:unnun c .1: .3... .I 9. :2... v. L}. . .r. u, xtrizvnfianflfi. . “9a. A I run. a... Aflflbunrja : $91.3. nip XE}: $3.. $9.3 ff»: ...l . .Iflfl fi fl \ O... ‘3 u. k at a: Ii 1 .3 .fi i. .i #2:} 511.75 r11...- .. t, A i. . wzh .. 2: x ) infirm)... . I}... .0155 $5.“. ’0 my“. 3.. .i '1. .9.» . .u z r Ir). 1.3: .13. 2.. ,.L): fir... .‘ THESIS 7.. ZCOO T ‘lillllllnllltllml 3129 This is to certify that the dissertation entitled Psychological Correlates of Sport and Leisure Physical Activity Participation Among Botswana Youths presented by Leapetswe Malete Has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for PhD. degree in lg'nesiology mm at Major Professor Datej n19 ‘ 00 MS U is an Aflirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771 LIBRARY Michigan State University PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. To AVOID FINES return on or before date due. MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE 11m mm.“ PSYCHOLOG . ACTIVI' ' PSYCHOLOGICAL CORRELATES OF SPORT AND LEISURE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY PARTICIPATION AMONG BOTSWANA YOUTHS Dissertation By Leapetswe Malete A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Kinesiology 2000 PSYCHOLOGlC . I ACIIVIII ll‘n'le most of the em: pineal actix‘lt} has be clnliren. little is knoxxn muse of this stud.V “ A mixed social inlluen involvement of Botsss it junior and senior secon 903). aged 13-18 years. recreational sports. and me} insIIUments. .\lL We conducted to em: mowed in sport to l ten new skills. and \s‘ ABSTRACT PSYCHOLOGICAL CORRELATES OF SPORT AND LEISURE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY PARTICIPATION AMONG BOTSWANA YOUTHS By Leapetswe Malete While most of the existing research on psychological factors of youth in sport and physical activity has been done with US and Western-European middle class youth and children, little is known about other populations outside these contexts. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the relationships among participant motivation, perceived social influence, achievement goal orientations, perceived competence, and the involvement of Botswana youths in sport and leisure physical activity. Participants were junior and senior secondary (high) school youths from urban and rural Botswana (N: 903), aged 13-18 years. Participants included youths involved in competitive sport, recreational sports, and non-participants. All participants were asked to complete a set of survey instruments. Multivariate analysis of variance, correlations, and factor analyses were conducted to examine the relationship between the factors. Results indicated youths participated in sport to improve skills, get exercise, go to a higher level of competition, learn new skills, and win. Competitive sport participants perceived these reasons as more important than their non-participating counterparts. Teachers and coaches were perceived as the most interested social agents in the sport participation of youths, with competitive sport participants rating them higher than recreational and non-participants. Results also showed a positive bias towards rural small community influence on sport participation. Copyright by LEAPETSWE MALETE 2000 lent) parents B ting my film 5 for To my parents Boingotlo and Ketlogetswe, my brother and sisters, Pako, Jose, and to all my friends for their love, support, and encouragement to attain my goals. iv [emuld liliet guidance throughoh'I throughout m} :3?th role model in min} t: lthank m) pp process. I thank Dr. .\ iereopment of the st sport pochology l .1} scholarl} criticisms m‘ tori. I thank Dr. llir‘.‘ disxrtation process .1: 1331mm work, Special think. (Wing Lynette C: TORodney Wilson. ll ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank Dr. Deborah F eltz, my major advisor for her dedication and guidance throughout all the stages of the dissertation and for particularly standing by me throughout my graduate program at Michigan State. She was a source of inspiration and a role model in many regards, especially discipline and high level of professionalism. I thank my program committee members for their guidance throughout the entire process. I thank Dr. Martha Ewing for her valuable insights and contributions during the development of the study and for always having time to share with me her perspectives in sport psychology. I also thank Dr. Robert Malina for his valuable comments and scholarly criticisms and for making it possible for me to broaden the focus of my graduate work. I thank Dr. Hiram Fitzgerald for his insightful and scholarly contributions to the dissertation process and for providing developmental psychology perspective my graduate work. Special thanks also go to all my colleagues, especially Michelle Magyar, Sean Cumming, Lynette Crafi, and Lori Gano-Overway, for their contributions and insights. To Rodney Wilson, for his friendship and passion for factor analysis, which became very valuable during some parts of the analyses. To all Kinesiology graduate students, . especially the sport psychology crew and all my friends at Michigan State for providing the moral support during the good and bad times. Special thanks to the University of Botswana for the invaluable support and specifically for making my dream come true. To Jose Jackson for providing technical assistance, love, and friendship. To my sister Naledi for her editorial work and for providing emotional support. LIST OF APPENDK IISI OF TABLES. .. LIST OF FIGURES. CIilPIER I, - METHOD... INIRODI'CIII Nature of the Pr Statement of the Research Quest: Delimitation Assumptions Limitations ...... Definition of Te: REVIEW OF R ; Participant .\loti‘ Perceived Social Achievement Gr Perceived Comp. onclusion . ‘ Pai’lICIpams. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF APPENDICES ..................................................................... LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................ LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................... CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................... Nature of the Problem ................................................................. Statement of the Problem .............................................................. Research Questions and Hypotheses ................................................. Delimitation ............................................................................. Assumptions ........................................................................... Limitations ............................................................................... Definition of Terms .................................................................... 11. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ......................................... Participant Motivation ................................................................. Perceived Social Influence ............................................................ Achievement Goal Orientations ...................................................... Perceived Competence ................................................................. Conclusion .............................................................................. III. METHOD ............................................................................... Participants ............................................................................... Instrumentation ........................................................................... Procedure ................................................................................. IV. RESULTS ................................................................................ Results .................................................................................... Participant Motivation ................................................................. Perceived Social Influence ............................................................ Achievement Goal Orientations ...................................................... Perceived Competence ................................................................. Discriminant Function Analysis ...................................................... Summary of Findings .................................................................. vi viii ix 22 26 30 33 35 38 38 42 48 50 50 50 63 74 78 84 90 L-l usror REFEREXC l’. DISCUSSION. \'l. Si’hlhlARY. Cl FOR FL'IL'RE I“ Surnman~ ........ Conclusions ..... Suggestions for E V. DISCUSSION ........................................................................... 95 VI. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH .......................................................... 110 Summary ................................... llO Conclusions .............................................................................. 1 l3 Suggestions for Future Research ..................................................... 1 14 LIST OF REFERENCES ..................................................................... 170 vii APPENDIX {—1 .\lap of Bots“ at Background Int} Reasons for Par‘ Sport Influence I Perceptions of I’ Task and Ego (_) Approval Letter Approval Letter Participant C o n» N“tribe? of Resptl| Reuse of lncon by Sport Categm Percentage Of Pa NW of ReSpt RCgiOrL Gender. MANOVA sum Pamelpalion in 5 mentage OWN MANOVA Sump ANOVA S . ‘ “IaIIO \ Scme Plor for I}: ”‘0’ Structure g Serge PIG! for the ”Elation . MANOVA 3m. LIST OF APPENDICES APPENDIX Page A. Map of Botswana Showing Where Participants were Recruited ................ 1 18 B. Background Information Questionnaire .............................................. 120 C. Reasons for Participation in Sport Questionnaire .................................. 125 D. Sport Influence Questionnaire ......................................................... 128 E. Perceptions of Parental Beliefs Questionnaire ..................................... 131 F. Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Question ........................................ 133 G. Approval Letter from UCRIHS ....................................................... 135 H. Approval Letter from Botswana ...................................................... 137 1. Participant Consent Form .............................................................. 140 J. Number of Respondents Excluded from the Analyses because of Incomplete or Partially Completed Inventories, by Sport Category, Region, Gender, and Form Level .............................. 142 K. Percentage of Participant by School By Gender .................................... 144 L. Number of Respondents by Sport Category, . Region, Gender,'and Form Level ..................................................... 146 M. MANOVA Summary from the Reasons for Participation in Sport Questionnaire ................................................. 148 N. Percentage of “No Such Person” from the Sport Influence Questionnaire. 151 O. MANOVA Summary fiom the Sport Influence Questionnaire ................... 153 P. ANOVA Summary from the Perceptions of Parental Beliefs Questionnaire... 155 Q. MANOVA Summary from the Task and Ego Goal Orientations Questionnaire ...................................................... 157 R. Scree Plot for the 14 Factor Solution item the SPPA .............................. 159 S. Factor Structure and Eigen Values for 14 Factors Extracted from the SPPA... 161 T. Scree Plot for the 2 Factor Solution on the SPPA .................................. 164 U. Correlation Among the 9 SPPA Items ............................................... 166 V. MANOVA Summary from the Self Perception Profile for Adolescents ........ 168 I ABLE r. stemsmlr Entire Smelt 2. Items and Factc 3. Ileansand Star by Form Lescl 4. Correlations {o 5 Summary DIP: 6. Means and Star Descriptite Da' 8. Means and Star. Region by F om 9. Means and Star and Region ...... 1’0. Correlations am II Means and Stain Level ............. 13 Factor Structure :2. Factor Structure 14. Means and Start. .. fromtheSPP.-\I I6 gleam and Stan. . ' I 1?. .Iiuaiismaigigmm E31 orrelation~ 1% I9. NmnberofIQAm' ,. esp biause of Incon! :0. Upon Cdlfi‘gof I, f g .1 I 3;" 4/. 7‘“ t J J [.JI! 500° ‘ LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1. Means, Standard Deviations, and Percentages for the Entire Sample for the RPSQ .......................................................... 2. Items and Factor Loadings for the RPSQ ............................................ 3. Means and Standard Deviations by Sport Category by Form Level by Region for the RPSQ ............................................ 4. Correlations for the SIQ Items Grouped by Area ................................... 5. Summary of Percentage Scores for Each Social Agent ............................. 6. Means and Standard Deviations for Each Social Agent ........................... 7. Descriptive Data for PPBQ ............................................................ 8. Means and Standard Deviations by Sport Category by Region by Form Level for the SIQ .................................................... 9. Means and Standard Deviations for PPBQ by Sport Category, Form Level, and Region ............................................................................... 10. Correlations among Task, Ego and RPSQ Factors ................................. l 1. Means and Standard Deviations for TEOSQ by Sport Category and Form Level ...................................................................................... 12. Factor Structure for the 6 Factors from the SPPA .................................. 13. Factor Structure for the Final 2 Factors Extracted from the SPPA ............... 14. Means and Standard Deviations for the Dependent Variables from the SPPA by Sport Category .................................................... 15. Means and Standard Deviations for SPPA by Region ............................. 16. Structure Matrix and Discriminant Function Coefficients ......................... 17. Means and Standard Deviations Classification Coefficients from the DA. . . 18. Correlations Among the Dependent Measures ...................................... 19. Number of Respondents Excluded from the Analyses because of Incomplete or Partially Completed Inventories, by Sport Category, Region, Gender, and Form Level .............................. 20. Percentage of Participant by School By Gender .................................... 21. Number of Respondents by Sport Category, Region, Gender, and Form Level ..................................................... 22. MANOVA Summary from the Reasons for Participation in Sport Questionnaire ................................................. 23. Percentage of “No Such Person” from the Sport Influence Questionnaire. . . 24. MANOVA Summary from the Sport Influence Questionnaire ................... 25. ANOVA Summary from the Perceptions of Parental Beliefs Questionnaire... 26. MANOVA Summary from the Task and Ego Goal Orientations Questionnaire ...................................................... 27. Factor Structure and Eigen Values for 14 Factors Extracted from the SPPA... 28. Correlation Among the 9 SPPA Items ............................................... 29. MANOVA Summary from the Self Perception Profile for Adolescents ........ ix Page 52 58 63 64 65 66 69 72 75 76 79 80 84 84 87 88 89 142 144 146 148 151 153 155 157 161 166 168 IIGI'RE Competitite 8' External Reaso Competitite .\" External Reaso Social Intluenc Social Intluenc Perceptions of Task b} Sport Task and Ego I‘| Self-north Spar Physical Appea. Map of Botsxs at Scree Plot for tl' Scree PIOI {0r [Ir ’ "‘ "“ ‘—“ H H O 00 ~J 0‘\ 'II 4.- ‘43 S J 7—- . . . . b) ' _) >——4 Q ‘ :L‘ LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE Page 1. Competitive/Skill Reasons by Sport Category by Form Level ................... 60 2. External Reasons by Sport Category by Form Level .............................. 60 3 Competitive/Skill Reasons by Form Level by Gender by Region ............... 62 4 External Reasons by Form Level by Gender by Region .......................... 62 5. Social Influence by Sport Category ................................................. 70 6. Social Influence by Form Level by Region ......................................... 71 7. Perceptions of Parental Beliefs by Sport Category by Form Level by Region. 73 8. Task by Sport Category ................................................................ 76 9. Task and Ego by Form Level by Region ............................................ 77 10. Self-worth Sport Category ............................................................. 83 11. Physical Appearance by Region ...................................................... 83 12. Map of Botswana Showing Where Participants were Recruited .................. 118 13. Scree Plot for the 14 Factor Solution from the SPPA ............................. 159 14. Scree Plot for the 2 Factors from the SPPA ......................................... 164 Nature ofthe Prohle: Participation important aspect of 'r. I'nited States (Botsu , Seniees. 1900). The . action is generall} p predisposition to a ta: \I'illiams. & Kirby. 1L soon and leisure pit} s; ot‘chiIdren and youth\\ BOISWana is Iar Bots “aha 1991). SIIUT'J CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Nature of the Problem Participation in sport and leisure physical activity has been identified as an important aspect of health enhancement and disease prevention in Botswana and the United States (Botswana Government, 1991; US. Department of Health and Human Services, 1990). The involvement of children and youths in sport and leisure physical activity is generally perceived as benefiting their health status and reducing their predisposition to a variety of potential health risks (Armstrong, Balding, Gentle, Williams, & Kirby, 1990; Dietz & Gortmaker, 1985; Page & Fox, 1997). Involvement in sport and leisure physical activity is also related to social and psychological development of children and youths (Biddle, Akande, Vlachopoulos, & Fox, 1996; Brustad 1993). Botswana is landlocked country of about 1.4 million citizens (Republic of Botswana, 1991), situated in the center of southern Africa. It shares boarders with Namibia, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and South Africa. The country has a land area of 585,370 sq. km (225,953-sq. mi.). The Kalahari Desert occupies more than two thirds of country’s land area, which explains Botswana’s mostly semi-arid climate. Over 80% of the population is located in the eastern part of the country which has vast grasslands and occasional rainfall, that are good for cattle keeping and subsistence farming. The majority of the population depends on agriculture and cattle husbandry for their livelihood. Botswana is a multiethnic country, with one of the strongest and most stable multiparty democracies in Africa. The country’s ethnic groups include but are not limited to, the Setswana-speaking groups, who are the largest group, the Kalanga, Basarwa, Herero, ll'ayei. and a small r nation. however. Set Setsnana and Engli. goternment. L'nique to B» SOCIOCUIIUIEI practice still allegiance to kin especially in rural tor gradual change in ya emerge out of indust benteen urban and r inditidualism, and a WOpoliticaI Strum} It majority or citiz '- iv . .ter . Wayei, and a small number of people of European descent. Botswana is a multilingual nation, however, Setswana is the national language and is spoken by the majority. Setswana and English are official languages, with the latter being the main language of government. Unique to Botswana, is the coexistence of the traditional values, the old sociocultural practices, and what is termed modernity. Though decreasingly so, there is still allegiance to kinship, sense of community, and traditional sociopolitical structures especially in rural towns and villages. An increase in urban population has meant a gradual change in value systems, where urbanites lead lifestyles and adopt values that emerge out of industrial development. Such a change in values is reflected in differences between urban and rural environments in family size and family structure, increase in individualism, and a decline in the respect for hard-core traditional values and traditional sociopolitical structures. As a reflection of the continued coexistence of the old and new, the majority of citizens have a three-site system of habitation. With this system, families live together in towns and villages during the dry season, move to the farms (“lands”) during rainy season to grow crops, and the cattle posts to look after their cattle. Even professionals in the cities make constant visits to their hometowns, the farms, and the cattle posts. Therefore, an understanding of the intersection between the traditional values and modern values presents a challenge to any researcher who seeks to understand the relationship between culture and any aspect of development. For instance, the seasonal movement between farms and villages poses some problems to the government in its attempt to provide education and other services. It also has major implications on family structure and its role in the overall development of children. This might have an implication on the ytl ripe oftalue placed From being t independence from i rising by an annual a 19921. The per capit.; the mining industry. . country. as ssell as a r Lecause of the inequit not share this succegs mining water. electric I it ' than poor is a major .ed to greater accessib implication on the way urban and rural youths are socialization into sport, as well as the type of value placed on participation in sport and leisure physical activity. From being the poorest nation in the world at the time the country gained independence from Britain in 1966, Botswana had a Gross Domestic Product (GDP) rising by an annual average of 11% between 1974-1975 and 1988-1989 (World Bank. 1992). The per capita GDP was estimated at about $2.930. This was in part because of the mining industry, which accounts for around 80% of the total exports from the country, as well as a very stable multiparty democracy (World Bank, 1995). However, because of the inequitable distribution of resources, the majority of the population does not share this success story. The inadequacy of basic amenities and services, such as running water, electricity, and telecommunications, to the rural communities and the urban poor is a major concern in the country. On the other hand, rapid urbanization had led to greater accessibility to social services and facilities for urban populations (Mosha, 1998). The urban-rural socioeconomic disparities are illustrated in findings from nutritional studies, which showed a relatively higher prevalence of malnutrition, stunting. and underweight among rural children compared to urban children (Ubomba-Jaswa & Belbase, 1996). Generally, the rural areas, especially the remote areas, have a poor resource base and extremely limited income opportunities. They also tend to be the worst affected by the recurrence of drought. This suggests a fair percentage of rural children and youth might have been exposed to chronic under-nutrition. It is not known how the above mentioned factors affect the participatory patterns of Botswana youths in sport and leisure physical activity. The de\ elo; social and economul impacted by econot‘ following seren yea 1ionnl.ll.& 1111. .- school form I\' It Progression from jur Certificate Examinai ion the C ambndce accessible to all chrl. children in 1977. Mt from the reyised nati I‘nerefore. all Chlldlr policy. together “it? literary rate and schi enrollment percenta: 19911'Central Statis‘ The development of Botswana is characterized by rapid transformations in the social and economic structures. Education is one of the areas that have been highly impacted by economic growth. Secondary education in Botswana is a five-year sequence following seven years of primary education. It is divided into junior secondary school (Form 1, II, & III), culminating in a Junior Certificate Examination and senior secondary school (Form IV & V), culminating in a Cambridge Overseas Schools Examination. Progression from junior to senior secondary school is based on results from the Junior Certificate Examination, while progression to university or college is based on the results from the Cambridge Overseas School Certificate Examination. To make education accessible to all children, the country adopted a nine-year policy of basic education for all children in 1977, which was changed to ten years in 1994, following recommendations from the revised national policy on education (Republic of Botswana, 1977; 1994). Therefore, all children are expected to attend primary and junior secondary school. This policy, together with the non-formal education initiatives helped improve the adult literary rate and school enrollment among younger children. For instance, the net enrollment percentages for primary schools improved from 83.2% in 1981 to 91.3% in 1991 (Central Statistics Office, 1994). Enrollments at both primary and secondary schools are almost equally divided between males and females, with a slightly higher number of females from primary through junior secondary school. In 1995, 53% of the secondary school students were females (Central Statistics Office, 1998). It seems the major strides made in educational investment in terms of quality improvement and curriculum reform did not have a major impact on the development of youth sports in Botswana. This was partly because curriculum reform did not place much Value in the deselorl curriculum. Any me- actit'ity as part of n.; tBotsoana Governn‘ curriculum in most \- project for the subjet 1340I Project was a r;- Currently, Ph}’sical c CUIYICUIUm. Houet C: charging rapidly. as i nationtside sport facil particular haye player activity. Schools. esp children to organized left by th PTOI’Ide better SPOFts value in the development of sport and leisure physical activity through the formal curriculum. Any mention by government of the value of sport and leisure physical activity as part of national development was seen only in National Development Plan 7 (Botswana Government, 1991). While physical education has been part of the school curriculum in most Western countries, it was only in 1999 that Botswana started a pilot project for the subject at a few secondary schools (Republic of Botswana, 1994). This pilot project was a result of recommendations from the revised policy on education. Currently, physical education is still not part of the primary and secondary school curriculum. However, the attitude to sport and physical activity in government is changing rapidly, as demonstrated by parliamentary debates and the funding of nationwide sport facility projects by the government. The school and teachers in particular have played a key role in the development of youth sport and leisure physical activity. Schools, especially primary schools are still an avenue for initial exposure of children to organized sports. The initiatives taken by teachers and coaches filled the void left by the absence of a national policy on sport and leisure physical activity. Schools provide better sports facilities than do the communities and villages. Schools also offer youths better opportunities for participation in intramural sports, regional, national, and international competitions compared to local sports clubs. Unlike Botswana, organized sport is a major component of leisure time activity in American children. The research literature has shown a link between organized sport and the development of good physical and mental health among youths and children in the United States and other parts of the world (Biddle et al., 1996; Brustad, 1993; Cameron. 1991; US. Department of Health and Human Services, 1990). Corresponding data are lacking for 30‘5“: physical fitness 0“ activity on the Phi) study ofminimum 1‘ performance of the . countries. Corlett at“ actirity programs in much is knoxsn abou socialized into sport. Therefore. the choici Significance of the f‘ “as also anticipated those inyolyed in th “£5130” programs f. reports about policj mgmfide. and lit: mififiin R g interem 1‘54 lacking for Botswana and other African countries. However, few studies that examined physical fitness of Botswana children have shown the adverse effects of lack of physical activity on the physical fitness of children (Corlett, 1985; Corlett & Woollard, 1988). In a study of minimum muscular fitness of urban Botswana children, Corlett (1985) found the performance of the children to be generally poor compared to children from developed countries. Corlett attributed the poor performance of the children to lack of physical activity programs in the schools. Although Corlett’s findings were very significant, not much is known about physical activity patterns of Botswana children, the way they are socialized into sport, and psychological factors that might night affect participation. Therefore, the choice of Botswana for this particular study was based on the possible significance of the findings to understanding youth sport participation in Botswana. It was also anticipated that findings from this study would serve as vital information for those involved in the development of policy for youth sport, as well as the development of sport programs for youths and children. Current parliamentary debates and newspaper reports about policy on youth sports, the ongoing development of sport infrastructure nationwide, and the attention given to the performance of national teams suggest an increasing interest in sports among Batswana (“Hockey has Potential,” 2000). It seems Batswana have begun to place more value on sport than ever before. All these developments create a compelling need for all stakeholders to make informed opinions about sport and leisure physical activity in Botswana. Enhancing the participation in sport and leisure physical activity, especially among youngsters, however, requires an understanding of motivational determinants of the involvement of youths in sport and physical activity (Kimiecik, Horn, & Shurin, 19961. as well as th. programs take place- combination of psyt participant motiyatr. competence. (_ Brusta determinants affect : Although the existing these factors affect t'r et'idence consistently of children and youth 1984; Smith. 