999, p. 6). The teachers set high expectations for students because they believed their students could learn. Therefore, they taught them to believe in themselves. The students at the school were taught affirmations, which they chanted at the beginning and end of the school day, to help and cope with life and to build self-esteem. Finally, students were encouraged to develop 170 their ability to discuss meaningful topics in large and small cooperative learning groups. The staff sought to educate the total person. Their belief and support of Afriean-centered education and the principles of African centeredness were the driving forces and soothing cushions for all disagreements that occurred in the school environment. It created a moral purpose and language for the teaching and learning occurring at the research site, spurred by the realization by all members of the teaching staff that "schools are major players in developing educated persons who acquire an understanding of truth, beauty, and justice against which to judge their own and society's virtues and imperfections” (Goodlad, 1990, p. 25). These beliefs provided a sense of bonding to others in the community and to each other. The teachers believed that their school was a site at which they lived and modeled their faith in the principles of Ma'at, N guza Saba, and Kwanzaa and the other African-centered theories and principles in order to improve the academic achievement and moral character of their students and to strengthen their Midwest community. Finally, the school fostered the professional characteristics necessary to make the change: a technical culture through continual in—house professional development; a service ethic through student and teacher commitment to the maintenance of their community and a commitment to solving the problems that faced their Midwestern community; a professional commitment to teaching and learning in African-centered manner for the academic achievement of their students; collaborative environment through daily discussions, monthly professional development seminars, and interdisciplinary teaching; and collegial controls, which consisted of peer, student, and parent evaluations. 171 Cnnclnsinns The professional development created at the site used a holistic approach, which expanded the teaching to include the education of the total person, and teaching and learning which integrated the professional education and activities of teachers with the introduction of organizational and curriculum changes. At Sankofa this has meant increased person to person contact, sensory experiences, and ceremony and rituals. Teaching and learning activities provided opportunities for in—depth teacher learning, discussion, and collaboration. In traditional school schedules, sufficient time for professional development is not normally integrated into the school day, which is the case at Sankofa. Educational policy, responsibility overload, and fragmentation combine to reduce teachers' motivation for implementing educational reform and institutional and organization changes. At Sankofa, the school administration and the teachers recognized that if teachers are to change their practice, they must be provided with the opportunities to learn about change and how it will affect daily work. They also must see a need for change and must be committed to learning new ideas and ways of learning. This comrrritrnent is enhanced when teachers see how the change is better for students, when they feel confident and competent about their ability to carry out change, and see change as professionally practical. The changes at the research site confirm the fact that teachers must be active participants in educational reform and institutional and curriculum changes. They also must be better prepared to assume leadership roles in their professional development and their school environment. An effective professional development program provides adequate time for teachers to acquire, practice, and reflect on new concepts and skills, and also, time to collaborate and interact with peers. 172 To be successful, professional development must cultivate common knowledge, values, and a language-based establishment of a strategic planning process, development of peer support, and provisions for technieal assistance. Professional development must be driven by forces internal to the school, its culture, and its practice-base, supplemented by external assistance on-site. The change process must deal directly with conflicting beliefs about learning potential and quality standards and conflicting practices in instruction and measurement of student performance. Participants must work toward achieving a school and building an environment that promotes high and consistent expectations for all learners. Practice fails to change because teachers often do not have opportunities for ”thoughtful teaching and learning” which means lessons, teaching, class interactions, student-teacher relationships, and student assessment that promote the work of the mind. Professional development is an emerging view of faculty development that places teachers in charge of their own professional growth. Therefore, a fundamental aspect of professionalism is assuming responsibility for one's professional development. For a learning organization to exist, it must be composed of individual learners who can be encouraged through the school's shared vision and the commitment of participants to continually learn. The Sankofa teachers had this environment. Leadership is also an important issue in teacher development. Dr. Rivers provided the instructional guidance necessary to make this change happen. She is a transformational leader. A transformational leadership provides a focus and framework for the teaching and learning occurring at the school. Transformational school leaders, like Dr. Rivers, can help their staff develop a collaborative and professional school culture, create conditions favoring teacher development, and enhance the staff‘s collective and individual problem- 173 solving capacities. Transformational leadership focuses on the importance of teamwork and comprehensive school improvement as an alternative to other modes of leadership. The institutional changes and professional development environment created teachers with strong professional relationships and increased instructional and pedagogieal knowledge who, in turn, worked actively to create a supportive and caring learning environment for their students. The school responded