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(I...§tvul-IV.,|?.. ,. .n‘ L I . 1... .O.‘ :~:I.00.|}..: 1!}.‘ODI‘3 ranwvlfd. iiihc‘uxi 11191... .2. ‘II 11.13353! Eh¥§ .g-.,.,.....x....u\m...,:¢ x. n44” “Ha.....i..tu-:so!.: 1"41P. .i. n . 31.. . t I: . z . -.. 33-3 .l...L.uv1| gilt.,.nuana|’»1xb.l‘anfion!lw. gggfigg lllllllllllflllllllUHHIHIUINIWIIll’HlHlHlIllHHl 301834 5979 l LIBRARY M'Ch'gan State mversuu i ‘ This is to certify that the thesis entitled Asian American Adolescents: The Correlation of Parent-Adolescent Interaction with Adolescent Academic Achievement and Related Correlations presented by Mary Elizabeth Hoffman has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for degree in Master of Arts \ELJMMW 0. WWW Major professor Date July 29, 1999 0-7639 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution ~ __ _,..— ,_.__l4 ’ k ”———‘ i v 4‘. - ‘pv FLAG IN REFURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. To AVOID FINES return on or before date due. MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested. DATE DUE $3,?ng 2 DATE DUE Min/*1 @200; I ii‘iiaoélizgfis ”El 9 3 ia"1 Lu- 2 5,5; 0? EAO p, . .0 DEC 2 2 2003 W i l v , L.) L...) me chlHCDIoDquS-p.“ ASIAN AMERICAN ADOLESCENTS: THE CORRELATION OF PARENT- ADOLESCENT INTERACTION WITH ADOLESCENTS' ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AND RELATED CORRELATIONS BY Mary Elizabeth Hoffman A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Family and Child Ecology 1999 ABSTRACT ASIAN AMERICAN ADOLESCENTS: THE CORRELATION OF PARENT- ADOLESCENT INTERACTION WITH ADOLESCENTS' ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AND RELATED CORRELATIONS BY Mary Elizabeth Hoffman This secondary data analysis proposed that parent- adolescent interaction and adolescents' academic 'achievement correlated, in that, certain sub—correlations existed within that relationship of interaction and academic achievement. The sub—correlations were between parent-adolescent interaction and adolescents' self—esteem, their self—esteem and adolescents' academic motivation, and their academic motivation and their academic achievement. The sample was 158 Asian American adolescents from Michigan obtained from 13,000 Adolescents Speak: A Profile of Michigan (Keith & Perkins, 1995). Parent—adolescent interaction significantly effected adolescents' self— esteem. Their self—esteem did not impact adolescents' academic motivation. That motivation significantly influenced adolescents' academic achievement. Copyright by MARY ELI ZABETH HOFFMAN 1999 To Mom, you motivated that my education would call my own that no one you I am strong. Dad, you taught me world through research. DEDICATION Mary and Vince. me to move forward and reminded me be the one thing I could always could ever take away from me. With the value of learning about our You were my first teacher showing me how writing is not only a challenging yet important skill to learn, but also an accomplishment in art. GOYA! Thank you to you both for all of your support, love, and guidance. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First, Thank you to my husband and dear friend, Saad, for his loving support in whatever I chose to do. This accomplishment is ours to share. Thank you to Dr. Francisco Villarruel, Dr. Robert Boger, Dr. Anne Soderman, Dr. Thomas Luster, and Dr. Mahesh Nalla for their wisdom and guidance. You are all enlightening teachers and individuals who I look towards emulating as a professional. Thank you to Dr. Joanne Keith and Daniel Perkins for allowing me to use the data they had collected in order to proceed with this study. Thank you to Ms. Linda Chapel Jackson, the great editor, for her time, generosity, and hard work, all of which is impossible to repay. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ......................................... viii LIST OF FIGURES ........................................ ix CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ........................................... 1 Statement of researchable problem ...................... 3 Measurement Variables .................................. 4 Independent variable .............................. 5 Parent—adolescent interaction ................ 5 Dependent variables ............................... 7 Adolescents' self—esteem ..................... 7 Adolescents’ academic motivation ............. 8 Adolescents’ academic achievement ............ 8 Control variables ................................. 8 Teacher-adolescent interaction ............... 10 Adult-adolescent interaction ................. 10 Research Hypotheses .................................... 12 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE ................................... 14 Cultural Diversity in the U.S ..................... 14 Heterogeneity of Asian Americans .................. 16 Lack of Research on Asian Americans ............... 18 Comparison of Asian American and Caucasian American Adolescents .............................. 20 Academic Achievement and the "Model" Minority ..... 22 The voluntary minority ....................... 23 Cultural influences .......................... 25 American and Asian Values ......................... 26 Confucian influence .......................... 28 Parent-Adolescent Interaction ..................... 29 Parent—adolescent interaction in Asian American context ............................. 31 Adolescents' Self—Esteem .......................... 35 Global and specific self-esteem .............. 3S Coopersmith’s definition of self—esteem ...... 37 Theoretical_Perspectives,” ......................... 38 fi§9cial_capital.; ............................. 39 Stanley Coopersmith .......................... 41 Susan Harter ................................. 42 Conclusion..' ...................................... 45 w CHAPTER III METHOD ................................................. 47 Sample ............................................ 48 Measures .......................................... 49 Procedure ......................................... 52 CHAPTER IV RESULTS ................................................ 56 Question 1: Does parent-adolescent interaction affect adolescents' self—esteem? .................. 58 Question 2: Does adolescents' self-esteem affect adolescents' academic motivation? ................. 59 Question 3: Does adolescents' academic motivation affect adolescents' academic achievement? ......... 61 CHAPTER V DISCUSSION ............................................. 63 Findings of Present Study ......................... 63 Additional findings .......................... 67 CHAPTER VI CONCLUSION ............................................. 69 Limitations ....................................... 69 Conclusion ........................................ 72 Direction for future research ................ 74 APPENDIX A: Letter of Approval from the University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects ......... 78 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................... 80 Wi LI ST OF TABLES .Survey Items of the Independent Variable: Parent - Adolescent Interaction ................................. 