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This is to certify that the

dissertation entitled
Eight Urban African American Families:

An Exploratory Study Of Parent Involvement

presented by

Jessie McFadden Muldrew

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph. D . degree in Educational Administration

 

 

    

 

ajor professor

Date May, 2000

 

MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771

PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record.
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11/00 damn

 

EIGHT URBAN AFRICAN AMERICAN FAMILIES: AN EXPLORATORY
STUDY OF PARENT INVOLVEMENT

By

Jessie McFadden Muldrew

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Educational Administration

2000

ABSTRACT
EIGHT URBAN AFRICAN AMERICAN FAMILIES: AN EXPLORATORY
STUDY OF PARENT INVOLVEMENT
BY

Jessie McFadden Muldrew

This exploratory study was undertaken to extend the current research on
African American family involvement and children’s school experiences by
qualitatively examining the perceptions and actions of eight Black families
regarding their involvement in the education of their fifth-grade children. Also of
interest was how these families perceived that their actions and perceptions
influenced their youngsters’ school experiences. To accomplish this, the
researcher investigated the complex interactions and relationships among the
families, the students, and the schools. One primary research question and six
subsidiary questions informed this research. A conceptual framework based on
Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological psychological theory and Blumer’s (1969)
symbolic-interactionist theory was employed. The ecological psychology theory
centers on the importance of the relationship between human behavior and the

environment (Patton, 1990). The symbolic-interactionist perspective places

great emphasis on meaning and interpretation as essential human processes
(Blumer, 1969; Mead, 1934).

The sample included eight urban African American families with children
who were in fifth grade. The students attended five elementary schools in an
urban school district in the Midwest. Four males and four females were selected
using purposeful sampling techniques (Patton, 1990). The data-collection
methods included one-on-one, face-to-face, tape-recorded interviews in the
naturalistic environments of the home and school; participant observations in
classrooms; and review of school-related documents. Transcriptions were
summarized, and data from the three sources were triangulated to form case
studies. The presentation of findings was based on Miles and Huberman (1994).

It was found that: (a) against all odds, the parents inthese eight families
participated in their children’s schools; (b) this participation was perceived as
support for the school experiences of the fifth-grade children; (c) there are
differences in the opinions of parents and educators relative to how parent
involvement is defined and how the school experiences of the children are
described; and (d) there is general agreement that the five schools encouraged
family involvement and provided adequate opportunities. Based on the
extensive review of literature and the findings of the present research, some
future implications for families, educators, researchers, and policy makers are

offered.

Copyright by
JESSIE McFADDEN MULDREW

2000

This dissertation is dedicated to my children—Deloris and Theophilus,
Ken and Deloris, and Marcia-and my grandchildren—Jacqueline,
David, Jamarius, Jessika, and Josee. May you be
inspired to make your dreams become realities.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The pursuit of this PhD. has been a long and often tedious process. This
endeavor was first a dream and then a goal. However, in my moments of doubt
and uncertainty, some very special people provided me with support and
encouragement. I take this opportunity to say, “Thank you!”

First, I am grateful to Dr. Lauren Young, my academic advisor, who
helped me to visualize the completion of this degree. Second, thanks to Dr.
Gloria Smith for always being a role model, a confidante, and a friend. Third, I
am most appreciative of Dr. Harriette P. McAdoo for sharing with me her wisdom
and expertise on Black family life. It was through her instruction, research, and
literature that I was inspired to choose a dissertation topic that would increase
my understanding of Black families.

I am especially indebted to my dissertation chairperson, Dr. Maenette
Benham. Her tenacity, frequent contacts, and persistent monitoring of my
progress motivated me to continue the work, overcome many obstacles, and
finally complete the task. I am also grateful to the other committee members,
whose help and support have been invaluable. Dr. Chris Wheeler
recommended research and literature related to my study and made suggestions
that helped me to focus my ideas. Dr. Phillip Cusick shared valuable insights

regarding scientific writing and recommended excellent resources. Dr. Chris

vi

Dunbar brought sensitivity and personal awareness to the investigation of the
family and called my attention to the work of Reginald Clark, which proved to
have great significance for my research.

I owe a profound debt of gratitude to my technical assistant, Linda Haney.
Without the numerous hours she spent with me. the late nights and weekends at
the computer, this dissertation would still be a work in progress. She had a
unique way of simultaneously encouraging, challenging, and admonishing me.
Her support and dedication to this project exceeded the ordinary. Special
thanks, also, to Susan Cooley-Miller who edited and put the work in proper
dissertation format She, too, sacrificed personal time to help me meet
numerous deadlines.

Personal thanks go, first, to my husband, Charles, for understanding. my
dedication to this project. He not only endured my many absences from home,
but often broke the solitude by keeping watch with me into the early hours of the
morning. His taking over many of my duties, and protecting my writing time from
unwanted intrusions, made it possible for me to succeed.

To my children, and grandchildren, I offer thanks and apologies. The
patience with which they tolerated the disruption of our family life and times
together was advantageous to my progress. I am sure the younger ones did not
always understand when they were told that I must have “time out" to finish this
work Little Josee. the four-year-old, would often ask, “Can we go to Grandma’s
house, or is she still in her ‘time out’ corner?" I can now respond to that

question, ‘My time out is finally over!”

vii

Thanks to my nine siblings for cheering me on. They have always been
there for me, supported my endeavors, and taken pride in my achievements.

Although they are deceased, I feel compelled to acknowledge my parents,
Irving and Mattie McFadden. They certainly played a part in this, as they taught
me the value of hard work and persistence, and inspired me to believe in myself.
Another extended family member, my Aunt Lula McFadden, also deceased, was
my role model and mentor. She deserves the credit for helping me realize the
value of learning. She demonstrated the feasibility and importance of pursuing
higher education.

My gratitude to my church family for nurturing and supporting me during
my pursuit of this goal. I greatly appreciate their understanding my need to
relinquish many of my responsibilities in order to devote my efforts to research
and writing.

Expressions of thanks and encouragement are extended to my friends
and cohorts in pursuit of a Ph.D. l have named them “the faithful five,” Maxine,
Renee, Sabrina, Lillian, and Jackie, as they have been genuinely supportive.
May they continue with the motto, “I can do it!”

Final thanks to these eight remarkable families for allowing me to tell their
stories. They opened their homes, their hearts, and their experiences to me. At
times the story was unpleasant, but such is the case with true family life. I am
grateful to those families for the warmth, courtesy, and respect they extended to

me. Most of all, I thank them for their courage, honesty, and openness.

viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF TABLES ............................................... xv

LIST OF FIGURES .............................................. xvi
Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION ...................................... 1

Background of the Problem .............................. 1

Purpose ............................................. 3

Research Questions ................................... 3

Primary Research Question ........................... 3

Subsidiary Questions . . . . . . . . . ; ...................... 4

Importance of the Research ............................. 4

Assumptions ......................................... 6

Limitations ........................................... 8

Delimitations ........................................ 10

Conceptual Framework ................................ 11

Definition of Terms ................................... 16

Overview ........................................... 17

ll. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ............................. 20

Black Families: History, Culture, and Theory ............... 20

Extended Family and Kin ............................ 21

Community Networks ............................... 23

Strengths and Values of the Black Family ............... 25

Theories of Black Family Life ......................... 26

Summary ........................................ 28

Urban African American Families ........................ 29

Introduction ...................................... 29

Family Structure ................................... 30

Parenting Styles and Childrearing Practices ............. 35

Families as Educators .............................. 39

The Home as a Learning Environment .................. 43

Family Involvement in Schools .......................... 50

Home-School Communications ....................... 51

Parent-Teacher Interactions ......................... 53

ix

 

 

 

ln-School Participation .............................. 57
Benefits of Parental Involvement ...................... 58
Barriers to Parental Involvement ...................... 62
Summary ........................................ 64
The School Experiences of African American Children ....... 66
Introduction ...................................... 66
Attitudes Toward Learning, Behavior, and School
Adjustment .................................... 67
School Achievement and Learning Styles ............... 69
Relationships With Teachers and Peers ................ 74
Summary ........................................ 77
Keys to Success for Urban African American Students-
Strategies That Work ............................ 77
Chapter Summary .................................... 79
METHODOLOGY .................................... 81
Introduction ......................................... 81
Research Design ..................................... 82
The Sample and Settings .............................. 85
Data-Collection Methods ............................... 86
Participant Observation ............................. 87
In-Depth Interviews ................................ 87
Review of School-Related Documents .................. 88
Ethical Considerations .............................. 89
Field Procedure ...................................... 90
Field Study ........................................ 91
Access and Researchers Orientation ..................... 93
Data Management and Recording ....................... 94
Treatment and Presentation of Data ...................... 95
Summary ........................................... 95
PRESENTATION OF THE DATA ........................ 96
The Context ......................................... 97
The Setting ......................................... 97
The Families and Their Fifth Graders: Eight Is Enough ....... 98
Case Study 1: Kala’s Family (Household Headed by a
Single Mother) ................................... 100
Initial Meeting With the Student and Gaining Consent . . . . 100
The Family and Home ............................. 102
The Home ...................................... 105
The Student ..................................... 106
Kala’s Work Habits and Academic Performance ......... 107
Kala’s Behavior and Peer Relationships ............... 109
Kala’s Relationship With Her Mother .................. 109
Kala’s Perception of the School and Teacher ........... 110
Kala's Perception of Her Family’s School Involvement . . . . 111

X

Kala’s Perception of the Family's After-School

Involvement .................................. 1 12
Mother’s Perception of the Student and the Teacher ...... 113
Mother’s Perception of the Family’s School Involvement . . . 113
Mother’s Perception of the Family’s After-School Activities . 116

Kala’s School and the Teacher ...................... 117
Teacher’s Perception of the Student .................. 119
The Teacher’s Perception of the Parent ............... 120
The Teacher’s Perception of the Family’s School

Involvement .................................. 120
The Teacher's Perception of the Family’s After-School

Involvement .................................. 121
Conclusions ..................................... 122

Case Study 2: Leesa’s Family (Household Headed by a

Single Mother) ................................... 122
Initial Meetings ................................... 122
The Student ..................................... 124
Leesa’s Family ................................... 124
Leesa’s Mother ................................... 125
Extended Family ................................. 126
The Home ...................................... 127
Leesa’s Personality, Attitude, Citizenship, and Peer

Relations .................................... 128
Work Habits and School Performance ................. 130
Leesa’s Relationship With Her Mother and the Family . . . . 132
Leesa’s Perception of the School and Her Teacher ....... 133
Leesa’s Perception of Her Family’s Involvement In and

Out of School ................................. 134
Leesa’s Mother's Involvement In and Out of School ...... 136
The School ...................................... 139
Leesa’s Teacher .................................. 140
The Teacher’s Perception of Leesa ................... 141
The Teacher's Perception of Her Relationship With the

Family and Their School Involvement .............. 142
Conclusions ..................................... 144

Case Study 3: Darien’s Family (Household Headed by

Two Grandparents) ............................... 146
The Student ..................................... 148
Darien’s Personality, Attitude, and School Adjustment . . . . 149
Perceptions of Darien’s Personality, Attitude, and

School Adjustment ............................. 151
Perceptions of Darien’s Work Habits and Performance . . . . 153
The Family and Home ............................. 155
The School ...................................... 161
The Classroom ................................... 162
The Teacher ..................................... 163
The Teacher’s Relationship \Mth Darien’s Family ........ 164

Perceptions of Darien’s Family’s ln-School Involvement . . . 166

xi

Perceptions of Darien’s Family’s After-School Involvement . 167

Conclusions ..................................... 168
Case Study 4: Junior‘s Family (Household Headed by a
Single Father) ................................... 171
Initial Meeting ....... . ............................. 171
The Student ..................................... 172
Junior’s Family and the Home ....................... 173
The Extended Family .............................. 175
The School and the Teacher ........................ 175
’ Perceptions of Junior’s Work Habits .................. 178
Perceptions of Junior’s Personality, Attitude, and Peer
Relationships ................................. 181

Perceptions of Junior’s Family’s In-School Involvement . . . 184
Perceptions of Junicr’s Family’s After-School Activities ‘

and Home Support ............................. 186

Conclusions ..................................... 188
Case Study 5: Shelly’s Family (Household Headed by a

Single Father) ................................... 190
Initial Meeting and Gaining Access ................... 190
The Student ..................................... 191
Work Habits and Performance ....................... 193
Shelly’s Family and Home .......................... 195
The Home ...................................... 197

Shelly’s Perceptions of Her Relationship With Her Father . 199
Shelly’s Perceptions of Her Relationship With Teachers

and Feelings About School ...................... 199
The Family’s Involvement in School ................... 200
The Family’s After-School Activities ................... 201
The School ...................................... 202
The Teachers .................................... 204
Teachers’ Perceptions of Shelly ..................... 206
Teachers’ Perceptions of Shelly’s Father .............. 206
Teachers’ Perceptions of Mr. Carter’s Out-of—School

Involvement .................................. 207
Conclusions ..................................... 207

Case Study 6: Ronald’s Family (Household Headed by
Two Parents) .................................... 209
Initial Meeting .................................... 209
The Student ..................................... 210
The Family and Home ............................. 211
Ronald’s Father .................................. 212
Ronald’s Mother .................................. 213
The Extended Family and Home ..................... 215
The School and Teacher ........................... 215
Ronald’s Teacher ................................. 217
Perceptions of Ronald’s Attitude, Relationships, and

School Adjustment ............................. 218
Ronald’s Work Habits and School Performance ......... 219

xii

Perceptions of Ronald’s Family’s In-School Involvement . . 221
Perceptions of Ronald’s Family’s After-School Activities

and Home Support ............................. 224
Conclusions ..................................... 226
Case Study 7: Tyrone’s Family (Household Headed by
Two Parents) .................................... 227
Initial Meeting .................................... 227
The Student ..................................... 229
The Family and Home ............................. 232
The School and the Teachers ....................... 239
Teachers’ Perceptions of Tyrone’s Family’s Involvement
in School and in School-Related Activities ........... 244
Documentation of Tyrone’s Work Habits and Performance . 245
Conclusions ..................................... 246
Case Study 8: Paula’s Family (Household Headed by a
Single Grandmother) .............................. 247
Initial Meeting and Gaining Consent .................. 247
The Student ..................................... 249
Paula’s Grandmother (Her Legal Guardian) ............. 250
Extended Family and Home ......................... 254
The School and the Teachers ....................... 256
Perceptions of Paula’s Personality, Attitude, and School
Adjustment ................................... 260
Perceptions of Paula’s Work Habits and Performance . . . . 261
Perceptions of Paula’s Family’s In-School Involvement . . . . 263
Perceptions of Paula’s Family’s After-School Activities . . . . 265
Conclusions ..................................... 267
V. CONCLUSIONS .................................... 270
Introduction ........................................ 270
Conclusions ....................................... 270
Primary Research Question ......................... 271
Subquestion 1: Parenting, Kinship, and Black Family
Values ...................................... 274
Subquestions 2-5: What Is Authentic Involvement? ...... 290
Subquestion 6: School Experiences of F ifth-Grade
Students ..................................... 305
Relationship of This Study to Current Research ............ 319
Reflections ........................................ 320
APPENDICES
A. Letter of Approval From the University Committee on
Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS) ............ 324
B. Copies of Letters of Request ........................... 326

xiii

C. Copies of Letters of Consent ........................... 331

D. Matrices ........................................... 337
E. Interview Protocols .................................. 342
REFERENCES ................................................ 348

xiv

2.1

3.1

4.1

LIST OF TABLES

Parent and Teacher Communication Strategies: Traditional

and Innovative . .‘ .......................................... 52
School-Related Documents and Types of Information Contained

Therein .................................................. 89
Demographic Characteristics of Families in the Sample ............ 99

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7

LIST OF FIGURES

Perceptions of Parent Participation/Involvement ................. 272
Extended Family and Kin Support ............................ 276
Emphasis on the Importance of Education ..................... 278
Spirituality and Strong Religious Ties ......................... 280
Family Rules, Roles, and Responsibilities ...................... 283
Family and Home Environment Support Learning ................ 296
Varied Work Habits and Achievement Levels ................... 307

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Backgroung of the Problem
"An indictment has been handed down against the Black family; it has

been held responsible for many of the problems of black people” (Heiss, 1973,
p. 3). Heiss began his treatise with this profound declaration. The quotation
was included here to call attention to the problem on which this research was
centered, a problem that closely mirrors that declaration. An indictment has
been handed down against urban African American families relative to their
perceived limited involvement in the education of their children. Consequently,
these families are accused of being responsible for the majority of the problems
that African American children experience in schools.

The involvement of families in schools and the family’s role in the success
or failure of their school-aged children continue to be issues of national concern.
Researchers and practitioners long have acknowledged a strong link between
parents’ involvement and their children’s success in school. The high rate of low
achievement among African American children and the perceived limited school
involvement of African American families have been the topic of numerous
studies (Chavkin, 1993; Comer, 1985; Epstein, 1991; Strickland, 1987; Winters,
1993).

This exploratory study was designed to extend the current research on
Afrimn American family involvement and school achievement by examining the
perceptions and actions of African American families regarding their involvement
in the education of their fifth-grade children. Also of interest was how these
families perceived that their actions and perceptions influenced the school
experiences of their youngsters.

Several researchers have placed urban African American students at risk
for failure and attributed the status of these students to three factors: (a) the
failure of these students’ families to socialize them for school success, (b)
limited family involvement in the education of their children, and (c) the students’
lack of motivation to succeed. Many researchers and scholars have devoted
their efforts to the study of troubled African American families and the
problematic school experiences of unsuccessful students. Research on
functional African American families, as well as well-adjusted and achieving
African American students, has been neglected. This omission has given rise to
a tendency to make generalizations about African American families and
children based on the negative prevailing school of thought.

This researcher argues that the perceptions of African American families
relative to their involvement in the eduwtion of their children differ greatly from
those of the majority of researchers, scholars, and educators. In this research,
qualitative methods were employed to examine the perceptions, actions, and
interactions of selected African American families with the school, along with the

school experiences of their fifth-grade children. These variables were examined

in the naturalistic settings of the participants’ homes and schools. The research
was bounded by case-study methods. A cultural portrait of African American
family life was captured through the use of ethnography. Grounded theory was

used to develop a conceptual framework from which to examine the variables.

Pumose

The researchers primary purpose in this study was to investigate and
describe the perceptions and actions of urban African American families
regarding their involvement in the education of their children. A further purpose
was to determine how these perceptions and actions influenced the school
experiences of their fifth-grade youngsters. To accomplish this, the researcher
investigated the complex interactions and relationships among the families, the

students, and the schools.

Research Questions

One primary research question and six subsidiary questions provided a

framework for this inquiry.

Prima es arch uestion

How do urban African American families perceive and actualize their
involvement in the education of their children, and how do these
perceptions and actions influence the school experiences of their fifth-

grade youngsters?

bsidi ti
. 1. What are some traditional Black family cultural factors that
appear to enhance or to inhibit the involvement of urban African American
families in the education of their children?

2. How do urban African American families perceive that their
involvement In the education of their fifth-grade children is influenced by
current family ecological factors?

3. How do urban African American families perceive that they
structure after-school activities and the home environment to support
school learning?

4. How do urban African American families perceive that they
negotiate their involvement in school and school-related activities?

5. How do urban African American families, and teachers, perceive
that schools encourage family Involvement in the formal education of their
children?

6. What are the perceptions of urban African American families, and

teachers, regarding the school experiences of the fifth-grade students?

Impedance of the Research

The findings from this investigation will be useful to African American
families (specifically, those with school-aged children), educators, policy makers,
and researchers. The results also should be of interest to civic and community
organizations concerned with the relationships between families and schools, as

well as the edumtion of urban African American children. This study is

especially timely because of the rapid rate at which urban schools are becoming
populated predominantly by African American students (Taylor, Jackson, &
Chatters, 1997). In light of this fact, it is not only expedient, but crucial, that
educators and teacher education institutions broaden their understanding of the
issues addressed in this study. The topic is also timely and relevant because
citizens are scrutinizing the public schools and calling on them to give more
consideration to understanding and meeting the needs of diverse groups and
individuals. The continued emphasis on educational reform in the United States
reflects new goals and objectives that give priority to including all stakeholders
in the school improvement process. Hence, relevant and current research, such
as the present study, that includes the perceptions of families and students is
needed.

Further, the changing demographic trends in African American families
(Taylor at al., 1997) underscore the need for this kind of study, to increase the
awareness of these families and communities of the perceptions that many
outsiders have pertaining to African American families’ involvement in the
education of their children, as well as how the public perceives that African
American families’ involvement influences the school experiences of the
children. For example, current ecological changes in the African American
family include increases in the numbers of households headed by single
mothers, teenage and young parents, and grandparents and foster parents
(National Survey of Black Americans, as cited in Taylor et al., 1997). Likewise,

because of the mass exodus of White families from the cities to the suburbs,

urban schools are now populated primarily by African American and other
minority children. These changes indicate a need for more studies such as the
present one.

This study is also significant because the findings will enhance the
understanding of (a) how urban African American families perceive and define
their roles in the education of their fifth-grade children; (b) the factors (racial,
cultural, home and family related, and school related) that urban African
American families perceive as contributing to their involvement in the education
of their children; (c) the discrepancy that exists among the perceptions of
parents, children, and school professionals relative to the families’ involvement
in the school experiences of the children; (d) the interactions between the
families of urban African American fifth graders and the people who make up
school organizations; (e) how African American families involve extended family
and community networks to support the Ieaming of their children; (f) whether and
how urban African American families structure their homes and the family’s after-
school time to support the Ieaming of their children; (9) future directions for

families, practitioners, policy makers, and researchers.

Assumptions

This was an exploratory investigation of the perceptions and actions of
urban African American families relative to their involvement in the education of
their fifth-grade children. Also of interest was how the families perceived that
these perceptions and actions influenced the school experiences of their fifth-

grade students. The research was predicated on the following assumptions:

1. To consider the state of the involvement of urban African American
families in the education of their children is to focus on family involvement in
Public schools in the cities. Jones-Wilson (as cited in Lomotey, 1990) stated, “It

58 still true that public schools are the primary source of education for African

American children."

2. Parents are children’s first teachers; teachers are children’s surrogate

Patents. Ford (1990) predicted, “Without family involvement, schools and
Ch ildren are less likely to succeed.“

3. African American families maintain a set of cultural values and
perspectives that are uniquely grounded in the historical and contemporary

eXperiences of African Americans in this country (Billingsley, 1968; Heiss, 1971;
McAdoo, 1990, 1996; Nobles, 1976; Sue & Sue, 1990).

4. Not all families are created equal. Procidano (1992) indicated that not

all families have the same abilities, resources, and opportunities to fulfill

society’s expectations relative to families’ involvement in the education of their
children.

5. Factors such as cultural, racial, and economic differences between
families and school professionals can lead to incorrect assumptions and
stereotyping on both sides. Mapp (1999) referred to this and several other
Obstacles, such as work schedules, inadequate child care, lack of transportation,
and insecurity with the school environment, that can also limit the involvement of

Urban African American families in the education of their children.

6. The school adjustment, performance, and attitudes of urban African
American students are variables that are influenced by a multiplicity of factors
bath related and unrelated to family involvement. Irvine (1990) included low

teacher expectations, hostile school climates, tracking, discriminatory
d issdtziplinary practices, irrelevant curriculums, and ineffective teaching strategies

arr-mg the contributors to the school failure of African American students over
which parents have little, if any, control.

. Limitations
The limitations of qualitative research are presented to point out potential
Weaknesses. This researcher identified three areas of concern in the present
study. (a) the sampling procedure, (b) researcher bias, and (c) the data-

oollection methods. Each area of concern is discussed in the following
paragraphs.

Using purposeful sampling decreased the generalizability of the findings.
The researcher relied on her school contacts to recommend families that fit the
criteria and might be willing to participate in the research. She soon realized
that most of the recommended families were those who were said to be involved,
and those whose fifth graders were experiencing success in school. With some
persuasion, other families with children who were having difficult school
eXperiences and whose families were not rated as highly involved were also

recommended. The small sample size (eight families) may also limit the
96neralizability of the study findings.

The term bias refers to an inclination or leaning based on prejudice. In
this study, the researchers bias might also have been a limiting factor. Her past
experiences as a teacher and administrator in the target urban school district
made it difficult to maintain objectivity. Resisting the temptation to allow
preconceived notions to creep in was an ever-present obstacle. The
investigators sensitivity to this problem led to the implementation of some
methods to reduce the‘effect of researcher bias on the study. For example, she
relied heavily on the conceptual framework, based on the ecological-psychology
and symbolic-interactionist theories, as the lens through which to view the
findings. She also leaned on opinions of scholars in the field and the results of
related studies from the four comprehensive bodies of literature that were
consulted. Furthermore, the researcher validated the accuracy of her findings
by rereading the case studies, interview transcripts, and field notes numerous
times.

The limitations of this study that might be linked to the data-collection
Methods involve the honesty and integrity of the participants, and the time line
for the data-collection process. During the interviews, the researcher noted
times when some participants appeared to gear their responses to what they
thought was the desired answer. This became evident when the researcher
compared the parent, child, and teacher responses. However, the discrepancies
in responses could also have resulted from differences in perceptions.

The research also was limited by the time period in which the data were

collected. The interviews were conducted over a three-month period. Thus, it

was not possible to determine how the involvement of the families during their
children’s fifth-grade year compared with their involvement in earlier years.
Perhaps such a comparison would have broadened the study, as parents are
generally more involved during their children’s earlier years of school. Finally,
the study was not designed to point a finger or assign blame for problems to the
families or the schools. Finally, generalizations about all families cannot be

made from the findings of the study because the sample group, although

diverse, was small.

Delimitations
The delimitations of a study concern how the research was narrowed in
scope. The researchers goal in this study was to add to the research pertaining
to the perceptions of urban African American families’ involvement in the
education of their children, and how these perceptions and actions influenced
the school experiences of their fifth-grade children. The sample for the study
was delimited to eight African American families with fifth-grade children
attending five elementary schools. This was not a study comparing the
involvement of African American and White families, nor were urban and
suburban African American families compared. Instead, the researchers
intention was to examine perceptions and actions relative to the involvement of
Urban African American families in the school experiences of their children.
The study was not designed to evaluate the success of school-sponsored
Parent-involvement programs. When the researcher refers to such programs,

the intentionis to describe the perceptions and actions of the urban African

10

American families toward those programs. Likewise, this was not a cause-and-
effect study of the relationship of family involvement to student achievement.
Instead, the emphasis was on how these families viewed and actualized their
involvement, and whether they perceived that it helped or hindered the school
experiences of their fifth-grade youngsters. However, this emphasis should not
be construed as an attempt to concur with the critics of African American families

who have focused on the deficit theory of dysfunctional families.

Conceptual Framework

Miles and Huberman (1984) emphasized the importance of the.
conceptual framework to research studies, stating that “a conceptual framework
explains graphically and/or in narrative form the main dimensions to be studied;
the key factors, or variables; and the presumed relationships among them”

(p. 18). In this study, the researcher employed a conceptual framework based
on the ecological-psychology and symbolic-interactionist theories. By linking the
research questions to the larger theoretical constructs, the investigator
demonstrated the importance of the study findings. The findings are important
because they illuminate larger issues pertaining to how urban African American
families perceive and actualize their involvement in the education of their fifth-
grade children, as well as the influence of these perceptions and actions on the
School experiences of these youngsters.

The researchers rationale for employing this dual-theory conceptual

framework was based on the dual nature of the inquiry, which necessitated the

examination of two separate issues: (a) perceptions and actions regarding the

11

‘IC

involvement of urban African American families in the education of their children
and (b) how the families and teachers perceived that these perceptions and
actions influenced the education of the fifth-grade students. The researchers
choice of theories was also motivated by two premises:

1. Marshall and Rossman’s premise (1995), which stated, 'In examining a
specific setting or set of individuals [such as a family], the researcher should

show how she is studying a case of a larger phenomenon” (p. 7).
2. Boykin’s (1985) premise, which identified the following three important

reasons for providing a viable conceptual framework for the study of African

American family-child socialization processes:

First, there is considerable complexity attendant to Black family life in
America. Second, a multiplicity of socialization agendas must be
negotiated simultaneously. Third, the demands that result from having to
cope with the American social context are multifaceted and inherently

contradictory. (p. 33)
Hence, a conceptual framework based on two theories was deemed appropriate.

The ecological-psychology theory centers on the importance of the
relationship between human behavior and the environment (Patton, 1990). In
the present investigation, the researcher employed this theoretical lens to
examine the interactions of the families (the primary unit of analysis), and
actions related to the families’ involvement in the education of their children.
Marshall and Rossman (1995) referred to the ecological-psychology emphasis
on the interactions of the person or group and the environment in shaping

behavior. Describing the behaviors of the eight families and analyzing the

influences of the environment on them was a primary reason for choosing this

12

approach. Thus, the ecological model was congruent with the focus of this
study. Marshall and Rossman ( 1995) also described the environment as
especially important. They stated, 'The physical setting, its characteristics,
arrangement, and atmosphere can both suggest and inhibit behavior.’

Furthermore, the ecological model has been recommended as a
framework for the study of African American families (McAdoo, 1997). It allows
researchers and practitioners an opportunity to explore the interactions between
the historical and contemporary aspects of the unique culture of these families.

Bronfenbrenner (1979) indicated that human behavior occurs within an
ecological environment. He portrayed this environment as a set of nested
structures, for which he offered the following definitions:

1. Macrosystem: Consistencies that exist at the level of the subculture
or the culture as a whole, along with any belief systems or ideology underlying
such consistencies (p. 26).

2. Mesosystem: Comprises the interrelations of two or more settings in
which the developing person actively participates (such as, for an adult, among
family, work, and social life) (p. 25).

3. Microsystem: The pattern of activities, roles, and interpersonal
relations experienced by the developing person in a given setting with particular
physical and material characteristics (p. 22).

The researcher elected to use Bronfenbrenner’s concept of nested

Structures as a lens through which to examine the eight urban families and their

13

home environments, adapting similar definitions to describe the African
American family concept as follows:

1. Macrosystem: Informal support networks, in which assistance is
supplied by family, friends, neighbors, community networks, churches, and
human service agencies.

2. Mesosystem: Comprises the interrelations of two or more settings in
which the family actively participates (such as the parents’ workplace, the
school, and social life).

3. Microsystem: Family mechanism,iculture, children and parenting,
daily family life, and family interactions.

The researcher used this theoretical concept of nested structures to
respond to the subsidiary questions pertaining to family ecology (Questions 2
and 3). She also used the concept to relate the study to previous literature and
in analyzing the findings.

The symbolic-interactionist theory embodies three major premises
(Patton, 1990):

1. Human beings act toward things on the basis of meaning that the
things have for them.

2. The meaning of things arises out of the social interaction one has with

One’s fellows.

3. The meaning of things is handled in, and modified through, an

interpretive process used by the person in dealing with the things he or she

encounters.

14

This perspective is a social-psychological approach, closely associated
with Mead (1934) and Blumer (1969). It is a perspective that places great
emphasis on meaning and interpretation as essential human processes. Using
this lens, the researcher examined the set of symbols and understandings that
had emerged to influence the development of selected African American
families’ perceptions of how they were involved in the education of their fifth-
grade children. She also used this lens to examine the school performance,
attitudes, and adjustment of the fifth-grade students. The investigator applied
the following features of the symbolic-interactionist lens to gather information
relative to all of the research questions for which the concept of a common set of
symbols was applicable:

1. The theory’s reflective capacity—to provide the participants with the
means to reflect on their own activity as students, parents, and teachers.

2. The theory‘s appreciative capacity-to explore the social aetion from
the perspective of the participants.

3. The theory’s illuminative capacity—to examine the range, depth, and
richness of detail in the individuals, groups, institutions, and issues, and to study
the interaction between cultural ideologies of equality and the reality of social,
racial, and cultural differences.

4. The theory’s theoretical capacity-to aid in the generation of theories

relative to participants’ beliefs and actions, and the way expectations shape and
constrain the same; to generate theories related to policy, practice, and

research.

15

The researcher acknowledges that, in studying perceptions and actions
regarding the school experiences of fifth-grade students in the context of the
school environment, it was helpful to use the symbolic-interactionist lens to
examine what led to the development of those perceptions and actions. The
theory was suited to understanding how individual students developed their
attitudes, behaviors, work habits, and relationships that were exhibited in the
school setting. Accordingly, the term symbolic interactionist refers to the peculiar
and distinctive character of interactions as they take place between and among
human beings (Neuman, 1994, p. 63). In this case, the African American
families and the students interpreted or defined the actions of people at school,
based on the meanings they attached to those actions. Thus, their behavior was
mediated by the use of symbols, or their own interpretation of the actions of

school people.

Definition of Terms

The following terms are defined in the context in which they are used in
this dissertation.

Case stpgy. ln qualitative research, this is the study of a “bounded
system,’ with the focus being either the case or an issue that is illustrated by the
case or cases. A qualitative case study provides an in-depth study of this
“system,” based on a diverse array of data-collection methods, and the
researcher situates the case within the larger context or setting (Stake, 1995).

gross-case analysis. This form of analysis applies to a collective case,

wherein the researcher examines more than one case. It involves examining

16

themes across cases to discern themes that are common to all cases. It is a
step that typically follows case analysis, when the researcher studies multiple
cases (Stake, 1995).

W. Several related families living together or near each
other; a family with several generations living together (Zinn 8. Eitzen, 1990).

mm. A small group of people who live together in a committed,
intimate interpersonal relationship and who see their own identity as being
importantly attached to the group-a group that has a clear identity of its own
(Stinnett, Chesser, & Defrain, 1979). Ronnau (1993) defined a family as a
particular societal arrangement whereby persons related by ancestry, marriage,
or adoption live together, form an economic unit, and raise children.

Pagentgl ipyplvpmpnt. The practice of any activity that empowers parents
and families to participate in the educational process, either at home or in a
program setting (Epstein et al., 1986).

School mriences. A phrase used to refer to the following factors
pertaining to what happens to children at school: (a) attitudes of students
toward Ieaming, (b) students’ relationships with teachers and peers, (0) students”

work habits and performance, and (d) students’ behavior and attendance.

Overview
Chapter I contained an introduction to the problem, as well as the purpose
and research questions. The importance of the investigation and its relationship

to similar research were discussed. The assumptions, limitations, and

17

delimitations were set forth, and the conceptual framework was described. Key
terms were defined.

A review of literature and related research is presented in Chapter II. The
four bodies of literature that informed this study include (a) African American
families: history, culture, and theory; (b) urban African American families’
ecology and home environments; (c) family-school involvement and
relationships; and (d) school experiences of African American children.

The research design and methodology used in the investigation are
described in Chapter III. The appropriateness of qualitative methods (grounded
theory, ethnography, and case study) to this investigation is explained. The field
research experience, including the sample and settings, is discussed, and the
three data-collection methods (participant observations, interviews, and review
of school-related documents) used in the study are delineated. Ethical
considerations, field procedures involved in concluding the study, and the pilot
study are discussed. Issues of access, the researchers orientation, recording
and management of data, and reporting the findings are set forth.

Chapter IV contains the eight family case studies, including the
background and setting. These case studies include relevant data gleaned from
the observations, field notes, interviews, and reviews of school-related
documents.

Included in Chapter V are a discussion of the findings; conclusions drawn

from the findings; implications of the research; and recommendations for further

18

research, practice, and policy. The chapter concludes with the researchers

reflections.

19

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The researchers primary purpose in this study was to investigate and
describe the perceptions and actions of contemporary urban African American
families regarding their involvement in the education of their'children. A further
purpose was to determine how these perceptions and actions influenced the
school experiences of their fifth—grade youngsters. The four bodies of
overarching literature that informed this research include (a) Black family life and
theory, (b) parenting and child development, (c) family and school relationships,
and (d) education of African American children. This comprehensive review of
the literature is organized around the following general themes: (a) Black
Families: History, Culture, and Theory; (b) Urban African American Families:
Structure, Parenting Styles, and Home Environments; (c) Family Involvement in

Schools; and (d) School Experiences of African American Children.

Black Families: Histou, Culture, and Theopy

"To know the possibilities of a race, an appraisal of its past is necessary.”

Carter G. Woodson

Sudarkasa (1997) argued that understanding today’s Black families

requires an understanding of their evolution overtime. In this study, the phrase

20

Black family is used to refer to families who see themselves as the descendants
of individuals who were brought from Africa to be slaves in the United States. It
should be noted that the terms African Americans and Blacks are used
interchangeably throughout this dissertation. As a group, Black families display
a diversity of characteristics, beliefs, values, and lifestyles. This portion of the
literature review focuses on studies, articles, and works that pertain to such
aspects of Black family life as (a) extended family and kin, (b) community

networks, (c) family strengths and values, and (d) theories of Black family life.

mended Family and Kin

Researchers have documented that African Americans, as a group, are
more likely to reside in extended-family households than are Whites (Taylor,
Charters, Tucker, & Lewis, 1990). The Black extended family also was
described by Martin and Martin (1978), Stack (1974), Sudarkasa (1997),
McAdoo (1997), Nobles (1997), Staples (1974), and Billingsley (1992). In the
Black culture, the phrase extended family is generally used to denote several
related family members living together or near each other, or a family with
several generations living together. Martin and Martin described the extended
family as a multi—generational, independent kinship system that is welded
together by a sense of obligation to relatives. Their research of a poor Black
community in a midwestem city highlighted the adaptive strategies,
resourcefulness, and resilience of Black families under conditions of poverty

through the economic stability provided by extended family and kin networks.

21

Martin and Martin concluded that extended Black family networks serve as
mutual-aid systems for the welfare of their members and the maintenance of the
family as a whole.

In her anthropological field study of Black family life, Stack (1975)
described family kin networks as “patterns of co-residence, kinship.based
exchange networks, links to multiple domestic units, elastic household
boundaries, and lifelong bonds to three generational households” (p. 124). The
data, which she collected through taped interviews and informal conversations,
captured the points of view of the informants. Stack’s findings indicated that, in
Black families, kinship networks traditionally have continued to provide a major
mode for coping with the pressures of society. She also stated that, “despite the
distinctively negative features attributed to poor families, the Black urban family
with its kin networks proves to be anorganized, tenacious, active, lifelong
network" (p. 124). Among the benefits of extended-households that Stack
identified are (a) the peeling of economic resources, (b) assistance with child
care and socialization, (c) social and emotional support, and (d) assistance with
domestic responsibilities. Stack characterized this system of “doubling up” in
extended-family households as an important survival strategy for Black families.

In another reference to extended families, Billingsley (1968, 1992) used
the term to refer to households in which family members, such as grandparents,
reside with nuclear families. Accordingly, he maintained that such households
do not, in and of themselves, constitute entire extended families. African

American extended families embrace many households, some with two, three, or

22

more generations. These households are sometimes headed by women,
sometimes by men, and at times by both (McAdoo, 1997, p. 19).

Sudarkasa (1997) presented an overview of the African extended family
out of which African American families evolved. She called attention to special
aspects of Black family households and family organization as transformations
from African families into African American families. She observed that, (a) after
slavery, those African Americans who owned parcels of land again created kin
networks by bringing other family members to live on that land; (b) in cases
when relatives did not live close together, the extended family ties linked people
across households and states; and (c) traditionally, among African Americans,
the term refers not only to family members who reside in particular households,

but to extended family members living in other households as well.

Community Networks

In addition to the extended family and kin networks, the Black community
has a historical tradition of strong spiritual networks. This is true of many African
American families today. The Black church has been an instrumental aspect of
the Black culture. Hines and Boyd-Franklin (1982) described the role that the
Black church played in the development and dissemination of plans to escape to
freedom during slavery, and in the organization and strategizing in the fight for
civil rights. Many Black community leaders were also religious leaders. The
Black church provided more than connection and leadership. It was a place of

refuge from the feelings of anger, pain, and humiliation that African Americans

23

endured. Hines and Boyd-Franklin argued that it was through the Black church
that African American families developed the strength to bear their pain and
sorrow, and to press on in the face of adversity.

Emerging research has focused on the role of friends and church
members in the informal support networks of African Americans. Several studies
have indicated that friends, neighbors, co-workers, and in-laws are important
sources of assistance for Black families (Hale, 1994; McAdoo, 1997; Taylor et
al., 1997). Several of these studies have indicated that these community
networks often serve as surrogate families when relatives are far away. Church
members have been found to be a source of critical support among Black
families. In their review of a decade of research on these families, Taylor et al.
(1990) found that these community networks provide a number of benefits,
including car pooling, shared child care, neighborhood crime watches, block
clubs, and boys and girls clubs.

In addressing Black family values from the insider's perspective,
Sudarkasa (1997) identified the following seven R’s that are among these family
values: respect, responsibility, reciprocity, restraint, reverence, reason, and
reconciliation. Further, she proposed that the family, especially the extended
family, is the institution most responsible for the survival of African Americans in
the United States. She argued that not all of the social ills in the Black
community can or should be laid at the doorstep of the African American family.

Sudarkasa’s argument supports one of this researchers contentions-that not all

24

of the problems that contemporary urban African American children experience

in schools can or should be attributed to the family.

§trppgth§ and Values of the Black Family

Researchers and scholars often have been so preoccupied with the
pathology of the Black family that they have overlooked what Hill (1972) referred
to as the strengths of Black families. Hill defined family strengths as “those traits
which facilitate the ability of the family to meet the needs of its members, and the
demands made upon it by systems outside the family unit” (p. 6). The five family
strengths that Hill identified were (a) strong kinship bonds, (b) strong work
orientation, (c) adaptability of family roles, (d) strong achievement orientation,
and (a) strong religious orientation. Hill (p. 27) and several other scholars (Hale,
1982; Harrison, 1990; McAdoo, 1988) maintained that these five characteristics
have been instrumental in the survival, advancement, and stability of Black
families.

Work and education are among the Black family values that African
Americans stress to their children. Scanzoni (1971) described in his research
how Black families have traditionally stressed the importance of work and
education to their children, reminding them that because of their race they would
have limited opportunities to get ahead in society. Thus, hard work and a good
education were the route to success. McAdoo (1988, 1997) maintained that
Black families continue to stress the importance of education and work as a

means to achieve economic security and upward mobility. She described how

25

family members combine their resources to support that one childwho needs
help to complete his or her education. McAdoo referred to this process of
helping those who have helped others in time of need as “reciprocal obligation.”
Some scholars have concluded that, of all the traditional African American
family values, the most fundamental of all is the commitment to the family itself
(Billingsley, 1968; Hale, 1982; Hill, 1971; Stack, 1975). Further, authors have
contended that this sense of commitment to kin and the values that are taught to
children as a way of instilling and reinforcing this commitment were brought to

America by the enslaved population (McAdoo, 1997, p. 36).

Theog'es of Black Family Life

A number of attempts have been made to find an appropriate theory for
the study of Black families. Some of the theories most often found in the
literature are included here to demonstrate the diversity of approaches used to
study Black families.

Allen (1978) conducted a study of theories applicable to studying Black
family life. In his attempts to identify appropriate theoretical frameworks for the
study of Black family life, he argued that theory in the area generally consists of
both objective (conceptual approach) and subjective (ideological perspective)
components. He evaluated competing conceptual approaches (structural-
functional, interactional, and developmental) and ideological perspectives
(cultural equivalent, cultural deviant, and cultural variant) in the literature. Allen

preposed unification of the developmental approach with the cultural-variant

26

perspective in future studies as one strategy for enhancing understanding of
Black family structures and processes in society.