to their (the teachers') basic needs and those of their students in part because of its small size and carefully adapted space. Teachers took on diverse roles that increased their opportunities and responsibilities. The school's individualized student curriculum also allowed teachers to be more responsive to student needs, but also created additional work and responsibilities. The teachers and the school appear to have developed their own adaptive capacities and began to cope with a wide-range of environmental conditions, and physical or social relationships in their environment. However, there is an alternative explanation for these results. All the teachers came to Sankofa with an African worldview. Therefore, it was easier for them to form into a professional community because they were already a cultural one. It is this researcher's belief that these teachers easily adjusted to this new teaching style and were able to create new practices and curriculum because of their personal sense of empowerment and commitment to the vision, which they brought to the school due to their previous perspective transformation. Several statements made by the Sankofa teaching staff in their biographies demonstrated this ‘call to action’ . Further, if a perspective employee' 8 teaching goals, objectives, or perspectives did not match the articulated goals of Dr. Rivers, they would not have gained entree to the school environment. Therefore, their sameness in goal, 174 perspectives, and backgrounds facilitated the change occurring at Sankofa. In fact, the professional learning process and the changes that occurred at the school took place pretty effortlessly and without conflict in comparison with most schools and even in comparison with the other African-centered charter school created in this same community in that same year. Therefore, team membership and the recruitment of the teaching staff may be important factors in forming a successful teaching community. I l' . [S l The findings of this study suggest that an examination of effective approaches to professional community development include the principal' s role, school culture, the vision, group membership, and directions for teacher and institutional change. A holistic, individualized, and collective approach to professional community development requires understanding the dynamics of interpersonal interaction and institutional change. Components of this effective community and professional development are written plans, effective leadership style, staff involvement, and positive support systems. The results of this type of professional transformational learning included a positive influence on teacher collaboration, improved teacher attitudes toward school improvement, and altered instructional behavior. The results of this study suggest epistemological issues: workplace contexts and an ethic of caring, which are especially noticeable in the collegial relationships of students and teachers at Sankofa, have considerable impact on teachers as leaders and learners. The key issues that emerged from this case study are: the importance of personal support for teachers in their professional development, the manner in which differences between 175 teachers are resolved, individual teacher characteristics, and how school culture and environment influence the ways teachers function within a school environment. The continuing professional development of teachers is essential for realizing the changes in instructional practice that will be required to meet current and anticipated state acadenric objectives. This study looked at one school and one set of teachers and their attempts to implement instructional and institutional changes in their teaching and learning environment. The focus was on the participants' changes or their perceived changes as they learned to teach in an African-centered manner and made institutional changes to make their school more conducive to this learning process. This researcher attempted to understand what they were thinking about these changes and to observe the changes as they were taking place at the research site. 176 APPENDICES 177 APPENDIX A CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN RESEARCHER AND SANKOF A APPROVING RESEARCH 178 August 5, 1995 Elizabeth K. Davenport 2900 Northwind #320 E. Lansing, MI 48823 Dr. Feya Rivers Sankofa Shule %3863 Waverly Hills Rd. Lansing, MI 48917 Dear Dr. Rivers: The purpose of this letter is to initiate discussions with you concerning possibly conducting research in your school this Fall. I know that most administrators are leery about researchers coming into their school, however, I believe that you, your school, and I might be a perfect fit. I know that you probably hear from many people so I thought I'd first tell you a little about myself. I hold a Bachelor of Arts degree in Education and a Juris Doctorate from the University of Michigan and an LL.M. from New York University School of Law. I also have a Master's degree in Telecommunications from Michigan State University (MSU). I am currently, a doctoral candidate in the MSU's Teacher Education Department specializing Social Policy and Analysis. My research interest is segregating populations to increase their academic achievement. This and "last summer, I am teaching Secondary Social Studies Methods to prospective teacher interns at MSU. ln‘addition, this summer I created and am teaching a summer program for lngham County youth offenders. Last year, I was a field instructor for the MSU's College of Education. I worked with thirteen interns, maintaining contact with their collaborating teachers and facilitating the development of a good relationship between teachers and interns. This work involved visiting the interns in the field, helping them with planning and providing feedback for them on their teaching, most of my interns were located in the Detroit area. Previously, I was cohort manager for Team 3 senior level teacher education students in the MSU Education Department. In that capacity, I arranged field experiences for teacher candidates in schools as part of their TE402 and TE402 course requirement. This included contacting school principals and identifying teachers who would work with our students and working with teachers to develop their roles as teacher educators to developing, future, teaching professionals. It was my responsibility to communicate program expectations to our collaborating teachers and involve them in the program planning of this course, especially