6 .Survey Items of the Dependent Variables: Adolescents' Self-Esteem, Adolescents' Academic Motivation, and Adolescents' Academic Achievement ...................... 9 .Survey Items for Control Variables: Teacher—Adolescent Interaction, and Adult-Adolescent Interaction .......... 11 .Demographic Characteristics of Sample .................. 50 .Frequencies, Means, and Standard Deviations of Six Variables .............................................. 57 .Bivariate Correlations: Pearson’s Correlation Values...60 viii LIST OF FIGURES Model of Parent-Adolescent Interaction with Adolescents' Academic Achievement and Related Correlations ........................................ l3 Path Analysis Results of the Model of Parent — Adolescent Interaction with Adolescents' Academic Achievement and Related Correlations ................ 62 Newly Modified Model of the Correlation of Parent— Adolescent Interaction with Adolescents' Academic Achievement and Related Correlations ................ 75 Chapter I INTRODUCTION Americans are of many different cultures. Among other things, cultures define how parents interact with their children and how people value children, family, and education. For instance, certain Asian American values include respect for authority and parental wishes, diligence, and achieving long-term goals (Slaughter—Defoe, Nakagawa, Takanishi, & Johnson, 1990). Because of such ethnic diversity each culture has something valuable to teach other cultures, thereby enriching the life of every American (Asian American Association, 1996). The majority of research on American children and their development is based on data collected from middle— class Caucasian children by middle—class Caucasian researchers (Stafford & Bayer, 1993). Considering the variety of different ethnic backgrounds in the U.S., these studies are an inaccurate representation of American child development. Researchers and practitioners have not been able to fully capitalize on the rich diversity that exists in the United States. Asian Americans, for example, are actually a heterogeneous group of different cultures (e.g., Chinese, Korean, Japanese, and Vietnamese). Individually, these populations are dispersed throughout various regions of the U.S. Collectively, however although, Asians are one of the smallest American minority groups, their population growth is the fastest and the largest, proportionally, compared to other American.ethnic minority groups. The Asian American population increased by 141 percent between 1970 and 1980 and by 99 percent from 1980 to 1990, reaching a total of 7,273,662 people. It is projected that by the year 2000, this population will reach 10 million, about 4% of the U.S. population (Asian American Association, 1996). The need for research that includes and focuses upon issues confronting American ethnic minority groups, especially Asian American adolescents, is a strong reason for this investigation to be done. Studies on Asian American adolescents are sparse (Lorenzo, Pakiz, Reinherz, and Frost, 1995). Researchers who have done research on Asian American youth have noted the lack of information available. In a recent review of literature on Asian! American adolescents and their educational attainment, Sue and Okazaki (1990) noted the absence of empirical research on Asian Americans and other ethnic groups. They concluded that there was an imperative need for research to be done on Asian American adolescents in order to understand their educational attainment and their overall development in American society. Hwang, Saenz, and Aguirre (1997) noted a significant increase in the amount of research done on Asian Americans in the last decade. Yet, they simultaneously recognized that, despite the amount of attention given to this minority group, the knowledge on Asian Americans is incomplete. The majority of the studies- have only focused on the socioeconomic adjustments of this group in American society. This preliminary study focuses on Asian American parent-adolescent interaction, adolescents' self-esteem, adolescents' academic motivation, and adolescents' academic achievement. A critical initial investigation, such as this, on the unique developmental characteristics of Asian Americans, broadens the spectrum of the information available on this American ethnic minority group. This investigation is expected to reveal, on a preliminary basis, certain facts about Asian American adolescents in terms of their relationships with their parents and how that relates to the adolescents' academic achievement through a series of correlations. Statement of Researchable Problem The purpose of this human ecological study was to investigate the correlation between parent—adolescent interaction and adolescents' academic achievement in Asian American communities. More specifically, this secondary data analysis sought to find whether an interrelation matrix existed within parent-adolescent interaction and adolescents' academic achievement. The inquiry examined the correlation between parent-adolescent interaction and adolescents' self-esteem, and the effect this interaction had on adolescents' self—esteem. Secondly, it investigated the correlation between adolescent's' self-esteem and adolescents' academic motivation, and whether self-esteem affected academic motivation. Lastly, the correlation between adolescents' academic motivation and adolescents’ academic achievement was examined, along with the effect the academic motivation had on academic achievement. The definitions of this study's variables and the research hypotheses are as stated on the next page. Measurement Variables Twenty-seven items from the Search Institute’s Profile of Student Life: Attitude and Behavior Questionnaire (ABQ) were grouped into eight different measures in order to take an inventory of parent—adolescent interaction, adolescents' self—esteem, adolescents' academic motivation, adolescents’ academic achievement, teacher-adolescent interaction, and adult—adolescent interaction. Through this inventory of variables, an understanding of the series of correlations between parent-adolescent interaction and adolescents' academic achievement was then obtained. Independent variable. Parent-adolescent interaction. This variable was defined as the amount of respectful, accepting, and concerned treatment an adolescent receives from his or her parents (Coopersmith, 1967). Positive parent—adolescent interaction was characterized as the parents' support and encouragement for the adolescent in time of need or crisis (Coopersmith, 1967). Parent-adolescent interaction was measured using thirteen items, which were grouped into three scales. The first scale (Scale A) centered on parents’ support for their adolescents' academic achievement. It measured how frequently parents spoke with their adolescents about school performance, helped their adolescents with schoolwork, and participated in or attended school events. Scale A was made up of four items, which are listed in Table 1. The second scale, Scale B, was made up of five items that focused on the relationship quality between adolescents and their parents. This quality included how happy the relationship was, and how much love and support adolescents observed being directed toward them from their Table 1 Survey Items of the Independent Variable: Parent- Adolescent Interaction PARENT-ADOLESCENT INTERACTION: Scale A. PARENTAL SUPPORT FOR ADOLESCENTS' ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT: 25) How often does one of your parents help you with your school work? Very often, often, sometimes, seldom, or never. 