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DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE DETERMINATION‘OF RECHARGE AREAS FROM GROUNDWATER QUALITY DATA, INGRAM COUNTY, MICHIGAN By Shahbaz Radfar A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of IASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Geology 1979 ABSTRACT DETERMINATION OF RECHARGE AREAS FROM GROUNDWATER QUALITY DATA, INGHAM COUNTY, MICHIGAN By SHAHBAZ RADFAR The Saginaw Formation in southern Michigan is the principal aquifer for the city of Lansing and the surround- ing tri-county region. It is composed chiefly of beds of sandstone and shale, but includes some thin beds of coal and limestone. In Ingham County the formation ranges from O to 135 meters (450 ft) in thickness and is overlain by O to 36 meters (120 ft) of glacial drift of the Pleistocene Age. The drift consists chiefly of till with scattered de- posits of sand and gravel. Chemical analyses of water from 138 domestic wells tapping the Saginaw Formation indicate that the principal source of dissolved solids in the ground water of the Saginaw Formation is from the glacial drift. Generally, the concentration of dissolved calcium, magnesium, potas- sium, iron and chloride in the water from the aquifer is consistantly lower than that of water from the glacial drift. The concentration of sodium ions, on the other Shahbaz Radfar hand, is generally higher in the aquifer than that in the drift. In addition, zones of low ion concentrations in the ground water of the aquifer occur in areas where the glacial drift overlying the aquifer is composed chiefly of sand and gravel. Based on the geochemical analysis of ground water in the Saginaw Formation it appears that the Saginaw Forma- tion is naturally recharged by rain and stream water pass- ing through the glacial drift. Most of the recharge, how- ever, appear to be localized primarily near deposits of sand and gravel in contact with the bedrock and along stream beds underlain by alluvial materials. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my appreciation to Dr. Grahame J. Larson, my thesis advisor, who gave freely of his time in many discussions and was a constant source of encouragement and counsel. I also would like to thank members of my thesis guidance committee, Dre. C. E. Prouty and H. B. Stonehouse, who critically reviewed the manuscript. In addition, thanks go to Mr. Paul M. Buszka, who was helpful in collecting the samples. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . Previous Investigations GEOLOGY OF THE AREA . . . . Introduction . . . Location . . . . . Vegetation . . . Surficial Geology Subsurface Geology Stratigraphic Occur mation . . e C r n e of Sagina W Lithology of the Saginaw Formation HYDROLOGY O O O O O O 0 O 0 Introduction . . . . Precipitation . . Drainage of the Study Area Recharge to the Aquifer GEOHYDROLOGY OF THE SAGINAW FORMATION Discharge from the Aquifer . Permeability of the Saginaw Formation Transmissibility . . O Fluctuation of the Piezometric Surface 0 coijooooo GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE GROUND WATER IN THE SAGINAW FORIUIATI ON 0 O O O O C 0 Sample Analysis . . Type and Concentration of Major Ions . Source of Dissolved Solids in Groundwater. Precipitation . . Soil . . . . . . iii 0 O O I O Glacial Drift . Saginaw Formation . Underlying Formations DISSOLVED SOLIDS DISTRIBUTION Areal Distribution Calcium . . Magnesium . Sodium . . Chloride . Potassium . Iron . . . Hardness (carbonate) Vertical Distribution RECHARGE TO THE SAGINAW FOREATION Outwash Plains Esker Deposits Alluvial Valleys . Ground and Recessional Pattern of Water Discussion . . SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Recommendations BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . APPENDIX . . . . . . Appendix A: Appendix B: Flow iv Chemical Analyses of Ground- water in the Saginaw Formation Maps Showing the Areal Distri- bution of Each Ion in the Groundwater within the Saginaw Formation 68 76 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1 Stratigraphic Occurrence of the Saginaw Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l4 2 Annual Precipitation, Annual Departure and Cumulative Departure of Precipitation . . 2l 3 Mean Flow of Streams in Ingham County . . . 24 4 Yield of Wells Tapping the Sandstone of the Saginaw Formation in Ingham County . . . 29 Annual Pumpage of Groundwater . . . . . . . 31 6 Variations of Concentration of Ions Measured in the Groundwater of the Saginaw Forma- tion 0 O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O 39 7 Vertical Distribution of Ions Measured in Groundwater of the Saginaw Formation, Ingham County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 A Chemical Analyses of Groundwater of the Saginaw Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1 Map Showing Location of Ingham County, MiChigan O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 6 2 Map Showing Surficial Materials of Ingham county 0 O O O l O O O O O O O O O O O O 9 5 Map Showing the Bedrock of Ingham County, Micmgan O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 12 A Map Showing the Thickness of the Saginaw Formation, Ingham County, Michigan . . . l6 Streams Draining Ingham County, Michigan . . 22 6 Map Showing the Location of Wells Sampled in Ingham County, Michigan . . . . . . . 56 7 Map Showing the Distribution of Calcium in the Groundwater of the Saginaw Formation. ‘ 8 Map Showing the Distribution of Magnesium in the Groundwater of the Saginaw Forma- tion 0 O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O . 9 Map Showing the Distribution of Sodium in the Groundwater of the Saginaw Formation. ‘ 10 Map Showing the Distribution of Chloride in the Groundwater of the Saginaw Formation. ’ 11 Map Showing the Distribution of Potassium in the Groundwater of the Saginaw Formation. ‘ 12 Map Showing the Distribution of Iron in the Groundwater of the Saginaw Formation . . ‘ 13 Map Showing the Distribution of Hardness (carbonate) in the Groundwater of the Saginaw Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . ‘ l4 Diagram Showing Downward Movement of Water through Glacial Drift into the Saginaw Formation O O 0 O O I O O O O O O O O O O 56 vi Figure 15 Geological Cross-Section of the Saginaw Formation O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 l6 Areas of Probable Groundwater Recharge to the Saginaw Formation, Ingham County, MiChigan O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O ’Figures found in Appendix B. vii Page 58 62 INTRODUCTION Most of the counties in Michigan obtain their muni- cipal and industrial water supplies from surface water sources. Ingham County, however, is one county in central Michigan which is dependent almost entirely upon ground water derived from municipal and domestic wells (Fig. 1). Most of these wells draw from the Saginaw Formation which is the principal aquifer for the city of Lansing and the surrounding tri-county region. The thickness of the Saginaw Formation ranges from O to 135 meters (450 ft) and when fully developed is ex- pected to yield approximately 197 MLD (52 MGD) of water, with the greatest share of the withdrawal being within the Lansing metrOpolitan area (Vanlier and Wood, 1969). Within the last twenty years, however, rapid growth of papulation and industry, especially in and adjacent to the Lansing MetrOpolitan area, has generated serious con- cern among many of the industrial and domestic users of groundwater. It appears the withdrawal of large quantities of water from the Saginaw Formation within these areas has produced over the years an extensive cone of depression and has seriously lowered water levels in many producing wells. The objective of this thesis to to determine the areas of recharge for the Saginaw Formation within Ingham County. Obviously, these areas are of prime interest to the residents of the county because their preservation is essential for insuring an adequate ground water supply in the future. Specifically, the study involves the follow- ing two programs: 1. To map, in detail, the geochemistry of the ground water in the Saginaw Formation of Ingham County and 2. To ascertain from the geochemical and geological data the pattern of recharge into the Saginaw Formation. Previous Investigations Since 1940 several hydrological investigations have been made of the Lansing area. For example, W. T. Stuart (1945) of the United States Geological Survey published a report entitled "Groundwater Resources of the Lansing, Michigan, Area." The study involved water level measure- ments in observation wells, pumping tests, and other field investigations. It has since served as a basic source of information on the areas groundwater supply. Stuart's work contains a description of the physical parameters of the aquifer, an early piezometric map of the area, and calcu- lated coefficients of transmissibility and storage for the aquifer. His piezometric map shows a major cone of depres- sion beneath Lansing caused by high industrial and domestic pumpage. The map also shows that the general trend of groundwater flow in Ingham County is towards