the field component. I also 179 worked with senior level field instructors during that transitional period discussing their professional development, helping them with particular problems related to their work with their students and teachers, and trouble shooting when necessary. Finally, I worked closely with TE401ITE402 instructors to provide close articulation of program components including field experiences with program. Finally, for the previous two years, I worked as an administrative assistant at the Michigan Partnership for New Education (MPNE) working with their Business and Community Alliance and their School and University Alliance. In that capacity, I worked directly with teachers, administrators, university faculty, and business leaders across Michigah. My work at the MPNE related to a series of innovations in teaching and learning being undertaken jointly by school and university staff at the twenty-four professional. development schools (PDSs) throughout the State. In particular, I worked closely with the Directors of the Business and Community Alliance and the School and University Alliance on several key projects, including the formulation of P08 visitation policies, drafting of policies and positions for the Educational Subcommittee of the Flint Roundtabie, arranging for PDS visitations, helping in the implementation of professional development institutes for PDS faculty and staff, and writing reports to the State of Michigan. As you maybe aware, the Partnership is now authorized through the State of Michigan to establish charter schools. I seek an opportunity to meet with you and discuss my proposed research. I am certified to teach and, if you accept my research proposal, I am also willing to participate in your school by assisting in any volunteer capacity. I am enclosing a copy of my resume and a paper that I recently wrote concerning Afrocentric education. I can be reached at (517)-333-9835 daily. Sincere! WNW / Elizabe . Davenport 180 7m We," jolly Road W SHNKOFH Hm iii-304.4033 m: ‘l‘ldwdm ‘ September 25 Ms. Elimbeth K Davenport 2900 Northwind #320 East Lansing, MI 48823 Dear Ms. Davenport, [ am in receipt of your August 5, 1995 letter requesting permission to do doctoral research at Sankofa Shule, a public school academy in Lansing, Michigan. This letter serves as a continuation that permission has been approved subject to your compliance with all research requirements of your Department. I“ can be of further assistance, please feel free to contact me. Good luck in your endeavors. Sincerely, . 922.3%;1 Freya A. Rivers, Superintendent Sankofa Shule ~‘. . _ . ‘. u 1‘” " 0““ ""d 89! What you left behind; before you can go forward. you must knew where you have been. " 5:9] 3* 181 APPENDIX B APPLICATION FOR REVIEW OF A OF A PROJECT INVOLVING HUMAN SUBJECTS 182 APPLICATION FOR REVIEW OF A PROJECT INVOLVING HUMAN SUBJECTS INITIAL REVIEW UCRIHS-Michigan State University David E. Wright, Ph.D., Chair 225 Administration Building E. Lansing, MI 48824-1046 (517) 355-2180 (517) 432-1171-FAX Office Hours: M-F (8:00-Noon & 1:00-5:00) Direction: Please complete questions on this application using the instructions and definitions found on the cherry sheets (revised February, 1995). 7 1. RESPONSIBLE PROJECT INVESTIGATOR ADDITIONAL INVESTIGATORS Gary Sykes, Ph.D. Elizabeth K. Davenport Faculty Number ID#392-50—3850 Student ID# 10154644 Soc. Sec. #392-50-3850 Soc. See. #: 378-56-3014 I believe the research can be safely completed without endangering subjects. Further, I have read the enclosed proposal and I am willing to supervise. Signature 2. ADDRESS ADDRESS 410 A Erickson 2900 Northwind #320 Michigan State University E. Lansing, Mi 48823 E. Lansing, MI 48824 Phone: (517)353-9337 Phone: (517)333-9835 FAX#: (517)353-6393 3. TITLE OF PROPOSAL: The Sankofa Shule Afrocentric Charter School: Empowering African American Children, Parents, and Teachers 4. PROPOSED FUNDING AGENCY: None 5. DOES THIS PROJECT UTILIZE AN INVESTIGATIONAL DRUG, DEVICE, OR PROCEDURE? No 6. DOES THIS PROJECT INVOLVE THE USE OF HUMAN BLOOD OR TISSUE? NO 7. DOES THIS PROPOSAL HAVE AN MSU 0RD NUMBER? No 8. WHEN WOULD YOU PREFER TO BEGIN DATA COLLECTION? ASAP Please remember you may not bpgin data collection prior UCRIHS approval. 9. CATEGORY (circle A, B, or C below. See instructions) a. This requires review by a full committee. b. This proposal is eligible for expedited review. Specify category am a doctoral student with a submitted research proposal. 0. This proposal is exempted from full sub- committee review. 183 FOR OFFICE USE ONLY: Subcommittee Agenda 184 10. PROJECT DESCRIPTION (ABSTRACT) The attached protocol serves to guide data collection in 'The Sankofa Shule Afrocentric Charter Schoolu-Empowering African American Children, Parents, and Teachers', a single-case doctoral research study. This is a case study that focuses on an Afrocentric public academy, SanKofa Shule, during its first year of existence. The purpose of this study is to explore perceptions of student, teacher, and parent empowerment at an Afrocentric school by analyzing the ideological and philosophical reasons for creating this charter school and how these interests are made explicit in the school environment, curriculum, and extracurricular activities through examination of school records and documents, focus group interviews, semi- structured interviews, and discussions with the principal, teachers, parents, and students of the school. In addition, it will analyze and discuss whether what is occurring in this school adds to/or subtracts from the discourse concerning anti-racist pedagogy. Theoretical scholarship in the areas of critical theory, disparity of student-teacher-parent perceptions and cultural and ethnic discontinuities in the pluralistic classrooms and schools guide this study. Placing the focus on student-teacher-parent perceptions assumes that they are all active participants in the educational process, and that they influence classroom and school events as much as they are affected by them (Schunk, 1992). The protocol will provide the conceptual approach taken in this study, the study questions and design, the data analysis procedures, and guidelines for report preparation. 