26) How often does one of your parents talk to you about what you are doing in school? Very often, often, sometimes, seldom, or never. 27) How often does one of your parents ask you about homework? Very often, often, sometimes, seldom, or never. 28) How often does one of your parents go to meetings or events at your school? Very often, often, sometimes, seldom, or never. Scale B. QUALITY 0? RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ADOLESCENTS AND PARENTS: 39) My family life is happy. Strongly agree, agree, not sure, disagree, or strongly disagree. 44) There is a lot of love in my family. Strongly agree, agree, not sure, disagree, or strongly disagree. 46) I get along well with my parents. Strongly agree, agree, not sure, disagree, or strongly disagree. 53) My parents give me help and support when I need it. Strongly agree, agree, not sure, disagree, or strongly disagree. 59) My parents often tell me they love me. Strongly agree, agree, not sure, disagree, or strongly disagree. Scale C. COMMUNICATION BETWEEN ADOLESCENTS AND PARENTS: 48) I have lots of good conversations with my parents. Strongly agree, agree, not sure, disagree, or strongly disagree. 55) My parents are easy to talk to. Strongly agree, agree, not sure, disagree, or strongly disagree. 96) How many times in the last month have you had a good conversation with one of your parents that lasted 10 minutes or more? None, once, twice, 3 times, or 4 or more times. 139) If you had an important concern about drugs, alcohol, sex or some other serious issue, would you talk to your parent(s) about it? Yes, probably, I'm not sure, probably not, or no. parents. The five items that made up this scale are listed in Table l on page 6. The third scale, Scale C, examined the manner of communication in parent-adolescent interaction. Adolescents reported whether it was easy for them to talk to their parents. They spoke of how frequently they had quality conversations with their parents and whether they felt comfortable speaking with their parents about such topics as drugs, sex, alcohol, or other serious issues. The four items of Scale C are provided in Table 1 on page 6. Dependent variables. Adolescents' self-esteem. The evaluation adolescents make and customarily maintain with regard to themselves defines adolescents' self-esteem (Coopersmith, 1967). Self- esteem indicates to what extent adolescents measure their personal capability, personal significance, success, and self-worth. Positive self—esteem refers to positive self evaluations adolescents make and is linked to self~respect, superiority, pride, self-acceptance and self—love. Negative self—esteem is an adolescent's negative self-evaluation. This negative self-appraisal is analogous with inferiority, timidity, self-hatred, and lack of personal acceptance and self—love (Coopersmith, 1967). The self-esteem variable was gauged by six items, five of which appear in the Rosenberg (1965) self—esteem measure. The adolescents rated themselves according to how much they liked themselves. They disclosed their good qualities, the self—pride they had, and their strength in decision making. Table 2 lists these items. Adolescents' academic motivation. This variable is defined as the extent to which adolescents were curious about and found schoolwork interesting. This led to their desire to succeed academically (Harter, 1988). Four questions, in Table 2, measured academic motivation. The items gauged the hours per week the students claimed to do homework and their regularity of going to school and skipping classes. They divulged whether they cared about school, putting in their greatest effort to do their best. Adolescents' academic achievement. Adolescents' academic achievement was the actual level of adolescents' academic performance in school (Harter, 1988). This variable was measured by the item, in Table 2, which revealed the grades the students self reported. Control variables. Two influential variables of self-esteem, teacher- adolescent interaction and adult-adolescent interaction, were included in these analyses to determine the extent to Table 2 Survey Items of the Dependent Variables: Adolescents' Self-Esteem, Adolescents' Academic Motivation, & Adolescents' Academic Achievement. ADOLESCENTS' SELF-ESTEEM: 40) I have a number of good qualities. Strongly agree, agree, not sure, disagree, or strongly disagree. 42) On the whole, I like myself. Strongly agree, agree, not sure, disagree, or strongly disagree. 45) At times, I think I am no good at all. Strongly agree, agree, not sure, disagree, or strongly disagree. 47) All in all, I am glad I am me. Strongly agree, agree, not sure, disagree, or strongly disagree. 51) I feel I do not have much to be proud of. Strongly agree, agree, not sure, disagree, or strongly disagree. 56) I am good at making decisions. Strongly agree, agree, not sure, disagree, or strongly disagree. ADOLESCENTS' ACADEMIC MOTIVATION: 22) In an average week, about how many hours do you spend doing homework? 0 hours, 1-2 hours, 3—5 hours, 6—10 hours, or 11 hours or more. 29) At school I‘try as hard as I can to do my best work. Strongly agree, agree, not sure, disagree, or strongly disagree. 33) I don't care how I do in school. Strongly agree, agree, not sure, disagree, or strongly disagree. 37) During the last four weeks, how often have you gone to school and skipped a class when you were not supposed to? Not at all, 1 or 2 times, 3—5 times, 6-10 times, 11—20 times, or more than 20 times. ADOLESCENT ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT: 24) What kinds of grades do you earn in school? Mostly A, about half A and B, mostly B, about half B and half C, mostly C, about half C and half D, mostly D, or mostly below C. which adolescent interaction predicted self-esteem and the other outcomes when the effects of the two variables were partialed out. Teacher-adolescent interaction. This variable is defined as the amount of respectful, accepting, and concerned treatment adolescents obtained from their teachers. Two items measured this interaction, addressing whether the adolescents felt their teachers cared about them and whether the teachers paid attention to their students. The survey items are included in Table 3. Adult—adolescent interaction. This variable is the amount of respectful, accepting, and concerned treatment adolescents received from adults other than their parents. Two items, listed in Table 3, measured adult—adolescent interaction by identifying, from the adolescents’ self report, the number of times in the last month they had a good conversation with an adult other than their parent(s). Also examined was the number of adults, aside from their parent(s), adolescents felt comfortable to go to for help if they had an important question about life. These are the 3 sets of hypotheses devised for this study. 