1986). I onentations. and pen The QUestion 1996), as well as the socioeconomic-political context of the country or location in which programs take place. Evidence from numerous studies indicates that a complex combination of psychological determinants of children’s physical activity include, participant motivation, social influence, achievement goal orientations, and perceived competence, (Brustad, 1992; Duda, 1994; Harter, 1978; Horn & Weiss, 1991). These determinants affect the motivation of children to participate in leisure physical activity. Although the existing research has not fully examined how the interrelationships among these factors affect the interest youths have in sport and physical activity, empirical evidence consistently suggests that these factors have major influences on the motivation of children and youths for participation (Harter, 1978; Maehr & Nicholls, 1980; Nicholls, 1984; Smith, 1986). Reasons for participation in sport, social influence, achievement goal orientations, and perceived competence have their basis, however, in various theories. The question of why children and youths participate in competitive sport and leisure physical activity or “participation motivation” has attracted much attention in the study of youth sports (Alderman, 1978; Gill, Gross, & Huddleston, 1983; Gould, F eltz. & Weiss, 1985). Researchers in this area wanted to explain the value placed on sports and physical activity by youths, with the goal of providing a better understanding of ways in which sport programs could be structured to attract more children and youths. Early studies provided descriptive information about why youths elect to play sports and leisure activities (Alderman, 1978; Sapp & Haubenstricker, 1978). Subsequent studies attempted to develop conceptual frameworks that best explain participation motivation, while examining the relationship between the construct and other factors pertaining to sport participation (Gill et al., 1983; Gould et al., 1985; Klint & Weiss, 1986). Gill and colleagues (.1983 l They developed a . attempted to isolatt designs. Reasons p achievement status among youth sport other studies that u- Evidence al determinant of thei 1992: Kimiecik et . socialize children i community. A the socialization ofch exIr‘CCIaflCrvalue Kasai; Meece, . relationship bet“ lime? 0f activiti Value belli‘fS reg; Parent5,EQC1es. . Patent and lira-i Child ecik‘ e! 211 "stifle t 0 [he- it D: $111514 ‘ggurgl \ colleagues (1983) spearheaded this approach to the study of participation motivation. They developed a questionnaire listing 30 possible reasons for participation and attempted to isolate participant dimensions, based on the 30 reasons, using factor analytic designs. Reasons pertaining to skill improvement. fun, being with friends, achievement/status, excitement/challenge, and getting exercise have been identified among youth sport participants. Similar reasons and factor structures were identified in other studies that used factor analytic designs (Gould et al., 1985, Klint & Weiss, 1987). Evidence also indicates that children’s social influence is an important determinant of their participation in physical activity (Anderssen & Wold, 1992; Brustad, 1992; Kimiecik et al., 1996). Social influence refers broadly to many agents who socialize children into, sport, such as, parents, siblings, peers, coaches/teachers, and the community. A theoretical framework that has been broadly used in the study of socialization of children and youth into sport and physical activity is Eccles and others’ expectancy-value model of achievement (Eccles (Parsons), Adler, Futterman, Goff, Kaczala, Meece, & Midgely, 1983). Eccles and colleagues suggest that there is a relationship between parental socialization influence and children’s participation in a variety of activities. For instance, their model suggests that children’s expectancy and value beliefs regarding math achievement are relatively consistent with those of their parents. Eccles’ model has been used in a number of studies to examine the roles of the parent and child belief system in children’s sport involvement (Eccles & Harold, 1991; Kirrtiecik, et al., 1996). Eccles and Harold (1991) found that children’s perceptions of the value to their parents of their sport involvement were significantly related to the children’s self-perceptions of physical ability. In line \sill‘. Kimiecik et al. l 19‘ vigorous physical a: the beliefs and beha. functioning and int-.- vigorous physical a- parental socializatio However. they exp: factors outside the 1 children's beliefs a context“ approach 3131 the influence ( behavior is better c'tn'ld's environmc -1\ 3:5:11‘1n “am PTO-por item pt to eXplair h IS “Orth In line with the expectancy-value model proposed by Eccles et al. (1983), Kimiecik et al. (1996) developed a family influence model for children’s moderate-to- vigorous physical activity. They suggested that the home environment, which consists of the beliefs and behaviors of parents, the beliefs and behaviors of siblings, and family functioning and interaction, influence the behavior of children in relation to moderate-to- vigorous physical activity. Like Eccles et al. (1983), Kimiecik and colleagues emphasize parental socialization influence on the involvement of children in various activities. However, they expanded their model to consider the relationship between environmental factors outside the home such as teachers, coaches, peers, and the community and children’s beliefs about moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. Based on the “person-in- context” approach described by Ford and Lerner (1992), Kimiecik et al. (1996) proposed that the influence of the family on a child’s moderate-to-vigorous physical activity behavior is better understood in the context of the demographic characteristics and the child’s environment outside the home. Therefore, the proposed study aims to adapt a significant proportion of the framework of Kimiecik and his colleagues (1996) in an attempt to explain the socialization of Botswana youths into sport and physical activity. It is worth noting that, most of the existing research on the socializing agents of children involved in physical activity have been done predominantly on parental influence (Brustad, 1993a, 1996; Dempsy, Kimiecik, & Horn, 1993). Only a limited amount of research has examined the relationship between other social agents and the motives of youths to participate in sport and physical activity (Anderssen & Wold, 1992; Kimiecik et al., 1996; Horn & Weiss, 1991; Scanlan & Lewthwaite, 1986). Existing research suggests a need for further investigation of the effect of other social factors, such as peer socializatir limited research tI‘.‘ children and youth Evaluative cues such as enjoy: enhance motivatiof Hom and Weiss 1 1‘ as they grovv older. Rreisel (19851 repr excitement. persot sport enjoyment h competence have sXpenences of yc iScanlan & Sim: ”9%) SUSSEste “hv~' . * “Cal Kerwin as peer socialization on the sport behaviors of youths (Brustad, 1996). Also notable, is the limited research that examines the impact of the social environment on motives of children and youths for participation in sport and physical activity in other cultures. Evaluative feedback by significant adults and peers, social comparison, internal cues such as enjoyment, and enjoyment of the company of others have been found to enhance motivation for physical activity (Horn & Hasbrook, 1986; Horn & Weiss, 1991). Horn and Weiss (1991) argued that children depend more and more on peer comparison as they grow older, with younger children relying heavily on adult feedback. Wankel and Kreisel (1985) reported that being with friends, comparing skills with others, game excitement, personal accomplishment, and improving skills ranked high as sources of sport enjoyment by young athletes. Perceived parental pressure and social recognition of competence have also been known to influence the positive and negative affective experiences of young athletes in sport, as well as their motivation for participation (Scanlan & Simmons, 1992; Scanlan, Stein, & Ravizza, 1989). Kimiecik and colleagues (1996) suggested that the role of the family in children’s motivation for participation in physical activity is significant. In achievement orientation theory, self-perceptions of competence are regarded as central influences upon motivated behavior (Maehr & Nicholls, 1980; Nicholls, 1984). Nicholls (1984) proposed two distinct perspectives on achievement orientation: task- involved and ego-involved goal perspectives. According to Nicholls, an individual who holds a task-involved perspective holds a self-referenced view on achievement. Success is perceived as personal improvement and task mastery. An ego-involved individual subjectively defines success as performing better than others. Ego-involvement is, 10 therefore. more ab outcomes (Duda. 3 Campbell. 19881. C onsequen' tasks and display e “hen they possess Ego-involved indiv avoid activities tha‘ hat ability percept support this argum Organized sport to and non‘Pm'tcipar Sport PS}'c therefore, more about using social comparison information to determine success or failure outcomes (Duda, 1993; Fox, Goudas, Biddle, Duda & Armstrong, 1994; Vealey, & Campbell, 1988). Consequently, task-involved individuals tend to select appropriately challenging tasks and display effort and persistence while engaged in a particular endeavor even when they possess relatively low perceptions of competence in that achievement domain. Ego-involved individuals primarily demonstrate competence relative to others and tend to avoid activities that seem to highlight their lack of ability. Nicholls (1984) has suggested that ability perceptions and goal perspectives tend to interact to influence behavior. To support this argument, Duda (1989) found high school students who participated in organized sport to demonstrate stronger task and ego-involved orientations than dropouts and non-participants. Sport psychology research with children has supported the motivational role of achievement goal orientations (Biddle, 1997; Duda, 1993; 1994; Duda, Fox, Biddle, & Armstrong, 1992; Fox, et al., 1994; Goudas, Biddle, & Fox, 1994). Goudas et al. (1994) showed a direct effect of task orientation on intrinsic motivation for two physical education activities for 12-14 year old children. These findings are consistent with earlier findings by Duda (1989). The conceptual framework for the development of the Task and Ego Orientation in sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ) was based on Nicholls’ (1989) suggestion that there are dispositional tendencies that predispose individuals to adopt either task or ego goals. According to Nicholls (1992), such motivational orientations reflect individual differences in personal criteria of success. When adopting this conceptual framework to sport and physical activity, Duda (1992, 1996) has suggested 11 that in PhiSlcal 3" onentations and th is task or ego inv 0. climate because st; C ompetenc inherent desire to t. domains of achiev c [Guards competenc competence and cor llhite‘s l 1959) con: behavioral aspects t motivational theory because of its appar sensitivity to develt lx- ~ .e.els(Brustad. l9< that in physical activity settings, people vary in their dispositional task and ego orientations and that this is also affected by the extent to which the motivational climate is task or ego involving. Many competitive sport settings perpetuate an ego-involved climate because success is defined by winning against an opponent. Competence motivation theory (Harter, 1978) suggests that individuals have an inherent desire to feel and express competence in the social, cognitive, and physical domains of achievement. According to Harter (1978), actual expression of the motive towards competence is mediated by self-related cognitions, especially self-perceptions of competence and control. Harter’s (1978) model of effectance motivation is based on A White’s (1959) conceptualization of competence motivation. White’s model incorporated behavioral aspects that have relevance to the developing child. Harter’s (1978) motivational theory has been used frequently for the study of participation motivation because of its apparent relevance to the study of children’s psychosocial growth and its sensitivity to developmental change and individual differences within developmental levels (Brustad, 1993a). Competence motivation theory includes the prediction that children who participate in evaluative and competitive sport contexts have higher perceived competence and control than children who participate in non-competitive and non- evaluative sport contexts, children who are non-participants, and child dropouts. Weiss. Bredemeier, and Shewchuk (1986) found that the higher perceptions of competence of 8 tolZ-year—old swimmers had an impact on their actual competence in swimming and their preference to perform hard. They concluded that higher perceived competence also encourages the child to develop an internal sense of whether he or she has succeeded as 12 opposed to depen findings were rept 8; Weiss. 19871. T affect achiev emer Not much interrelationships motivation. and j: studies have mag process. and self Eccles 8; Harold Orientations to b a significam 1’01 P3331115 has bee mmpeICDCe (, B lhe CKISIcnce o the intEn-etafic SOCial from other Cu opposed to depending on external sources of evaluation such as teacher feedback. Similar findings were reported by numerous other studies (e. g., F eltz & Petlichkoff, 1983; Klint & Weiss, 1987). Thus, it seems perception of competence is one of the major factors that affect achievement and motivational orientation among children and youth. Not much research has been conducted to examine the effect of the interrelationships among reasons for participation in sport, social influence, achievement motivation, and perceived competence, on the sport behaviors of youths. However. some studies have made reference to the relationship among goal orientations, socialization process, and self-perceptions of children in achievement domains (Duda & Horn, 1993; Eccles & Harold, 1991; Nicholls, 1989). Nicholls (1989) found children’s goal orientations to be developed through their socialization experiences, with parents playing a significant role in this socialization process. The socialization of children into sports by parents has been associated with greater liking of games and sports and higher perceived competence (Brustad, 1996). Therefore, it is evident that more compelling evidence of the existence of these relationships could be drawn from comprehensive examinations of the interrelationships among the constructs. Social and psychological aspects of the involvement in physical activity of youths from other cultures have been rarely examined. As observed by Brustad (1993a), most of the known research on psychological aspects of sport involvement among youths has been conducted in North America, particularly the United States, therefore, making it difficult to generalize findings from these cultural contexts to other cultures. Even within the North American populations most of the research has been with white middle class samples, thus raising the question of generalizability of findings to other populations. 13 A stud.V 0’ sport and physical in the sport bfiha‘ recreational progr There is very little personnel general l'nited States. The in the conception Botswana does no 5' nilar developing seldom receive gr Therefore. there if hfiling an effect 0 ifecting the inten Contribunng to the Little is kn situational factors COU‘ A study of the psychological determinants of involvement of Botswana youths in sport and physical activity is expected to provide evidence of similarities and differences in the sport behaviors of youths between Botswana and United States cultures. Sport and recreational programs for youths in Botswana are mainly confined to school settings. There is very little parental and community involvement in the programs. Untrained personnel generally run the programs and publicity is negligible in comparison to the United States. There are no professional sports in Botswana, which suggests a difference in the conception of sport elitism between Botswana and the United States. The culture of Botswana does not seem to attach much importance to success in sport compared to similar developing countries and to the United Sates. Exceptional performances in sport seldom receive great rewards or major national recognition like in many countries. Therefore, there is little incentive for excellence in sport. Such value of sport might be having an effect on the sport aspirations of youths in Botswana. It might be negatively affecting the interest of youths in competitive and recreational sport, while also contributing to the apparent lack of a quest for athletic success among those involved. Little is known about the extent to which the sociocultural environments and situational factors in Botswana affect the judgments youths make about their personal competence and their motives for participation in sport. However, it is assumed that the sport and physical activity behavior of Botswana youths would be related to the manner in which the sociocultural environment transmits information about competence and achievement in the sport domain. Despite cultural dynamism and influence of western culture, Botswana still places value on many of the old traditions. The culture, is still collectivist in nature, therefore, it places more emphasis on community-oriented 14 behavior. espec values among n are socialized 11 achievements ir regarded by the the value placet hand. Botsvt an; 5P0“ and physi. mlOEment. Con being physican; research conduL 1989). Statement of the The pur; motivation. soci he participation ale interrelatiom m v.13". elation. and r behavior, especially in traditional towns and villages. The upholding of some traditional values among most communities might play an important role on how Botswana youths are socialized into sport and how they perceive their competence as well as their achievements in sport contexts. High athletic competence might not be as highly regarded by the society as achievement in other domains. This might have an impact on the value placed on participation in sports among both parents and youths. On the other hand, Botswana and United States youths are expected to be influenced to participate in sport and physical activity by similar intrinsic motivational factors, such as sport enjoyment, competence, meeting friends, skill improvement, the desire for challenge, and being physically fit. Most of these factors have been repeatedly cited in the youth sport research conducted in different cultures (Longhurst & Spink, 1987; Weiss & Petlichkoff, 1989). §t_atement of the Problem The purpose of this study was to examine the association among participant motivation, social influence, achievement goal orientations, perceived competence, and the participation of Botswana youths in sport and leisure physical activity. In addition, the interrelationships among participant motivation, social influence, achievement orientation, and perceived competence were examined in relation to how these factors predict the participation patterns of Botswana youths in sport and physical activity. The results of this study are intended to help make inferences about existing similarities and differences in youth sport behaviors between North America and Botswana. The study was also intended to provide a much-needed perspective on the social and psychological 15 aspects of ln\0l\ e cultural context. Research uestio: This stud} most important re. goal orientations o leisure phv sical ac related to their tea: in participant mot competence of Bo 51m and leisure l participation in s; C0mpelence of Bi Milli}? Based o HE‘Pothesis 1; Be activities “On-part1 Himl‘hesls 3: B aetn‘itifi‘s panicipa aspects of involvement in sport and leisure physical activity among youths in an African cultural context. Regejarch Questions and Hypotheses This study was designed to examine the following questions: (a) What are the most important reasons Botswana youths give for their participation in sports? (b) Are the goal orientations of Botswana youths related to their reasons for participation in sport and leisure physical activity? (c) Are the self-perceptions of competence of Botswana youths related to their reasons for participation in sport and physical activity? ((1) To what extent do participant motivation, social influence, achievement motivation, and perceived competence of Botswana youths help differentiate among participants in competitive sport and leisure physical activities and non-participants? (e) Are the reasons for participation in sports, social influence, goal orientations, and self-perceptions of competence of Botswana youths related to their involvement in sport and leisure physical activity? Based on these questions the following hypotheses were investigated: Hypothesis 1: Botswana youths who participate in competitive sports and leisure physical activities have different reasons for participating in sports compared to those of non-participants. Hypothesis 2: Botswana youths who participate in competitive sports and leisure physical activities perceive greater social influence than their non-participant counterparts. Hypothesis 3: Botswana youths who participate in competitive sports and leisure physical activities have high task and high ego-goal orientations compared to non- participants. 16 are lower - Hvootltesis Bol activities ' Delimitation The stud} flunior high) an. accessible tuba; competitive 5pc delimited to ex. athlevemem gt km 0f Daniel Assumptions Hypothesis 4: Task-goal orientations of Botswana youths are positively correlated with enjoyment of organized sports and leisure physical activities. The correlations between enjoyment of organized and recreational sports and ego-goal orientations are lower than with task-goal orientation. Hypothesis 5: Botswana youths who participate in competitive sports and leisure physical activities have higher perceived competence than non—participants. Delimitation The study was delimited to Botswana youths attending junior secondary school (junior high) and senior secondary school (high school). This study was delimited to I accessible urban and rural schools in Botswana. Participants were either involved in competitive sports or recreational sports or non-participants. Furthermore, the study was delimited to examining the relationships among participant motivation, social influence, achievement goal orientations, and perceived competence of Botswana youths and their level of participation in sport and physical activity. Assumptions This study assumed that participants understood all the questions asked in the survey instruments. It was assumed that participants provided honest responses to all the survey instruments. Given that participants were recruited from a cultural and linguistic background other than where the instruments were developed, the study assumed that cultural and linguistic backgrounds were not a barrier to providing accurate responses to questions. 17 The stud} There was no rain that “as represet: the study. Anothe construct has not numerous studiesl Dempsv. Kimieci lWeiss & Knopers encouragement at the behaviors of 5 might have been . discouragemem c D “\mm TL". entail}. email at. Limitations The study was limited in terms of random selection of participants and schools. There was no random selection of participants. Only an accessible population of students that was representative of urban and rural Botswana youths was recruited to participate in the study. Another limitation of the study may be the definition of social influence. This construct has not been consistently tested in the sport psychology literature. Although numerous studies have examined agents that socialize youths into sport (Brustad, 1993a; Dempsy, Kimiecik, & Horn, 1993; Horn & Weiss, 1991; Scanlan & Lewthwaite, 1986; Weiss & Knopers, 1982), there are still questions concerning how to measure perceived encouragement and discouragement. Participants might have had difficulty interpreting the behaviors of socializing agents as encouragement or discouragement. Specifically, it might have been difficult for participants to tell when a behavior is best perceived as discouragement or something else. Definition of Terms Competitive sport participant -- an individual who is involved in sports that involve some level of structure, competition, prior preparation or practice, are timed, and normally entail adult supervision. Sometimes there are rewards that go with success or high level of achievement. Ego-goal orientation -- is delineated by the evaluation of success in comparison with the performance of others. Individuals with ego-goal orientation are considered to be at risk to display maladaptive behaviors such as unwillingness to exert effort when task demands are high and tend to avoid extremely challenging situations. Such individuals also tend to attribute success to ability instead of effort, have a sense of achievement that 18 depends on the p it Nicholls. 1992 ' Non-part: physical activit§ . activities such as and games. MI the ita} they are c are gm‘emed by e maements. involvement in s; literest is vvhx- 1h W 43%.. e 3C‘F‘ie‘ment P'. W 50cm] environrne depends on the performance of peers and outperforming others (Duda, 1989. 1992; Duda & Nicholls, 1992). Non-patrticipa_n; -- an individual who does not actively participate in sport and physical activity. Such an individual might be participating in other forms of recreational activities such as video games, chess, and other types of non-physically involving sport and games. Organized sport -- competitive and recreational sports that have some structure in the way they are organized. Typically, organized sport involve adult supervision, games are governed by established rules, are timed, and might involve giving rewards for major achievements. Participant motivaLtion -- the reasons that individuals give for their active involvement in sport, that is, how and why the are involved. In this study, the question of interest is why they are involved. Perceived competence -- Harter (1978) suggests that individuals have an inherent desire to feel and express competence in the social, cognitive, and physical domains of achievement. Perceived social influence -- one’s perceptions regarding the influence of one‘s social environment such as parents, siblings, friends/peers teachers, coaches, and teammates on one’s involvement in sport, value of sport and physical activity, as well as self-perceptions of competence. Recreational participant -- an individual who is involved in sports (leisure physical activities) for reasons such as fun or enjoyment, health and fitness, to be with friends, or to do something. The sports tend to be less structured, involve little adult 19 supervision. Ex: badminton. In th leisure physical .' Sport eni sport and leisure such as pleasure. than on extrinsic dCVClOpmem of c. :JL-lleremly \‘aluabl etiort ( Duda. 1'99:- supervision. Examples include pick up football (soccer) games, table tennis, and badminton. In this study, recreational participant would be used interchangeably with leisure physical activity participant. Sport eniovment -- positive affective response associated with participation in sport and leisure physical activities (Scanlan & Lewthwaite, 1986), especially feelings such as pleasure, liking, and enjoyment of the company of others. Laslggoal orientation -- means that the focus of attention is on the task rather than on extrinsic reward (Nichols, 1984). A task-involvement goal focuses on the development of competence and task mastery. Further, task-orientation learning is inherently valuable, meaningful, satisfying, and task mastery is seen as dependent on effort (Duda, 1993, Duda & Nicholls, 1992). 