An ecological structural framework has been widely used in the study of
family life. This model, based on the work of Bronfenbrenner (1979) and others,
can be used to examine individuals’ behavior within the context of the settings in
which they live, as well as the interactions among those settings. The ecological
framework allows a holistic understanding of individual development.

Staples (1986) concluded that current theoretical and conceptual
frameworks are poorly suited to the study of Black families. He suggested that
contemporary models preclude the development of viable perspectives of Black
family life because of their tendency to impose ethnocentric values on the
analysis. Therefore, he called for the development of theoretical frameworks
that are sensitive to the unique circumstances, structures, and styles of Black
families in the United States.

History records a list of contrasting theories for the investigation of Black
family life. Johnson (1997), in her treatise “Three Decades of Black Family
Empirical Research: Challenges for the 21st Century,” described several of the
most commonly used theories. Her examples of some theoretical frameworks
and researchers and scholars who subscribed to them are as follows: (a)
pathologist framework (Moynihan,1965); (b) reactive framework (Billingsley,
1968, 1992); (c) cultural-equivalent framework (Scanzoni, 1971 ); and (d) Black

nationalist framework (Hill, 1990). Finally, Johnson admonished Black family

27

scholars to maintain an intellectual posture of openness to the many shades of
family life (p. 107).

Among other theories that have been proposed for the study of Black
family life are (a) the triple quandary theory, offered by Boykins and Toms
(1985), and (b) the Black family historical cultural theory, advanced by Nobles
(1997).

Finally, theorists of the Black family are still pursuing adequate theoretical
frameworks for the study of Black families. This review of some sources
represents an attempt to contribute to the identification of theoretical frameworks
applicable to the study of Black family life in American society. Additional
theoretical models, including the symbolic-interactionist approach, are discussed

more fully in other sections of this review.

Summary

Black families in the United States have developed a unique, distinctive,
and diverse culture. Many aspects of this culture are historical and have been
handed down through many generations. This review of literature pertaining to
historical cultural characteristics of Black family life has provided a vehicle for
the application of the symbolic-interactionist theory. Reflecting on these cultural
traditions allowed the researcher to identify a common set of symbols and
understandings that emerged to give meaning to contemporary urban African

American families, and their interactions with others.

28

W
1mm

African American children today live in homes with diverse family
structures, parenting styles and Childrearing practices, family interactions,
families as educators, and homes as Ieaming environments. Their adult role
models and primary caregivers have a range of educational levels, occupations,
and resources. This portion of the literature review is intended to provide an
overview of research pertaining to the above-mentioned topics. The studies and
writings reviewed here will provide a basis for responding to Subsidiary
Research Question 2: How do urban African American families perceive that
their involvement in the education of their children is influenced, or not
influenced, by current ecological factors related to the above-named topics? It is
important to ask this question because educators and researchers frequently
tend to blame the problems that African American children experience in school
on such factors as dysfunctional families, single-parent households, inadequate
childrearing practices, low expectations of achievement, unstable home
environments, and absence of positive adult role models.

Several researchers have evaluated Black families using deficit models,
with which they compared lower-economic-class African American families with
White middle-class families (Clark-Steward, 1973; Moynihan, 1965;
Pinderhughes, 1982). However, these writers did not address the special issues
and concerns that African American parents face in raising their children. These

circumstances and adversities have been described at length in the literature on

29

African American parenting (Billingsley, 1968; Comer & Poussaint, 1994; Hale,
1987; Hill, 1972; McAdoo, 1985, 1997; Nobles, 1997; Peters, 1988; Slaughter,

1988).

amil ure

In this dissertation, the phrase family structure is used to describe the
family composition, or the implications of the living arrangements for the
children. Glick (1998) examined recent changes in the United States concerning
the diversity of Black family patterns and those of all races combined. The goal
of Glick’s study was to add to the growing number of reports on Black families
that viewed them from a positive, rather than negative, perspective. The study
sample was obtained from US. Census records for 1971, 1981, and 1993.

Among the major findings of Glick’s study were that (a) a larger proportion
of Black families than families of other races included young children among
their members, (b) a large and growing proportion were maintained by women,
(c) the proportion of Black married-couple families with young children present
had increased, (d) the most extreme contrast between the living arrangements of
Blacks and other families was found among children living with a lone mother
who had never been married, and (e) poorly educated Black women tended to
have more children than did their counterparts of other races. Blacks also were
found to exceed their counterparts of other races in numbers of remarriages,
divorces, and re-divorces. In the area of educational level of parents, the

average educational level of Black parents was still substantially lower than that

30

of parents of all races combined. Black women were found to be more likely
than other women to be married to men with less education than themselves.
The low incomes and high unemployment rates among African American fathers
were responsible for the negative family income difference.

Glick’s overall findings indicated that the gaps were narrowing in most
areas, but negative differences still persisted. Glick admitted that the results
were subject to some limitations because of unequal amounts of misreporting in
censuses and surveys on such subjects as presence of hquands or fathers in
the household. The results of Glick’s study are important to the present
research because they concern some of the same aspects of African American
family demographics that this researcher investigated.

Morris (1992) described African American family structures as ranging
from two adults with one or both working, to a single adult who may or may not
be working. Like Glick, she emphasized the negative effects of economics,
stability, and resources on single-parent households. Morris described
extended family networks as a socializing force that positively influenced
economics and child development

In her treatise on African American students and their families, Morris
emphasized the importance of researchers’ and practitioners’ becoming
sensitive to the ecological and cultural contexts in which these families live in
order to better understand their children’s development. Other concerns that
Morris addressed were (a) the negative effects of reductions in state and

federally funded social programs; (b) schools and communities being stripped of

31

resources by the flight of European Americans and middle-class African
Americans from the central cities; and (c) significant numbers of Black children
who have been neglected, malnourished, abandoned, or abused. Among the
encouraging factors Morris presented were some African American
characteristics and processes, such as (a) promoting respect for authority that
carries over to school, (b) having high educational aspirations for their children,
and (c) teaching children to have pride in their race and their cultural heritage.

Further, Morris cited the empirical studies of Blau (1981), Clark (1983),
and Scott-Jones (1987), which provided evidence that African American children
from poor circumstances can succeed in school when there is a framework of a
supportive family, school, and community network. She also identified some of
the variables that impede these children’s achievement and stressed the
importance of family involvement throughout the children’s school years. Many
of the issues related to African American families and their school-age children
that Morris discussed provide support for the present researchers argument that
a number of these families are successful in preparing their children to succeed
in school.

Hurd, Moore, and Rogers (1993) examined strengths among African
American parents. Building on a model of family competence, the authors
explored the values, attitudes, and activities of African American parents. They
asked a sample of 53 parents to describe the values and behaviors they
imparted to their children and what support they received from external

caregivers. The authors used and cited the Competence Model of Family

32

Functioning (Waters & Lawrence, 1993) as the theoretical framework for
examining family strengths. This model presumes that all individuals are
motivated to behave as they do by an overwhelming desire to achieve
competence. Thus, the basic assumptions underlying this research were that (a)
parents try to raise their children competently, (b) parents will be successful at
some aspects of child care; (c) parents who have problems with their
environments nevertheless have strengths that can be used to improve their
situations; and (d) extended family members, and neighbor and friend networks,
strive to assist parents in their childrearing efforts.

Clark (1983) conducted a landmark study on family life and school
achievements. His findings refuted the myths about the limitations of family
structure or income on the school achievement of poor African American
children. Clark disagreed with the claim and implications of previous studies
that the family unit and role properties (number of parents in the home, parents’
marital status, family size, maternal employment status, maternal educational
status, and income) are the source of children’s school behavior and Ieaming
outcomes. Instead, he maintained that it is the family members’ beliefs,
activities, and overall cultural style that produce the mental structure required for
effective and desirable outcomes during the school experience. To support his
contention, Clark concluded 10 intimate case studies of African American
families in Chicago, Illinois. All of the families were at the poverty level and were
equally divided between one-parent and two-parent families. All were also

equally divided between having produced either a high-achieving or low-

33

achieving child. Clark’s model included detailed observations on the quality of
home life, noting how family habits and interactions affected school success, and
what characteristics of family life provided African American children with “school
survival skills.“

Elder and his associates (1995) examined the perspectives of inner-city
families on the strategies of parenting. The researchers traced the effect of
economics on the emotional distress and parenting behaviors of 429 African
American and European American parents. Two-thirds of the families in the
sample were African Americans. Nearly 90% of the primary caregivers were
mothers, 6% were fathers, and 5% were grandmothers of the youths, who
ranged in age from 11 to 15 years of age. Eighty percent of the single mothers
were African American. Forty-five percent of the families had below $20,000 in
total family income. Twelve percent of the mothers had a college education, and
52% reported having a high school diploma or its equivalent.

Elder and his associates addressed three issues: (a) the effect of
economic stress on parenting beliefs and behaviors, with emphasis on its effects
on parental efficacy, as mediated by feelings of demoralization or depression;
(b) the extent to which types of family structure (strong and weak marriages, and
single-parent families) and perceived support modify the effects of hardship and
economic pressures; and (c) the link between efficacy beliefs about parenting

and the use of family management strategies that minimize developmental

opportunities.

The findings from Elder and associates’ quantitative study were as
follows. Among Black families, single-parent households and conflicted
marriages undermined the well-being of parents. Compared with White parents,
African American parents’ sense of parental efficacy was more predictive of child
management strategies, enhanced developmental opportunities for children, and
minimized risks. These results were discussed in terms of the differential
availability and use of neighborhood resources for parenting between the two
racial groups.

Cummagy. The literature contains an abundance of studies and reports
focusing on the composition of African American families. Examples were
included here to increase readers’ understanding of the structure of
contemporary African American families. Among the reappearing themes in this
review was the issue of diversity. The nuclear family consisting of mother,
father, and their children has never been, is not now, and perhaps never will be

the characteristic way to describe the structure of Black families.

Parenting Styles and Childrearing Practices

Parenting styles are defined as constellations of parental attitudes,
practices, and nonverbal expressions that characterize the nature of parent-child
interactions across diverse situations (Glasgow et al., 1997). The literature on
African American parenting styles and childrearing practices that has
implications for this research includes the works of Billingsley (1968), Comer and

Poussaint (1994), Hale-Benson (1987), McAdoo (1985), Nobles (1997), Willie

35

(1981), Heiss (1973), and Scanzoni (1971). These scholars stressed the
importance of moving beyond the comparative pathological approach (used in
much of the research of the 19603 and the early 1970s) and studying Black
families from a perspective that recognizes the cultural variations, functionality,
and validity of Black family lifestyles (Peters, 1988).

Writers on parenting in general (Baumrind, 1967; Bowlby, 1988;
Procidano & Fisher, 1992) have contended that how children develop socially
and emotionally depends largely on how they are parented. Baumrind identified
three types of parenting styles: authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive.
Authoritative parents are high on both control and responsiveness; their children
tend to be more competent, independent, and responsible than other children.
Authoritarian parents are those high on control and low on responsiveness in
interactions with their children. Permissive parents are low on responsiveness in
interactions with their children and low on control. .

Taylor et al. (1997) assembled a collection of articles on family life in
Black America. Each of these articles was firmly grounded in empirical data and
based on, but not limited to, the National Survey of Black Americans (NSBA).
The authors’ approach was to move away from the deficit perspective and
present a viewpoint based on the cultural context. These articles have
relevance to the present study because they deal with many of the same issues
this researcher examined, including family ecology, parenting, education, and
socialization of children, along with a number of other challenges and adversities

that Black families encounter. Another important correlate of this volume to the

36

present research is the amount of diversity it revealed within African American
families, as well as the forces that shape, limit, and enhance them.

The childrearing attitudes and behavior of Black parents living in a
working-class neighborhood were researched by Bartz and Levine (1978). They
compared interview data from 160 Black mothers and fathers to similar data from
152 Chicano and 143 Anglo parents living in the same neighborhood. Among
the significant findings of the study were the parenting traits that Bartz and
Levine identified as characteristics of African American parents. These parents
were typified as (a) expecting early autonomy, (b) not allowing wasted time,

(c) being highly supportive and controlling, (d) valuing strictness, and

(e) encouraging equalitarian family roles. The authors also concluded that Black
parents differed from Anglo and Chicano parents on several dimensions of
childrearing. Few differences by gender of parent or child were reported.

In their conclusions, Bartz and Levine stated that there is a need for
further research to explore how the complex attitudinal pattern that emerged in
their study is actually communicated in the Black family with children of different
ages and sexes. Accordingly, the authors concluded that, only after
considerably more research, will insights be gained into how the childrearing
attitudes of Black parents today will affect the overall personal, educational, and
social competencies of the young Black generation. The preceding conclusions
highlight a need for the present research, in which many of the same Black
family childrearing practices (i.e., support, control, perrnissiveness, and

strictness) highlighted by Bartz and Levine were examined.

37

In her synopsis of parenting young children in Black families, Peters
(1985) concluded that the lives of Black parents and their childrearing
approaches are embedded in the racial, cultural, and economic situations of
Blacks in the United States. Further, she maintained that research on parenting
in Black families must reflect this reality. Peters made the following general
observations about research on childrearing in Black families:

1. Evidence indicates that the behaviors, interactions, and lifestyles of
Blacks are different from those of Whites.

2. Blacks’ childrearing priorities, attitudes, and patterns of behavior have
developed out of the unique economic, cultural, and racial circumstances in
which they have lived.

3. A number of researchers have characterized Black families’
differences as deficits that need to be improved to conform to the standards of
mainstream White America.

4. More recent researchers have begun to describe the childrearing
patterns of Black parents from the perspective of their effectiveness as relevant,
supportive, or practical strategies appropriate to the social realities Black people
face (p. 1 59).

A number of researchers and scholars have described the childrearing
attitudes and practices of African American parents and have provided a variety
of implications. Spencer (1985) found that many Black parents tend to
transcend race in their socialization efforts and strive to raise “neutral children.“

0n the other hand, Thornton (1997) researched racial socialization among

38

African American families. He defined racial socialization as a means by which
Black parents and families teach their children with specific messages relevant
to race, group, and self-pride as protection against racism and discrimination in
society. Racial socialization in Black families also has been investigated by

Peters (1985) and Harrison (1985).

Familjps as Educators

Families as educators is the terminology used when the emphasis is on
the interactions within and among families that are related to Ieaming (Bobbitt &
Paolucci, 1986, p. 48). In reviewing the literature related to families as
educators, one finds a broad range of models, concepts, methods, and opinions.
For the purpose of this study, the researcher examined these writings that
addressed family processes, parent-child interactions, homework, and Ieaming-
related activities in which children are involved outside of school. Many writers
have focused their attention on families of specific compositions (nuclear, single-
parent, or blended families), education, or employment. The aim here was to
include information on the influence, or lack of influence, of families as
educators by choosing literature on the Ieaming-related activities of families.
Families often have been characterized as the child’s first teacher because a
considerable amount of learning and socialization occurs before the child begins
school (Spencer, Brokens, & Allen, 1985).

Bobbitt and Paoluccl (1986) described the strengths of the home and

family as “informal Ieaming environments.“ They explained this concept as “the

39

learning that is associated with activities which occur within the home or family
situation. Inputs into this system consist of information and resources of family
members, friends, and other sources that perform a role or function in the home“
(p. 47). Some of the other salient points the authors made include the following:

1. The home and family environment is the primary and pervasive setting
for Ieaming basic life tasks.

2. In the home, Ieaming can be pursued within the context and pattern of
everyday life at the time it is needed.

3. Play provides a significant function in maximizing the role of the home
and family as educators.

4. Parents who understand child development can foster interactions and
reinforce the child, thereby enhancing the child’s Ieaming within the home and
family.

5. Evidence indicates that the family ecosystem (family members in home
environments) is the most effective system for fostering and sustaining the
development of the child.

6. Society has much to gain if attention is focused on the vital importance
of the role of family members and significant others in influencing and enhancing
the cognitive development of young family members.

In his study of family life and school achievement, Clark (1983) described
Ieaming-related interactions of African American families. .He identified the
patterns and styles of contact parents organized into their relationships with their

children that provided a particular level of parental sponsorship of the child’s

40

growth and development. The four parental behaviors that Clark highlighted
were (a) carefully delegating to children certain duties and responsibilities in
Iiteracy-skiII-development activities; (b) providing regular instruction, assistance,
suggestions, and coaching during highly effective interpersonal encounters;

(c) establishing the legitimacy of particular norms, rules, and values (code of
conduct for appropriate behavior); and (d) using verbal supports, sanctions, and
other nurturing reinforcement strategies as a mechanism of social control

(p. 200).

Leichter (1974) explored the topic of the family as educators. In an
extensive review of literature, she began with the work of John Dewey (lhp
WM) and gave a historical and chronological account of
perspectives on the family as educators. In her treatise, she examined several
issues related to the topic and featured noted scholars in the family and child
development arena, including Margaret Mead, Robert Levine, and Urie
Bronfenbrenner. Socialization and education, grandparents as educators,
parental goals, and early intervention were among the issues the authors
addressed. These studies have particular implications for the present research
because they also emphasized diversity in families, highlighted the use of a
variety of approaches to the study of families, explained and described the
concept of families as educators, and highlighted the benefits for children.

In a study of the effects of early intervention on the cognitive performance
of 161 low-income African American children, Burchinal, Campbell, Bryant,

Wasik, and Ramey (1997) used a general systems model to examine multiple

41

influences, including characteristics of the child and family, and early childhood
intervention. Their findings indicated that (a) child characteristics were also
related to cognitive development, and (b) over time, cognitive performance of
African American children from low-income families was enhanced by intensive,
high-quality intervention and by specific child-matemal and family environment
factors. These results are consistent with a general systems model that
describes development as related to the transactions between the child and his
or her environment. The results were also consistent with McLoyd’s (1990)
person-context theory, which suggests that the quality of caregiving is a strong
determinant of cognitive performance in young African American children over
time. The sample for Burchinal et al.’s (1997) research comprised young Black
children aged 2 to 8 years. Even though the present study involved fifth-grade
children, some factors are common to both studies, including (a) considering
developmental diversity among low-income African American children and

(b) identifying characteristics of the child, mother, and family environment related
to these children’s school performance.

In her treatise on families as educators, Scott-Jones (1988) explored the
transition from informal to formal school Ieaming. She argued that shifting the
blame for children’s school problems from the school to the home is not a
satisfactory solution. Instead, she maintained that mutual support is the answer
and that schools, as well as families, must work toward mutually supportive
relationships. In concluding her assessment, Scott-Jones made the following

recommendations:

42

1. Teacher-preparation programs should require completion of courses in
the following areas: (a) contribution of the home environment to the
achievement and development of children and youths, (b) parent education,
(c) social diversity in parenting styles, and (d) Black family life.

2. Because parents transmit values and expectations regarding
education, they should impose standards of excellence, set high but attainable
goals, indicate their belief in the child’s competence, reward success, and
judiciously punish inappropriate behavior.

Summagy. The literature on parents as educators reflected that:

1. Families as educators are important to the school experiences of
African American children because of their unique and culturally sensitive
development

2. Each family is different, and functions that work for some families
might not be applicable to others. -

3. Programs facilitating parents as educators in the early years result in

substantial improvements in children’s later cognitive functioning.

The Home as a Leamin nvironment

The phrase home as a learning environment is used when the focus is on
the resources of the home, such as tools, equipment, facilities, and particular
space, that are used to support Ieaming (Bobbitt & Paolucci, 1986). Bobbitt and
Paoluccl posited that most people will agree that their Ieaming had its beginning

in the home. Learning to walk, talk, feel, and make sense of one’s everyday

43

sumoundings starts in the home. The home is often referred to as an informal
Ieaming environment and is defined in terms of familial boundaries; the Ieaming
is associated with the activities that occur within the home or family situation.
The literature pertaining to African American homes as Ieaming environments
contains myriad opinions relative to the influence of this variable on the school
success of Black children. A few of those selections with implications for the
present study are discussed in the following paragraphs.

As stated earlier, Bobbitt and Paoluccl (1986) identified several strengths
of the homeand family as a Ieaming environment. They asserted that “some
homes are more effective as Ieaming centers than others; Ieaming in the home
is sometimes incidental, non-structured, and often implicit; the major purposes of
Ieaming in the home and family are socialization, acculturation, and
development; and time is an important consideration in assessing the strengths
of homes and families as Ieaming environments“ (p. 56). In essence, the
authors regarded the home and family as primarily informal Ieaming centers and
recognized the school as the formal Ieaming center. The cautioned against
shifting too much of the responsibility for formal learning to the home and family
because it would interfere with the important functions of socialization,
acculturation, and development.

Other scholars and researchers have reported findings that supported the
desirable outcomes of structured home Ieaming models as interventions for
disadvantaged learners. For example, Rich (1987) referred to the success of

Home and School Institute (HSI) programs for families. These activities provide

44

a structured tutoring role for the family that supplements, but does not duplicate,
the traditional work of the school. Instead, these programs are designed to
teach the basic motivational skills and cultivate the positive attitudes toward
learning that children need in order to do well in school.

Slaughter and Epps (1987) conducted a study in which they compared the
home environments and academic achievement of Black children and youths.
The researchers focused on the questions, What roles do Black parents have in
the schooling of their children?'and What contributions do Black parents make to
the students’ achievement? The sample included 16 low-readiness children (7
girls, 9 boys) and 8 high-readiness children (4 girls, 4 boys). The 24 low-income
Black families and their first-graders lived in a small southern university town
during the 1978-79 school year. For this study, the authors compared high— and
low-achieving first-graders in low-income Black families. Mothers’ and children’s
behaviors during a maternal teaching task were examined. Two kinds of data in
addition to those on the structured teaching task also were collected. First,
naturalistic observations were conducted in the children’s homes. This
information was useful because behaviors that occur during a structured task
might not occur in children’s everyday interactions. Second, hour-long
interviews were conducted with the children’s mothers, who were asked
questions about family demographic characteristics, family routines and
childrearing practices, and values and practices related to education. Data also
were collected on the students’ achievement. At the end of the school year, four

measures were taken from the school records: scores on the California

45

Achievement Test (administered near the end of first grade), number of
language and mathematics skills mastered (assessed by teacher-administered
tests), number of behavior problems reported on teacher checklists, and number
of days absent.

Significant results of the Slaughter and Epps study were as follows:

1. The groups did not differ significantly with regard to behavior problems
or absences from school, although the means on these measures were twice as
high for the low-readiness as for the high-readiness group. School records also
revealed that 8 of the 16 low-readiness and 1 of the 8 high-readiness children
would be retained in first grade the following school year.

2. The two groups, selected initially on the basis of school-readiness test
scores, remained significantly different on measures of academic performance at
the end of the school year.

Slaughter and Epps found that there was no evidence to suggest that the
high- and low-readiness children were concentrated in any particular type of
classroom or school. The researchers did not assess the role of the children’s
school experiences in maintaining the initial difference. They concluded with a
number of implications for policy, practice, and parenting to aid in improving the
academic achievement of low-income Black children.

Although Slaughter and Epps’s sample included very young children, their
study is closely related to the present research. Similarities include:

1. Both studies had samples of low-income Black families with

elementary school children.

46

2. Both studies used nearly identical data-collection methods (interviews
and observations in a naturalistic setting, and review of the students’ school
records).

3. Both studies had a similar focus related to the contributions that Black
parents make to student achievement.

Ascher and Flaxman (1987) concluded that family participation in
education at home appears to be more clear-cut in its effectiveness in improving
student achievement than parent involvement in decision making and other roles
less directly related to education. The authors posited that school policy
directed at involving families in at-home Ieaming appears to be particularly
useful for low-income elementary school children whose parents might not
naturally participate.

Several other researchers have reported findings on positive results of
home environment Ieaming support, as well as school-initiated leam-at-home
programs (Barth, as cited in Slaughter, 1988; Walberg, 1986). Specific models
and strategies were recommended by Clark (1983), Corner (1985), Hrabowski,
Matson, and Geoffrey (1998), and Rich (1987).

A number of researchers have examined the influence of the home
environment and maternal characteristics on children’s Ieaming.
Bronfenbrenner (1979) and Leichter (1974) indicated that the more actively
parents are involved in the Ieaming of their children at home, the greater will be

the effect of the school program for these students.

47

Similarly, Belsky and Rovine (1990) found that the personal resources
(self-esteem, locus of control, educational attainment, and age) that mothers
bring to their child rearing also have significant effects on the children’s home
environments. The authors argued that their findings indicate the importance of
the home environment to the cognitive and socio-emotional development of
young children. The purpose of the study was to examine (a) the determinants
of the home environments that employed mothers provided for their young
children and (b) the influence of current employment experiences, current family
conditions, and maternal and child characteristics in shaping children’s home
environments. The sample for this investigation included 795 employed mothers
with young children. Participants were selected from the 1996 National
Longitudinal Study of Youth, Mother-Child Supplement (NLSY). Belsky and
Rovine acknowledged that their findings may not be generalizable to more
mature and advantaged mothers with flexible occupations. In addition to the
relevant findings and conclusions, this study provided pertinent information for
the present research, which also concerned the influence, or lack of influence, of
the family and home environment on the school experiences of fifth-grade
children. Also, both studies addressed the effects of problematic family and
home situations that impinge on the Ieaming of Black and other minority
children.

The literature pertaining to the family and home as Ieaming environments
is relevant to the present study because it underscores the importance of the

family and home to children’s school performance and adjustment. Most of the

48

findings discussed here were from studies involving families of diverse racial,
socioeconomic, and ethnic backgrounds. Therefore, to improve our
understanding of the perceptions and actualizations related to the involvement
of African American families in the education of their children, a study such as
the present one (which focuses on Black families) was needed. The present
exploration of the Ieaming-related family interactions and characteristics of the
home environment can add to the literature on the topic and will provide some
implications and recommendations for improving the school experiences of
African American children.

Summag. Many researchers have documented the benefits of families as
educators, and homes as Ieaming environments, for the school experiences of
the children. However, Slaughter (1998) cautioned that the family and home
serve in a supplementary capacity and cannot perform the educative functions of
the school. Nor can preschool educational intervention compensate for the need
to teach children, regardless of their previous experiences. The reports and
studies related to the support of the home as a Ieaming environment reinforCed
the need for more qualitative research, such as the present study, examining
family processes related to cognitive development and eventual support for
school Ieaming within contemporary Black families. Studies like this will
increase the understanding. of how these childhood competencies are optimally
encouraged in the natural urban home setting. The design and implementation

of effective strategies and programs will be greatly enhanced by providing a

49

balance between qualitative research studies and the numerous quantitative

studies that have already been conducted.

mm in Schools

Family involvement in schools has been defined in several ways,
depending on the context in which it is described. For this portion of the
literature review, the phrase family involvement in schools is used to refer to the
practice of any activity that empowers parents and families to participate in the
educational process, either at home or in a program setting (Epstein et al.,
1986). A few of the definitions, descriptions, studies, and opinions most
commonly found in the literature are included here to provide a framework for
examining how the African American families participating in this study perceived
that they actualized their involvement in their children’s schools and school-
related activities. The information in this section pertains to the following
indicators of school involvement: home-school communications, parent-teacher
interactions, inaschool participation, benefits of parent involvement, and barriers
to parent involvement.

Epstein has conducted much research and written extensively on parents’
participation and involvement in their children’s schools. In her 1993 model of
parental involvement, she identified and described five types of involvement:

(a) Parenting-the school helps parents create a supportive Ieaming environment
at home, (b) Communication-the school reaches parents through effective

communication, (c) Volunteering-the school recruits and organizes parent help,

50

(d) Learning at home—the school provides parents with ideas for helping children
at home, and (e) Representing other parents—the school recruits and trains
parent leaders.

Dauber and Epstein (as cited in Griffore & Boger, 1986) researched
parents’ attitudes and practices of involvement in inner-city elementary and
middle schools. They found that

1. Children are more successful at all grade levels when parents

participate in schools and encourage Ieaming at home.

2. Parent involvement is strongly limited to the‘actions and practices

of their children’s teachers.

3. Few studies have focused on schools with large populations of

educationally disadvantaged students or hard to reach parents.
In. 104)
Dauber and Epstein’s research provided this investigator with a model for

examining the perceptions and actions of the families in the present study

relative to school involvement.

Hommool Communications

lnfonnation that parents receive from the school is the link between the
home and the school. The means by which this information is disseminated
varies from school to school. Barbour and Barbour (1997) provided a table
showing both traditional and innovative communication strategies (see Table
2.1). The table is included here because it contains strategies that are most
often used in home-school communication. Researchers who have examined
patterns of communications between families and schools have looked at such

modes of contact as school newsletters and special bulletins, calendars of

51

Table 2.1: Parent and teacher communication strategies: traditional and

innovative.

 

Traditional

Innovative

 

Conferences

 

Teacher schedules and directs conference.
Teacher prepares materials, provides input,
and strives for cordial and productive
exchanges.

 

Parents prepare for conferences as well as
teachers.

Parents schedule appointment.

Child contributes ideas to conference and/or
attends.

 

Home Visits

 

Teacher attempts to understand home and
establish positive relations.

 

Collaboration is sought.

Parents become partners in planning visits
and sharing ideas.

Parent empowerment is sought.

 

Telephone Calls

 

Teacher Initiates calls when concerned.
Teacher uses phone as substitute for
conference.

 

E-mail allows either parent or teacher to
initiate calls or leave messages.

Answering machines with messages on
schedules, homework, etc., permit exchange
of information.

 

Informal Contact

 

Beginning and ending of school day are times
for brief exchanges between parent and
teacher.

Demonstrating interest is goal.

 

Parents can accept more responsibility for
communication.

 

Written Communication

 

Teachers develop bulletin boards.
Newsletters include school news, dates to
remember, and tips for helping children at
home.

Informal notes are ways to keep in contact
and inform homes.

 

 

Parents can help arrange bulletin boards or
collaborate with school personnel in
developing one.

New items are included: photos of
schoolwork, artwork, notes on parents’
contributions, and how kids home learn.
Notes reflect children’s special
accomplishments.

Notes designed to give both parents and
children a sense of well-being.

 

fiurce: Barbour and Barbour (1997), p. 197.

52

 

events, grade and progress reports, telephone calls, and visits to the home. On
the other hand, parents frequently have concerns and needs that necessitate
their initiating a school contact. Barbour stated that the manner in which these
parent-initiated communications are handled can enhance or deter parent
involvement.

Reglin (1993) conducted a study of poor African American families and
schools to explore the relationship between the homes and the schools. The
study was focused on home school contacts in general, as well as the contacts
with the least-favored elements of the parent populations. Participants were
from a nonrandom sample of low-income parents with children in kindergarten,
primary, and elementary schools in three locations. Interviews were conducted
by a team of graduate students. The results indicated that most of the low-
income parents had little or no positive contact with the schools. Most of what
the parents heard from the teachers and school officials pertained to their

children’s academic or behavioral problems.

Parpnt-Teacher Interactions

Berger (1994) described the teacher as “central to parental involvement in
the educational process“ (p. 129). Among the roles that the author identified for
teachers were facilitator, mediator, counselor, communicator, program director,
interpreter, resource developer, and friend. Several other researchers and
scholars have examined parent-teacher interactions (Barbour & Barbour, 1997;

Corner, 1985; Kaplan, 1992; Ryan, Adams, Gullotta, Weissberg, & Hampton,

53

1995). Morris (1992) recommended that teachers prepare for African American
parents who, like all parents, are both positive and negative, those who will
come to the school angry, suspicious, and challenging. The author suggested
that essential to such preparation is an awareness of the Black famile cultural
context and how it is reflected in the perceptions, expectations, and interactions
of Black parents.

Teachers’ practices of parent involvement were investigated by Becker
and Epstein (1982). They used survey data from 3,700 public elementary school
teachers in more than 600 schools in 16 of 24 school districts in Maryland.
Ninety percent of the sample were females. Ten percent of the males in the
sample were fifth-grade teachers. About 20% of the sample were African
American, and more than 60% of these teachers were assigned to an urban
district. The responding teachers were representative of their profession in the
state.

The questionnaires that Becker and Epstein distributed to the teachers
requested information on what they thought about parent-involvement strategies
and how they practiced those strategies. The survey focused on 14 specific
techniques that teachers might employ to encourage parents’ participation in
Ieaming activities with their children. These techniques were distributed among
five categories: (a) techniques that involve reading and books, (b) techniques
that encourage discussions between parents and children, (c) techniques that
specify certain informal activities at home to stimulate Ieaming, (d) contracts

between teachers and parents that specify a particular role for parents in

54

connection with their children’s school lessons or activities, and (e) techniques
that develop parents’ tutoring, helping, teaching, or evaluation skills.

Some of the major findings from Becker and Epstein’s research have
implications for the present study, which also involved interviewing teachers to
gain their perspectives on parent involvement. For example, Becker and Epstein
found that many teachers believed parent involvement at home could be an
important contributor to reaching student achievement goals. Many teachers
acknowledged that they did not know how to initiate and accomplish programs of
parent involvement that would help them the most. A majority of the teachers
admitted that they had not been educated in the management of parent
involvement. Teachers reported having the most contact with parents of children
with Ieaming and discipline problems and with parents who were already active
in the schools. Many of the comments that teachers wrote reinforced common
stereotypes of parents, such as “pushy“ upper-middIe-class parents, “helpful“
middle-class parents, and “incapable“ lower-class parents. Educational levels of
the parents, school and principal support for parent involvement, and home-
school communications are other issues that have implications for the present
study.

Watkins (1997) investigated teacher communications, child achievement,
and parent traits in parent involvement models. He used “theory and research
on achievement goals and parent involvement to examine parental mastery,
orientation, performance, and efficacy in involvement as predictors of parent

involvement“ (p. 3). Those variables were also investigated for their ability to

55

mediate the effects of amount of teacher communication, child achievement,
parent education levels, and ethnicity on parent involvement. Watkins found
that the primary direct predictors of parent involvement were performance
orientation, child achievement, mastery orientation, parent efficacy in
involvement, and amount of teacher communication. The focus and orientation
of Watkins’s study were similar to those of the present research, and the
premises of his study were based on several of the same parent-involvement
and achievement-motivation studies and theories that this researcher relied on,
including Epstein (1980, 1986, 1990), Becker and Epstein (1982), Scott-Jones
(1987), and Martinez-Fons (1996).

Watkins concluded his discussion with some recommendations for future
researchers. These included (a) identifying specific types of parent involvement
and child achievement motivation, (b) continuing the investigation of parent-
involvement patterns, and (c) identifying ways in which child achievement
information can. initiate or increase parent involvement. Hence, Watkins’s
research also illuminated the need for a study like the present one, in which the
researchers goal was to contribute to the existing literature on the relationship
between Black families’ involvement and children’s achievement by examining
the perceptions and actualizations of the participating families relative to this

phenomenon.

[MI Eggig'pgjpp
Henry (1996) examined public schools’ relationships with parents and

communities. She used the anthropological approach and feminist theory to
support her argument that, for educators, knowledge of family and social
contexts and working with communities are essential. The author maintained
that the school structure has to change from making more demands on parents
while school remains the same. Because Henry’s study addressed vital
questions about cultural and social understandings, empowerment, and
collaboration, it is a great tool for school administrators, teachers, parents, and
those interested in public policy. In addition, Henry’s work is a source of new
practices and ideas for organizational structures and for school leadership that
will be needed for parent-school collaboration to work.

Henry examined why traditional parent-involvement programs such as the
Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) and open houses are not enough,.and how
educators might rethink parent-school collaborations. In this ethnographic
research, the author analyzed institutional barriers to collaboration in order to
get beyond simplistic explanations for why so many attempts to involve parents
in schools fail to work. Data obtained from interviews with parents, teachers,
and administrators reflected the viewpoints of the people involved. Henry used
these data to direct readers to focus on what children need now and how
parents and educators can support children’s needs for Ieaming and growth.
She challenged parents and educators to transform competitive school

bureaucracies into caring communities (p. 197). Henry’s research provided a

57

springboard to aid the present researcher in developing implications for the

future roles of parents, educators, and policy makers.

an i f r t l nvolvement

Stevenson and Baker (1987) examined the relationship between parents’
involvement in schooling and children’s school performance. They used a
nationally representative sample of American households to select 179 children,
parents, and teachers. The investigation was based on three hypotheses:
(a) The higher the educational status of the mother, the greater the degree of
parental involvement in school activities; (b) The younger the age of the child,
the greater the degree of parental involvement; and (c) Children of parents who
are more involved in school activities do better in school than children with
parents who are less involved. The authors’ analysis of cross-sectional data
revealed support for the three hypotheses. They found that (a) the mother’s
educational level and the age of the child were stronger predictors of parental
involvement in schooling for boys than for girls, (b) parents with more education
were more involved, (c) parents’ involvement was related to children’s school
performance, and (d) parents of younger children were more involved in school
activities. The findings did not indicate a direct effect of mothers’ educational
status on school performance.

Whereas most investigators have explored the benefits of parental
involvement in schools to their children, Winters (1993) explored the benefits to

the parents themselves. The implications of her study extend beyond the

58

classroom and suggest ways that low-income, often undereducated and
alienated people, such as African Americans, can gain the skills and confidence
needed to participate in the education of their children. The variables that
Vlfinters examined included participation, competence, interaction, and pitfalls
and promises of alienation. Using quantitative methods and socio-cultural
lenses, Virinters gathered data from a randomly selected sample of 114 mothers,
whom she interviewed in spring 1987. Recommendations generated from the
major findings of the study included “mediating alienation“ and “participating,“
and “searching for self and community.“ Winters addressed some of the same
concerns that surfaced during the interviews conducted for this study. These
concerns include (a) parents’ perceptions of their role in the education of their
children, (b) parents’ confidence in their abilities to help with homework, and
(c) the school climate and parents’ philosophy regarding involvement. In a
similar vein, Hughes, \Mekley, and Nash (1994) found that family involvement
benefited parents by enabling them to develop a greater appreciation for their
important role, strengthened social networks, facilitated access to information
and materials, enhanced feelings of personal efficacy, and motivated them to
continue their own education (p. 103).

Brandt (1989) interviewed Joyce Epstein and presented data from her
comprehensive model of the five types of parental involvement. Part of that
presentation centered on family involvement outcomes for parents, students, and

teachers. Points that are relevant to the present research are as follows:

59

1. Teacher outcomes: Understanding of family cultures, goals, talents,
and needs; awareness of parents’ perceptions, interest in schools, and
willingness to help; respect for and appreciation of parents’ time and ability to
follow through and reinforce Ieaming; and readiness to try programs that involve
parents in many ways.

2. Parent outcomes: Understanding of the teacher’s job and school
programs, interaction with teachers, monitoring of the child’s progress, familiarity
with teachers, and participation in the child’s education.

3. Student outcomes: Respect and admiration for parents, awareness
of the importance of school, improved self-concept of one’s ability as a Ieamer,
and understanding that there is continuity between the home and the school
(P- 26).

Schneider and Coleman (1983) identified benefits of parents’ involvement
in their children’s schools. Their study has particular implications for African
American families and for the present research because the authors examined
the resources available to parents and the actions parents can take to further
their children’s education. This research was the first major study based on
survey data drawn from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.
Schneider and Coleman explored several important issues, including the extent
to which parental involvement can mitigate the constraints of poverty for minority
and disadvantaged children, school choice, equality of educational opportunity,
and the effects that school-sponsored activities involving parents have on

children’s educational performance. The oversample of African Americans,

60

Hispanics, and Asian Americans makes this study particularly valuable for

examining racial and ethnic differences in parental resources and involvement,

as well as the achievement of children from various racial and ethnic groups.

In her treatise Pagenta fle LE e Savers: A Hangbook for Parent

lpyolyamam, Batey (1996) listed the following benefits of involvement:

1.

'SPSPNP’PIPP’N

Parents become active voices in favor of change.

A partnership is developed and trust is created.

Parents can stop rumors by focusing on the good within the school.
Parents see first-hand what is happening in the school or classroom.
Parent involvement helps increase academic achievement.

Better student discipline is an obvious result.

Financial assistance is increased.

Happy parents ensure good public relations for the school.

Parents seem more willing to share their skills, occupations, and

knowledge.

10.

11.

Parents volunteer and give their support to the school.

Parents act as mentors and leaders in their communities and with

students.

12.

Parents, as a team, can bring about physical improvements at school or

make suggestions to central office (p. 27).

61

Sam 19 Eagemal Invplvement

The literature contains a number of reports and studies in which the
writers speculated about the issue of limited family involvement in their children’s
schools, thus giving rise to a prolific debate regarding the reasons for this
phenomenon. In this debate, several barriers have been said to be the cause of
limited involvement of African American families in their children’s schools. In
this dissertation, barriers are defined as obstacles or artifacts that are perceived
as obstructions to goals. The concept of barriers to family involvement in
schools is important to this study because it applies to the researchers
examination of how African American families perceive that the schools
encourage their involvement in school-related activities.

A number of researchers have examined the obstacles that frequently
discourage African American families from becoming actively involved in their
children’s schooling and school-related activities. These include (a) the
negative perceptions that schools and families often held about each other,

(b) teachers’ lack of training in how to involve families in the education of their
children, (c) previous negative school experiences of family members,

(d) unconducive school climate, and (e) parents’ feelings of insecurity or
inferiority (Kaplan, 1992).

Many of the writers featured in this literature review have proposed
several reasons for the persistence of strained relationships between African
American families and their children’s schools. Some of the suggested barriers

to wholesome and cooperative relationships between Black families and their

62

children’s schools include racism, biased viewpoints, and stereotyping (parents
viewing school staffs as prejudiced and school staffs viewing parents as
unconcemed and irresponsible) (Hale-Benson, 1986; McAdoo & McAdoo, 1985;
Procidano & Fisher, 1992; Slonim, 1991; Willie, 1994).

Despite the recent rhetoric and studies supporting the positive influence
of wholesome and cooperative relationships between families and schools, there
remain many public schools in which there is little positive interaction between
African American families and school professionals (Harvard Educational
Sawfly, 1999). Several of the reports in this study documented instances in
which Black parents were discouraged (sometimes intentionally, sometimes
unintentionally) from playing a major role in Ieaming activities or school-
governance issues. After many years of struggling with the inequity of the public
educational system, many Black parents question the feasibility of continuing to
try to improve their relationships with schools (Chavkin, 1993; Lomotey, 1990;
Neisser, 1986). _

According to Ryan et al. (1995), another obstacle to involving African
American parents in their children’s schools is the frequency of negative reports.
Many of the parents whom Ryan et al. surveyed indicated that they had been
turned off because they never received positive messages about their children.
The author suggested that educators can remove this barrier by (a) refraining
from always focusing on the negative, (b) rewarding children for successes, and

(c) notifying parents of positive behaviors and achievements, which can be time

63

consuming but can establish a rapport that might pave the way for a future report
that is not so positive.

Vlfinters (1993) stated that some African American parents blame their
failure to be consistently involved with their children’s school on lack of
transportation, child care, and conflicts with work schedules. Schools can
remove these barriers by scheduling parent-involvement activities and
opportunities at different times, providing child care, and informing parents of
possible involvement outside of the school. Further, Winters said that some
parents are reluctant to become involved because of limited knowledge and fear
of being embarrassed. Schools can solve this problem by providing
nonthreatening training sessions and workshops to assist these parents in

gaining the skills and confidence needed to support and help their children.

ngmai y

There are many definitions and descriptions of and opinions about the
issue of parents’ involvement in their children’s schools. In this section of the
literature review, the focus was on reports and studies related to topics that have
relevance to the present research. Communication between the school and
home is said to be the most “influential vehicle“ for promoting family involvement
in schools (Chavkin, 1993). Modern technology has transformed the
cumbersome traditional methods of communication into more convenient and
timely methods such as voice mail, e-mail, electronic signs, and so on. Parent-

teacher interactions also are becoming more modern, with the old-fashioned

parent-teacher conference often being replaced by student-led conferences and
previews of student portfolios, or videotapes of students participating in
cooperative Ieaming activities. Several researchers have pointed to teachers’
practices of involving parents as key determinants of parental involvement
(Epstein, 1986; Hale-Benson, 1986; Henry, 1996; Kaplan, 1992; Strickland,
1987).