10 Table 3 Survey Items of the Control Variables: Teacher— Adolescent Interaction, and Adult—Adolescent Interaction. TEACHER-ADOLESCENT INTERACTION: 31) My teachers really care about me. Strongly agree, agree, not sure, disagree, or strongly disagree. ' 34) My teachers don't pay much attention to me. Strongly agree, agree, not sure, disagree, or strongly disagree. ADULT-ADOLESCENT INTERACTION: 97) How many times in the last month have you had a good conversation with an adult (not a parent) that lasted 10 minutes or more? None, once, twice, 3 times, or 4or more times. 98) If you had an important question about your life, how many adults do you know (not counting your parents) to whom you feel comfortable going for help? None, 1, 2, 3 to 4, 5 or more. 11 Research Hypotheses H01: Adolescents' self-esteem is unaffected by parent- adolescent interaction. HA1: Adolescents' self—esteem is affected by parent- adolescent interaction. H02: Adolescents' academic motivation is unaffected by the adolescents' self-esteem. HA2: Adolescents' academic motivation is affected by adolescents' self-esteem. H03: Adolescents' academic achievement is unaffected by adolescents' academic motivation. HA3: Adolescents' academic motivation is affected to adolescents' academic achievement. The model developed for this study (Figure 1) physically displays the direction of the investigation among the eight variables. 12 .mucmommaocm flufls cofluomumucH unmomwaoccrucmnmm mo GoflumHmHHou mnu mo Hmpoz H ounuah quEm>mH£o< UAEOUMU< .mucmommHOU< mGOADMHmHHOU Umumem cam ucmfim>mflzo< UAEmpmod Goflum>fluoz Deaccmom .mucmommaopd uncommaopciuHSU< GofluomumucH uncommaopdnumnomme cofluocumucH Emwummimamm .mucmommaopd A.|E mucwommaop< a wucmnmm COO3U®Q CO HUMUflCDEEOU musmucm can mucoommaopm mo Qfinmcoflucamm mo zuflacso ucoEm>mH£o¢ oHEmUmo< .mucwommaocc Mo uuommsm Hmucmumm 13 Chapter II REVIEW OF LITERATURE This literature review explains why this study on Asian American adolescents is necessary. It discusses the immense and ever expanding cultural diversity in the United States. It notes the lack of research available on Asian Americans and the complexity of doing such research when considering the heterogeneous make up of this minority group. The review gives a general overview of current research on parent-adolescent interaction and the Asian American perspective on this type of interaction. The importance of academic achievement for Asian Americans is critiqued, along with an elaboration on the concept of Asian Americans as the "model minority" because of their high rate of success academically and otherwise. Social capital and self—esteem are defined within the context of this study. Lastly, Stanley Coopersmith and Susan Harter's research on parent-adolescent interaction, adolescents' self-esteem, adolescents' academic motivation, and academic achievement are examined and shown to be foundational for the propositions of this research. Cultural Diversity in the U.S. In the United States, ethnic diversity is extensive. This country has always been proud of its status as the 14 nation of immigrants. With the immigrants’ search for new beginnings in the "land of opportunity" comes national renewal and rebirth (Martin & Midgley, 1994). For native-born Americans, there is a conflict. There are those who wish to restrict and reduce immigration and those who celebrate and embrace maintaining or increasing immigration to the U.S. This dispute is because of the rise of both legal and illegal immigration. Approximately 1 million people are immigrating to America per year (Martin & Midgley, 1994). In terms of their education, skills, and ethnic origins, today's immigrants differ from native-born Americans. These newcomers are mostly from Latin American and Asia (Martin & Midgley, 1994). Compared to native-born Americans, most of who have graduated from high school or college, today's immigrants are 50 percent less likely to have completed high school. On the other hand, they are also more likely to have advanced college degrees compared to native-born Americans. Anti-immigrationists argue that today’s immigrants will become liabilities to the country in the future considering their low incomes, high unemployment, and dependence on public assistance (Martin & Midgley, 1994). 15 Heterogeneity of Asian Americans Despite the fact that immigrants to the U.S. come from all countries and, therefore, a wide variety of ethnic backgrounds, America's population is divided by Census statistics into only four groups: Asian American, non— Hispanic White, Black, and Hispanic (Asian-American Demographics, 1991). As can be imagined, these four groups, individually, are made up of a number of different cultures (Asian—American Demographics, 1991). Often studies generalize about American ethnic minority groups, such as Asian Americans, with only a mention of the different ethnic groups that make up the populace and not taking that diversity into consideration when performing the research or interpreting the results. A number of different cultures make up the Asian American population. According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census (Asian—American Demographics, 1990), Asian Americans are divided into nine different ethnic groups: Cambodian, Chinese, Filipino, Hawaiian, Indian, Japanese, Korean, Laotian, and Vietnamese. There are differences among these various Asian cultures in terms of cultural values, English language proficiency, educational attainment, and socialization practices (Alva, 1993). For instance, some researchers reported a significant difference in academic l6 achievement among Vietnamese, Laotian, and Cambodian students, even though they all come from Southeast Asia. Yet, others like to base these differences on socioeconomic status rather than cultural differences (Asakawa & Csikszentmihalyi, 1998). Lee (1994), in her study on Asian American adolescents, reported that the youth of her sample did not identify themselves as belonging to one large Asian American group. They divided themselves into several different Asian sub-groups. Each of these sub—groups behaved and performed differently in school and interacted differently with their families. Lee discovered that the Asian students from China, Hong Kong, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, and Taiwan reflected a panethnic identity, which meant they referred to one another as Asian or Asian American. Yet, at the same time, these individuals divided themselves into three different identity groups: Asian, Asian new wave, and Asian American. Koreans separated themselves completely from these other Asian groups. They did not refer to themselves as Asian or Asian American, rather only as Korean. The Koreans formed their own student organization. They purposefully only associated with other Koreans and with Caucasian students. They specifically l7 believed themselves to be superior to Southeast Asians, who they often referred to as "welfare sponges" (Lee, 1994). A more accurate way of researching Asian Americans would be to divide them into smaller groups (e. 9., East Asian, Southeast Asian). As Lee (1994) showed, the various ethnic divisions within an American ethnic group need to be taken into