20 The e of youths prc cultural cont: achievement youths. has at 19933; Duda. relationship at I"0Uths in 3pm- 18 Well as the ; Elm-“g resear relationship an among .VOULhS ; The pre PalliClpam mOI competence [ha mel’t'orks USC comm‘bmlOn that He COWGIateS an r'll'hu' rm; . . Ital activm. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE The extensive research on the psychological factors affecting the sport behavior of youths provides the base for studying the involvement of youths in sport in other cultural contexts. Specifically, the impact of participant motivation, social influence, achievement goal orientations, and perceived competence on sport behavior patterns in youths, has attracted much interest, especially in the United Sates (Ames, 1992; Brustad. 1993a; Duda, 1989, 1993; Kimiecik, et al., 1996). However, little is known about the relationship among these constructs and the participation behaviors of children and youths in sport in other cultures. This raises questions of generalizability of the findings. as well as the applicability of the different theoretical frameworks to other cultures. Existing research provides frameworks within which investigators could examine the relationship among the above mentioned correlates and patterns of sport participation among youths in other cultures. The present chapter provides a comprehensive overview of existing findings on participant motivation, social influence, achievement goal orientations, and perceived competence that are pertinent to this study. The chapter also alludes to the theoretical frameworks used to study these correlates. In addition, the chapter addresses the potential contribution that the current investigator hopes to make in furthering the understanding of the correlates and how they relate to involvement of Botswana youths in sport and leisure physical activity. 21 Partici an! MOI: An unds attracted much : al.1983; Klint generally motiy would help in tl youths possible. the frarnevyork l achievement the lllarter. 19781. 1 participation in given for makin of lm‘Oly'emenL Most of ExampleS Of so] and Haubenstric- Pfirticipation arr gender, age, am participation, “ :lrtrerences Wer— t "he re Participant Motivation An understanding of the reasons youths have for participating in sport has attracted much attention in sport psychology research (Alderman & Wood, 1976; Gill, et al., 1983; Klint & Weiss, 1987; Ryckman & Hamel, 1993). Interest in this subject was generally motivated by the idea that a better understanding of motives for participation would help in the designing of sports programs that attract the maximum number of youths possible, while reducing dropout rates from the programs. It is worth noting that the framework for studying participant motivation, while seemingly overlapping with achievement motivation (Maer & Nicholls, 1980) and competence motivation theories (Harter, 1978), is mainly concerned with the relative importance of the motives for initial participation in sport. The type of research questions asked pertain to the type of reasons given for making the decision to participate and if the reasons vary by age, gender, levels of involvement, level of experience, and environmental contexts. Most of the earlier research on this subject followed a descriptive approach. Examples of some of the research are studies conducted by Alderman (1978), and Sapp and Haubenstricker (1978). Alderman’s (1978) study examined incentives for participation among 11-18 year old athletes. Alderman sought to determine if there were gender, age, and sport related differences in the importance placed on various reasons for participation, which were classified into 7 areas: independence, arousal, power, affiliation, aggression, esteem, and excellence. No significant age, gender or sport related differences were found. However, affiliation, excellence, and arousal were identified as the reasons that were rated as most important by the participants. In a related study involving 11-18 year old athletes from non-school sport settings, Sapp and 22 llauhenstrieker program. Tile 17‘ tit and because using the descri Etving and Seef Motivation Int e sponsored sport With friends. C01 Earlier d the study of pan from this line 01 could lead to the “mild also mak- pam“Pant moti dBSlgned a 30-“ to generate seve .10uths ath‘d 8~1 new skills to be those from prec- ‘C‘n . erg}. TeleaSe or this COnsth & WEISS, 1990 Haubenstricker (1978) examined the reasons most cited by youths for joining a sport program. The most frequently cited reasons were, having fun, improving skills, becoming fit, and because friends played. Similar reasons were identified by subsequent studies using the descriptive line of approach (Ewing & Seefeldt, 1988; Klint & Weiss, 1986). Ewing and Seefeldt (1988) used a modified version of the Gill et al. (1983) Participation Motivation Inventory to examine reasons that youths made for participating in agency sponsored sport programs. They also identified fun, skill improvement, fitness. being with friends, competition, and team affiliation as the most cited reasons for participation. Earlier descriptive studies provided the basis for a more theoretical approach to the study of participant motivation. Given some of the methodological issues that arose from this line of research, researchers found the need to develop conceptual models that could lead to the development of a broader theoretical framework. Such a framework would also make it possible to use multivariate designs to test the different facets of participant motivation. Gill et al. (1983) provided the basis for this line of approach. They designed a 30-item measure of participant motivation and used factor analytic techniques to generate several factors that best explained reasons for participation in sport among youths aged 8-18 years old. Gill et al. (1983) found skill improvement, fun, and learning new skills to be rated as highly important by the participants. These findings replicated those from previous research studies. They identified seven participant motivation factors, which they labeled, achievement/status, team atmosphere, excitement/challenge. energy release, skill development, and friendship. A theory-based approach to the study of this construct followed and tended to replicate findings from earlier research (Brodkin & Weiss, 1990; Gould et al., 1985). 23 nudy mnui lounge hung Charac tdease Then: {0 Patti mhel Using a sport specific version of the Gill et al. (1983) Participation Motivation Inventory, Gould et al. (1985) assessed participation motives of youth competitive swimmers, ages 8 to 19 years. They examined if objectives for participation among the swimmers varied according to gender, age, ability, and level of experience. Using both descriptive and factor analyses, their study provided support for earlier findings by Gill and colleagues. They found fun, fitness, skill-improvement, team atmosphere, and challenge as the most important motives for participation. Further, they found age and gender differences in participation motives. Both males and females were found to lay equal emphasis on achievement-status; however, females placed more emphasis on friendship and fun compared to males. Brodkin and Weiss (1990) conducted a similar study to the one conducted by Gould and his colleagues. They examined motives for participating in swimming across the life span, specifically among six age groups: younger and older children, high school/college age, and young, middle, and older adults. Using an exploratory factor analysis, Brodkin and Weiss (1990) identified seven factors: characteristics of competitive swimming, health/fitness, social status, affiliation, energy release, significant others, and fun. Emphasis on each one of these factors varied by age. These findings provide more support for various underlying factors that influence youths to participate in sport. Although the majority of studies on participant motivation have been conducted in the United States, a number of studies have been conducted in other cultures. Kolt, Kirkby, Bar-Eli, Blumenstein, Chadha, Liu, and Kerr (1999) investigated cross-cultural motives for participation in gymnastics among youths from Australia, Canada, India, China, and Israel. They administered the Participation Motivation Inventory (Gill et al., 24 19831 to identifie miscella‘ findings ditferenc identifier competiti reasons tl participar Very hi h U") 111 a stud) of the tea he“? 50m. CO’Tlpetiti. Or m'l'tltel a 1983) to all the participants. Using principal component analysis, Kolt et al. (1999) identified seven factors: team affiliation, popularity/energy release, challenge/fun, miscellaneous, skills, achievement, and recognition/excitement. Most notable were the findings that there were significant differences between groups on all the factors. The differences appeared consistent with more general cultural influences. They also identified similarities between groups in reasons for participation in gymnastics. A study of Mexican youths identified fun, to get exercise, to get to higher level of competition, skill improvement, and the challenge of competition as some of the top ten reasons the youths gave for their participation in sport (Siegel, 1999). Male and female participants involved in school and non-school sports rated competition-related motives very high. These findings were similar to those identified among United States children in a study by Ewing and Seefeldt (1988). Siegel (1999) found gender differences in some of the reasons the youths gave for their participation in sport. Female ranked the need “to have something to do” higher than males, while males ranked “to go to higher level of competition” and “to be popular” higher than females. Other studies include those from England (White & Coakley, 1986), Canada (Wankel & Kreisel, 1985), and Israel (Weingarten, Furst, Tenebaum, & Schaefer, 1984). As indicated by Kolt et al. (1999), the social contexts or cultural influences are likely to have an impact on participation motives. Although existing research has provided greater understanding of the type of reasons youths have for their participation in sports, there is still a huge void with regard to knowledge about motives for participation in sport among African children and youths. It is uncertain what type of motives would stand out as more 25 impel other Percei sociali 1996; . the roll youth i not yet of tram the CXpt Olpnm.‘ lutluenc 31 .\lCh( important in Botswana culture for instance, and how social expectations, regional, and other factors would impact the motives and levels of participation. Perceived Sopipl Influence Much research has demonstrated the value of understanding the role of various socializing agents on the levels of participation in sport among youths (Brustad, 1993a, 1996; Eccles & Harold, 1991; Jacobs & Eccles, 1992. Although studies have investigated the role of different social agents, especially parents and siblings on the participation of youth in sport, the mechanism of studying perceived social influence as a construct has not yet been fully established. Therefore, social influence has been studied in the context of frameworks that were designed to study certain dimensions of this construct, such as the expectancy value-model (Eccles et al., 1983), which has parental influence as an area of primary concern and the family influence model (Kimiecik et al., 1996). Social influence has also been studied within the frameworks of achievement motivation (Maehr & Nicholls, 1980) and competence motivation (Harter, 1978). The most highly investigated agents of socialization of youths into sport are parents. Parents' influence has been shown to have considerable impact on the desire of children and youth to participate in sport and physical activity (Brustad, 1993a; Eccles, 1984; Eccles & Harold, 1991; Dempsy et al., 1993; Jacobs & Eccles, 1992). In development of the model of activity choice (Eccles, 1984; Eccles & Harold, 1991), the beliefs system, gender role expectations, and role-modeling behaviors of parents have been shown to be related to participatory involvement of their children in sport and other achievement domains. Parsons (Eccles), Adler, and Kaczala (1982) contrasted the relative influence of parental beliefs and role-modeling behaviors on mathematics 26 achie‘ belief: relatet‘ boysc compar Parenta \igorot Percept if relati Telation mVOlVe} achievement among fifth through eleventh grade children. This study found parental beliefs about the likelihood and value of their children’s success in mathematics to be related to the gender of the children. Parents of boys had higher success expectations for boys compared to parents of girls. Eccles and Harold (1991) used the same framework to examine the relationship between the roles of parent and child beliefs and gender differences in sport involvement. They found children’s perceptions of the value to their parents of their sport involvement to be related to gender differences in levels of sport involvement. Boys perceived higher parental value for their participation in sport compared to girls. They also reported higher perceived fitness levels compared to girls. Using the expectancy-value model, Dempsey et al. (1993) examined the impact of parental role-modeling and belief systems on levels of participation in moderate-to- vigorous physical activity among fourth and fifth grade children. They found parents’ perceptions of their children’s competence in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity to be related to the children’s actual levels of participation in physical activity. No relationship was found between the physical activity behaviors of parents and the involvement of children in physical activity. Also using the expectancy-value framework, Brustad (1993a, 1996) reported other significant findings on the role of parental influence on the attraction of children and youths to sport and physical activity. Brustad (1993a) examined four dimensions of parental socialization influence: self-reported enjoyment of physical activity, perceived fitness levels, beliefs about the importance of physical activity, and levels of encouragement of their children to participate in physical activity. This study found that parental encouragement and parental enjoyment of physical activity were significantly 27 rel act 6X3 related to the perceived physical competence and attraction of children to physical activity. Brustad (1996) sought to replicate his earlier findings in a later study that examined three dimensions of parental influence: parental encouragement, perceived parental enjoyment of physical activity, and role—modeling. An important extension of this study was an examination of ethnic differences between Caucasian and Latino samples. Findings showed a significant relationship between children’s perceptions of parental influence and the attraction of children to physical activity. Significant gender differences were found. For boys, perceived parental encouragement and perceived parental enjoyment were found to be instrumental for their involvement in sport. Parental encouragement was not the most important parental socializing agent for girls. The ethnicity of the parents was not a significant contributor to differences among children in patterns of parental socialization influence or attraction to physical activity. Brustad (1996) concluded that the findings suggest that vigorous physical activity and exercise are perceived to be regarded by parents as more gender-appropriate for boys than for girls. Kimiecik et al. (1996) extended Eccles’ (1984) expectancy-value model by developing what they termed the family influence model. This model has new pathways that explained the process of socialization. The central component of the model is the home environment, which consists of parent/sibling beliefs, parent/sibling behavior, family fimctioning and interaction, influences of the appraisals a child receives from the home environment pertaining to his/her participation in moderate to vigorous physical activity. Other components of the model are demographic and family characteristics, the 28 6X16 chilc mod an, n b " L~‘| :0 .- Childr 0n the found Based p851 if ‘ .1985.) ofElem found 1 here st Idle 0p external environment (significant adult others, peers, community, and school), as well as child perceptions of parent and or siblings, and own beliefs about physical activity. This model provides a more holistic approach to the understanding of social influence compared to previous frameworks. Kimiecik et al. (1996) tested portions of the family influence model by examining the relationship among children’s perceptions of their parents’ beliefs and their own beliefs about moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and the physical activity behaviors of children. This study revealed that the degree to which children participate in moderate- to-vigorous physical activity was strongly related to their perceptions of fitness competence. Further, the perceptions children had about whether parents held a task or ego goal orientation for their success in physical fitness testing were related to the children’s own goal orientations. Greendorfer and Lewko (1978) examined the role of family, peers, and teachers on the involvement of 8 tol3 year old children in recreational sport. Peer influence was found to be the only significant predictor of sport involvement among the participants. Based on the findings from this study, Greendorfer and Lewko (1978) concluded that peer influence was a significant agent of socialization of children into sport. Higginson (1985) examined the role of family, peer, and coach/teacher influence on the socialization of elementary, middle school, and high school girls into sport. Parental influence was found to be strongest among younger children, while peer and teacher/coach influence were strongest among older children. Brown, Frankel, and Fennell (1989) examined the role of parental and peer influence on continuity of involvement in intramural, interscholastic, and community sport by female adolescents. They found the degree of 29 inv uses ta 1989). Critical CORIéXl.‘ hit an 1' FESanSC. Oriental“ involvement to be related to the source, amount, and type of influence received from significant others. Sibling influence, peer influence, and teacher/coach influence have not received as much attention as parent socialization influence. Most of the studies that involved these social agents tended to examine them in the context of perceived competence, self- esteem, and achievement motivation (Amorose & Weiss, 1998; Black & Weiss, 1992; Horn, 1985, 1987). Therefore, the impact of siblings, peers, and teachers/coaches influence on the socialization of youths into sport is an area that deserves attention. Achievement Goal Orientations Central to goal perspective theory of achievement motivation is that an individual uses task and/or ego-goal oriented criteria to evaluate success (Duda, 1993; Nicholls, 1989). Researchers using goal perspective theory propose that personal goals play a critical role in an individual’s investment and involvement in achievement-related contexts (Duda, 1992, Nicholls, 1984, 1989). Goal perspective theory, therefore, suggests that an individual’s goal orientations will be related to his or her cognitive and affective response in achievement contexts such as sport or schoolwork. Individuals high in task orientation will use self-referenced criteria for success and competence. Learning something new, personal improvement, and/or meeting the demands of the task tend to be the focus of individuals with high task-orientation. Individuals with high ego-goal orientation, on the other hand, tend to use normative or other-referenced criteria when making judgments about competence and adequacy. Although the research examining the relationship between goal orientations and levels of involvement in sport is not that extensive, existing sport psychology literature 30 and 2 “as r invol Orienra 33101] g ”Kilt 0U and Mr c0“troll Pemna Hegam'e kill} Pct; [he finial]. using goal perspective theory sheds some light on that relationship (Treasure & Roberts, 1994; Vlachopoulos & Biddle, 1997; White & Duda, 1994). Treasure and Roberts (1994) examined the relationship between beliefs about the purposes of sport, causes of success, and satisfaction among middle school children. Task orientation was related to prosocial and adaptive achievement beliefs about sport participation. Conversely, ego orientation was related to negative social aspects and maladaptive achievement beliefs about sport involvement. In their examination of the relationship between achievement goals and motives for participation among youths, White and Duda (1994) found task orientation to be significantly related to more intrinsic and cooperative reasons for becoming involved in sport, such as skill development, and being part of a team. On the other hand, Ego orientation was more related to extrinsic motives for sport participation, such as gaining status and recognition. Vlachopoulos and Biddle (1997) examined the relationship among goal orientations, perceived ability, and achievement-related affect in physical education among British youths aged 11 to 16 years old. They found a positive relationship between task orientation and perception of success, but no relationship between ego orientation and perception of success. Perceived success positively influenced personally controllable attributions and positive affect, but had no effect on negative emotion. Personally controllable attributions also augmented positive emotion and minimized negative affect. Under the low perceived ability condition, ego orientation was associated with personally uncontrollable attributions. These findings had important implications on the relationship between goal involvement in physical activity. 31 studi: l'ong coal t effort predit Child enjoy Lisle 11 Other While most of the research was conducted in North America and Europe, some studies have been conducted in other cultures (Biddle et al., 1996; Li, Harmer, Chi, & Vongjaturapat, 1996). Biddle et al. (1996) examined the relationship among achievement goal orientations, beliefs about sport success, and emotional feeling concerning sport in Zimbabwean children aged 12 to 14 years old. They used a mean split on the task and ego scores and derived four goal groups: high task/high ego, high task/low ego, high ego/low task, and low ego/low task. The four goal groups were used as predictors of sport ability, effort, cooperation, and deception in a multivariate analysis. The groups were also used to predict enjoyment, and boredom. Biddle and his colleagues found main effects for group. Children in the high task/low ego group had significantly higher effort beliefs and higher enjoyment compared to the high ego/low task and low task/low ego groups. The high task/low ego group also scored significantly higher on cooperation scores compared to all other groups. The high task/high ego group reported greater enjoyment and less boredom compared to the high ego/low task group. Biddle and others’ findings bore similarity with findings from research conducted using English and United States youths (Duda, 1993; Goudas et al., 1994; Fox et al., 1994). Other researchers went beyond an examination of goal perspectives in other cultures by testing the cross-cultural validity of the TEOSQ (Kim & Gill, 1997; Li et al., 1996). Kim and Gill (1997) examined the predictions of goal perspective theory within middle school Korean youth sport. They found significant correlations between both task and ego orientations and intrinsic motivation. They also found fit for the factor structure of the TEOSQ. Gender differences in goal orientations was another interesting finding from this study. Males were higher than females on perceived competence and effort. 32 Li et al. (1996) assessed the cross-cultural validity of the TEOSQ using male college students from the United States, Thailand, and Taiwan. Their study also provided the much-needed test of the validity of the two-factor structure of the TEOSQ and the factorial equivalence of its structured latent mean differences across cultures. Li and others found support for the TEOSQ’s two-dimensional structure and reliability, as presented by Duda and Nicholls (1992). Another interesting finding was that task and ego orientation were positively related for the Thailand sample, meaning that high task orientation was related to high level of ego orientation. Findings from the cross-cultural research provide confidence in the use of the TEOSQ to study achievement behavior in other cultures. Perceived Competence Harter’s (197 8, 1981) competence motivation theory has been the most frequently used framework for the study of participation motivation in children and youths (Ebbeck & Weiss, 1998; Feltz & Petlichkoff, 1983; Klint & Weiss, 1987; Weigand & Broadhurst, 1998). The theory proposes that individuals have an inherent desire to feel and express competence in the social, cognitive, and physical, domains of achievement (Harter, 1978). Further, the expression of the motive towards competence is mediated by underlying self-related cognitions, particularly self-perception of competence and control. Therefore, competence motivation theory would predict that participants in competitive and recreational sports should have higher perceptions of competence in the sport-related domains than non-participants. Roberts, Klieber, and Duda (1981) investigated the role of perceived competence in the participation of children in sport, using Harter’s (1978) competence motivation 33 1’ 5350 “With 1 ‘ . alrllla framework. Their study contrasted participants with non-participants. They found that sport participants had higher self-perceptions of physical competence and cognitive competence compared to non-participants. In a similar study, Feltz and Petclichkoff (1983) examined perceived competence among interscholastic sports participants and dropouts. They found that interscholastic sport participants were higher in perceived physical competence than dr0pouts. Klint and Weiss (1987) examined the relationship between perceived competence and motives for participation in gymnastics among youths. They found that gymnasts high in perceived physical competence were more motivated by skill development reasons than their counterparts with lower perceived physical competence. Gymnasts with higher perceived social competence were more motivated by opportunities for affiliation than gymnasts with lower social perception. More recent findings give more support to the relationship between self- perceptions of competence and sport participatory behavior. Ebbeck and Weiss (1998) examined the relationship between self-esteem, perceived competence and affect in 8 to 13 year old participants in summer sport. Results from this study showed that perceived competence significantly influenced positive affect and to a lesser degree, negative affect. while positive affect significantly influenced self- esteem. Higher perceived competence and positive affect in children were associated with higher scores in children’s self- esteem. Weigand and Broadhurst (1998) examined the relationship among perceived competence, intrinsic motivation, and control perceptions in soccer in British male soccer players aged 12 to 18 years old. They found a significant positive relationship among perceived soccer competence, motivational orientation, and internal perceptions of 34 C01 rela 1 9C} ll'ie COat P13) inch control. Years of soccer experience and possessing an intrinsic motivation were found to be the best predictors of soccer competence. Several studies aimed at testing Harter’s (1978) competence motivation theory in relation to participation in sport have been conducted in other cultures (Kim & Gill, 1997; Ommundsen & Vaglum, 1991; Walsh, Crocker, & Bouffard, 1992; Wang & Wiese-Bjomstal, 1995). Ommundsen and Vaglum (1991) examined the relationship among perceived soccer competence, perceived social integration, players’ perceptions of coach and parental behavior, and enjoyment and motivation to participate in soccer players. They found perceptions of mastery and control, and feelings of being socially included in the team to be significant predictors of motivation to participate and persist in soccer. Positive parental and coach behaviors were related to soccer enjoyment. These findings were supported in a similar study conducted among youth sport participants in China (Wang & Wiese-Bjomstal, 1995). This study revealed that perceived competence, persistence, and performance were significant predictors of involvement in sport among youths. Further, gender differences were found, with males having higher perceptions of competence, persistence and performance in selected tasks, compared to females. Conclusion The preceding review provides some insight into the relationships among participant motivation, social influence, achievement motivation, perceived competence, and the involvement of youths in sport and physical activity. The literature suggests that the most cormnonly stated reasons by youths for their participation in sports include competence (learning and improving skills), affiliation (being part of a team), fitness (to get exercise), and fim. The literature also suggests that youths cite multiple reasons for 35 hen accor Unpo panh ~ lDCUS Oi SOt 8.11 13 T101 Dehavi ‘C‘i‘liEX their participation in sport, and that beyond the first few reasons, ranking the reasons according to the order of importance becomes less informative about their relative importance. Further, the review shows that not much is known about motives for participation in sport in other cultures, especially in African cultures. Additional research focusing on filling in the gaps in the participant motivation framework is necessary. Within the socialization construct, additional research exploring other dimensions of social influence is necessary, as suggested in the family influence model (Kimiecik et al., 1996). There is a need for development of a theoretical framework that would enable researchers to investigate all the dimensions of this multidimensional construct. The need for cross-cultural research cannot be over-emphasized. Major strides have been made in the investigation of achievement motivation. However, more cross-cultural research is necessary to test if the current factor structure of achievement goals holds in other cultures, and if goal perspectives can best explain motivated sport behavior in other cultures. With regard to competence motivation, the extensive literature using this framework has demonstrated the impact of perceived competence in sport participatory behavior. However, just like with the other constructs, little is known about the relationship between perceived competence and involvement in sport in other cultures. It is not even known if competence motivation theory could best explain achievement behavior in African cultures. In summary, there are both conceptual and methodological necessities for testing existing theoretical frameworks and their relevant instruments using other cultural contexts in order to broaden an understanding of psychological correlates of the participation of youths in sport and physical activity. This would provide more 36 knottledge 3hr the need for c; North .Xmeric levelopment knowledge about the applicability of the frameworks in cross-cultural settings, as well as the need for caution when applying the theoretical frameworks developed and tested in North America on other cultures. The findings from such research could also lead to the development of frameworks that make it possible to make cross-cultural comparisons. 