Most researchers have tended to examine the benefits of parent
involvement for students and schools. Recently, researchers have begun to
address the issue of benefits for families. The problems of misconception,
distrust, and cultural differences in attitudes toward education continue to
surface in the literature as barriers to parents’ involvement in their children’s
schools. Writers have suggested a number of ways schools and families can
overcome these barriers.

During the past two decades, there has been an astronomical increase in
the literature pertaining to African American families’ involvement in schools. A
great deal of emphasis has been concentrated on at-risk families, single-parent,
young, and poor families. For example, \Ninters (1993) suggested that “many of
these families are so preoccupied with survival issues such as food, clothing,
jobs, illness, and violence that they have little time or energy left for school
involvement“ (p. 57).

This review of literature related to families’ involvement in their children’s
schools raised some issues supporting the need for a study such as the present

one, which examined perceptions and actions pertaining to African American

65

families’ involvement from a cultural perspective and within an ecological
framework This qualitative inquiry involved studying families in their naturalistic
environments, the home and school, and from the perspectives of the
participants. Hence, the researcher was able to observe, first hand, interactions,
attitudes, relationships, and cultural factors that questionnaires and surveys,

commme used in quantitative studies, cannot capture.

e eh I eriences of African American hildren
mama:

In this dissertation, the phrase school experiences is used to refer to what
happens to African American children in schools. The phrase is inclusive of the
actions, events, and everything that is met with, observed, done, felt, and lived
through by African American children in the school setting. Numerous studies
have been conducted on this subject. However, the focus of this section is on
works that pertain to the aspects of the school experiences of African American
children that were examined in this study. Hence, this portion of the literature
review centers on the following subtopics: (a) attitudes toward learning,
behavior, and school adjustment; (b) school achievement and Ieaming styles;
(0) relationships with teachers and peers; and (d) keys to success-strategies

thatwork.

Attitugea Tmrd Learning, Behavior,
d I Ad'ustment

The term attitude was operationally defined as the student’s way of
thinking, feeling, or acting toward a situation (i.e., school, Ieaming, structure,
and rules) (Lomotey, 1990). Likewise, the phrase school adjustment was used
to describe how students make the transition from the home environment to the
school setting. In seeking to provide an explanation for Black children’s
attitudes toward Ieaming, behavior, and school adjustment, researchers have
suggested a number of theories. Some related studies are discussed here, in an
effort to better understand the perceptions of urban African American families
and the teachers of their children.

Luster and McAdoo (1994) examined factors related to the achievement
and adjustment of young African American children in the early grades. They
used data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) and included
all African American children between the ages of six and nine for whom data
were available. The writers addressed three central questions:

1. What factors contribute to individual differences in the cognitive
competence of African American children in the early elementary
grades? In particular, what

2. factors distinguish between African American children who are
doing well on measures of cognitive competency (i.e., those in the
top quartile) and those who are experiencing problems (i.e., those
in the bottom quartile)? and

3. ' How does the context of the children with the most favorable

scores on measures of adjustment differ from children with the
least favorable scores? (p. 1080)

67

Luster and McAdoo reported findings consistent with those from earlier
studies by Furstenberg, Cook, Eccles, Elder, and Someroff (1999), Rutter
(1978), and Werner (1985). They wrote,

There was a positive relation between the number of risk factors children

were exposed to, and the probability that they were experiencing

academic or behavioral problems. Favorable outcomes in the cognitive
and social-emotional domains (i.e., scoring in the top quartile for this
sample) were associated with high scores on an “advantage index“

(p. 1080)

The authors indicated a need for more studies on successful African American
children.

Ketzetzis, Ryan, and Adams (1998) examined the relationship between
family processes and children’s school-based social adjustment, using a sample
of 161 fourth-grade and 151 seventh-grade children. Of particular interest were
the direct and indirect associations among general family relations, school-
focused parent-child interactions, child personal characteristics, and school
adjustment. According to the findings of their path analysis, child characteristics
(exclusive of self-esteem) had the most consistent and direct association with
school social adjustment. A variety of parent-child interaction factors and family-
life factors also were found to predict adjustment indirectly. Ketzetzis et al.’s
work has implications for the present study because it shed light on issues
pertaining to the school adjustment of African American children.

In her summary of the predicament of Black children, Peters (1981)
indicated,

When the Black child from the lower class home goes to school at age
four or five, he or she discovers that the behavioral rules have changed.

68

In the classroom, there are attractive things to explore, and also a new
emphasis on taking turns, sitting still, and specific times for physical
activity. The child is often lost, punished, put down, or ridiculed for
inappropriate behavior. (p. 32)

Ml Amievamant and Learning Styles

The school achievement and Ieaming styles of urban African American
children have been the subject of a heated debate. On the one side are those
who blame the families for failing to adequately prepare their children to
succeed. On the opposite side are those who blame the schools for not meeting
the special needs of Black children. Some reports focusing on the variables
examined in the present study are included here to provide a framework for
projecting future directions for research, policy, and practice.

Ogbu (1978) argued that the problem of low achievement levels of Black
children should be viewed within an ecological framework in which schooling is a
culturally organized means of preparing children for adult roles in the social and
economic life of their society or social group. He maintained that, within this
framework, Blacks have not generally been encouraged to strive for high
achievement or been rewarded for attaining academic excellence. Ogbu
concluded that efforts (integration, Head Start, Follow-Through, and so on) to
improve the academic achievement of castelike minorities, including Blacks of
lower economic status, have been inadequate. Ogbu (as cited in Lomotey,
1990) posited:

1. Perceptions of Whites have led them to provide Blacks with

inadequate schooling and to communicate attitudes in school
settings that do not encourage learners to maximum efforts.

69

2. Black perceptions generate disillusionment about schooling and a
lack of perseverance toward schoolwork.

3. Blacks often adopt survival strategies that are incompatible with
requirements of the school setting.

4. Perennial conflict and mistrust between Blacks and the schools
interfere with the willingness of Blacks to comply with rules and
standards.

5. Schools resort to adopting a defensive posture toward Blacks.

(p. 131)

Comer (1985) advocated empowering the Ieaming environments of Black
children. His contentions were based on a study of the Yale Child Development
Center’s school development program. The overall goalof the program was to
improve students’ academic achievement by focusing on two subordinate goals:
“(a) students’ psychological adjustment and skills; and (b) the school climate, the
attitudes and interactions of staff, students, and parents“ (p. 127). Comer
concluded that the program was effective in improving the academic
performance of low-income, minority-group children. He added that the
improved attendance and enhanced social performance on the part of teachers,
parents, and students suggested that the program met the social and
psychological needs of all involved. Finally, Comer argued,

Obviously, school programs cannot compensate for the economic and

resultant family stress conditions experienced by too many Blacks, but

schools attuned to Black community history and needs represent one of

' the best opportunities to prepare more Black youngsters for successful

performance in school and life. Good schools can provide support for

families of current students and, in turn, the families of these students in

the future. (p. 138)

Slaughter (1988) argued that the school success of African American
children is largely a function of economic and social stability in the family.

Family intervention to benefit the Ieaming and the development of children is a

70

recent phenomenon. Slaughter stated that many of the early intervention
programs were based on a false set of assumptions, such as intellectual deficit,
self-hatred, low self-esteem, and familial dysfunction. These assumptions have
been critically evaluated and found to be lacking in evidence. Slaughter further
maintained that “the purpose of educational intervention with Black children is to
ensure that the children remain developmentally on course“ (p. 113). She cited
the research of Spencer (1983) and Johnson (1987) to support her belief that,
when Black parents teach their children about the positive aspects of their
heritage, the children are more likely to have more adaptive racial coping
strategies and higher academic achievement.

Spencer (1985) explored the interfacing of social indicators (i.e.,
economics, cultural values) as an important aspect of Black children’s growth,
their achievement experiences, and psychological development in desegregated
school environments. The subjects for the study were a subsample of a larger
sample of third, fourth, and fifth graders in one of four rural counties. The
children were in desegregated schools and classrooms. All 22 teachers were
females; two of them were Black The 445 children were nearly equally divided
by gender and race. Although this study was conducted in rural schools, the
results are significant to the present study because they support this
researcher’s belief that the achievement patterns of African American children
are different from those of children of other races. Spencer found, among other

things:

71

1. Significant differences in achievement by race, no significant
differences by race on personality measures.

A different predictive pattern of achievement by race.
Significantly different patterns of teacher expectations, and
interactional patterns.

Positive responsiveness to intervention. (p. 108)

.599!"

According to Spencer, several lessons can be learned from an overall
review of the results of his research: (a) Black parents intervene less than is
ideal; (b) Identity and competence appear to be inextricably linked and are
mediated by institutional bias; (c) The data suggest a number of questions for
future research (i.e., tuning-out, turning-off, and dropping-out behavior); and
(d) More research is needed on the behavior of minority students, as well as
more cognitiveoprocess-oriented studies (p. 108).

Ford (1992) described the social, cultural, and psychological factors that
can influence achievement among African American students, by gender and
academic program (gifted and nongifted). The research focused on

the importance of social, psychological, and cultural factors and their

perceived influence on achievement (or lack thereof) among African

American students in general, and gifted African American students in

particular. The paradox of underachievement is also described, in which

students support the American achievement ideology (success ensues
with effort and hard work), yet do not put forth the effort necessary to do
well in school.
Ford described four theories of achievement and motivation, and discussed the
major shortcomings of each one. The author also defined underachievement

and expressed her beliefs concerning “the American achievement ideology“ and

African American students, as well as “the paradox of underachievement.

72

The findings from Ford’s study that have implications for the present

research are as follows:

1. Academic programs rather than gender explained the achievement
orientation of African American students.
2. Like their female counterparts, the African American males in the

sample supported the American achievement ideology, yet their
mean GPA was significantly lower than the GPA of the females
sampled. .
3. The males reported low levels of effort more frequently than the
females.
Ford acknowledged that the generalizability of the findings was limited due to
the restricted sample population.

Boykins (1986) maintained that Black children achieve best in a
curriculum that capitalizes on their cultural Ieaming style. According to the
author, this cultural learning style is characterized by excitement, liveliness, and
physically stimulating activity. He also concluded that the academic
performance of Black children is enhanced when teachers employ a variety of
such activities. Based on his studies, Boykins identified the following nine
interrelated dimensions of African American culture: “spirituality, harmony,
movement, verve, affect, communalism, expressive individualism, oral tradition,
and social time perspective“ (pp. 203-204). Boykins argued that instruction in
most public schools is not developed to accommodate the cultural orientations
and Ieaming styles of African American children. He also reported that a number
of other scholars have pointed out that “schools are rather monotonous places

for Black children, who are socialized in a conversely different environment“

(Akbar, 1976; Hale, 1982; Silberrnan, 1970). From his 1977 research, Boykins

73

concluded that “affective stimulation and vervistic stimulation are necessary for
some Black children to be motivated to achieve in an academic setting“ (as cited
in Hale, 1982, p. 79).

Irvine (1990) stated that Black students are subjected to school failure
because of their race, social class, and culture. She believed that it is difficult to
disaggregate the complex interplay of these variables because they are highly
interrelated. However, Irvine clarified her position by explaining that she did not
claim that all Black children were the same, or equally at risk for school failure,
or that they exhibit behavior that reflects the operation of an incongruent culture.
Irvine cited other researchers who have maintained that race and inequality
contribute to the negative school experiences that many African American
students have. One example the author cited is: “According to Ogbu (1988)
race has its own unique influence on the school experiences and outcomes of
Black children and similar minorities which is not explained by reference to
socioeconomic or class struggle“ (p. 164). Irvine concluded the discussion by
stating that, “In all Black school settings, social class, not race, is often the
ascendant variable which is used to place these students in instructional groups,

evaluate their behavior, and dispense their discipline“ (p. 18).

Relatipnships With Teachers and Peers

The relationships between African American students and their teachers
and peers have been examined by numerous researchers seeking answers to

the question of why growing numbers of these students are characterized as

74

being atth for academic failure, drapping out of school, falling below grade
level, being suspended or expelled, and being labeled educably challenged.
Relationships in this case were operationally defined as the conditions that exist
between Black children and the people at school. Among these people are
teachers, other personnel, classmates, and other students who attend the
school. The term conditions refers to the way these people feel about, interact
with, and respond to each other in the school setting. Some of the research that
has addressed relationships between African American students and their
teachers and peers is discussed here to support the researchers argument,
based on the symbolic-interactionist theory, that a common set of symbols has
emerged to shape or give meaning to the perceptions, actions, and interactions
of African American families and their children’s schools. Included in that
common set of symbols is relationships between African American students and
their teachers and peers.

In Black and White Sales in Conflict, Kochman (as cited in Irvine, 1990)
made the following general statements about Black students and their
relationships with teachers and school personnel:

1. Black students may not maintain constant eye contact with
teachers as do White students. Often Black children are accused
of not paying attention when they are.

2. Due to cultural mores related to the sharing of personal
information, Black students often become hostile and recalcitrant
when teachers and administrators ask questions that the students
consider intrusive or improper.

3. Black students are more likely than White students to challenge or

test school personnel if the students perceive that those individuals
are not sincere or fair.

75

4. Due to cultural norms, Black students tend to exhibit behaviors that
are high-key, animated, and demonstrative. When these students
present their ideas and behavior in this high-energy style, teachers
consider them lacking in self-control and aggressive. (p. 29)

Holliday (1985) asked 24 teachers to rate 45 Black students on academic
and classroom behavior. The students also rated themselves on these traits.
The author concluded that the children’s achievement was minimally influenced
by their own perceptions, but it was significantly influenced by their teachers’
perceptions. Holliday based the significance of his findings on the number of
other researchers whose findings supported his.

Relationships with teachers are high on the list of variables that influence
the school experience of African American students. Teacher expectations,
teacher-student interactions, cultural synchronization, students’ perceptions of
teachers, and effective teachers are among the aspects of student-teacher
relationships that have emerged in the literature with the greatest implications
for the present study (Garrbuldi, 1992; Natriello, McDill, 8. Pallas, 1990;
Strickland, 1987; Wilson, 1987).

Rosenthal and Jacobson’s work Eygmalion in the Classroom (as cited in
Irvine, 1990, p. 44) popularized the concept of teachers and self-fulfilling
prophecies. From their study, conducted in an elementary school in a lower-
class community, the authors concluded that teachers gave preferential
treatment to the students they perceived as more likely to succeed. Thus, the

raised teacher expectations contributed to the enhanced performance of those

students whom the test identified as late bloomers.

76

Sumac

This section of the literature review undergirded the researchers
response to Subsidiary Research Question 6: What are the perceptions of
urban African American families, and teachers, regarding the school experiences
of the fifth-grade students? Using the symbolic-interactionist lens of the
conceptual framework and this related literature, the researcher examined and
described the common set of symbols and understandings that have emerged in
the education of African American children to foster the development of the
perceptions and actions of the families and teachers participating in this study.
Keys to Success for urban African American

tud trate ies Th t ork

A number of recent studies and reports have focused on keys to success
and strategies that foster African Ameriwn students’ achievement and
successful school adjustment. Among the writers most frequently referred to in
the literature are Hale (1994), who recommended an Afrocentric curriculum;
Edmonds (1979); and Goodlad (1984), who advocated changes in schools. Two
recent studies are included in the ensuing discussion as current examples.

In their 1998 study of successful African American males, Hrabowski et al.
demonstrated that young Black men can achieved academic success despite the
roadblock of racism, the temptations of crime and drugs, and the popular culture
that values being “cool” over being educated. The authors looked at males who
were achieving at the highest levels of success. The sample was drawn from

students in the Meyeroff Scholar Program; the majority of the young men were

77

from working-class and middle-class families with varying levels of parental
education. The findings were based on data collected from more than 200
interviews of students and their families. The parents also completed a
questionnaire inquiring about their parenting practices. The major purpose of
this study was to identify attitudes, habits, behaviors, perspectives, and
strategies that educators, professionals, and society members can use when
working with Black males.

Some of the major findings of Hrabowski et al.’s study that have
implications for the present research are as follows:

1. Examples of successful parenting were found in many different
types of family structures-two-parent, single-parent, and parents of
diverse educational levels.

Critical ingredients appear to be active parental involvement in the
child’s life—loving, encouraging, challenging, and supporting.

The family’s number one priority is the child(ren).

Strategies that motivate some do not work for others.

Listening to, and talking with, children is critical.

Providing positive adult role models to interact with children daily
significantly affects academic and social behavior. (pp. 201-203)

.N

9’5”!"9’

Furstenberg, a distinguished sociologist, and his colleagues released the
results of a group of MacArthur Foundation Series studies of urban families and
adolescent success (Furstenberg et al., 1999). Focusing on how and why some
urban youths are able to overcome, rather than succumb to, social
disadvantages, the authors challenged many of the myths and misconceptions
about life in the inner city. This qualitative study was based on more than 500
interviews, survey results, and case studies of families in urban Philadelphia,

Pennsylvania. Participants in the study were drawn from a random sample of

78

residents with listed telephone numbers, and correlated with the 1990 census.
African Americans were overrepresented in the sample. In presenting the
findings from these studies, the authors described in detail the creative means
inner-city parents used to manage the risks, opportunities, and strategies they
developed to steer their children toward resources that fostered positive
development and led to success.

Furstenberg et al.’s study is closely related to the present research
because it also focused on urban families and how they influence the education
of their youths. Several of the same variables were used in both studies, such
as parenting matters, family routines and involvement, family structures and
processes, parental education, and the students’ academic performance,
behavior, and adjustment. Likewise, both studies used similar conceptual

frameworks and interviews of families to obtain their perceptions.

Chapter Summag

The literature review was organized according to the following themes:
(a) Black Families: History, Culture, and Theory; (b) Urban African American
Families: Structure, Parenting Styles, and Home Environments; (c) Family
Involvement in Schools; and (d) School Experiences of African American
Children. These were reviewed to gain a better understanding of the
perceptions of urban African American families’ involvement in the education of

their children. The literature was further examined to gain a better

79

understanding of the influences of family involvement on the, school experiences
of urban African American children.

The research was critiqued based on the supposition that the majority of it
concerns urban African American family involvement and the school experiences
of Black children from the perspectives of educators, researchers, and scholars,
thus neglecting the perceptions, actions, and interactions of the participants, as
well as the naturalistic contexts of the homes and schools. The review of
literature supported this supposition and revealed that. many studies have been
based on national surveys that focused on such family elements as structure,
socioeconomic status, education, and occupations. Some other researchers
have used the deficit-meory model to compare low-income Black families with
middle-class White families. The contribution of such studies is that, in
evaluating urban African Americans’ involvement in the education of their
children in isolation, that involvement has been characterized as less than
desirable and ultimately responsible for the unsuccessful school experiences of
these children. The limitation of such research is that it assumes cause and
effect without the benefit of a first-hand examination of the families’ perceptions
and actions. Hence, there is a need for relevant and current research, such as
this present study, that includes the perceptions of families and students.
Research like this is also needed to investigate and describe the involvement of
urban African American families in schools from within the naturalistic contexts

of their homes and schools.

80

CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY

Introduction

The researchers primary purpose in this study was to investigate and
describe the perceptions and actions of urban African American families
regarding their involvement in the education of their children. A further purpose
was to determine how these perceptions and actions influenced the school
experiences of their fifth-grade youngsters.

The research design and methodology used in the investigation are
described in this chapter. The appropriateness of qualitative methods
(grounded theory, ethnography, and case study) to this investigation is
explained. The field research experience, including the sample and settings, is
discussed, and the three data-collection methods (participant observations,
interviews, and review of school-related documents) used in the study are
delineated. Ethical considerations, field procedures involved in conducting the
study, and the pilot study are discussed. Issues of access, the researchers
orientation, recording and management of data, and reporting of the findings are

set forth.

81

mm

The researcher employed qualitative methods to conduct an applied basic
research study designed to investigate and explain how urban African American
families perceive and actualize their involvement in the education of their
children and the influence of these perceptions and actions on the school
experiences of their fifth-grade youngsters. Denzin and Lincoln (1994) stated
that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings in an attempt to
make sense of or interpret them in terms of the meanings people bring to them.
This type of inquiry process was suited to the present study, in which the goal
was to investigate the problem through the perceptions of the participants.
Furthermore, qualitative research methods allowed the researcher to examine
the perceptions, actions, and interactions of the participants in the two natural
settings of the subjects (the homes and schools).

This study focused on the urban African American family, which was the
primary unit of analysis in investigating perceptions of their involvement in the
education of their fifth-grade students. Likewise, the fifth graders were the focus
of the examination of the influence of their families’ involvement in their school
experiences. Patton (1990) stated that specifying the unit of analysis means that
the primary focus of the data collection is on what is happening to the groups or
individuals in a particular setting, and how they are affected by the setting.
Hence, this researcher focused on the Ieaming-related involvement of the
families at home and in the schools, and on the school experiences of the fifth-

grade students.

82

Additional evidence of the fit between qualitative research methods and
the present study included the following:

1. This was a naturalistic inquiry examining real-world situations (family
involvement in the school experiences of the fifth-grade students) as they unfold
naturally without predetermined constraints on outcomes.

2. The researcher employed inductive analysis to delve into the details
and specifics of the data to discover important perceptions, actions, interactions,
and relationships by exploring responses to open-ended questions rather than
testing theoretically derived hypotheses.

3. The investigator used detailed, rich case-study description, in-depth
inquiry, and direct quotations capturing the personal perspectives and
experiences of the families and persons involved in the youngsters’ school
experiences.

4. The researcher had direct contact and close association with the
people, situation, and phenomenon under study (family involvement and school
experiences of fifth graders). The researcher’s personal experiences and
insights were an important part of the inquiry and were critical to understanding
the phenomenon.

5. The researcher treated each of the eight families as special and
unique by examining and capturing the details of the individual cases; cross-
case analysis followed from comparisons and contrasts of the individual families

studied.

83

6. This research involved examining African American family life in the
social, cultural, historical, traditional, and contemporary contexts, and
questioning the possibility of making meaningful generalizations about these
families over time and space.

7. The flexible design of qualitative data-collection methods
(observations, interviews, and review of school-related documents) allowed the
researcher to reschedule appointments and revisit interviews to verify
information. Qualitative methods are especially useful in studies such as this
one, which led the researcher to examine what people do, know, think, and feel
by observing, interviewing, and analyzing documents (Patton, 1990, p. 40).

The qualitative case study method also was appropriate to this
investigation, which relied on a few cases and many variables (Creswell, 1998).
Case studies also are particularly useful when the purpose of the research is to
gain a better understanding of some special people, a particular problem, or a
unique situation; such studies enable one to identify cases that are rich in
information, rich in the sense that a great deal can be learned from them
(LeCompte, Millroy, & Priessle, 1992). In the present study, the “special people”
were the contemporary urban African Merican families. The problem centered
on families’ perceptions of their involvement in the schooling of their fifth—grade
children. Furthermore, Patton (1990) indicated that case studies are particularly
valuable in investigations such as this, when the researcher aims to capture
group or individual differences or unique variations from one family or setting to

another. Accordingly, the case study method was especially congruent with this

84

research because it provided the researcher with a mechanism for presenting an
intensive, rich description of the families, their involvement, and the school

experiences of their fifth-grade students.

The Sample and Settings

The participants for this research included a purposefully selected sample
of eight urban African American families. At the time of the study, each family
had a fifth-grade student attending one of five inner-city elementary schools in
the Yorktown (pseudonym) public school district. This urban school district
served approximately 25,000 students, the majority of whom were African
Americans. Patton (1990) described purposeful sampling as the selection of
information-rich cases for in-depth study. Information-rich cases are those from
which the researcher can learn a great deal about issues of central importance
to the purpose of the research. The sampling technique involved purposefully
selecting families with fifth graders representing both genders; low, average, and
high achievement levels; varied family structures; and parents or guardians with
varied occupations and educational levels.

The sampling process included several steps. The first step involved
making initial contacts with school personnel to identify potential families for the
sample. The researcher’s previous experiences illuminated the need to request
the assistance of a contact person at each school who was familiar with the
students and their families. Several visits to the schools and meetings with the

contact persons resulted in a list of 20 potential families to whom letters of

85

invitation to participate and consent forms were distributed. Through the
combined efforts of the researcher and the contact persons, 12 families
consented to participate in the research. From this group, five families were
selected according to the specified sampling criteria. Three additional families
were later added to the sample to provide a balance in terms of such criteria as
gender and academic performance of the fifth-grade students. Composition of
the family and the educational level and occupation of the parents/guardians
were taken into consideration, although selection of participants was based on
the principles of stratified purposeful sampling and logistical considerations.
Accessibility to classrooms and homes for observations and interviews,
willingness of teachers of the fifth-graders to participate, and diversity in the
parent-involvement climate in the schools were all factors in the selection of the

eight families who constituted the sample.

Data-Collection Methods
The data-collection methods used in this study were qualitative and
ethnographic in nature; they included participant observations, structured tape-
recorded interviews, and a review of school-related documents, as described
below. Using an ethnographic approach, the investigator immersed herself in
the cultural context of the families she was studying. During this process, the
ethnographer listened, recorded, and observed, thereby generating a cultural

portrait of the families.

86

Pa i ' ion

The initial gathering of information for this investigation began with
participant observation, in which the researcher observed the culture-sharing
group by becoming a participant in the school setting. This involved
volunteering to serve as a tutor and/or teacher aide in classrooms for the first
few visits. In accordance with the goals of participant observation, this process
helped the researcher become familiar with the setting, its participants, and their
verbal interactions and behaviors. Participant observations also allowed the
participants in the study to get to know and trust the researcher.

After the initial observations, the formal observations began. During this
process, the researcher carefully and systematically observed and consciously
recorded, in detail, many aspects of the situation. The participant observations
allowed the researcher to observe, first-hand, the actions and interactions of the
fifth-grade students with their peers and teachers in the school setting. Other
variables on which the researcher focused included the students’ attitudes
toward Ieaming, work habits, and behavior. The case studies were developed

from the researchers field notes.

In-Depth Interviews

The second data-collection method involved one-on-one structured
interviews with the students, parents of the students, and teachers of the
students. The intention was to interview each participant twice; however,
because of time constraints, that was not possible in every instance. In all, 47

interviews were conducted. In an effort to collect the data in a natural setting,

87

the researcher conducted one-hour interviews with teachers at the school (two
per participating teacher) and the parents (two one-hour interviews each) in the
home. For the students, with two exceptions, two 45-minute interviews were
conducted with each participant, one at the school and one at the home.

The researcher elected to use a standardized open-ended interview,
which entailed preparing a list of open-ended questions for each group of
participants listed above. The questions were organized around the variables
examined in the study. The use of standardized interview protocols was
especially useful for examining perceptions because it enabled the investigator
to ask the same questions of all participants and gain their points of view on the
variables the study was designed to explore (i.e., family involvement, student
performance, attitude toward Ieaming, and so on). Copies of the interview

protocols are included in the appendices.

Review of School-Related Documents

The third data-collection method involved use of the unobtrusive method
of reviewing documents, which did not require the subjects’ presence. These
data are referred to as physical evidence. The types of documents and the
information contained in each one are shown in Table 3.1. The researcher
reviewed the documents in the school setting, where these records were stored

in confidential files.

88

Table 3.1: School-related documents and types of information contained

therein.

 

Document

Type of Information

 

Students’ 5th-grade report cards

Grades for 1st, 2nd, and 3rd marking periods
Cun'ent record of citizenship and attendance
Teachers‘ comments

Parent’s/guardian's signature

 

Students’ daily work portfolios!
folders, work books, journals, etc.

Short- and long-term assignments
Samples of daily work and ongoing projects
Specific subject-area notebooks, etc.

 

Students’ cumulative file folders

Previous year's records of academic progress

Attendance and citizenship

Samples of students’ work

Standardized test scores: Michigan Education
Assessment Program (MEAP), Math and Reading,
4th grade, Metropolitan Achievement Test (MAT),
selected subject areas, grades 2-4

Comments of previous teachers

 

Students’ cumulative reports
(CA 60’s)

Previous year's grades, attendance, and citizenship

Standardized test scores (MEAP Writing and
Science, 5th grade)

Record of promotion or retention

Number of schools attended

Special-services referrals

Health information

 

Schools’ records of attendance at
functions and parent visitations

 

 

Sign-in logs of attendance at open houses, parent-
teacher/student-led conferences, school council!
PTA meetings, parent workshops, volunteering

 

 

Ethical Considerations

All of the data collected for this study were transported in locked

briefcases and stored in locked files away from the school property. The

confidentiality of the participants was protected through the use of pseudonyms

and the exclusion of names or any descriptors that might reveal the identity of

the school or a person. Gender and grade-level performance ratings were noted

as a means of verifying that the sample represented a cross-section of the

89

district’s student population. The researcher transcribed the interview tapes with
the aid of a technical assistant. The data were coded according to rudimentary
coding schemes, in which codes were assigned and data sorted into bins and

files (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992).

Field Procedure

Qualitative field procedure is the process of gathering data in and around
the circumstances, or social setting, being studied for the purpose of analysis
(Lofland, 1973). In this section, the field procedures employed in the study are
explained. Preparations for beginning the field work are described, the pilot
study is reviewed, and the general plan of action is presented. The section
closes with a narrative of initial field experiences and issues.

In compliance with Michigan State University policy, the researcher
applied for and received approval from the University Committee on Research
Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS). The sensitive nature of field work is
reflected in the university committee’s exacting requirements, which obligate the
researcher to stipulate the purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits of the study.
Copies of the approved application and consent forms are included in the
appendices.

In accordance with the request of the researcher’s graduate committee, a
pilot study was conducted to test the effectiveness of the instruments and data-
collection methods. From the pilot investigation the researcher compiled and
”submitted a case-study narrative to her committee chair. Following a

subsequent feedback meeting with the chair, the researcher made minor

90

revisions to the interview protocols and developed a detailed plan of action for
continuing the field work.

The initial step in this plan of action was to improve the researcher‘s
understanding of field research methods and her competence with effective
strategies. Four steps were taken to meet this need. First, the researcher
enrolled in an independent study involving the completion of a comprehensive
research project. The second step included doing extensive readings of the
works of noted researchers and scholars, and reviewing dissertations related to
the chosen topic. The third step involved meeting with the committee chair to
review effective strategies. The fourth step of the plan of action involved
establishing a time line.

The initial groundwork for the field study began early in 1999. The actual
data-collection process, including preparation and the pilot study, extended over
a five-month period from February through June of the same year. The data
transcription and development of case-study narratives took place during July
and August 1999. The process of analyzing the data and describing the findings
was ongoing, extending from September through December. This process,

along with writing and revising drafts, continued into the early months of 2000.

Field §tudx

The plan for this research was informed by a pilot study of one family,
which the investigator conducted in February 1999. The focus of the study was
on four variables: family background, family and home environment, family and

school environment, and school experiences of the students. For each of these

91

variables, the question was asked: What are the perceptions and actions
related to this family's involvement in the Ieaming of their fifth-grade student?
Further, the influence of the pilot family’s involvement was pursued.

The pilot study was undertaken to test the research methods and field
procedures of the study. The pilot family was selected using the purposeful
sampling criteria specified for the study. The objective of the pilot study was to
collect data that could be used in the ensuing investigation. Likewise, the
researcher followed the methodology and field procedures designed for the
study.

The process began with initial contacts and visits to the schools to obtain
access and consent of the participants. Next, the researcher carried out
observations in the school setting. During these observations the researcher
took thorough field notes and reviewed relevant school-related documents. The
researcher tape recorded and transcribed the interviews with the student,
parent, and teacher. She visited the family’s home and made some final
modifications and clarifications to the interview questions. In this fashion, the
researcher identified themes and patterns that appeared relevant to how this
urban African American family perceived and actualized their involvement in the
education of their fifth-grade child. How the family perceived the influence of
their perceptions and actions also was examined. The final part of the pilot
study involved writing up the pilot case study. The researcher compiled the case
study according to the identified themes and patterns and reflected on lessons

learned from the pilot study.

92

Based on the case-study report of the pilot family and the
recommendations of her dissertation chair, the researcher made minor revisions
to the interview questions and observation protocols. The pilot study made the
researcher aware of a need to strengthen her interviewing skills. Thus, in
preparation for entering the field to begin the data-collection process, the
researcher practiced interviewing close friends and family members, making a
conscious effort to take copious notes and minimize her own comments. In an
effort to enhance her knowledge of effective and appropriate research
strategies, the investigator reviewed the writings on qualitative research
methods by a number of scholars in the field. These sources are included in the

list of references.

Access and Researchers Orientjation

This researchers orientation, which consisted of 27 years as a teacher
and administrator in the school district, was helpful in gaining access. The
researcher's familiarity with rules and regulations governing access to and
handling of information contained in confidential files also was an advantage.
The researcher was well known by many of the principals, secretaries, and
social service field workers of the schools included in the study, which also
helped facilitate gaining access. When the researcher first approached the
superintendent of schools, he assured her of his full cooperation with and
support for the project. The researcher sent letters seeking written permission to
the principals of selected schools and those individuals identified as potential

participants for the subject sample. Before data collection began, the research

93

project had been approved by all gatekeepers and participants, as well as
UCRIHS. Copies of the letters of invitation to participate and copies of letters of

consent are included in the appendices.

Data Management and Recording

In qualitative research, data analysis requires a strategic plan for
categorizing, coding, labeling, filing, storing, and retrieving huge volumes of
information generated by the observations, field notes, interviews, and review of
school-related documents. After consulting several respected sources
(Creswell, 1998; Patton, 1990; Rudestam 8. Newton, 1992), the researcher
developed a plan for managing and recording the data. This plan was, at times,
impossible to follow. Daily routines often stretched into weekly chores.

The extensive volume of data collected required the researcher to spend
numerous hours sorting, filing, and labeling information. Color-coded files were
prepared to store the data collected from each of the participating families. The
researcher initially attempted to complete the data transcription and
development of each case study before beginning the next one. Time
constraints, however, made this impossible. It was necessary to schedule and
reschedule observations and interviews to mesh with the participating families’
home and school activities and events. Consequently, the researcher was
involved in field work on two or three students during the same period. This
further complicated the data-management and recording process. The review of
documents often required additional trips to schools when access to them could

not be arranged at the time of observations and interviews.

94

Treatment and Presentation of Data
This portion of the dissertation contains the data presented in case
studies of the eight families (Chapter IV). The final chapter includes the
conclusions, discussion, and implications for families, educators, researchers,

and policy makers. Chapter V concludes with the researcher‘s reflections.

Su_mm_arx

This chapter contained a description of the research methodology. The
research design and rationale were explained, and the conceptual framework
and research questions were identified. Data sources, settings, and collection
methods were discussed, followed by a review of ethical considerations and field
procedures. The pilot study was described, and issues of access, the
researcher‘s orientation, and data management and recording were elucidated.
The treatment and presentation of data in the following two chapters also was

explained.

95

CHAPTER IV
PRESENTATION OF THE DATA

The primary purpose in this study was to investigate and describe the
perceptions and actions of contemporary urban African American families
regarding their involvement in the education of their children. A further purpose
was to determine how these perceptions and actions influenced the school
experiences of their fifth-grade youngsters. To accomplish this, the researcher
investigated the complex interactions and relationships among the families, the
students, and the schools. More specifically, the researcher examined the
interactions between the fifth-grade children and their families, and between the
families and the schools. The researchers goal was to gain a better
understanding of the factors and circumstances that contribute to how
contemporary urban African American families perceive and actualize the
family's involvement in the education of the children. The research also was
undertaken to gain a better understanding of how these families perceived that
their actions enhanced and/or inhibited the school experiences of their fifth-
grade youngsters.

It should be noted that this chapter is written in the first person to convey
the relationship of the author to the participants. However, Chapters I, II, III, and

V are written in the third person.

96

The Context

The interviews, observations, review of school-related documents, and
field notes from home and school visits provided the database of case studies
for this research. The data were collected between February and June 1999.
Beginning in early January 1999, the researcher contacted the superintendent of
schools, requesting permission to conduct the study in the school district. Next,
several principals of elementary schools were sent letters, seeking their
permission to recruit research participants at their school sites. In subsequent
visits and telephone calls to the schools, the researcher obtained a contact
person at each of the sites at which the principal consented to participate. With
the aid of these individuals, eight families at five different elementary schools
were selected. The area in which the family members lived and worked, and the
child attended school, is described in the following paragraph. A brief overview
of the school district and the community is provided to enable the reader to
appreciate the setting from which the sample was drawn. Following this
description of the setting, the case studies of the eight families are presented.

The chapter concludes with an overview of the findings and a chapter summary.

The Setting
The study was conducted in an urban, inner-city school district that

serves approximately 25,000 students. The school district is among the largest
in the state. At the time of this inquiry, the urban elementary schools that the
participating fifth-grade children attended ranged in size from 305 to 615

students. All of the families in the sample lived in one- and two-story single-

97

family dwellings located in the inner city. All but two of the children lived within
walking distance of their schools. Those two students were transported to
magnet-school programs in which they were enrolled. This school district is

located in a small industrial town in the Midwest.

Ilge Families and Their Fifth Graiders: Eight Is Enough

The fifth-grade students and their families are introduced in this section.
Comments are restricted to general demographic information. The rich,
descriptive details about each unique family are furnished in the case studies.
Because in all cases the researcher interviewed the students, their teachers,
and their parents separately, the descriptions of the families are composites of
the perceptions of the students, the parents/guardians, the teachers, and the
researcher‘s own observations.

The interactions and relationships between the fifth graders and their
families and between the families and their children’s schools, as well as details
relative to the school experiences of the youngsters, are discussed in the case
studies that follow. All names of individuals and schools used in this study are
pseudonyms.

The sample population for this research included eight families with
students who, at the time the data were collected, were in the fifth grade. Four
of the students were females, and four were males. All but one were 11 years of
age; Paula, the exception, was 12 at the time. Of the eight families, two were
headed by single mothers, two were headed by single fathers, two were headed
by grandparents, and two were nuclear families. Table 4.1 contains additional
information about the families.

98

Table 4.1: Demographic characteristics of families in the sample.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Family Parent/Guardian’s Student’s
Family Com ition Level of Occupation Achievement
pos Education Level

Grandmother- Completed h.s.; Retired factory Average
Paula’s family headed; one some college worker

sibling

Grandparents- Retired factory Low

headed workers
Darien’s family Grandfather. Completed h.s.

Grandmother

Father. H.s. dropout

Cousin, aunt '

Intact family High

Father. Completed h.s. Factory worker
Ronald’s family Mother. 2 years college Salon owner/

4 siblings cosmetologist

Father: Completed h.s. Factory worker Average
Tyrone’s family Mother: BS. degree Registered nurse

2 siblings

Single-mother- Completed h.s.; Housewife High
Kala’s family headed trade school (AFDC)'|

8 siblings

Single-mother- Completed h.s. Housewife Average
Leesa's family headed (AFDC)'

4 siblings

Maternal

grandmother

Single-father Completed h.s. Factory worker, High
Shelly's family headed skilled trades

1 sibling
Junior‘s family Single-father Completed h.s.; Para-professional Low

headed military; trade

7 siblings school

 

Ngtes: The names used for all participants in the study are pseudonyms. All fifth
graders except Paula were 11 years old; she was 12 years old.

aAF DC = Aid for Families with Dependent Children.

99

Case Study 1: Kala’s Family
(Household Headed by a Single Mothe_r)

“I want to be one of those people right on top.”

 

While attending a women’s conference one weekend, I sat next to a long-
time friend and associate, Mrs. Rose. In response to her questions about my
retirement, I shared with her the nature and status of my dissertation research. I
also related my frustration that the family I had hoped to use in my pilot study
had notified me earlier that day that they had changed their minds about
participating. We discussed the time constraints and difficulties inherent in
gaining access to families who would be willing to take part in a research project
of this nature. During the course of our conversation, Mrs. Rose said she knew
a family she was certain would cooperate, and she volunteered to contact the
teacher and the family for me. The following Monday I met her at the school,
and she introduced me to the teacher and the student. She also called the
parent and asked her to call me so that I could arrange a meeting with her to
discuss the details of her participation in the study.

Initial Meeting With the Student
and ainin onsent

When Mrs. Rose arranged for me to meet the potential student for this
pilot case study, she brought the youngster into her office, where I was waiting.
She said, “Kala, l have someone I would like you to meet; she’s a friend of mine

who is a retired principal. Before she retired, she was the principal at Westfield

100

School. Do you know anyone who went to Westfield?’ The student said she
had a cousin who attended that school. Mrs. Rose then said,

Since Mrs. Muldrew has retired she is working on a special project at the

university and would like some students from our school to work with her.

I told her about you and your family because I think you would be

excellent for her research project.

At our very first meeting, Kala impressed me as a friendly, personable,
articulate, and astute youngster. Because children are taught at home and
school to beware of talking to strangers, I was surprised at how readily she
communicated with me at that first meeting. Following our formal introduction, I
shared with Kala the part that students and families would play in my research
project, and how her family could become involved. Afterwards, I asked if she
thought it was something she would like to do. She eagerly responded, “Yes.”
When I asked if she thought her mother would be willing to participate, she said,
‘I can ask her, but I’m sure she will.’ I spent about 20 more minutes telling her
about myself and letting her ask me questions about Westfield, the school where
I had been principal, going to college, and my family. Kala shared with me that
her oldest sister was in college and that she also wanted to attend college and
become a math teacher. I gathered from our conversation that Kala was fond of
her sister and proud of her family.

It took several attempts for me finally to meet Kala’s mother, Mrs. Proud.
Both Kala and my contact person, Mrs. Rose, asked Mrs. Proud to call me at
home. When she did, she gave me her telephone number and made an

appointment to meet me when she brought Kala to school the next day. She

was unable to make that meeting, as well as two subsequent appointments.

101

Each time she gave plausible reasons for not being able to come (e.g., she had
to take the baby to the doctor). Kala kept insisting that she was sure her mother
would agree to let their family participate in the study. Consequently, I gave
Kala the letters of invitation to take home to her mother. The next day I received
a call from Mrs. Proud; she inquired about the kinds of questions I would ask
Kala. After I had shared the student-interview questions with her, Mrs. Proud
met me at the school and signed the consent forms. During the interviews, I had
the distinct impression that Kala had probably received some coaching on the
responses she gave. Thus, I tried to confirm some of the information she shared

with me at our initial meeting.

The il and Horn

Kala’s immediate family unit consisted of a single mother and eight
siblings. According to Kala, her father did not live in the home but was very
involved in caring for the children. Mrs. Proud appeared to be in her late thirties
or early forties. She seemed active and energetic, stepping briskly as we walked
through the school. She moved at a fast pace and appeared somewhat carefree
and happy for a mother withe the responsibility of eight children. Each of the
four times I met with her, she exhibited a positive, warm, and friendly attitude.
She described her occupation as a housewife and homemaker. When asked
about her educational level, she had this to say: “I had two years of college. I
also had technical training, wherein I had begun working as a construction
worker and a rod buster. I eventually retired from working construction.”