11. PROCEDURES This case study design will include one focus group for students, teachers, and parents, semi-structured interviews for selected participants, classroom and school observations, and examination of student records and school documents. According to Miles and Huberman (1984) a characteristic of qualitative research is that. analysis occurs throughout the process; therefore, the data collection and analysis must be interwoven from the beginning. After a six (6) month observation period, the collection of data in this study will be sequenced for time for data reduction and to draw and test conclusions. The research activities'will be designed to take maximum advantage of the traditions of continual analysis. . Initial interviews will be used to schedule subsequent research activities. Classroom and school observations and examination of student records and school documents will provide an additional perspective. . Focus Groups: The focus groups will engage students, parents and teachers in a conversation model. This technique will enhance recall, reveal additional information, encourage participants to higher levels of dialogue, encourages group interactions that improve the quality of responses, while not limiting their responses, elicits a natural form of responses from the participants, and encourages perspectives in a socially naturally pattern (Sapp 8 Temares, 1993; Hendershott 8: Wright, 1993; Beyers, Pessy, & Wilcox, 1991). Further, 'group conversation' (King & Mitchell, 1990) reduces tensions, affirms shared cultural perceptions and provides a way to critically examine participants emotions and experiences with the aim of contributing to social problem solving. ”Group conversation' facilitates discussion of deeply felt issues and allow participants to share experiences (King & Mitchell). In this study, there will be one focus group scheduled for students, teachers, and parents. Each focus group will be videotaped, transcribed, and responses will be categorized and coded. Participants for semi-structured interviews will be selected from focus group participants. Semi-structured interviews: There will be two (2) 45 minutes to one hour scheduled interviews with students, parents, and teachers at the beginning and conclusion of the data collection phase of the study. The initial interviews will establish interpersonal relationships with the interviewees and provide biographical and historical data. 185 By the time the final interview takes place, I hope to have transcriptions of the initial interviews, focus groups, as well as school and classroom observations, student records, and school documents. As a result of the on-going analysis throughout the study, the final interviews will allow participants to elaborate and clarify information obtained in the first interviews and/ or focus groups. Therefore, emerging patterns, themes, and inconsistencies will be discussed during the final interviews regarding the perceptions and beliefs of the participants. Thus, the final interviews will provide additional in—depth information. The raw data from the interviews will be transcribed by identifying categories, themes, and events that took place at the school during its first year of existence. Sphool and Classroom Observatiog: The descriptive data generated through school and classroom observations will provide information on how students, teachers, and parents have or have not become empowered by the educational experience and activities taking place at SanKofa Shule The aim of the observations is to provide primary sources of data concerning the experience of students, teachers, and parents at the school. The observations will also provide additional information for discussion during the semi-structured interviews and focus groups. .It will also provide another source of data for reviewing the student-teacher- parent experience. School Documents and Student Records: Examination of school documents will be made with an attention to identifying themes and conditions of empowerment taking place at SanKofa. Students records will be examined to provide historical and biographical data and will provide another context in which to review the information obtained. 12. SUBJECT POPULATION 13. a. The study population may include (check each category where subjects may be included by design or incidentally)‘ Minors (x) Pregnant Women( ) Women of Childbearing Age( ) Institutionalized Person(x) Students (x) Low Income Persons(x) Minorities (x) Incompetent Persons (or those with diminished capacity) ( ) 186 Number of subjects (including controls) 130 students 15 teaching professionals If you are associated with the subjects (e.g. they are your students, employees, patients), please explain the nature of the association. How will the subjects be recruited? A permission form will be sent to all parents. If someone will receive payment for recmiting the subjects, please explain the amount of payment, who pays it, and who receives it. Not applicable Will the research subjects be compensated (x) No ( ) Yes Will subjects incur financial costs, as the result of their participation in this study? (x) No ( )Yes Will you be advertising for research participants (x)No ( )Yes Will this research be conducted with subjects who reside in another country or live a cultural context different from mainstream US society? (x)No ( )Yes (1) If your answer is yes, will there be any corresponding complications in your ability to minimize risks to subjects, maintain their confidentiality and/or assure their right to voluntary informed consents as individuals ( )No ( )Yes (2) If your answer is to i-1 yes what at these complications and how will you resolve them? 13. ANONYMITYICONFIDENTIALITY I will agree to main the anonymity of individuals students, staff members, and the schools in any report(s) any in any publication(s), e.g. journal article(s), book(s), etc. which incorporate any information derived from the research conducted within the environment. 14. RISK/BENEFIT RATIO Risk a. In any research there is a risk to confidentiality to information obtain through observation and through access to records. I will attempt to safeguard the confidentiality of all subjects by coding the information and using alias. b. Anonymity will be preserved whenever records are used which could serve to identify students and some staff members. However, since this is a single- case study, I will have to identify the school. Care will be taken to preserve the confidentiality of persons, except the head teacher, Frieya Rivers, E.D.D. 187 Benefits a. The Sankofa Shule is one of the first Afrocentric Academies established under the State of Michigan's Public Academies legislation. The purpose of this law is to improve public education for all Michigan citizens. The administration of this school believe that Afrocentric education and the teaching of self and community empowerment will improve the academic achievement of African American students. If it does, it may help black students all over the United States. b. There is significant doubt that schools of choice will improve the overall achievement of African American students because many believe that African Americans will not opt out of the public school system. A study which examines the first year at a public academy, especially at the beginning of this new policy, maybe a valuable predictive tool for Michigan public policy makers. 