the north. The report suggests that the aquifer was in equilibrium during the period from 1950 to 1955, but by 1945 it was no longer in equilibrium due to increased rates of pumpage. For an aquifer to be in equilibrium it must be re- charged at the same rate at which water is being withdrawn from the aquifer. Stuart suggested three principal paths of recharge to the Saginaw Formation: (1) water is re- .charged to the aquifer from streams and rivers, (2) water enters the aquifer directly where bedrock is at or near the ground surface, and (5) leakage into the aquifer is from the saturated glacial drift directly above the aquifer. The third possibility has concerned several later investi- gators (W. Wood, 1969; Vanlier and Brunett, I969). The geology of the Saginaw Formation in Ingham County, as well as in the Upper Grand River Basin, has been described in detail by Kelly (1956). An outline of the glacial history of Ingham County has also been made by Martin (1958). In addition, a more recent study of the groundwater hydrology of the Saginaw Group has been made by Mencenberg (1965). This last investigation includes a study of the relationships of the piezometric surface to the geology and discusses the extent of the aquifer and 4 the subsurface correlations within the Saginaw Group. A more recent piezometric map of the Lansing area was constructed by Firouzian (1965). He determined the co- efficients of transmissibility of the Saginaw Formation by flow net analysis. Neither Firouzian's or Mencenberg's study goes into any great detail about the recharge capa- bilities of the aquifer. A more up to date report by Vanlier (1964) contains a general discussion of the geology, hydrology, and water quality of the area of Clinton, Eaton, and Ingham Counties. A.more detailed version of this report was published by Vanlier, Wood, and Brunett (1969). Another investigation of the groundwater resources of the tri-county region around Lansing (Wheeler, 1967; Vanlier and Wheeler, 1968) was recently prepared by the United States Geological Sur- vey. This investigation contains an electric analog model of the Saginaw Formation in the Lansing area. GEOLOGY OF THE AREA Introduction The chemical characteristics of water within an aquifer normally reflect the lithologic characteristics of the entire aquifer system. For example, the processes of solution, ion exchange, precipitation, and ion filtration which can and generally do occur in an aquifer are all functions of the type and distribution of rock lithologies in contact with the aquifer water. Clearly, a sound under- standing of the geochemistry of an aquifer system would re- quire not only a knowledge of the geology of the aquifer itself, but also a knowledge of the geology of the source of recharge to the aquifer. Location The area under investigation lies in the south central part of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan (Fig. 1). It includes all the area within Ingham County and covers approximately 1422 square kilometers (553 square miles or 555,920 acres). The Lansing metropolitan area lies in the northwest corner of the county and is the center of 5 MICHIGAN LAKE N I . I 0 Miles 6 To‘ A ‘ I N. Lansing Meridian Williamston Locke I \ I \ I \ l Delhi Alaiedon Whestfield Leroy I \ I \ I T. \ I 2 Aurelius Vevay lngham Whithoek N. I I T. ; l Onondaga ‘\ Leslie ¢Bunkerhill Stockbridge a. I \ I \ 3.2 w. \ 12.1 w. 3.1 E. /R.2 F. / \ \ I / \. \ I , \ / \ \ , \ \ / \ \ / \ I \ i / \ \ ,- \ \ , j \ \ l / \. \ 4 I / \ ‘ 91:5Lru . .- Letfiim Ingham / \ County' / / Figure 1. Map Showing Location of Ingham County. Michipan. k v ==I industrial and commercial activity in the region. Vegetation Presently about 15 percent of Ingham County is covered by forest which consist of various associations of hard woods. The principal hard woods are oak, hickory, beech, and ash. American linden, elm, maple, tamarack, aspen, willow, black spruce and shrubs usually grow in peat swamps. Wire grass, sedge and blue joint usually grow in marshy land. Most of the county is covered by grass and non-cultivated crops and the best land in the county is used for the production of cultivated craps (Veatch, 1941). Wheat, corn, hay, oats, rye, barley, dry beans, livestock and potatoes are staple crops of the region. Surficial GeolOgy The present day t0pography of Ingham County is characterized by gentle morainic hills and flat undulating ground moraine. Most of the glacial drift which blankets the bedrock was deposited during the Wisconsin glaciation and in this area consists chiefly of unconsolidated clay, silt, sand and gravel. According to Vanlier (1969), the glacial deposits are of three principal types: (1) well sorted mixtures of silt, sand, and gravel such as found in valley trains, out- wash plains, eskers, kames, and buried outwashes, (2) layer- ed sequences of silt, sand, and clay deposited in glacial lakes and glacial river channels, and (5) unsorted mixtures of clay, silt, sand, gravel, and boulders such as found in ground and recessional moraines. In local areas, thick deposits of recent alluvium also overlay the glacial drift. Figure 2 shows a surficial map of Ingham County pre- pared by Martin (1958). It is evident from the map that most of the County is covered by ground and recessional moraine (till material). The major recessional moraines crossing the County are the Grand Ledge and Lansing mor- aines (Leverett and Taylor, 1915). The Grand Ledge moraine extends southwestward from Lake Lansing to the campus of Michigan State University and then continues northwestward towards the town of Grand Ledge. The Lansing moraine on the other hand lies south of Grand Ledge moraine and ex- tends through the southern.part of the city of Lansing. In addition, there are many short minor morainal belts which extend in an east-west arch across the southern half of the county. The thickness of the drift in the county ranges from O to 56 meters (120 ft) primarily because of uneven bedrock. The surface of the drift ranges in alti- tude from about 240 to 500 meters. The eskers in the region are long narrow ridges com- monly sinuous in form and are composed chiefly of sand , IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII .| Ground moraine ‘? Eskers N («Mm Miles] “1*‘:t?§2£&5$¥i?ki . u}3~5hfigyfipi Outwash plains 913 6 Scale 1 :260,000 Fig. 2-- Map Showing Surficial Materials of Ingham County, Michigan (Modified from Helen M. Martin, 1958) lO (mostly quartz sand) and gravel (Fig. 2). Silt and clay particles are commonly absent in eskers, therefore some of these features in this region have been used as sources of sand and gravel aggregate. Most of the outwash deposits in Ingham County lie south of Dansville and are concentrated in the townships of Bunker Hill, Stockbridge, and Ingham. Minor amounts of outwash also occur in the northern part of Onondaga, the northeastern part of Leslie, the northeastern part of Meridian, and the southeastern part of Vevay townships. The outwash is composed chiefly of sand (mostly quartz sand) and gravel and varies considerably in thickness and in areal extent. Litholgic logs from several wells in the out- wash indicate that in some areas the sand and gravel mater- ial extends from the land surface to the top of the under- lying bedrock. In general, most of this material is fine sand with minor amounts of coarse sand and gravel. Ground moraine is the most common deposit in Ingham County and underlies large portions of Leroy, Wheatfield, Aledian, Vevay, Aurelius, White Oak, and Leslie townships. The chief material within the ground moraine is till which is a mixture of sand, silt, and clay particles and large boulders. Well logs from these areas indicate that the till extends generally from the land surface to the top of the bedrock, but in the some areas it includes or overlies extensive bodies of sand and gravel. 