consideration when doing research. Otherwise, there is the strong possibility of an investigation's results being over—generalized and inaccurate when applied to everyone within a particular American ethnic minority group. Lack of Research on Asian Americans Ironically, despite the heterogeneity of the American populace, the majority of the research available on American adolescents is based on data collected from middle-class Caucasian American adolescents. Greenberger and Chen (1996) asserted that much of the research released before their work was based on samples consisting mainly of Caucasian Americans. To understand the similarities and differences across ethnic contexts, considering the increasing diversity of the American population, they discussed the importance of theory development and research (Greenberger & Chen, 1996). McKinney and his colleagues noted the conspicuous absence of longitudinal studies on 18 the normative development of American ethnic minority children. Also, they criticized the disregard for the inherent heterogeneity within the different minority groups when they are studied (McKinney, Abrams, Terry, & Lerner, 1994). Some research that does exist is prefaced with the affirmation that Asian American adolescents are not sufficiently studied or understood (Lorenzo et a1, 1995). Sue and Okazaki (1990), in their review of Asian Americans’ educational attainment, found an absence of research exploring the discrepancies between the academic achievement of Asian Americans and other American ethnic groups. In spite of the fact that Asian Americans are considered a "model" minority, a topic discussed in further detail later on, Kao (1995) explained that there is little research on the mechanisms of the academic success of Asian Americans. She believed the lack of research is because Asian Americans' academic success is not a problem in need of a solution. Kao claimed that the few studies done on Asian American adolescents' school performance have been based on the narrow motivation to try and decipher the key to their success. Also the samples in research on academic l9 achievement have not included a national representation of the Asian American populace. Comparison of Asian American and Caucasian American Adolescents In looking at studies that compared Asian American adolescents to their Caucasian American peers, there were unexpected differences. In one particular investigation (Lorenzo et al., 1995), Asian American youth exhibited less delinquent and aggressive behavior than their Caucasian counterparts. Asian American adolescents were less likely in school to act out or to use foul language with their teachers or peers. They were less disruptive in class and less likely to use abusive substances. Yet, at the same time they were revealed to be more withdrawn, anxious, and depressed, and to have more social problems. Coinciding with the fact that they were more withdrawn than the Caucasian adolescents, Asian American students were engaged in fewer after school activities (e.g., sports, and clubs). They spent less time with their classmates and had fewer close friends in contrast to the Caucasian students (Lorenzo et al., 1995). They expressed dissatisfaction with the amount of social support available to them, such as positive feedback and people with whom they could confide. When asked about role models, only 52 percent of the Asian 20 Americans mentioned having role models, who were most frequently teachers rather than their parents. Seventy—four percent of the Caucasian students had role models and the majority were identified as being their parents (Lorenzo et al., 1995). ‘5Ih terms of their education, Asian American adolescents valued education more and claimed it as being more important than the Caucasian adolescents did (Lorenzo et al., 1995II>They were also noted for being happier when studying and enjoying it more than their Caucasian peers (Asakawa & Csikszentmihalyi, 1998). Caucasian Americans scored significantly lower in mathematics and English than Asian Americans (Lorenzo et al., 1995). This was true even though the Asian Americans claimed to receive less praise from their parents than did their Caucasian peers. Young Asian Americans often expressed the harsh criticism and lack of warmth and acceptance they received from their parents (Greenberger & Chen, 1996). The differences shown between Asian Americans and Caucasian Americans support the importance of doing studies on all American ethnic groups because each group has different and similar issues. For instance, Asian American adolescents have different issues surrounding their 21 relationship with their parents compared to Caucasian American adolescents. Academic Achievement and the "Model" Minority Asian Americans are considered a model minority for several different reasons. The American Enterprise (1991) published statistics released by the U.S. Bureau of Census, the Population Reference Bureau, and the U.S. National /'/ Center for Educational Statisticsfoccording to these statistics, in the late 19805Asian Americans had the highest median family income and the lowest unemployment rate compared to Non—Hispanic Whites, Blacks, and Va. ”H Hispanics§)They also had the largest percentage of #11 _.___ I __..—-——- individuals who were 25 years or older with four or more years of college. Asian Americans had the highest percentage of 1980 high school seniors who had earned baccalaureates by 1986. They had the highest percentage of living in married-couple families and, in reverse, had the smallest percentage of persons aged 15 or older who were divorced. Finally, teen births, as a percentage of all births within the ethnic group, were the lowest for Asian Americans compared to the other three ethnic groups (Asian American Demographics, 1991). This study specifically focuses on Asian Americans' "model” minority status, scholastically. Even though Asian 22 Americans make up a small portion of America’s population, they are over-represented in academic success. This is seen r- in their school grades, scores on achievement tests, rates of acceptance at the highest ranking American colleges, and the numbers who graduate from high school and college (Chen & Stevenson, 1995):§A§ian Americans are, overall, looked upon as academic successes in the United States because of their value of education and determination for academic success (Lee, 1994II’Asian American students have the highest grade point average compared to African Americans, Caucasian Americans, and Hispanic Americans (Asakawa & Csikszentmihalyi, 1998). Researchers have come up with many different possible reasons for Asian Americans being, overall, academically successful. It was stated in several studies that Asian Americans promote high levels of education and academic achievement to_compensatefor anticipated discrimination they expect to encounter in the employment arena (Kao, 1995). Also educational attainment is considered highly influential on the opportunities of upward mobility, both educationally and noneducationally (Sue & Okazaki, 1990). The voluntary minority. According to 0gbu (1995), African Americans and Hispanic Americans often perform in opposition