15. CONSENT PROCEDURES 1. A consent form will be sent to parents. 2. In the form, parents will be advised of the benefits and risks of the study. 3. They will be advised that theywill not be penalized for not participating in the study and they will have access to the information obtained from the study. 4. Before the Focus Group and Semi-structured interviews an additional consent form will be provided. 5 Parent consent form for minor children will be signed and collected prior to the interview time. 6. Consent iorrns will be collected and maintained. Is your application COMPLETE? Please SEE the CHECKLIST on page of the UCRIHS instructions. 188 APPENDIX C MICHIGAN STATE IRB #96-775 189 UTEEG: RESEARCH AND GRADUATE STUDIES University Committee on Research Imolvin Human Sable (UCRIHS) MflMpumnuMemy nLMmmwwmawom East Lanny. Macnvoan enema unrutwo FAX SIIIIJZ-IIII Irv Mr :1» Star Ill-mm on -i new: has.” («Me n «for MSU" M 9% .rloe new-:znrzmu amt-bx"! MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY December 20. 1996 TO: Gar Sykes 410 Erickson Hall RE; IRBu: 96-775 TITLE: AN INVESTIGATION OF THE IMPACT OF SCHOOL INSTITUTIONAL AND PERCEPTIONAL CHANGES AT AN AFRICAN-CENTERED ELEMENTARY CHARTER SCHOOL REVISION REQUESTED: N/A CATEGORY: 1°C APPROVAL DATE: 12/20/96 The University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects'lUCRIHSi review of this project is complete.. I am pleased to adVise that the rights and welfare of the.human subjects appear to be adequately protected and methods to obtain informed consent are appropriate. gerefore, the UCRIHS approved this pro3ect and any reVisions listed a ove. RENEWAL: UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year, beginning with the approval date shown above. Investigators planning to continue a prOJect be and one year must use the green renewal form (enclosed with t e original asproval letter or when a project is renewed) to seek u date certification. There is a maximum of four_such expedite renewals possible. Investigators wishing to continue a proaect beyond that time need to submit it again or complete reView. REVISIONS: UCRIHS must review any changes in procedures involving human subjects, rior to initiation of t e change. I! this is done at the time o renewal, please use the green renewal form. To revise an approved protocol at any other time during the year, send your written request to the. CRIHS Chair, requesting reVised approval and referencing the project's IRB R and title. Include in your request a description of the change and any revised instruments. consent forms or advertisements that are applicable. Pnoetens/ CKANGES: Should either of the followin arise during the course of the work, investigators must noti UCRIHS promptly: l1) roblems (unexpected side effects, comp aints, etc.) involving uman subjects_or (2) changes in the research environment or new information indicating greater risk to the human sub'eets than existed when the protocol was previously reviewed an approved. If we can be of any future help, please do not hesitate to contact us at: (517)355-2180 or FAX (Sl7i4 2-1171. Sincerely, L3 \N’I avid E. Wright. Ph D. CRIHS Chair ’ DEW : bed cc: Elizabeth K. Davenport 190 APPENDIX D PARTICIPATION AGREEMENT FORM 191 PARTICIPATION AGREENIENT FORM I agree to participate in a research project ”An Investigation of the Impact of School Restructuring and Perceptional Changes at African-centered Elementary Charter School" conducted by doctoral candidate, Elizabeth K. Davenport. I acknowledge that this participation includes: *The completion of one (1) demographic survey *One written autobiography *Two (2) psychological tests (Racial Identity Scale and the Optimal Extended Self-esteem Scale for Adults) *Four (4) semi-structured interviews for teachers *Classroom and school observations *Examination of school documents *One (1) focus group for teachers to collectively discuss their perceptions of the changes taking place at the school and its effect on curriculum development and change. I understand that I may share any written materials or reflections and that the interviews will be tape recorded. I also realize that I have the right not to answer any particular questions and to ask that the recorder be turned off at any time. I also realize that all written or other items that I share will be returned to me. Finally, I acknowledge that I have been informed and I understand that all data and tape recordings will be kept confidential, and that my anonymity will not be disclosed in the dissertation. I also acknowledge that my participation in this study has 192 been freely given and that I may choose at any time not to participate. Withdrawal from this research project will not incur any penalty or loss of benefits to me. Print Name Date: Signature 193 APPENDIX E TEACHER INTERVIEW PROTOCOL 194 Teacher Interview Protocol Pre-Interview Session Introduction: Hi, I am Liz Davenport, Ph.D.student in the Teacher Education Department of the College of Education at Michigan State University. As part of my degree requirement, I am conducting research on the impact of school restructuring and your professional development model in changing teacher perception and instructional beliefs and practices. The purpose of my study is to report and analyze the impact of school restructuring and professional development in changing teachers' perception and instructional beliefs and teaching practices at your school. Therefore, I would like to interview you, as well as observe your classroom, and professional development activities and other events that may clarify information you provide during our individual and group interviews. To ensure accuracy, I would like to tape record our interview sessions. First, before we begin, please let me tell you that everything you say will be kept strictly confidential. At this time, do you have any questions or comments? Obtain Consent 195 