11 Most of the alluvial materials which consist chiefly of silt and fine sand deposited on flood plains, occur along the Red Cedar River, Doan Creek, Deer Creek, Sloan Creek, Grand River and its tributaries. Subsurface Geology The glacial deposits within Ingham County rest directly upon bedrock of Pennsylvanian (Grand River forma- tion, Saginaw formation) and Mississippian Age (Bayport 'Limestone) (Fig. 5). Structurally the bedrock forms the southern edge of the Michigan basin and dips about one de- gree toward the north. Underlying the Pennsylvanian aged rocks is about 8000 feet of sandstone, limestone, dolomite, shale, and evaporites ranging in age from Cambrian to Upper Mississippian (Dott, et a1, 1954). These sediments gener- ally have a low permeability and contain water which is highly mineralized (Stuart, 1945). Within Ingham County there are several localities where bedrock crops out (Lane, 1902). The most extensive outcrOp of the Saginaw Formation in Ingham County is lo- cated near the town of Williamston where it is quarried by Michigan Clay Products Company. In the quarry there is a small anticline with a north-south strike which exposes some of the older beds in the formation (Kelly, 1956). The out- crops exposed in the vicinity of Grand Ledge out of the study area are the most extensive of the Saginaw Formation l2 1. MERIDIAN i 4 I I i N' LANSING ‘ I, WILLlAMSTON LOCKE :l'l MIMI» * , I 3 A N' . I DELHI ALAIEDON WHEATFIELD LEROI f I r. i 2 N. AURELIUS VEVAY lNOHAM WHITFOAK i AI T- . ' i. N. ONONDAGA LESLIE BUNKERHILL I R-ZW- R-IW- R-IE- N Grand River Group Q, l 3 6Miles Saginaw Formation Scale 1:260,000 7 9,52? Bayport Limeston Fig. 3 «an Showing. the Bedrock of Ingham County, michignn, 13 exposures within the State (Kelly, 1956). Low areas on the Saginaw surface tend to be the low areas of the present sur- face tepography (Mencenberg, 1965). The Grand River forma- tion and the Bayport limestone are two other formations in Ingham County which crop out in a few places. Stratigraphic Occurrence of Saginaw Formation The Pennsylvanian system of the Michigan Basin sedi- mentary sequence has been commonly subdivided into the \ Grand River and Saginaw Formations (Table 1). Much of the Grand River Group and younger bedrock in Ingham County were removed by pre-glacial erosion. However, some patches of red beds overlying the Saginaw have been reported by well drillers in Delhi, Alaiedan, and Meridian townships and may be remnants of the Grand River Group. The main water bearer in Ingham County is the Sagi- naw Formation. It consists chiefly of sandstone and di- rectly overlies the Bayport limestone. The edge of the Bayport limestone occurs directly under the glacial drift in the southeastern corner of White Oak and Stockbridge townships (Fig. 5). The Saginaw Formation was deposited on the eroded surface of the Bayport limestone and Michigan Formation (Kelly, 1956, Vanlier, 1969). Originally, the type 10- cality for the Saginaw Formation named the Jackson Forma- tion was in an abandoned coal mine in Jackson County about 1# Table l. -- Stratigraphic Occurrence of the Saginaw Forma- tion. PERIOD FORMATION MEMBER Grand River Ionia, Eaton, and Pennsylvanian Woodville sandstone Saginaw Verne Ls. Bayport Ls. Michigan Mississippian Marshall 83. Goldwater Sh. Source: Michigan Geological Survey, Chart 1, 1964. 15 25 miles south of the area of study. A. 0. Lane (1901) replaced the name Jackson with the name Saginaw, a charac- teristic name, because the Saginaw Valley occupies a large part of the coal basin in Michigan. The average thickness of the Saginaw Formation is approximately 120 meters (400 ft) (Kelly, 1956), but it reaches 155 meters (450 ft) in Ingham County. Low areas on the upper surface of the Saginaw Formation indicate erosion of the formation surface prior to the deposition of the Grand River Group. The thickness of the formation is ex- tremely variable within the County and generally increases toward the north (Fig. 4). Lithology of the Sagingg Formation The Saginaw Formation is composed principally of discontinuous beds of sandstone and shale, but it includes some thin beds of coal and limestone. An individual strata can vary in lithologic character and thickness within a very short distance. Detailed investigation of this vari- ation (Kelly, 1956) indicates that the sandstone is fre- quently lenticular, nonpersistent, and forms irregular beds often ending abruptly against shales generally less than 6 meters (20 ft) thick. Beds of sandstone 50 to 90 meters (100 to 500 ft) thick have been reported from sev- eral wells in Lansing Township (Kelly, 1956). Ti 2 1 N- "Ioo/ 60/ 7 _ e/ A: )\, N. 4? :::::::::::::::-I;f:;° / @/’—/\) fl°° /""' 1L0 L- saw. R.iw- R-IE- 3.2 E. (Contour Interval 50 feet) Scale 1,260,000 O_l 3 6Miles Fig.1I--Map Showing the Thickness of the Saginaw Formation Ingham County, Michigan (Modified from K. E. Vanlier, 1969 17 The texture of the sandstone in the Saginaw Forma- tion is usually fine grained. The sand is composed chiefly of very fine quartz grains but is associated locally with decomposed feldspars and abundant light-colored micas. The dominant colors reported in drillers logs are light buff and dark gray. The sandstone contains generally less than one percent of heavy minerals such as tourmaline and zircon (Kelly, 1956). It does, however, also contain oc- casional fossil plant fragments. These characteristics in- dicate a terrestrial origin for the sand, where shifting currents with rapidly alternating erosion and deposition played a major part. As mentioned above, the shales of the Saginaw Forma- tion and some of the sandstones are not persistent over great distances. The shales are often truncated by channel sands in many instances. Kelly (1936) divided the shales of the Saginaw Formation into three subdivisions: (a) shales with considerable sandy material, (b) shales with little or no sandy material, and (c) underclays. Plant fossils are often found in the shales which also suggests a terrestrial origin. The colors recorded for the shales in drillers logs are black, blue, brown, buff, gray, and (white. Black or dark gray is the most common color. Underclay often occurs below coal seams and commonly con- tains irregular nodules of iron carbonate (Kelly, 1956). 18 In the study area, coal beds are not abundant in the Saginaw Formation, Ihowever, there are occasional thin and discontinuous beds which vary in thickness from a few to several meters. Most coal that has been mined in Ingham County averages about thirty inches in thickness (Mencen- berg, 1965). HYDROLOGY Introduction It is well known that the amount of water entering a groundwater reservoir over a fixed period of time is in— fluenced by several factors; these include the duration, intensity, and type of precipitation, the density and type of vegetation, the topography and drainage system of the ground surface,and the lithologic and hydrologic proper- ties of the soil, surficial materials and underlying rock formations. Hence, with the Saginaw Formation, it is necessary first to identify the source and availability of water to the aquifer before the path and volume of water flow into the aquifer can be adequately investigated. Precipitatiog As mentioned above, precipitation is one of the ma- jor factors that controls the general groundwater condition in any area. According to Michigan Department-of Agriculture-(1978) rate of precipitation in Ingham County is fairly uniform throughout the year. Annual precipitation generally ranges 19 20 from 24 to 56 inches, but averages about 51 inches. The wettest months of the year are normally May and June (5.5 inches per month). February is usually the month of mini- mum precipitation (about 1.6 inches). The maximum 24-hour rainfall recorded within the region was 5.89 inches, which occurred in Webberville on June 5-6, 1905. Snowfall has been recorded in every month except June, July, August, and September. About 90 percent of the snowfall takes place in the months of December through March (Vanlier, 1969). The annual precipitation for the area in 1977 was 28.52 inches which was 2.28 inches below the average of 50.60 inches. The variation of precipitation from 1968 to 1977 is shown in Table 2. Drainage of the Study Area Most of the northern part of Ingham County is drained by the Red Cedar River and its major tributaries; Sycamore Creek, Deer Creek, Doan Creek, and Sloan Creek (Fig. 5). The western part of the County, on the other hand, is drained by the Grand River and the southern part is drained by several tributaries of Portage Creek. The average flow of the Red Cedar in East Lansing is about 5 CMS (190 CFS) and its annual 7-day low flow, where it enters the Grand River, is about 0.8 CMS (50 CFS) (Vanlier, 1969). 21 Table 2. -- Annual Precipitation, Annual Departure, and Cumulative Departure of Precipitation. Annual Cumulative Annual Departure of Departure of Year Precipitation Precipitation Precipitation in Inches in Inches in Inches 1968 51.89 +1.29 +1.29 1969 27.79 -2.81 -l.52 1970 54.67 +4.07 +2.55 1971 24.56 -6.04 -5.49 1972 50.50 -O.10 -3.59 1975 54.79 +4.19 +0.60 1974 28.86 -1.74 -1.14 1975 56.15 +5-53 +4-39 1976 28.74 ~1.86 +2.55 1977 28.52 -2.28 +0.25 Source: Michigan Weather Service, 1978. 22 / 913 Jooq ‘VD- ,- goan oxownofig Jonrg puean *3 2H \a_,,\ R.2 w. 3.1 w. R.1 H. 3.2 a. .‘ -g_; j ifiviles Scale 1';2eo,ooc Fig.5--Streams Draining Ingham County, Michigan. 23 The Grand River enters Ingham County from the south and flows north through Lansing and then westward to Grand Ledge. Its drainage area south of Lansing is approximately 1250 square miles which represents 22 percent of its total drainage area (Firouzian, 1965). The Red Cedar River, on the other hand, enters the county from the east and flows west until it joins the Grand River in Lansing. Its drainage area above East Lansing is 5198 sq. km (555 square miles)(Firouzian, 1965). Sycamore Creek generally flows in a northwestwardly direc- tion from the city of Mason and joins the Red Cedar River just east of Lansing. Doan Creek, Deer Creek, and Sloan Creek also flow towards the north and join the Red Cedar within the boundaries of Ingham County. The Grand River basin in the western part of the county is gently rolling and is underlain predominantly by sandy loam soil. According to hydrolOgic studies of the U. S. Geological Survey (Firouzian, 1965) the base flow for the Grand River south of Lansing in 1965 is approximately 5x10’“ CMS per sq. km (0.26 CFS per square mile). The amount of base flow for the Red Cedar River in East Lansing, on the other hand, is estimated to be approximately 2x10'4 CMS per sq. km (0.16 CFS per square mile) and is equivalent to 2.17 inches per year (Firouzian, 1965). 