Kala’s mother described her family as follows:

102

I have eight children. There are five girls and three boys. My five
daughters are: Carla, 20 years old, who is a second-year student at a
local college; Kala, 11 years old; Jessica, 6 years old; Jillian, 2 years old;
and Mia, 7 months old. My three sons are: Elijuan, 8 years old; Jamar, 7
years old; and lmani, 5 years old. We are basically a close family. We
have a lot of family days, church days, and a lot of activities that we do as
a family or with other kinfolk We’re just an average family that wants to
make it, to make a difference in this world.

When I asked Kala to describe her family, she had this to say:

Well, I have a bigger sister, she’s 20; she coached me this year in girl’s
basketball. I have a little brother named Elijuan; he’s kinda quiet around
people, and he doesn’t speak much, and when he’s around people he
knows, he talks a lot. And my little sister Jessica, she’s the same way,
they favor each other. My little sister Jessica looks exactly like my big
sister Carla; she’s very good at work, in her classroom. She had great
marks on her last report card; her teacher says she is an outstanding
student and that, as far as she can tell, she should make it to be anything
she wants to be. And my little brother Jamar, he's very bright. He doesn't
like to be bossed around; you can tell when you’re doing something he
doesn’t like and he stops it right then and there before anything goes
farther. My little brother lmani, he’s only in kindergarten, and he loves to
play. He gets along nicely with other people, and he helps my mom to
take care of my baby sister. Her name is Mia, and all she does is sit
around and sleep all day. That’s my family . . . and we all live in the same
house.

Kala appeared to be most proud of her sister Carla, who was a second-
year student at a local community college. She seemed to take great pride in
talking about how Carla coached the girl’s basketball team and how much she
wanted to follow in Carla’s footsteps and also go to college.

Kala went on to describe her father as follows:

Well, he doesn’t live with us, but he takes care of us, even with all the

things he does. I see him daily, I see him every day; I saw him yesterday,

I saw him this morning. He is gone when I go to school, but he stays

home and watches my little sister. I mean, even though my father doesn’t

live with me . . . it doesn’t matter to me because I know he loves me when
he is there . .. and he’s still gonna love me as much because he’s told me

so. Therefore, I have no worries about my father and my mother getting
into a disagreement; they do not argue around us. I’ve never heard my

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mom and my father argue around us. If my father has something to say,

he will say it calmly. I have never heard my father curse, or my mom. I

mean . . . he is everything a father should be.

It seemed that Kala felt compelled to convince me that her father was a
worthwhile person. At our initial meeting, she said that her father did not live
with them but was always there for them. She spoke of a time when her mother
had taken the baby to the hospital and her father came right over to stay with the
rest of the children. The mother did not say much about the father. Once she
indicated that he had come up to school to play a game of basketball with them.
When I pointedly asked Mrs. Proud whether Kala’s father was involved in her
schooling, she had this to say: “Yes; one year he was going to do a science
project for them, but the teacher had taken ill or something. This was when Kala
was in third grade, and so the project was put on hold, but he was willing and
able to come and participate.’

Kala stated that her extended family consisted of her grandmother, Jean,
and her husband, step-grandfather Jessie, who was the pastor of their church;
her Aunt Toni and 14- and 16-year—old cousins Valisa and Tamilia, who
occasionally baby-sat her. According to Mrs. Proud, her mother lived one block
over from her, and her sisters lived within walking distance from her home. She
described an older sister who frequently came to her home and helped out with
her family, and a younger sister with two daughters, who also assisted her. Mrs.
Proud referred to the latter as being very busy, but said that sister’s two

daughters did interact with Kala’s family. She said, “At times, you know, we

have family outings in which we take other family members. . . . We might all go

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skating, two or three families go skating, two or three families go to the beach or
to . . . anything . . . to the Expo or things such as that or downtown.”

In one of our conversations, before the interview, Kala mentioned that she
often went to her grandmother’s house. I asked Kala whether she thought her
grandmother helped her be successful in school. She responded:

My grandmother does encourage me. She says, “You have to go and

knock on opportunity‘s door. Opportunity is not always going to fall in

your lap.” She has always told me, “You’ve got to go out and grab what
you need and what it is that you want.” She did not mean that you go out
and take a candy bar from the store, but she means when you need
something you can always get it for yourself, which means you go out
there and get an education for yourself, and not have anybody do the
work for you because that’s giving them more knowledge and then what
are you left with? You’re going to be a store clerk. That’s not that much
money.

The Home

On Friday, April 2, 1999, lwas finally granted permission to visit Kala’s
home. It was a brief visit. I was invited to have a seat in the living room, which
was modestly furnished, clean, and neat. Kala and her mother were the only
family members visible during my visit. I could hear a television and other
children talking in the next room, but none of them came into the living room.
Once, the mother commanded the children in the next room, “Turn that television
down.” Another time she told them to quiet down. When the phone rang, she
told Jessica to answer it. Once, Mrs. Proud looked in on the other children and
told her son Jamar to “Take that glass in the kitchen.”

Kala sat next to me on the couch, and Mrs. Proud sat across from us in an

upholstered rocking chair. The only reading material in the room was a Bible

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and two magazines. Kala seemed glad to see me and was eager to recite her
Easter speech for me; this she did with great expression. She asked her mother
if she could show me her Easter attire. Although Mrs. Proud hesitated, she
finally agreed. I anticipated that this would bring out the other siblings, as they,
too, would want to show and tell, but that did not happen. Kala’s mother seemed
somewhat ill at ease, so I did not stay long. However, she assured me that they
would be glad to meet with me again when they returned from their trip. They

had plans to leave on the Monday after Easter, to visit her brother in Ohio.

192mm

Kala, the subject for this pilot case study, was 11 years old at the time of
the inquiry. She was a fifth grader at Timar Elementary School. Kala was neat
and well groomed, and her clothing was appropriate, modest school attire. Most
of the time she wore denim jeans with zippered pockets, a plaid cotton shirt, and
low-top tennis shoes with bright—orange laces. Other times she was dressed in a
T-shirt and cotton pants, but not of the designer quality that some of her
classmates were wearing. Her hair was neatly arranged and adorned with bows.

In addition to being friendly and personable, Kala apparently had a
positive attitude toward her family and school. She was unusually well
mannered and courteous, often responding to my questions with “Yes, Ma’am' or
‘No, Ma’am.’ She was articulate, warm, and readily remembered my name. She
seemed to feel quite comfortable with me. Although Kala was uninhibited, many
of her responses to my questions seemed rehearsed. Some of her responses

did not exactly pertain to the question; I did not get the feeling she was being

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evasive, but rather sort of rambling on, which is characteristic of children her
age. For example, I asked her, “When it’s time to have conferences with the
teacher [Miss Martin], what about those times?” She responded, “Conferences?
. . . Miss Martin . . . I go to church with Miss Martin a whole lot, and when she
comes over my mom asks her how I’m doing in school and whether I’m falling

back on my classwork, and I did admit to it.”

Kala’s Work Habits and Academic Performance

My observations and review of documents confirmed a great deal of what
the teacher, the principal, and my contact person, Mrs. Rose, told me about
Kala. They described her as an honor-roll student with model behavior.
Frequently, she was called upon to read a message or famous quotation on the
public-address system during morning announcements. During one classroom
observation of an English lesson, I noted that, when Kala was called to the
chalkboard, she answered the questions using complete sentences and
appropriate punctuation. Her handwriting was neat and clear. She worked
independently and remained on task, even though there occasionally were minor
distractions going on around her. The boy who sat at her right frequently
stopped his work to play with a yo-yo, which he slyly took out of his desk. Kala
seemed aware of this but said nothing. At one point, when the teacher
instructed the class to stop what they were doing, take out the social studies
book, and prepare to listen to her directions for the assignments, some students
hesitated, but Kala did so immediately. The teacher commented, “I like the way

Kala is ready."

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When Miss Martin reviewed the social studies assignment with the class,
she asked Kala to read part of the introduction to the lesson; she read fluently,
and with expression. The teacher explained the writing activity that the students
were to complete after reading the text silently. Again, Kala did as she was
directed. Upon completing the social studies assignment, she went to the files
on the counter and placed her work on the shelf labeled social studies On the
way back to her seat, she stopped by Miss Martin’s desk and took a sheet of
clean paper from the tray. Then Kala returned to the task of completing the
assignment she had begun earlier, just as the teacher had instructed the class to
do.

My review of Kala's individual student records consisted of looking at her
test scores; report cards; CA-60's, which are data profiles of the student; and
cumulative folder. On her current report card she had all A’s and B’s, few
absences and tardies, positive teacher comments, and excellent citizenship
ratings. All grades from her fourth-grade year, which was spent in a neighboring
school district, were missing from Kala’s records. According to Miss Martin,
these grades had not been received. Multi-age progress reports included
positive teacher comments, such as “Kala is a joy to have in my class,” “She is
an excellent student,” “Keep up the good work helping her at home,” and “She
grasps new concepts quickly and works hard.” Both schools that Kala had
attended credited her with good behavior, regular attendance, a positive attitude,

and excellent academic progress.

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Kala’s Sgpgyior and Peer Relationships

Kala appeared to have a good relationship with the other students in the
class, but basically she worked independently. I noted that she seemed to
deliberately ignore the inappropriate behavior of one student who tried to
distract her during a group activity. During gym and outdoor play periods, she
actively participated in group games. Kala’s interview responses reflected some
instances of students’ calling her “proper.“ In her words, “I do not like it when
they call me ‘proper’ or ‘Miss Goody-Two-Shoes.’“ I also observed that she
seemed eager to be friends with the girls in her group and willingly assisted

other students who asked for her help with various assignments.

Kala’s Relationship \Mt_h Her Mother

Kala expressed positive opinions of her mother. On one occasion she
said of her mom, “My mother, she is the best.” Even when Kala discussed the
chores that her mother had the children do at home, the somewhat restrictive
schedule that governed the family’s time at home, and a time she had to care for
the baby when her mother was ill, there was no hint of resentment. She seemed
to appreciate the fact that her mother, a single parent, had the responsibility of
caring for eight children. Once, Kala said that she commented to a girl in her
class, “And I was, like, my mom had made it to the meetings that she could. I
know if you knew what our family was like, and my mother had eight kids, and
you do not live with me . . . you’ll get the picture.”

Kala proudly discussed how her mother taught her and her siblings things

like manners, respect, and appreciation for having a roof over their heads. She

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took pride in reporting that her mother had done well in school. Another time,
Kala alluded to being inspired to go to college because her mother and her
oldest sister, Carla, had gone. In her own words, “I want to go to college, and
the reason why is because my mom and my big sister made it to college. . . . My
goal is making it to college, and I believe that I should try to follow that pattern if
I want to succeed at something.“ She followed this comment with a story about a
- person who owned a store, as compared to one who was a store clerk. Kala
concluded with “I wanna be one of those people right on top.“

At our initial meeting and also during the interviews, Kala referred to the
things her mother taught them at home. Her respect and admiration for her
mother were obvious. Kala made only one comment that was not so positive,
and it was this declaration that she repeated more than once: “I DO NOT want

children of my own when I grow up!”

I ’s e tion of the cho l and Teacher

Kala expressed some very mature ideas relative to her feelings about
school. For example, she said, “School is a place where students go to learn,
and not to go around fighting or getting into a big talking thing. . . . I would like to
talk to my friends, but at the same time I would like to get my work done. I like
school.” When I questioned her about what she thought her mother expected of
her at school, she said, “She sends me to school to learn, not to play, not kid
around . . . and not to get in a mess at school.“ She described a “mess“ in
adultlike terms, referring to it as “getting involved in that little circle or web that

they are spinning because you don’t know if you might get kicked out for this.”

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Kala also indicated that her mother said she had excelled in school and wanted
her children to do well also. Kala proudly shared a story about her mother’s
report card, which had all A’s.

In commenting about her teacher, Miss Martin, Kala said,

I don’t know if anybody else in my class likes school! Maybe they’re just

bored. But my teacher, Miss Martin, I feel that with her, she’s my friend, I

can tell her everything, not family business, but in school if I’m having any

trouble or I’m having trouble with somebody. . . . I’m not bad.
Kala said she sometimes attended church with Miss Martin and that her brothers
came along. In response to other questions about the teacher, Kala left the
subject of her present teacher and began discussing her previous year’s
teacher, whom she apparently liked very much.

Kala indicated that she wanted to be a math teacher, just like Miss Martin,
and that her previous teacher also had inspired her to want to teach. She was
defensive about comments that students had made about both Miss Martin and
the previous teacher. She stated,

Miss Martin is fun. She can play, and at times she can be a little mean,

but that’s only because we make her that way. And I would get upset too

if I kept asking the class to be quiet please; then I would get kinda
irritated by that. So I don’t blame her. I know that I am at school to Ieam.

And what makes me want to be like Miss Martin is because she can play,

talk, laugh with you all day, but when it comes down . . . and these are

hard words . . . when it comes down to us working, we work, but then we
still want to play at the same time and when she says, “Cut out the

playing,” it is cutout. So Miss Martin . . . she plays with us a lot, but
sometimes it is just all business.

Kala’s Perception of Her Familys
ch l Involvement
It is difficult to understand and characterize Kala’s feelings about her

family’s school involvement because they were, at times, contradictory. Once

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she talked proudly and extensively about how she enjoyed school and was
happy about her family’s school involvement, especially her big sister’s coaching
the girl’s basketball team, on which she played. When asked about the ways in
which she thought her mother was involved in school, Kala said that Mrs. Proud
attended parent conferences, Title I meetings, and PTA meetings; visited her
classroom; wanton field trips; occasionally stopped kids from fighting; and
advised the peer mediators. Kala concluded that her mother had participated in
many school-related activities since the time her big sister had started school.
Kala’s responses suggested that, because her mother was very involved,
there was some jealously among certain youngsters in her class. When I asked
whether she thought her mother’s school involvement was enough, she replied,
“It's enough.“ Then she chattered on about some girl who made derogatory.
comments when Mrs. Proud came to school. When asked how it made her feel
when her mother came to school, Kala responded, “It makes me happy, but the

other people are sometimes looking mean. It just clashes, I guess.”

Kala’s Perception of the Familxs
Aflerfichool Involvement

Kala gave a detailed account of her daily schedule of after-school
activities. She was excited about her enrichment classes, which included drama
on Mondays and Tuesdays, open gym on Wednesdays and Fridays, and Delta
sorority youth activities on Thursdays. She indicated that her weekend schedule
included Saturday choir rehearsal and church on Sunday, when the whole family
worshiped together. When I asked about homework, Kala did not say that her

mother or anyone else helped with it, but she explained that her mother had

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bought her a child’s laptop computer to help with problems she did not
understand.
Mother's Perception of the Student
and the Teacher

It was not easy to get a clear picture from the interviews and observations
of how Mrs. Proud perceived her relationship with Kala. However, she was
obviously proud of her daughter’s excellent academic achievement and
participation in extracurricular activities. Some responses to questions led me to
believe that Mrs. Proud felt a need to protect Kala; perhaps this is one of the
reasons she transported her to and from school and enrichment activities. I did
observe that Mrs. Proud readily and openly displayed affection for Kala,
showering her with hugs and kisses. Her conversation also indicated that she
saw herself as being responsible for teaching her children the importance of
education, responsibility, respect, and good behavior.

Kala’s mother seemed to view the teacher in a very positive light. Mrs.
Proud believed that Miss Martin was trustworthy because she permitted Kala
and her brothers to attend church with her. Kala’s mother also mentioned trying
to help Miss Martin with difficult students and said she felt comfortable stopping
by the classroom at any time. Mrs. Proud had only good things to say about

Kala’s teacher.

Mpther’s Perception of the Familyjs
School Involvement

When asked how she thought Kala felt about her family’s school

involvement, Mrs. Proud had this to say:

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You know, Kala is so happy sometimes that she’s shouting it. You can
see it in her. You can see it when she plays her instrument. I see it when
she utilizes herself and puts forth her best effort, and I want that same
thing for that other child as well, and that’s what hinders.

During the interviews, Kala’s mother included a variety of things about her
school-involvement activities. In addition to taking her daughter to school almost
every day, she frequently stopped in to communicate with the teacher about
Kala’s progress. Mrs. Proud attended parent meetings, workshops, honors
assemblies, student performance programs, and field trips. Stopping an
occasional fight in the hallway, mediating disputes on the playground, and giving
pep talks to the peer mediators and Kala’s class were among the school
involvement roles with which Mrs. Proud credited herself. In answer to my
question about whether she volunteered to help out in the classroom, she did
not give a direct response, but said that one student in Kala’s classroom was
having difficulty, and “we really worked hard to help him have a successful
school year.”

When I asked Kala’s mother to describe what, if any, meaning her school
involvement had for Kala’s academic performance, attitude, and adjustment, she
responded:

I believe so. I can feel the difference. If I put myself in my daughter’s

position and I am in elementary and my parent is being involved with me,

It is totally different, and I know the joy. . . . The other day, to give you a

good example, she said, “Mom, if you come up to the school and come to

this workshop, then we can sign up for a pizza” . . . put their name on a

list for a party or something . . . and so I told her that I wasn’t feeling well,

but I might consider coming up there. And when I got up there in the
workshop, I felt better and I stayed and signed up. So later I didn’t tell her
that I had done that, but she brought it to my attention that the staff, the
teacher or someone, had informed her, and the smile on her face, that

instant smile, that instant gratification, that was pleasing, that was
encouraging.

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During the interviews, Mrs. Proud also talked about parental involvement
being important, even in high school, to help children reach their achievement
potential and realize their dreams. She said she let her kids know that “school is
important because it makes or breaks your future.” She indicated that she
looked forward to being involved and was amazed that the great Timar school
spirit had not rubbed off on other parents and hadn’t influenced them to
participate more.

Her actions and interview responses indicated that Kala’s mother
appareme thought it was very important for families to be involved in the school
experiences of their children. When asked to reflect on her own parents’
involvement, she said more than once, “I would have wanted more.“ Mrs. Proud
described her parents as shopworkers who were divorced when she was six
years old. She credited her mother with having taken her to practices, banquets,
and other activities and, basically, being as dedicated as she could be with a
full-time job and six little children. Mrs. Proud vividly described being influenced
during her elementary school years by a woman who walked her children to
school every day to keep other kids from picking on them. She recalled that her
own mother could not do that because she worked nights and would be in bed
asleep when it was time to walk to school. Kala’s mother also mentioned that
her parents could not get time off from their factory jobs to participate in school
activities like parents can today. She discussed feeling somewhat deprived
because of her parents’ lack of involvement and intimated that some of the
children in Kala’s class might feel the same way about her family's frequent

presence and participation in school-related functions.

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Mrs. Proud was very complimentary about the attitudes of the principal
and staff at Kala’s school toward family involvement. She indicated that they
provided many opportunities to become involved. When I asked her what more
she would like to do, she responded:

Well, actually, we had spoken on it, the children and l. . . . Brook Avenue
church has entered into a contract with Timar,’ and we are going to start
mentoring programs, and the church actually is behind it. So I look
forward to becoming involved with that program, which will help to mentor
boys and girls, and I’m excited about that.

The only other instance of family involvement in school that Mrs. Proud referred
to was her daughter Carla’s coaching the girl’s basketball team. She also
mentioned that once Kala’s father had planned a classroom science lesson but

had not gotten to implement it.

Mother’s Pergption of the Familyjs
After ool Activities

Kala’s mother described their after-school involvement as a regular
routine that included daily enrichment activities for Kala. Kala was enrolled in
piano lessons, choir, dance, and drama classes, and she also participated in the
Delta sorority’s youth enrichment club. Kala’s mother gave this account:

Our routine is 5 o’clock is homework time, every day, seven days a week,
homework! And sometimes on Friday, the ones that didn’t choose to do
their homework have Saturday and Sunday to get it done, but basically
week-day homework must be done that night. Now about 5 o’clock, 6, 7,
possibly at those times I’m cooking dinner, and we’re having dinner
shortly after it is prepared and we’re cleaning up the kitchen and then
everybody is sitting, watching their programs, and then shortly before they
go to bed, at 9, they try to get their school clothes ready. So generally,
they’ll do their washing . . . the boys wash on Fridays, the girls wash on
Saturdays, and my college student washes on Sundays. So, basically,
after they get that done, by 9 o’clock the house should be clean, so
basically that’s what we try to do. Even though I’ve been accused of
having been a little too strict, it’s just that narrow time slot right there that

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doesn’t allow a lot of flexibility. That’s why, generally, Friday, Saturday,
and Sunday are our family days.

In addition to homework, some of the things the Proud family did at home
that supported Ieaming included having fun singing and practicing Easter
speeches on the karaoke machine. They had an organ that the children played,
and they attended church worship together.

Mrs. Proud also indicated that Kala’s extended family members were
sometimes a part of their after-school activities. She stated,

At times, you know, we have family outings in, which we take other family

members. . . . We might all go skating, two or three families go skating,

two or three families go to the beach or to some other place, Expo or

things such as that, or downtown to [the university] or the YMCA. . . . Four
families, maybe five or six families, we all go to the YMCA

Kala’s St_:_hool and the Teacher

Kala attended Timar Elementary School, located on the far northern end
of the city. According to the principal, the school’s population was approximately
480 students; with the exception of 10 or 12 Hispanics and Caucasians, all of
the students were African Americans. The school served students in
prekindergarten through fifth grade. The building was a very old one, but it was
relatively well maintained. The grounds near the entrance and play area were
free of rubbish; the hallways were also clean and highly polished. Attractive
displays, welcome signs, and motivational slogans adorned the walls of the
hallways and classrooms.

The building climate appeared to be orderly, as evidenced by events

taking place in according with rules and well-established procedures. This was

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most noticeable because I was observing the school during those early spring
days when the annual severe-weather drills were taking place.

Kala was a member of a self-contained fifth-grade class of 27 students,
15 girls and ‘12 boys. The classroom was neat and well organized, with an
arrangement suitable to the activities that were taking place. The teacher’s desk
was near the chalkboards, with students’ desks in paired rows facing her. Small-
group instruction was conducted in a corner near the windows, where students
sat on chairs around a half-moon table. Near the rear of the room were five
computers, stationed in clusters of two or three. A large television monitor was
mounted in the corner, near the computer terminals. Materials and supplies
were neatly arranged and easily accessible. Students placed their completed
work in labeled cubicles on the counters. They obtained clean paper from a tray
on the teacher’s desk, and a can containing sharpened pencils sat nearby.
Dictionaries, encyclopedias, and copies of Roget’s Thesaurus were on shelves
above the counters. The Ieaming environment was colorful and attractive, with
bulletin boards, charts, and displays, as well as an area labeled Excellent Work.

The disciplinary climate was orderly, with routines that appeared to be
well established. Students raised their hands for a turn to read or respond to the
teacher’s questions, and they generally seemed alert and attentive to assigned
tasks. When the teacher occasionally reminded a student of the rules, the child
readily responded. Even though the classroom was unusually warm at times,
the students were generally well behaved.

Miss Martin was a second-year teacher who seemed to be very young. At

our first meeting, I discovered that she was very warm and friendly. She

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displayed a genuinely pleasant, cooperative, and accommodating attitude during
all of my interactions with her. Miss Martin had been highly recommended to me
as a possibility for the study by both the principal and my friend, Mrs. Rose, who
was the contact person. They described her as a very competent, concerned,
and caring teacher who always filed to involve parents in the Ieaming

experiences of their children.

a s P r ti n of the tudent

Miss Martin was very complimentary about Kala. In her description of
what the youngster was like, the teacher’s comments mirrored those I had noted
in my review of records from Kala’s previous teachers. Miss Martin
characterized Kala’s work ethic in this manner:

Kala is a hard worker. She normally stays on task. She’s very smart; she

easily catches on to things. I don’t have to explain a concept several

times to her before she will catch on to it. She’s pretty quiet. She likes to
work alone, independently. She likes to help others, so if she sees that
there’s another student who’s maybe having a problem or who’s not
catching on as quickly as she is, she doesn’t hesitate to help that student.

So basically, that sums it up.

The teacher went on to say that Kala had a very positive attitude toward
school, and unlike some of the other students, she did not need to be pushed to
do her work According to Miss Martin, Kala was also very responsible about
her homework and classwork. She stated, “Kala is always making sure that her
work is done correctly.“ It was obvious from the interviews and observations that
the relationship between Kala and her teacher was a close one. Kala attended
church with Miss Martin, helped her with a number of tasks in the classroom, and
was frequently chosen by the teacher to represent the class in special school
activities.

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m Teacher’s Perception of the Parent

Miss Martin described Kala’s mother as a “very involved parent“ who
attended parent meetings and conferences, helped chaperone the class field
trips, and made sure that her daughter completed homework and school work.
The teacher seemed to be most impressed by the fact that this mother had eight
children and still found the time to bring her daughter to school almost every day
and to participate in parent activities at the school. Miss Martin continued to
describe Kala’s mother by saying,

I do know that she has several other brothers and sisters who all attend

different schools. Kala is the only child at Timar Elementary School. Mrs.

Proud is very involved with every one of her children. I also know she

often runs from school to school. She is always here for any program,

any honors assembly. She brings Kala to school every morning, and she
always stops in to speak to me to make sure there’s nothing happening
that she needs to work with Kala on at home. I know she’s very adamant
about Kala getting a good education and making sure that, as the parent,
she does all that she possibly can to make sure that Kala gets a good
education and that this becomes a reality.

The teacher also explained that Kala’s mother did not wait forthe school
to contact her about Kala. Instead, she made the extra effort to stay in touch

with the teacher and the school.

Illa Teacher’s Perception of the Family’s
Smool Involvement

When asked about the family’s school involvement, Miss Martin indicated
that she knew nothing about the father, but she was well acquainted with the
mother’s participation. She was also aware that Kala’s big sister, Carla, helped
to coach the girl’s basketball team. Other school involvement for which Miss
Martin gave Kala’s mother credit included (a) recognizing that Kala had great
potential and encouraging her to strive for excellence; (b) having high

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expectations for her daughter's behavior and achievement; (c) showing an
interest in other children and trying to encourage more parents to get more
involved in school; and (d) attending parent meetings, workshops, honors
assemblies, and school programs. Miss Martin also said she thought that

perhaps Kala was such an exceptional student because of her family’s support.

Slim Iggcher’s Perception of the Familxs
Apr-School Involvement

When asked about the Proud family’s after-school involvement, Miss
Martin had this to say:

I guess immediately after school, they have to do homework, before they
can watch any TV. They have to get their homework done. Kala has
mentioned this several times because I only give homework Monday
through Thursday, but at her home, even on Fridays they have to do
homework Therefore, if they don’t have any homework to do, her mother
is finding something for them to work on that relates to school. . . . And
before they can watch any TV, that’s something that the whole family has
to do—sit down and do their homework together. Then, something else
that I think is nice, they sit down and eat dinner together. Many families
don’t have time for that anymore. This is the time where the family talks
about what happened in school, or how their day was, so that makes
relationships a little better. Yes, Kala talks about her family all of the
time.

Miss Martin also said that Kala frequently talked about some other things
they did outside of school. Some of the activities they participated in were
skating, going to movies, swimming at the YMCA, and helping their mother with
cooking and other household chores. The teacher did not seem to know of any
other at-home activities that Kala’s family engaged in to support Ieaming.
However, she did indicate that the family attended church and apparently
believed in Christian values, as evidenced by Kala's good manners, courtesy,

and respectfulness.

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u i s

The family in this pilot case study was one in which education was valued
and good behavior was encouraged and supported through both in-school and
out-of-school family involvement. Kala, the fifth-grade student on whom this
case study centered, was a model student in terms of school performance,
attitude, and adjustment. Her interactions with peers were appropriate, and she
was well thought of by her teacher, principal, and other staff members. I found
her to be a cooperative, friendly, and willing participant. She acted very mature

and responsible for her age.

Case Study 2: Leesa’s Family
(Household Headed by a Single Mother)

“I want to be a doctor because I care about people.“

lpitial Meetings

Leesa’s family was recommended to me by Mrs. Jones, the principal of
Daily School, whom I had known for some time. She had been my assistant
principal for three of my last years as a principal. I invited her to lunch one day
and told her about the nature of my research. She immediately expressed an
interest in Ieaming more about the study and left our lunch armed with letters of
invitation and consent forms. She promised to find some families at Daily
School who would be willing to participate in‘the study.

A few days later, Mrs. Jones called me to say that Leesa’s mother had
consented to have her family participate. Later that same day, I went to the
school to collect the signed consent form. Mrs. Jones called Leesa’s homeroom
teacher, Mrs. Williams, to the office and introduced us. Mrs. Williams invited me

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to accompany her to the classroom to meet Leesa. Following our introduction, I
gave Leesa one of my cards and asked her to have her mother call me so that I
could arrange to meet her.

Leesa’s mother, Ms. Brown, called me later that same evening to say that
she would be coming to school the next day to talk with the principal about a
fight that had taken place between Leesa and another student on their way
home from school. Ms. Brown indicated that she would see me if I could meet
her at the school the following day. Because we did not know what time Mrs.
Jones could see Ms. Brown, I arrived at the school at 9:00 am, the beginning of
the school day.

While waiting to meet Ms. Brown, I meandered around the building,
getting a feel for the school’s culture (see description of the school). After a
while, I entered the classroom to observe. Shortly after 10:00 am, the principal
asked Mrs. \Mlliams to send Leesa to the office. Later, she explained to me that
the purpose of Leesa’s office visit was to participate in a conference regarding
the fight she had with another classmate while returning home from school the
day before. Shortly thereafter, the teacher went to the door, where Leesa and
the other student were standing with their mothers. Mrs. Williams briefly spoke
with them.

When the two students returned to the classroom and had taken their
seats, the teacher called me out to the hallway and introduced me to Leesa’s
mother, Ms. Brown. During our brief conversation, I reminded her of the purpose
and focus of my research and informed her that I would begin observing Leesa

at school that week. We scheduled times to conduct the parent and student

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interviews. Ms. Brown assured me that l was welcome to visit their home, and I
did so on three occasions. The first time, I took Leesa and her little sister home;
their mother had given them permission to stay after school to complete the
second student interview. The second and third visits were for the purpose of
interviewing Ms. Brown. Several times, I observed Leesa in the school setting,
in the classroom, in the lunch room, and on the playground, and l accompanied

her class to an assembly on character education.

Th t dent

The student who was the focus of this case study was a somewhat shy
11-year-old girl named Leesa. At the time of the study, she was a fifth grader at
Dailey Elementary School. Leesa was a bit smaller than her classmates. Her
hair was always well cared for and neatly arranged. She wore clothing that'was
similar to that worn by her classmates, but it was not the name-brand or designer
type of apparel that is popular with many students in urban schools. Each time I
observed her, Leesa wore denim jeans or casual slacks, a T-shirt, and a red,
white, and blue jacket. Everywhere she went, Leesa carried a transparent
plastic bag that was fashioned like a backpack but was only large enough to
carry small objects such as pencils, pens, money, and other keepsakes. This
must have been a current fad because several of the other girls also carried

similar transparent bags.

Leeg’s Family
At the time of the study, Leesa’s family consisted of her mother, who was

the head of the household; a 25-year-old brother who was employed; a 17-year-

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old sister who was in high school; and a 10—year-old sister who attended the
same school as Leesa did. The children’s maternal grandmother also lived with
the family. The extended family, who occasionally helped care for Leesa and
her younger sister, included some aunts and uncles (her mother’s siblings) who
lived in the same neighborhood. No mention was made of Leesa’s father. I met
Leesa’s younger sister during my visit at the school because the two children
met after school each day to walk home together. The grandmother and I had
several conversations when l telephoned or visited their home. I did not have an
opportunity to meet Leesa’s older siblings. Leesa’s mother described their
family in this way: “We are a Christian family, and we believe in children and
families working together. We are a close family; basically, we talk things out

and do things together.“

Leesa’s Mother

Ms. Brown appeared to be in her forties. She was talkative and
intelligent, but she used substandard English to express herself. She had
graduated from high school and taken some classes in trade school. At the time
of the study, she was not employed, a situation that she blamed on an injury to
her knee and arm. Ms. Brown was pleasant and cordial each time I met with her,
but I had the feeling she was keeping me at a distance or that there was
something she did not want me to know. She gave a somewhat muddled
response to my question about the way her parents’ school involvement
compared with her own. She described the meaning that parent involvement

has for the child’s school performance, attitude, and adjustment as follows:

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To me it is very important because I always say a parent brought a child

into the world, a parent teaches the child to grow up, therefore a parent’s

involvement has to be important because I tell my kids that the parent is

the first teacher.

d mil

Leesa’s grandmother, who lived with them, was very cordial and talkative.
I had spoken with her on the phone and was formally introduced to her on my
first visit to their home. Her actions revealed that she was definitely interested in
the interview process. When the grandmother received a call during my visit,
Ms. Brown asked her to take the telephone into the kitchen so as not to interrupt
the interview. However, the grandmother came out of the kitchen and stood in
the doorway, obviously listening to what was being said in the interview. Ms.
Brown and the grandmother exchanged looks, and the latter returned to the
kitchen. A little while later she walked through the living room, where the
interview was in process, and paused to look out the front door. She appeared
to be trying to give Leesa’s mother a signal. I took the hint and shut off the tape
recorder. Ms. Brown explained that her ride had arrived and she needed to
leave for an appointment. We agreed to finish the interview the following
morning.

Leesa’s grandmother apologized to me for her daughter's having to leave
and then chatted with me as I packed up my equipment. She asked whether I
was still working in the schools and commented on how things had changed
since she raised her children. Naturally, I was interested in her point of view.

She said that many of the problems in schools today are a result of the no-

paddling laws and of young parents defending their kids when they misbehave. l

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mentioned that Leesa had told me her grandmother occasionally came to the
school to check on the girls if their mother was unable to come. The
grandmother smiled and said, “That’s what families are for. . . . They should stick
together and help to raise the children to do what’s right. The school can’t do it
all.“ She also said that she had not received much education and that her
husband had always been the one to help their children with homework and to
attend their school programs. She added, “But then it was not like it is now, with
so much trouble in the schools.“ ,

As I prepared to leave, I speculated that it would be beneficial to interview
Leesa’s grandmother. However, I resisted the temptation to ask for permission
because interviewing her had not been part of my initial agreement with Leesa’s
mother. Perhaps the grandmother might not have spoken so freely if she were

being tape recorded.

The Home

The Brown family’s home was located in the far-northwestern area of this
urban school district. The neighborhood was populated primarily by Iow- and
middle-income families. The home was five or six city blocks from the school,
which was easily within walking distance. When I visited Leesa’s home, the
neighborhood appeared well kept, with manicured lawns, flowers, and trees.
The Browns’ house and most of the others on that street were in good repair.
Sidewalks were clean and free of debris.

I made three trips to Leesa’s home and was invited in twice. Each of
those times I was asked to take a seat in the living room. This room was
furnished with a couch, two occasional chairs, a coffee table, and a television

127

mounted in an entertainment center. The furniture evidenced a great deal of
wear. Leesa had said in her interview that the family had a big computer, but I
did not see it, nor did I notice any books, magazines, or other materials that
would support Ieaming, although they might have been in other parts of the
house.

’ Personali Attitude itizenshi

gm Egr Relations
The first day I observed Leesa, she appeared to be shy and was

somewhat self-conscious. I sat facing the table that Leesa shared with one
other girl and two boys. The table was situated near a wall at the opposite end
of the room from the teacher's desk. The two boys took advantage of every
opportunity to socialize when the teacher was preoccupied with helping
individual students. Leesa grinned at their conversation and antics. Several
times I noticed her watching both the teacher and me out of the corner of her
eye. Because I knew that Leesa was aware that l was there to observe her, I
tried to focus on the teacher and other objects or children in the classroom in an
effort to minimize her discomfort. At times, it appeared that Leesa enjoyed the
attention I was giving her. Clearly, she had told her seatmates that I would be
taping an interview with her. This was brought to my attention when the class
lined up to make the transition to their other teacher. A girl who sat across the
aisle from Leesa’s group asked me why I would be interviewing just Leesa and
not her.

For the most part, Leesa appeared to be interested and involved in her

school work She was attentive when the teacher gave directions and raised her

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hand to respond to questions. She exhibited a pleasant attitude, and her
talkative nature blossomed as she became more comfortable with me. For
example, Leesa was more open and articulate during the second interview than
during the first one. I was amazed at how insightful her comment was when I
asked what lessons her family had taught her about school. She replied,

I mostly know about that myself. She tells me it’s important. Like, you

know. . . if I don’t go to school I can’t go to college, or get a free permit to

go to college. You know, sometimes when you are in the tenth grade, if
you get all straight A’s you can get a free permit to go to certain colleges

. . . and when I grow up I want to be a doctor, so I know I have to stay in

school.

Leesa beamed when she spoke of wanting to be a doctor. Naturally, I
wanted to hear more about that. I asked why she wanted to become a doctor.
Again, the depth of her answer amazed me. She said, “Well, it’s just like . . . I
care about people. I want to be able to take care of people, do things for them
and try to save their lives. . . . I don’t like to see people hurt and almost dying
and somebody can’t help them.“

During one observation, I noted that when the class was returning from
the lunch room, a girl from Leesa’s class was talking with a boy about a problem
her little brother had experienced during lunch recess. I overheard Leesa
exclaim, “I saw the whole thing!“ Just about that time, the teacher began
ushering the class to their seats. Leesa commented to the boy as he passed the
girl’s seat, “I’ll tell you all about it after school.“ She seemed to think it was
important to share what she know about the incident.

Leesa also told me that she got along with her friends pretty well, but
“There’s some kids that get an attitude real quick.“ She went on to say that her

mother had told her just to ignore that kind of conflict. l was surprised by this

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response because Leesa had recently had a fight with another youngster after
school. According to Mrs. Williams, Ms. Brown vehemently insisted that the fight
was the other girl’s fault because she had jumped Leesa first; thus, Leesa was
simply defending herself. The teacher said this must have been Leesa’s
account of the incident because her mother had not been there to witness what
had happened. Leesa’s citizenship grades, all 2's and 3's, were another

indication that Leesa had difficulty with her attitude and peer relations.

0 H its and chool erformance
During classroom observations, I noted that Leesa did not always work

consistently at completing her assignments. Her class was involved in several
activities in which students had to leave their work briefly and return to complete
it. At the beginning of the day, when Leesa’s group received instructions for
their morning assignments, she began immediately. Following trips to the office,
the restroom, and a character-education assembly, Leesa returned to her seat
and resumed her work. Occasionally, I observed that Leesa and the three
students seated with her were slyly talking and playing while continuing to give
the appearance of being busy with their work. When I looked at specific
assignments that she had done, it was apparent that, although Leesa followed
the teacher’s directions, she put only minimal effort into the exercises. Her
writing was a sloppy version of the cursive that the teacher insisted that they do
because printing would not be accepted. For example, in her paragraph about
the family's Mother’s Day celebration, Leesa carelessly traced over her printing
to transform the letters to cursive writing. Her sentences using the spelling
words were simple as compared to the more complex ones that some of the

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other students read aloud when they were asked to share their work. The
teacher also made sure that I noted the many unfinished assigned pages in
Leesa’s reading workbook.

The review of Leesa’s school records included an examination of her
current report, the CA-60, and her cumulative folder containing test scores and
work from previous years. Her grades on the current report card for the first,
second, and third marking periods included one B- in science (her best grade),
seven 0’3, and seven D’s. During her fourth-grade year, the first year that
students at Dailey School receive letter grades, Leesa received her best grades
(B’s) in language arts. Her grades in other subjects ranged from C’s to D’s. In
many areas on the multi-age primary K-3 progress reports, Leesa received a
rating of P (Progressing); in few areas was she rated M (Mastery). Teacher.
comments on current and previous report cards frequently indicated that Leesa
needed to put forth more effort, study and get help at home, and improve her
attendance. Her citizenship was consistently given 3's and 2's, representing
average and good behavior, respectively. Dailey was the third school that Leesa
had attended, having been enrolled on February 7, 1995, during second grade.
Leesa’s Michigan Educational Assessment Program (MEAP) scores reflected an
overall performance rating of “low,“ with a 295 on Story Selection and 281 on
lnforrnation Selection (a score of 300 or above is satisfactory).

The teacher explained that she was able to monitor students’ daily work
and could require students to complete or correct their assignments at recess or
during free time. During my observation the following Monday, I glanced at

Leesa’s seatwork while she was having a turn at the computer. The sentences

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that she had written for her spelling words were simplistic for a fifth grader.
Although she had been careful to use apprOpriate punctuation and capital
letters, the Mother’s Day paragraph that was her creative writing assignment
also did not meet the usual standards of quality. She had written it in pencil,
then tramd over the words in ink. When Leesa returned to her seat, I asked if

she had finished with her work; she responded matter-of-faCtly, “Yes.“

Leesa’s Relationship With Her Mother
and the Family

Leesa apparently admired her mother and liked it when she visited the
school. The youngster’s face beamed with admiration when she talked about
her mother. She gave several examples of the things her mother taught the
children at home. For example,

My mama teaches us to have manners and don’t say “huh“! Don’t talk

back to our elders and clean up behind ourselves. In school she tells us

to do what the teacher says. If the teacher makes a mistake, you just tell
them we did this the last time or something.

Leesa also mentioned that her mother had told her and her younger sister
to have their own mind and not just do what everyone else did. Although she did
not seem to know much about her mother’s school experience, Leesa did know
the names of schools she had attended and that the math her mother had been
taught was different from what Leesa was now Ieaming in elementary school.
Leesa also was unsure about her grandparents’ involvement in her mother’s
education. She knew that her grandfather (who was deceased) had worked in a

factory, and she thought that her grandmother (who now lived with them) had
stayed home to take care of the children.

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Leesa described her mother’s expectations for her and her sisters at
school in the following way: “Bethe best that we can be and try to do our best
and don’t try to be hard because your friends are hard.“ Leesa said that her
mother was involved in school because she loved her children. This was
another indication that the child had a close relationship with her mother.
Further, Leesa said she was happy that her mother had brought some long
slacks to school for Leesa to wear on a field trip. Not thinking about the trip,
Leesa had worn shorts to school that day. Another time, Leesa said her mother
always came to see the principal or the teacher if she had a problem at school.

I recall how Leesa’s face lit up when she said that other kids in the school
called her mother “mama“; she went on to say,

My mother can just walk up to the door, and some of the kids will go to the

door because they heard her. And if somebody has been bad and they

know my mama, she’ll like tell them, “You better start acting right in
school, or I’m going to tell your mama on you,“ and then they will
straighten up.

Leesa’s pride in her mother's popularity with her schoolmates was evident during

this conversation.

Leesa’s Perception of the School and Her Teacher

When I asked how she felt about school, Leesa responded,
I think it’s nice. I’ve been going here to Dailey School since I was in the
second grade, and I could have another choice to go someplace else, but
I didn’t want to leave here. . . . Our principal is nice, and I like my teacher
very much. All the teachers I’ve had since I’ve gone here have been nice
to me.

Leesa beamed when she talked about her school. She said the thing she liked

most about Daily School was that the teacher was not mean. She did not holler

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at the pupils or punish the whole class when a few children did something
wrong.