37 W‘. u"; hi: YPL ra- CHAPTER III METHOD Participants The participants in this study were 411 male and 492 female junior and senior secondary (junior and senior high) school students from urban (p = 567) and rural (p = 336) Botswana, between the ages of 13 and 18 years (M = 16, SD = 1.10). The original number of respondents was 1308. Approximately one-third (p = 405) of the original sample was deleted from the study because of failure to complete all the instruments. An examination of descriptive statistics showed that participants who were excluded from the analyses because of missing data were fairly distributed by gender, region, form level, and level of involvement in sport. The participants in the study were recruited from 20 schools in 9 geographical districts. A map, located in Appendix A, illustrates from where these schools were recruited. The schools were selected because they represented urban or rural areas in different geographical regions. Rural areas in Botswana are labeled so because of the predominance of traditional settlement, that is settlement by clan or kinship, fewer amenities, and a very low level of industrial development compared to urban areas. They also tend to have less population compared to urban areas. Of the 903 participants retained in the study, 874 were Batswana, 28 Zambian, and 1 Zimbabwean. The number of respondents excluded from the analyses because of incomplete or partially completed inventories, by Sport Category, Region, Gender, and Form Level is contained Table 19 in Appendix J. The percentage of participants from each school by Gender is contained in Table 20 in Appendix K. 38 thr Tit plaj 50w Based on responses to Question 14, “What is your level of involvement in sport." the participants were categorized into 3 groups: competitive sport participants (p = 582), recreational participants (leisure physical activity participants) (p = 134), and non- participants in physical activity (p = 186). The Competitive group reported that they played sport at least 4 days a week and on most weekends during the school sport season. while the recreational group reported that they participated in sport at least 3 times a week. The non-participant group reported that they did not play sport at all and had not played sport and physical activity for at least 1 year. Of the 903 participants, 481 said they were members of a school athletic team and 292 played sport outside of school. Many of the participants who played sport outside of school also played sport in school. Sport participants took part in a variety of sports. The seven most p0pular sports were football (or soccer) (13%), volleyball (10.2%), softball (10.3%), badminton (8.7%), table tennis (7.2%), netball (6.3%), and track and field (3.1%). About 10% of the respondents played more than one sport. About 37% of the participants had dropped out of sport at some point during their school years. Thirty three percent of those who dropped out reported that they went back to the sport they dropped out of. The organization of both junior and senior secondary school sports competitions is the responsibility of Botswana Institutes Sports Association (BISA), an association run by teachers. BISA is a semi-autonomous association affiliated with the National Sports Council, which finances its activities including local and international competitions. The Association elects its board members annually. To ensure ease of organization of sports competitions, the association has regional committees and several organizing committees in each region. The association organizes track and field competitions during 39 the first school term and ball sports competitions, such as soccer, volleyball, softball, netball, and table tennis during the second term. Normally, BISA works jointly with national sports associations in the organization of international competitions involving schools. One of the greatest strengths of school sports is the gender equity in levels of participation. A typical public school in Botswana has soccer and netball teams and male and female teams for each popular sport, such as, volleyball, softball, table tennis, and track and field. BISA also organizes similar numbers of major competitions for male and female sports annually. Further, despite significant disparities in economic conditions between urban and rural environments, the government has ensured that educational and sport facilities at all public schools, regardless of location, are of the same standard. However, this might differ somewhat depending on the priorities of the school administrations and the value they place on sport. Among the major limitations of youth sports in Botswana, is the high number of unqualified coaches, excessive reliance on volunteer teachers or coaches, limited instruction, and poor quality and shortage of facilities even within school settings. As part of the teachers’ guidelines from the Ministry of Education, teachers are expected to coordinate at least one extra-curricular activity. This expectation accounts for the supply of current “coaches” in the schools. Many of them have little or no prior competitive sport experience, not to mention coaching education. Even with the guidelines from the Ministry of Education, fewer teachers are involved in the coaching or supervision of recreational activities, resulting in a shortage of coaches in the schools. Each school has a Sports Master (equivalent of Athletic Director) who is responsible for all the sport and recreational physical activities in the school. The sports master’s position is a senior 40 .\~ teacher position. Appointment is done by the department of Secondary Education the basis of one’s educational qualifications, teaching experience, and recommendations from the school Principal. Although most individuals who are appointed to the position are sports enthusiasts with some experience in coaching or coordination of sport activities, sports administration and coaching experience are not major requirements for selection. It is not uncommon to have individuals without a record of extensive involvement in sport appointed to the position. Given the shortage of coaches, many Sports Masters perform multiple functions, such as, coaching or coordinating one or more sports in addition to performing administrative duties. Since the Sports Master is the only individual who is paid for his extra curricular duties, he/she has greater accountability for the success or failure of the school sports program. The same could not be said about teachers/coaches. All this explains the intramural-like and at times haphazard organization of school sports in Botswana. This suggests that recreational physical activities have little adult support even within the schools, which in turn has an adverse effect on the development of habitual leisure physical activity among youths. Participants were also grouped into two form levels: junior forms (p = 502) and senior forms (p = 401). The typical age ranges for secondary school are 12-1 5 years for junior secondary school and 16-18 years for senior secondary school, with some little variability between urban and rural areas. Children from rural areas, especially smaller villages, tend to start school slightly later than their urban counterparts. This could be due to a number of factors, such as, the distance the children have to travel to get to school, parental role on when their child could start school, and overall awareness about the value of education. The average age for the participants in this study was 15.5 years (S_D 41 = 1.20) for junior forms and 16.6 years (SD = 0.65) for senior forms. The rationale for using form level as a unit of analysis was because of the possible differences between juniors and seniors in their sport experiences and the'way they get socialized into sport. Given that progression to senior school is based on performance on the junior certificate examination, there was likelihood that senior school students were a biased sample. Further, senior secondary school is the time at which some youths join local club teams and play at higher levels of competition. The possibility of participation at higher levels of competition among senior school students could have an impact on their levels of participation in sport and their motives for participation. Further, it is highly likely that teachers or coaches play a key role in the selection of competitive sport participants at both junior and senior level and that this role is heightened at senior level because of the nature and level of competition. A breakdown of the number of participants by Sport Category, Region, Gender, and Form Level is contained in Table 21 in Appendix L. Instrumentation A total of four inventories and a Background Information Questionnaire were administered to all participants in this study. The inventories were selected to measure the reasons children had for their participation in sport and the role of their social environment in their participatory behaviors. Further, the inventories measured the beliefs and cognitions, specifically perceptions of parental beliefs, perceived competence, and achievement motivation in sport and physical activity. All inventories were written in English as English is an official language as well as the medium of instruction at all secondary schools in Botswana. Setswana, the national language of Botswana, is the language of instruction from standard 1 through 4, which are the first four years of 42 primary school. English is the medium of instruction from standard 5 through college or university. Mound Informption Questionnpiyg The Background Information Questionnaire is a 34-item instrument designed by the principal investigator to collect the relevant demographic information about the participants. In addition to collecting vital demographic information, the questionnaire items were designed to gather information about level of involvement in sport, type of activities, and the history of involvement in sport and physical activity. A copy of the Background Information Questionnaire is contained in Appendix B. Reasons for Participation in Sport Questionnpire (RPSQ). The RPSQ is a 33- item scale containing a list of 26 possible reasons for participation in sport plus 6 additional items that pertained to favorite sports and enjoyment. This scale is an adapted version of the Sport Participation Questionnaire (Ewing & Seefeldt, 1988), which was based on the original Participation Motivation Inventory (Gill et al., 1983). The original inventory had a list of 30 possible reasons for participation in sport. The original inventory was re-worded by Ewing and Seefeldt (1988) in an attempt to improve the specificity of some items. One item, “I like the action” was deleted from the original list. Some items were combined into one new item. “I like the excitement” and “I like to compete” were combined to make “ For the excitement of competition.” “I like to compete” was also combined with “I like the challenge” to make “For the challenge of competition.” These modifications resulted in 26 reasons. Further, an “other” item (item- 27) was added to provide respondents with an option to list other possible reasons that might not appear on the list. 43 The reasons for participation in sport items were measured on a Likert scale of 1 (Not at all important) to 5 (Very important). Two items on the scale asked participants to name their favorite sport and why they wanted to play sport. Items pertaining to enjoyment (Items 30-32) were also measured on a Likert scale of 1 (Not at all) to 5 (Very much). The last item (Item 33) measured participants’ perceptions of their own ability in relation to others on a Likert scale of 1 (Very poor) to 5 (Very good). The RPSQ is contained in Appendix C. Sport Influence mestionnaire (SIQL To measure the impact of social influence on the sport participatory behavior of children, the SIQ was used. The SIQ is a 38-item questionnaire composed of items taken from the revised form of the Female Sport Socialization Questionnaire (Weiss & Knoppers, 1982), which assessed the perceived involvement of various social agents. Participants were asked to rate parents, siblings, best friends, teachers and coaches, and others in the following areas using a 4-point Likert scale: (a) Highly interested (4) to Uninterested (l) in sport in general (Items 1- 8). (b) Highly interested (4) to Uninterested (l) in the involvement of the participant in sport (Items 9-16), (c) Encourage at every opportunity (4) to Rarely encourage to play sport (1) (Items 17-25), and (d) Discourage at every opportunity (1) to Rarely discourage (4) from playing sport (Items 26-33). The scale has a fifth point (5) for the respondent to circle in case the person denoted did not exist or was absent from one’s life. The “other” social agents were deleted from the analysis, however, because over two-thirds of the participants did not provide responses to them. The few responses that were provided were not worthy of statistical interpretation for inference to the entire sample. The last 44 two items on the scale asked who of the relationships listed above encouraged or discouraged the participant the most. The SIQ is contained in Appendix D. Perceptions of Parental Beliefs Questionnaire LPPBQ). To assess the perceptions that children had about their parents’ beliefs regarding their involvement in sport, the first part of a two-part “What Do Your Parents Think Questionnaire” (Kimiecik et al., 1996) was adapted to include words that were oriented towards sport instead of fitness ability. The PPBQ is a 6-item inventory measured on a 7-point Likert scale, with anchors ranging from 1 (Not at All True) to 7 (Very True). Two items were added to the original 4 that Kimiecik and colleagues (1996) had on the first part of the questionnaire. The new items were: (a) My parents really want me to play sport and (b) My parents think I am really good at sports. The items described parental beliefs about the value, competence, and expectancies as they relate to the participation of their children in sport. The PPBQ is contained in Appendix E. Ia_leand Ejgo Orientations in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ). The TEOSQ (Duda, 1989; Duda & Nicholls, 1992) was developed to assess individual proneness for task and ego involvement in the sport achievement domain. The current TEOSQ (Duda & Nicholls, 1992) is a l3-item scale in which respondents are requested to think of when they felt successful in a particular sport and then indicate their agreement with items reflecting task or ego orientations. Examples of the items are, “I feel successful in sport when I work really har ” (task-orientation) and “I feel successful in sport when the others can’t do as well as me” (ego-orientation). Responses are based on a 5-point Likert scale with 1 = “strongly disagree” and 5 = “strongly agree”. Previous studies using a variety of samples have demonstrated that the task and ego orientation subscales have acceptable 45 in lo. ' e: mil internal consistency, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficient values of .79 and .81 for the task and ego subscales respectively (Duda & Whitehead, 1998). In addition to its high internal reliability, the TEOSQ has been shown to have acceptable test-retest reliability following a 3-week period (; = .68 and .75 for task and ego respectively; Duda, 1992). The two-dimensional structure of the TEOSQ has also been supported in research conducted across a variety of populations using factorial analysis (Duda et al., 1992; Li, et al., 1996; White & Duda, 1994). Cronbach’s alphas for the present sample were .76 for task and .64 for ego. The TEOSQ is contained in Appendix F. Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents LSPPA). Harter’s (1988) SPPA is a 45- item inventory designed to assess adolescent’s domain-specific judgments of competency or adequacy, as well as global perception of one’s worth as a person. Harter (1988) identified 9 separate subscales that comprise the SPPA: (a) scholastic competence, (b) athletic competence, (c) physical appearance, (d) social acceptance, (e) behavioral conduct, (f) job competence, (g) close friendship, (h) romantic appeal, and (1) global self- worth. The following is a brief description of each of the 9 domains from Harter’s (1988) manual. The Scholastic Competence subscale deals with the perception adolescents have of their competence or ability within the realm of scholastic performance, for example how the adolescent is doing in class-work, and how intelligent one feels one is. The Social Acceptance subscale concerns the degree to which the adolescent feels accepted by peers, feels popular, has a lot of fiiends, and feels likeable. Athletic Competence deals with perceptions of athletic ability and competence in sport. Physical Appearance is about the degree to which the adolescent is happy with the way he/she looks, likes his/her 46 body, and feels he/she is good looking. Job Competence deals with the extent to which the adolescence feels his/her job skills, readiness to do well at part-time jobs, and feels he/she is doing well at the jobs he/she has. Romantic Appeal concerns perceptions of romantic attractiveness to those in whom they are interested, those they are dating or would like to date, and whether they are fun and interesting in a date. Behavioral Conduct concerns the degree to which one likes the way one behaves, does the right thing, acts in accordance with social expectations, and avoids getting into trouble. Close Friendship is about the ability to make close friends that one can share personal thoughts and secrets with. Finally, Global Self-Worth constitutes a global judgement of one’s worth as a person, rather than domain-specific competence or adequacy. The SPPA employs a structured alternative format whereby adolescents are asked to first indicate which of the two teenagers they are more like and then choose the statement that is “sort of true” or “really true for them.” An example of the statements is, “ Some teenagers do not feel that they are very athletic BUT other teenagers feel that they are very athletic.” Scores for each item on the profile vary from 1 (low perceived competence) to 4 (high-perceived competence). Harter (1988) has demonstrated that the psychometric properties of the SPPA are sound. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients from four separate samples showed that all the 9 subscales had acceptable internal consistency (Harter, 1988). The coefficients had the following ranges for each subscale: .77 - .91 for scholastic competence, .86 - .92 for athletic competence, .77 - .90 for social acceptance, .79 - .85 for close friendship, .75 - .85 for romantic appeal, .84 - .89 for physical appearance, .58 - .78 for behavioral conduct, .55 - .93 for job competence, and .85 - .89 for self-worth. The behavioral 47 conduct and job competence subscales were subsequently revised because of low reliabilities. Several studies have also demonstrated the validity and reliability of the subscales (Horn & Weiss, 1991, Weiss & Chaumeton, 1992). Given the exploratory nature of the current study, the SPPA was used to assess youths’ sense of competence in all 9 domains. Cronbach’s alphas for the present sample ranged from .21 to .59. Procedure Permission to conduct this research was obtained from the University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS; Appendix G). Further permission to conduct the study in Botswana was obtained from the Office of the President in Botswana. A copy of the approval letter from Botswana is contained in Appendix H. Parents were not asked to sign consent forms for their children. This was not required in Botswana in situations where there is no violation of the privacy of parents and families. The educational authorities and school administrators are entrusted with the responsibility to make that judgment and give permission to conduct the research. Prior to data collection, the principal investigator obtained permission from school administrator and sports masters (athletic directors) to conduct the study in their schools. The investigator met with either the school principals or their assistants at every school to explain the need, purpose and procedures of the study, as well as to present letters of permission to conduct the research in the schools. Every school assigned a teacher or coach to work with the investigator in the data collection process at that school. The assigned individuals helped recruit participants, planned venues, made introductions, and in many cases distributed questionnaires. 48 pa l0 1 bee: Spor insui PPBQ instrm qufshc After the participants had provided verbal consent to participate in the study, the investigator explained the purpose and procedures of the study followed by the rights of all those involved. All participants were asked to read and sign the informed consent form prior to completion of the questionnaires. The participant consent form is provided in Appendix I. To guarantee anonymity of responses and easy identification of questionnaires by individual, participants were asked to use the first three letters of their first name and their date of birth as their identity numbers. Participants were administered the paper and pencil instruments at one sitting. In some cases the investigator had to administer the instruments at more than one session. The participants completed the instruments in a classroom or an assembly hall. The principal investigator was present at all data collection sites and moved around the room to explain the questionnaires to the participants. To reduce language and other barriers, the investigator fully explained how to complete each instrument and read through some of them, especially the SPPA because of its complexity. The investigator also provided the definitions of the different sport categories by which they would define themselves. Participants completed one instrument afier the other in the following order: Background Questionnaire RPSQ, SIQ, PPBQ, TEOSQ, and SPPA. In general, the participants were able to complete all instruments within 1 hour. Given the length of time it took to complete the questionnaires, some participants left the room half way through the process. Two university students agreed to serve as research assistants. The students received training on how to code and enter data on the SPSS program from the investigator. The students helped enter all the collected data. In addition to entering the data, the principal investigator did all the coding and creation of variables to eliminate inconsistencies. 49 Was 1' {Ohms Lilian CHAPTER IV RESULTS The results of this study are presented in the following order: reasons for participation in sport, perceived social influence, achievement goal orientations, and perceived competence. The presentation of results followed a similar format for all the dependent measures. First, descriptive analyses were provided. These were followed by tests of internal consistency and factor analysis where appropriate. Preliminary MANOVAs for the effect of form level, gender, and geographical location were provided for all measures. If no differences were found for any factor, data were collapsed across that factor for hypothesis testing. Finally, tests of the hypotheses were conducted. These were followed by examinations of univariate effects, effect sizes (ES), and post-hoe tests in the case of significant multivariate effects. ES was calculated using the pooled standard deviation of the post-hoc means. Given the unequal sample sizes, Pillai’s Trace criterion was used in the interpretation of results from the MANOVA tests. This decision was in line with Tabachnick and Fidell’s (1996) suggestion that this criterion is more robust when sample sizes are notably discrepant and the Box’s M tests for homogeneity of variance-covariance matrices are significant. Pakrticipant Motivation Descriptive Apa_lyai§ Means and standard deviations, as well as the percentages of responses in each category from people who rated very important to not important were examined to describe the reasons participants gave for their participation in sports. When ranked according to the order of mean importance, the top five reasons rated as important by the 50 entire sample were: to improve my skills, to get exercise, to learn new skills, to go to higher level of competition, and to win. Only four items fell below the mid-point of the scale: someone I admired played this sport, to use equipment/or facilities, to attract boys and girls attention, and to get out of the house. An examination of the percentage ratings for every reason confirmed that skill development reasons were cited by most youths as very important reasons for their participation in sports (to improve skills, to get to higher level of competition, and to learn new skills). To win was also considered very important by most participants. Many respondents also cited reasons that denote fitness and energy release as very important (to get exercise and to do something I am good at). The means and standard deviations for all the reasons for the entire sample are provided in Table 1. Table 1. Means Standard Deviation_s_ and Percentages by Reason for the Entire Sample 51 :: .z .32 x::w:.f. :2_?».J::!.r.. 2.- .\.~ ...... N2 3. m... .... 2.. ME 88.. 2.8 .8 8.. on .8 ...8 ...... 3 8 ma 2: N... 8.82... m3.8.8 8.8 8 .2. a... 8.... m... ...2 a... ...... mom 8.....8. 8:85.88 8.. 2. ...N 2... n: 2: 8.2 N... n. .....N 88 8.... .88... 8.8.8 . 888m .8 ..2 ...... m... ...2 a: .2 8d .82. 2.. 8. .8 28 ...: ...... ...... n2 ...... .2 :88 2.8.2 2. ..N ...N 3N ...: ......N 3. .... MS. 88... .5 5.; 2. oh .8 3a ha. ...... 8.2 E. 8.. EN 8. 25.. oh .8. SN 8.2 N... o8. .....N 8.. 8s 22.82 8 8:88 2.. e... . .... ...... m. . m ...2 ... .N ...... a... ...: 88... 38 .85 oh .: ...... ...2 S. is .....N 82 an 2 8. .83 88... ..8 98.8 .2 .2 m3 ...... a... 3m 2... 8.. mm... 888 =. .8. oh .2 ...N. ...: 8.2 8.8 8.8 on. 2.... 8....888 .o 828...:a 2.. .2. .... ..o E. 2.. ...mm ...... 8.. Sam 8 o. 8.88... 8a. a. .m. ...N. ...... ...2 BA mom ..m. 2.... ....8 .82 2.. 8. .N. N... ...: 3. ....N ......m ...... a... 8:88. .8. 8.. ... 8.8 2: 2.. m3 3... 8.. 88 8.62.58 .o 88:8 2.. 8... .... 8.. . ..o 2 new 3... ...... S... 8.5.W .88 a 8.8 .. 8.38.. 2. on ... o... .... no no.“ ...: on. a... 88. 3o :8 8 a... o... ... 3 no ...... 8.8 we. ...... 8... 8.2882 .88 8832 8... s ...m 3 8 SN 38 2.. a. ... a 88 .8 . 8.58.8 8 oh 8 .8 on an 2.. ... 3 .... em... ...; 2. .m 2 on .... .8. m8 8.. 8... 2:8 38 88. oh .m .... ...m 2 n... 98 8.. 8... 8:88.88 .82 .0...... 9 8 oh... 2 .... ...m 2a a: 8. mm... 8.88 .8 8. .N a... 2 ...m 2.. ...? 