24 Table 5. -- Mean Flow of Streams in Ingham County (in CFS). Red Grand Cedar River Deer Sloan Sycamore Year at E. Lansing at Lansing Creek Creek Creek 1968 287 1145 14.6 9.12 -- 1969 267 1118 12.8 6.60 -- 1970 161 702 9.88 4.17 -- 1971 197 780 10.0 6.00 ~- 1972 169 715 10.2 5.21 -- 1975 551 1286 17.7 10.5 -- 1974 556 1572 18.2 9.55 -- 1975 507 1085 15.8 9.49 -- 1976 518 1215 16.0 8.57 76.4 1977 112 509 4.65 2.24 26.4 Source: United States Geological Survey. Stream Flow Publication. 1968 to 1977. 25 Recharge to the Aquifer The initial source of all fresh groundwater in the Saginaw Formation is from precipitation. As mentioned earlier it is one of the major factors that controls di- rectly or indirectly the amount of recharge to the forma-' tion. The average annual precipitation over Ingham County is about 51 inches (Vanlier, 1969). Most of this water, however, does not enter the groundwater reservoir but is lost due to evaporation, transpiration especially in the summer, and surfaCe run off to the drainage system (especi- ally when the ground is frozen). The average surface run off within the County is about 7 inches annually, and the difference, 24 inches, is the average annual loss through evaporation and transpiration (Vanlier, 1969) plus the amount recharging into the ground water supply. Run off can be separated into its components of overland and groundwater flow. 0f the 7 inches of run off in the study area, direct overland flow amounts are about 5 inches and while ground water flow accounts for about 4 inches (Vanlier, 1969). GEOHYDROLOGY OF THE SAGINAW FORMATION By definition a water-bearing formation that yields water in usable quantities is termed an aquifer. The amount of water available to a well, however, depends upon the regional and local lithologic and hydrologic character- istics of both the aquifer and the overlying and underlying units. Hydrologically, an aquifer may be classified as either water table or artesian. In the water table vari- ety, the aquifer is unconfined and the water surface within the aquifer is termed the water table. Often, in a glaci- ated region, water table conditions predominate, where 1.. discontinuous and unrelated lenses of clay occur within the drift. In addition, impermeable lenses of clay often cause the water table to be "perched" in local areas. These small "perched" water bodies are generally unimportant to ground- water develOpment except for occasional domestic wells. In an artesion aquifer, such as occurs within the Saginaw Formation, groundwater is confined under pressure between relatively impermeable strata. Under natural con- ditions, the water in a well completed in the Saginaw Formation and tightly cased through the overlying drift 26 27 will rise above the drift-bedrock contact even while water is being removed. The imaginary surface consisting of all points to which water would rise in wells that tap the Saginaw Formation is called the piezometric surface. In the Lansing area, however, the high rate of pumpage has locally drawn the piezometric surface below the drift/ bedrock contact, producing a water table condition within the Saginaw. As mentioned earlier, the Saginaw Formation is the principal source of water for the city of Lansing and Ingham County. The aquifer is confined to various degrees by shaley aquicludes and, in some areas, in the county the aquicludes are quite extensive and form regional aquicludes. Sometimes, the glacial till in contact with the top of a sandstone bed of the Saginaw Formation also acts as an aquiclude. The Bayport limestone, which directly underlies the Saginaw Formation in the study area, is a dense limestone approximately 12 meters (40 ft) thick (Wood, 1969). This limestone effectively acts as a base to the flow system in the Saginaw and prevents the passage of large quantities of water from moving either into the Saginaw Formation from below or from the Saginaw into the underlying beds. It is possible, however, that in areas where faults or fractures are present in the Bayport limestone, some water could be transmitted between the two formations. 28 Table 4 lists the yield and specific capacity of major wells drawing water from the Saginaw Formation. It is evident from the data in the table that the yields vary from 578 to 5780 L/min (100 to 1000 gal/min). The vari- ability of yield is controlled primarily by the thickness of sandstone penetrated. Generally, the more sandstone penetrated the higher the yield. Availability of recharge water is also a major factor controlling the yield. Gener- ally, the 1ong-term yield is greater where sandstones of the formation are overlain by permeable sand and gravel of glacial origin than where the upper part of the formation is composed of shale and/or is overlain by clayey glacial deposits such as ground moraine and lake plain (Vanlier, 1969). Recharge from streams into glacial drift also tends to increase long-term yield. In most areas the groundwater level is higher than the water surface in adjacent streams. However, withdrawal by pumpage in some areas in Ingham County has reversed this relationship and, as a consequence, water is being forced by gravity from the stream into the ground. This is especially true in areas where the streams are underlain by sand and gravel that are in turn underlain by permeable sandstone beds of the Saginaw Formation (Vanlier, 1969). This form of induced recharge has recently been employed to increase the yield in areas along the Red 29 Table 4. -- Yield of Wells Topping the Sandstone of the Saginaw Formation in Ingham County. Yield Specific Capacity Area (gal/min) (gal/min/ft of drawdown) City of Lansing 100 to 700 5 to 10 City of Mason 675 to 700 ~- East Lansing and Meridian Township 280 to 1,000 2 to 12 Lansing Township 260 to 500 5 to 8 Michigan State University 147 to 654 1 to 11 Source: Ground-water Data for Michigan by G. C. Huffman. U. S. Geological Survey, 1976. 30 Cedar River and its tributaries and also along the Grand River (Firouzian, 1965; Vanlier, 1969). Discharge from the Aquifer Water is discharged from the groundwater reservoir by evaporation, transpiration and by pumpage of wells drilled into the aquifer. The rate of discharge directly to the atmosphere is not accurately known, although for Ingham County it is estimated to be about 2 inches per year (Vanlier, 1969). (Natural discharge may occur where the piezometric surface is above the stream level.) The greatest amount of water discharging from the groundwater reservoir is through pumping of domestic and industrial wells. In Ingham County most of the urban areas are serviced by municipal water systems, although some in- dustries, commercial establishments, and urban residents also have their own water wells. In addition, Michigan State University has its own well system. The average urban resident in Ingham County uses about 189 liters per day (50 gallons per day) at his place of residence (Vanlier, 1969), but the amount of withdrawal water in most communi- ties is much larger because industry and commercial firms also consume large quantities of water. The rate of groundwater pumpage varies greatly throughout the County (Table 5). For example, Lansing with a total pumpage of about 54100 million liters (8,976 million 31 Table 5. -- Annual Pumpage of Groundwater (in millions of gallons). Area 1972 1975 1974 1975 1976 City of Lansing 8,559 8,850 8,055 8,099 8,976 Michigan State University 1,712 1,805 1,800 1,800 1,751 East Lansing and Meridian Township -- -- 1,487 1,566 1,599 Lansing Township 717 750 651 725 586 City of Mason 192 179 222 211 218 Source: Ground-water Data for Michigan by G. C. Huffman. U. S. Geological Survey, 1976. 32 gallons) in 1976 has been the biggest user of groundwater in the County during the entire past decade. Michigan State University and East Lansing also rely exclusively on groundwater and rank second and third, respectively, in the County as consumers of water. Permeability of the Saginaw Formation Several pumping tests made in the Saginaw Formation indicate that the aquifer has an average permeability of about 420 cm pd (100 gpd per sq. ft.) (Wood, 1969). In some areas, however, the sandstone is not very permeable owing to the filling of the pore spaces between sand grains with mineral matter (Vanlier, 1969). Also, in most areas sandstone at shallow depth is more permeable than deeply buried sandstone. The higher permeability may result, in part, from Openings along fractures in the shallow beds, which in deeper beds may be closed by the weight of over- lying sediments (Vanlier, 1969). The permeability of the shale units in the Saginaw Formation is generally much lower and more variable than in the sandstone units and ranges from 0.042 to 4.2 cm pd (0.01 to 1.0 gpd per sq. ft.) (Wood, 1969). Therefore, the total permeability of the Saginaw Formation varies consid- erably from one locality to another and is controlled chiefly by the composition of the beds within the formation. 