Because I had accompanied Leesa’s class to one of their assemblies on
character education, I asked her what the principal’s message meant to her.
Leesa’s explanation led me to believe that she understood the message, as well
as the meaning of the signs posted around the building, which said, “Let Us

Grow Up In Peace.“

Lgpsa’s Eerception of Her Familyjs
Involvement In and Cut of School

Leesa exhibited great pride in her family and their involvement both in
and out of school. In our discussion about her mother’s involvement in school,
Lisa said, “She does a great deal. When I was in the third or second grade, she
would come to school and go on field trips with us. She has not done that this
year because of her injury.“

The Dailey School children’s choir, which her mother had initiated and
once directed, seemed to be the greatest source of Leesa’s pride in her mother’s
involvement The child’s face glowed as she described how her mother had
ordered pizza for their choir at the end of the previous year, when they had
finished their last song. There was a sad look on her face when she said, “Now
she came up here and tried to get the choir started again, but they didn’t
approve it. Last year they approved it.“

Leesa also said that her mother had come to school sometimes just to
visit her teachers. When I asked whether her mother helped out in the

classroom, Leesa responded, “Not this [year].' In our discussion of Ms. Brown’s

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attendance at school parent meetings, Leesa said, “Sometimes she comes when
she can make it. Only times when my mom can’t make it is when she doesn’t
know it, or she just forgot about it.“

Leesa credited her grandmother with picking up her report card or
attending conferences with the teachers whenever her mother could not come.
She continued by saying that when she and her sister came home after school,
their grandmother would ask them, “How was school?“ and “Do you have
homework?“ Leesa described how her grandmother encouraged her to go to
school if she was angry or just didn’t feel like going: “[My grandmother] said,
‘You have to go to school! The more days you miss, the more you might flunk.’
So that’s how she encouraged me to start and keep going to school. Now I don’t
miss school unless I’m sick.“

When I tried to find out more about Leesa’s family’s support or
encouragement for academic achievement, her responses were vague. I did not
detect any indication that the family emphasized getting good grades or
producing quality work. Leesa’s description of her family’s after-school activities
was brief. Basically, she said, “I do my homework before I go outside. . . . I have
to. . . . I go down the street to my friend’s house . . . and last Tuesday Iwent over
to my cousin’s house.“ When I encouraged Leesa to share more with me about
the routines at home, she finally said, “On Saturdays, my little sister and l have
to wash dishes, clean up the kitchen, straighten up our room, and we might be
doing some extra.“

I continued to pursue the subject of the Browns’ after-school activities, but

Leesa seemed hesitant to discuss the subject. However, she did say that they

135

sometimes played school; she and her sister were the students, and someone
else acted as the teacher, I am uncertain whether it was her mother or her big
sister. Leesa also said they had a big computer at home and would be getting
another one. In response to my questions about what her family did on
weekends, Leesa said, “We sometimes do kid stuff on Saturdays. . . . And then
sometimes on Saturdays we just go outside and play with our friends. . . . Once
my friend’s mother took us to Playland at McDonald’s.“ Leesa said that was
practically all they did after school; they never went skating, to movies, or
anything like that.
ngsg’s Mother’s Involvement In
and of chool

Much of Ms. Brown’s discussion of her own involvement in the school
concerned paid positions at the school. For example, she referred to having
been paid to direct the children’s choir, which she started through a grant the
school received. In addition, she mentioned her employment as a lunchroom
attendant. She also had tried to get hired to work in the classrooms as a
substitute teacher or paraprofessional. She apparently thought that not having
been hired to work at the school was a barrier to her being more involved. Both
Leesa and her mother indicated that Ms. Brown did attend some school activities
and occasionally stopped in the classroom to talk with her child or the teacher. I
gathered from the discussion that Ms. Brown wished that she could continue to
keep the choir going and be paid to direct it. She did not explain why she was
no longer working with the choir, but Leesa said the choir had not been

approved for the current school year.

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Ms. Brown gave only a brief description of the family’s after-school
activities related to Ieaming. Some of her comments about homework were
mentioned earlier. I noted that her opinions on the subject supported what
Leesa had already told me. Ms. Brown said,

Well, when the kids come home I give them a choice. They can either go

ahead and eat their dinner and then do their homework, or they can come

right in, do their homework and then eat something. It depends on how
hungry they are. . . . There are no outdoor activities until homework is

Ms. Brown indicated that she thought homework and home support for
Ieaming were important, but she did not allude to any other ways in which she
structured the family’s home time to support the children’s Ieaming. Because
Ms. Brown described her family as a Christian one, I asked her about their
spiritual orientation. I was curious because Leesa seemed to take great pride in
the fact that her uncle was the pastor of their church. Her mother sang at
church, as did Leesa and her younger sister. Ms. Brown agreed that the family
was very active in church. She also said she thought that

A spiritual home environment helps the child’s mind to be more settled. It

teaches them how to handle other kids and cope with different things in

school, so they can sit there and work and focus on what they are doing
instead of on other things that take the mind away.

Ms. Brown also said she thought that the family’s spiritual background
helped her children learn respect and responsibility. She indicated that her
children could go anywhere, and she did not have to worry about how they were
going to act because she had received good reports. According to her, “PeOple
say to me, ‘I can tell your children go to church.” Apparently, church-related
activities were the primary focus of the family’s after-school involvement.

However, Leesa’s mother did say that she bought her children different things

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and took them to a variety of places so they would have many diverse
experiences outside of school. She did not go into detail about what those
experiences included.

On the subject of opportunities for family involvement at school, Ms.
Brown said she thought there should be more activities that included both
parents and students. Concerning parent involvement in school, she asserted,

I feel that parents should go to school and get to know their child’s

teacher and know somethingabout what the child is doing, instead of

waiting until the last minute to come to the school. I’ve seen parents

come to school and they didn’t even know who their child’s teacher was.
Ms. Brown also said she thought it was important for parents to attend parent-
teacher conferences and ask questions if there were things they wanted to know.

Ms. Brown believed homework was important to keeping the child’s mind
occupied and focused on school work instead of always on playful things. She
discussed the family’s out-of-school activities that supported Ieaming as follows:
“Homework must be done before they can play; when there is no homework, you
find something for them to do. We also have reading times when we just get
books and read.“

It was obvious from our conversation that Ms. Brown perceived that Leesa
felt good about her involvement. She said, “My kids love it, and they are very
upset if I cannot come to anything. They love for me to be there with them.
They’re so proud when I’m there: All over the school I am Mama. . . . I’m
everybody’s at the school.“

Ms. Brown also thought her involvement was helping her children grow
and learn how to handle different situations and make the world a better place in

which to live. She spoke of trying to do constructive things and being a role

138

model for her children. Throughout our conversation, Ms. Brown had little to say
about Leesa’s teacher or the school administrators. However, she did say that
the parent leaders at the school needed to be better coordinated in order to
reach all parents and get them involved in the school.

m

At the time of this study, Leesa attended Dailey School, which was
located in the northwestern quadrant of this urban school district. The school,
which served prekindergarten through fifth grade, was primarily a residential!
pedestrian school; a few students were transported in for special education
classes. For the most part, Leesa’s peers were her neighbors and students with
whom she had attended Dailey School for the three years that she had been
enrolled there. The facility was a single-level building with more modern
features, such as an auditorium, than most of the older buildings in the district.
Compared to most of the inner-city schools in the district, Daily was relatively
clean and free from rubbish. According to the school’s annual report, the
focuses of the school’s administrators and staff were positive human relations
and improved school climate. This focus was evident in the character-education
assemblies facilitated by the principal, the opening ceremony that included the
Pledge of Allegiance, and the school’s pledge: “I will take pride in myself and
everything I do. I will display good character at all times. I will strive to be the
best that I can be, and will work for higher academic achievement.“

Leesa’s class included 28 fourth and fifth graders, 13 girls and 15 boys,
all of whom were African Americans. The students were seated at tables in
groups of four, five, or six. The room appeared congested and much too small

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for all of the furniture, equipment, supplies, and students. However, despite all
of the clutter (which included a large terrarium, a 30-gallon aquarium, and
several green plants), the teacher managed to negotiate her way around the
room, working alternately with fourth and then fifth graders. She closely
monitored the students’ work habits and behavior. The classroom climate was
tightly controlled, and students were not allowed much freedom of movement.
Every day the chalkboards were filled with a variety of seatwork activities for

which individual groups were held accountable.

ngg’s Teacher

Leesa’s teacher, Mrs. Williams, was very serious and firm with the
students; she seldom smiled. When she occasionally did smile, it resembled a
grimace. However, despite her stern demeanor, Mrs. Williams treated the ’
students with respect and dignity. This was evident from the tone of voice in
which she spoke to them and the way she pulled them aside to discuss their
misbehavior or inadequate performance privately. She exhibited genuine
concern for helping children realize their academic potential. The teacher
maintained a highly structured classroom with clearly established rules and
organized routines. She did not yell at or threaten the youngsters, but she
displayed a low tolerance for nonsense.

Mrs. Williams was always cordial to me and welcomed me to visit her
class as often as I liked. Based on the interviews with this teacher, my
observations, and the review of students’ records, I concluded that she placed a
high value on academic achievement and good citizenship, a philosophy that did
not appear to be as important to her team-teaching partner and the teacher who

14o

had taught the class the previous year. Mrs. Williams conveyed this idea in a
conversation about the adjustment she had had to make in students’ behavior

when they came to her class from a less structured setting.

The Teac_her’s Perception of Leesa

Mrs. Williams described Leesa as an “average“ student who had the
potential to do better in school. She expressed confidence that middle school
and maturation would help Leesa improve. In addition, she stated,

I’ve seen progress in the last month where I wasn’t getting it at the

beginning. You know, as far as putting her first [and] last names and the

date on paper, and having legible handwriting and all that, I am still
struggling with her [about] that. She still needs to put forth a little bit more
effort.

The teacher further described Leesa’s schoolwork ethic as needing
improvement—that is, coming to school prepared with pencils and ready to listen
and pay attention. She mentioned frequently having to redirect Leesa and keep
her on task. According to Mrs. Williams, Leesa was somewhat social and
definitely wanted to be part of the popular groups at school. In the same
discussion, the teacher said she thought it was important for Leesa to be in an
environment where she could have peace. She had witnessed Leesa’s difficulty
with the turmoil in the classroom next door during the previous year. According
to Mrs. lMIliams,

She was having problems last year to the extent that she was crying and

not wanting to go into the classroom, so the mother would spend time with

her in the mornings, encouraging her to go into the room. And I think the

mom requested a change of rooms and was threatening to have Leesa go
to another school . . . but it worked out for her to stay.

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The teacher also said she thought Leesa liked school, wanted very much to be
accepted with the girls and possibly the boys, and got along well with her peers,
especially her seatmates.
When we discussed the teacher-student relationship, Mrs. Williams
hinted at some problems:
When I look at her, with her age group, the fifth grade . . . they’re loving
you one day and the next day we’re the enemy. I don’t know why it is like
that . . . A couple of times she rolled her eyes at me. It’s like she did it for
that little group back there to see. It’s as though she was saying, “I can
do this and get away with it because I’m average, I’m not the teacher’s
pet.“ It’s just something about growing up that they do that. So the last
time, I think she’s done me that way three times, the third time I said,
“Next time that you do that [roll your eyes], I’m going to contact your
mom.“
Mrs. Vlfilliams continued this characterization of Leesa by saying she was the
type of student who would subtly defy the teacher to impress her peers, and then
go home and tell her mom a different story. She indicated that Leesa knew her
mother would be ready to come to school and defend her against any wrong she
perceived that the teacher might have done or said.
The Teacher’s Perception of Her Regionsjjp
With the Family and Their School Involvement
According to Mrs. Williams, “My relationship with Ms. Brown has been
average. She’s, I think, working now during the day; because last year I had
Leesa’s little sister, and [their] mother was up every morning dropping them off
and I think it is a good relationship.“ The teacher said that Ms. Brown was a
single parent, and she had never met or heard anything about Leesa’s father.

She had also met Leesa’s grandmother, who had come to school for parent

conferences and the fall open house.

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In our discussion of Ms. Brown’s involvement at school, Mrs. VWlliams
alluded mainly to her involvement the previous year, when she had started the
choir, helped with the Education Day parade, helped the girls in the classroom,
and worked as a lunchroom aide. The teacher commented that Ms. Brown had
not gone on field trips with the class this year, nor had she helped out in the
classroom.

Mrs. VVllliams’s perception of the focus of Ms. Brown’s involvement was
evident in the following:

With the incident that happened last Friday [the fight after school], it was

more the mother being concerned about the social aspect. When I talked

with her on the telephone, she was more worried about my perception of

what this incident would do to Leesa’s citizenship.
Mrs. Vlfllliams went on to say that when the parents of the two girls who had
been involved in the fight came to school for a conference, Leesa’s mother was
still dwelling on the social aspect of the situation. According to the teacher, Ms.
Brown had asked, “Are you girls going to be friends?“ The teacher also
mentioned more than once that Leesa’s mother was the type of parent who was
always ready to come to school to challenge the teacher whenever her child
reported she had been wronged. Mrs. Williams stated that Leesa’s mother
responded much more quickly to such situations than to the teacher’s reports
about the child’s academic difficulties.

In addition, the teacher indicated that, although Ms. Brown did have
Leesa do homework regularly, she did not seem to encourage the child to strive
to improve her grades, her penmanship, or her attendance. There appeared to
be no emphasis on quality or doing anything beyond what was required. Mrs.

Williams stated that the Brown children had a history of poor attendance, almost

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to the point of the family’s being reported to Child Protective Services. Leesa’s

teacher also expressed her philosophy about parentlfamily involvement in the

child’s school experience. She believed that the focus of parent involvement

should be on the academic rather than the social aspects of school. For

example, she said,
The role of the parent in the child’s education is to be concerned about
academics, I think, more so than the social aspects. l have one daughter,
who is a fourth grader, and I am more concerned about what grades she
brings home and getting with the teacher to have her really buckle down
with the academics. I don’t want her to be a holy terror in the room, but I
want to appear to the teacher that I’m more interested in her academics
than her social life.

‘Ihe ideas that Mrs. Williams expressed in those comments were part of a theme

that recurred throughout her interviews.

Copplusions

Leesa was a sensitive and perceptive 11-year-old fifth grader who loved
school. She dreamed of growing up to become a doctor because she cared
about people and wanted to help them. She was the third oldest of four siblings
who lived together in a household headed by a single mother. Leesa’s 83-year-
old maternal grandmother also lived with them. Maternal aunts, uncles, and
cousins formed Leesa’s extended family network. The family was actively
involved in the community worship center, where Leesa’s uncle was the pastor.

At the school Leesa attended, character education and the peaceful
coexistence of students were emphasized. Leesa’s classroom was highly
structured, and her teacher placed great emphasis on academic achievement.
The relationship between Leesa’s mother and her teacher appeared to be
somewhat strained. The teacher expressed her belief that Ms. Brown was more

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concerned with Leesa’s social well being than her mastery of the appropriate
skills for her grade level. During the current school year, Leesa’s mother had
not been as involved in the school as she had been in previous years. She
attributed this lack of involvement to a recent injury she had sustained.
However, she did visit the school frequently and responded to issues and
problems involving Leesa.

Ms. Brown thought there should be more activities for parents and
students at Leesa’s school. She also thought the school personnel needed to
do a better job of reaching out to parents to get them involved. The three areas
in which Ms. Brown expressed a desire-to be involved (choir director, lunch aide,
and teacher aide) were paid positions. The family’s after-school-activities
structure included time allocated for completing homework and engaging in .
some Ieaming-oriented experiences. Other than church-related activities, the
family did not appear to have set routines designed to build character or support
academic growth, nor was there evidence of participation in enrichment and
extracurricular activities. Leesa perceived that her mother’s school involvement
was sufficient and that it helped her. She took great pride in the fact that other
children at school thought so much of her mother that they called her “Mama.“

Leesa’s academic performance was considered low-average. Over the
years, her teachers had suggested that she was capable of producing much
better work through greater effort on her part and additional assistance and
encouragement from home. A poor attendance record was also noted on

Leesa’s records.

145

Casp Study 3: Darien’s Family
(Household Headed by Two grandparents)

“Some day, I can carry the ball—because my grandparents will be gone.“

The student at the center of this case study is Darien, a fifth—grade boy
who was living with his grandparents, Mr. and Mrs. Bailey, at the time of the
research. They had temporary custody of him. Darien’s family was
recommended to me by Mrs. Rice, my contact person at Femdale, where he
attended school. When I explained to Mrs. Rice my need to include a variety of
family types in the sample for my research, she told me about Darien, a student
who was being reared by his grandparents, and said she would introduce me to
them.

I arrived at the school on the scheduled'date and waited to meet the
grandparents. Soon, Mrs. Rice ushered a mature woman into the community
room where I was waiting, and introduced Mrs. Bailey to me. Mrs. Bailey told me
that her husband had dropped Darien at the school earlier and must have
forgotten our appointed meeting and gone to the doughnut shop, where he
routinely stopped after dropping their grandsons at school each day. Mrs. Rice
left Mrs. Bailey and me to get acquainted while she looked around to see if Mr.
Bailey might still be somewhere in the school.

I gave Mrs. Bailey a brief overview of the research, and she spoke
positively about the possibility of the family’s participating. She explained that
their family was unusual because, in addition to raising two grandsons, they had
two adult children (Darien’s father and a daughter) living in the home. According

to Mrs. Bailey, neither of these individuals would get a job. She continued:

146

We are so tired of buying food and having lazy grown-ups eat it up. So I
buy my food and take it over to my mother‘s house and put it‘in her
refrigerator. That’s why Mr. Bailey goes to the doughnut shop to have
coffee-because he can’t keep any at home. These grown-up kids of ours
drink it all up.

Mrs. Bailey and I talked for quite some time before Mrs. Rice returned and
announced that she had not found Mr. Bailey anywhere in or around the school.
We agreed to reschedule the meeting with both grandparents for the following
Monday. I gave Mrs. Bailey copies of the letter of invitation and the consent
forms to take home and review with her husband.

In accordance with our agreement, I arrived at the school on Monday to
meet with Mrs. and Mrs. Bailey. After waiting for an hour, I told Mrs. Rice that I
had to leave for another appointment but that I would return later that day.
When I returned that afternoon, Mrs. Rice took me to the classroom to meet
Darien and his teacher. The teacher agreed to participate and signed the
consent forms. Darien seemed pleased to meet me and said he thought his
grandparents were at home if we wanted to call them. He did not know why they
had failed to show up at school for our scheduled meeting, but he did say his
grandfather had dropped him off at school that morning.

Afterwards, Mrs. Rice called the Baileys for me. She spoke with Mrs.
Bailey, who apparently gave no reason for missing our appointment that
morning. Mrs. Rice explained that I needed to know whether she and Mr. Bailey
had discussed participating in the research. Mrs. Bailey said they had done so
and had signed the requisite forms. Mrs. Rice asked whether I could stop by
their home to pick up the signed forms; Mrs. Bailey said “Yes“ and hung up the

telephone before Mrs. Rice could say anything more. As a result, I was

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somewhat reluctant to go to the Baileys’ home, but Mrs. Rice assured me that it
would be all right and that I should not be alarmed because Mrs. Bailey
sometimes acted strangely. Still feeling somewhat uneasy, I went to the Baileys’
home. Mrs. Bailey answered the door and invited me to come in and take a
seat. Mr. Bailey was seated, but he rose to his feet and extended his hand when
his wife introduced me.

During my brief visit with the Baileys, I explained the research to Mr.
Bailey, and he said he was willing to participate in the project. They told me it
would be all right to begin observing Darien in the classroom as soon as I could
arrange it with the teacher. I asked the grandparents if we could schedule a time
for me to return to their home to conduct the interviews with them. Mrs. Bailey
assured me that I could come at any time, but I replied that it would be better to
schedule a time that we could all be sure to save for that purpose. We had set a

date and time, and I left an appointment card with them as a reminder.

The Student

When the research was conducted, Darien, the subject of this case study,
was a personable 12-year-old boy. He was short and stockily built, with a
handsome, smooth, round face and brightly shining eyes. His short hair was
always brushed neatly. Most of the time he was dressed in a T-shirt, sweat
pants, and classic name-brand, high-top tennis shoes. His shirts usually were
adorned with the logos of well-known sports teams, such as the Detroit Pistons
or the Los Angeles Lakers. Although Darien’s clothes were apparently
expensive, he showed little concern for how he wore them. His tennis shoes
were frequently untied and laced only half way up. Once I observed that Darien

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returned from noon recess with a large rip near the neck of his shirt that had not

been there earlier. He did not seem to be concerned about it.

Cgripp’s Peggnal'mi, Attitude, and
§¢QQI Adjustment

It was easy to get to know Darien. At our second meeting, he warmed up
to me. In an effort to establish rapport, I brought him some markers, a ruler, and
pencils. He seemed pleased to receive these items and immediately went to
sharpen some of the pencils. He did not seem to mind that l was sitting next to
him to observe how he was doing his school work. Apparently, he welcomed the
attention I was giving him as he occasionally leaned over to ask me a question
about his work. When I explained to him how to find the answers or tried to help
him understand the process, he gave his classmates a look that seemed to say,
“See, I have a helper.“

During each of my visits to observe Darien at school, he seemed glad to
see me as he flashed his big smile. More than once, he asked me whether I
would return the next day; he seemed to look forward to the little trinkets I
usually brought him. It was a chore getting him to give conclusive responses to
the interview questions. Sometimes I had to ask the same question two or three
times to get a substantive answer. Many times he responded, “I don’t know.“

The first time I scheduled an interview with Darien, I went to the school to
try to meet him at dismissal time because his grandfather had told me that '
Darien sometimes went to a friend’s house after school. Consequently, I waited
for the boy in the parking lot. When he saw me, he came over to where l-was

standing by my car, talking with his principal. I told him I had been given

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permission to take him to McDonald’s for a treat, and he again flashed that big
smile. Darien and I had a long conversation over hamburgers and shakes.
Afterwards, we went to his house for the first interview.

When I asked Darien to describe how he felt about school, he responded,
“I like it, but sometimes I don’t want to go because they keep making me mad.“
While encouraging Darien to tell me more about his problems at school, I
learned that he thought he often got into trouble because other people caused it
and blamed it on him. When I pressed him for examples, he told me, “On the
day the fifth graders went to the middle school for orientation, the special
education teacher yelled at me, and I yelled back at her. Then she grabbed me
around my neck, so I pushed her.“ According to Darien, because of that incident
the principal suspended him for nothing as it had been the teacher’s fault.

I scheduled Darien’s second interview on one of the days that he had
been suspended from school. When I arrived, I found that Darien was not at
home; neither of his grandparents knew his whereabouts. Mr. Bailey thought he
had recently seen Darien in the back driveway working on his bicycle, but the
youngster was no longer there. Mr. Bailey volunteered to search for Darien.
Vlflthin a few minutes he returned with the boy, saying he had been down the
street in front of the hardware store. According to Darien, he had gone there to
buy a yo-yo. I asked Darien if he had forgotten our appointment, and he said,
“No, but I didn’t know what time you would be here.“

As I began setting up for the interview, Darien stood there playing with his
new toy until Mr. Bailey commanded, “Sit down and put that away!“ Darien did

as he was told, but as I began asking him questions, I could see that he was

150

more interested in a television show than he was in the interview questions.
Seeing my frustration, Mrs. Bailey suggested that Darien and I move our

interview to the dining room table, in the next room.

Emptims of Darien’s Personality,
Amp @, and School Adjustment

In my observations, I noted that Darien usually appeared to be happy and
carefree at school. Occasionally, he became angry and pouted when the
teacher denied his requests to sharpen his pencils or go to the computer. He
frequently was restless, inattentive, and not on teacher-assigned tasks. Instead,
he often left his seat to go to the pencil sharpener or bookshelves. He also
seemed to have difficulty sitting in his seat properly. At times he slouched down
in the seat, got up on his knees on it, or knelt on the floor in front of it. Darien
spent a great deal of his class time squirming and wiggling around and seldom
paid attention when the teacher gave instructions. As a result, he generally had
to ask Mrs. Henry or a classmate what the assignment was and how to do it.

I observed that Darien had some minor problems with his peers; he would
reach over and thump or hit a classmate, or take a pencil or piece of paper from
another child’s desk, and when the other youngsters complained, Darien
teasingly retumed it. Basically, he just seemed mischievous. I questioned
Darien concerning his feelings about school. In response to my question about
what expectations he thought his grandparents had for him at school, he said,
“They want me to get an education.“ When I asked him why he thought they
wanted him to get an education, he responded, “If I get my education I can get a

better job and have my own house and a bad car.“

151

Apparently, Darien liked Mrs. Henry; I frequently observed that he
maneuvered his way to her side. On the playground he went over to stand by
her, in the classroom he often sprawled on the floor near her desk Several
times he pouted when his teacher denied one of his numerous requests. These
pouting episodes did not seem to last very long, though. Generally, within a
short time, Darien appeared to have forgotten the earlier incident and again
called on his teacher to help him.

When I asked Mrs. Henry to describe how she perceived Darien’s
relationship with his grandparents, she gave this response:

Darien manipulates his grandparents. I mean no disrespect to them

because I think it is wonderful that they are trying to help out with Darien’s

school experience. . . . Darien knows that they love him, so he takes
advantage of that. . . . I feel that they want him to do well, and if not they
uphold him when he is wrong, but there are no consequences and they do
not hold Darien responsible for his misbehavior. . . . He makes the
decisions . . . it’s like he is the adult in charge.

In response to my question about Darien’s attitude toward school, Mrs.
Henry said, “Darien acts as though he likes school, but he doesn’t want to go by
the rules. When he disobeys the rules, he refuses to accept punishment. Then
he gets angry when he is suspended.“ I continued this line of questioning by
asking Mrs. Henry to tell me about her relationship with Darien. She informed
me:

I am not sure how he feels about me . . . but he seems to crave all of my

attention all of the time. . . . Even when he knows how to do the work, he

comes and asks me questions, just to get my attention. He wants to have
immediate reinforcement for every little bit of work that he does. . . . When

I refuse to give in to him, he pouts and often will not do anything more.

Mr. Bailey, Darien’s grandfather, indicated that he thought Darien liked

school but did not understand its importance. He said, “The people at the school

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are always saying he doesn’t take school seriously enough. I keep telling him

some day he will wish he had.“

Pgrgpptions of Darien’s Work Hapi_t§
am Performang

In response to my request for a description of Darien’s work ethic, Mrs.
Henry stated,

Darien’s work habits are inconsistent and sporadic. At times he is on

task, and at other times he does everything but his work His attention

span is short, and he is constantly seeking my attention and help. When I

refuse to give it to him and try to make him work independently, he gets

angry and pouts.

I noticed that Darien often was inattentive when the teacher gave
directions. Once, he was playing with a toy on his desk after he had been
instructed to take out specific items to begin a special project. Later he
approached the teacher and asked, “What do you want us to do with this page?“
Later on I observed that Darien had been talking and playing most of the
afternoon. At one point he asked the teacher if he could go to the computer.
She asked whether he had completed his work. When he responded that it was
almost done, she told him he could not go until he had completed the work and
had her check it. Darien groaned loudly but made no effort to finish his work.

At the end of the day, the teacher called the names of all the students
whose work was on her desk and told them to prepare to go home. She did not
call Darien’s name. He kept saying, “I turned in all of my work.“ For a while she
ignored him and kept talking to other students. He repeated his assertion more

loudly. Finally, the teacher said, “Darien, I don’t have your English or your

spelling.“ Darien went to the teacher’s desk and began looking through the

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basket When he did not find his paper, he returned to his seat and continued
looking for it. After a while he found his incomplete English paper crumpled up
on the floor. He attempted to give it to the teacher and join the dismissal line.
However, the teacher instructed him to return to his seat and finish his English
and spelling assignments. Darien became visibly upset, stormed back to his
seat, and threw all of his books on the floor. Several other students were
working, but Darien refused to get busy. He kept saying, “My grandfather is
outside waiting for me.“ About ten minutes later, Darien still was not working.
All but one other student had handed in their papers and left. The teacher told
Darien she had to go to her after-school class and that he could go home, but he
would receive E’s in English and spelling for that day. Darien did not seem to
care; he shrugged his shoulders, picked up his book bag, and left the room.

In my review of Darien’s records, I found that his report card reflected a
record of poor performance in the early grades. He was retained in
kindergarten, lifted in the third grade, and received letter grades of D, E, and S
in his fourth- and fifth-grade years. Some examples of his teachers’ comments
are: “Darien needs help with reading at home,“ “Darien has a difficult time
staying on task,“ “Darien must try harder to become an independent worker,“ and
“Darien is absent far too much to keep up with his class.“

On the fourth-grade MEAP test, Darien received an overall rating of
“Low,“ indicating that his scores in each category totaled less than 300. His
Metropolitan Achievement Test scores for first, second, and third grade reflected
achievement levels that were six months to one year or more below the norm.

Darien had changed schools three times since entering kindergarten. His

154

attendance records were incomplete but showed that in three years he had been
absent 35 or more half-days. His citizenship grades were all 3‘s and 4‘s,

representing average and fair, respectively.

113 Family and Hgma

At the time of the study, Darien’s immediate family unit consisted of his
grandparents, Mr. and Mrs. Bailey, and his father. His father’s sister, Karla, and
her 11-year-old son, Marlon, also lived in the household. Darien’s mother lived
in the same city but not in the house with Darien. Although Darien said he did
see his mother occasionally, there was no evidence that she was involved with
his care or education.

According to both Darien and his grandmother, he had two other siblings,
a ten-year-old brother and a six-year-old sister, who were in foster care. I visited
Darien’s grandparents’ home several times and saw his father on two of those
visits. Once when I arrived at the Baileys’ home, he was seated in a large
recliner in the living room, watching television. After Mrs. Bailey answered the
door and invited me in, she introduced us. I extended my hand in an effort to
shake his, but he ignored the gesture and started to leave the room. I said, “Mr.
Bailey, I would like to talk to you about your son, Darien, and the family’s
involvement with his school experience.“

He paused momentarily, gestured toward his parents, and said, “Talk to
them; they know more about him than I do.“ Then he hastily left the room. The
second time I saw Darien’s father, he was again seated in the living-room
recliner when I arrived. As soon as his mother, Mrs. Bailey, invited me in, he
immediately left the room without even acknowledging my presence.

155

During another visit to the Baileys’ home, I met the other family members
who lived in the household: Darien’s aunt, Sissy, and her son, Marlon. At the
time, Marlon was also a fifth grader at Femdale School. According to Darien’s
teacher, Mrs. Henry, his grandfather was the only reliable and responsible link
between the school and the home. She also said that the grandmother usually
smelled of alcohol and acted strange when she came to the school, and that his
mother‘s and father‘s involvement was basically nonexistent.

Mr. and Mrs. Bailey were generally very receptive to me. When they
learned that I was a retired principal who was conducting research for a
university project, they seemed eager to discuss their concerns about Darien
with me. They also asked me many questions about how they could more
effectively handle the numerous problems they were having with Darien at
school. It was much easier to communicate with Mr. Bailey than with his wife.
He appeared to be a soft-spoken, kind, and gentle man who had genuine
concern for his grandsons. According to several staff members, including the
principal, the secretary, and my contact person at Femdale School, he was in
the building almost every day. In addition to the interviews, I had several talks
with Mr. Bailey at his home and at the school. During these talks he told me he
felt an obligation to do his very best for Darien and Marlon because the other
family members were too wrapped up in their drinking and drug habits to support
the boys.

During my talks with Mr. Bailey, he also said that Darien’s mother had
been in and out of drug-treatment facilities and had lost custody of Darien’s

other two siblings. The courts had awarded temporary custody of Darien to him

156

and Mrs. Bailey because the child had spent most of his life with them. Mr.
Bailey complained that he and his wife also were taking care of both Darien’s
father and Marlon’s mother. He described them as “two sorry adults,“ neither of
whom had a job or a place to live. He did not seem to mind providing for his
grandchildren but indicated that he thought his two adult children should be on
their own.

Every time I saw or talked with Mr. Bailey, he displayed an attitude of
friendliness, courtesy, and cooperativeness. Perhaps his parenting style can
best be described as permissive. He seemed to relate to Darien in a very loving
and caring manner, but there was an absence of rules, restrictions, or controls.
Instead, the grandparents essentially allowed Darien to make his own decisions.
For example, when Darien had a problem with a teacher at school and was
given detention, he refused to report for detention and was suspended from
school for three days. When I arrived at the school to observe Darien and
learned of the suspension, I went to the Baileys’ home in the hopes that I could
interview the boy while he was out of school. When I arrived at the home, Mrs.
Bailey informed me that Darien and his grandfather were at the doughnut shop.
She said something to the effect that Mrs. Bailey was just “spoiling“ Darien.

Mr. Bailey described himself as a retired General Motors factory worker
and his educational level as completion of high school. He indicated that his
parents had been very involved in his school activities; they also had checked
on how he was doing in school. In Mr. Bailey’s estimation, his involvement with
the schooling of his own children and his grandsons had been much greater

than his parents’ had been because Darien’s problematic behavior frequently

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necessitated his presence at school. When asked whether he believed that
parental involvement had meaning for the child’s school work, attitude, and
adjustment, Mr. Bailey responded:

I think it would make them [the school staff] have more input with the child

when they know there’s parents or grandparents involved. . . . I know that

it is important to be involved with Darien’s Ieaming, but I would just like to
know if there’s anything I could do to show him the importance of Ieaming
because he doesn’t have much time. He thinks he does, but he doesn’t
have much time to get himself prepared for life.

Mr. Bailey said that he did not perceive any barriers to his and his wife’s
involvement with Darien’s school experience; rather, he thought that the school
staff encouraged their participation. His primary concern was that school
officials had not tried to find some alternatives to frequent suspensions as a
means of handling Darien’s inappropriate behavior.

Darien’s family lived in an attractive, modest home on the northwestern
side of this urban city. The house was a two-story, medium-sized structure with
white aluminum siding. I visited the Baileys’ home'several times, and on each
occasion we sat in the living room. The furnishings in this room included a big-
screen television that occupied almost an entire wall, a davenport flanked by a
coffee table and two end tables, a large recliner, and an occasional chair near
the front door. A curio cabinet containing family photographs and other
keepsakes sat in a far comer of the room. The furniture was modern and looked
fairly new. All of the windows were covered with stylish vertical blinds, and the
carpeting was a soothing seafoam green. The colors blended well, giving the

room a sense of harmony and order. Three large trophies stood on the

television. Darien told me that he had won them in wrestling and chess.

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Darien’s grandmother, Mrs. Bailey, was the first of the family members I
met Her personality is difficult to describe. My initial visit with her at the school
was theonly time I saw her in that setting. At her invitation, I visited the family's
home several times. I noted that, when we were alone, Mrs. Bailey was very
talkative and outgoing; she volunteered information without my soliciting it.
However, when others were present, she was more reserved, and her responses
to my questions were short and curt. Mrs. Bailey's tendency to be quiet and
reserved was most noticeable when Mr. Bailey was present.

For example, Mrs. Bailey’s participation in the interviews was very limited.
On the morning we reserved for the first interviews, I arrived at the Baileys’
home at the scheduled time. When I rang the doorbell, Mrs. Bailey invited me in
and indicated that I should sit in the occasional chair by the door. She sat down
on the couch across from me, and Mr. Bailey sat in the large recliner. After we
exchanged greetings, I informed them that I had come to do the interviews as we
had agreed. Mr. Bailey nodded his head in agreement, but Mrs. Bailey did not
respond. She kept her eyes focused on the television, on which the “Jerry
Springer Show“ was blaring. As I took my notepad and recorder out of my
briefcase, I noted that Mr. Bailey gave his wife what appeared to be a warning
look and said, “Why don’t you turn the television off?“ Glaring at him, she went
over to the television and turned it down, but she did not turn her attention from
it By that time I had begun to feel like an intruder, and I said, “Perhaps I have
come at a bad time. If this is a time when you usually watch television shows, I

can come back later.“ Mrs. Bailey spoke up and said, “Oh no, it’s all right, we

159

can do it now.“ She then went over and turned the television off, but she did not
seem to be pleased about it.

As I reviewed my introduction to the interviews and attempted to make
eye contact with her, Mrs. Bailey was still focused on the television screen,
although the set was not turned on. During the interviews, she gave a few curt
answers but allowed her husband to respond to most of the questions. When I
specifically directed questions to her, she gave brief answers and clammed right
up again. Mrs. Bailey did not say very much to indicate her parenting style or
her educational level. However, during my repeated attempts to involve her in
the interviews, she did respond to my question about her involvement with
Darien’s education in this manner". “I’ve been involved with them all of my life
[laughingj—all my children and my grandchildren.“ She also responded to my
questions regarding her feelings about the meaning of parents’ and guardians’
school Involvement for the child’s performance, attitude, and school adjustment.
She said, “Yes, it [is important] because it gives the kids an upper lift if they
know that their parents, the grandparents, or the family is there with them.“

When I asked Mrs. Bailey how she thought Darien felt about their
involvement in his school experience, she said she thought he was pleased.
She added, “He thinks of us more as his parents than he does his real parents.“
In response to my question about whether she perceived that they had been
confronted with some barriers to their school involvement, Mrs. Bailey said, “I
don’t because you know if the parents don’t do it, their real parents, somebody
has to step in for the kids.“ Although she claimed she had always been involved

with the school experiences of her children and grandchildren, she gave no

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indication of what that involvement entailed. However, from my conversations
with Mr. Bailey and Darien, I Ieamed that Mrs. Bailey had participated insome
conferences with the teacher and the principal.

When we discussed the family’s after-school involvement and support for
Darien’s Ieaming, Mrs. Bailey agreed with her husband that they had no set
rules or home structure for Ieaming. She also said that Darien never wanted to
do his homework and always claimed he did not have any. Mrs. Bailey
responded to my questions about the family’s after-school activities by saying

that Darien went swimming and played soccer, baseball, and chess.

me School
When the study was conducted, Darien attended Femdale School, which

was located at the northern end of the city. Most of this urban school’s student
1 population lived within walking distance of the school. The school served 1
approximately 490 students in prekindergarten through fifth grade. The student
population was primarily African American, with few Caucasians. Femdale’s
mission statement, displayed on a large banner in the hallway, read as follows:
“The Mission of Femdale School Is to Provide a Positive and Supportive
Environment That Fosters High Academic Expectations for All Students . . . So
That Each May Become a Resourceful, Productive and Self-Directed Citizen.“
Every morning, the students began the school day by participating in a
schoolwide opening ceremony, which included the pledge of allegiance and the
Femdale Students’ Pledge: “I pledge to show excellent behavior, citizenship,

work habits and do my best at all times so that I will be successful in life.“

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The climate at Femdale seemed to be somewhat unsettled. Some
classrooms were completely separated from the main office and were located on
the other side of the gym, which created a fragmented atmosphere. At times,
hall traffic was quite congested, and occasionally groups of boisterous middle
schoolers roamed the halls near the end of the day. One warm day when I was
observing at the school, students in a Classroom located near the parking area
yelled out of open windows, trading insults with middle school students who
gathered near the building. I also witnessed several other incidents that seemed
to indicate that the Ieaming environment at Femdale School was rather loosely
structured. For example, the volunteers who tutored students in the hallways
often were disturbed by students running in the halls and yelling loudly as they

passed from one classroom to another.

Tha Classroom

Darien’s classroom also appeared to lack structure. The students were
allowed unlimited freedom of movement. At times they congregated at the
bookshelves, around the computer, or near the coat racks at the rear of the
room, talking or laughing out loud. The students were quite tall and large for the
small tables at which they sat, and they often stuck their legs and feet out into
the aisle. This added to the congestion and made moving around the room
difficult. The placement of books and materials was much like the seating
arrangement-in need of improvement. This was apparently the norm, and both

the teacher and the class seemed to be comfortable with it.

162

IE Tacher

Describing Darien’s teacher, Mrs. Henry, is a challenge. Her personality,
demeanor, and attitude differed from those of most other elementary school
teachers with whom I had worked. She was informal and candid in her
interactions with the students. Her classroom-management strategies and
teaching style also are difficult to characterize. After observing Darien and
another student In her class who was also a member of the sample for this
research, I am still not sure I have captured the essence of Mrs. Henry‘s
teaching style. During the observations, there were days when Mrs. Henry
exhibited genuine concern for meeting the academic and emotional needs of her
students. For example, I was impressed by her involvement in the after-school
tutorial program that she coordinated on Mondays, her fitness program, the drill
team, and the chess club. At other times, I was confused by her apparent lack of
sensitivity to incidents that occurred, such as the one mentioned earlier while on
the fifth grade’s orientation trip. According to Mr. and Mrs. Bailey, Mrs. Henry
had given the special education teacher the responsibility for supervising
Darien. A problem that arose between Darien and the teacher resulted in his
being suspended.

However, Mrs. Henry was the same teacher who took Darien and other
students from her class to church with her and involved them in a summer
enrichment program there. She sponsored an end-of-the-year cookout for her
entire class, and they enjoyed a great time together. Mrs. Henry also invited her
minister to spend several days in the classroom, teaching the students to play

the hand bells; they later presented two selections at the awards assembly. In

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addition, this teacher participated in a special “bonus bucks“ project, the
proceeds of which she used to purchase home-Ieaming labs (books and
materials) for each of her students.

In light of the information presented above, I had difficulty characterizing
Mrs. Henry’s relationship with her students. It appeared to be both inconsistent
and contradictory. Her philosophy about parent involvement was that more
active parent participation in school and school-related activities was needed.
She Indicated to me that parents should take a firmer stand on their children’s
inappropriate behavior at school, poor attendance, and inconsistent work habits.
According to Mrs. Henry, that was the kind of parent involvement from which

students would obtain the greatest benefit.

Teacher‘s Relationshi With
Cariep’a Family

According to Mrs. Henry, her relationship with Darien’s family had been
punctuated with problems. She discussed an instance in which she and the
principal had attempted to involve Darien’s father in their efforts to avoid giving
the boy another suspension from school. The father refused to cooperate, and
their efforts failed. Mrs. Henry also described another occasion on which she
sent home a request for parent volunteers to help chaperone a field trip for
Darien’s class. She told me she had made it clear that, because of his
problematic behavior, Darien would be excluded from the trip unless an adult
member of his family could accompany them. According to Mrs. Henry, she did

not receive a response from the family, but on the day of the trip, Darien’s father

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and his aunt arrived at school prepared to go on the field trip. In Mrs. Henry’s
words,

When I discovered that the two of them had alcoholic beverages in paper

bags and alcohol on their breath, I called them aside and informed them

that, due to district policy regarding such matters, I could not allow them
to go on the trip.
At that point, Mrs. Henry said, the two became very upset, swore at her in front
of the class, took Darien, and left the building.

Mrs. Henry continued to share her perceptions of Darien’s family by
saying that, as far as she knew, Darien’s mother had been in and out of drug
rehabilitation for most of the two years that Darien had been in her classroom.
She said that, early in the school year, Darien’s mother had visited their class
and informed the teacher that she was now “clean“ and was back to living in the
city permanently. After Ieaming about Darien’s problems at school, his mother
promised to check on him regularly and spend time helping the teacher with him.
However, Mrs. Henry said, “That is the first and last time I ever saw that woman.“

It was obvious from Mrs. Henry’s description of Darien’s grandparents and
their parenting style that her relationship with them had not been as cooperative
as she would have desired. She indicated that she thought Mr. and Mrs. Bailey
had good intentions and wanted Darien to do well in school. Yet, they did not
take responsibility for ensuring that he improved his work habits and behavior at
school. She continued:

Darien’s grandfather will come up to see me when I request a conference,

and it’s always the same story. He will say that he is going to get on

Darien. Yet, when Darien refuses to stay after school to complete his

work, Mr. Bailey doesn’t make him stay. I have told both of the

grandparents that I suspect that Darien has a Ieaming disability, and he
has been retained and lifted before, but they will not agree to have him

tested for special education.