2... a... 8...... .8 82...... as .. 2 s as .x. 2 mm .2 8.8.0.8.. 8. 888. Batons: 2.359..— .zetomc: 28:09.: Eaton...— .._. a 82 3.8.5. .2858 8> 52 Br a“. Bi“ $01 In response to the first question concerning the most important reasons that Botswana youths gave for their participation in sport and physical activity, reasons denoting skill development (65.7%) were cited as the most important reasons for participation. Reasons denoting achievement and status, (45.8%) fitness and energy release (40.2%), and team affiliation (33.2%) were also considered important. Interestingly, when asked why they play sport (Item 29), many respondents (31.8%) cited enjoyment as the reason they play sport. Skill development (27.7%) was the second most important factor, followed by fitness (25%). To meet new friends (1.6%) and to travel (1%) received the lowest ratings. When asked how much they enjoyed playing organized sport (Item 30), 54% said they enjoyed it very much, 27% said a lot, 5.5% indicated somewhat, 5.8% said a little, and only 4% said they did not enjoy sport at all. With regard to the enjoyment of recreational sports, 34% said they enjoyed recreational sports very much, or a lot (33%). Only 7.5% did not enjoy playing recreational sport at all. Participants also rated their ability in their best sport compared to others: 33% thought they were very good, 32.7% good, 41.6% the same as others, 16.2% poor, and 2.9 % very poon When asked to check the main reasons for not participating in sport, the non- participants group cited the following as their major reasons for not participating: “I am not good enough” (26.3%), “I participate in other activities (16%), “I never had an opportunity to play even when I wanted to” (7%), “I am afraid of injuring myself” (5.4%), “I do not like sport (4.8%), and “My parents think playing interferes with school 53 .13“ PT1 II) work” (4.3%). Factor Analysis In order to reduce the number of variables for hypothesis testing, an EF A was conducted on the RPSQ. Principal component factor analysis with varimax rotation revealed four factors with eigenvalues greater than 1.00. One factor with 3 items was eliminated because it did not make conceptual sense. Eight items were eliminated because of cross-loadings higher than .40 and 2 were eliminated because their loadings were less than .40. This resulted in 13 items from the original 26 being eliminated from the scale. Therefore, three factors, accounting for 37.17% of the variance between scores, were retained. The three factors extracted were labeled “Competition/ Skill Reasons,” “External Reasons,” and “To do Something.” Reliability tests were conducted on the three factors using Cronbach’s alpha. The acceptable minimum coefficient was set at .60. Except for “To do Something”(g_= .53) the factors had adequate internal consistency. “Competition/Skill Reasons” was .75, and “External reasons” was .64. Because of the exploratory nature of this study, the “To do Something” factor was retained for use in subsequent analyses. The items and corresponding factor loading are contained in Table 2. 54 R Till Tl TIA To El. T111 F r 1'1 \I . Ti,- — Table 2. Items and Factor Loadimgs for the RPSQ Competition/ External To do Reasons Skill Reasons Reasons Something To Improve my skills .70 -- -- To win .65 -- -- To play as part of a team .60 -- -- To go to higher level of competition .67 -- -- For the challenge of competition .55 -- -- To be popular by being a good athlete -- .67 -- For the rewards, such as trophies and -- .57 -- recognition To feel important -- .56 -- My parents or close fiiends want me to -- , 53 -- participate To get exercise -- -- .73 To have something to do -- -- .57 To release energy -- -- .55 To do something I am good at -- -- .49 To be with my friends -- -- -- Someone I admired played this sport -- -- -- For the travel that goes with being on a -- -- -- team To stay in shape -- ' -- -- For the excitement of competition -- -- -- To learn new skills -- -- -- To meet new friends -- -- -- For the team spirit -- -- -- I like the coaches or teachers -- -- -- To have fun -- -- -- To use equipment/or facilities -- -- -- To attract boys/ girls attention -- -- -- To get out of the house -- -- ..- Eigenvalues 2.69 2.19 1.82 Percent Variance Explained 14.94 12.14 10.09 Cronbach’s alphas .75 .64 .53 -- Factor Loadings less .40 55 Preliminary Analyses Preliminary one-way MANOVAs were conducted to examine if there were any differences in Form Level, Gender, and Region among the three factors. The results indicated that there was a significant effect on “Competition/ Skill Reasons” and External Reasons”, but no effect for “To do Something.” Therefore, Gender, Form Level, and Region were additional factors used in the test of the first hypothesis concerning reasons for participation in sport. Hypothesis Testing The first hypothesis stated that Botswana youths participating in competitive sports and leisure physical activities have different reasons for participation in sport compared to those of non-participants. A 3 x 2 x 2 x 2 (Sport Category by Form Level by Gender by Region) MANOVA was conducted on the three RPSQ factors: Competition/Skill Reasons, External Reasons, and To do Something. Homogeneity of variance-covariance matrices, multicollinearity, normality, univariate and multivariate outliers, and linearity assumptions were examined. Results of the evaluation of these assumptions were satisfactory. Results from the multivariate test showed a significant effect for Sport Category x F orm Level interaction, Pillai’s Trace = .03, E (6, 1442) = 4.58, p< .0001. There was also a significant multivariate effect for Form Level by Gender by Region interaction, Pillai’s Trace = .02, E (3, 720) = 3.63, p< .01. An examination of univariate E-tests in the Sport Category by F orm Level interaction revealed significant effects for Competition/Skill 56 R1 Reasons, _E (2, 722) = 6.00, p< .003, and External Reasons, E (2, 722) = 4.28, p< .01. The same trend was found for the Form Level by Gender by Region interaction: Competition/Skill Reasons, _E (l, 722) = 10.14, p< .002, and External reasons, E (l, 722) = 4.85, p< .03, were significant. Means and standard deviations for all dependent variables by Sport Category, Form Level and Gender are contained in Table 3. MANOVA summary from the RPSQ is contained in Table 22 in Appendix M. 57 Table 3. Mpans and Standapd Deviations for all Dependent Variaples by Sport CategoL Form Level, Gender, and Region Juniors Seniors Urban Rural Urban Rural Variable M .52 M §D M ED M S_D Males Competition/Skill Competitive 4.38 .54 4.39 .62 4.37 .46 4.40 .62 Recreational 4.23 61 4.59 51 4.06 .93 3.87 82 Non-participant 4.05 1.00 3.95 1.02 4.18 .68 3.44 1.36 External Reasons Competitive 3.92 .82 3.98 .79 3.54 .84 3.84 .95 Recreational 3.93 .93 4.11 .76 3.14 1.17 3.43 1.30 Non-participant 3.54 1.00 3.77 .75 3.31 1.28 3.25 1.10 To do Something Competitive 3.74 .80 3.63 .73 3.59 .69 3.78 .68 Recreational ' 3.38 .65 3.56 .70 3.95 .74 3.66 .62 Non-participant 3.52 1.15 3.68 .58 3.30 .73 3.04 1.15 Females C ompetition/ Skill Competitive 4.18 .62 4.17 .72 4.18 .93 4.39 .53 Recreational 4.22 56 3 .92 .78 2.95 1.07 3.67 1.13 Non-participant 3.68 1.04 3 .55 .92 3.55 1.04 3.65 .79 External Reasons Competitive 3.98 1.00 3.79 .82 3.07 1.15 3.86 1.85 Recreational 4.13 .50 4.10 .64 2.25 1.02 3.16 1.32 Non-participant 3.64 1.13 3.51 .88 3.07 1.12 3.16 .94 To do Something Competitive 4.09 .71 3.67 .75 3.60 .98 3.80 .68 Recreational 3.45 1.21 3.58 .57 3.58 .66 3.76 .61 Non-participant 3.60 .88 3.37 .70 3.72 .73 3.4 .83 Post-hoe analysis of simple effects using Turkey WSD were conducted for the Sport Category by Form level interaction. In terms of within Form Level, junior forms in 58 the com; higher tr particip: compel. fomper indoor terns c = .671 L in the 5 lhnior l(/) H 8011;) £01“ the competitive (M = 4.28, S_D = .66) and recreational groups (M = 4.22, S_D = .67) had a higher mean score on Competitive/Skill reasons compared to junior forms in the non- participant group (M = 3.82, SD = 1.01). Q were .55 and .48 respectively. Seniors in the competitive group (M = 4.35, SD = .65) had a significantly higher mean on Competitive/Skill Reasons compared to seniors in the recreational (M = 3.48, S_D = 1.10) and non- participant groups (M = 3.65, S_D = .95). E_S equaled .99 and .88 respectively. In terms of comparison across Form Level, juniors in the recreational group (M = 4.22, S_D = .67) had a significantly higher mean on Competitive/Skill Reasons compared to seniors in the same group (M = 3.48, S12 = 1.10). ES equaled .42. Similar but smaller differences were found for the External Reasons’ factor. The junior forms in the competitive (M = 3.89, SD = .83) and recreational groups (M = 4.06, SD = .72) had a significantly higher mean than the junior forms in the non-participant group (M = 3.61, S_D = .99). ES equaled .22 and .26 respectively. In the senior forms, the competitive group (M = 3.64, SD = 1.36) had a significantly higher mean compared to the recreational (M = 2.88, S_D = 1.27) and non-participant groups (M = 3.16, S_D = 1.06). _S equaled .29 and .19 respectively. Within the recreational group, the junior forms (M = 4.06, S_D = .72), had a significantly higher mean compared to the senior forms (M = 2.88, SD = 1.27). _E§ equaled .59. Within the non-participant group, the junior forms I? = 3.61, SQ = .99), had a significantly higher mean compared to the senior forms (M = 3.16, S_D = 1.06). E_S equaled .22. These post hoc differences are illustrated in Figures 1 and 2. 59 ligure l. _..Jf.\n.:.:..~.Jr-:.C. v figure I 7.2. 21.1.42 TECH: K... ~ Figure 1. Competition/Skill Reasons by Sport Categog by Form Level Ilunior Competition/Skill . El $69M Compet Rec Non Sport Category Figure 2. External Reasonsb S on Cate o b Form level 5 § 4 . g 5,. .._MM, 15 3 ' :IJunior . t g 2 1 El Senior . G.) j “Av . all 1 0 Compet Rec Non Sport Category These results suggest support for the first hypothesis at the junior level that Botswana youths participating in competitive and recreational sports have different 60 reasons for competitiv tell as the Mt Gender by males and signitican 5.0 = .85 r Significan 991. Q e hisher me e'lualed .1 SCORES C01 fr reasons for participation in sport than non-participants. At the senior level the competitive sport participants separate themselves from their recreational counterparts as well as their non-participatory counterparts in terms of reasons for participation in sport. More follow up tests of simple effects were conducted for the Form Level by Gender by Region interaction effect. For the Competitive/ Skill factor, tests comparing males and females revealed that urban males in junior forms (M = 4.28, S1; = .72) had significantly higher mean scores compared to urban females in junior forms (M = 3.98, S12 = .85). ES equaled .19. Urban males in senior forms (M = 4.28, g = .61), also had significantly higher means compared to urban females in senior forms (M = 3.65, SD = .99). ES equaled .39. Rural males in junior forms (M = 4.37, S_D = .67) had significantly higher mean scores compared to rural females in junior forms (M = 4.08, E = .77). E_S equaled .20. Urban female juniors (M = 3.98, S_D = .85) had significantly higher mean scores compared to urban female seniors (M = 3.65, S12 = 1.12). ES equaled .17. For the External Reasons factor, urban males in senior forms (M =3.43, S_D = .99) had significantly higher mean scores compared to urban females in senior forms (M = 2.86 S_D = 1.16. ES equaled .27. Urban malejuniors (M = 3.81, E = .90) had significantly higher mean scores compared to urban male seniors. ES equaled .42. Similarly, rural male juniors (M = 3.97, SI_) = .78) had significantly higher mean scores compared to rural male seniors (M = 3.71, S_D = 1.04). _Ifi equaled .14. For the females, urban juniors (M = 3.86, SD = 1.02) had significantly higher mean scores compared to urban seniors (M = 2.86, SQ = 1.16). ES equaled .44. These post hoc differences are 61 illustrated} Figure 3. f l U i ... 14. _ 1, m 1* OD 6 I1“. 1 \f- ‘1‘). _mlTl\—~A«_~muUFh—~:v. v Figure 4 ......Cv.......~— ... illustrated in Figures 3 and 4. Figure 3. Competition/SE1 Regons by Form Level by Gender by Region 4.6 1 7.: 4.4 . 1 . m 4.2 + 9:3 I E ‘~ ”f"“’ * .9 4 Ijun-male : E Dsen-male E. 3.8 * . Ijun-fcmalc‘ 5 3.6 + ‘ Pm-fmla 3.4 ~ 3.2 ~ urban rural U) :: r__r _ ___ § I jun-male 33’ Cl sen-male 76 I jun-female L «E» U sen-ferrule H >< LL] urban rural 62 Descript sport an siblings mop involve “amour 11th \\ COmple PTOVide COU‘Cle Table -.‘ .\ 11:. 1.5%] 1' S1‘0: "WATS! Tfather Perceived Social Influence Descriptive Analfies To examine the impact of perceived social influence on level of participation in sport and physical activity, all participants were asked to rate the interest of their parents, siblings, close friends, and teachers/coaches on their participation on the SIQ. Further, participants were asked to rate their perceptions of their parent’s beliefs about their involvement in sport and physical activity on the PPBQ. m The items on the SIQ included “sports in general” “your sport involvement” “encouragement,” and “discouragement” in sports. Responses on the discouragement items were deleted from analysis because they were suspect in how respondents completed them due to how the anchors were arranged. Further evidence of this was provided in the low correlations between the discouragement items and the others. Correlations for the SIQ items are contained in Table 4. Table 4. Correlations for $10 Items Grouped by Area Item 1 2 3 1. Sport In General 2. Sport Involvement .80“ 3. Encouragement .69M .75“ 4. Discouragement -.O2 .01 .01 * * Correlation is significant at the .01 level. An inspection of the percentage of children who perceived at least moderate interest from a social agent and at least frequent encouragement revealed that teachers/coaches (73%) were perceived as the most interested, involved, and provided the 63 most en highest scores I percem 5.4% About ol‘pert the pel mean prom Table \ Scrlal Father Homer Older 3701116: leer S 36:1 M Ffitnd Ben Fe FR6nd TeaChe . ‘Gathe \ x“- \r! Ll’lln; most encouragement compared to other social agents. Close friends received the second highest percentage scores (61%), while older siblings received the lowest percentage scores (43%) in interest, involvement, and encouragement. An inspection of the percentage of participants who selected “no such person” in the SIQ revealed that about 15.4% of the participants had no fathers compared to 5.3% who said they had no mothers. About 26.5% said they had no older brothers and 23.7% had no older sisters. A summary of percentage of “no such person” is contained in Table 9 in Appendix N. A summary of the percentage scores for each social agent is provided in Table 5. A summary of the mean scores and standard deviations for each social agent for the entire sample is provided in Table 6. Table 5. Summary of the Percentage Scores for each Social Agent. Sports in General Involvement in Child’s Sport Encouragement Social H1 M1 SI UI HI M1 SI U1 EO FQ OC R Agent Father 36.7 17.5 12.6 14.4 32.2 19.0 16.9 14.1 32.0 24.5 18.4 9.1 Mother 22.8 21.2 27.4 20.3 26.0 27.6 19.4 17.6 28.8 26.7 17.2 19.2 Older Brother 41.6 10.5 6.4 3.0 34.2 13.1 8.9 4.9 36.0 13.7 11.1 7.8 Older Sister 24.1 15.3 14.8 9.5 25.2 13.6 13.1 9.5 21.6 15.2 12.0 10.7 Best Male Friend 57.7 13.5 6.6 4.1 49.9 16.9 9.1 4.9 41.6 18.8 12.6 8.5 Best Female Friend 38.6 20.2 13.5 10.7 42.4 20.2 14.2 9.1 33.7 20.5 15.1 12.8 Teachers/ Coaches 69.3 7.8 4.0 2.0 55.7 18.6 10.3 1.8 51.1 16.3 15.1 5.6 Notes: HI = Highly Interested, M1 = Moderately Interested, SI = Slightly Interested, UI = Uninterested, E0 = At Every Opportunity, FQ = Frequently, OC = Occasionally, R = Rarely. 64 lab Sup m 110 Old Old 865 865 Isa “‘35 P'CIC expéc Table 6. Means, Standard Deviations for Each Social Agent Sports in Involvement in General Child’s Sport Encouragement Support Person M SD M SD M S12 Father 2.50 1.46 2.41 1.46 2.38 1.49 Mother 2.35 1.21 2.53 1.22 2.54 1.27 Older Brother 2.23 1.72 2.36 1.77 2.15 1.70 Older Sister 2.04 1.58 2.06 1.61 1.90 1.16 Best Male Friend 3.02 1.45 2.68 1.45 2.70 1.46 Best female Friend 2.64 1.44 2.68 1.45 2.53 1.42 Teachers/Coaches 3.26 1.39 3.30 1.08 3.15 1.14 Four indices of social influence were derived from the SIQ, namely, parental influence, sibling influence, friend influence, and teachers’ and coaches’ influence. Tests of internal consistency indicated that all had acceptable Cronbach’s alpha levels, ranging from .76 (fiiends influence) to .86 (sibling influence). Perceptions of Parental Beliefs Questionnaire. Another index of social influence was derived from this measure. The index was the sum of all the items about participants' perceptions of parental beliefs about value, competence, and expectancies pertaining to their involvement in sport and physical activity. This index had a Cronbach alpha of .72. An examination of the mean values for each item revealed that participants had the. highest mean scores on Item 1 (M = 4.98, SQ = 1.87), which pertained to perceived sport value. They also had high scores on Item 4 (M = 4.72, SQ = 2.08), pertaining to positive expectancy level and Item 5 (M = 4.60, SD = 2.13), pertaining to perceived sport 65 competence. The lowest mean score was on Item 6 (M = 2.12, SQ= 1.76), pertaining to negative expectancy level. Concerning who of their parents had the most influence on their sports, 42% said it was their father, while 39.3% thought it was their mother. When asked who of their parents taught them the most about sports, 45% thought their fathers taught them the most compared to 27% for mothers. A summary of descriptive data for PPBQ items is provided in Table 7. The indices from both the SIQ and the PPBQ were used to answer questions about the relationship between perceptions of social influence of Botswana youths and their level of participation in sport and physical activity, as well as the second hypothesis. Table 7. Descriptive Dita for PPBQ Item 1. My parents want me to play sports 4.98 1.87 2. My parents think I am really good at sports 4.51 2.01 3. My parents think it is really important for me to be better at sports than other children are 4.20 2.13 4. My parents think it is really important for me to learn sports skills to get 13 m U better at them 4.72 2.08 5. My parents think 1 could be better at sports than I am 4.60 2.13 6. Sometimes, [wish that my parents did not want me to be so good at sports 2.12 1.76 Total 4.19 1.30 66 Preliminary Anflses Using F orm Level, Gender, and Region as independent variables, separate one- way MANOVAs were conducted on the four social influence (SIQ) indices: parental influence, close friends’ influence, sibling influence, and teachers’lcoaches’ influence. Significant effects were found for Form Level. Therefore, analyses involving SIQ indices included Form Level and Region, as separate factors. One-way analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was conducted to test the effects of Gender, Form Level, and Region on the PPBQ parental beliefs about value, competence, and expectancies of participation in sport. There were significant effects for Region and Form Level. Region and Form Level, therefore, were used for further analyses on social influence. Hypothesis Testing The second hypothesis stated that Botswana youths who participate in competitive sport and leisure physical activity perceive greater social influence than their non- participant counterparts. To test for this hypothesis, 3 x 2 x 2 (Sport Category by Form Level by Region) MANOVA was conducted on the four social influence indices from SIQ: parental influence index, sibling influence index, close friends’ influence index, and teacher’/coaches’ influence index. A similar 3 x 2 x 2 AN OVA was conducted to test for differences on the PPBQ. Homogeneity of variance-covariance matrices, multicollinearity, normality, univariate and multivariate outliers, and linearity assumptions were examined. Results of the evaluation of these assumptions were 67 satisfactory. MANOVA results yielded a significant main effect for Sport Category, Pillai’s Trace = .11, _E (8, 1100) = 7.87, p<.0001 and a significant interaction for Form Level by Region, Pillai’s Trace = .03, E (4, 549) = 4.69, p< .001. An examination of univariate effects for Sport category showed that parental influence, 1: (2, 552) = 21.70, p< .0001 . close friend influence, E (2, 552) = 6.94, p< .001, and teachers’/coaches influence, _E (2, 557) = 14.27, p< .0001 accounted for the significant main effect. Univariate effects for the Form Level by Region interaction showed that sibling influence, E (l, 552) = 11.12, p_< .001 and teachers’/coaches’ influence, E (1, 552) = 9.93, p< .002, accounted for significance effect. Means and standard deviations for all dependent variables by Sport Category, Region and. Form Level, and are contained in Table 8. MANOVA smnmary from the SIQ is contained in Table 24 in Appendix 0. 68 Table 8 Means and Standard Deviations for all Dependent Variables by Sport Category by mion by F orrn Level for the SIQ Juniors Seniors Urban Rural Urban Rural Variable M E M E M S_D M S_D Competitive Parents 2.80 .92 2.54 .90 2.54 .82 2.53 .87 Siblings 2.27 1.29 1.99 1.21 1.94 1.28 2.27 1.43 Close Friends 2.71 .91 2.70 .98 2.92 .78 3.16 .79 Teachers/coaches 3.31 1.00 3.40 .79 3.31 .85 3.64 .60 Recreational Parents 2.88 .81 2.29 .94 2.43 .84 2.48 1.04 Siblings 2.79 .68 1.93 1.21 1.26 1.03 2.27 1.39 Close-Friends 2.87 .76 2.02 .99 2.56 .82 2.88 1.10 Teachers/coaches 3.22 1.06 2.64 1.32 2.50 1.41 3.29 1.1 1 Non-participant Parents 2.05 1.03 2.33 .93 1.94 .98 1.77 .80 Siblings 1.97 1.26 2.01 1.23 1.82 1.20 2.13 1.34 Close-Friends 2.44 1.11 2.26 1.12 2.55 .92 2.61 1.10 Teachers/coaches 2.90 1.34 2.73 1.09 2.83 1.22 3.11 1.15 F ollow—up Tukey WSD post-hoe tests for the main effect for Sport category were conducted. Results indicated that the competitive (M = 2.58, E = .89) and the recreational groups (M = 2.48, SQ = .92) reported significantly higher perceptions of parental influence compared to non-participants (M = 2.01, S_Q = .96). The influence from close friends was significantly higher for the competitive group (M = 2.86, M) = .91) compared to the recreational (M = 2.58, SQ = .99) and non-participant groups (M = 2.47, E = 1.06). The competitive group (M = 3.42, SQ = .80) reported significantly 69 higher influence from teachers/coaches compared to the recreational (M = 2.87, S_D = 1.29) and non-participant groups (M = 2.90, S_D_ = 1.22). The SS ranged from .29 (competitive/ recreational comparisons on close friends) to .62 (competitive/non- participant comparison on parental influences). These results support the second hypothesis. Botswana youths participating in competitive sports reported a higher perception of social influence, specifically from parents, close friends, and teachers/ coaches compared to non-sport participants. The post hoc differences are illustrated in Figure 5. Figure 5. Social Influence by Sport Categog. I teachers/coaches . U U C . g ; .M_ML ,, t E :‘Iparents ‘ : ‘ Elfriends .2 ‘ O O m compet rec non-p 1 Sport Category Tukey WSD Post-hoc tests of simple effects were conducted for the Form Level by Region effect. A comparison within Form Level showed that rural seniors (M = 3.49, 70 SQ = .84) had significantly higher perceptions of teachers’/coaches’ influence compared to their urban counterparts (M = 2.99, S_D = 1.16). Rural seniors (M = 2.25, S_D = 1.40) also had significantly higher perceptions of sibling influence compared to urban seniors (M = 1.74, S_D = 1.23). A comparison across Form Levels showed that urban juniors (M = 2.20, S_Q = 1.25) had a significantly higher mean for sibling influence compared to urban seniors. Rural seniors (M = 3.49, S_D = .84) had a significantly higher mean for teachers/coaches influence compared to rural juniors (M = 3.26, SQ = .93). However, the 13_ were all quite low, ranging from .19 to .25. These post hoc differences are illustrated in Figure 6. Figure 6. Social Influence by Form Level by Region ' I siblings Social Influence f U teachers/coaches Urb-jun Rur-jun Urb-sen Rur-sen Form Level by Region ANOVA results from the 3 x 2 x 2 on the PPBQ showed a significant interaction for Sport Category by Form Level by Region, E (2, 860) = 7.86, p<.0001. Means and 71 standard deviations for the PPBQ index by Sport Category, Form Level, and Region are contained in Table 9. ANOVA summary from the PPBQ is contained in Table 25 in Appendix P. Table 9 Means and Standard Deviations for the PPBQ by Sport Category, Form Level, and Region Juniors Seniors Urban Rural Urban Rural Variable M E M S_D M S_D M S_D PPBQ Index Competitive 4.55 1.16 4.53 1.09 3.81 1.29 4.45 1.16 Recreational 4.49 1.46 4.31 1.33 3.25 1.19 4.03 1.24 Non-participant 3.64 1.56 4.51 1.11 3.67 1.29 3.29 1.40 Follow-up Tukey WSD post-hoes of simple effects were conducted. Within Form Level, rural senior youths in the competitive group (M = 4.45, SD = 1.16) had higher parental perception of competence, value, and expectancies compared to their urban senior counterparts (M = 3.81, SQ = 1.29). E_S equaled .26. For the recreational group, rural seniors (M = 4.03, SQ = 1.24) had a significantly higher mean compared to urban seniors (M = 3.25, S_D_ = 1.19). E_S equaled .25. No significant differences were found between rural and urban non-participant seniors. For the juniors, the rural non-participant group (M = 4.51, S_D = 1.11) had a significantly higher mean compared to their urban counterparts (M = 3.64, E = 1.56). E_S equaled .33. No significant differences were found between the rural and urban competitive juniors, as well as between the rural and 72 urban recreational juniors. Again the E_S were low for these differences. A comparison of Sport Categories within Form Levels showed that for the seniors, the rural competitive group (M = 4.45, S_D = 1.16) had a significantly higher mean on their perceptions of parental beliefs pertaining to their competence, value, and expectancies compared to the rural recreational (M = 4.03, S_D = 1.24) and the rural non- participant groups (M = 3.29, E = 1.40). E equaled .18 and .45 respectively. The urban competitive group (M = 3.81, S1; = 1.29) had a significantly higher mean compared to the urban non-participant (M = 3.3 7, S_D = 1.29) group. fi equaled .17. For the juniors forms, the urban recreational group (M = 4.49, &= 1.46) had a significantly higher mean compared to their urban non-participant counterparts (M = 3.64, E = 1.56). E_S equaled .28. These post hoc differences are illustrated in Figure 7. Figure 7. Perceptions of Parental Beliefs by Sport Categog by Form Level by Region. 5 4 g ,7 L i L M. ._ ‘ .g 3 j I Urb—jun ‘ 32 El Rur-jun . g i IUrb-sen 1 l 9391.159“. ‘ . l 0 l Compet Rec Non j Sport Category These results suggest further support for the second hypothesis that Botswana 73 youths participating in competitive and recreational sport have different perceptions than non-participants do of parental influence on their involvement in sport. These differences vary by Region and Form Level. Achievement Goarl Orientations Preliminary Analyses Several one-way MANOVAs were run on the task and ego subscales to test for the effect of F orm Level, Gender, and Region. Only significant Form Level differences were found on both task and ego subscales. Form Level was included in an examination of task and ego differences between sport categories. Research Questions The second research question was whether the goal orientations of Botswana youths are related to their reasons for participation in sport and leisure physical activity. To examine this question, Pearson’s r correlations were calculated on the three RPSQ factors and task and ego subscales. The results of this analysis showed that goal orientations are related to reasons for participation in sport and leisure physical activity. Significant positive relationships were found between the task orientation scale and Competition/Skill Reasons and To do Something. Competition/Skill Reasons and External Reasons had low but significant correlations with the ego. Correlation coefficients are provided in Table 10. 