33 Transmissibility Little work has been done to determine the trans- missibility of the aquifer. For example, Stuart (1945) calculated that the average coefficient of transmissibility is approximately 2,802 liters per day per centimenter (25,400 gpd/ft.). The highest value recorded is 9,859 liters per day per centimeter (79,500 gpd/ft.) in the North Cedar Street field and the lowest 496 liters per day per centimeter (4,000 gpd/ft.) in the northwest field (Mencenberg, 1965). In 1965, Firouzian found the average transmissibility in the Lansing area is 2,950 liters per day per centimeter (25,628 gpd/ft.), with the values rang- ing from a high of 4,608 liters per day per centimeter (57,156 gpd/ft.) in the Michigan State University well field to a low of 1,549 liters per day per centimeter (10,880 gpd/ft.) in the East Lansing fields. Vanlier (1968) suggests that within the Lansing metr0politan area, trans- missibility of the Saginaw Formation can be expected to range from about 124 liters per day per centimeter (1,000 gpd/ft.) to about 2,480 liters per day per centimeter (20,000 gpd/ft.). As with the permeability, the variance in transmissibility for the Saginaw Formation reflects the variation in the total thickness and permeability of the sandstone beds in the formation. 54 Fluctuation of the Piezometric Surface Groundwater levels within the Saginaw sandstone fluctuate with seasonal changes in the rate of recharge to and discharge from the aquifer. During the spring thaw, for example, water levels in wells normally rise in re- sponse to the infiltration of rain and melting snow. In summer, however, water levels generally lower in response to increased evapotranspiration. Water levels are also affected by pumpage of the aquifer. For instance, if the rate of groundwater with- drawal is greater than the rate of recharge to the Saginaw Formation the piezometric surface will drOp. The amount of drop is directly related to the rate of withdrawal and the length of time that the wells are pumped. The glacial drift water table is always below the levels of the surface streams; the natural discharge of groundwater in the gla- cial drift to the streams will stop or water may begin to infiltrate from the streams to the glacial deposits and finally to the sandstone beds of the Saginaw Formation. This will be most evident in areas of permeable sand and gravel underlying the alluvial materials. However, the piezometric surface of the aquifer in the study area is deep toward north and it ranges from 285 m (550 ft) in the south to 210 m (700 ft) in the north of the County. This suggests that there is a hydrologic con- nection between the overlying glacial drift and the Saginaw Formation. GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE GROUND WATER IN THE SAGINAW FORMATION During the month of May, 1978, 158 water samples were collected from one hundred and thirty-eight private wells (approximately nine samples per township) which tap- ped the Saginaw Formation in Ingham County. Each sample taken measured 500 m1. and was kept refrigerated for no more than 72 hours prior to analysis. The location and lithologic description of the sampled wells are shown in Figure 6 and were obtained from drillers logs filed with the Geologic Division of the Michigan Department of Natural Resources. Many of the water samples were collected from pres- sure tanks and plumbing associated with domestic wells. Therefore,to insure a fresh sample from each well, water was pumped for five minutes after the pump of the sample well was started, or until the temperature of the water reflected the normal aquifer temperature (approximately 11° C) (Wood, 1969). Sample Analysis The water samples collected were analyzed in the water analysis laboratory of the Department of Geology, 55 9 o C . . . . C . I l . I. .0 ’ O O " o o " ll. . .9 . o. C - pTT . O . . 1 . El 5 . 9 e . H. I: . .. Am . . . . . O . O . . 9 O . O O . g . fir . . . C Q . .. . . 1. Z O . . . . . N. o o t9 0 . . . . . . O O . + J; O . O . O . L . . . 1. A 1| 0 . " . . 9 "9 + o g . O . . O *- 0 . . _—F!§ w. R- I u. R.| E. “.2 E- J Immu- mm Grand River Group , l Saginaw Formation Q ‘1 3 52222222 BaYP°rt LimestOn Scale 1 260,000 Fig.6 --I‘-i:;p Showing the Location of Wells Sampled in Ingham County, MI § Mile 57 Michigan State University. Concentrations of calcium, po- tassium, magnesium, sodium, and iron were determined by spectrOphotometry. Chloride concentration was determined by silver nitrate (AgNOg) titration and total hardness was determined by EDTA (Ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid) titri- metric analyses (Rainwater and Thatcher, 1960). No analy- ses were made for nitrate, flouride, or silica because these ions are normally absent or in such low concentration that analyses for them would be impracticable (Vanlier, 1969). In addition, bicarbonate was not determined because it is normally measured at the time of sample collection and no apparatus was available for this analysis. Sulfate, likewise, was not determined because the apparatus for turbidimetric analysis was also not available and other methods of analysis are generally not sensitive enough to determine normal groundwater concentrations. The results of these analyses are listed in the Appendix A of this report and are reported in parts per million (ppm). Since the concentration of ions in the samp- les are relatively low, the unit parts per million can be considered numerically equal to milligrams per liter (ms/1)- Type and Concentration of Major Ions Most of the water obtained from the Saginaw Forma- tion underlying Ingham County contains appreciable amounts 58 of dissolved calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, iron, and chloride (Table 6). Generally, calcium and magnesium ions constitute more than 50 percent of the cations measured. This is particularly true of water from the sandstone beds of the Saginaw Formation. The concentra- tion of sodium ions, on the other hand, does not vary con- siderably over the region, and in most water samples anal- yzed, constitutes only about 17 percent of cations measured. The average concentration of dissolved chloride is about 10 mg/L. Some water samples, however, did show unusually high concentrations of sodium and chloride ( 100 ppm) but these are probably the .direct result of brine waters mi- grating from underlying formations. For instance, an unusu- ally high concentration of sodium and chloride was obtained from a well drilled in section 27 of Williamston Township, T 4 N R I E, and is probably the result of brine water entering the Saginaw Formation from the underlying Bayport limestone. Iron and potassium concentrations constitute generally less than 5 percent of the ions measured in the groundwater of the Saginaw Formation. In 50 percent of the water samples, hardness ranges from 250 to 550 mg/l (milligrams per liter). Only 5 per- cent of the samples have a hardness greater than 400 mg/l. 59 Table 6. -- Variations of Concentration of Ions Measured in the Groundwater 0f the Saginaw Formation, based on 158 Water Samples, 1978. Concentrations Chemical In m (mg/l) Parameter Maximum nifium Average 0a*+ 151 1.00 50.6 Mg++ 40 0.7 24.7 Na+ 260 0.6 16.9 01' 127 0.0 10.58 K+ 5.8 0.2 1.6 Fe+ 8.6 0.0 0.85 Hardness (Carbonate) 555.5 6.6 250 40 Source of Dissolved Solids in Groundwater The results of chemical analyses of the samples (Appendix A) were used to construct geochemical maps show- ing the distribution of each ion in the ground water within the Saginaw Formation (Figs. 7-15, see Appendix B). These maps t0gether with available geological data were then in- tegrated to determine areas of recharge and direction of water movement into the Saginaw Formation. Before discuss- ing the occurrence of these constituents in the ground water it might be useful to review thw: possible sources of the ions. Precipitation Rain and snow contribute very little in the way of ions to the ground water of the Saginaw Formation. Wood (1969) analyzed several samples of rain water for common ions and found small amounts of some ions which are also found in ground water of the Saginaw Formation. Since much of the precipitation returns to the atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration, it is natural to expect that some of these ions are concentrated in water not com— pletely evaporated, i.e. ponds and lakes. Soil Another source of dissolved solids entering the ground water is from the soil. It is generally accepted 41 that rain and melting snow in contact with soluble miner- als in the soil provide some dissolved solids to the groundwater system. This has been supported by chemical analysis of surface run off passing over soil (Wood, 1969). These analyses show that the run off has a chemical char- acter very similar to the soils in contact with the run off. Glacial Drift The principal source of dissolved solids in the groundwater of the Saginaw Formation appears to be from the glacial drift. Wood (1969), for example, measured the change in dissolved solids in distilled water after it had been in contact with glacial drift for a period of 5 to 7 days. He found that water obtained from these leaching experiments was, in general, similar to that observed in the upper beds of the Saginaw Formation and suggested that drift material was a source of most of the dissolved solids in the groundwater. Much of the dissolved calcium and sulfate from the drift is a result of solution of gypsum (Ca 804, 2H20) and/or anhydrite (Ca 304). These two minerals are irregu- larly distributed in the glacial materials and are prob- ably originally derived from the Michigan Formation (Martin, 1956). 