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Apparently, Mrs. Henry was frustrated by the lack of support from Darien’s

parents and his grandparents’ failure to accept her recommendations for solving

the youngsters school problems. She went on to say:
I think they expect him to do well, but I don’t know how, because they
don’t do the very things that will help him to do better. They seem to think
that the school should do it all. They think they know that Darien has
problems, but don’t understand how serious his problems are. . . . Maybe
they think that loving him and taking care of him will make the problems
go away. . . . Darien probably acts out to see if anyone will pay attention
to him. He acted so much better when my pastor took him under his wing

and provided controls and structure. Darien liked the program so much
that he keeps asking, “When is that church thinggoing to start?“

P r io s Darie ’ Famil ’s
l ool Involvement

When I asked him to describe what his grandparents did when they came
to his school, Darien replied, “My grandpa and my grandma, they come to my
classroom. They talk to the principal and my teachers. . . . My grandpa brings
me to school every day, and sometimes he brings me money to buy ice cream,
popcorn, and stuff.“

Darien also told me that his father and mother were not involved with his
school. In answer to my question, “Why do you think they are not involved?“
Darien replied, “My dad is always high and my mom, she doesn’t care.“ Darien
admitted that he wished his mother and father would come to school sometimes,
but he said he felt good when his grandparents were there. Continuing this line
of questioning, I asked, “Why does it make you feel good?“ Darien replied,
“Because they are where I can see them. . . . My grandpa comes to help me.“ I

asked Darien why he thought his grandparents went to the trouble of trying to

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help him in school. His response was, “Because they love me. . . . They tell me

that they love me all of the time.“

Pegaptippa gt Qarien’a Familjcs
flag-School lnvolvemant

The following dialogue is a review of the questions and responses
pertaining to Darien’s family’s after-school involvement taken from the interview
with his grandparents:

Researcher. Describe your family’s after-school routine and activities.

Mr. Bailey: He seems to be very involved in things like helping other kids

go around selling stuff. Sometimes I think that’s not a good idea, but it’s

still involvement to learn how to do things and meet people.

Researcher Mrs. Bailey, will you respond to that question?

Mrs. Bailey: He goes swimming; you know, he goes to stuff like. . . .

Mr. Bailey: He plays soccer, chess, and sometimes he plays computer
games.

Mrs. Bailey: Well, you see, they just have a Playstation upstairs. . . but
it’s just like a computer because it’s on television.

Researcher. How do you structure your family’s home time to support
Darien’s Ieaming?

Mr. Bailey: I think that’s something that we’ll have to establish . . . some
activities for him after school.

Researcher What about homework? What happens when he has
homework?

Mrs. Bailey: He always says he doesn’t have any, but the teacher tells
us that he should be doing it When we tell him about it, he will say he
does not have his book or he is not sure what to do. . . . He’s just lazy. . .
but we tell him about it.

167

Soccer, chess, swimming, and softball are among the things that Darien listed as
his after-school activities. When I asked him to tell me about some of the things
other than sports that he was involved in after school, he smiled and said,
I play with my computer games, you know, Playstation; then sometimes I
go to my friend’s house and we sell KooI-Aid. . . . Sometimes I just watch
television. . . . On weekends I ride my bike, go over to my friend’s house
to play basketball, and sometimes just watch TV.
This line of questioning continued as follows:

Researcher What kind of things do you do at home that might help you
in school?

Darien: I don’t know.

Researcher Do you read books, play Ieaming games, do crossword
puzzles, or those kinds of things?

Darien: Sometimes I read comic books, but I don’t like word puzzles.

Researcher What about when you have homework? When do you take
care of that?

Darien: Sometimes I do it at school. . . . If I forget, or maybe I don’t have
no one to help me . . . or sometimes I forget to bring it home from school.

Researcher What kinds of things do your grandparents teach you about
respect and responsibility?

Darien: They tell me that I should be good at school and don’t talk back to
the teacher.

Conclusions

Darien, the 12-year-old fifth grader at the center of this study, was a
pleasant and personable youngster. He lived with his grandparents, to whom
the courts had awarded temporary custody. Darien seemed to be very fond of
his grandparents and talked about them as if they were very special to him. He

also said he got along well with his cousin, Marlon, who lived with them.

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Darien’s father, an unemployed high school dropout, lived in the household at
times, but he apparently had no desire to participate in the rearing or school
experiences of his son. Darien’s grandparents demonstrated sensitive and
caring attitudes toward him and were apparently very concerned about his well-
being and school experience. However, Mr. and Mrs. Bailey admitted that they
were not prepared to deal with their grandchildren, yet they thought that if they
were not involved in Darien’s school experience, no one else would be.’ They
were either unwilling or unable to establish and enforcearules for Darien’s school
behavior, attitude, and performance. Instead, the grandparents allowed Darien
to make his own decisions about whether he would follow school rules or accept
the consequences for failing to do so. When Darien was suspended from
school, he was still allowed to ride his bicycle, play video games, go to the
doughnut shop with his grandfather, and watch television. This is how he used
his time, instead of completing the homework his teacher said she had assigned
him.

A review of Darien’s records reflected poor performance ratings in his
earlier years. He had been retained in the third grade and was receiving failing
grades on his fifth-grade report card. His standardized test results indicated
below-grade—level performance. His citizenship and attendance also were rated
low. Darien received three failing grades on his final fifth-grade report card, so
he was not eligible for promotion. However, he was lifted and permitted to
participate in the year-end awards assembly with the other members of his class.

Darien had apparently earned a reputation as a rebel at Femdale School,

and his teacher and some other staff members accused him of not taking school

169

seriously. There were indications that the Femdale administration had tried
some other consequences for Darien’s inappropriate behavior, and having found
those ineffective, had resorted to suspending him when they thought his
behavior warranted it. Darien’s relationship with his teacher, Mrs. Henry, was
problematic, as evidenced by the many complaints she had about him. She
maintained that Darien wanted too much attention from her, he did not want to
abide by school rules, and he manipulated his grandparents to get his way. Mrs.
Henry described Darien’s grandparents as loving, caring, and concerned, but
apparently unable to understand the seriousness of Darien’s problems. More
than once, Mrs. Henry referred to the fact that she had recommended that
Darien be evaluated for possible special education placement, but the
grandparents had refused to give their permission.

Notes from observation visits at school and home suggested that Darien
sought attention and usually responded positively to persons who gave it to him.
There were also times when he engaged in negative attention-seeking behaviors
that caused problems in his relationships with peers, substitutes, and other staff
members.

At the time of this inquiry, Darien was energetic, active, and playful. He
was obviously not working up to his academic potential. When he settled down
and worked at his assignments, he was able to complete them. Several times he
did not finish his work because he simply was not putting forth the necessary
effort to finish it. Usually, Darien tried to find someone to give him the answers,
copied work from classmates seated near him, or searched for a shortcut to

completing his assignments. In spite of his problematic relationship with his

170

teacher, Darien was apparently quite fond of her, as evidenced by the way he
tried so hard to be near her and called on her so frequently. It was also obvious
that he loved his grandparents very much and depended on them for his care
and keeping. He believed that his grandparents loved him but said he
understood that they would not always be there to take care of him and that he

would have to take care of himself some day.

Case Study 4: Junior’s Family
(Household Headed by a Single Father)

“The Teacher’s Helper“

Mrs. Rice, my contact person at F emdale School, recommended the
Wilson family to me as possible participants in this research. She recommended
their family because I had told her of my need to find a single-parent family
headed by the father in order to provide some balance in the sample. Mrs. Rice
informed me that Mr. Wilson was employed as a paraprofessional in the Title I
program at Femdale School. In explaining their family history, Mrs. Rice
indicated that the mother had lived in the home some time ago, but was no
longer involved with the family. She stopped short of sharing any additional
information, saying it was confidential. However, she did arrange for me to meet
and talk with Mr. \Mlson. After hearing about the purpose and focus of the
study, Mr. WIISOI’I willingly agreed to have his family participate.

Later that same day, Mrs. Rice took me to the classroom to meet Mr.
Wilson’s son Junior, and Junior‘s teacher, Mrs. Henry. On the way to the
classroom, Mrs. Rice warned me that Junior frequently had problems relating to

171

strangers and might not be as personable and receptive as his father had been.
I soon understood what she meant. When she introduced us, I extended my
hand and Junior just stared at it and studied my face. Finally, Mrs. Rice said,
“Aren’t you going to shake Mrs. Muldrew’s hand?“ Junior slowly reached out
toward me, and I clasped his hand in a firm handshake. I informed Junior that I
had just spoken with his father, who had given me permission to include their
family in a special project I was working on as a requirement of the university I
was attending. I told Junior this meant that I would be spending time in the
classroom observing and interviewing him and his teacher. Junior did not seem
to be comfortable with this prospect, so I did my best to assure him that I would
make the experience a pleasant one. I made an appointment with Junior’s
teacher to begin observations the following week. Mrs. Rice and I then left the

classroom.

me Student

At the time of this research, Junior Wilson, the focus of this case study,
was an 11-year-old fifth grader. He was the third child in a family of eight
children and lived with his father, Mr. Vlfilson, and six brothers and sisters. It
was not easy getting to know Junior. At first he was very quiet and appeared to
be unfriendly and withdrawn. When I tried to initiate a conversation with him, he
would not talk; rather, he responded in grunts or by shaking or nodding his head.

I frequently observed Junior with his head down or resting in his hand as
though he was engaged in deep thought. He sat near the back of the classroom;
he did not appear to belong to the group of youngsters with whom he was
seated, as he sat with his face turned away from them. At times Junior sat

172

straight up in his seat and gave his complete attention to the teacher‘s
instruction. However, these times were few. Usually, he appeared to be far
moved from the people and events going on around him. Junior seemed
determined to keep his distance from me, so I made several trips to his
classroom, each time bringing a token gift such as a pencil, ruler, or pad of
paper in an effort to establish a positive relationship with him before conducting
the interview. When I tried to sit next to him, Junior seemed very uncomfortable.
If I sat across the room and observed him from a distance, I would glance in his
direction and see him watching me. Junior did not seem very comfortable with
the teacher either, and a few times when he was aware that I was observing him,
he played with and teased his seatmates. Junior appeared to be a somewhat
unhappy and ill-at-ease youngster. He was also having difficulty with
academics, and according to his teacher, he was on the borderline of failing fifth

grade.

Junior’s Family and the Home

As stated earlier, Junior was the third oldest child in a family of eight
brothers and sisters, three girls and five boys. When I asked Mr. Wilson to
describe his family, he responded,

I am the father of eight children; seven of them live with me. I have a

daughter, my oldest daughter, that lives in Tennessee, and the seven

children that live with me are Marcus, 14; Junior, 11; Jordan, 10; Darius, a

girl, 9; Dwayne, 7; Somali, 6; and Forest, 5.

When I asked Junior to describe his family, he used his fingers in naming his

brothers and sisters as he counted them off.

173

The Wilson family lived together in a modest, wood-framed two-story
house. Mr. Vlfilson explained that Marcus and Junior shared a bedroom, with
twin beds. The two girls had the same arrangement. The remaining three boys
had a bedroom furnished with a bunk bed and one single bed. All of the
children’s bedrooms were on the second floor, whereas Mr. Wilson’s bedroom
was off the front hall leading to the living room anddining area. The kitchen was
directly behind the dining area.

Personnel at Femdale School expressed considerable admiration for
Junior’s father. My contact person, the principal, the school secretary, the
librarian, and the Title I staff all had high praise for the fine job he was doing in
rearing his children. The first time I met Mr. Wilson, he was cordial,
gentlemanly, and cooperative. He took a special interest in this research and
said he would like to go back to school someday. He described his educational
level as “some college and lots of military training.“ As stated earlier, he worked
as a paraprofessional at the school his children attended. Mr. Wilson described
his family of origin as large, and headed by his mother and stepfather. He was
the oldest of eight siblings. Concerning his parents’ involvement in his
schooling, Mr. Wilson recalled that his mother had been involved as often as she
could in the early years, but not much after he was in second grade. He said his
stepfather had not been involved at all. Consequently, Mr. Wilson indicated that
he had tried hard to surpass his parents’ involvement.

During one of our conversations, Mr. Wilson explained that he had been
forced to let Junior‘s mother go because her drug-abuse problem had threatened

to cause him to lose his children. He told me that his wife had been in and out of

174

treatment several times, but each time she had reverted to “her old habits.“ He
continued by saying that she had not been in the family home at all during the

current school year.

W
According to Mr. \Nllson and Junior, their extended family was limited to a

maternal grandmother who lived a couple of blocks away from the Wilsons. Mr.
Wilson said, “Generally, she does many things to help out.“ Two of Mr. VVlIson’s
nieces lived with the grandmother, and they, too, helped out. Other support
networks included the Title I parent group and the Femdale School staff, who
were loyal supporters of Mr. Vlfilson and his children. They frequently provided

the family with clothing, food, and other essential items.

Ina Sghpol and the Teacher

Junior attended Femdale School, located in the northern end of the city.
Most of this urban school’s student population were neighborhood children who
lived within walking distance of the school. The school served approximately
490 students in prekindergarten through fifth grade. The student population was
primarily African American, with very few Caucasians. Femdale’s mission
statement, displayed on a large banner in the hallway, read as follows: “The
Mission of Femdale School Is to Provide a Positive and Supportive Environment
That Fosters High Academic Expectations for All Students . . . So That Each
May Become a Resourceful, Productive and Self-Directed Citizen.“ Each
morning, the students began the school day by participating in a schoolwide

opening ceremony, which included the Pledge of Allegiance and the Femdale

175

Students’ Pledge: “I pledge to show excellent behavior, citizenship, work habits
and do my best at all times so that I will be successful in life.“

The climate at Femdale seemed to be somewhat unsettled. Some
classrooms were completely separated from the main office and were located on
the other side of the gym, which created a fragmented atmosphere. At times,
hall traffic was quite congested, and occasionally groups of boisterous middle
school students roamed the halls at the end of the day. Once, on a warm day,
students in a classroom located near the parking area yelled out of open
windows, trading insults with middle school students who gathered near the
building.

I also witnessed several other incidents that seemed to indicate that the
Ieaming environment at Femdale School was rather loosely structured. For
example, the volunteers who tutored students in the hallways often were
disturbed by students running in the halls and yelling loudly as they passed from
one classroom to another.

Junior’s classroom also appeared to lack structure. The students were
allowed unlimited freedom of movement. At times they congregated at the
bookshelves, around the computer, or near the coat racks at the rear of the
room, talking or laughing out loud. The students were quite tall and large for the
small tables at which they sat, and they often placed their legs and feet in the
aisle. This added to the congestion and made it difficult to move around the
room. The placement of books and materials was much like the seating
arrangement—in need of improvement. This was apparently the norm, though,

and the teacher, as well as the class, seemed to be comfortable with it.

176

Describing Junior’s teacher, Mrs. Henry, is a challenge. Her personality,
demeanor, and. attitude differed from those of most other elementary school
teachers with whom I had worked. She was informal and candid in her
interactions with the students. Her classroom-management strategies and
teaching style are also difficult to characterize. l was puzzled by some of her
actions. There were days when Mrs. Henry would exhibit genuine concern for
meeting the academic and emotional needs of her students. For example, I was _
impressed with her involvement in the after-school tutorial program that she
coordinated on Mondays, her fitness program, the drill team, and the chess club.
Other times, I was confused by her apparent lack of sensitivity to certain
incidents that occurred, such as a fight that evidently happened when she left
the class unattended. Supposedly, Junior was attacked by another student,
whom he then hit in the nose, drawing blood. Mrs. Henry recommended three-
day suspensions for both students, even though there had been no adult
supervision when the incident took place.

However, Mrs. Henry was the same teacher who took students from her
class to church with her and involved them in a summer enrichment program
there. She sponsored an end-of-the-year cookout for her entire class, and they
had an enjoyable time together. Mrs. Henry also invited her minister to spend
several days in the classroom, teaching students to play the handbells; they later
presented two selections at an awards assembly. In addition, this teacher
participated in a special “bonus bucks“ project, whose proceeds were used to

purchase home-Ieaming labs (books and materials) for each of her students.

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Mrs. Henry said she had an excellent relationship with Junior’s father.
According to her, they worked well together as a team in after-school activities,
and Mr. Vlfilson occasionally covered her classroom when she was called to the
office. Both Mrs. Henry and Mr. Wilson were complimentary about each other.
Junior also seemed to be fond of his teacher and enjoyed being her “special
helper.“ For example, at a cookout, Junior helped Mrs. Henry by turning the
hotdogs on the grill while she placed them in the buns. At the year-end fifth-
grade awards assembly, Junior helped her by collecting the bells when the class
had finished playing them.

Mrs. Henry said that her philosophy about parent involvement was that
more active parent participation was needed in school and school-related
activities. She indicated that parents should take a firmer stand on their
children’s inappropriate behavior at school, poor attendance, and inconsistent
work habits. According to her, that was the kind of parent involvement from

which students would benefit the most.

Parceptions of Jpnior’s Work Habits

During the interviews, Mrs. Henry, Junior’s teacher, expressed concem
about his academic skill development, which she said was far below that of most
of the fifth graders she had taught. According to her, his work habits were
inconsistent and he produced very little work whenever substitutes were
covering her classroom. Mrs. Henry continued by saying, “Junior is struggling
with fifth-grade work. His skills are below grade level, and his reading is
extremely low. Often he does not understand the assignment, but will not ask for
help.“

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Likewise, Junior‘s father indicated that his son’s lack of academic
improvement was disturbing to him. Mr. Wilson said he felt bad that his many
home and work responsibilities prevented him from spending quality time with
Junior to work with him individually. Mr. Wilson also commented on his
perception of Junior’s performance in this manner:

Both Junior and my oldest son got off to a slow start in school. It’s

especially hard for me to work with other children and help them and then

see how he’s struggling. He does get Title I services, but I’d like to have
more time to work with him one on one. At home, you know, it’s kind of
hard when l have seven people in the house claiming my attention.

During my observation visits in Junior’s classroom, I spent some time
working with him on assignments and reviewing his records and daily class work
I noted that his reading skills were deficient, and as a result he often was unable
to understand the instructions for assignments in reading, science, social
studies, and language arts. He seemed to be unable to decode words by using
the letter sounds or to identify a word by reading the context of the sentence.

On one of my visits to the school, Junior was visibly upset when I arrived for the
interview. The teacher was absent. The substitute informed me that Junior had
played around most of the day, and she had told him to remain after school. The
substitute permitted me to take Junior out of the room and help him calm down
and complete his work I decided to postpone the interview and tackle the
classwork Junior has great difficulty reading and following directions for his
social studies assignment.

A few days later when I went to Junior’s school for an observation, the

teacher was again absent. The male substitute informed me that Junior had

done very little work. Junior appeared to be having a hard time managing his

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anger. I took a seat beside him to try to get him started with the math
assignment (multiplication of fractions). Junior said he did not understand the
process and claimed that the teacher had not explained it. Later that week, I
decided to visit Junior earlier in the day to determine whether his work habits
would be different from when I had observed him in the afternoon. At this early
morning visit, Junior was working quietly and consistently on his assignments.
The teacher was there that day. Junior smiled and seemed pleased when l
complimented him for being on task. This pattern continued for the hour that I
spent in the classroom.

The review of Junior‘s individual cumulative records, report card, and
daily work portfolio furnished documentation of his attendance, citizenship, and
academic performance, as indicated by standardized test scores, the assigned
letter grades, and teachers’ comments. Entries on Junior’s record indicated that
he had changed schools at least four times. There were also several months
during his early grades (first, second, and third) for which there were no records
of attendance, as noted by the word “unknown.“ In other years, Junior had
missed an average of approximately 46 days per year. However, his attendance
had shown improvement in the third, fourth, and fifth grades. The records also
indicated that this was Junior’s fourth year at Femdale School. According to the
records, Femdale was the fourth school that Junior had attended. Junior had
been lifted from third grade to fourth. His record of multiage (first through third)
grade skill development indicated many areas in which he had made little

progress and/or needed help.

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A review of the standardized test results only provided information
pertaining to Junior’s performance on the Metropolitan Achievement Test in his
first- and second-grade years. These scores indicated grade equivalents below
the current grade level in each subject area. For example, Junior’s second-
grade reading score was 1.7 (first grade, seventh month). Junior‘s records did
not include scores for his third-, fourth-, and fifth-grade years. During Junior‘s
fourth- and fifth-grade years, his final grades were D’s and C’s in the core
subjects (math, reading, and science) and S’s for the other subjects, such as
music, art, health, and physical education. Junior received report-card
citizenship ratings of 2’s and 3‘s, which indicate good and fair behavior,
respectively. A teacher’s comment on Junior’s fourth-grade report card was:
“Junior’s work habits are inconsistent. One day he works hard, and on other
days he puts forth very little effort. He needs to practice reading and math at
home.“ On his fifth-grade report card, another teacher commented: “Junior
started the year out doing well; now he seems to have lost interest in work.

Junior is struggling, especially in reading and math.“

Pmptipns of Junior’s Personalig,
Annag, and Peer Relationships

In the interview, Mr. Wilson mentioned that Junior sometimes was upset
at school, perhaps because he was “a little bit too close.“ I had a long talk with
Junior when he was suspended for fighting. During this conversation, he told me
that there were times when students in the class had “picked on“ him about his
father's working at the school, and that he had not retaliated. However, this time

he said he had not been thinking and just hit the other boy. Junior said that he

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had friends with whom he sometimes played after school and on weekends.
However, he claimed that some of the kids at school were “always trying to start
fights.“

It is difficult to characterize Junior’s perceptions of his relationship with
his father because of his limited conversation and the way his moods kept
changing. When I finally maneuvered Junior into the interview session, getting
him to answer the questions was a problem. Most of the time, he responded by
shaking or nodding his head, grunting “yep,“ “nope,“ or “uh-huh.” Occasionally, l
probed for answers, reminding Junior that the recorder could not pick up the
nodding or shaking of his head. However, despite all my efforts, Junior’s
responses were very limited, and l was able to engage him in only one tape-
recorded interview. I noted that Junior talked more freely when he was not. being
tape recorded.

Apparently, Junior thought he had a good relationship with his teacher.
He said he was Ieaming many things at school, and wanted to be a policeman
when he grew up. Responding to my questions about his relationship with his
father, Junior said he thought his dad took good care of him and his siblings,
expected them to do well in school as he had done, advised them not to do
drugs, and encouraged them to show respect for grown-ups and to take care of
their behavior.

Among the limited responses that Junior gave to the interview questions
was a frequent “It’s okay.“ In response to my encouraging him to tell me if there
were special things he liked at school, Junior said, “No.“ Once Junior indicated

that he got along with his classmates “pretty good.“ On another occasion he

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said they sometimes picked on him, and some of them were always trying to
start fights.

Junior’s teacher, Mrs. Henry, described the boy’s personality as
somewhat moody and unpredictable. She went on to say,

Junior seems to have a great deal of hostility and low self-esteem. I try to

draw him out by making him my special helper, giving him jobs, trying to

build his self-esteem, and make him feel good about himself. Sometimes

it helps; other times it doesn’t. It just depends on what kind of mood he’s

in.
Mrs. Henry continued by relating that she tried many things in order to reach
Junior, and sometimes she thought she was making progress. According to her,
“Then all of a sudden it feels like he’s pushing me away.“ She said she had
taken him to church with her and invited him to the summer Fine Arts Academy
at her church. During this time, she said, her pastor took Junior under his wing
and worked with him for a while.

Junior’s teacher also described his relationship with his peers and others
as problematic. In her words,

It seems that Junior has problems with the substitute teacher when I’m

out. He got into a fight yesterday when l was not here. He’s not here

today as he was suspended. Junior has a great deal of anger and does

not handle it well. Ive tried to help him with that; also I referred him to the

training for conflict mediation. I thought perhaps it would help him, and

that being a mediator would boost his self-esteem.

In response to my questions about how she perceived Junior’s
relationship with his father, Mrs. Henry had this to say:

There are times when Junior shows open hostility towards his dad. He

will come to school angry, shut down, and will not talk. I think perhaps he

blames his dad for his mother’s absence. It’s hard to tell what he’s
thinking, since he doesn’t talk much.

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Most of the responses and comments that Mrs. Henry shared about Junior’s
attitude and relationships indicated that he apparently had problems relating to
others, especially if he did not know them well.

Eamptigna a Junior’a Familjcs

n 001 Involvement

In response to my questions about the ways in which Junior saw his
father being involved in school, he named “tutoring and helping to teach other
children“ and attending parent meetings, workshops, and conferences.
Continuing this line of questioning, I asked Junior how he felt about his father’s
involvement at school. He responded, “Good, because it lets him know how I’m
doing at school.“ Junior also said he thought that his father was involved
because he cared about him.

Mr. \Mlson related that he had always tried to be involved in his children’s
education, even before coming to work at the school they attended. He also
indicated that he was not sure just what, if any, influence his in-school
involvement had on Junior’s school performance, attitude, and adjustment. He
continued,

Actually, I wonder sometimes, but I know in the long run that it is [having

an influence]. Iwonder, I guess, because I’m right there, constantly there,

and maybe I can’t see the change or the progress, but I’m always getting
compliments whenever they go out with friends, or when we go out in
public places, how well behaved my children are.

According to Mr. Wilson, his involvement apparently had had some effect
on his children’s school adjustment because his oldest son had never been in

trouble when he attended Femdale School, where his father worked. In Mr.

\Mlson’s words, “Now at middle school, he’s having all kinds of problems.“

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Junior’s father perceived that the greatest barrier to his family’s school
involvement was probably his job, which required him to be at work at the same
time the children were in school. Mr. Wilson continued his explanation by
saying, “Even though I am right in the school, I am not able to actually
participate with them the way I would like to, as l have specifically assigned
duties.“ He also commented on the fact that, at times, his dual responsibilities
as both father and mother also made it impossible for him to be as actively
involved in his children’s school experiences as he would like to be.

Junior’s teacher, Mrs. Henry, described her perception of Mr. VVllson’s
involvement in this manner

. Mr. \Mlson is a very involved parent. He not only works here, he
volunteers many hours of his time to help out with special activities for the
kids. He is our chess coach, assistant coach for soccer, baseball, and
track. He also helps me with the math tutorial program, and just generally
helps out anywhere we need him. He is a good parent. As I told you
before, Junior’s father is a single parent. The mother has not been in the
home at all this year.

Mrs. Henry also said that she was currently in her second year as Junior‘s
teacher, and she gave his father credit for always contacting her to see how his
son was doing. According to the teacher, Mr. Wilson requested information
about Junior's homework or other make-up assignments, as well as special
projects. Mrs. Henry continued by saying, “Mr. VVllson helps with any behavior
problems Junior is having. Of course, having him right here in the building is a
great help.“ When I asked her if she had anything more to share about Junior‘s
father's involvement In school-related activities, Mrs. Henry reiterated her

opinion of Mr. Wilson in this manner. “As I said, I think he is a wonderful parent.

I really admire the fact that he supports the school’s rules and policies and he

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does not expect special treatment or privileges for his kids because he works

here.“

P i s unior‘s Famil s After-
Schpgl Activities and Home Supmrt

Junior listed the following among his family’s after-school activities: “We
help clean up around the house, go to the store with my dad, and help with the
laundry and cooking.“ In response to my questions about homework and school-
related Ieaming activities, Junior answered, “We do that before we go to bed.“
He added that they sometimes played outside or went over to his friend’s house
on the next block because he had a basketball hoop. When I asked about other
games Junior and his friend played after school, he replied, “Football.“ Junior
referred to his family’s weekend activities as cleaning up and playing outside.
Because Junior did not mention spirituality or anything about his family‘s
attending church, I encouraged him to tell me more about the times he went to
church (Summer Arts Academy) with his teacher. His response was, “It was
okay.“ I urged him to tell me how he liked singing in the choir and playing with
the orchestra at his teacher‘s church. Again, his answer was, “It was okay.“

Junior’s father, Mr. Wilson, described their family’s after-school routines
and activities in this way:

After school, I usually have them do their homework first, then eat, and try
to pick up things around the house, get clothes ready for the next day,
and depending on what time of year it is, maybe they will get a chance to
go outside, or maybe not. Being in the school helps me to know that it is
important for them to read, do math, or study something every day, so we
have study time. During this time there is no TV, just studying. l have

different reading materials, math books, games, and different things for
them to do that relate to Ieaming.

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In response to my questions about what specific after-school enrichment
programs the family participated in, Mr. Wilson frowned as he recalled the
difficulty of trying to meet the needs of all his children. According to him,
keeping them all from getting scattered after school was a problem that he
solved by keeping them with him when he helped out with the after-school
programs. For example, on the days he assisted Junior’s teacher with the
tutorial program, all of his children had to be there for tutoring. Mr. \Nllson
added that the same rule applied to the chess program and the drill team. The
whole family was involved. He continued,

On the days when I help with baseball, soccer, and track my children who

are not participating will go over to my mother’s, or my nieces will stay at

my home with them until I have finished. When we attend the
competitions like the chess tournaments, baseball games, and track
meets, the whole family goes unless one of them has a cold or is sick. In
that case, that one will stay with my mother.

Junior’s teacher, Mrs. Henry, indicated that she did not know much about
the home as a Ieaming environment, but she expressed great admiration for Mr.
Wilson’s faithfulness in following up with her on Junior’s homework. She said,
“Sometimes when Junior fails to copy his assignments accurately from the board
or forgets what pages in the book I had told the class to do, Mr. Wilson will call
me or stop in the next day to get the right information.“ Mrs. Henry also praised
Mr. Wilson for keeping the children clean and in school every day. In response
to what after-school activities Junior participated in that supported or enhanced
Ieaming, Mrs. Henry mentioned the tutoring program, the drill team, and the
chess team. She added,

Junior has told me that sometimes the family will have school at home

and his father will be the teacher. Several times I have givenMr. Wilson
discarded workbooks and other materials to take home for his children. I

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try to help him as much as I can because I know he doesn’t make much
money as a paraprofessional, and I’m not sure what other resources he
has, but he seems determined to help his children to be successful in
school.

Cpnclusiopa

This case study was a challenge for me as I attempted to obtain
information. Junior, the focus of the case study, was classified by school
standards as a low-achieving child. He had apparently experienced some
problems with social and emotional adjustment. Evidence indicated that drug
addiction had deprived the family of their mother and consequently had forced
Mr. Vlrllson to take on the role of both breadwinner and caregiver. He exhibited
the characteristics of an astute, patient, and devoted father. Mr. Wilson
admitted that he sometimes felt overwhelmed, but he desperately wanted his
children to get a good education and willingly made sacrifices to ensure that he
was involved in their school experiences. He also used what limited resources
he had, along with his own training and expertise, to provide home-structured
experiences that supported the children’s Ieaming. For example, he told of
taking home discarded books and other Ieaming materials from the school to
help his children “build their skills.“ Mr. \Mlson did acknowledge the support and
help of his mother, his two nieces, and the school staff. However, he indicated
that it was primarily his responsibility to care for the children and maintain the
home. The condition and appearance of the home and children showed that he
took his responsibility seriously. According to Mr. Wilson, school and community
networks, such as the church and the neighborhood block club, also provided

support for his family.

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As stated earlier, Junior apparently felt close to his teacher but did not
readily warm up to strangers, such as the many substitute teachers who
frequently covered his classroom. I spent a great deal of time trying to establish
rapport with him, in hopes of getting him to open up and share more information
with me. During the short time I worked with Junior, I was able to gain his trust.
I did become well enough acquainted with him to be able to recognize signs of
anger, sadness, insecurity, and frustration in him. One might hypothesize that
these emotions were perhaps partially responsible for Juniors inability to be
more successful academically and socially.

The evidence also suggested that Mr. Wilson’s daily presence in the
school had been helpful when situations occurred in which Junior became upset
or frustrated. Junior‘s teachers indicated that they had occasionally sent for his
father to come to the classroom to calm him down. When the time comes for
Junior to enter middle school, he might have some difficulty adjusting to the fact
that his father is not in the same building as he is. He will encounter a larger
student population, more challenging assignments, and less personal attention
from teams of teachers who instruct large groups of students in shared time
blocks. Mr. \Mlson mentioned that, when his older son left elementary school for
middle school, he had frequent suspensions, and several poor-work notices
were sent home. He feared that Junior might experience the same thing.

Junior appeared to have a network of supporters that included a
concerned and involved father, extended family members, and church and
community contacts. Granted, his mother was absent from the home at the time

of this inquiry, and there had been some family problems. However, the father

189

had apparently tried to provide Junior and his siblings with some stability and
structure. Mr. Wilson’s school involvement, although not as great as he desired
it to be due to job constraints, appeared to be positive and consistent.

In addition, the staff at F emdale School seemed committed to supporting
Mr. Wilson’s efforts to keep his job and care for his family. For example, I
observed that, when Junior was suspended for the fight referred to earlier, he
was allowed to serve an in-school suspension and to work with the lunchroom
staff in order that Mr. \Mlson would not have to lose time from work to stay home
with his son. In contrast, another student in the same class was required to

serve his suspension at home.

Case Stgdy 5: Shelly’s Family
(Household Headed by a Single Father)

“She has intrinsic motivation.“

ln' ' ti nd Gainin Access

Shelly Carter, the focus of this case study, was an exceptionally talented
fifth-grade girl whose teacher characterized her as a student with “intrinsic
motivation.“ Shelly was recommended to me by a friend who was on the staff at
her school. When I shared with this friend my need to find a single-parent family
with a father-headed household, she immediately thought of Shelly. We
discussed the possibility of getting Shelly’s father and her teacher to consent to
participate. My friend suggested that I call the teacher as she would probably be
glad to assist me. I stopped by the school to see her. Incidentally, the teacher,

Mrs. Dobson, had been a staff member at the school where I had recently been

190

the principal. After I explained my study to her, she said she would be willing to
participate, but she indicated that it might be more difficult to get Shelly’s father
to agree because he had total responsibility for Shelly’s care and schooling, as

well as a job that required him to work many long hours.

After Mrs. Dobson introduced me to Shelly, I remembered that she had
been a student in the accelerated program before it moved from my former
school to the present location. Realizing that I knew Shelly’s father, I decided to
see if he would participate. The teacher volunteered to talk to him about the
study when he picked Shelly up at the end of the school day. When I stopped in
later to see Mrs. Dobson, she told me that Mr. Carter had declined, saying he
just did not see how he and Shelly would be able to fit another thing into their
busy schedules. However, she encouraged me to call the father as she thought
I might persuade him to participate. I decided to give it a try. When I called Mr.
Carter, I assured him that I could work around their busy schedule and would
conduct the interview process as expeditiously as possible. If necessary, we
could omit the home visit and I could meet him at a place of his own choosing.

He finally agreed to take part in the study!

Ipe Student

This case study centers on an 11-year-old honor roll student who, at the
time of the study, was enrolled in an accelerated program for academically
talented students. Shelly and her father, Mr. Carter, lived alone. Other family

members included an older sister with two daughters about Shelly’s age. Most

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of the time I saw Shelly, her appearance was neat, well groomed, and
appropriate for the school setting. She was wearing clothes sporting popular
brand names such as Nike, Fubu and Tommy Hilfiger. Her tennis shoes were
Air Jordans. Shelly usually wore her hair neatly combed back from her face in
two large braids or ponytails. Shelly's personality, attitude, and school
adjustment fit the profile of the kind of student every teacher and principal would
like to have. In addition to Shelly’s teachers, several other staff members,
including the librarian, secretary, and her former teachers, had positive things to
say about her. My examination of Shelly‘s school records failed to reveal even a
hint of criticism about this student, and my background and experience made me
aware that this was quite unusual.

During my observations, I noted that Shelly exhibited courtesy, self-
confidence, and behavior appropriate to the school setting. As I observed
Shelly, I saw a student who was unusually quiet, reserved, and serious in the
classroom. Basically, she appeared focused on and actively involved in the
Ieaming experiences. On one occasion, several youngsters in her class
laughed out loud when the student who was reading aloud mispronounced a
word; however, Shelly did not alter her solemn expression. At times, she
appeared somewhat bored or preoccupied during the class activities, but she
remained quiet and involved with what was going on.

On the playground, Shelly appeared athletic, as demonstrated by her
active participation in basketball, double-dutch (jump rope), and other physical

activities. I also observed that Shelly’s solemn demeanor became more lively

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outside of the classroom. She openly displayed her jovial feelings by gaily body-
bouncing and dangling her lunch pail over the railing as she walked in the line
on the way to the lunchroom. Shelly’s relationship with her peers appeared to
be somewhat unusual, in that she primarily stayed to herself. However, Shelly
did interact with her classmates when her teachers directed her to do so. Most
of the time in Mrs. Dobson’s classroom, she was seated at a table with one other
student with whom she apparently had no interactions. On other occasions, I
observed Shelly at a table with three girls who were working together on a
project. She appeared comfortable with the process. I also noted times when
the class was engaged in cooperative Ieaming, “Pair and Share“ activities, and
Shelly readily involved herself with a partner and followed through on the
assigned task During such activities she generally took a leadership role.
Shelly’s citizenship had been repeatedly rated “1,“ the designation for
excellent behavior. Attendance records indicated that Shelly had perfect or
regular attendance every year since she began school, with just one or two
tardies. She had remained in the same accelerated program and changed
schools only once-when the school district transferred the entire staff and

student population to their present location at Hoyle School.

Work Habits and Performance
“Thirty years from now it won’t matter what shoes you wore, how your hair
locked, or the jeans you bought. What will matter is what you learned and how

you used it.“ This quotation was posted on the bulletin board in Mr. Tucker’s

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classroom. When I read it, I thought how appropriately it described the
phenomenon that was occurring with Shelly. She wore stylish designer clothing,
as do many other students in urban schools, but years from now that is not what
she will be remembered for. Most likely, she will be remembered for what she
learned and how she is using it. No doubt her teachers will not soon forget
Shelly as they expressed admiration and appreciation for the consistency with
which she exhibited exemplary work habits and produced work of superior
quality. The following are examples of their comments:

Mrs. Dobson: Shelly’s work is top quality. She takes an awful lot of
pride in it.

Mrs. Tucker Shelly consistently follows directions, works independently,
and produces excellent work.

As I completed the reviews of Shelly’s records and related school
documents, it occurred to me that I had found exactly what a researcher would
expect to find in the records of an “all-A honor roll“ student, a repeat “Citizen of
the Month,“ and a model Ieamer. In addition to the A’s that Shelly received in
the core subject areas (math, language arts, reading, social studies, and
science) on her fourth-grade and fifth-grade report cards, she also had S’s in art,
physical education, music, and health. The following are examples of teachers’
comments from Shelly’s report card:

Shelly continues to be a very self—directed learner who shows enthusiasm

for Ieaming new material. She sets high standards for herself and

classmates. (1 st Marking Period, 1998-99)

Shelly continues to make excellent progress in all areas of Ieaming. She

did a great job on her book poster and Black History Hall of Fame
projects. (2nd Marking Period 98-99)

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hell F mil and Home

According to Shelly, her extended family included a loving and concemed
father, a 34-year-old married sister whom she admired as a role model, and two
nieces about her own age. She said that when she went over to her sister‘s
house, she had someone to play with. She admitted, “Sometimes I get bored,
but my dad is nice and my sister and her family’s pretty nice.” These family
members and the people at her day care center were what Shelly called her
“support group.“ According to Mr. Carter, “That’s basically it. We live quite a
distance from Shelly’s sister, so she stays with my daughter’s family every other
weekend. She gets to visit her great-grandmother, my maternal grandmother,
every other weekend.“

Shelly’s school records indicated that her mother was deceased. Shelly
was first enrolled in the program in August 1994 by her father, who was listed as
her guardian. He flashed a proud smile when he said, “Everyone in the family
wanted my Shelly, but I refused to give her up. Most people don’t think a man
can raise a girl by himself and I did have a hard time combing her hair, but she
can do it herself now!“ As stated earlier, Shelly’s father initially was reluctant to
participate in this study. He was afraid that it would be too time consuming,
given the family’s tight schedule. According to Shelly, they had to be at day care
by 5:30 each morning in order for her father to report to work at 6:00 am. Shelly
was transported to school by the day care center, and her father picked her up
after school. When he worked overtime, the day care center picked her up and

she remained there until her father came for her. Perhaps he decided to

195

participate in this study in spite of their busy schedule because I was someone
he knew. During the interview process, he was pleasant and cordial. He
characterized their family and kin structure much the same way as Shelly did.
Mr. Carter described his education and occupation as follows:
My education consists of just high school. I graduated from Southwestern
in 1964. l was planning to go to college and I was capable, but life kind of
got in the way and so I ended up having a little girl and having to go to
work I got a job at GM, and this is my 34th year with General Motors. I
am what they call an assembler, but with a little extra pay on it. You
know, we inspect and stuff.
He recalled that his parents had not been very involved with his schooling. Mr.
Carter's mother had finished only eighth grade; a single parent, she worked
outside the home. Her mother, his maternal grandmother, had completed only
the fourth grade. Thus, he had been the first high school graduate from his
family, and he thought, “That was all they wanted of me. Had they insisted on
college, that’s what they would have gotten. That’s why I want college
for my Shelly.“ Mr. Carter indicated that his family had encouraged him, thinking
he was quite bright He also said he had done well in school. In describing the
difference between his family’s involvement in his education and his participation
in Shelly’s, he had this to say:
My mother worked and my grandmother got us off to school. If there was
a problem at school, or maybe a concert or something in which I was
involved, usually my mom didn’t come. My granny was usually sick. So I
was on my own. I wanted them to be proud of me, but they didn’t get there
too often. But I’m here for my Shelly!

Mr. Carter expressed great pride in Shelly’s achievements, commenting

that “All of the teachers love her.“ He went on to say, “I have the attitude that l

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should be involved in everything that she does. . . . ljust try to be there.“ He
believed that family involvement was a big advantage for a child’s school
experience. He was complimentary of the teachers and other staff members at
Shelly’s school and did not perceive that there were any real barriers to parent '
involvement. He did, however, admit that he sometimes felt a bit out of place

because not many other fathers were involved at school.

The Homa

Because Shelly and her father kept such a tight schedule, I was unable to
visit their home. During my interviews with Shelly, Mr. Carter, and Shelly’s
teacher, I gathered some information about where the family lived. Mrs. Dobson
said,

I took her to a concert one time and we had to drive her home afterward.

She anxiously showed me her home, which was very nice. She was

proud of the playground, which her dad had built for her. She has

everything she needs. He provides her with everything she needs to
support Ieaming.
Mr. Carter described their residence as being located on the south side of town
in an area where there were many nice, older homes. I told him I was curious
about the playground he had built his daughter. He replied, “She is quite
athletic, so I made her a place to play basketball and a jungle-gym type of set-
up.“
One day .when I arrived for my observation visit, Shelly had just finished

printing out a report on the computer. She shared it with me, and I

complimented her for the excellent job she had done. I asked how she had

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managed to develop such great computer skills. She told me that she spent a
great deal of time on her computer at home.

Mr. Carter expressed appreciation for the Ieaming experiences Shelly had
in the accelerated program and had positive things to say about opportunities for
parent involvement. He indicated that he thought it was his responsibility to
support Shelly’s Ieaming by setting aside time for homework assignments and
special projects. When asked how he thought Shelly felt about his involvement,
Mr. Carter said it was important to her that he be present when she played
basketball or soccer, or when they shared grades at the student-led
conferences. He continued, “When Shelly leads the conferences, she is just
always so proud to show me all of her A’s. She’s a good artist and also shows
pride when she shows her art work to me.“

Mr. Carter looked wistful as he discussed wanting to be more involved in
Shelly’s schooling by volunteering and going on field trips. He said his
demanding work schedule got in the way and he could not make all of the
meetings, but he tried to get to enough of them “to know what’s going on.” He
summed up his feelings about the family’s school involvement with this
comment: “The kids, no matter how ambitious they are, have to feel that they
have a support system. They have to feel that the family’s behind them, even if
it’s just the dad.“ At the conclusion of the interview, I couldn’t help thinking that
here was one great dad who was proud of his daughter, had high expectations
for her, praised the staff and school she attended, and did his best to provide

support for her Ieaming, both in and out of school.