74 Table 10. Correlatiorys Among Task, Ego, and Reasons for Participation in Sport Factors Scale 1 2 3 4 1. Ego 2. Task .24* * 3. Competition/skill reasons .22“ .34" 4. External reasons .21M .19" .56M 5. To do something .08* .30" .43" .34“ ** Correlation is significant at the .01 level. * Correlation is significant at the .05 level. Hypothesis Testing The third hypothesis stated that Botswana youths who participate in competitive sport contexts and leisure physical activities have high task and high ego-goal orientations compared to non-participants. A 3 x 2 (Sport Category by Form Level) MANOVA was conducted on the task and ego subscales. There were significant main effects for both Sport Category, Pillai’s Trace = .04, E (4, 1550) = 8.68, p< .0001 and Form Level, Pillai’s Trace = .02, E (2, 774) = 9.68, p< .0001. For Sport Category, task accounted for the significant difference between groups, E (2, 775) = 17.14, p< .0001. For Form Level, both task, E (1, 775) = 8.79, p < .003 and ego, E (1, 775) = 5.68, p<.02, accounted for the significant difference between forms. Means and standard deviations for task and ego orientations by Sport Category and Form Level are contained in Table 11. MAN OVA summary from the TEOSQ is contained in Table 26 in Appendix Q. 75 Table 1 1 Means and Standard Deviations for Task and Ego Orientations by Sport Category and Form Level Junior Senior Variable M E M E Task Competitive 4.18 .53 4.39 .45 Recreational 4.03 .64 4.25 .53 Non-participant 3.96 .75 4.01 .86 Ego Competitive 3.60 .67 3.48 .68 Recreational 3.5 5 .50 3 .31 .83 Non-participant 3.52 .71 3.42 .93 Follow-up Tukey WSD post hoc tests for main effects were conducted for the main effect for Sport Category. Results revealed that the competitive group (M = 4.27, S_D = .51) had a significantly higher task-goal orientation mean score compared to the recreational group (M = 4.15, E = .59) and the non-participant group (M = 3.98, E = .80). The difference between the recreational and non- participant groups approached significance (p<.05). Thus, the fourth hypothesis was partially supported, but the effect sizes were low (.22 and .44, respectively). These post hoc differences are illustrated in Figure 8. Figure 8. Task Orientation by Sport Categog 4.3 4.2 ., 7W 7 ICompet A15 4'1 gIRec 11— 4 ‘EiClNon r” l 3.9 1 . 3.8 —3 Sport Category 76 Post hoc tests for Form Level revealed that the senior forms (M = 4.28, E = .60) had a significantly higher mean score on the task-goal orientation compared to the junior forms (M = 4.12, SQ = .60). _E_S_ equaled .13. Thejunior forms (M = 3.58, E = .66) had a significantly higher mean score on the ego-goal orientation compared to the senior forms (M = 3.44, S_D = .77). ESequaled .10. The post hoc differences are illustrated in Figure 9. Figure 9. Task and Ego by Form Level by Region The fourth hypothesis stated that the task-goal orientations of Botswana youths are positively correlated with enjoyment of organized sports leisure physical activities. The correlation between enjoyment of organized and recreational sport and ego-goal orientation will be lower than with task-goal orientation. Pearson’s r correlations were calculated on the task and ego orientation subscales and the enjoyment of organized and recreational sport items (30 & 31) from the RPSQ. The highest significant correlation 77 was between task orientation and enjoyment of organized sport (r = .36, p <. 001 ). The correlation between task and enjoyment of recreational sport (I = .10, p <. 001) was significant but very low. The correlations between ego-orientation and enjoyment of organized sport (_r: = .12, p <. 001) and enjoyment of recreational sport (g = .03) were very low. Therefore, these results give partial support to the fifth hypothesis. ‘ Perceived Competence Preliminfl Analyses In preliminary analysis tests of internal consistency of Harter’s (1988) SPPA subscales, the coefficient alphas ranged between .21 and .59. Therefore, the original 9 factors suggested by Harter were considered unreliable for use with this particular sample and a factor analysis was deemed necessary to determine reliable factors for analyses with this instrument. Exploratory factor analysis. An EF A was conducted on the original 9 factor scale specified by Harter (1988). Principal component factor analysis with varimax rotation yielded 14 factors with eigenvalues greater than 1.00. A closer look at the scree-plot revealed that the elbow point came after the sixth factor, therefore only 6 factors were retained. Of the original 45 items, 24 items with factor loadings lower than .30 or with high loading on more than one factor were eliminated from the scale. The final factor structure had 6-factors with a total of 20 items, which accounted for 49.9% of the overall variability in scores. The scree-plot is contained in Figure 13 in Appendix R. The 14- factor solution with varimax rotation is contained in Table 27 in Appendix S. 78 The modified scale seemed to have sensible structure that even resembled most of Harter’s original factors. However, the Cronbach’s alphas were still disappointing, ranging fi'om .31 to .67. This six SPPA factor solution is provided in Table 12. Table 12 Factor Structure for the 6 Factors from the SPPA Items 1 2 3 4 5 6 Body image .78 -- -- -- -- -- Perception of physical appearance .72 -- -- -- -- -- Feelings about own looks .63 -- -- -- -- -- Feelings about self .56 -- -- -- -- -- Ability to stay out of trouble -- .74 -- -- -- -- Doing or not doing things you -- .71 -- -- -- -- shouldn’t do Determining right from wrong -- .53 -- -- -- -— Acting accordingly -- .49 -- -- -- -- Feelings about own looks -- -- .60 -- -- -- Ability in class-work -- -- , 56 -- -- -- Romantic appeal -- -- , 5 3 -- -- -- Feelings about the way one acts -- -- .49 -- -- -- Liking or not liking the way you are -- -- -- .63 -- -- Feelings about looks -- -- -- .53 -- -- Social acceptability -- .. -- .51 -- -- Friendships -- -- -- -- .67 -- Ease of making friends -- -- -- -- .67 -- Ability to make close friends -- -- -- -- .64 -- Ability to do at all kinds of sports -- -- -- -- -- .81 Ability to do part-time job -- -- -- -- -- .46 Eigenvalues 4.87 2.44 1.83 1.71 1.55 1.31 Percent Variance Explained 17.7 8.89 6.68 6.22 5.64 4.76 Cronbach’s alpha coefficients .67 .54 .47 .56 .38 .31 «Factor Loadings less than .30. Given the disappointing Cronbach’s alphas for the modified factors, a test of internal consistency was conducted using the original 45 items as one dimension, with an 79 option to show alphas when items were deleted. Nine items were retained and had a Cronbach’s alpha of .75. An EFA was conducted on the 9 items. Principal component factor analysis with varimax rotation revealed 2 factors with eigenvalues greater than 1.00. explaining 47% of the variance between scores. The extracted factors were labeled Physical Appearance and Self-worth and closely resembled these factors as stated in Harter’s (1988) original model. The factors had adequate internal consistencies of .67 (Physical Appearance) and .66 (Self-worth). However, disappointingly, athletic competence was not an extracted factor. A summary of the factor structure is presented in Table 13. The scree-plot is presented in F igurel4 in Appendix T. Table 13. Factor Structure for the Final 2 Factors Extracted from the SPPA Item Factor 1 Factor 2 Physical App. .76 -- Physical App. .70 -- Physical App. .69 -- Self-worth .63 —- Physical App. -- .69 Self-worth -- .67 Self-worth -- .63 Self-worth -- .59 Scholastic Comp. -- .57 Eigenvalue 3 .02 1 . 19 % Variance Explained 3 3 .59 13.22 «F actor Loadings less than .30 A first-order CFA was conducted on the 9 items using Amos 3.61 (Arbuckle, 1997), to determine if the 2 factor structure could be confirmed. Correlations among the 9 items were used as the basis for the CFA. Correlations among the 9 items are contained 80 in Table 28 in Appendix U. An examination of the global indices of fit revealed a small chi-square, x2 (26, p = 823) = 2.77, p <.ooo1. The global fit indices reached the acceptable level of good fit (GFI = .98, AGFI = .97, NFI = .94, CFI = .96, TLI = .95). The RMSEA was .05. Therefore, the two-factor solution from the EFA was not only sensible, but it was also confirmed. The two factors were used in further analyses on perceived competence. Prelimina_ry MANOVAs. To examine if there were any Gender, Region or Form Level differences on Physical Appearance and Self-worth, preliminary one-way MANOVAs were conducted. There was a significant effect for Region and Form Level. Therefore, Region and Form Level were included in further analyses on self-perceptions of children. Research Questions The third research question was whether the self-perceptions of competence of Botswana youths were related to their reasons for participation in sports and leisure physical activities. Pearson’s correlation coefficients were used to answer this question, using Competition/Skill Reasons, External Reasons, To do Something, Physical Appearance and Self-worth. The results showed significant but extremely low positive relationships between Physical Appearance and Competition/Skill Reasons (1; = .07) and External Reasons (; = .07). Curiously, Self-worth was significantly but negatively correlated with Competition/Skill Reasons (r = -.l2). 81 Hypothesis Testing The fifth hypothesis stated that Botswana youths who participate in competitive sports and leisure physical activities have higher perceived competence than non- participants. A 3 x 2 x 2 (Sport Category by Region by Form Level) MANOVA was conducted on Physical Appearance and Self-worth. Homogeneity of variance-covariance matrices, multicollinearity, normality, univariate outliers, and linearity assumptions were conducted. Results showed a significant effect for Sport Category, Pillai’s Trace = .03, E (4, 1610) = 4.88, p<.001, and Region, Pillai’s Trace = .03, E (2, 804) = 9.58, p<.0001. An examination of univariate effects for Sport Category showed that Self-worth, E (2, 805) = 9.68, p<.0001 accounted for the effect. For Region, it was Physical Appearance, E (1, 805) = 18.99, p<.0001, that accounted for the effect. MANOVA summary from the SPPA is contained in Table 29 in Appendix U. Post-hoc analyses of main effects were conducted using Tukey WSD procedure. For Sport Category, recreational (M = 15.55, S_Q = 3.90) and non-participant groups (M = 15.56, SQ = 3.48) had significantly higher perceptions of Self-worth compared to the competitive group (M = 14.44, S_D = 3.58). ES equaled .15 and .16 respectively. For Region, results showed that rural youths (M = 12.09, S_D = 3.25) had significantly higher perceptions of Physical Appearance compared to urban youths (M = 11.08, SQ = 3.39). _E_S equaled .15. These results did not support the sixth hypothesis. Although there was an effect for Sport Category, that effect was only for Self-worth, and'it was the opposite of the hypothesized difference. Botswana youths who participate in competitive sport had 82 lower Self-Worth compared to the recreational and non-participant groups. These effects must be viewed with caution because of low effect sizes. Means and standard deviations for the dependent variable by Sport Category are presented in Table 14. Means and standard deviations for the dependent variable by Region are presented in Table 15. The post hoc differences are illustrated in Figure 10 and 11. Figure 10. Self-worth by Sport Categmr 16 i 15.5 i E 15 j , I $ ICompet ! % 14.5 “ 'Rec 1 U) l 14 Non 13.5 Sport Category Figure 11. Physical Appearance by Region { 12.5 8 i g 12 « l is. i IUrban l “a “5 iEJRural 7 ‘9. . “*"fl 3 11 J 9- ‘ 10.5 ~ ‘ Region 83 Table 14 Means and Standard Deviations for Dependent Variables from the SPPA by Sport Categopy Physical Appearance Self-worth Category M SD M SD Competitive 11.74 3.35 14.44 3.58 Recreational 11.55 3.21 15.55 3.90 Non-participant 1 1.74 3 .41 15.56 3.48 Table 15 Means and Standard Deviations for Dgndent for the SPPA by Regi_o_r_r Physical Appearance Self-worth Region M SD M E Urban 11.08 3.39 14.82 3.53 Rural 12.09 3.25 14.87 3.71 Discriminant Function Analysis The fourth research question concerned the extent to which reasons for participation in sport and leisure physical activities, social influence, achievement motivation, and perceived competence of Botswana youths help differentiate between competitive sports participants, participants in recreational sports, and non-participants. To answer this question, a Discriminant Function Analysis (DA) was performed using Competitive/Skill Reasons, External Reasons, Parental Index, Sibling Index, Close Friend Index, Teachers/Coaches Index, PPBQ Index, task and ego subscales, and Self- worth as predictors of membership in the three sport categories. Only the factors that 84 yielded significance in the previous multivariate analyses were included in this analysis. Of the original 903 cases, 480 were excluded from the analysis because of missing data. Evaluation of assumptions of linearity, normality, homogeneity of variance-covariance matrices, linearity, and multicollinearity revealed that these assumptions have been met. Two discriminant functions were extracted, with a combined x2 (20) = 123.78. p< .0001. After removal of the first function there was still strong association between Sport Category and the predictors, x2 (9) = 20.25, p< .02. The first function had an eigenvalue of .28, and accounted for 85% of the variance between groups, while the second function had an eigenvalue of .05 and accounted for 15% of the variance between groups. An examination of functions at group centroids and the territorial map revealed that the first function maximally separates the competitive group from the recreational and non-participant groups, with the recreational group falling between the competitive and non-participant groups. The second function separates the recreational group from the competitive and non-participant group. Factors that had the highest loadings on the first function were Competition/Skill Reasons (.44), Teachers/Coaches influence (.34). and PPBQ Index (.32). These factors also had the largest absolute correlations with Function 1. Factors that had high loadings and largest correlations with Function 2 were Parental influence (.69) and task orientation (.56). The structure matrix and discriminant function coefficients are contained in Table 16. An examination of the classification function coefficients revealed that the competitive group had higher coefficients on Competition/Skill Reasons, 85 teachers’/coaches’ influence, and External Reasons compared to the recreational and non- participant groups. The recreational group had higher coefficients on parental influence and task goal classification compared to the competitive and non-participant groups. In summary, the competitive group differs from the recreational and non- participant groups in Competition/Skill Reasons, teachers’/coaches’ influence, and External Reasons for participation in sport. Along this dimension are perceptions of parental beliefs, friends’ influence and self-worth. The second dimension relates to parental influence and task orientation. Recreational participants scored higher on this dimension compared to the competitive and non-participant groups. The mean differences associated with the dimensions give support to the differences between sport categories. Means, standard deviations and classification coefficients are contained in Table 17. The fifth question asked if the reasons for participation in sports, social influence, achievement motivation, and perceived competence of Botswana youths are related to their level of involvement in sport. An examination of the DA and correlations reveal that these factors, except for perceived competence, are significantly related to the involvement of Botswana youths in sport and physical activity. Correlations among the predictors are contained in Table 18. 86 Table 16 Structure Magix and Discrimiryant Function Coefficients Function 1 Function 2 Predictor S C S C Competitive/ Skill Reasons .71 * .44 -. 15 -.3 7 PPBQ Index .64* .32 .27 .09 Teachers/Coaches Influence .5 1 * .34 -.32 -.56 External Reasons .51 * .16 -.16 -.11 Close Friend Influence .33"' .06 .12 .22 Ego .23* .07 -.05 .00 Sibling Influence . 12* -.l l -.05 -.01 Parental Influence .48 .26 .67* .69 Task .32 -.11 .41” .56 Self-worth -.34 -.32 .04 .09 S = Structure Matrix C = Standardized Discriminant Function Coefficients *Largest absolute correlation between each variable and any discriminant function 87 “Como—ituoo 60:03 :Oflmowfimmdfiv 5 33m- mod 3.: 3mm- Enm N52 on; Ed 3.: stokfiom 3% R. sum 3.“ 3.. m? e? 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B. 88:3 355 .4 a. ...... 3338 8 eh .m 8. 288m .55me .m _Eme>€&eeo ._ .2 : E a w e e m e m m _ .9285 3:582 «co—Eamon 05 _wimaoE/x macaw—8.80 M: 033. 89 Summary of finding Reasons for participation in sport: The top five reasons that participants gave for their participation in sports were: to improve skills, to get exercise, to learn new skills, to go to higher level of competition, and to win. Not being good enough, lack of playing opportunity, participation in other activities, and fear of injury were cited as the t0p reasons for dropping out of sports. Competition/ Skill reasons and External Reasons were important predictors of level of participation in sport and leisure physical activity, although this depended on Form Level: 1. Juniors in the competitive and recreational groups had higher scores on Competitive/Skill and External reasons than non-participant juniors. 2. Seniors in the competitive group had higher scores on Competitive/ Skill and External reasons than seniors in the recreational and non-participant groups. 3. Juniors in the recreational group had higher scores on Competitive/Skill and External reasons than seniors in the same group. 4. The non-participant juniors had higher scores on External reasons than non- participant seniors. Participant motivation among Botswana youths was also predicted by an interaction of Form Level, Gender, and Region: 1. Urban males in both junior and senior forms had higher scores on Competitive/Skill and External reasons than their female counterparts. 2. Rural males in junior forms had higher Competition/Skill reasons compared to rural females in junior forms. 3. Rural male juniors had higher External reasons compared to rural male 90 seniors. 4. Urban juniors had higher scores on Competition/Skill and External reasons compared to urban seniors. Social Influence: Teachers/coaches were rated as the most interested, the most involved, and the most encouraging of the four social agents. Close friends were ranked second, followed by older siblings and parents. Fathers were perceived as having more influence on the participation of Botswana youths in sports compared to mothers. 1. Participants in the competitive and recreational groups perceived higher parental influence compared to non-participants. 2. The competitive group also had higher perceptions of close-friends’ influence compared to the participants from the recreational and non-participant groups. 3. The competitive group had higher perceptions of teachers’/coaches’ influence compared to the recreational sport participants and non-participants. There were also Form Level by Region interaction effects for social influence: 1. Rural seniors had higher perceptions of teachers’/coaches’ influence compared to urban seniors. 2. Rural seniors had higher perceptions of sibling influence compared to urban seniors. 3. Urban juniors had higher perceptions of sibling influence compared to urban seniors. 4. Rural seniors had higher perceptions of teachers’/coaches’ influence compared to rural juniors. In addition, participants’ perceptions of parental beliefs pertaining to their competence, 91 value, and expectancies in sport had a significant effect on their level of involvement in sport. This effect also depended on Form Level and Region: 1. Rural seniors in the competitive group had higher perceptions of parental perceptions of competence, value, and expectancies pertaining to their sports compared to their urban senior counterparts. Rural seniors in the recreational group also had higher scores on this factor compared to urban seniors in the same group. Rural non-participant juniors had higher scores on this factor compared to their urban counterparts. Rural seniors in the competitive group had higher scores compared to rural seniors in the recreational and non-participant groups. Urban seniors in the competitive group had higher scores compared to the urban non-participant seniors. Urban juniors in the recreational group had higher scores compared to the urban non-participant juniors. No significant differences were found between the rural and urban juniors in the competitive and recreational groups, as well as between the rural and urban seniors in the non-participant group. Task and ego goal orienpations: Results from the task and ego goal orientations showed a relationship between goal orientations of Botswana youths and their reasons for participation in sport. 1. Participants in competitive sport had higher task-goal orientation than their recreational and non-participant counterparts. 92 The groups did not differ in ego goal orientation. Form Level differences revealed that seniors had higher task-goal orientation compared to juniors, while juniors had higher ego-goal orientation compared to seniors. Task orientation significantly correlated with enjoyment of organized sport and lowly correlated with enjoyment of recreational sport Perceived competence: A test of Harter’s (1988) original model of perceived competence revealed that the model did not fit the sample used in the current study. Model modification yielded two factors, Physical-appearance and Self-worth. The two- factor structure was confirmed in a CFA. 1. The results showed significant but low positive relationships between Physical appearance and Competitive/Skill reasons and between Physical appearance and External reasons. Self-worth had significant but low negative relationship with Competition/Skill reasons. Curiously, non-participants and recreational sport participants had higher Self- worth compared to the competitive group. Rural youths had higher perceptions of Physical appearance compared to urban youths. A discriminant function analysis showed that the competitive group differed from the recreational and non-participant groups in Competition/Skill and External reasons for participation, teachers’/coaches’ influence, friends influence, perceptions of parental beliefs about own sport involvement, and Self-worth. Parental influence and task 93 orientation seemed to separate the recreational group from the competitive and non- participant groups. 94 CHAPTER V DISCUSSION Most research suggests that the involvementof youths in sport is related to their motives for participation, the way they are socialized into sport, their achievement goal orientations, and their perceptions of competence. Hence, a relationship would be expected between these psychological constructs and the level of involvement of Botswana youths in sport and physical activity. The primary purpose of this study was to examine the relationship among participant motivation, social influence, achievement motivation, perceived competence and the involvement of Botswana youths in sport and leisure physical activity. The choice of a Botswana sample was based on the notion that the results would broaden the knowledge base regarding the nature of the relationship among these psychological correlates and the level of involvement of youths from diverse cultures in sports. Further, it was h0ped that the findings could help inform the development of sport programs for youths in Botswana. The little consideration given to the value of participation in sport and physical activity in Botswana accounts for the dearth of literature on this subject. The growing public interest in sport and the on-going plans to introduce physical education into the schools create the need to generate empirical evidence that would help all stakeholders in the development of a policy for youth development and education to make informed decisions. The results of this study supported the hypothesis that Botswana youths involved in competitive sport and leisure physical activity have different reasons for participation in sport compared to non-participants. Competition/Skill Reasons and External Reasons were significantly related to the level of involvement of Botswana youths in sport and 95 physical activity. Although this study predicted a main effect for Sport Category on reasons for participation in sport, the results showed that this effect depended on the Form Level of participants. The results showed that at the junior level, the competitive and recreational groups differed from non-participants in their importance of the ratings of the participation motives. At the senior level, differences were found between the competitive and recreational group, while the recreational group did not differ from the non-participant group. The significant Form Level differences suggest that at the junior level, the motivation for playing competitive sport is not very distinct from recreational sport. However, as youths move to senior forms their motivation for playing competitive sport is much stronger compared to recreational sport. This makes sense given that youths who continue playing competitive sport after secondary school normally begin the transition to the national sport leagues during their senior years. It is likely that at this stage, the motives for participation, specifically competition and skill improvement, as well as the influence of external factors become stronger for those in competitive sport compared to those in recreational sport. The organization, prominence, and expected external rewards associated with participation in sport at senior level might account for the Form Level differences. These findings support Brodkin and Weiss’s (1990) suggestions that there are developmental differences in the motives for youth’s participation in sport. Another important feature of this study is the similarity of its descriptive findings to findings from previous studies conducted in the United States (Ewing & Seefeldt, 1988; Gill et al., 1983; Klint & Weiss, 1986, Sapp & Haubenstricker, 1978). Botswana youths cited reasons such as, to improve skills, to learn new skills, to go to a higher level 96 of competition, to get exercise, to win, and to play as part of a team as very important. Similar reasons were cited by United States youths as highly important for their participation in sport (Gill et al., 1983; Ryckman & Hamel, 1992). An examination of the means showed that the ratings for reasons cited as very important by Botswana youths were the same or slightly higher than the ratings for the same reasons by the United States samples in Ewing and Seefeldt’s (1988) study. This suggests that reasons related to skill development, competition, and team affiliation are generally considered as important motives for participation by most youths across cultures. It is also worth noting that, although Botswana youths come from a culture that does not place as much value in participation in competitive sport as the United States culture, the youths attach similar importance to their reasons for participation in sport as youths in the United States. Although fun has been identified as one of the most important reasons for participation among North American youths (Ewing & Seefeldt, 1988; Gill etal., 1983), it was one of the lowest rated reasons in this sample. While this does not necessarily suggest that Botswana youths do not participate in sport for the fun associated with it, it might suggest that they did not associate high ratings for reasons related to competition, skill development, and external factors with similar ratings for fun. This could be based on the fact that the Setswana (the national language of Botswana) equivalent for “playing to have fun” denotes the triviality of one’s sport participation. The fact that the participants cited enjoyment as a reason why they play their favorite sport suggests that having fun could be an important reason for participation after all. Compared to North American studies (Gill et al., 1983; Gould et al., 1985; Rykman & Hamel, 1993), not many reason factors were extracted from this study. These 97 differences could be an indication of the cultural differences in the level of importance attached to some reasons for participation. For instance, friendship related reasons were not cited among the top 15 reasons for participation by this sample, yet these reasons have emerged in the top 10 list for United States youths (Gill et al., 1983; Gould et al., 1985; Rykman & Hamel, 1993). It is also not surprising that “to attract boys/girls attention” and “to get out of the house” were rated lowest. Ratings on “to attract boys/ girls attention” might be a reflection of the cultural views on open discussions by youths about attraction between boys and girls. The fact that this reason was rated very low in Ewing and Seefeldt’s (1988) study might also suggest that American youths think less about playing sport for purposes of showing off to people of the opposite sex than for other reasons. Playing sport because one wants to get out of the house would make little sense for urban and rural environments in Botswana because people spend much time outdoors anyway. For non-sport participant youths in Botswana, it seems perception of low ability, participation in other activities, lack of playing opportunity, and fear of injury, as well as parental perceptions of the interference of sport with schoolwork are some of the major reasons that keep them from participating in sport. These views could also be related to the lack of physical education classes in Botswana public schools, especially at primary (elementary) level. This also suggests a need to further examine the socializing influences of the school and the family environment on non-participants. In sum, results pertaining to participant motivation among Botswana youths lend support to findings from previous studies conducted in the United States (Brodkin & Weiss, 1990; Klint & Weiss, 1986; Trevor, 1990). Competition/Skill and External 98 Reasons were identified by these studies as very important factors that influence the participation of youths in sport. Results from the DA in the present study further supported these findings. The first function, which had high loadings on Competition/Skill Reasons, separated the competitive group from the recreational and non-participants groups. Results of the study also indicated a significant relationship between social influence and the level of involvement of Botswana youths in sport and physical activity. Specifically, youth in competitive sport reported higher perceptions of teacher/coach and close-friends’ influence compared to recreational and non-sport participants. The favorable ratings for teachers/coaches are not surprising, given the prominent role that the school plays in the overall sport and physical activity of youths in Botswana. Organized sport and games are almost the exclusive responsibility of the schools. This was demonstrated by the fact that most respondents reported that they started playing adult supervised sport when they were 14 years old. The mean age for first participation in adult supervised sport was 12 years, which is the age at which most children enter junior secondary school. An examination of the effect sizes reveals little disparity in the strength of the effect for teachers/coaches between the competitive group and the recreational group. This suggests that the role of teachers/coaches as socializing agents is recognized by all youths in the study including the non-participants. It is worth noting that because of the organizational structure of school sport in Botswana, teachers/coaches are likely to be playing a key role in the selection of the competitive group. This serves as a logical explanation for the high ratings for teachers’lcoaches’ influence in the competitive group. The role of friends is in line with findings from the youth sport literature in the 99 United States (Brown et al., 1989; Greendorfer & Lewko, 1978). Since early sport and physical activity experiences of Botswana children seem to be the result of the initiative of an individual child, the role of close friends in this involvement should be significant. Findings from this study suggest that although recreational participants perceived less influence from close friends compared to the competitive group, this difference was very small. One interesting finding was that perceptions of parental influence were significantly higher for the competitive and recreational groups compared to non- participants. Further, although parental influence is generally perceived to be low in this population, there was a bigger difference in the perceived role of parental involvement in sport between the competitive group and the non-participants. That disparity was smaller between the recreational and competitive participants. Typically, Botswana parents do not play active games with their children. This might be changing among the younger generation of parents. It might also vary depending on whether the parents are from rural or urban areas. Therefore, it is safe to surmise that in a context where parental socialization into sport is generally perceived low, the smallest amounts of perceived parental interest could make the difference between participation and lack of participation in sport. However, the overall perception of parental influence was still very low compared to the United States samples (Brustad, 1996). Parents are generally perceived as having little involvement in children’s sport in Botswana. They are less likely to go and watch their children play, tend to ask few questions about the involvement of their children in sport, and are perceived as passive at best. Despite this perceived indifference among 100 parents, this study suggests that Botswana youths perceive differences in the role of mothers and fathers. When asked about parental role, Botswana youths felt that their fathers influenced them the most and taught them the most about sport compared to their mothers. This could be echoing gender differences in the way males and females are socialized into sport. From early ages, males had more opportunities for participation in 3 outdoor physical activities or games. Traditionally, girls were not expected to play sport and parents and peers generally discouraged those who did. Consequently, fathers are most likely to have some interest and knowledge about sport compared to mothers. All these factors possibly account for the difference in the level of influence from mothers and fathers. Concerning the overall little influence from parents in Botswana, this probably has its basis. on the cultural attitudes to sport and games. Until recently, sport has been viewed as trivial and having very little role in the overall development of a child. Parents or the community in general did not have much interest or knowledge about sport. Despite the expectation that the existence of gender role stereotypes in Botswana society would heighten the way young males and females become socialized into sport, no gender differences were found. The lack of gender differences might be explained by the organizational structure of sport and games in the schools, where the current data were collected. As noted before, there is some level of gender equity in sport participatory patterns at public schools. However, this does not completely eliminate gender disparity in the opportunity and rewards for participation. The current data do not explain the percentage of youths who have the opportunity for participation in sport by gender, region, or geographical location and the percentage of those who are left out. 101 Given the difficulty of speaking to gender differences on the basis of the current data, there is a need to conduct nation-wide research to determine the role of gender and other factors in sport participatory patterns of youths. These results provide support for studies that showed significant relationships among parental influence, peer influence, and coaches’ influence and the sport participatory patterns of youths in the United States (Brustad, 1993a, 1996; Eccless & Harold, 1991; Jacobs & Eccles, 1992). Further, the results showed that Botswana youths’ perceptions of parental beliefs about value, competence, and expectancies pertaining to their participation in sport were related to their level of involvement in sport. This study provides support to some of the findings by Kimiecik et al. (1996) concerning the effect of the perceptions of parental beliefs on the involvement of youths in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. In other words the results of this study add more support to the family influence model proposed by Kimiecik and others. However, current findings suggest there was a culturally based influence on this relationship. It seems the rural environments, which typically have small, close-knit communities, exert greater influence compared to urban environments. Rural environments tend to emphasize co-operation, kinship relations and co-operation and greater respect for parents and elders, while urban environments are characterized by greater sense of independence and less respect for old traditions and the elders among youths. Therefore, the perceptions youths have about the influence of their parental believes about their physical activity is likely to have a greater influence on the level of participation in sport among rural youths compared to urban youths. The third psychological variable addressed in the present study was task and ego- goal orientations. The results partially supported the hypotheses pertaining to the 102 relationship between task and ego goal orientations and level of involvement in sport and physical activity and sport enjoyment. As expected, there were greater differences in task orientation between the competitive group and non-participants. However, the groups did not differ significantly in ego goal orientation. This partially supported a study conducted among United States youths (Duda & Nicholls, 1992), which revealed that current participants in organized sport and organized recreational sports had stronger task and ego involved orientations than dropouts and non-participants. In support of studies conducted in the United States (Duda & Nicholls, 1992), England (Fox et al., 1994), and Zimbabwe (Biddle et al., 1996), the present study revealed that task orientation was lowly but significantly correlated with enjoyment of organized and recreational sports. This is not surprising given that organized sport, especially competitive school sport, offer more incentives in the form of better skill development, challenge, and travel. Task and ego goal orientations of the participants were also related to their reasons for participation in sport. The results showed a moderate but significant association between task orientation and Competition/Skill Reasons and To do Something. Ego goal orientation was correlated more highly with External reasons for participation. These results support the basic tenets of achievement goal theory (Duda & Nicholls, 1992; Maehr & Nicholls, 1980). According to the tenets of goal perspective theory, task orientation would be associated with competition and skill improvement (challenge and personal improvement), while ego orientation would be associated with external reasons for participation (extrinsic motivation). Results also revealed F orm Level differences in task and ego goal orientations. Senior forms had higher task goal orientations compared to junior forms; conversely, the 103 juniors had higher ego-goal orientation compared to seniors. These findings could be a reflection of the cognitive-developmental influences upon children’s sources of information about how competent they are, as alluded to by Brustad (1993b). Roberts (1984) speculated that the high incidence of sport dropouts during late childhood and early adolescence might be partly attributable to children’s increasing capacity to accurately appraise personal ability. Ego-involved youths who realize that they do not possess as much ability as others are likely to drop out of sport. Thus, higher task goal orientation among youths in senior forms might be attributable to the process of self- selection, where continued participation in sport among older youth means more individuals with high ego goal orientation had dropped out of sport. The role of teachers of teachers/coaches in the selection of the senior competitive group could not be ruled out. However, the fact that non-participants were not higher in ego orientation suggests that there could be a cultural dimension to task and ego goal orientations among youths in Botswana. The value that is placed on group-oriented behavior and the tendency to provide socially acceptable responses in situations where one has to make social comparisons might have affected the way the youths responded to ego-related items. There are measurement issues to be considered when using the TEOSQ as a measure of achievement goal orientations. As observed by Brustad (1993b), this measure still needs to be tested with youth sport populations to determine its reliability and validity as a measure of achievement goals for youths. Not many of the studies have controlled for the possible social desirability of the type of responses given. Similarly, Botswana youths might have provided socially desirable responses on the ego component. 104 The final psychological variable addressed in this study was perceived competence. Results from indicated that Harter’s (1978, 1988) model of competence motivation did not fit the current sample from Botswana. This lack of fit could have been the result of a problem with the cross-cultural interpretation of the instrument. For instance, Job Competence items might have had little relevance as measures of competence among Botswana youths because youths typically hold their first job after graduating from secondary (high) school. Pertaining to Romantic Appeal, although youths are likely to discuss dating and related issues with their peers, openly discussing these issues with adults (even on a survey) is generally perceived as disrespectful and deviant. The participants in this study might have viewed their responses to the Romantic Appeal items in that light. The strength of the Social Acceptance factor might have been affected by a culture that still places much value on kinship or belonging to the group, while judgments about scholastic competence would have been best worded differently. This implies that the SPPA (Harter, 1988) might be culturally biased to North American cultural contexts, especially the United States, where the measure was developed and tested. Although, much research has continued to address the veracity of this model by testing its components in sport contexts, much still needs to be done to determine if it fits other cultures. The results from this study suggest that Physical Appearance and Self-worth were the only factors that could be reliably used to assess differences between the groups. Contrary to findings from studies using Harter’s competence motivation theory (Biddle. 1997; Klint & Weiss, 1987; Rykman & Hamel, 1993) Physical self-perception was not a significant factor affecting participation in sport among youths in different sport 105 categories. Instead, the groups differed in perceived Self-worth. There were very subtle differences in perceptions of Self-worth between the competitive group and the other two groups, with the competitive group having the lower perceptions. These differences make sense given that greater perception of Self-worth does not have to be associated with participation in competitive sport. There could have been other sources of information upon which the youths based their perceptions of Self-worth. The differences in perceptions of Physical appearance between rural youths and urban youths, although subtle, suggest that rural youths could be happier with the way they look compared to urban children. Although not part of the hypotheses, there were several differences in Form Level, and Region. Gender differences were only evident on reasons for participation in sport. Urban and rural males had higher Competition/Skill and External Reasons compared to urban and rural females. Although these results cannot be characterized as a theme, they have important implications for the way boys and girls are socialized into sport in Botswana. Girls’ achievement in sport might not be highly valued nor reinforced in Botswana society. This also suggests that because girls do not generally expect to go to higher levels of competition compared to boys, their motivation to participate for competition and skill improvement reasons is not as strong as it is for boys. Consistent with Gill et al. (1983) findings, males rated External reasons, such as gaining recognition, higher than females. This demonstrates the perceived rewards from participating that males tend to enjoy compared to females. Results showed consistent Region and Form Level (age) themes in the different psychological correlates. The region theme showed a positive bias towards rural small 106 community influence on sport participation. It seems there are greater benefits for participation in sport among rural youths compared to urban youths. Participation in sport could be fostering the greater sense of community that is highly valued among rural communities. Sport participation could also be perceived as an avenue for the promotion of ideals such as, teamwork, respect for one another, respect for authority, and overall ’ discipline, which are highly emphasized in traditional towns and villages. It is also likely that youths from small towns value participation in sport because it offers them the best opportunities for travel to other towns, especially major urban centers, which might not be equally exciting to urban youths. The difference placed in the value of participation in sport and leisure physical activity between urban and rural youths has important implications for the development of a policy for providing effective youth sport programs to youths from different environments. Sport programs developed for urban youths should entail cultural values and reflect the multiple motives that youths have for participation. This is likely to increase positive experiences of participation in sport among urban youths. The region theme also highlights the need to address the marked urban-rural imbalances that had characterized the development of Botswana since independence. The increasing developmental gap between urban and rural environments has continued to undermine any attempts to provide similar amenities and resources to schools across the nation. This invariably accounts for some of the differences identified in this study. A deliberate policy to address the regional gap is necessary to ensure that both urban and rural populations benefit equally from economic growth. Further, the seemingly minor gender differences found in participant motivation should not be taken for granted. This could be a significant indicator of the gender disparities in the 107 opportunity for participation in sport outside the school environment and the rewards that go with participation at all levels. Therefore, a closer look at the relationship between gender and all aspects of sport participation in Botswana is a necessary measure to ensure that sport development equally benefits both men and women. The Form Level theme showed varying relationships among the factors related to juniors’ and seniors’ participation in sport. The junior school sport and physical activity experiences have a greater impact on the perceptions of the overall value gained from these experiences compared to senior school. At junior level, the importance of participation in sport is similar for competitive and recreational participants. This suggests that health and wellness programs for developing habitual physical activity might have a greater impact if introduced at junior level than later in life. These findings also suggest that there is a need to provide more positive sport experiences at both senior and junior levels to enhance positive attitude for the sport experience. One important question is how the results would have been the same or different had the questionnaires been developed and initially tested in Botswana instead of the United States. The findings might have reflected the extent of the influence of Botswana culture on motives for participation, socialization into sport, achievement goal orientations, self-perceptions, and overall sport participatory patters. For instance, it would be interesting to find out what reasons would have emerged if participants had been asked to list their own reasons for participation in sport. They might have come up with a word other than “fun” to connote enjoyment of sport. With regard to socialization into sport, the results might have demonstrated the role of the extended family, particularly grandparents, on how children get socialized into sport or why they do not 108 play sport. In Botswana, grandparents play a significant role in the upbringing of children, especially in rural towns. Although the current data provide important information about the socialization of Botswana youths into sport, more knowledge about the role of other significant social agents that are unique to Botswana culture would have been generated by a questionnaire developed with these agents in mind. The lack of fit for Harter’s model of perceived competence also suggests that an instrument that measures competence motivation in the context of Botswana culture would have been more informative. The wording of items in such an instrument would also reflect expressions of the mainstream culture in Botswana, thereby increasing accuracy of the responses. 109 CHAPTER V1 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH Summapy The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship among participant motivation, social influence, achievement goal orientations, perceived competence, and the involvement of Botswana youths in sport and physical activity. Five research questions and five hypotheses pertaining to each construct were tested to explain this relationship: Hypothesis 1: Botswana youths who participate in competitive and recreational sports have different reasons for participating in sports compared to those of non- participants. Hypothesis 2: Botswana youths who participate in competitive and recreational sports perceive greater social influence than their non-participant counterparts. Hypothesis 3: Botswana youths who participate in competitive and recreational sports have high task and high ego-goal orientations compared to non-participants. Hypothesis 4: Task-goal orientations of Botswana youths are positively correlated with enjoyment of organized and recreational sports. The correlations between enjoyment of organized and recreational sports and ego-goal orientations are lower than with task-goal orientation. Hypothesis 5: Botswana youths who participate in competitive and recreational sports have higher perceived competence than non-participants. Participants in this study were 903 male and female youths attending junior and 110 senior secondary school in urban and rural parts of Botswana. The youths were participants in competitive sport, recreational sport, and non-sport participants. All participants in the study completed a set of survey instruments, which consisted of the Background Information Questionnaire, and RPSQ, SIQ, PPBQ, TEOSQ, and SPPA. The principal investigator was present at all test administrations and explained all the procedures to the participants. An EFA was conducted to examine the factor structure of the RPSQ. Three factors were extracted and used as dependent measures in a 3 x 2 x 2 x 2 (Sport Category by Form Level by Gender by Region) MANOVA. Results indicated significant effects for Sport Category by Form Level and Form Level by Gender by Region interactions. Univariate effects showed that Competition/Skill Reasons and External Reasons accounted for the effects in both interactions. Post hoc analyses revealed that juniors in the competitive and recreational group differed from non-participants and that seniors in the competitive group differed from the recreational and non-participant groups. Therefore, the first hypothesis was supported. The effect sizes revealed a moderate to high effect for Competition/Skill Reasons. The first part of the second hypothesis was analyzed in a 3 x 2 x 2 (Sport Category by Form Level by Region) MANOVA using the four SIQ indices social influence as dependent measures. Results showed a main effect for Sport Category and a Form Level by Region interaction effect. An inspection of univariate effects for Sport Category showed that parental, close friends, and teachers/coaches influence accounted for the effect. Post hoc tests showed that the competitive and the recreational groups had significantly higher perceptions of parental influence compared to non-participants. lll Effect sizes showed that there was greater difference in strength of parental influence between the competitive group and non-participant group. Sibling influence and teachers/coaches influence separated the competitive group from the recreational and non-participant groups. These results supported the second hypothesis. The second part of the second hypothesis was tested in a 3 x 2 x 2 (Sport Category by Form Level by ‘ Region) ANOVA on the PPBQ index. Results showed a Sport Category by Form Level interaction. Post hoc tests showed that rural senior youths in the competitive group had higher perception of parental beliefs about competence, value and expectancies about their involvement in sport compared to their recreational and non-participant counterparts. The urban competitive group differed from the urban non-participant. These results also supported the second hypothesis. The third hypothesis was analyzed in a 3 x 2 (Sport Category by Form Level) MANOVA using task and ego goal orientations as dependent variables. Results showed main effects for Sport Category and Form Level. An examination of univariate effects showed that task goal orientation accounted for this effect. Post hoc tests showed that the competitive group had higher task-goal orientation compared to the recreational and non- participants groups. The effect sizes revealed a greater difference between recreational and non-participant groups. Post hoc tests showed that senior forms had higher task scores compared to juniors. The fourth hypothesis was tested using Pearson’s r correlations. The results revealed significant correlations between task goal orientations and enjoyment of organized and recreational sport. These results gave partial support to the fourth hypothesis. An EF A was conducted on Harter’s SPPA. Six factors were extracted but had 112 very low internal consistencies. Two factors were finally extracted, confirmed in a C FA and used in a 3 x 2 (Sport Category by Region) MANOVA. Results showed main effects for Sport Category and Region. Post hoc tests revealed that recreational and non- participants had higher Self-worth compared to the competitive group. The rural youths had higher Physical Appearance compared to urban youths. These results did not support the fifth hypothesis. A DA was conducted to determine which variables differentiated between the sport categories. Two functions were extracted. The first function (Competitive/Skill Reasons, Teachers/Coaches Influence, External Reasons) separated the competitive group from the recreational and non-participant, while the second function (Parental influence, task orientation) separated the recreational group from the competitive and non- participant groups. leLdtLSitLIl The results from this study lead the investigator to make specific conclusions pertaining to the proposed hypotheses and research questions. This study demonstrated that Botswana youths are motivated to participate in sport by a variety of reasons. The study showed that the strongest motives relate to competition, skill improvement, and external factors, such as rewards and recognition. Further, the competition, skill improvement, and external reasons differ for youths of different ages involved in sport at different levels. The study demonstrated that overall, social influence has an impact on the level of involvement of youths in sport in Botswana. While parental influence is minimal, those who participate in competitive sport perceive it to be significant for their involvement compared to those who do not participate in sport. The study revealed that 113 the school plays a major role in the socialization of youths into sport. Task goal orientation is related to level of participation in sport as well as the enjoyment of organized sport and recreational sport. Participants in competitive sport exhibited greater task orientation than non-participants. This study also demonstrated that Harter’s model of competence motivation did not fit the current sample. However, Physical appearance 1 and Self-worth seem to be important competence motivation factors identified in this sample. Therefore, this study has demonstrated that there is a significant relationship among participant motivation, social influence, achievement goal orientations, and the involvement of youths in sport and physical activity. However, this relationship depended on the form level of the participants and whether they were from urban or rural environments. These results have major implications for the development of policy for providing youth sport programs in urban and rural areas. Policy makers would have to consider ways in which sport participation among youths in urban areas could lead to similar positive experiences that seem to be enjoyed by rural youths. There is a need for increased opportunity for participation among all youths. It seems non-participant youths could have similar positive experiences that competitive and recreational participants seem to derive from sport participation. Spggestions for Future Resear__ch It is evident from this study that a greater understanding of the psychological factors that affect sport participatory patterns and behaviors of Botswana youths are necessary in order to provide the youths with meaningful sport experiences. Although the results of this study revealed reasons that Botswana youths consider as important motives for their involvement in sport, future research using similar participant motivation 114 framework, but including culturally sensitive tools is necessary. Especially important in the future are more systematic comparisons of participant motivation across ages, gender and regions. Examination of the role of parents, peers, and the community in the socialization of Botswana youths into sport is also necessary, because it could help inform the development of strategies to promote greater involvement in sport and leisure physical activity. More in-depth studies of achievement motivation in sport are necessary. This could help explain why there were no ego-goal orientation differences between groups and why seniors had higher task orientations compared to juniors. Further, controlling for socially desirable responses could help in the understanding of the achievement goals. More tests of Harter’s model in other cultures are necessary. The fact that the model did not fit the current sample suggests the need to develop cross-cultural frameworks to explain competence motivation in other cultures. Harter’s model provides the basis for those approaches. Finally, findings from this study suggest that there are many factors, besides those investigated in this study, which could become the focus of future investigations aimed at explaining attitudes of Botswana youths to sport and leisure physical activity. Future research has to meet the challenging need to know more about participant motivation, agents of sport socialization, and the self-perceptions of youths in relation to achievement in sport and other domains in Botswana. 