If you would not like to participate, please read the bottom of this form, circle the appropriate answer, and sign. Begin Interview Proceed to Interview 1-3 Questions Close Thank you for allowing me to interview you. Do you have any questions or any information you would like to add? [pause] If, after reading the transcript of this interview, I have any additional questions, can I call on you? [pause] 196 INTERVIEW CONSENT FORM 197 Interview Consent Form 1 agree to participate in research to conducted by Elizabeth K. Davenport. The purpose of the study is to report and analyze the impact of school restructuring and professional development in changing teachers' perceptions and instructional beliefs and practices. The methods of data collection will be one (1) survey, one (1) autobiography, one (1) survey, four (4) interviews, one (1) focus group, multiple observations, and document analysis. I have been advised and understand the nature of this research study. I have also been advised that I can discontinue my participation in this study at anytime. As a respondent, I have the right to decline to answer any question I may choose in any given interview. In addition, I have the right to request that the tape recorder be stopped at anytime during any interview and request that the segments of that particular tape in which I may be identifiable not be used by the researcher. I understand, because of the visibility of the school and its curriculum, there are some limitations on the confidentiality that can be guaranteed to me. However, every effort will be made by the researcher to protect the confidentiality of respondents and the school. Therefore, she will keep her research in a secure location and will use pseudonyms and disguising personal identifiers in any written reports or presentations. I also give my permission for the researcher to observe events (e. g., observe in classrooms, professional development meeting, study groups, etc.) or documents (e.g. , class notes, course outlines, presentations, etc). 199 I give my permission to participate in the study. YES Print Name: Signature: Position: Date: 200 NO APPENDIX G TEACHER DEMOGRAPHIC SURVEY 201 .h M. Teacher Demographic Survey . Gender: . Age: . Total years of teaching of experience: . List the different types of school settings in which you have previously taught C. d. . How long have you been teaching at Sankofa? 202 . What is the subject you are teaching at Sankofa? . Educational Background: .BA .MA . Specialist . PhD . List additional educational (school or non- school) experience: 203 APPENDIX H INSTRUCTIONS FOR TEACHER AUTOBIOGRAPHY 204 INSTRUCTIONS FOR TEACHER AUTOBIOGRAPHY Instructions: Prior to our first interview, please write a 3-5 page autobiography. Make sure that your autobiography includes: 1. Tell me your educational background. Describe your elementary, middle, and high school also. Also include information concerning your teacher education preparation program. 2. What life experiences led you to teach at Sankofa Shule? 3. What values most strongly affect and direct your adult and professional life? 205 4. Please tell me about five critical events in your educational background or life experiences that have shaped your perspectives concerning education. Critical incidents are brief descriptions provided by learners of significant events of their educational experiences and personal lives and how these incidents have afiected their current educational beliefs and strategies. 206 APPENDIX I TEACHER INTERVIEW GUIDE - INTERVIEW l 207 Teacher Interview Guide Interview I 1. How did you become aware of this school? 1.1 Explain? 2. How do you attempt to interpret or develop these ideas in your own practice? 3. Describe your previous teaching experience. 3.1 Tell me what your best teaching experience was (excluding this one) and why this teaching experience was the best. 208 4. Now describe the teaching experience you liked the least and why you liked this teaching experience the least. 209 APPENDIX J TEACHING INTERVIEW GUIDE - INTERVIEW 2 210 Teacher Interview Guide Interview 2 Let's begin with your approach to African-centered education: 1. What does it mean to teach in an African-centered manner? 2. Are you aware of the school's model and definition of African—centered education? 2.1 Please explain. 3. What are the goals of this African-centered education? 211 4. How would you describe African-centered education as it works at this school? In regards to: 4. l--curriculum construction 4.2--Discipline/c1assroom management 4.3--environment 4.4--philosophy 4.5--relations with students 4.6--relations with parents 4.7--relations with community 5 . How do you interpret and develop these ideas in your own practice? For the next interview, please bring your course outline and daily curriculum planner. 212 APPENDIX K TEACHER INTERVIEW GUIDE - 3 213 Teacher Interview Guide Interview 3 l.At our last interview you defined African-centered education as. . .please explain your course construction based on that definition. 2. How does your choice of reading materials and textbooks fit into this definition? 3. What is the significance of the reading materials and instructional materials chosen? 4. Based on your definition of African-centered pedagogy, what teaching strategies or instructional beliefs have you used or are beginning to use to fit your definition or the school's definition of African-centered teaching and learning? 214 5 . How did the five (5) critical events in your educational background or experiences shape your African-centered teaching beliefs and instructional practices? 6. What are the difficulties or tensions in teaching in an African-centered manner? 215 APPENDIX L TEACHER INTERVIEW GUIDE 4 216 Teacher Interview Guide Interview 4 1. As you know, the focus of my study is about change in instructional practices and beliefs and whether your school restructuring and professional development has contributed to any changes. Do you think your teaching and instructional practices have changed much since coming to this school? 1.1 Why? 1.2 Why not? Pause for answer. Teachers may need to be prompted: curriculum, classroom, discipline, instructional strategies, assessment, learning community, 2. Let's talk about influences of change. What do you think influenced or had impact on your change in your teaching or instructional beliefs? If a general answer is provided, ask them to be more specific. If they give a list of items, ask them to provide particular examples. 