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I sP roe ions Her Rela ionshi
I H ather

It was evident that Shelly had a close relationship with her dad, who
served as both father and mother figure. When I asked Shelly about her
relationship with her father, she said, “I live with my dad and I like living with him
because he gives me opportunities to say what I want to do.“ V\fith an
expression that reflected great admiration, she continued,

I know the trouble he goes through trying to get me to school. We have to

be up real early, and we usually have a tight schedule. I have confidence

in myself that I can do things right in school, but the support he gives me
helps greatly.
Shelly’s teacher, Mrs. Dobson, also perceived that Shelly had a close
relationship with her dad. In her words, “She’s very close to her dad. ‘ You can
see it when they come to school together for events. It’s obvious that she has a
great deal of respect for him.“ From all indications, here were a father and

daughter who admired each other a great deal, and had a positive and close

relationship.

Shelly’s Perceptions of Her Relationship With
Teachers and Feelings About School

My observations of Shelly’s classroom behavior reflected a relationship
between student and teacher that was characterized by mutual respect and
admiration. Shelly apparently took her teachers’ directions seriously and
immediately followed through on them. She never questioned or showed any
sign of resentment about the authority of her teachers. Shelly’s adherence to

classroom rules and the standards of behavior her teachers established was

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apparent in the way she raised her hand for a turn to read or respond to
questions and refrained from engaging in disruptive behavior. I also noted that
Shelly addressed her teachers respectfully when she wanted to ask a question
or obtain permission to do something. Although her comments about her
teachers in the recorded interviews were limited, Shelly told me during one of
the observation conversations that she enjoyed the accelerated program
because the teachers went out of their way to provide many different activities to
help students Ieam. When I asked Shelly how she felt about school, she
answered, “Well, I look forward to coming to school and I like it. Sometimes,
when l have something to do after school, such as soccer practice or something,
I don’t like having a lot of homework, but I like Ieaming new things.“

I asked Shelly what she wanted to do after high school and what goals
she had for herself when she grew up. Without hesitation, she informed me that

she wanted to go to college and study to become a pediatrician.

Ina Familtfis Involvement in School

Shelly’s father was virtually the only family member who was involved in
her school experiences. Mrs. Dobson did say that whenever Shelly had been
involved in programs or received awards at assemblies, her older sister and
nieces had come to school to support her. The teacher described Shelly’s
father’s participation as follows: “He usually makes it to the important things.“
She made this comment as we discussed her understanding of Mr. Carter’s dual

role of father and mother and his demanding work schedule. During this

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discussion, it occurred to me that for someone her age Shelly had an unusually
mature understanding of the necessity of her father's limiting his in-school
involvement to certain “important things.“ I asked her to describe what her father
did when he came to school. She said, “Oh, well, he’s usually very interested in
my work and all I’ve been doing, what we are probably going to do next, and
specific things that we’re Ieaming about in that subject.“ Shelly’s father alluded
to her desire for him to be more involved in school-related activities when he
commented,

My daughter says that there’s only a certain few men who volunteer to go

on field trips each time. She was always wanting me to go, but she said,

“I understand, Dad, that you have to work; but if you ever have the time
off, I just want to see my dad there once.“

Tha Familtcs After-School Activities

The Carters’ busy after-school schedule involved several activities.
Shelly spoke of having to go to day care on the days when her father had to
work overtime. When he arrived to pick her up, they stopped to get something to
eat or they went home and cooked dinner. Mr. Carter indicated that when they
arrived home each day they had to get the mail and feed the dog. Some days
he was tired, but if Shelly had basketball, track, soccer, piano lessons, or other
activities, they would just have to go to them. He said, “Our after-school routine
is jam-packed. She is very athletic, but if she has homework she gets right on it.
Then she can go to her other activities or go outside and play.“ Mr. Carter also
mentioned that he was a great lover of books and that because Shelly was such

a good reader, he frequently bought her books, encyclopedias, dictionaries, and

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the like. He seemed so pleased to tell me about how ambitious and curious she

mam

Hoyle Community Education Center, the school that Shelly attended, was
located on the north edge of the downtown area of this urban city. It was
situated near a university campus, a city market, and a community college and
cultural center. Hoyle was a modern building with state-of-the-art architectural
design and a brilliant reflective-glass exterior. The school building featured
clusters of open classrooms with carpeted floors and modular furniture. The
school served kindergarten through fifth-grade students who lived In the Hoyle
School attendance area, as well as kindergartners through fifth graders who
were selected for an accelerated program for academically talented students
through a designated screening process. The school’s population ranged from
650 to 735 students. “Treat Others the Way You Would Like to Be Treated“ was
Hoyle School’s motto. The school’s mission statement was: “To educate
children to become quality producers and good citizens.”

Hoyle School provided a stimulating, attractive environment. According to
the teacher, the focus was on improving Hoyle students’ academic achievement.
She indicated that they had a dedicated and committed staff who worked well
together. The teacher also said that creating a positive school climate was

another of the school’s goals.

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I noted that, at Hoyle School, parent involvement differed from that of
most other schools in this urban district because it was enhanced by the
inclusion of the accelerated program. From past experience, I was aware that
parent involvement was a major component of that program. In addition to the
usual monthly parent advisory council meetings, there were regularly scheduled
meetings of special-interest groups, such as chess club parents, soccer moms,
and so on. In an effort to involve parents with their children’s Ieaming, parents
were asked to assist with homework, as well as special assignments that
required students to do extensive research and produce visual representations
of their findings. The students then presented these finished products to their
class. Parents were also encouraged to sponsor or take an active role in fund-
raising projects, career and business fairs, recruitment of additional parent
volunteers, and other such endeavors to promote the school’s program.
Ongoing activities included tutoring, health screening, chaperoning field trips,
and collecting grocery receipts and soup labels to obtain special equipment for
the school.

Hoyle School communicated with parents through its annual report,
shared at the fall open house, a bi-monthly newsletter, and special bulletins as.
needed. Individual students’ progress was shared with parents by means of
mid-marking-period progress reports, report cards, and parent-teacher and

student-led conferences.

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Ih_a Teachepa

At the time of this study, a team of two teachers, Mrs. Dobson and Mr.
Tucker, instructed the 25 fifth-grade students in Shelly‘s class. Both teachers
were willing to provide information for the study. Mrs. Dobson was selected for
the interview because she was Shelly’s homeroom teacher and had taught her
for the past three years. Mr. Tucker allowed me observe Shelly in his classroom
and showed me her work, school-related documents, and other pertinent
information.

Mrs. Dobson’s interactions with her students appeared to be caring and
concerned. She did not raise her voice; rather, she spoke kindly and softly. Her
instructions were clear, concise, and specific. Two or three times during my
observations, she used the overhead projector to introduce the lesson. The
Ieaming experiences in which she involved the students were challenging and
required the use of critical thinking skills. They also reflected planning,
organization, and structure. Mrs. Dobson circulated about the classroom and
monitored the students’ progress with their assignments. Her methods of
checking and collecting work indicated that she set high standards and held
students accountable for following directions, producing quality work, handing in
assignments on time, and keeping their behavior under control. I noted that
when occasionally the noise level escalated above whispers, Mrs. Dobson would
say, “Class, give me five!“ All students would immediately raise a hand and
display five fingers spread apart, and a sudden hush would fall over the room.

She was also attentive to the students’ requests for help.

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Having supervised the implementation of this type of accelerated program
for academically talented students, I understand that consistent and meaningful
parent involvement is a primary component of such a program. Thus, I was not
surprised to hear both teachers say that they firmly believed that frequent and
significant in-school involvement by parents, combined with substantial out-of-
school support for Ieaming, were essential ingredients of student success. Mrs.
Dobson, both a teacher and the mother of two children who had gone through
the program, had this to say about parent involvement:

Over the years, we [she and Mr. Tucker] have watched children who

really needed their parents’ support to do the research, projects, and

other extra requirements in this program and didn’t have it. Looking at
several of those students now, we can see that they are basically raising
themselves, and they are just really struggling. Many of them don’t have
the maturity. They think they know it all, and their parents don’t step up
and assume parenting responsibilities. They let the kids run the whole
show, and that is a real problem.
When she was asked in what ways she thought teachers could encourage
parent involvement, Mrs. Dobson indicated that she believed the main thing was
to be positive with parents. She mentioned that some parents were reluctant to
become involved because they had had negative experiences in the past. She
went on to say,

I think teachers need to develop a team relationship with parents and let

them know that we are hereto help children. We want to give some

solutions to parents, and not just complain—solutions that will help us all
work together as a team.

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Teamta’ Perceptions of Shelly

Most of Mrs. Dobson’s perceptions of Shelly were included in earlier
references to Shelly’s work habits and academic performance, as well as her
relationships with others. A few other specific comments that the teacher made
about Shelly are included below to shed more light on this child whom she called
a “model student.“

She’s very self-directed and inquisitive and expresses a great deal of

empathy as we are studying different subjects. . . . She is quite mature for

her age and never complains about having to go to bed early at night in
order to get to day care at 5:30 am. each day.

When I first approached Mr. Tucker, the other teacher, about observing Shelly

during his class time, he said, “You are working with a very special student.“

Taamars’ Perceptions of Shellys Father

Mrs. Dobson described Shelly’s father as a single dad who had complete
custody of her. She said, “I have observed that he is very kind to her, but firm.
[He is] extremely supportive and proud of his daughter.“ Both teachers praised
Mr. Carter‘s involvement with the school and his support of his daughter. Mrs.
Dobson talked about how Mr. Carter expected and encouraged Shelly to do her
best in scth but did not seem to pressure her. She also surmised that he
wanted Shelly to have an educational experience that would challenge her to go
beyond what was considered average or normal. More than once, Mrs. Dobson
commented that she thought Shelly’s father would make an excellent role model

for other parents.

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’ e in of r. rter’s

- ool Involvement

Home support for Ieaming was a crucial element of the accelerated
program in which Shelly was enrolled. The program often necessitated that
parents would become involved in the assigned extra projects by taking students
to the library for research and supporting their completion of a presentation-
ready product. Mr. Tucker, Shelly’s science and math teacher, described the
superior quality of the projects she had produced for his class. He said it was
obvious that, even with a high-achieving student like Shelly, completing projects
of this quality would not be possible without parent support. Making sure that
Shelly did her homework was another aspect of Mr. Carter‘s out-of- school
involvement. Both father and daughter mentioned that Shelly‘s homework was a

top priority in their after-school routine.

0 I i s
Shelly was a highly motivated 11-year-old fifth grader who excelled in a

program for academically talented students. Shelly was the only child in a home
headed by her single father. The close bond between father and daughter was
evidenced by their mutual respect and admiration for each other. Shelly’s older
sister, who had two daughter’s about Shelly’s age, and a paternal grandmother
made up this student’s extended family and kin network. Shelly sometimes
spent weekends with them and also accompanied them to church. In the
observations, Shelly seemed quite mature for her age and expressed

appreciation for the sacrifices her father made in fulfilling the roles of both father

207

and mother. She did not complain about the inconveniences this entailed, but
rather took them in stride. She appeared to be well adjusted, and her teachers
gave her attendance, citizenship, attitude, and peer relations excellent ratings.

Shelly’s father took great pride in her achievements, and despite a
demanding work schedule, he attended and supported most school-related
activities in which she was involved. He also structured their after-school time
and activities in a way that supported Shelly‘s Ieaming. Mr. Carter expressed
regret that certain job constraints did not allow him to be more involved.
However, Shelly’s teachers rated his involvement highly and considered him an
excellent role model for other parents to emulate. Her current and previous
teachers described Shelly as a well-rounded student who not only was an all-A
honor roll student but also was an artistic, creative, and athletic youngster who
enjoyed participating in soccer, basketball, baseball, and track Shelly believed
that her father’s presence and support helped her strive to do her best.

The modern school that Shelly attended provided an atmosphere that
promoted Ieaming, as evidenced by the bright and colorful surroundings. Many
attractive displays, charts, banners, and other visuals adorned the hallways and
classrooms. A large, glass-enclosed atrium contained many live green plants
and a huge blue-carpeted staircase that served as a forum for small-group
assemblies and meetings. I attended the fifth-grade awards assembly, which
took place on this staircase, and saw Shelly’s father in attendance, proudly

snapping pictures. Over the atrium hung a mammoth architecturally designed

208

replica of a dragon, the school’s mascot, created in the school’s colors-bright
orange and royal blue.

Shelly’s teachers provided challenging Ieaming experiences in a highly
structured classroom setting. They apparently had an excellent relationship with
Mr. Carter and welcomed and appreciated his involvement. Parent involvement
was a major component of the program, and the teachers indicated that they felt

responsible for making such involvement a priority.

Case Study 6: Ronald’s Family
(Household Headed by Two Parents)

“My parents cheer me on.“

Initial Meeting

This case study centers on Ronald, a high-achieving fifth grader who was
the second sibling of a nuclear family. I first met Ronald when I went to see his
teacher, Mrs. F izzer, about the possibility of working with some students from
her classroom. The teacher had invited me to explain my study to her students
and ask them whether they would volunteer to take a letter of invitation and
permission forms home to their parents. When I had finished my brief
presentation, several students raised their hands, but Ronald must have been
the first. The teacher chuckled at his eagerness as she distributed the letters.
She and I both emphasized that participation in the study was completely
voluntary, but it would necessitate family members’ cooperation regarding the

interviews and permission forms.

209

A few days later, Mrs. Fizzer called to tell me that three students had
returned signed permission forms. On the day that I arrived at the classroom to
pick up the forms, Ronald made sure that I understood that he was the first one
in the class to return his. He certainly was eager to be included. Because
Ronald was the first student from a nuclear family to obtain parental permission,
I was happy to include him. He might provide a contrast to the other boys in the
sample. Mrs. F izzer had also told me that Ronald was an excellent, well-
rounded student. I sent a note of thanks to Ronald’s parents and asked them to
call me so that we could schedule the interviews. Ronald’s mother responded
within a few days, and we made the necessary arrangements. During our
telephone conversation, I reviewed the purpose and process of the study and

answered her questions concerning the time commitment.

Il_'l_e Student

Ronald had one of the most beautiful smiles I had ever seen, and he
flashed it frequently. He was jovial and pleasant each time I observed him
except for the one day he was not feeling well and had his head down on the
desk Ronald was tall for his age and was athletically built. As stated earlier, he
was excited about participating in the study. He proudly described his home life
and family, and seemed to appreciate the part that his extended family and
church family played in his life. Ronald said that math was his favorite subject in
school, but that science was boring. He also indicated that he loved to play

basketball and enjoyed his instrumental-music class, in which he played the

210

bass and snare drums. Ronald appeared to be a happy, well-adjusted student

who enjoyed school and the successes he experienced there.

'I_'IJ_a Family and Home

Ronald’s family consisted of the father and mother, Mr. and Mrs. Adams,
and their four sons. The oldest son was Reginald, 14 years old; the second son,
Ronald, was 11 years old; the third son, Richard, was 9 years old; and the
youngest son, Raymond, was 4 years old. Ronald grinned when he told me that
he did not have any sisters. He said, “My mother is the only girl at our house.“
Both of the parents worked, the three older boys attended school, and the four
year old attended a day-care facility. Mr. Adams described himself as a second-
shift factory worker at a plant about 50 miles out of town. He continued, “I’m on
the road a great deal and work long hours. I have a high school diploma, but I
didn’t go any further in school.“

I visited the Adamses’ home on three occasions. Only Mrs. Adams was
present for the first interview. During the two interviews, both parents were
present. Mr. Adams was rather quiet and reserved. Mrs. Adams was more
verbal and did most of the talking. When I was setting up the tape recorder and
taking out my note pad in preparation for the first interview, she sat down on a
loveseat across from me. Mr. Adams sat in a recliner near the doorway.
Because the two of them were seated so far apart, I was not sure the recorder
would pick up both of their voices. When I started the initial interview, Mrs.

Adams sensed my dilemma and motioned for her husband to come and sit on

211

the loveseat next to her. He did so, and I proceeded to interview both of them.

The same seating arrangement was used for the second interview.

Banald’s Fathar

Mr. Adams, Ronald’s father, described his family of origin as follows:

I came from a big family in which both parents were present. I had four

brothers and a sister. My mother was basically there most of the time.

She was there all of the time. My father worked second shift, so many

times we did not see him every day, but my mother was always there.
When I asked Mr. Adams how he recalled his parents’ involvement with his
education, he indicated that his mother was as involved as she could be, with all
her children and an invalid mother to care for. In his words:

When I was growing up, I was an honor roll student so I would receive

many different accolades, and there would be special events to attend.

My mother would be there [and] my father would praise me and

everything. He would say, “Well, son, I have to go to work I have to take

care of this family.“ Basically, my mother was my backbone as far as
going to school and always being there to tell me right from wrong.

When I asked Mr. Adams to compare his involvement in the education of
his children to his parents’ involvement in his school experience, he said he
thought that he and his wife were more Involved than his parents had been. He
discussed having wanted his father to be more involved, but understanding the
situation. Then he said that, as a child, he had vowed, “When I grow up I will be
more involved with my kids, so sometimes I feel like I am more involved with
them.“

As the interview progressed and Mrs. Adams tended to dominate the

discussion, I kept redirecting questions to Mr. Adams. Once or twice, he

212

responded, “She’s covered it.“ I did learn from our conversation that Mr. Adams
was apparently a father who believed that parents’ involvement in the education
of their children is important. He expressed the Idea that both the students and
the people at school try harder when they know parents are concerned. He went
on to say that more parent involvement results in better school experiences for

the children.

Bpnald’a Mother

Mrs. Adams appeared to be in her early forties. She was well-groomed
and conveyed an attitude of self-confidence and professionalism. During the
interview she was more talkative than her husband and usually took the lead in
responding to the questions. Her responses to the questions I asked were
astute and pertinent. She described her family of origin as follows:

I am a product of a single-parent home. My mother raised five children of

which I am the eldest. So, I was the co-care giver. We lived in this city

along with aunts and uncles, except my one aunt who lives In Columbus,

Ohio. We have a large family and most of us live here.

Mrs. Adams was a beautician and salon owner. In addition to her cosmetology
training, Ronald’s mother also had attended a local college of business for a few
years but had not received a degree because she had another baby.

When asked about her mother’s involvement in her education, Mrs.
Adams said she recalled that her mother had always been there. She reflected
on her mother’s involvement in and support for the many plays, musicals,

Brownies, Girl Scouts, and other activities in which she had participated. In

comparing her mother’s involvement with her own, she commented that her

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mother had “perfected“ childrearing. Mrs. Adams said that, although she tried,
her efforts did not measure up to those of her mother. Because she deemed
parent Involvement an important determinant of the school success of the child,
Ronald’s mother voiced her appreciation for the flexibility that self-employment
allowed her. She stated that often she had been able to juggle her schedule so
that she could attend some school—related activities and share in those
traditional roles and responsibilities that school personnel define as constituting
parent Involvement. During this discussion on the meaning of parent
involvement to the performance, attitude, and school adjustment of African
American children, Mrs. Adams voiced her disdain for what she called “teachers
categorizing Black kids.“ She continued by saying,
They‘re going to be judged differently. One thing I don’t allow teachers to
do is categorize my kids. I had a misunderstanding with a teacher who
wanted to categorize my oldest son. That’s what many teachers will do
with Black kids, put them in a group.
When I was finally able to redirect her to the interview questions, Mrs. Adams
said she had not run across any barriers to parent involvement at Roper School,
and she perceived that the staff was very receptive to such Involvement. She
spoke highly of Ronald’s teacher and said her child was doing well in that room.
Finally, Mrs. Adams had some definite ideas about the need for Black family

values, including home structure, respect for elders, extended family support, a

strong work ethic, and, especially, religion and prayer.

214

M meggg Family and Home

Ronald’s extended family and kin support network comprised his paternal
grandmother, his Uncle Brian (mother’s brother), his Aunt Sheila (father’s sister),
and his church family. According to Ronald and his parents, these were the
people who assisted with the care of the children In their family.

The Adams family‘s home was located on the far north end of the city. It
was one among a row of moderate-sized brick homes all of which, had been
designed and built alike. The living room, In which we met for the Interviews,
was furnished with a modern sofa, loveseat, and reclining chair. Matching coffee
and end tables, along with other decorative accessories, created an elegant
look The decorating scheme continued into the kitchen and dining area, which
were visible from where I sat. I did not see other rooms in the home, which,
according to Ronald and his mother, contained the computer, encyclopedias,

and other Ieaming materials. The house was clean and orderly.

chool “and Teacher

Ronald attended Roper Elementary School, which was located on the
southeastern side of the city. Students from all over the city were bused or
transported by car to this school, which had a Magnet program focusing on
global education. The curriculum emphasized the study of various countries,
their people, cultures, and languages. The student population comprised
approximately 630 prekindergarten through fifth-grade children. In addition to

the students who were transported to school, youngsters from the neighborhood

215

i also walked to Roper, which was one of the few elementary schools In this urban
district with a sizable representation of Caucasian students. The school
environment was warm and inviting. Attractive hallway displays included flags of
the different continents that were the focus of the curriculum. Each wing of the
building was named for a particular continent, and the flags of that continent
were displayed to designate the area.

The classroom that served as Ronald’s homeroom was an unusually
attractive Ieaming environment. Positive and motivational quotations were
displayed on the walls, bulletin boards, and mobiles hanging from the ceiling
tiles. Bright, colorful charts, posters, and many stuffed animals graced the
window ledges, bookshelves, and corner stands. There were also a large
collection of books, dictionaries, encyclopedias, board games, and listening
centers at one end of the room. Instructional equipment such as computers, the
overhead projector, and a typewriter were at the writing center. In the center of
all of these items were groups of tables and chairs, where 29 fourth and fifth
graders were seated. The teacher’s desk was at one end of the room, near the
chalkboard. She rarely used her desk, but generally circulated around the room,
occasionally sitting down next to an Individual or group of students to assist
them or check their work. The room had very little unoccupied space, but the
class did not seem to mind. They maneuvered through the maze and appeared

comfortable in spite of it all.

216

BMW

Ronald’s teacher, Mrs. F izzer, impressed me as a teacher who had
genuine concern for her students and their academic progress. She exhibited a
caring and understanding attitude. She was very friendly and displayed warmth
in her relationships with the students. I noted during my observations that she
talked to the students like most mothers would address their own children. For
example, on one occasion she said, “Harold, my child, take your foot off of that
chair!“ She set standards and expected students to meet them or face
consequences such as the loss of recess time or other privileges. Mrs. F izzer
was stern, but she had a pleasant personality and a sense of fairness, which she
displayed In her daily instructional techniques. The students seemed to adore
her, and they moaned and groaned when she informed them that she would be
gone for a day or two and that a substitute would be in charge. She planned
more than enough Ieaming experiences for the students and made it clear what
they should do when they had finished all assigned work.

Mrs. F izzer appeared to work hard to divide her time equally between her
fourth- and fifth-grade students. The use of peer tutors and cooperative Ieaming
groups also helped her accomplish the goal of providing Ieaming support for
everyone. Mrs. Fizzer seemed to enjoy teaching and evidently devoted a great
deal of energy to planning and preparation, as evidenced by the conducive
Ieaming environment she had created, and the many challenging Ieaming
experiences she provided. Mrs. Fizzer had an interesting way of describing her

philosophy of family involvement in the education of their children. According to

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her, family involvement should be in a support role, but not necessarily In the
building every day. She said she thought It was more important for families to
provide moral support, structure at home, and clearly communicated
expectations for school success.
When I asked her how she could encourage more parent Involvement,
Mrs. Fizzer said:
I can encourage more parents to become Involved in school by keeping
them informed of their children’s progress (good or not so good),
respectfully requesting their support with activities that have meaning for
academic achievement, and refraining from burdening them with the
“bake the cookies, send the punch, sell the candy“ routines. I feel that, as

educators, we need to find meaningful ways to involve parents in the
decision-making and leadership aspects of schools.

Parceptipns of Ronald‘s Attitude, Relationships,
and School Adjustment

Ronald flashed his big smile as he described his feelings about his school
and teacher in this manner: “I like my teacher because she’s doing aigood job,
and she’s teaching me. She’s doing a great job of making me get my education.
I have a whole bunch of friends in my class. I don’t have fights or problems like
that at school.“ Ronald also told me that his goal was to finish high school and
go to college to become a professional basketball player. I encouraged him to
tell me more about his plans for adulthood. He said that if he did not succeed at
becoming a professional basketball player, his “back-up plan“ was to become a
doctor.

Ronald’s teacher referred to him as a “really neat student.“ According to

her,

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He Is respectful of adults and gets along with both boys and girls. Lately,
I have noticed that he shows more interest in the girls. He has many
friends, including his brother who is about a year younger than him. They
share a very close bond and are often seen with each other at school.
Mrs. Fizzer continued by saying that she believed that Ronald liked school as he
was present every day and “doesn’t ever want to go home when he is not feeling
well.“ Ronald’s teacher also said he had a very good attitude, and when she
challenged him about being too playful, he just smiled and said, “I’m sorry, Mrs.
F izzer.“ The following are some of Mrs. Fizzer’s other comments about Ronald’s

personality, attitude, and school adjustment:

One of the things I admire most about Ronald is his pleasant personality.
He always seems happy and has that great big smile.

Ronald acts as though he is very devoted to his parents. He seems proud
of his mother, who owns her own beauty salon.

Ronald is a really neat student.

R l ’s W rk Habits and ch I Performance
As stated earlier, Ronald’s teacher described him as
An excellent well-rounded student who works well independently and in a
group. He is very concerned about keeping up with his work. When he
goes out of my class for music, he tries to make up all of the work he
missed. I had to tell him, “Ronald, you can’t do my work in another
teacher’s class.“
Mrs. Fizzer also explained that Ronald seemed to know what was expected of
him and took his school work seriously. According to her, Ronald was
sometimes playful and liked to have fun,'but he always showed enthusiasm for

getting good grades. In her words, “He will often ask me, ‘What did I get on my

spelling test?’ before I have had a chance to correct the papers.“

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A review of Ronald’s report card, cumulative folder, and CA-60 provided
documentation of his work habits and performance. Among the comments on his
fourth— and fifth-grade report cards were these statements: “Ronald is doing well
In all academic subjects,“ “Ronald continues to do well in all phases of my
classes,“ and “Ongoing improvement. Ronald does excellent work.“

At the time of this inquiry, Ronald had been at Reper School for four
years. He had attended two other schools during his first grade and
kindergarten years. His fourth- and fifth-grade report cards recorded letter
grades of A’s and B’s in the core subjects of math, reading, social studies, and
science. Letter grades for art, music, health, and Spanish were all 8’s, and
Ronald’s citizenship was rated excellent, as indicated by 1‘s for all marking
penods.

Ronald’s CA-60’s reflected a good attendance record for his second-
through fifth-grade years (kindergarten and first grade were not available).
During his second- and third-grade years, Ronald missed 14 half-days of school.
For his fourth- and fifth-grade years, he had a perfect attendance record.

The standardized test scores recorded on Ronald’s CA-60’s reflected
satisfactory or excellent performance. For example, on the fourth-grade MEAP
test results, he received an overall rating of satisfactory, which requires a score
of 300 or more. In the story selection, his score was 340; the Informational-
section score was 305; and his knowledge about reading was rated high. The
Metropolitan Achievement Test scores for the second- through fifth-grade years

indicated an annual grade-equivalent gain of six months to one year in each of

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the subject areas (reading, math, language arts, science, and social studies).
Ronald’s highest fifth-grade score was a 7.7 in social studies, and his lowest
score was a 4.5 in reading.

During one classroom observation, Ronald’s group was silently reading a
selection from the social studies book He was apparently preoccupied with
another assignment. The teacher asked him to answer a question about the
reading selection. He smiled shyly and admitted he had not been paying
attention. Mrs. F izzer instructed him to plan to explain the passage to the class
when silent reading time was up. He responded, “Yes, Mrs. Fizzer,“ and got
busy reading. During another classroom observation, I noted that when the
teacher told Ronald and another student that it was time for music class, he went
directly to his book bag, which was hanging on the coat racks near the wall, and
retrieved his drum sticks. The two boys carried the big drum out of the room
together. When he retumed from the class, Ronald Immediately began working
on the assignment that he had left when he went to music class.

At the year-end fifth-grade honors assembly, Ronald received the
following awards: AIB Honor Roll, Perfect Attendance, Citizenship, Citywide

Musical Participation, and Principal’s Award.

Patgptigns of Ronald’s Familxa
[pfimpl Involvament

Ronald said he perceived that his parents were involved enough. He
credited them with helping him with math homework, going on field trips with his

class, and coming to get his report card and holding conferences with his

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teacher. Ronald also said, “If I get In trouble, my mom comes up to see what I
have done. I feel proud because my parents come to school to check on me and
see how I’m doing because they want me to pass.“ In response to additional
questions about the in-school involvement of his parents, Ronald said he
thought that they were involved because they wanted him to get A’s and B’s,
avoid failing a grade, go to college, and get a good job. Ronald concluded his
perceptions of his parents with this comment: “I feel my parents think I’m doing
well in school, and they cheer me on.“ 7

Ronald’s mother, Mrs. Adams, explained her philosophy on parent
involvement in this way:

I think that a family should be involved in schools at all levels. Parents

should communicate with their children, find out what they are doing in

school, and let them know that as parents they care because the children

are interested in letting parents know.
Some of the ways that Mrs. Adams actively involved herself in Ronald’s school-
related activities were referred to In the section describing her. She also gave a
detailed explanation of how happy she thought Ronald was when she picked up
his report card or attended one of his musical performances. She referred to her
son’s happiness in this way: “Ronald is just such a happy child most of the time
that when I attend his programs and he looks up and sees me, his face just lights
up when he knows I’m there.“ Mrs. Adams expressed her desire to participate in

the discipline of her children with this comment: “I want teachers to call me first

if there’s a problem with my kids, before putting my child aside in a group. I

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won’t allow any teacher to put my child aside in a category, because that’s how
statistics go.“

According to Mrs. Adams, at one time she was Cub Scout leader for her
son’s troop, but she gave it up because she thought the boys needed a man who
could teach them masculine things. Among the other school-related activities
that Mrs. Adams said she enjoyed were the Mother’s Day luncheon, the new
student-led conferences, and helping to chaperone field trips with her younger
son. She concluded her perceptions of the family’s in-school involvement by
saying that she thought that prayer should be brought back into the schools to
help curb some of the violence, and that more small-group parent meetings
should be planned to allow time for parents to exchange ideas.

As stated earlier, Mr. Adams’s responses to the interview questions were
not as explicit as those of his wife, and some of his comments were alluded to in
the section describing her. Ronald’s father was emphatic about his philosophy
regarding the importance of families’ involvement in the education of their
children. He expressed that philosophy in this manner: “I think this is always
Important, just basically being there. The teachers and the children try harder
when they know you are involved.“ Mr. Adams did say that he helped out with
fundraising and went on morning field trips when he could return in time to get to
his second-shift job.

Ronald’s teacher’s perception of the way his family was involved in

school-related activities was reflected in these comments:

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I have had Ronald for two years now, and my relationship with his parents
has always been positive. Whatever I ask them to do, they always come
through. They have informed me that they both work, but will help out
whenever needed. They have also told me that they expect their children
to be responsible for doing their best work and taking care of their
behavior at school.

Mrs. F Izzer also gave Ronald’s parents credit for attending parent meetings and

conferences, picking up his report card, and responding to the school’s requests

for assistance with fundraising and other special programs and events.

Parceptions of Ronald’s Familtcs After-
ngol Activities and Home Sppport

Ronald described his family’s after-school involvement in these
comments:

I go to Heavenly Ministries Church. I go to kids’ church where they teach

us about God. We write about and read the Bible. We have dance-a-

thons, and on Fridays we go to Bible Study.

When I get home, I go on the computer or do my homework, and then

practice basketball. On weekends we go bowling, skating, or bike riding

in the park.

When I go on the computer, I do my math, put patterns together, and stuff
like that, and we also have a Sony Playstation.

According to Ronald’s mother, she tried to give her children structure at
home, but sometimes she felt guilty because she was not always able to
complete the routines because things happened unexpectedly. Mrs. Adams also
talked about how things were more demanding now than when she grew up, but
she added, “I always try to give them structure for what they do at school.“ She
also gave a detailed account of the family’s rule of “homework first.“ In her

words, “At times when the boys don’t have assigned homework, they think, ‘Well,

24

we’ll just watch TV,’ but we always say, ‘No, read a book or something,’ and I tell
my baby boy who can’t read yet to write his name.“

Ronald’s mother said she did not reward her sons for doing well In school,
but tried to instill In them the value of doing well because they want to, and
because they will be rewarded in the end. Other values she mentioned were
pride In achievement, courtesy, respect, and making good decisions. Mrs.
Adams continued by describing how she told Ronald that he needed a good
education, even if he did want to be an athlete. It was apparent from her
responses that both parents worked at creating a home environment that
supported school Ieaming. For example, Mrs. Adams made this comment:

When I buy gifts, I buy books for my children, and my sister’s, and my

cousin’s children. Books, crayons, paper, and things to Ieam. They need

to Ieam. I give my kids books at Christmas, birthdays or anytime. They
have shelves of books downstairs, and they have book shelves in their
rooms. I believe that what you plant into a child’s life is what they give
back in return. -

Ronald’s father indicated that his second-shift job and the long drive to
that job made it difficult for him to be involved in the family’s after-school
activities. However, he did say, “I try to get most of the weekends off when I can
to spend time with my family.“ Mr. Adams also described how he supported
Ronald’s involvement with the basketball league at the community fieldhouse,
and his son’s participation in activities at the YMCA in previous years. He
continued by saying:

If the boys have a half-day, I am still at home and I take care of them.

Usually the first thing they do when they come home is their homework.
We have video games, music cd’s, and things like that. Sometimes the

225

kids want to buy more, but we try to limit that. We try to teach them the
value of education.

During one of my conversations with Ronald, he explained that sometimes
when he got a ride home from school, he took one of his instruments home to
practice. According to him, the brothers would grab a tambourine or some
maracas and have a jam session. Ronald said his mother did not mind as long
as the boys remembered to play their music in the basement and did not disturb

the neighbors.

Conplusions

In addition to parent support, Ronald had extended kin, church family, and
community—based networks to nourish his socialization and development. He
boasted of many friendships among his peers and apparently adored his
teacher. Family relationships seemed positive, and expectations appeared to be
clearly communicated. Ronald gave the following description of the family
members’ roles: “My mom cleans around the house, and my brothers and I can
help clean up. My dad helps do stuff around the house, and my parents help me
with homework things that I need to understand.“

At the time of this inquiry, the school that Ronald attended welcomed
parent Involvement but did not appear to consider It high on the list of priorities.
Ronald’s teacher also said she feels she defined parent involvement differently
most other educators did. She acknowledged that she appreciated home

support and positive expectations more than she did the frequent presence of

226

parents in the building. She gave Ronald and his family very high marks In this
regard.

Ronald and his brothers lived with both their mother and father in a
comfortable and lovely home. The evidence indicated that Ronald was a happy,
well-rounded student who had an excellent academic and citizenship record at
school. At the fifth-grade awards assembly, he received certificates for AIB
Honor Roll, excellent citizenship, and perfect attendance for the entire school
year.

Ronald’s parents both reportedly had done well In school, and their own
mothers had been involved and supportive. They were concerned and provided
support and involvement in school and school-related activities, as well as a
structured home environment that supported Ieaming. Both parents worked, but
they apparently arranged their schedules to accommodate involvement in their

children’s school experiences.

Case Study 7: Tvrone’s Family
(flouaeholg Headed by Twp Parents)

“My school is the best!“

Initial Meeting

One morning as I visited the office of my contact person, Mrs. Sims, a
parent came In to turn in some proceeds from the fifth-grade candy sale. Mrs.
Sims said, “I’m glad you came because Mrs. Muldrew, the research lady that I

spoke to you about, Is here and I want you to meet her.“ Mrs. Sims introduced

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the two of us, and we spoke briefly before Mrs. Thomas had to leave for work. *
She apologized for having to leave and told me that I could call her and set up
an appointment to discuss my research project with her family.

At our appointed meeting, Mrs. Thomas listened with interest as I
explained the part that families would play in my research. She signed the
consent form and apologized for her husband’s absence, explaining that he had
a previous commitment that she had not remembered when she made the
appointment for our meeting. Because Mr. Thomas had not signed the consent
forms, I asked Mrs. Thomas If she thought he would participate in the interviews.
She assured me that both of them had discussed the possibility of their family’s
being Included in the study when Mrs. Sims initially contacted them. Apparently,
it was at that time that Mrs. Sims had told the Thomases that she had
recommended them for the study because of their consistent involvement in their
children’s school experiences. Mrs. Thomas said that Mrs. Sims had been so
convincing that both she and her husband had agreed to participate. However,
she said they had some concerns about the time constraints Imposed by their
demanding work schedules.

I expressed my appreciation for their willingness to assist me and
explained that I would arrange to conduct the interviews at their convenience. I
assured her that I would make the interviews as brief as possible and take no
more of their time than was necessary. Before leaving the home, I informed Mrs.
Thomas that I would like to begin Tyrone’s classroom observations the following

day if she would give her approval. She agreed that I could go ahead with the

228

observations, and she and her husband would notify me when I could interview

the two Ofthem.

t ent

The focus of this case study Is an 11-year-old fifth-grade boy named
Tyrone. A big winning smile, which he flashed frequently, and a rugged build
were among Tyrone’s most noticeable physical features. Tyrone generally
dressed in denim jeans or casual pants, T-shirts or sweatshirts, and high-topped
Nike shoes. He was well groomed, and his pants were appropriately fitted and
belted at the waist. During the interviews, he frequently glanced at the black
watch on his left wrist. Although he responded to my interview questions without
hesitation, he volunteered very little additional Information. His interactions. with
me were pleasant, cordial, and respequ every time I was with him. For
example, he opened the door and stood back to let me enter first. During my
observations, I noted that Tyrone usually sat near the front of the room in each
of his three classrooms, and there seemed to be nothing unusual about his
attitude or behavior. He eagerly participated In class discussions and activities,
and seemed especially fond of physical games such as basketball and relays.

I ate lunch with Tyrone’s class one day, and with his permission sat down
next to him. During our conversation, he shared with me that he always brought
his lunch as he did not like the food served in the cafeteria. Tyrone soon
finished his sandwich, apple, chips, and a fruit drink and seemed eager to join

the line of students preparing to go outside for lunch recess. He exhibited an

229

abundance of energy as he bounced and danced around In the line. When the
group was dismissed, Tyrone waved good-bye to me with a big smile.

When I asked Tyrone to describe his family, he told me that he lived with
his father, mother, and six-year-old sister, Sabrina. l encouraged him to tell me
more about his family so that I could get to know them better. He said, “My
father works at a General Motors factory, and my mother is a nurse at the
hospital.“ In response to my question of who took care of him and his sister
besides the parents, Tyrone told me that whenever their parents went out of
town or to something for grown-ups only, he and Sabrina stayed with their
maternal grandparents. He also told me that sometimes the two of them stayed
with their aunts and uncles who had some kids about their ages, and also a
godmother whom he referred to as “Big Mama.“ On the subject of family lessons
about respect, responsibility, and spirituality, Tyrone had this to say:

They tell me to respect other people’s things and don’t break them or tear

them up. . . . They say I should always use good manners, like, “Say

please, thank you, and excuse me“ . . . and, you know, don‘t talk back to
grown-ups.

Tyrone described their after-school activities In this manner: “Sometimes
my mother picks us up and takes us to our classes. When we don’t have
classes, I play basketball. Then, if I have my homework done, I can go on the
computer or watch TV.“ In response to my questions about the family’s weekend
activities, Tyrone explained that most of the time his mother did not have to work

on weekends, and they could go shopping, to movies, and to church, but he had

to clean his room before riding his bike or playing games.

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According to Tyrone, his parents helped him with homework and bought
him Instructional tapes so he could read better. An example of something
Tyrone said his parents told him about school is as follows: “They told me that if
I can do well, I can get a scholarship like my cousin Brandon. He’s going to
college to be an engineer.“ At that point, I asked Tyrone what he wanted to do
after high school. He said his first choice was to play professional basketball or
join the Navy, but he really wanted to have his own restaurant some day.

During the second interview with Tyrone, he shared with me his
perception of his school, his teachers, and how he felt about his parents’
involvement in his schooling. When asked how he felt about his school and
teachers, Tyrone had this to say:

I like school. . . . My school Is the best. . . . I like it when we have

team competitions In spelling, sign language, and math facts. . . . Each
team tries to score higher than the other. . . . I like my teachers; they

are nice, but if you don’t get your work done there will be some trouble.

Tyrone said that most of the times his parents came to school they talked
to his teachers about his work. He said that If the teacher called about any
problems, his father or mother would come right up to the school. Going on field
trips and helping with Mr. Rogers and Boy Scouts were the other things Tyrone
said his father did at school. In response to my question about how he felt about
his parents’ involvement, Tyrone had this to say:

I like it when they come to my school . . . like when it’s my birthday. My

mother brings treats for the whole class. I think It helps me when my

parents come to pick up my report card. . . . Then I can see my

grades because some kids don’t get their cards if their parents won’t
come and talk to the teachers.

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Tyrone continued by saying that he thought his teachers were glad when
his parents came to school, and if he played around and did not finish his work,
his teachers would say, “Tyrone, I’m going to call your parents.“ Later, Tyrone
recalled that the previous school year his teacher had not liked his mother, and
they were always yelling at each other. Tyrone indicated that he thought his

parents were Involved because they wanted him to be good and keep his grades

up.

Tha Family and Home

In their interviews, both Mr. and Mrs. Thomas were outgoing and
articulate, and they seemed knowledgeable about schools and current
educational Issues. Mr. Thomas seemed pleased to inform me that he was a
member of the school superintendent’s task force, whose responsibility it was to
monitor the effect of charter schools on the public schools in that urban district.
He mentioned that his appointment to the task force had been initiated during a
conversation he had with the superintendent on the golf course one day.

Mr. Thomas described his family of origin as follows: “I grew up In a ,
family in which there were two sisters, my mother, and myself. I was the
youngest, and my father died during that time, so my mother finished rearing us
as a single parent.“ He indicated that both of his two sisters lived in distant
states, and because his mother had died recently, he did not have immediate
family members living In the area. Mr. Thomas recalled that his mother always

had been involved in his school experiences. In his own words, “She had to

232

work, but found the time to get to that school and let those teachers know that
she sent me there to get an education, and not to clown.“

In comparing his own school involvement with that of his mother, Mr.
Thomas said he was able to be more involved because of his job flexibility as a
skilled tradesman at a General Motors plant. He explained that he had finished
high school and some college before attending the General Motors program to
become a journeyman electrician. When asked about his views on the meaning
of parents’ involvement to the educational experiences of their children, Mr.
Thomas drew this analogy:

Participating In your child’s education is like investing In the stock market:

The more you put into it, the more you get out of it. When you invest in

your child’s education now, that Investment pays dividends on down the

road.

When I asked Mr. Thomas to elaborate on the meaning he thought that
parents’ involvement had for the school performance, attitude, and adjustment of
their children, he said that such involvement lets the child and the school know
that the parents are concerned. He also said he believed that the schools would
try harder to meet students’ needs if more parents would get involved and be In
the schools to see what was going on. According to Mr. Thomas, his own school
involvement Included volunteering to help with fundraising, field trips, Boy
Scouts, the Mr. Rogers program, career day, and any other activities in which his
children were involved.