115 APPENDICES 116 APPENDIX A FIGURE 12. MAP OF BOTSWANA SHOWING WHERE THE SCHOOLS WERE RECRUITED ll7 Figure 12. Map of Botswapa Showing where Participants were Recrtaiyed E . L.._. .15 ...._'-. NIG A M l L A N D NAMIBIA ......LJ- H - \ \~.\ ZAMBIA . ANGOLA \ ~- / /,Iu-u — \ , l , ‘y s‘f‘rm/, M .- zlna ‘ W ”\z'cflv‘i“ km "“\ l CHOBE «’33: f / it Botswana \ _ “0.“ M! * Nam cm . his",~ “ ' K"?— \W 1’ .... .............. ‘5. z \. r’f 13:,» \ GHANZI 4‘.” ‘1 ' t \ \. X..._..r_ '3"). [l KWENENG ' -/ k ‘1'!“ |\ .\‘\ SS 0!, 3‘ . ' ,\ . “x I KGALAdAoI \ . . _fi A 11 LL23 5'1" ...-f. ‘ Js . L , h.” .f‘ , SS In. ”111 (mm 0'“ SS = Senior School, J S = Junior School 118 APPENDIX B BACKGROUND INFORMATION QUESTIONNAIRE 119 Background Information Questionnaire Please indicate your date of birth and the first 3 letters of your first name _________ _ o >9?°.\’.°‘.V‘PS“.N ...-s... --‘O 12. l3. 14. 15. 16. School District Name of your village or town Nationality (1) Botswana (2) Other Gender (1) Male (2) Female Age Number of brothers Number of sisters If you have brothers, what is the age of your oldest brother? If you have sisters, what is the age of your oldest sister? . Has anyone in your family ever played sport? (1) Yes (2) No (Skip to number 12) . Check the family members who have played or still play sport __(1)Brother(s) _ (2) Sister(s) _ (3) Mother _ (4) Father __ (5) Cousin(s) _ (6) Close relative Number of people in your household Educational Background: Check the level you are at. _ (1) Form 1 _ (2) Form 2 __ (3) Form 3 _(4) Form 4 _(5)Form 5 What is your level of involvement in sport? Check those that apply. _(1) Competitive team sport _(2)Competitive individual sport _(3)Recreational sport _ (4) I don’t participate in sport and recreational physical activity (Skip to number 22). How old were when you played in your first adult supervised sport? If you participate in sport, check your major sport(s) _ (1) F ootbal 1/Soccer _ (2) Netball _ (3) Softball _ (4) Volleyball __ (5) Athletics (Track and Field) _ (6) Boxing __ (7) Basketball _ (8) Cross-country _ (9) Tennis _ (10) Table Tennis 120 __ (l 1) Swimming _ (12) Other 17. Are you a member of a school sports team? _ (1) Yes _ (2) No (Skip to number 19) 18. Indicate the sport(s) you play in school __ (1) Football/Soccer __ (2) Netball __ (3) Softball __ (4) Volleyball _ (5) Athletics (Track and Field) __ (6) Boxing _ (7) Basketball __ (8) Cross-country _ (9) Tennis _ (10) Table Tennis _ (1 1) Swimming _(12) Other 19. Do you play on a sport team or club outside school? _ (1) Yes _ (2) No (Skip to number 21). 20. If yes, Indicate the sport(s) you play outside school __ (l) Football/Soccer _ (2) Netball __ (3) Softball __ (4) Volleyball _ (5) Athletics (Track and Field) __ (6) Boxing __ (7) Basketball _ (8) Cross-country __ (9) Tennis __ (10) Table Tennis _ (1 1) Swimming __ (12) Other 121 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 27. 28. 29. If you play competitive sport, have you participated in a major competition such as Botswana Institute Sport Association games or regional athletic competitions? _ (1) Yes __ (2) No If you have never participated in sport, check the main reasons for not participating in sport. __ (l) I do not like sport __ (2) I am not good enough __ (3) I never had an opportunity to play even when I wanted to __ (4) I participate in other social activities __ (5) I am afraid of injuring myself __ (6) I like sport but my father wants me to come home immediately after school __ (7) I like sport but my mother wants me to come home immediately after school _ (8) My parents think playing sport interferes with school work _ (9) Other Approximately, when was the last time you played sport and physical activity? Check one _ (1) 1 month or less _ (2) 2 to 5 months ago _ (3) 6 to 7 months ago _ (4) 8-12 months ago Approximately how many times in a week do you play or practice for competitive sport _ (l) 4 to 7 times a week _ (2) 2 to 3 times a week __ (3) l to 2 times a week _ (4) not at all Approximately how many times in a week do you play recreational sport? _ (l) 4 to 7 times a week __ (2) 2 to 3 times a week _ (3) once a week _ (4) not at all . Did you ever drop out of competitive sport? _ (1) Yes _ (2) No (Skip to question 31) What sport did you drop out of? Number of years you played the sport before you dropped out? Check the main reasons you dropped out of the sport listed above. __ (1) Sport was not fun anymore _ (2) 1 did not get enough playing time __ (3) I was not good enough _ (4) I wanted to participate in a different activity __ (5) I had no time for sport __ (6) I did not like my coach _ (7) I had an injury 122 _ (8) My play-mates did not like me __ (9) My parents did not like sport __ (10) Other 30. Did you return to play the sport afterwards? _(1) Yes __ (2) No 31. Do you plan to continue participating in sport after you graduate from secondary school? ___(1)Yes __(2)No 32. Compared to most of your classmates who are the same sex, are you: 1. TALLER than most 2. about SAME height as most 3. SHORTER than most 33. Compared to most of your classmates who are the same sex, do you: _ I. weigh LESS than most 2. weigh about the SAME as most _ 3. weigh MORE than most 34. Compared to most of your classmates who are the same sex, are you: __ l. more POPULAR than most 2. about the SAME in popularity _3. LESS popular than most 123 APPENDIX C REASONS FOR PARTICIPATION IN SPORT QUESTIONNAIRE 124 Reasons for Participation in Sport Inventory 1]) (Date of birth and first 3 letters of your first name): Below are some of the reasons that people give for participating in sports. Read each item carefully and decide if that item describes a reason why yo_u participate in sport. For each of the following reasons, circle the number in the column that best describes how important the reason is for playing sport. There are no right or wrong answers. Very Somewhat Slightly No at all Important Important Important Important Important 1. To Improve my skills 5 4 3 2 1 2. To be with my friends 5 4 3 2 l 3. To win 5 4 3 2 l 4. Someone I admired played this sport 5 4 3 2 l 5. For the travel that goes with being on a team S 4 3 2 l 6. To stay in shape 5 4 3 2 1 To play as part of a team 5 4 3 2 l 8. For the excitement of competition 5 4 3 2 l 9. My parents or close friends want me to participate S 4 3 2 l 10. To learn new skills 5 4 3 2 l 11. To meet new friends 5 4 3 2 l 12. To do something I am good at 5 4 3 2 1 13. To release energy 5 4 3 2 1 14. For the rewards, such as trophies and recognition 15. To get exercise 16. To have something to do 17. For the team spirit murmur]. AAA-AA wwwww NNNNN 18. To feel important 125 I9. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. Very Somewhat Slightly No at all Important Important Important Important Important To go to higher level of competition 5 4 3 2 1 To be popular by being a good athlete 5 4 3 2 1 For the challenge of Competition 5 4 3 2 l I like the coaches or teachers 5 4 3 2 1 To have fun 5 4 3 2 1 To use the equipment and /or facilities 5 4 3 2 1 To attract boys/girls’ attention 5 4 3 2 1 To get out of the house 5 4 3 2 1 Other reasons 5 4 3 2 1 What is your favourite sport? Why do you want to play the sport? How much do you enjoy playing organized sports? Circle the number that best describes your enjoyment of sports. 1 2 3 4 5 Not at all A little Somewhat A lot Very much How much do you enjoy playing recreational sports? Circle the number that best describes your enjoyment of recreational sports. I 2 3 4 5 Not at all A little Somewhat A lot Very much How much do you enjoy physical education class? Circle the number that best describes your enjoyment of PE class. 1 2 3 4 5 Not at all A little Somewhat A lot Very much How would you rate your ability in your best sport compared to other people you play with? 1 2 3 4 5 very poor poor same good very good 126 APPENDIX D SPORT INFLUENCE QUESTIONNAIRE 127 Sport Influence Questionnaire ID (Date of birth and first 3 letters of your first name): ______ Rate the degree to which the following persons were or are interested in (a) sports in generfial as indicated by attendance at sports events or watching them on television or (b) your sports involvement as indicated by attendance at your games or expressed interest. (a)Sports in general Slightly Moderately Highly No Such Uninterested Interested Interested Interested Person 1. Father 1 2 3 4 S 2. Mother 1 2 3 4 5 3. Older brother 1 2 3 4 S 4. Older sister 1 2 3 4 5 5. Best male friend 1 2 3 4 5 6. Best female friend 1 2 3 4 5 7. PE teachers/coaches l 2 3 4 5 8. Other 1 2 3 4 5 (b) Your Sport Involvement Slightly Moderately Highly No Such Uninterested Interested Interested Interested Person 9. Father I 2 3 4 5 10. Mother 1 2 3 4 5 l 1. Older brother 1 2 3 4 5 12. Older sister I 2 3 4 5 13. Best male friend I 2 3 4 5 14. Best female friend I 2 3 4 5 15. Teachers/Coaches l 2 3 4 5 16. Other I 2 3 4 5 128 To what degree did or do the following persons encourage you and/ or discourage you to participate in sports? ENCOURAGE Rarely Occasionally Frequently At Every No Such Opportunity Person 17. Father 1 2 3 4 18. Mother I 2 3 4 5 19. Older brother I 2 3 4 5 20. Older sister 1 2 3 4 5 21. Best male friend 1 2 3 4 5 22. Best female friend 1 2 3 4 5 23. Teachers/Coaches l 2 3 4 5 24. Other 1 2 3 4 5 DISCOURGAGE . At Every No Such Opportunity Frequently Occasionally Rarely Person 25. Father 1 2 3 4 5 26. Mother 1 2 3 4 5 27. Older brother 1 2 3 4 5 28. Older sister 1 2 3 4 5 29. Best male friend I 2 3 4 5 30. Best female friend 1 2 3 4 5 3 l. Teachers/Coaches l 2 3 4 5 32. Other 1 2 3 4 5 32. Who, of the above, encourages you the most to participate? 33. Who, of the above, discourages you the most from participating? 129 APPENDIX E PERCEPTIONS OF PARENTAL BELIEFS QUESTIONNAIRE 130 Perceptions of Parental Beliefs Questionnaire II) (Date of birth and first 3 letters of your first name): Circle the number which best describes how much each statement is true for you and your parents. Remember, there are no right and wrong answers and no one other than the investigators will see your answers to these questions. Not at Not very Alittle Somewhat Mostly True Very all true true true true true true 1. My parents really want me to play sports. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2. My parents think I am really good at sports. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 3. My parents think it is really important for me to be better at sports than other children are. l 2 3 4 5 6 7 4. My parents think it is really important for me to learn sports skills to get better at them. I 2 3 4 5 6 7 5. My parents think I could be better at sports than I am. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6. Sometimes, I wish that my parents did not want me to be so good at sports I 2 3 4 5 6 7 131 APPENDIX F TASK AND EGO ORIENTATION IN SPORT QUESTIONNAIRE 132 TASK AND EGO ORIENTATION IN SPORT QUESTIONNAIRE ID(Date of birth and first 3 letters of your first name): Please read each of the following statements listed below and indicate how much you personally agree with each by circling the appropriate response. Your response should represent how you feel in general, not how you feel just during competition. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree I feel most successful in sport when I learn something new that is fun to do. (T) l 2 3 4 5 I feel most successful in sport when I am m the best. (E) l 2 3 4 5 I feel most successful in sport when I learn a new skill or technique and it makes me want to practice more. (T) l 2 3 4 5 I feel most successful in sport when I can do better than my teammates. (E) l 2 3 4 5 I feel most successful in sport when I learn a new skill by trying hard. (T) l 2 3 4 5 I feel most successful in sport when the others can't do as well as me. (E) l 2 3 4 5 I feel most successful in sport when I work really hard. (T) l 2 3 4 5 I feel most successful in sport when others mess up and I don't. (E) l 2 3 4 5 I feel most successful in sport when something I learn makes me want to go and practice more. 1 2 3 4 5 (T) I feel most successful in sport when I score the most points or have the fastest times. (E) l 2 3 4 5 I feel most successful in sport when a new skill or technique I Ieam really feels right. (T) 1 2 3 4 5 I feel most successful in sport when I'm the only one who can do a move or skill. (E) l 2 3 4 5 I feel most successful in sport when I do my very best. (T) l 2 3 4 5 133 APPENDIX G APPROVAL LETTER FROM UCRIHS 134 OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND GRADUATE STUDIES University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRIIIS) Michigan State University 246 Administration Burldim East Lansmg, Michiqai 48824-1046 517/355-2180 FAX 517/353-2976 ' 7's amnion State University 10:}: is Institutional Draw Escalate in Action MSU is an WWW. 5me mm MICHIGAN STATE U N l V E R S I T Y June1.1999 TO: Dr.Deborah L. FELTZ 138 IM Sports Circle Dept. of Kinesiology MSU RE: lRB# 99380 CATEGORY: 1-C APPROVAL DATE:June 1, 1999 TITLE:PSYCHOLOGICAL CORRELATES OF BOTSWANA YOUTHS INVOLVED IN SPORT AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY The University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects' (UCRIHS) reuxew of this project is complete and I am pleased to advise that the rights and welfare of the human subjects appear to be adequately protected and methods to obtain informed consent are appropriate. Therefore. the UCRIHS approved this project. RENEWALS: UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year. beginning with the approval date Shown above. Projects continuing beyond one year must be renewed with the green renewal form. A maximum of four such expedited'renewals possible. Investigators wishing to continue a project beyond that time need to submit it again for a complete review. REVISIONS: UCRIHS must review any changes in procedures involving human subjects. prior to initiation of the change. If this is done at the time of renewal. please use the green renewal form. To revise an approved protocol at any other time during the year. send your written request to the UCRIHS Chair. requesting revised approval and referencing the project's IRB# and title. Include in your request a description of the change and any revised instruments. consent forms or advertisements that are applicable. PROBLEMS/CHANGES: Should either of the following arise during the course of the work. notin UCRIHS promptly: 1) problems (unexpected side effects. complaints. etc.) involving human subjects or 2) changes in the research environment or new information indicating greater risk to the human subjects than existed when the protocol was previously reviewed and approved. If we can be of further assistance. please contact us at 517 355-2180 or via email: UCRIHS@piIot.msu.edu. Please note that all UCRIHS forms are located on the web: http://www.msu.edu/univargs/UCRIHSI 7L Sincerel avid E. Wright. Ph. D. CRIHS Chair DEW: db cc: Leapetswe Malete 135 APPENDIX H APPROVAL LETTER FROM BOTSWANA 136 Tausoms: PULA TELEPHONE: 350800 TELEX: 2655 ED Omcs or me P11551091 Pm» arr. BAG 001 Gxeonme Haw REPUBLIC OF BOTSWANA Tel. 350807/8 Fax. 351188 OP46/12 LXXV (47) July 6, 1999 Mr. Leapetswe Malete University of Botswana P/Bag 0022 Gaborone Dear Sir W Your application dated l8III June, 1999. We are please to inform you that you have been granted permission to conduct research on Psychological Correlates of Botswana Youth Involved in Sport and Physical Activity. The study will be conducted throughout the country. The permit is valid for a period not exceeding eighteen (18) months with effect from 6‘’1 July, 1999. The permit is granted subject to following conditions: (1) Copies of any papers written as a result of the study are directly deposited with the Ofice of the President, National Archives (2 copies each), National Institute for Research, University of Botswana Library, National Conservation Strategy Agency, Department of Culture, the Ministry of Labour and Home Affairs and Ministry of Education (2) The study is conducted according to the particulars furnished in the application. (3) You obtain permission from concession holders where you wish to conduct the study. 137 (4) You work in liaison with local authorities at your place of study. (5) The permit does not give authority to enter any places, private establishment or protected area. Permission for such entry should negotiated with those concerned. Yours faithfully, J. jam" For /PERMANENT SECRETARY TO THE PRESIDENT cc. Permanent Secretary Ministry of Education Ministry of Labour & Home Affairs Director, National Institute for Research Director, National Library Services Government Archivist Executive Secretary, National Conservation Strategy Agency All District Commissioners All Council Secretaries All Landboard Secretaries 138 APPENDIX I PARTICIPANT CONSENT FORM 139 Participant Consent Form I have voluntarily agreed to participate in this research conducted by Leapetswe Malete, under the supervision of Dr. Deborah Feltz, professor and chairperson in the Department of Kinesiology at Michigan State University. , The purpose of the study is to examine psychological and social factors that motivate Botswana youths to participate in sport and physical activity. I understand that I am flee to refuse to participate in this study, answer certain questions, or discontinue participation at any time without penalty. I understand that by participating in the study, I volunteer to complete a set of questionnaires, which will last approximately 30 minutes. I understand that the information provided would be treated with strict confidentiality and that my name will not be identified in any report of research findings. 1 agree to participate voluntarily in this research Participant’s name: , Signature: Date UCRIHS APPROVAL FOR THIS project EXPIRES: JUN 1 2000 SUBMIT RENEWAL APPLICATION ONE MONTH PRIOR TO ABOVE DATE TO CONTINUE 140 APPENDIX I TABLE 1. NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS EXCLUDED FROM THE ANALYSES BECAUSE OF INCOMPLETE OR PARTIALLY COMPLETED INVENTORIES, BY SPORT CATEGORY, REGION, GENDER, AND FORM LEVEL 141 Table 19 Number of Respondents Excluded from the Analyses because of Incomplete or Partially Completed Inventories. by Sport C ategory, Region, Gender, and Form Level Males Females Sport Category Urban Rural Urban Rural Competitive Junior Forms 20 48 1 l 36 Senior Forms 29 35 19 34 Recreational Junior Forms 2 7 5 8 Senior Forms 5 10 13 5 Non-Participant Junior Forms 7 5 12 l 1 Senior Forms 7 3 9 12 142 APPENDIX K TABLE 20. PERCENTAGE OF PARTICIPANT BY SCHOOL BY GENDER I43 Table 20 Percentage of Participant by School by Gender Female Overall Participants School Enrollment N Enrollment N % Gaborone Senior 627 7 700 20 2.0 Maruapula 270 13 296 39 9.2 (Senior Forms) Moeding 554 5 652 14 1.6 Lotsane 505 38 615 29 6.0 Maun 785 6 717 17 1.5 Seepapitso 657 35 713 3 5 5.1 Phikwe 591 29 580 26 4.7 Francistown 504 9 550 20 2.8 Masunga 589 9 587 23 2.7 Madiba 496 12 518 19 3.1 Marulamantsi 350 43 335 38 1 1.8 Tlogatloga 409 23 287 10 4.7 Bokamoso 363 31 405 27 7.6 Ngwaketse 354 7 359 1 1 2.5 Kwena Sereto 346 36 426 38 9.6 Tsodilo 381 16 439 13 3.5 Dukwi 301 5 294 30 5.9 Letlhabile 324 30 328 30 9.2 Borwa 200 29 238 29 13.2 Chobe 286 28 294 24 9.0 144 APPENDIX L TABLE 21. NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS BY SPORT CATEGORY, REGION, GENDER, AND FORM LEVEL 145 Table 21 Number of Respondents by Sport CatLgOW. Region. Gender. and Form Level Males Females Sport Category Urban Rural Urban Rural Competitive Junior Forms 52 121 35 139 Senior Forms 38 76 43 79 Recreational Junior Forms 15 15 10 20 Senior Forms 1 1 15 28 20 Non-Participant Junior Forms 29 15 32 19 Senior Forms 1 1 13 32 35 146 APPENDIX M TABLE 22. MANOVA SUMMARY FROM THE REASONS FOR PARTICIPATION IN SPORT QUESTIONNAIRE 147 Table 22 MANOVA Summa_ry from the Reasons for Participation in Sport Questionngir_e Source (_If E 2 Sport Category (A) 6,1442 10.30 .0001 Competitive/Skill 2,722 30.62 .0001 External Reasons 2,722 6.75 .001 To Do Something 2,722 6.05 .002 Form level (B) 3,720 10.28 .0001 Competitive/ Skill 1,722 5.60 .02 External Reasons 1 ,722 28.42 .0001 To Do Something 1,722 .10 .75 Gender (C) 3,720 6.67 .0001 Competitive/ Skill 1 ,722 1 5.70 .0001 External Reasons 1,722 2.51 .11 To Do Something 1,722 .01 .92 Region (D) 3,720 2.86 .04 Competitive/ Skill 1,722 .03 , .86 External Reasons 1,722 3.81 .05 To Do Something 1,722 1.96 .16 A x B 6,1442 4.58 .000 Competitive/Skill 2,722 5.98 .001 External Reasons 2,722 4.28 .01 To Do Something 2,722 1.11 .33 A x C 6,1442 .73 .63 Competitive/ Skill 2,722 1 .3 8 .25 External Reasons 2,722 .05 .95 To Do Something 2,722 .98 .38 A x D 6,1442 .88 .51 Competitive/ Skill 2,722 2. l 3 . 12 External Reasons 2,722 1.16 .32 To Do SomethinL 2,722 .53 .59 (table continues) 148 Table 22 (continued) Source dt.‘ E n B x C 3, 720 1.33 .26 Competitive/Skill l, 722 .13 .72 External Reasons I, 722 1.72 .19 To Do Something I, 722 .95 .33 B x D 3, 720 1.24 .29 Competitive/Skill 1, 722 .51 .48 External Reasons 1, 722 3.65 .06 To Do Something I, 722 .40 .52 C x D 3, 720 .84 .47 Competitive/Skill l, 722 2.45 .12 External Reasons 1, 722 .99 .32 To Do Something I, 722 .67 .41 AxBxC 6,1442 .88 .51 Competitive/Skill 2, 722 1.05 .35 External Reasons 2, 722 .73 .48 To Do Something 2, 722 1.70 .18 A x C x D 6, 1442 .84 .42 Competitive/Skill 2, 722 .66 .52 External Reasons 2, 722 .01 .99 To Do Something 2, 722 1.97 .14 AxBxD 6,1442 1.22 .29 Competitive/Skill 2, 722 .86 .42 External Reasons 2, 722 1.03 .36 To Do Something 2, 722 2.52 .08 BxCx D 3,720 3.63 .01 Competitive/Skill 1, 722 10.14 .00 External Reasons 1, 722 4.85 .03 To Do Something I, 722 1.04 .31 AxBxCxD 6,1442 1.59 .15 Competitive/Skill 2, 722 2.73 .07 External Reasons 2, 722 .01 .99 To Do Something 2, 722 .18 .84 I49 APPENDIX N TABLE 23. PERCENTAGE OF “NO SUCH PERSON” FROM THE SPORT INFLUENCE QUESTIONNAIRE 150 Table 23 Percentage of “No Such Person” from the gnort Influence Questionnaire Social Agent N % Father 139 15.4 Mother 48 5.3 Older Brother 239 26.5 Older Sister 214 23.7 Best Male Friend 108 12.0 Best Female Friend 104 11.5 Teachers/Coaches 97 10. 7 151 APPENDIX 0 TABLE 24. MANOVA SUMMARY FROM THE SPORT INFLUENCE QUESTIOANNAIRE 152 Table 24 MANOVA Summary from the Sport Influence Questionnaire Source Q“ E 9 Sport Category (A) 8, 1100 7.87 .0001 Parents 2, 552 21.70 .0001 Siblings 2, 552 1.35 .26 Friends 2, 552 6.94 .001 Teachers/coaches 2, 552 14.25 .001 Form level (B) 4, 549 4.04 .003 Parents 1, 552 1.91 .17 Siblings 1, 552 3.34 .07 Friends 1, 552 7.88 .01 Teachers/coaches l, 552 .15 .70 Region (C) 4, 549 .32 .87 Parents 1, 552 .08 .77 Siblings 1, 552 .92 .34 Friends 1, 552 .03 .86 Teachers/coaches 1, 552 .09 .76 AxB 8,1100 .92 .17 Parents 2, 552 .38 .68 Siblings 2, 552 1.29 .28 Friends 2, 552 .31 .74 Teachers/coaches 2, 552 1.25 .29 AxC 8,1100 1.46 .17 Parents 2, 552 .92 .40 Siblings 2, 552 .59 .56 Friends 2, 552 2.46 .09 Teachers/coaches 2, 552 1.80 .17 B x C 8, 1100 4.69 .001 Parents 1, 552 .03 .86 Siblings 1, 552 11.12 .001 Friends 1, 552 2.48 .12 Teacher/coaches l, 552 9.93 .002 AxBxC 8,1100 1.76 .08 Parents 2, 552 1.82 .16 Siblings 2, 552 1.44 .24 Friends 2, 552 1.11 .33 Teachers/coaches 2, 552 4.78 .001 153 APPENDIX 1P TABLE 25. ANOVA SUMMARY FROM THE PERCEPTIONS OF PARENTAL BELIEFS QUESTIONNAIRE 154 Table 25 AN OVA Summary from the Perceptions offlrental Beliefs Questionnaire Source y E 2 Sport Category (A) 2, 860 17.42 .0001 Form level (B) l, 860 38.15 .0001 Region (C) 1, 860 10.115 .001 AxB 2,860 1.81 .16 A x C 2, 860 .08 .92 BxC 1,860 1.18 .28 A x B x C 2, 860 7.86 .0001 155 APPENDIX Q TABLE . MANOVA SUMMARY FROM THE TASKAND EGO GOAL ORIENTATIONS QUESTIONNAIRE 156 Table 26 MANOVA Summary from the Taslgand Ego Goal Orientations Ouestionngire Source (if E 9 Sport Category (A) 4, 1550 8.68 .0001 Task 2, 775 17.14 .0001 Ego 2, 775 1.20 .30 Form Level (B) 2, 774 9.68 .0001 Task 1, 775 8.79 .003 Ego l, 775 5.68 .02 A x B 4, 1550 1.09 .36 Task 2, 775 1.56 .21 Ego 2, 775 .32 .72 157 APPENDIX R FIGURE 13. SCREE PLOT FOR THE 14 FACTOR SOLUTION FROM THE SPPA 158 Figure 13. Scree Plot for the 14 Factor Solution from the SPPA. Scree Plot Eigenvalue 1 7i ‘7 171's 1'6 1'9 272's 2'8 3'1 3'4 3? 4'0 43 Com ponent Nu mber 159 APPENDIX S TABLE 27. FACTOR STRUCTURE AND EIGEN VALUES FOR 14 FACTORS EXTRACTED FROM THE SPPA 160 39:58:: 93:: ~— :o _m we: 2:8:bm 88:...— _m. no. em. we. vm. mc. 88::822?‘ 583.2om 8:280 damn—enom 9.885 80 2822 23-83— 8:980 8:280 8:280 8:980 8058093 coat—:83 583.2% $3-83— 22-—«Bow 683.2% 583.2% ou§§q< 583.2om 3§Boqq< 583.23 282023 m8»: mm 2an 161 RN _md med wed 3N EN. EN va mod own Eu... wee $8 3.2 voEa—mxm oocatn> o\.. 9% 38>:qu -- £8.22 -- -- mm. -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- eanofim -- -- 2. -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- .. guano—8m -- -- -- .8. -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 82 -- -- -- -- R. -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- no. -- -- -- -- G. -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- :3 .. -- -- -- -- mm. -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 925.82 -- -- -- -- -- mm. -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- @3753— -- -- -- -- -- _m. -- -- . -- -- -- -- -- -- 583.2% 11 11 11 11 11 V5. 11 11 11 11 11 11 1.. 11 QQ<1EOm NM. -- -- -- -- -- mv. -- -- -- -- -- -- -- coat—£80m -- -- -- -- -- -- 8. -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 82.3. -- -- -- -- -- -- cc. 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- damn—98m 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 V0.11 11 11 11 11 11 mficot 11— 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 00.11 11 11 11 11 11 mug—0th 1- 11 1- 1. 1- 1- 1- cc. mv. .. -1 -- -- -1 mvcutm -- -- -- mm. -- -- -- -- mm. -- -- -- -- -- coat—«Bow -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- . mm. -- -- -- -- -- 837.38% -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- mm. -- -- -- -- -- 8:35 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- we. -- -- -- -- -- oo<-_:_oom -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- E. : -- -- -- 5 2822. -- mm. -- -- -- .. -- mm. -- -- -- -- 8. -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- _m. -- -- -- -- o0 2622 -- -- -- -- R. -- -- -- -- -- mm. -- -- -- 2.523 2: 2: 2: N: v: 0: RN.— wm; mm; Sc.— 82 EN 8...” II —B I II II II I I I II II II II 3 m. N_ 2 o_ a m N. o w v m m _ mEo: €88.53 2 835. 162 APPENDIX T FIGURE 14. SCREE PLOT FOR THE 2 FACTOR SOLUTION FROM THE SPPA 163 Figure 14. Scree Plot for the 2 Factor Solution on the SPPA Scree Plot 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0' 1.51 1.01 Egenvalue Conponent timber 164 APPENDIX U TABLE 28. CORRELATIONS AMONG THE 9 SPPA ITEMS 165 Table 28 Correlation Among the 9 SPPA Items 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1.Physical Appearance 2.Self-worth .27 3. Physical Appearance .38 .29 4. Physical Appearance .31 .32 .43 5. Self-worth .15 .26 .22 .19 6. Self-worth .21 .15 .18 .25 .30 7. Physical Appearance .15 .21 .28 .30 .31 .37 8. Self-worth .25 .16 .29 .32 .24 .38 .43 9.Scholastic .11 .09 .10 .12 .21 .17 .18 .19 166 APPENDIX V TABLE 29. MANOVA SUMMARY FROM THE SELF PERCEPTION PROFILE FOR ADOLESCENTS 167 Table 29 MANOVA Summary from the Self Perception Profile for Adolescents Source fl 1: p Sport Category (A) 4, 1610 4.89 .001 Physical Appearance 2, 805 .19 .83 Self Worth 2, 805 9.68 .000 Form level (B) 2, 804 2.17 .12 Physical Appearance 1, 805 2.40 .12 Self Worth 1, 805 2.14 .14 Region (C) 2, 804 9.58 .000 Physical Appearance 1, 805 18.99 .000 Self Worth 1, 805 .05 .83 AxB 4,1610 1.82 .12 Physical Appearance 2, 805 .33 .72 Self Worth 2, 805 3.31 .04 A x C 4, 1610 2.04 .09 Physical Appearance 2, 805 1.01 .37 Self Worth 2, 805 2.92 .05 BxC 2,804 1.82 .12 Physical Appearance 1, 805 3.39 .07 Self Worth 1, 805 .34 .56 AxBxC 4,1610 1.01 .40 Physical Appearance 2, 805 1.85 .16 Self Worth 2, 805 .22 .80 168 LIST OF REFERENCES 169 REFERENCES Alderman, R. B. (1978). Strategies for motivating young athletes. In Straub W.F. (Ed), Sport Psycholcgy: An analysis of athletic beligvior. (pp. 136-148). Ithaca, NY: Mouvement. 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