217 3. I am particularly interested in your professional development model. Tell me your understanding of the your professional development model. 4. Do you believe that your professional development activities influence the changes in teaching and instructional beliefs in any way? 4.1 If so, why? 4.2 If not, why not? 5. Those are very interesting examples. Can you think of any other area where change occurred in your own instructional practices due to your participation in your professional development model? 5.1 How has your teaching changed? 5.2 If so, why? 5.3 If not, why not? 6. Another effect I am looking at is your school structure. 80, do you believe that structure of the school day and activities contributed to this change in your instructional practices or teaching beliefs? 218 6.1 How? 6.2 Are you attempting to do different things in the classroom? 7. Those are very interesting examples. How do you believe that the school structure and/or supported your change in instructional practices or teaching beliefs? 7.1 How? 7.2 How did you translate these goals to your teaching? 8. One of the purposes of Sankofa curriculum and structure is to help critical consciousness in student, teachers, parents and the community. 8.1 Define critical consciousness and how this critical consciousness has contributed to your instructional strategies and teacher beliefs. 9. Another key part of critical consciousness is reflection. Could you please tell me how reflection on one' s practice has resulted in a change in your instructional strategies and beliefs? 219 10 Now, let's go back and attempt to make some summary statement concerning your involvement in professional development activities and structure of your school. Overall, how do you think this affected your teaching? 220 APPENDIX M FOCUS GROUP 221 Focus Group 1. You have all taught or have had experience with different school. What makes this school different in terms of: l.1--curriculum construction 1.2--Discipline/classroom management 1 .3--environment 1 .4--philosophy 1.5--relations with students 1.6—-relations with parents l.7--relations with community 1.8--relations with each other 1.9 «teaching 2. Another issue I am interested in is school vision. How would each of you describe this school's vision? 3. How has this school evolved and changed as a result of your work together? 3.1 Provide specific examples from your teaching and learning experiences to support your answer 222 4. How did you individually and collectively foster and support change in your school environment? 4.1 Provide specific examples from your teaching and learning experiences to support your answer 223 APPENDIX N INDICATORS OF CHANGE IN INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES AND TEACHING BELIEFS 224 INDICATORS OF CHANGE IN INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES AND TEACHING BELIEFS 1. Dialogue Teaching. A dialogic class begins with problem-posing discussion and sends powerful signals to students that their participation is expected and needed. A change in instructional strategies or beliefs which encourages students to increase critical thinking skills, problem-solving skills, and higher-order thinking skills by: a. Listening b. Assessing c. Strategizing d. Collaborating e. Debating 2. Critical Literacy. Literacy arouses critical awareness and desocialization and means critical literacy across the curriculum. It invites teachers and students to problematize all subjects of study and to understand existing knowledge as a historical product deeply invested with the values of those who develop such knowledge. The choice and selection of reading materials which meet the following objectives: a. Educate for conscientization b. Transform for spiritual development c. Actualize for economic and cultural independence d. Have students strived to improve quality of life e. Have students strived for educational excellence f. Have students strived to change economic dependence 225 3. Situated Pedagogy. learning must be situated in the students' culture-their literacy, their themes, their present cognitive levels, etc. Only situated pedagogy can bring critical study to bear on the concrete circumstances of living and the immediate conditions of life that critical learning may help recreate. a. Afrocentric - is a new paradigm that defines the world from the perspective of one people of African origins and the cultures and traditions based on the ancient African culture. b. It is a pedagogy situated in the culture and lives of the students, teachers, and community where the school exist. c. The literature, curriculum, teaching, and learning are based African-centered pedagogy which develops students critical thinking skills, problem-solving skills, and higher- order thinking skills. 4. Ethnography and Cross- Cultural Communication. In order to situate critical literacy and dialogue inside the lives of their students, a teacher needs to study the population he or she is teaching. Studying African-centered education by means of: a. Teachers collaborating and talking and listening to each b. Experimental activities such as trips to supplement and support teachers' African-centered background. c. Going to workshops d. Reading African-centered reading materials and African American history e. Other special interest activities f. Reading and attending workshops or classes that enhance the physical and mental well-being student population g. Focusing teaching and learning for teachers expecting responsibility and accountability for all students h.. Study groups I. Studying the best research to 226 1. Identify effective educational programs 2. Establish high quality early childhood programs 3. Offer a curriculum that is challenging 4. Provide alternative programs 5 . Provide experiences for employability 6. Provide community-home support 7. Insure diverse cultural understanding among the students 8. Provide staff that is reflective of the culture 9. Improve teacher pre- and in-service 10. Initiate data collection 5. Change-Agency. In order to be egalitarian change-agents, teachers need to study community analysis and models of community change. Teachers can also benefit from studying histories of organizing change in the classrooms. Tire African-centered model at the school is based on the following assumptions: a. That conscientization + transformation + self- actualization = EMPOWERMENT b. That Afrocentric education will lead to conscientization c. That the African heritage of religion will lead to conscientization, and spiritual transformation (1. That economic independence will lead to self reliance and actualization e. That conscious political empowerment is power 227 f. That empowerment will manifest itself in the human behavioral, human constructed and natural environments. g. That empowerment will create change in all peoples h. That empowerment will maintain the viability of Africans I. That empowerment of African peoples will not be Oppressive j. That empowerment will be beneficial to all peoples k. That African peoples want change 1. That empowered families will socialize their children in a manner that reflects empowerment which positively the ecological environments. 