42 The major source of magnesium, calcium, and bicar- bonate in the glacial drift is the result of solution of limestone (Ca 003) and dolomite Ca Mg (003)2. The follow- ing equations show the reaction: 002 + H20 ========= 32 005 Ca(003) + H2 005 Ca2+ + 2(H003)’ MgCa (003)2 + 232003 oa2+ + Mg2+ + 4(H003)' Carbon dioxide is taken from atmosphere in the photosynthesis of plants and is returned to it and soil by the respiration of both plants and animals. Carbon dioxide may be ten to twenty times atmospheric value in the soil due to plant respiration and decaying organic material (Boynton and Reuther, 1958). Soil carbon dioxide concentration and mineral equilibria are probably the fac- tors which control the amount of carbonate dissolved in this environment as there is an abundance of carbonaceous material in the glacial drift in the study area (Johnsgard, 32 31, 1942). Sodium can be obtained by ion exchange with calcium ions in certain clay minerals present in the glacial drift and shale beds of the Saginaw Formation (Wood, 1969). Saginaw Formation Another possible source of the dissolved solids in the groundwater is the Saginaw Formation itself. The 45 sandstone of the Saginaw Formation could yield minor amounts of dissolved solids, but the black shales of the Formation no doubt contribute a considerable amount of dissolved solids to the water of the aquifer. Sodium ions of the shale bed can contribute to the water of the aqui- fer by ion exchange with calcium and magnesium when these ions are present in the recharging water. Beds of coal in the Saginaw Formation may also be a source for bicarbonate ions because coal generally de- cays with time and produces carbon dioxide and subsequently bicarbonate (Foster, 1950). Underlying Formatiogg The source of some dissolved solids in the Saginaw Formation may be from the underlying Bayport limestone and other stratigraphically lower formations. The water from the Bayport limestone and older formations is generally highly mineralized and usually contains considerable amounts of sulfate, calcium, sodium and chloride (Vanlier, 1969). DISSOLVED SOLIDS DISTRIBUTION Areal Distribution Knowledge of the two dimensional distribution of dissolved solids in the ground water of the Saginaw Forma- tion is basic in determining the areas of recharge and the movement of water into the aquifer. In addition,this in- formation sheds new light as to the nature of chemical pro- cesses that affect chemical composition of ground water. The concentration of major chemical constituents in water of the Saginaw Formation are plotted on the maps shown in Figures 7 to 15. The maps indicate that the con- centration of ions measured in ground water vary consider- ably within Ingham County. The areal distribution of chemi- cal parameters are described as follows: Calcium Figure 7 shows the areal distribution of calcium ion in the groundwater of the Saginaw Formation. The map indicates that the high concentration of dissolved calcium in the ground water occurs more in the south part of the county especially in the south part of Stockbridge, west 44 45 part of Leslie, north part of White Oak townships. Also high concentration of calcium occurs in the western part of Lansing township. 0n the other hand, low concentration of dissolved calcium in the ground water are more in the north part of the County especially in Williamston, Locke, eastern part of Alaiedon, north part of Meridian, south of Lansing and north of Delhi townships. In the south of the county low concentrations of calcium are in the north part of Stockbridge, western partof Bunker Hill and south part of Ingham townships. W Figure 8 shows the areal distribution of magnesium ions in the ground water of the Saginaw Formation. The map indicates that high concentration of magnesium in ground water generally occurs more in the western part of the county. The high concentrations are in Onondaga, White Oak, Leroy, western part of Lansing, south part of Stock- bridge, western part of Leslie and western part of Alaiedon townships. The low concentration of calcium oc- curs more in the eastern and northeast part of the county especially in Locke, Williamston, Vevay, eastern part of Alaiedon, north part of Stockbridge and western part of Bunker Hill, eastern part of Meridian and south of Lansing townships. 46 Sodium Figure 9 shows the areal distribution of sodium ions in the ground water of the Saginaw Formation. The map indicates that the concentration of sodium in ground water generally does not vary in the south of the county. High concentration of sodium ions generally occurs more in the north part of the County especially in the Locke, Lansing, east part of Meridian, south part of Williamston and Aurelius townships. On the other hand, low concentra- tions are more in the south part of the County. Chloride Figure 10 shows the distribution of chloride ions in the ground water of the Saginaw Formation. The map indi- cates that the concentration of chloride in the ground water does not vary considerably within the county region. Higher concentration of chloride occurs in the Stockbridge, Vevay, Leroy, south of Lansing and north part of Delhi and Alaiedon townships. Lower concentration of chloride occurs in most areas of the county. Potassium Figure 11 shows the distribution of potassium ions in the ground water of the Saginaw Formation. The map in- dicates that high concentration of potassium occurs mostly 47 in the northeast area of the County especially in Locke, Leroy and Williamston townships. In addition, high concen- trations are also observed in the Lansing, Alaiedon, south of Bunker Hill and Leslie townships. On the other hand, the low concentration of potassium generally occurs in the west and southeast part of the county. Iron Figure 12 shows the distribution of iron ions in the ground water of the Saginaw Formation. The map indicates that the concentration of iron does not vary considerably within the north part of the county. Low concentrations are observed in the north and east part of the region. High concentrations of iron occur in the south and south- west part of the county, especially in Delhi, Aurelius, and Leslie and south of Stockbridge townships. Hardness (carbonate) Figure 15 shows the distribution of hardness (carbon- ate) in the ground water of the Saginaw Formation. The map indicates that high concentration occurs in the south and west part of the county especially in White Oak, Vevay, east part of Onondaga, south part of Stockbridge, west part of Lansing, north part of Aurelius and south part of Meridi- an townships. On the other hand, low concentrations of 48 hardness are generally observed in the northeast part of the County especially in the townships of Locke, William— ston, Meridian, Alaiedon, and Leroy. In addition low con- centrations are also observed in the south part of Lansing, south part of Ingham, north part of Stockbridge, west part of Bunker Hill and Aurelius townships. Vertical Distribution Table 7 shows vertical distribution of ions measured in ground water of the Saginaw Formation. The vertical distribution of ions in water within the formation was statistically analyzed by comparing well water quality with depth of well penetrating into the aquifer. The re- sults of this analysis indicate that the concentration of chemical constituents in the aquifer is generally inversely pr0portiona1 to the depth of the Saginaw Formation pene- tration. In particular,the ta‘bul'a’te d data show that. with the exception of sodium, potassium, and chloride water from beds immediately beneath the drift is generally higher in most dissolved solids than water obtained from deeper beds. Based on this relationship, it is evident that most of the dissolved calcium, magnesium, and iron in the water of the Saginaw Formation is derived chiefly from the over- lying drift. Chemical analyses published by Wood (1969) for wells penetrating both the drift and bedrock also tend to support this relationship. It is also evident from 49 .moamawm own meadows poo moon. oma 0N.0 m.m ¢.0N 0.HN m.mm 0.0: o oma no>0 0mm 05.0 #.m 40.0 0.0H N.¢m ¢.mm ma 0nd i HOH Ham 00.0 5.H 0.0 0.0 0.0m ¢.mm 00 00a i am com 00.0 5.0 +0.0 m.m m.0m m.