to their 23 Asian American peers because they operate from a different view point on education in terms of what it can do for their future. As explained by Ogbu (1995), there are voluntary and involuntary American minorities. The voluntary minorities are those who chose freely to come to the United States. The involuntary minorities are those who were brought to the country against their will or without their consent. The voluntary minorities, such as Asian Americans, were thought by Ogbu (1995) to View themselves as visitors to the U.S. where they must live by their host's rules. They experience the cultural and language barriers they encounter as obstacles they need to face and overcome in order to succeed in America (0gbu, 1995). Involuntary American minorities (e.g., African Americans and Hispanic Americans) do not believe that, for themselves, there is the possibility for social mobility because of the constant economic and social discrimination they experience in the United States (0gbu, 1995). In contrast to voluntary minorities, they reject the dominant American culture and develop an opposing culture. They do not pursue education successfully because they view schooling as a threat to their own cultures and identities (0gbu, 1995). If Ogbu's theoretical categorization of American minorities is true, 24 it would explain, at least to an extent, why Asian Americans are viewed an American model minority. Cultural influences. The roles of cultural influences and traditions in the Asian and Asian American value of education_and their contribution to Asian American academic success must not be .’ / overlooked. .05). Refer to Table 6 for the results of all three of the bivariate correlations. Path analysis revealed that only Scale B, the quality of relationship between parents and adolescents, measured as significantly affecting adolescents' self-esteem (b = .28, p = .01). Teacher-adolescent interaction was the only other variable that measured as positively and significantly affecting adolescents' self-esteem (b = .21, p = .01). Refer to Figure 2, which depicts the path analysis results. Question 2: Does adolescents' self-esteem affect adolescents' academic motivation? Adolescents' self—esteem had a significant and positive correlation with adolescents' academic motivation (r = .20, p = .01). Refer to Table 6. Path analysis disclosed that adolescents' self—esteem did not significantly affect adolescents' academic motivation 59 60 (b = .28, p = .009), as shown in Figure 2. The quality of relationship between parents and adolescents (b = .28, p = .01) and teacher-adolescent interaction (b = .32, p = .000), the same two variables that affected adolescents' self—esteem, also significantly impacted academic motivation. Refer to Figure 2. Question 3: Does adolescents' academic motivation affect adolescents' academic achievement? Referring to Table 6 (pg. 60), the adolescents' academic motivation and adolescents' academic achievement had a significant and positive correlation (r = .39, p = .01). As seen in Figure 2, adolescents' academic motivation was measured in path analysis as significantly affecting adolescents' academic achievement (b = .31, p = .001). 61 . mcoHDmHmHHOU omumem paw quEm>wfl£o< UHEwomo< .mucmomwaoom QDHB CofluocnmucH quommaoomH£om .i noflum>fluoz UHEmomom._Hm IQ OHEmomod Emmummnmamm . .Allll . .mucoommaood mucoommaood w mucoumm .mucoommaood .muaoomoaoom cooBDmQ GOHDMUHQSEEOO Ho.ua mm.ua mucwumm paw mucmommaoo< mo QflnmcoflumHmm mo xuflamso ucm8m>mfl£o¢ oflEmomofi .mucmommaoo4 mo unommdm Houcoumm '62 Chapter V DISCUSSION Findings of Present Study This study’s purpose was to examine if a significant relationship existed, in the Asian American context, between parent-adolescent interaction and adolescents’ academic achievement through a sequence of correlations between parent—adolescent interaction, adolescents’ self— esteem, adolescents’ academic motivation, and adolescents’ academic achievementZJOnce it was confirmed that these correlations existed, the direction of influence from one variable to the next was deciphered. Figure 1 (page 13) pictorially explains what was expected from the results. It has been investigated as to how parent-child interaction influences the character of children and how it reciprocally affects parents and children (Stafford & Bayer, 1993). The results from this study support previous research in that, at least, one aspect of parent-child interaction is significantly related to children's development of self—esteem. According to the study's results, the quality of the relationships between parents and adolescents, the love adolescents felt were expressed to them by their parents, and the strength of the adolescents' belief that they belonged to a loving and 63 ha SE ar happy family, significantly/gfipported and influenced their self-esteem. ThgselresultsIboincidewwithwthewresearch Buri and his colleagues had done. Buri et a1 (1992) stated that consistent show of parental behavior such as nurturance, affection, and support for their children, significantly and positively correlated with children's development of self-esteem. Parental support for adolescents' academic achievement, another measure of parent—child interaction used in this investigation, did not have a significant bivariate correlation with adolescents' self—esteem. It was not alarming to then find, in the path analysis, that it did not significantly impact adolescents' self-esteem. In other words, parents inquiring about their children's attention to homework or participation in school activities and parental involvement in school programs seemed insignificant for adolescents' self-esteem. The third scale measuring parent-adolescent interaction, communication between parents and adolescents, had a significant correlation with adolescents’ self— esteem, but did not measure as significantly affecting adolescents' self—esteem. It appeared that the frequency and ease with which adolescents found they could speak with their parents were not as imperative to adolescents' self— esteem as was thought. Although there was a significant correlation between adolescents’ self-esteem and their academic motivation, adolescents' self—esteem did not significantly influence the academic motivation. It was believed, as supported by the research of Susan Harter (1988), that the greater the support and acceptance one received from significant others, the more positive one’s self-esteem would be. This positive self-esteem, in turn, would lead to greater academic motivation because the person’s belief in himself would result in greater academic achievement (Harter, 1988). Apparently self-esteem was not as significant for academic motivation as expected. It is important to refer to the bivariate correlation between adolescents' self— esteem and academic motivation, an alpha level of .05 and a Pearson correlation value of .18. The lack of significance and low Pearson value hint at what to expect from the path analysis results between the two variables. Namely, adolescents' self—esteem did not significantly affect adolescents' academic motivation. It is possible that, with the use of the secondary data, self-esteem was not measured as accurately as necessary to precisely rate its relationship with academic 65 EC E! m In O motivation. If the concepts of global and specific self- esteem are applied, as studied by Rgsenberg and his colleaguesM(Rosenberg, et al., 1995), the results from the __g,.._-_..