6. Inequality in School and Society. This can be an academic interest studied across the curriculum which discusses: a. Racism and its efi’ect on American society. Racism is defined as a ”set of attitudes.” It is an ideology that is located in and realized through structures of power relations in the interface between ethnicity and culture; economics and social processes; individuals and institutions. This racism is multi-faceted in terms of the unequal distribution of power. b. Power and its efi’ect on American society. Power is the ”ability to define reality and to get others to respond to that definition as if it were their own.” (Hillard, et al. p. xviii). Some people in society have power; others do not. c. Changing the unequal power in society .Power is also defined in Eurocentrism as money and political influence which has been internalized and upon concession renders one powerless. d. Self-knowledge: the aim of critical science. Bubolz defines the aim of critical science ”to peel back the surface of the everyday world, to uncover the factors that make people define reality in particular ways, to bring about 228 greater self-knowledge and to lead to action to bring about needed social change.” (Bubolz, 1985). e. Empowerment of the Powerlessness. Empowerment of the Afriean American students can be realized by defining reality from an Afrocentric perspective for self-knowledge or conscientization which will lead to action or transformation and finally to self-actualization or independence, thereby breaking the chain of powerlessness. 7. Performing Skills. Teachers should have voice and drama training to enhance their skills of presentation and discussion. Teachers should think of themselves as creative artist (Schor, 1987, pp.23-25). The development of instructional strategies and change in teacher beliefs that will demonstrate an increase in: a. Use of plays b. Use of folklore c. Use of drama (1. Use of poetry e. Use ofart 229 APPENDIX 0 INDICATORS OF CHANGES IN INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES AND TEACHING BELIEFS DUE TO SCHOOL RESTRUCTURING 230 INDICATORS OF CHANGE IN INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES AND TEACHING BELIEFS DUE TO SCHOOL RESTRUCTURING *Act as a mentor to new teachers *Ask for project ideas *Analyze practices and effects *Argue over theory, philosophy, approach *Ask for help for specific problems *Assign materials and books *Attend inservices as a group or team *Communicate freely with other teachers *Complain about individual students or classes *Complain about aides or other support staff *Convert book chapters to reflect new approach *Create shared files of materials *Credit new ideas and programs *Critique other teachers *Decide how to use aides *Defend or explain specific classroom practices *Ascribe to other new approaches or strategies for teaching *Design curriculum or course outline *Design inservices for teachers and parents *Design and prepare particular materials 231 *Discuss issues and different approaches *Dissuade others from an approach/idea *Divide administrative tasks *Evaluate performances of principal and other teachers *Exchange teaching tasks with other teachers *Give advice to other teachers and aides when requested *Inform other teachers or colleagues about good classes or workshops *Informally ask about what is being covered in another class *Invite other teachers and observe *Lend and borrow materials *Make suggestions concerning a teaching strategy or innovation *Make suggestions without being asked *Make collective agreement to participate in inservices *Make collective agreement to test an idea *Participate on committee *Persuade others to try another idea *Praise individual teachers and students *Offer reassurance when others are upset *Observe other teachers *Reach consensus decisions on school-wide problems 232 *Review materials and books *Research books, materials, ideas for curriculum *Refer one teacher to another for an idea or suggestion *Share new research on teaching and learning *Socialize with other teachers *Team teach (voluntarily) *Team teach (involuntary) *Train aides and support staff * Work on presentations for conferences outside of the building 233 APPENDIX P TEACHER ACTIVITIES CHECKLIST 234 Appendix P: Teacher Activities Checklist Instructions: The following is a list of possible teacher activities that can result for teacher change. Please check the activity where appropriate. ACTIVITIES of Activities Act as a mentor to new or team with students or teachers to use or to other new or course others an administrative and other teachers to other and teachers or about or ask another class collective to to test an on others to another reassurance when others an: consensus on Act as a mentor to new teachers Ask ideas Name of Teacher: 235 APPENDIX Q THE POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTIONAL CHANGES 236 Appendix Q: The Potential Effects of Curriculum and Instructional Change Checklist PERCENTAGE OF TEACHERS DOING ACTIVITIES ACTIVITY OR TASK Act as a mentor to new teachers 40% Ask for ideas 40% and effects 100% over 100% Ask rmterials and Attend as a or team with about individual students or classes aides or other Convert to reflect new Create new and other teachers Decide how to use aides or classroom to other new or curriculum or course in-services teachers issues others from an Divide administrative tasks of and teachers task other teachers Give advice to other teachers and aides when teachers or or ask about covered another class invite other teachers and observe Lend and borrow materials Make to Make collective to test an idea on Persuade to another idea teachers and students Offer reassurance when others are other teachers Reach consensus decisions on Review and 237 Bibliography Abkar. 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