¢m mm on r 0 Aa\mav sum cw moapmnpoooqob owmuobd .oz Ham; Apoom nHv monsoonanV +om +M tau +02 ++m2 ++oo dopmnponom macadnmm Bonawmm Ho Apnea Ii 'I .muma .sooasaa was open poem mom on mm wnfiponpomom made; mma no venom .hpqsoo anamoH .noapmanoh Bonawmm on» mo hops; vooonw ca 0095mmoz maoH Ho qofipdnaapwan Hoofipno> Ir .5 canoe 50 Table 7 that most of the dissolved sodium, potassium and chloride in the water of the Saginaw Formation is probably the result of brine water entering the aquifer from the underlying formations. RECHARGE TO THE SAGINAW FORMATION It is apparent from the geochemical maps shown in Figures 7 to 15 (See Appendix A) that the distribution of dissolved solids in ground water of the Saginaw Formation is not homogeneous. However, the maps do indicate that low concentrations of calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chloride, iron and hardness occur where the overlying gla- cial drift is composed chiefly of sand and gravel. For instance, in areas where the aquifer is overlain directly by outwash and esker deposits (Figure 2), the concentra- tions of calcium, magnesium, potassium, chloride, iron and hardness appear to be low because the outwash and esker deposits are free of soluble minerals. Other factors might be dilution of the ions present by large volume of water which move down through these permeable deposits and the short time involved for dissolution. This would sug- gest that considerable quantities of water of good quality are being recharged into the aquifer primarily where there are permeable sand and gravel deposits directly over the bedrock. 51 52 Outwash Plains Several outwash plains in Ingham County also appear capable of transmitting considerable quantities of water to the bedrock aquifer. Most of these outwash deposits are concentrated in the southeast part of the County (Fig. 2). It is evident from Figures 7 through 15 that low concentration of calcium, magnesium, sodium, chloride, potassium, iron and hardness in ground water occur where these outwash deposits directly overlie the Saginaw Forma- tion. Figure 9, however, does show a high concentration of sodium below outwash deposit of northwestern part of Meridian township. This is probably the result of brine water entering the aquifer from below. Esker Deposits Other areas of recharge appear to be the Mason, Williamston, and Dansville eskers and other minor esker and kame deposits in Ingham County. This is evident from Fig- ures 7 to 15 which show low concentrations of calcium, mag- nesium, sodium, chloride, potassium, iron and hardness in the ground water where the aquifer is overlain by these sand and gravel deposits. High sodium and chloride con- centration just south of Lansing township where the aquifer is overlain by Mason esker may be the result of brine water 55 entering the aquifer from its underlying formation. Mined out parts of eskers, most notably the Mason esker appear to be potentially important as recharge pits supplying water to adjacent buried outwash and underlying sandstone beds of the Saginaw Formation. Alluvial Valleys The alluvial materials along the Red Cedar River, Doan Creek, Deer Creek, Sloan Creek, Grand River and its tributaries (Figure 2) might be potential areas of recharge to the aquifer. Recharge through alluvium is dependent on the glacial drift which underlies these materials. Recharge will be most evident in areas where permeable sand and gravel underlie the alluvium. This is evident from Figures 7 to 15 which show low concentration of calcium, magnesium, sodium, chloride, potassium, iron and hardness in ground water in some areas where the alluvial materials overlie the permeable sand and gravel. High concentrations of so- dium and chloride in ground water in the south part of Williamston township again is probably the result of brine water entering the aquifer from underlying formation. Ground and Recessional Moraine Ground and recessional moraines, on the other hand, appear to transmit only a small amount of water of poor quality to the underlying aquifer because of the 54 impermeability of the till materials. This is evident from Figures 7, 8, ll, 12, and 15 which show high concentrations of calcium, magnesium, potassium, iron and hardness in the ground water generally occurring in areas covered predom- inantly by till. For example, large portions of the north and central parts of the County are covered by till materi- al (Fig. 2), and the water in the bedrock beneath this drift is generally high in ion concentration. In areas where moraine deposits include or are asso- ciated with minor deposits of stratified outwash, small amounts of water may be recharged to the aquifer. However, the permeability of these morainal deposits is generally low and varies with the degree of sorting, the clay content in the till, and the amount of interbedded sand and gravel. Pattern of Water Flow From the chemical analysis of ground water in the Saginaw Formation (Table 6) it is evident that recharge to the bedrock is primarily straight down from the overlying drift. In addition, the data (Figures 7 through 15) show that the areal distribution of dissolved solids in the bedrock varies considerably from one locality to another and is dependent in part on both the lithologic character of the glacial deposits overlying the bedrock and the amount of shale in the upper part of the bedrock. 55 A schematic representation of water flow through the drift is presented in Figure 14. Although highly general- ized downward.movement of ground water into the aquifer, the figure can be applied to most of Ingham County and suggests that recharge to the Saginaw Formation is local- ized and most rapid where permeable sand and gravel depo— sits (eskers, outwashes) directly overlie and are in con- tact with beds of sandstone. It is also evident from the figure that downward movement of ground water would be least rapid where thicknesses of till, lake clay or moraine directly overlie and are in contact with shale units of the bedrock. The general concentration of soluble ions in both till and bedrock is also presented in Figure 14. Ions such as calcium, magnesium, potassium, iron, chloride and sodium appear associated more with till deposits whereas the sand and gravel deposits appear relatively free of soluble ions. Once the downward moving water has passed through the drift and entered the Saginaw Formation, the general flow direction is controlled by both the piezometric gradi- ent within the formation and the lateral extent of indi- vidual sandstone beds. Undoubtedly in some areas, the flow within the Saginaw Formation is strongly influenced by withdrawal of water from wells which tap the formation. For instance, high industrial and domestic pumpage of water within the Lansing area has not only resulted in declining .comnm8nom 3mzflrmw on} can“ Sn_nc Hmwomac :220e29 gonaz 00 neoEo>oz oum3caoe ;:Hzonw Emnmmmaiisa ensue; 202062 3.63 0...... vcom BB Em I oce.»ueom D .265 see scam I 225 m 33.8.... 23 83%.. 628.1568 , . .i . \- l\\ Q I —I. I O 0 I Q 0 °. £3330 s I s '.I 2.33: uonowaog HUG I9l°°l9 nourbos 57 piezometric surface beneath the City but has locally re- versed the normal piezometric gradient. For most of Ingham County, however, flow within the Saginaw is gen- erally towards the north. Discussion Wood (1969) also showed that water obtained from the Saginaw Formation is generally lower in most dissolved solids than that obtained from the glacial drift. To ex- plain this difference in water chemistry he suggested a process of osmotic filtration. This process requires that shale membranes of the Saginaw Formation filter out certain ions as the water passes through them. His hypothesis does not appear to be supported by this investigation, because it is evident from Figure 15 that shale beds are not pre- sented in the Saginaw Formation in the southeastern part of Lansing township, while low concentration of calcium, magnesium, chloride, potassium, iron and hardness are shown in Figures 7 to 15 in this area. Therefore,the low- ering of these ions in ground water of the Saginaw Formation is the result of water passing through the esker and allu- vium deposits (Figure 2) which overlies directly the sand- stone bed of the Saginaw Formation in this area. In addition, water cannot pass through a layer of an impermeable shale bed. Even if the shale beds were semi- permeable initially, ion precipitation on the clay particle surface will reduce the permeability considerably. S . S a :§' § i 3% ‘15.: g ": 3 9": -.: 5 :5 3:3 c i E 3.“- i.‘ . a 3:: ”(5% s on! a: 3 4m- bl 8 now gg! 3 g as: , I i Ill IIIIIII I'Ili.‘IlllIllll U“ l : .« i 9' _‘ on ‘ 51 n -.I I I" .. i a 000 A g -' IF" 7 500 400 WI‘VII IAOIV Alli SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The Saginaw Formation is a highly productive aqui- fer in Ingham County, Michigan, and for several decades has been utilized to supply fresh water for industrial centers, farms, rural households, and municipalities within the county. However, more recently,withdrawals of large quantities of water from the Saginaw Formation has seri- ously lowered water levels in many wells in the county. The aquifer itself is composed principally of dis- continuous beds of sandstone and shale, deposited under terrestrial environments during the Pennsylvanian period. The thickness of the aquifer ranges from 0 to 135 m (450 ft) and is overlain by glacial drift consisting of ground moraine, outwash, esker, alluvium and kames deposits. The Saginaw is essentially a leaky artesian type aquifer. The yield of wells tapping the Formation varies from 378 to 3780 L/min. (100 to 1000 gpm) and is controlled primarily by the thickness of the beds of sandstone pene- trated. Today the amount of withdrawal from the aquifer through pumpage within the dounty is more than 52,200 mil- lion liters per year (14,000 million gallons per year). The aquifer has a relatively constant permeability of about 420 cm pd (100 gpd per sq. ft). 