- l...- correlation and path analysis on adolescents' self-esteem and adolescents' academic motivation are not surprising. This investigation looked at global rather than specific self—esteem (e.g., academic self-esteem). Rosenberg's study disclosed that an individual's behavior, such as academic motivation or achievement, is not affected by, but rather affects global self-esteem. Instead, specific self—esteem affects an individual's behavior. Thus, for this particular study, it was logical that global self—esteem did not influence adolescents' academic motivation. Rather, adoflescents' academic motivation and academic achievement are more likelyxto affect their global self-esteem. If specific self-esteem (e.g., academic self- esteem) had been measured in this study, it might have shown an effect on adolescents' academic motivation. Adolescents' academic motivation had a significant bivariate correlation with, and was directly and significantly influenced by, the quality of relationship between parents and adolescents. It was found that the security of love and happiness adolescents sensed they had with their parents, directly, rather than indirectly (by 66 no 06 ac' hc n1 way of self—esteem), impacted adolescents' academic motivation. The significance of the bivariate correlation between the quality of relationship between parents and adolescents and adolescents’ academic motivation hinted at how significantly the quality of the relationship adolescents had with their parents would impact the academic motivation. These results contradict the research of Greenberger and Chen (1996) and Asakawa and Csikszentmihelyi (1998). They claimed that the quality of the relationship between Asian American parents and adolescents is not as positive as often thought. Instead the adolescents claimed to receive pressure rather than support from their parents to succeed. Also, the relationship quality did not show to impact the adolescents’ academic motivation or achievement. As expected, adolescents' academic motivation was directly and significantly correlated to their academic achievement. It proved that a person had to have the motivation to perform successfully in school, in order to reach high academic achievement. This coincides with the research done by Susan Harter (1988). Additional findings. It was not intended to analyze and include in this study the relationship the control variable, teacher- 67 adolescent interaction, had with the other variables. This variable was not included in the series of relationships that define the relationship of parent—adolescent interaction and adolescents' academic achievement. Yet, as it turned out, teacher—adolescent interaction had a significant role in the outcome of adolescents' self-esteem and their academic motivation. It had significant correlations with adolescents’ self—esteem and their academic motivation. In fact, this variable had a stronger correlation with adolescents' academic motivation than did the quality of the relationship between parent and adolescent. It also significantly impacted adolescents’ self-esteem and academic motivation. Because of the results’ significance, teacher—adolescent interaction has to be mentioned and discussed. 68 CHAPTER VI CONCLUSION Limitations Though this investigation seemed to produce some results that could be useful when studying Asian American adolescents, this study has certain restrictions, which need to be taken into consideration when studying or applying the results. As expressed earlier, the Asian American minority group is a heterogeneous group of many different Asian cultures. There are the Asian Americans who originate from East Asia (e.g. China, South Korea, and Japan). Others are from South and Southeast Asia (e.g. Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia). To obtain the most accurate information about Asian Americans there needs to be a greater understanding of the different cultures that make up this minority group. This study did not take into consideration the heterogeneity of the ethnic group. Therefore, the data collected from the Asian American adolescents in this investigation was not as accurate as it could have been. The size of this analysis' sample was small, 147 youths. The larger the sample, for any study, the finer the accuracy in the results because of the greater amount of data collected. The small sample size of this study needs 69 to be taken into consideration because this investigation's results are not as precise as they could have been, had the sample been larger. The adolescents of the sample were from Michigan only. If Asian American adolescents from each of the United States had been included, the results would have given a more accurate depiction of Asian American adolescents. This is especially true considering that the highest concentrations of the Asian American population are located in California, New York, and Chicago. It would have been a much more informative and reliable study had the sample been collected from different regions across the U.S. Because this was a secondary data analysis, the data used for this study were not collected with this investigation in mind. The data had to be manipulated so it would be able to answer, as best as it could, the questions pertaining to the analyses. If primary data had been used for this study, the items would have been intentionally designed to measure the study's variables more precisely. For instance, this study measures global self-esteem rather than specific self—esteem. If one were wanting to apply Rosenberg’s (1995) concept of global self-esteem and specific self-esteem to this study, it would not be possible because items from the ABQ survey were only able 7O to measure global self—esteem and not specific self-esteem (e.g., academic self—esteem). It is a challenge, in any study, to identify the direction of influence between two variables. This investigation tried to identify a direction of the relationships between the six different variables through the use of path analysis. Even though this was true, it cannot be stated affirmatively that the influence only runs in one direction. More than likely, variables mutually influence one another. This inquiry did not have the complete capability of identifying the precise direction of influence and did not take into consideration the possibility of highly mutual influence between the variables. Self—esteem is influenced by several different factors in an individual's environment. For this investigation only one factor, parent-adolescent interaction, was studied in terms of its effect on adolescents' self-esteem. For the sake of this study, certain factors were not taken into consideration as influences on adolescents' self—esteem. Adolescents' success in peer relationships and their success in school and recreational activities were not considered, nor were their relationships with adults aside from their parents (e.g. their teachers or neighbors). 71 Also, the adolescents' perception of their physical attractiveness was not taken in consideration. Conclusion Before this study was done, parent—adolescent interaction was assumed to have a significant impact on child development. It was disclosed, upon the completion of this investigation, that there is the high possibility that Asian American adolescents, in Michigan, need the security of strong, quality relationships with their parents, relationships that exhibit love and happiness. Teacher-adolescent interaction was not a focal variable intended to be examined in this investigation, yet it had a significant result in its effects on adolescents' self- esteem and their academic motivation, an effect that is strongly worth mentioning. Adolescents in this survey displayed a need to have similar security in the relationship they have with their teachers, as they do with their parents. From the assurance they have in these relationships, the adolescents are able to build positive and high levels of self-esteem. This peace of mind allows them to develop high academic motivation, which then induces them to perform better in school. It also seems apparent that if Asian American adolescents do not have 72 supportive relationships with their parents and teachers, they suffer from lower self-esteem. Asian parents in past research were critiqued as being authoritarian and showing a lack of emotional warmth towards their children (Asakawa & Csikszentmihalyi, 1998). Even though the adolescents described their parents in such a manner, it was thought that the Asian American adolescents were performing successfully academically. The results from this study do not support this concept. According to the data collected from these Asian American adolescents, having parents who do not exhibit warmth or love strongly contributes to lowering the adolescents' level of self-esteem and subsequently, their academic motivation, which then negatively impacts the adolescents' success in school. Overall, this study had the power of the adolescents’ outlook on their relationships with their parents, the way they look upon themselves, and how they viewed their school environment and their performance within that environment. Having obtained their point of view enables us to learn what these adolescents, in particular, need in order to develop into adults who have positive self-esteem and lead a productive and happy way of life. This study, in particular, highlights how the quality of the relationship 73 these adolescents have with their parents and teachers significant affects how the adolescents View themselves and how they perform in school. Direction for future research. Some could argue that the revelations from this study about Asian American adolescents from Michigan are true for all children, no matter what their ethnic background. There are common universal needs that all adolescents share. In order to understand whether or not the modified model (Figure 3) is applicable to other American ethnic groups, it would be appropriate to first apply the modified model to the national sample of Asian American adolescents to find if it applies to Asian Americans nationally. Then, by applying the model to the other ethnic groups in the national data, it could be discovered if parent—adolescent interaction and teacher—adolescent interaction are significant factors in the development of self-esteem and academic motivation for the majority of all American adolescents. 74 mcoflumHmHHou omumHmm one DGmEm>wfl£o< UHEmUmofi .mucwommaoo¢ Spas cofluomumudH unmomwaoomuucmumm wo Hmooz omfiwflooz zasoz m ouflufih ucmEm>mH£o< oHEmomod .mucmommaoo4 cofium>fluoz UHEmocom .mucwommaopd GofiuomnmucH uncommaoomnnwnomwe Emmummumamm .mucmomeOU¢ mucmumm out mucmommaopé mo QfiswcowumHmm wo huflaoso 45 APPENDIX 76 APPENDIX A Letter of Approval from the University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects 77 ., J1 as 1;.JU rAA JLI +05 ALIA v: OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND GRADUATE STUDIES 'vmity Commit!" on Research Involving Human Subjects (UCIIIIIS) '.":2:'.gan Slate University -5 Administration 3uiIoing East Lansing. Michigan 48824-1046 517/355-2180 FAX. 517/432-1171 "2 “1:343” Sm: Unlm'SI-‘y :t-I 3103079001!“ J'vemly Emmmuntmm 735/ :3 M M11740 marten] 32...: Wittgfiu‘wff ”57.1.1". MICHIGAN STATE 0 N l v E R s l r Y July 31. 1993 To: Franciso A. Villarruel rcvr . 2 Paclucci Bldg RE: That: 98-512 TITLE: ASIAN AMERICAN ADOLESCENTS: THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG ADULT-ADOLESCENT INTERACTION, ADOLESCENTS' SSLF-BSTEEM, ADOLESCENTS' ACADEMIC MOTIVATION, $.73 ADOLESCENTS' ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMEN REVISION REQUESTED: . " CATEGORY: l-E APPROVAL DATE: (YT/31,98 The university Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects-(ucaras) review of this project is complete.. I am pleased to adVise that t - rights and welfare of the human subjects a ear to be ade 'atel .- protected and methods to obtain informed eggsent are apprgpriatz. Therefore. the UCRIHS approved this project and any revisions listed above. RBNIHAL: UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year, beginning with the approval date shown above. Investigators planning to continue a project beyond one year must use the green renewal form (enclosed with tne original a proval let . ter or when a project is renewed) to seek u date certification. There is a maXimum of four such expedite renewals posaible. Investigators Wishing to continue a preject beyond that time need to submit it again .or complete revzew. REVISIONS: UCRIHS must review any changes in procedures involving human subjects, rior to initiation of t.e change. If this is done at the time o renewal, please use the green renewal form. To revise an approved prorocol at any other time during the year, send your written request to the_UCRIHS Chair. requesting revised approval and referenCLng the progect's IRE # and title. Include in your request a descr ption of the change and any revised instruments, consent forms or advertisements that are applicable. PROBLEMS / CHANGIS: Should either of the following arise during the course of the work, investigators must noti UCRIHS promptly: (1) roBLemg (unexpected side effects, comp aints, etc.) involving .uman .ubjects.or (2) changes in the research environment or new information indicating greater risk to the human sub ects than existed when the protocol was preViously reviewed an approved. If we can be of any future helgé lease do not hesitate to contact us at (517)355-2190 or FAX (517)4 l7]. 3 id 3. wriglt, Ph.D. UCRIHS Chair .3 35W:bed to: Mary Elizabeth Hoffman 18 BIBLIOGRAPHY 79 J BIBLIOGRAPHY Alva, S. A. (1993). Differential Patterns of Achievement Among Asian-American Adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 22, 4, 407-423. Asakawa, K. & Csikszentmihalhyi, M. (1998). The Quality of Experience of Asian American Adolescents in Academic Activities: An Exploration of Educational Attainment. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 8, 2, 241— 262. Asian American Association. (1996). 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