59 60 Several processes affect the chemical quality of the ground water in the Saginaw Formation. It appears most of the dissolved solids (Ca++, Mg++, Fe++, K+, Na+, 01') in the Saginaw Formation result from the reaction of atmospheric precipitation with soluble minerals in the glacial drift and chemically active soil zone. In addi- tion,the Saginaw Formation itself and underlying formations are other possible sources of the potassium, sodium, and chloride. In general, calcium and magnesium ions constitute more than 50 percent of the cations occurring in the ground water of the Saginaw Formation. Sodium, on the other hand, constitutes only about 17 percent of the cat- ions and iron and potassium ions constitute generally less than 5 percent of the cations. The average concentration of dissolved chloride is about 10 mg/L and the average hardness is about 250 mg/L. In addition, water obtained from the Saginaw Formation is generally lower in most dis- solved solids than that obtained from the glacial drift. Except for sodium and potassium the concentration of ions in beds immediately beneath the drift is generally higher than in the deeper beds of the Saginaw Formation. The geochemical data from the Saginaw Formation sug- gest that the single most important source of recharge to the aquifer is from leakage through the overlying glacial drift. In general, low concentrations of dissolved solids 61 in the Saginaw are observed in areas where the glacial drift is composed chiefly of sand and gravel relatively free of soluble minerals. 0n the other hand, high concen- trations of ions occur in areas where only ground moraine overlies the formation. This correlation between chemistry and type of surficial deposit would suggest that relatively ion free water is recharged to the Saginaw Formation mostly in areas of permeable outwash and esker deposits. Water is also recharged to the aquifer in areas where alluvial ma- terials overlie permeable sands and gravel. These areas are shown in Figure 16. The specific conclusions of this study are outlined as following: 1. Chemical analyses show that most of the recharge into the Saginaw Formation is localized primarily in areas of permeable outwash and esker deposits. This is evident from the correlation between the geo-chemical maps (Figures 7 to 13) and type of surficial deposit of Ingham County (Figure 2). Specifically, low concentrations of calcium, magnesium, sodium, chloride, potassium, iron and hardness occur in areas where the glacial drift overlying the aquifer is composed chiefly of sand and gravel. 2. The concentration of calcium, magnesium, potas- sium, iron, chloride and hardness in the ground 62 7 if 1. MM“ . 4 N' mm 5 mo w ____________ I: 1 F 3 t: N . : ALAJ ht WHEATFIELD T. : 2 N\ N- :m. '1 mtam WHI l‘l-‘OAK — fl HIHH fl UHKERHI LL STOCKBRI I" 1i" mum} xv" mm hl'fSLll-I n- HHH R-IW- R-lE- R-ZE- {‘Area of Large to Moderate . Recharge l 3 6Mi1e s N / w _._————————Area Which may be . _——-—————— favorable for Recharge Scale 1-26O,OOO /____._—- / Fig. 16 --Areas 01‘ PTODhLle Groundwater Recharge to the Saginaw Formation, Ingham County, Michigan 65 water of the Saginaw Formation is related to the composition of overlying glacial drift. 3. With the exception of sodium and potassium, the concentration of ions in the ground water of the Saginaw Formation is generally inversely propor- tional to the depth of the Saginaw penetration. 4. Osmotic filtration is not a dominant process to cause the difference in water quality of glacial drift and the Saginaw Formation. 5. Most of the recharge is in the south and south- west part of the County. This is due to the ex- tensive sand and gravel deposits in the south and alluvium deposited by Grand River in the south- west corner of the County. Recommendations: Ensurement of a long-term supply of ground water for Ingham County will require careful management of the areas of recharge to the Saginaw Formation. Steps to be consid- ered in management include: (a) Keeping the localized areas of recharge associated with the Saginaw Formation and glacial deposits as they are at the present time, (b) In- vestigating the possibility of artificially recharging the aquifer through the mined out part of sand and gravel de- posits, and (c) Shifting the well field to specific areas 64 in order to promote induced recharge through these sand and gravel deposits. Finally, the results obtained from this study will contribute significantly to understanding the hydrologic system operating within the Saginaw Formation. In addi- tion, the water quality information obtained will be of considerable use to state and local agencies involved with developing the region's ground water resources. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Boynton, D., and Reuther, N. 1958. A way of sampling soil gases in dense subsoil and some of its advantages and limitations. Soil Sci. Soc. Ann. Proc., V. 5, p. 57-42. Dott, Robert H., and Murray, Grover E. Geological cross- section of paleozoic rocks, central Mississippi to northern Michigan: AAPG, 1954. Firnuzian, Assadolah. 1965. Hydrological studies of the Saginaw Formation in the Lansing, Michigan, area: Unpublished Master of Science Thesis, Michigan State University. Foster, n. D. 1950. The origin of high sodium bicarbonate waters in the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains: Geochim. et Cosmochin. Acta, V. l, p. 55-48. Huffman, G. C. 1976. Groundwater data for Michigan: U. S. Geol. Survey water Resources Division, p. 21- 24. Johnsgard, G. A., Nivisen, T. 5., Rogers, H. T., Donahue, R. L., Stone, J. T., and Welles, G. M. 1942. Soil survey of Clinton County, Michigan: U.S. Dept. Agr. Ser. 1956, No. 12, 71 p. Kelly, J. A. 1956. The Pennsylvanian system in Michigan: Hich. Dept. of Conserv. Geol. Survey Div. Pub. 40, Lane, A. C. 1901. Suggested changes in nomenclature of Michigan Formations: Mich. Miner., V. 5, No. 10, p. 9. Lane, A. C. 1902, Goal of Michigan: Geol. Surv. of Michigan, V. 8, Pt. 2. Leverett, F., and Taylor, F. B. 1915. The Pleistocene of Indiana and Michigan and the history of the Great Lakes: U. S. Geol. Survey Mon. 55, 529 p. 65 66 Martin, H. M., Compiler. 1956. The centennial geological map of the southern penninsula of Michigan: Mich. Dept. Conserv., Geol. Survey Div. Pub. 59, Geol. Ser. 55. Martin, H. M. 1958. Outline of the geologic history of Ingham County, Michigan: Mich. Dept. of Conserv., Geol. Survey Div. Pub., 5 p. Mencenberg, F. E. 1965. Groundwater geology of the Sagi- naw Group in the Lansing, Michigan, area: Unpub- lished Master of Science Thesis, Michigan State University. Michigan Department of Conservation. 1964. Stratigraphic succession in Michigan: Chart 1. Michigan Department of Agriculture. 1978. Michigan Weather Service Publications. Rainwater, F. H., and Thatcher, L. L. 1960. Methods for collection and analysis of water samples: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 1454, 501 p. Stuart, W. T. 1945. Groundwater resources of the Lansing area, Michigan: Mich. Geol. Survey Prog. RPT. 15. U. S. Geological Survey. Stream Flow Publications. 1968- 1977- Vanlier, K. E. 1964. Groundwater in the Tri-County re- gion, Michigan: Tri-County Regional Planning Com- mission, Lansing, Michigan, 19 p. Vanlier, K. E., and Wheeler, M. L. 1968. Groundwater potential of the Saginaw Formation in the Lansing metrOpolitan area, Michigan: Tri-County Regional Planning Commission, Lansing, Michigan. Vanlier, K. E., Wood, W. H., and Brunett, J. 0. 1969. Water-supply development and management alterna- tives for Clinton, Eaton, and Ingham Counties, Michigan: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper. Veatch, J. 0., Adams, H. G., Hubbard, E. H., Dorman, 0., and Jones, L. R. 1941. Soil survey of Ingham County, Michigan: U. S. Dept. Agr. Ser. 1955, No. 56, 45 p. 67 Wheeler, M. L. 1967. Electric analog model study of the hydrology of the Saginaw Formation in the Lansing, Michigan, area: Unpublished Master of Science Thesis, Michigan State University. Wood, Warren W. 1969. Geochemistry of groundwater of the Saginaw Formation in the upper Grand River basin, Michigan: Mich. State Univ. Geol. Dept., unpub. Ph.D. dissert. 68 ¢.mmm o.Hm H.o. o.m m.Hm o.wo 5.m = om xmzxmzamzwmsmmzma imam 5.3 H .o. m.o 0.5m mam w . H .. mmH §m§m§mmmamm2me o .m5m m . m m . m w . o m . on . on m . H .. mHH Emémsmzwma mmZma N.¢mm m.mH mo.m N.H m.5m 0.0: N.m = omH xmzxmzme5H2mm2me 0.0 0.0 H.o. 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