On the subject of opportunities and barriers to parent involvement, Mr.

Thomas discussed the abundance of opportunities that many parents fail to take

233

advantage of. He recalled that several times scouting activities and trips had to
be canceled or postponed because there were not enough parents to supervise
the group. Mr. Thomas continued by saying:

The only barrier to parent involvement that I see is when parents want

everyone on their own terms. . . .The complaints I have heard are that the

teachers didn’t talk to parents when they wanted them to stop what they
were doing and discuss some issue. . . . Sometimes I think parents don’t
want to accept the responsibility to meet the schools halfway. I see
education as a partnership. . . . The parents and the schools are in this
business together. _

Mr. Thomas also said he would like to see more parenting classes to help
parents understand their responsibilities toward their children and the school.
He also suggested using parent contracts, such as some private academies
have, which require parents to sign a commitment to be involved in their
children’s schooling. Mr. Thomas also mentioned that he attended some school
board meetings and believed that “more parents should be at these meetings
and hear what the schools and teachers are faced with. Then, maybe they will
understand what parents need to do.“

In reference to their family’s after-school involvement, Mr. Thomas said
they were active church members and attended worship and church programs
on Sunday. He had already mentioned many of Tyrone’s activities, which
Included Boy’s Club, basketball, and some classes at the art Institute. He said
Mrs. Thomas was primarily responsible for helping the children with homework

and for driving Tyrone and his sister to music and art classes because her work

day ended earlier than his.

234

Mr. Thomas Indicated that he believed Tyrone appreciated his school
involvement and often volunteered his services. For example, when the teacher
asked for some fathers to go on the year-end trip for fifth graders, Tyrone
suggested that his father would go. Mr. Thomas said he thought that Tyrone
would like him to become more Involved with the baseball team, but his work
schedule would not permit it.

On the subject of Tyrone’s perception of his out-of-school involvement,
Mr. Thomas said that he sometimes played one—on-one basketball with his son
orjoined in a game with Tyrone and his friends at their backyard hoop.
According to Mr. Thomas, Tyrone had been very shy and unsure of himself when
he first started school, but the boy was now more self-confident and willing to try
new things. Mr. Thomas thought that a great deal of this improvement had been
a result of their parental support and involvement.

Tyrone’s mother was not as verbal as her husband, but she readily
responded to the interview questions. She was friendly, but very soft-spoken
and reserved. She was courteous and articulate. Mrs. Thomas described her
occupation and educational level in this manner. “I finished high school and
went right into nurse’s training. I am currently employed as a charge nurse at
the local medical center.“ According to Mrs. Thomas, she was the youngest In a
family of seven children; both of their parents were in the home. She explained
that two of her sisters and one brother lived in the area, and the other members

of her family lived out of state. In Mrs. Thomas’s words,

235

We are a very closely knit family, and our sisters help each other with our
kids. Our brother is a long-distance truck driver, so he is out of town most
of the time. We usually all get together on holidays and birthdays. . . . My
mother and father are retired and live about two streets over from us, and
if neither my husband nor I Is available, Tyrone and Sabrina can always
go over to their house.

Mrs. Thomas said her mother had been more involved than her father in
her school experience, usually attending PTA meetings, school programs, and
the like. She also stated that her mother had been a “homeroom mother,“ who
helped out with parties, baked cookies, and collected milk money for the teacher.
Mrs. Thomas recalled that her mother would sew costumes for her operettas,
plays, and Halloween parties, and her father would attend the programs in which
she was involved.

Mrs. Thomas indicated that her mother had participated more actively in
school-related activities than she herself did because her mother had not held a
full-time job. Mrs. Thomas continued by saying that her involvement was
different from her mother’s, as times had changed and the family’s needs were
not the same. In response to my questions regarding the nature of her
participation in school-related activities, Mrs. Thomas said that she and her
husband attempted to divide the responsibilities for their Involvement with the
children. In her words, “He usually checks on the kids at school and participates
in the meetings more than I do. Sometimes both of us can go . . . but I am

basically responsible for taking the kids to after-school functions.“ In describing

her in-school involvement, Mrs. Thomas referred to a time when she was one of

236

the parents who helped to organize the school’s “Career Day,“ at which she
presented information about her profession.

Mrs. Thomas explained the family’s after-school Involvement by pointing
to a weekly planner that she kept posted on the refrigerator. She said that the
children had activities almost every day, except for Thursdays, “our free day.“
She explained,

My husband and I feel that it Is important to involve the children in

activities outside of school. . . . But at times, our schedule is rather hectic

when we include school and church activities, homework, and the art and
music classes. There is hardly any time when we are not busy.

Mrs. Thomas explained that, at times, Tyrone had to complete his
homework before going to school in the morning, because they were late getting
home from some event the night before. When I asked how she thought Tyrone
felt about their involvement, she indicated that he was glad about It and would
be even happier if his parents were at school more. She went on to say, “He’s
always asking me, “Are you coming up to school today?“ Apparently, there was
also some involvement from extended family members, as Tyrone’s mother
spoke of her mother taking their younger daughter, Sabrina, to a preschool story
hour, and taking both children to the library to check out books. She said her
parents also came to school for programs involving Tyrone and Sabrina.

Responding to my questions about the role and meaning of family
Involvement, Mrs. Thomas said she believed it was the responsibility of all

parents to be involved and show concern by responding to the school’s requests

for help with their children. Mrs. Thomas went on to say, “I always make sure

237

that the school has several numbers at which they can contact family members
In case of emergencies, or just to let us know about our children’s school
experiences.“ Mrs. Thomas said she thought that more parents at Cottage
School were involved than what some of her friends and relatives Indicated was
the case at their children’s schools.

Tyrone’s family lived in a large brick and aluminum-sided, tri-Ievel home
on the south side of this urban city. Most of the homes in this neighborhood
were large, well-kept family dwellings. The lawns were neatly manicured, with
trees and shrubs bordering the yards and lining the walkways. Each time that I
visited the Thomases’ home, I noted that the interior was neat and orderly.
When I arrived for the first visit, Mrs. Thomas greeted me at the door and Invited
me into the foyer, where she took my coat and showed me to a seat in the large
sunken living room. Furnishings in the room included a modern overstuffed
couch, a chair with an ottoman, a tall floor lamp, a piano, two end tables, and a
coffee table. Right off the living room was the dining area, in which a table was
set with linens, crystal, and china. During visits when the Interviews were
conducted, I was invited into the family room. According to Mrs. Thomas, this
room was where the family spendt most of their time. It contained a fireplace, a
giant-screen television, two large recliners, and an occasional table. The entire
south end of this room featured a built-in wall unit containing books, plants,
figurines, and collectibles. The book collection included dictionaries, a Roget’s

Thesagrus, the Engyclopedia of Black Histog, and an array of other books,

238

magazines, and videotapes. The room was bright, colorful, and attractive. At
the north end of this room, sliding-glass doors led to a patio.

During our discussion of the family‘s after-school activities, Mrs. Thomas
showed me the family’s game room on the lower level of the home. This room
contained two computers, a television, a pool table, and a large wall unit with
bookcases and shelves filled with board games, family photographs, and

memorabilia.

Tha Schggl ang the Teachers

Tyrone attended Cottage Community School, which was located at the
southern end of this urban school district. The building was a single-level
structure designed with closed classrooms. A rectangular courtyard contained
huge beds of blooming flowers. When I mentioned the beautiful grounds, the
principal told me they were planted and maintained by parents and community
block clubs. The interior of the building was also attractive, with colorful hallway
bulletin boards and displays. A large, bright-orange banner hanging in the
community room read, “Failure Is Not an Option.“ Near the main office was
another eye-catching sign: “Conflict Mediation Is Practiced Here.“ Other
displays included a “Student of the Month“ bulletin board and an “Attendance
Honor Roll.“

Approximately 430 students in prekindergarten through sixth grade made
up Cottage School’s student population. As in most of the elementary schools In

this urban district, a majority of these students were African American. The

239

annual report of Cottage School (which was shared with parents and the
community at the fall open house) contained the following mission statement:
“Cottage Community School, in cooperation with parents and community, will
provide quality education for all students.“ The fact that 96 percent of parents
and guardians participated in school-related activities was also highlighted in the
annual report, which Included a list of 35 events and activities in which parents
and guardians were Involved. In addition to the annual report, Cottage School
sent out a bI-weekly newsletter and occasional bulletins as announcements or
reminders of special issues or events.

The three classrooms in which Tyrone spent the school day were located
close to each other at one end of the hall. The class spent two hours a day with
each of their three teachers, rotating from one classroom to the next. During the
observation visits, I observed that the students moved easily from one room to
the next in what appeared to be a well-established routine. All three classrooms
had similar disciplinary climates. Students generally entered the room and went
directly to their seats. As they received their assignments, they began working
to complete them. Classes proceeded with minimal interruptions. Students
raised their hands to ask or answer questions, and they responded respectfully
to their teachers’ directions. For the most part, I observed this same type of
behavior on the playground, in the lunchroom, and in gym classes. During the
spring music program, students also entered the auditorium In a quiet and
orderly manner as they filed In from their classrooms. There were some muted

exchanges of conversation as students from different classrooms greeted each

240

other and the members of the performing group made their way to the stage. As
soon as the curtain opened, though, absolute silence fell on the auditorium. The
students listened courteously as their peers played, and they applauded at the
end of each selection.

The three teachers who shared Instructional responsibilities for Tyrone’s
class were Mrs. Ham, Mrs. Bee, and Mrs. Cee. The three of them taught
different subjects but used similar instructional strategies and maintained the
same type of disciplinary climate. Mrs. Ham’s personality was pleasant and
bubbly. Her interactions with the students were warm, friendly, and spiced with
her famous sense of humor. She had the ability to get students to work hard and
like it

While observing in Mrs. Ham’s classroom, I noted that she emphasized
students taking responsibility for their behavior, completing and handing In
assignments, and cleaning up their area. For instance, one day toward the end
of the class period, Mrs. Ham called the students’ attention to all of the scraps of
paper on the floor. She said, “Let’s pretend we are all vacuum cleaners.“ As
she began making a humming noise, the students joined in the pretense and the
floor was soon free of paper. However, she did this without embarrassing or
demeaning the students. Even when she checked the roll, requesting that
students account to her for all due and past-due work, she protected the
students’ right to privacy. All students who had completed work to turn in were
instructed to put it in the basket, and the student helper checked the appropriate

column alongside their names. Those students who were missing assignments

241

needed to see the teacher privately and individually to explain why they had not
tumed in their work

Mrs. Ham was also positive in her choice of words when describing
Tyrone’s work habits, attitudes, and behavior. She said, “He works slowly in my
class, but can be counted on to follow through and complete assignments, even
if he has to take them home and return them the next day.“ She continued by
saying.

Tyrone Is a pleasant student. . . . When I Icok at him, he always has that

big smile. . . . He has a good attitude about his work. He doesn’t moan

and groan when I tell him he has missing assignments. He just wants to
know what has not been turned in. If he can’t find it in his folder. . . he
prepares to do It over.

Among her Instructional strategies, Mrs. Ham frequently used the
overhead projector to introduce and explain concepts. Afterwards, she
facilitated class participation by asking students to give examples or respond to
questions. Mrs. Ham generally concluded her instruction with individual
activities to be completed in class or as homework assignments. She was
receptive to parents“ Involvement and support for Ieaming, and she Indicated a
willingness to go the extra mile to encourage parents and guardians to support
their children’s Ieaming experiences. She said I was welcome to visit her
classroom any time I would like. According to her, she subscribed to an open-
door policy, allowing parents and family members to visit the classroom at any
time.

Mrs. Bee was not quite as outgoing as Mrs. Ham, but she openly

discussed Tyrone with me. She shared her views on Tyrone’s work ethic,

242

attitude, personality, and adjustment. During the observations, I noted that she
moved about the classroom and sat with each student individually, reviewing his
or her work and making recommendations for improvement. Her attentiveness
and sensitivity to the students’ needs were impressive. For instance, she did not
allow students who had finished their writing assignments to disturb the ones
who were still working. Instead, she encouraged them to help each other edit
their work When Mrs. Bee discovered that students were talking and playing,
she said, “This is a teaching experience and there will be no visiting. Your
visiting hours are from 3:00 pm. until 9:00 am.“ When I asked her to describe
Tyrone’s work ethic, Mrs. Bee had this to say:

He has problems with organization; often he cannot find his papers,.and

he is quite easily distracted by what is going on around him. At times he

is just “star-gazing,“ and I will have to get his attention and remind him to
get busy on the task at hand. . . . He Is basically a good student, but
will now and then get into minor trouble . . . exhibiting impulsive behavior.

. . . He likes to read books about “Star Wars,“ and the other day I caught .

him reading from one when he should have been completing his work. He

was very apologetic, and implored me not to tell his parents.

Mrs. Cee was the third teacher in the triad of instructors for Tyrone’s
class; she taught math and science. She, too, was friendly and receptive, as
demonstrated by her granting me the privilege to observe her class when she
had the students who were Involved In my study sample. Her instructional
strategies involved first demonstrating with the overhead projector and then
having individuals and pairs of students present examples to the class. She

frequently used cooperative learning activities. Mrs. Cee was curious about my

study and asked many questions.

243

Mrs. Cee gave this description of Tyrone’s work ethic:

He wants to do good work. . . . He tries to comply with all of my requests,
but he seems to have trouble getting started, . . . although I must say that
he did a neat science project on the speed of light. . . . He had a little help
from his father, but he did a nice job of explaining It to the class.

When asked about Tyrone’s personality and attitude toward school, Mrs. Cee

explained that she considered him an “average“ student with good behavior, and

said she had no problems with him In her classroom.

Iaac_he§’ Parceptions of Tyrone’s FamiIZs
Involvement in School and in School-
Relatad Activities

Tyrone’s three teachers gave the following interpretations of the school-

related involvement of his parents:

Mrs. Cee:

Mrs. Ham:

I recall that both parents attended the middle school orientation
meeting, and l have seen the two of them at other meetings and

programs.

His father helps out with the baseball team, and he’s really good
with fundraising. He takes those boxes of candy to his workplace,
and they just disappear. Before you know it, he comes back for
several more cases.

Tyrone’s father is usually the one to come to the school to check
on him. Mr. Thomas is a very concerned and dependable parent.
In fact, he’s going to help chaperone the fifth-grade’s year-end trip.
. . . They make sure that he does homework or special projects. . . .
Tyrone’s parents are very supportive. . . . If they are notified of a
problem, or just suspect a problem, they are at the school to see
about it.

244

antation of Tmne’s Work
Hab‘na and Parfgm'lance

A review of Tyrone’s individual cumulative records and report card
reflected letter grades of B’s and S’s for his fourth-grade year, except for one C
in spelling. Final grades for the fifth-grade year were all A’s, B’s, and S’s. His
citizenship was rated with 1‘s and 2's, representing excellent and good,
respectively. Some examples of teachers’ comments on the report cards are:
“Tyrone occasionally has difficulty grasping math concepts,“ “Tyrone has been
working hard, but he has problems getting organized,“ “Tyrone is showing great
improvement in social studies,“ “Tyrone would get more work completed on time
if he were not so easily distracted,“ and “Tyrone has difficulty expressing his
thoughts in writing.“

Tyrone’s attendance records Indicated an average of 10 half-days missed
per year since entering pro-kindergarten In 1993. Cottage School was the only
school that he had attended. On the fourth-grade MEAP test, Tyrone received
an overall rating of satisfactory, which means that he had a score of 300 or more
in each category. Similarly, his Metropolitan Achievement Test scores reflected
a gain of six months to a year from the first through the fourth grade. At the
year-end awards assembly, Tyrone received the following awards: NB Honor
Roll, Journal Contest Winner, Most Improved in Academics and Responsibility,

and the Crim Walk Participant Certificate.

245

All three teachers thought that Tyrone received positive benefits from his
parents’ involvement in his school activities. He was obviously pleased

whenever they came to school.

on sions

Tyrone Thomas, the focus of this case study, was an 11-year-old fifth
grader who asserted, “My school is the best!“ He and his little sister, Sabrina,
lived with their two parents, who were employed professionals. Like their son,
Mr. and Mrs. Thomas were complimentary about Cottage School. The Thomas
family lived in a modern, attractive home on the south side of this urban city,
within walking distance of the school. Their neighborhood appeared to be
stable, and the grounds were well kept.

Tyrone’s parents provided their children with many of the items that
support Ieaming, such as computers, musical instruments, recreational
equipment, board games, books, and a reference library. Further, Tyrone and
his sister appareme enjoyed many other activities that enhanced their academic
growth, such as enrichment classes, private lessons, family vacations, and
religious, social, and cultural events. The family also had the support of
networks that assisted the parents with socialization, nurturing, and child care.
These networks included the extended family, godparents, and the church
family.

During the interviews, Tyrone said he liked school and expressed

admiration for his teachers. Apparently, he had a clear understanding of what

246

his parents expected from him at school and was pleased about their
Involvement. His teachers described Tyrone as a good worker but not a very
fast one. Consequently, they characterized him as an “average“ student with
good behavior. His records reflected good citizenship and attendance. He
made the honor roll for the final semester of fifth grade. Tyrone’s willingness to
try hard and his positive attitude are two attributes that his teachers praised.
The principal, teachers, and other staff members gave Mr. and Mrs. Thomas
high marks on parental Involvement.
Case Study 8: Paula’s Family
Household Headed b a in le randmoth r

“She marches to a different drumbeat.“

Initial eetin nd Gainin onsent

Paula Parks, a unique 12-year-old fifth grader who lived with her paternal
grandmother at the time of the research, was the focus of this case study. One
of her teachers at Cottage School, Mrs. Bee, described her as “one who
marches to a different drumbeat.“ I first met Paula when l was standing on the
playground talking with her teacher about another student. The class had been
taken to the playground for a Crim fitness walking exercise. As the students
walked around the soccer field, Paula left the line and came over to where the
teacher and I stood. She curiously studied me and finally asked me whether I
was a substitute. Before I could respond to her question, Mrs. Bee introduced

us and explained to Paula why I was there.

247

Paula warmed up to me, and the two of us immediately engaged in a
conversation. The youngster asked me whether I had children of my own. I told
her I did, but that they were adults now. I also told her I had five grandchildren.
Paula wanted to know how old my grandchildren were, and she told me she lived
with her grandmother. When I admired Paula’s shoes and dress, she smiled
shyly and proudly explained that her grandmother had bought them.

After Paula had resumed her walking activity, the teacher told me she was
a very unusual little girl who had gotten off to a slow start, but really had shown
Improvement since her grandmother has been caring for her. I listened with
interest as Mrs. Bee shared with me what a special person Paula’s grandmother
was. I told the teacher of my interest in finding another grandparent-headed
family to provide balance for the study sample. Mrs. Bee advised, “You should
talk to Paula’s grandmother. She’s such a nice person, I’m sure she would be
willing to participate. In fact, I’ll bet you could find her helping out in the office
right now.“

Taking the teacher's advice, I went to the office and introduced myself to
Paula’s grandmother. She greeted me warmly and told me her name was Mrs.
Parks. I asked if we could talk for a few minutes when she had the time. Mrs.
Parks said she was covering for the office clerk just until she finished her lunch
break, so she expected to be available momentarily. She suggested that I wait
for her in the community room, and she would join me shortly thereafter.

When Mrs. Parks arrived, I briefly explained my research project to her.

She listened carefully. Apparently, parents’ and guardians’ Involvement in the

248

educational experiences of their children was a topic about which she was
passionate. As Mrs. Parks and I talked about our parents and how we had been
brought up, we discovered that we had many things in common. Our
conversation lasted for a while, and we related to each other so well that it
seemed as if we had known each other for years. Mrs. Parks readily agreed that

she and Paula would participate In the research study.

Mat

Paula was a charming 12-year-old fifth-grader whom the principal
described as “delightful, but different.“ Several other persons with whom I talked
also indicated that Paula was a unique student and very much an Individual.
This charming and personable youngster was somewhat taller and looked more
mature than most of her classmates. She usually wore denim jeans, a T-shirt,
and traditional white tennis shoes and socks. She was unusually articulate and
Interviewed well. At times her answers did not pertain specifically to the
question, but provide helpful information. In response to my question about what
Paula thought her family expected from her at school, she replied:

I think they expect me to be respectful to the staff and my peers, and they

want me to do my work and not talk. I think they want me to improve in all

of my subjects, and when I fail a test or something, they tell me to try

again and do better next time. That’s about it.

Later in the Interview, Paula recalled some other advice her grandmother
had given her about how to avoid fights, get along with her peers, and handle

disappointments. She went on to say, “I feel like going to school is like going to

my house, but it’s really not my house. I enjoy going because I have lots of

249

people there.“ The preceding was Paula’s response when I asked her how she
felt about school. Continuing the discussion of Paula’s feelings about school, I
asked her to tell me about having been selected Student of the Month. She
promptly corrected me, saying, “You mean Student of the Year!“ Hoping to get
Paula to talk about her pride in this achievement, which earned her recognition
In a local newspaper and the church bulletin, l encouraged her to tell me more.
Surprisingly, she said she was not happy that day, but was really disappointed
because her father and mother had not come to see her get the award.
According to Paula, the parents of the boy who was named the male “Student of
the Year“ had been there to see him.

Paula also talked about how glad she was to have her grandmother
always there for her. When asked how she thought the teachers felt about Mrs.
Parks’s Involvement, Paula said, “They think it’s wonderful that she’s active with

me.“

Paula’s grandmother (Her Legal Guardian)

At the time of this study, Paula lived with her paternal grandmother, Mrs.
Parks, and occasionally spent time with her father. Some unusual
circumstances, the details of which Mrs. Parks did not want shared, surrounded
the grandmother’s having been awarded custody of Paula. Several staff
members at Paula’s school indicated that both the child’s behavior and her
academic growth had improved greatly since her second grade year, when she

had begun living with her grandmother. According to the grandmother, at first

250

Paula’s parents would periodically take her to live with them for a while. During
those times, support for her schooling did not continue. Instead, Paula’s
attendance and achievement suffered. '

It seemed obvious that Paula had a close relationship with her paternal
grandmother. There was a look of admiration on Paula’s face when she told me
of the lessons her grandmother had taught her, the things Mrs. Parks did for her,
and the expectations she had for her granddaughter in school and at home. For
example, Paula said, “My grandma, she’s really nice. Sometimes I forget to pick
up my things behind myself, but she always reminds me.“ For the most part,
Paula had only positive things to say about her grandmother.

During my observation visits at Cottage School, I discovered that several
other persons agreed with Paula that Mrs. Parks was indeed a very special
grandmother. In fact, she seemed to have her own fan club. The principal said,
“Mrs. Parks is one of our greatest supporters. She not only helps out here at the
school, but often Is the one parent or guardian that I can find to represent our
school at citywide meetings.“

My second meeting with Mrs. Parks convinced me that it would be easy
for me to become a member of her fan club. She greeted me with such warmth
and friendliness that It seemed as though I was her long-standing friend. She
openly conversed with me before and after the interviews, and gave explicit
responses to my questions during the interview process. Mrs. Parks’s parenting
style can be described as authoritative, meaning that she was controlling but

warm, receptive, and rational in her relations with Paula (Baumrind, 1966). Mrs.

251

Parks indicated that her expectations for Paula closely resembled those that her
own parents had held for her. Apparently she provided a structured home
environment in which courtesy, respect, responsibility, and spirituality were
emphasized. When I asked what lessons her grandmother and father taught her
at home, Paula had this to say: “They tell me to always say “Hi“ to someone,
say Hi every day; don’t slouch in my chair. Be a lady. Don’t pay anyone to be
your friend and . . . to have good manners, don’t just go up into someone’s face
all the time.“

Evidence of Mrs. Parks’s parenting style was also apparent in the
interviews with teachers and my observation notes. For example, Mrs. Ham, one
of the teachers, said, “She [Mrs. Parks] doesn’t make excuses for her
granddaughter. She Insists that Paula does the work that is required of her.“
Another teacher, Mrs. Cee, told me that the grandmother often came to the room
at the end of the school day and had Paula stay there to complete unfinished
math assignments or copy them down to be completed at home. Similarly, on
one occasion when I stopped into the office to return my visitor’s pass, Paula
was there because she had received a small scratch on her arm in gym class
and was pleading with her grandmother to allow her to be excused from school
and accompany her home when she finished office duty. Mrs. Parks
emphatically denied that request. Instead, she found a first-aid kit, cleaned the
scratch, covered it with a Band-Aid, gave Paula a hug, and sent her back to
class with the assurance that she would be fine. When Paula began to protest,

her grandmother smiled and said, “I’ll see you after school, Paula.”

252

Mrs. Parks described her occupation and educational level as follows:

I am a retired General Motors worker. I worked in the shipping office until

I_ retired. It was a very good and interesting job. General Motors was

good to me. I was raised in Columbia, South Carolina, and attended

Booker T. Washington High School and Benedict College. I did not

receive a degree, but I also went to the junior college here for about a

year and a half.

When asked about her parents’ involvement with her schooling, Mrs.
Parks indicated that they had been actively Involved. Her father had been a
minister and had attended Benedict College, as had her oldest sister. She
described her mother as a homemaker who had been involved with the
schooling of all her children. According to Mrs. Parks, she had the type of
parents who supported the teachers and the school system. They were not like
many of the parents today, who come to school to argue with the teachers about
their children even when the youngsters are clearly wrong.

In response to my questions about her view of the meaning of parents’
and guardians’ Involvement to the school experiences of their children, Mrs.
Parks had this to say: “I feel that It does have meaning because if parents will
get involved, visit the schools more often, and talk to the teachers, they will know
exactly what their children are doing. The schools can’t do It all.“

During my observations and interviews with Mrs. Parks, I perceived that
she was genuinely committed to being involved with Paula’s school experience,
as well as with the school experiences of other children. She demonstrated that

commitment by spending many hours helping out in the school. She frequently

substituted for the office clerk, teachers, teacher-aides, and lunch aides, and

253

spendt many volunteer hours helping with special projects. She was quite
outspoken on the subject of child rearing and the education of children. Mrs.
Parks also said that she told Paula that, without an education, she would not
have very much of a future. She indicated that she did not perceive any real
barriers to parents’ and guardians’ involvement at Cottage School. She said that
not all teachers were the same, but it was up to families to get Involved and
refrain from displaying a negative attitude If teachers failed to give them the time

or the answers they expected.

mended Family and Home

According to Mrs. Parks and Paula, the youngster had a large extended
family and kin network consisting of people with whom she interacted. Paula
and her grandmother described the child’s father, whom she visited often. In
Paula’s words:

I live with my grandma, but sometimes I go over to stay with my dad. My

mom and my dad were married, but they split up. Sometimes on

weekends I go over to my mother’s house, if she comes to get me, but
sometimes she can’t make it because of her job.
Paula also referred to her maternal grandmother, who was a Buddhist, and her
maternal grandfather who sometimes took her places. She also named four
cousins with whom she interacted. Similarly, Mrs. Parks explained Paula’s
extended family in this manner. “Paula lives with me, but she does go to her

father’s house to visit him often. The two of them have a very close relationship,

but it’s not the same between [her] and her mother.“

254

Mrs. Parks continued by describing how Paula enjoyed visiting with her
mother's younger sister, who was a year or so older than herself, but she seldom
got to see her. Mrs. Parks also referred to another of Paula’s aunts, Berta,
whom she visited occasionally. This aunt’s husband was a minister, and they
had four children who were near Paula’s age. According to Mrs. Parks, still
another aunt, Shirley, was very supportive; she took Paula shopping, bought her
things, and came to the school for Paula’s honors assemblies and programs.
Paula seemed proud of her extended family and looked happy when she
described the good times she shared with them.

The Parks family’s home was located on the south end of the city, on a
street lined with large oak trees and a row of older homes. Despite the obvious
age of these homes, they appeared to have been well preserved. This family’s
home had a neatly manicured lawn and what looked like a freshly painted
exterior. Inside, a homey atmosphere was created by the fireplace, French
provincial furniture, and many decorative crafts, family heirlooms, and
keepsakes. Mrs. Parks delighted in showing me through the entire house, which
was clean, neat, and orderly. There appeared to be a place for everything, and
everything seemed to be in its place. Paula’s room was quite Impressive,
complete with a decorative stand on which rested a collection of dolls, including
a variety of Barbies. There were shelves containing many stuffed animals,
books, and toys. A computer was stationed in one corner, along with a boom
box and many puzzles, board games, and assorted Ieaming materials. When

we left her room, Paula led me to the backyard, where she had a swing and a

255

playhouse. Mrs. Parks teased Paula about the playhouse, which she did not use
any more because she thought she had outgrown it. Paula’s response was a big

grin.

Ina SQJQI and the Teachers

Paula attended Cottage Community School, which was located on the
south end of this urban school district. The building was a single-level structure
designed with closed classrooms. A rectangular courtyard contained huge beds
filled with blooming flowers. When I complimented her on the beautiful grounds,
the principal told me they had been planted and were maintained by parents and
community block clubs. The interior of the building was also attractive, with
colorful hallway bulletin boards and displays. A large, bright-orange banner In
the community room read, “Failure Is Not an Option.“ Near the main office was
another eye-catching sign: “Conflict Mediation ls Practiced Here.“ Other
displays included a “Student of the Month“ bulletin board and an “Attendance
Honor Roll.“

Approximately 430 students in prekindergarten through sixth grade made
up Cottage School’s student population. As In most of the elementary schools In
this urban district, the majority of these students were African American. The
annual report of Cottage School (which was shared with parents and the
community at the fall open house) contained the following mission statement:
“Cottage Community School, in cooperation with parents and community, will

provide quality education for all students.“ The fact that 96 percent of parents

256

and guardians participated in school-related activities was also highlighted in the
annual report, which included a list of 35 events and activities in which parents
and guardians were involved. In addition to the annual report, Cottage School
sent out a bI-weekly newsletter and occasional bulletins as announcements or
reminders of special Issues or events.

The three classrooms In which Paula spent the school day were located
close to each other at one end of the hall. The class spent two hours per day
with each of their three teachers, moving from one classroom to the next. During
the observation visits, I noted that the students moved from one room to the next
with ease, the structure for this transfer routine obviously being well established.
I observed that the disciplinary climates in all three classrooms were similar.
Students generally entered the room and went directly to their seats. When they
received their assignments, they began working to complete them. Classes
proceeded with minimal interruptions. Students raised their hands to ask or
answer questions, and they responded respectfully to the teacher‘s directions.
For the most part, I observed this same type of orderly behavior on the
playground, In the lunchroom, and in gym classes. During the spring music
program, students entered the auditorium in the same manner as they filed Into
their classrooms. There were some quiet exchanges as students from different
classrooms greeted each other and the members of the performing group made
their way to the stage. As soon as the curtain opened, though, absolute silence
fell on the auditorium. The students listened courteously as their peers played,

and they applauded at the end of each selection.

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The three teachers who shared instructional responsibilities for Paula’s
class were Mrs. Ham, Mrs. Bee, and Mrs. Cee. The three of them taught
different subjects but used similar instructional strategies and maintained the
same type of disciplinary climate. Mrs. Ham’s personality was pleasant and
bubbly. Her interactions with the students were warm, friendly, and spiced with
her famous sense of humor. She had the ability to get the students to work hard
and like it. While observing in her classroom, I noted she emphasized that
students should take responsibility for their behavior, complete and hand in
assignments, and clean up their area. However, she did this without
embarrassing or demeaning the students. For example, when she called the
roll, requesting that students report to her for all work that was currently or past
due, she used a process that protected the students’ privacy. She directed all
students who had completed work to put it in the basket, and the student helper
would then check the appropriate column beside their names. Mrs. Ham
instructed students who were missing assignments to see her privately and
Individually to explain why they had not turned in their work. Among her
instructional strategies, she frequently used the overhead projector to Introduce
and explain concepts. Afterward, she facilitated class participation by asking
students to give examples or respond to questions. Mrs. Ham generally ‘
concluded her instruction with Individual activities to be completed in class or as
homework assignments.

Mrs. Ham was also positive in her choice of words Mien describing the

students, their work habits, attitudes, and behavior. Examples of this are

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included in the description of Paula’s personality, attitude, and school
adjustment She was receptive to parent involvement and support for Ieaming,
and she indicated her willingness to go the extra mile to encourage parents and
guardians to support their children’s Ieaming experiences. She Invited me to
visit her classroom any time I wanted to and said that parents were welcome to

i do the same.

Mrs. Bee was not quite as outgoing as Mrs. Ham, but she openly
discussed Paula with me. She shared her views on Paula’s work ethic, attitude,
personality, and adjustment. I observed that she moved about the classroom
and sat with each student individually, reviewing their work and making
recommendations for improvement. Her attentiveness and sensitivity to the
students’ needs were impressive. For example, on one occasion, she observed
that Paula appeared to be having difficulty with a young boy who sat behind her.
The teacher went over to investigate and found that both Paula and the other
student were reluctant to discuss the problem. Mrs. Bee said quietly, “All right, I
sense that there is a problem here. Now you have the option of letting me help
you solve it or working it out yourselves, but the disturbance must stop.“ That is
just one example of the tact and diplomacy Mrs. Bee used in working with the
students.

Mrs. Bee’s comments about Paula were very descriptive. For example,
she mentioned Paula’s having shown so much improvement recently by
becoming more focused and attentive, whereas the child had previously been

withdrawn, preoccupied, and unmotivated. Mrs. Bee said she thought that the

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improvement had been a result of the stability and caring support provided by
Paula’s grandmother.
Mrs. Cee was the third teacher in the triad who worked with Paula’s class.

She was the math and science teacher. She, too, was friendly and receptive,
allowing me to observe her class whenever she had the students who were in
my sample. She was curious about my study and asked many questions. Her
instructional strategies Involved first demonstrating with the overhead projector
and then having individuals or pairs of students present examples to the class.

She frequently used cooperative Ieaming activities.

Pemtigns of Paula’s Personality,
Attitude, and School Adjustment

' According to Paula’s teachers, she seemed to like school; she had a good
sense of humor and a unique way of expressing herself. As I talked with Paula
and observed her interactions with the other students, I noted that she was quite
verbal and that her responses were mature for a girl her age. For example, I
asked her about the home routine when she had homework. She Informed me
that her homework had to be done before she went out to play. I inquired
whether this was her grandmother’s rule. She responded, “No, I have just
matured a little more.“

When I asked her about lessons she had Ieamed from her grandmother
regarding spirituality, Paula replied, “I’m kind of like in the middle, or mixed up or
something. My grandmother on my mother’s side is Buddhist, they believe in a

different God, and my grandma on my father’s side Is spiritual to God.“

260

One of Paula‘s teachers, Mrs. Ham, described her personality and
attitude in this way:

Paula is a very lively child. She has a good sense of humor. She is quite

charming and personable. I think she likes school and I predict she will

probably eventually become an actress. She likes an audience. When

Paula stands up to read in class, she makes sure that everybody is quiet

before she starts. She seems to enjoy being very dramatic in her reading.
Another of Paula’s teachers, Mrs. Bee, characterized Paula as “truly an
individual. She has a unique way of expressing herself. She has some friends,
but does not involve herself in the usual cliques.“ Mrs. Cee, Paula’s math and
science teacher, said she thought that Paula was capable of being an excellent
student, but in her words, “At times Paula acts as though she expects to be
babied.“ It seems that Mrs. Cee thought this was Paula’s way of getting people

to focus their attention on her.

Emptipna of Paula’a Work Habits
am Parformance

Information pertaining to Paula’s work habits and performance was
obtained from a review of her cumulative records and report cards. Since
entering prekindergarten, Paula had changed schools five times. Information
about Paula’s school attendance during the period from November 9, 1993,
through March 18, 1995, was unavailable. Her attendance records indicated
that there were three years (prekindergarten, kindergarten and third grade) In
which she missed 30 or more half-days of school. Paula also missed 15 half-
days in first grade, 3 in second grade, and 10 in fourth grade. Her current

records showed that, in the final weeks of the current school year, Paula had

261

missed only five days. During her fourth- and fifth-grade years Paula received A
and B letter grades and maintained honor roll status. She has a 100-percent
homework-return record. At the end-of-the-year awards assembly for fifth
graders, Paula received certificates for honor roll, regular attendance, Crim
fitness walk, and most improved student.

According to my review of her CA-60 cumulative record, Paula’s fourth-
grade MEAP test results reflected a satisfactory overall rating, which means that
she had obtained a score of 300 or above. Her story selection score was 340,
the score for informational selection was 345, and her knowledge of reading was
rated high. Paula’s citizenship was rated good and excellent for her fourth- and
fifth-grade years, respectively. During her kindergarten year, Paula was
retained, but she had been promoted every year thereafter. On Paula’s
cumulative records, her Metropolitan Achievement Scores reflected the following
growth from the fourth-grade year to the fifth-grade year: reading, 12 months;
math, 4 months; language, 2 months; basic battery, 5 months.

When asked about Paula’s work habits and performance, Mrs. Ham had
this to say:

Sometimes her sense of humor and liveliness interferes with her work

habits, but when I give her that “You need to get back to your work“

look, she’ll do it. I usually don’t have to ask her twice. She responds

very well if I just signal her up to my desk.

Another teacher, Mrs. Bee, said, “She is a bright, creative, and artistic student.

Often she writes stories that are imaginative, but strange and far out.“ Mrs. Cee

stated, “She processes math concepts very slowly, and requires a great deal of

262

direct instructions. I try to keep her near me, so I can give her eye contact, as
she tends to let her mind wander.“

During my observations, I noted that Paula was on task most of the time.
However, on one occasion during her math class, Mrs. Cee asked Paula to go to
the overhead projector and demonstrate the next problem for the class. Paula
said she was still working on it. The teacher reminded her that she had been
given ample time to complete the assignment. Paula then raised her hand and
said that she did not understand the problem. Mrs. Cee instructed her to pay
attention as the other students demonstrated the process. Paula appeared to be
observing the demonstration but had not written anything on her paper.
Consequently, when the class ended, Paula had not completed the assignment.
Mrs. Cee announced that all students who have not completed the assignment
should report to her after school. It was obvious that Paula was not happy about
Mrs. Cee’s request, but she did comply.

The following are examples of teachers’ comments taken from Paula’s
fourth- and fifth-grade report cards: “Paula is doing much better,“ “Paula has
become more serious about her work,“ “Paula has gained more confidence and
Is working well,“ and “Paula has settled down and is doing much better work.“
Pe_rcaptions of Paula’s Family’s
I chool Involvement

The in—school involvement of Paula’s grandmother, Mrs. Parks, was
referred to in the segment describing her. Some additional perceptions will

contribute to a broader understanding of the family’s involvement In school and

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school-related activities. Mrs. Parks was usually in the building each time I
visited to conduct observations or interviews. Some days she spent the entire
school day there. I noted that there days when Mrs. Parks had signed in on the
volunteer roster for the lunch period only, or for two or three hours for the Book
Fair. Among the other volunteer hours that appeared on the roster for Mrs.
Parks were picture day, health screening, and the candy sale.

In response to my question about what meaning she thought families’
involvement had for the performance, attitudes, and school adjustment of their
children, she made many salient comments. For example, she said:

Of course! I have seen children that are doing quite well, and perhaps

their parents say, “Well, helshe is doing fine, so I don’t have to go to the

school,“ and they don’t come. Yet, it makes the children sad when there
are programs, conferences, and school activities that they are involved in,
and‘no one from their family is there. I know because Paula went through
that and she was a very sad child, but now she is smiling and happy and
her teachers are talking about her new attitude. It changes the child’s
attitude, and I’m sure it changes the aptitude.
Some areas of in-school Involvement about which Mrs. Parks expressed strong
feelings regarding family responsibility were keeping children in regular
attendance, monitoring schoolwork and homework, making sure that Ieaming
does not stop when the children leave school, and what she referred to as
“planting a seed“ that will be passed on to future generations.

When I asked Mrs. Parks to describe what she did in Paula’s school, she
gave this response:

Right now I’m working with Cottage School wherever I’m needed, whether

it Is substituting or being a lunch volunteer. I check with the teachers to

see how Paula Is doing. I’m Involved with all of the children because they
know I will make them get a hall pass and also stop them from fighting.

264

I haven’t gone on many field trips, but I’m In the office so the teachers
know I’m here and that they can talk to me anytime.

Paula responded to my question about the ways In which she perceived
that her family was involved in her school In this way:

My grandma is involved In school by being in the office as a substitute

secretary, substituting for teachers, and being a lunch aide. Usually my

father and mother come to school to get my report card and for the

conferences, but my grandma attends the meetings. They [my family]

always come to see me when l have programs and get awards and things

like that.

On the subject of Paula’s family’s involvement in school and school-
related activities, the teachers commented:

Paula’s grandmother is wonderful. She is very supportive. She doesn’t

make excuses for her granddaughter. She does work in the school often,

which is nice.

Once when Paula had hurt herself and was out of school, Mrs. Parks

came and got her things and the work. She assured me that she would

see that everything was caught up.

Mrs. Parks is very helpful, and she has good Intentions. She is very

involved, and I think it makes a big difference because Paula is one of
those kids who would not do well without that support.

Eerceptions of Paula’s Family’s
fiat-School Activities

In response to my questions about her after-school activities, Paula had
this to say: “When I get home after school, once I would just go home and eat
strawberries, but now ljust get on my homework. I ride my bike, then go over to
my friend’s house and we play Sega Saturn, Nintendo or Playstation.“ Because
Paula had told me she had a computer, I continued this line of questioning by

asking her to tell me what kinds of things she did on her computer in the home.

265

She told me that she played some games, but also had some educational
programs. Paula described her weekends as the times when she visited her
other grandmother, “the one that Is Buddhist,“ or she went over to either her
father’s or her uncle’s house. She explained that she attended church with
Grandmother Parks and participated with the choir and ushers. However, Paula
indicated that she was not sure how she felt about spirituality because her two
grandmothers had different beliefs. When I asked Paula more questions about
the activities that she and her grandmother participated in after school, she told
me, “It’s mostly church things, and we read together, do our meditation, and
have our heart-to-heart talks.“
Paula’s Grandmother Parks explained their after-school routine in this
manner.
After school, she can have dinner or a snack, then it’s homework and
chores before she goes out to play. After she gets her bath and settles
down, we do our reading and talk before she goes to bed. At our church,
Paula has tutoring and Bible study on Tuesday nights. They also have
crafts and make things. She takes part in the choir, the usher board, and
Christian youth fellowship.
Mrs. Parks continued the discussion by saying that sometimes, when the
weather was nice, Paula was able to go out and play unless she had chores to
do. In that case Paula had to clean her room or do the other chores before she
went out to play, or come in early enough to do it. Mrs. Parks also indicated that
she believed that homework was important because it was a review of

schoolwork In her words, “It is more practice and will help the material to stick

in their minds. It also lets the parents know what their children are doing.“

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Paula’s teachers shared their perceptions of her family’s after-school

Involvement in this way.

Mrs. Ham: I’m not sure, but I believe Paula probably has access to things like
the library and the museum. I know that her grandmother is very
concerned that she has a well-rounded education, and that she
takes it upon herself to go find out what she needs to know and not
just wait for someone to tell her.

Researcher What expectations do you feel the grandmother has for Paula at
school?

Mrs. Ham: I think her grandmother expects her to do her best and be obedient
to the teachers. She expects her to get her work done, and if she
doesn’t get It done, she had better have a good reason. Mrs.
Parks does not make excuses for her, and will not accept excuses
from her.

Mrs. Bee: I believe that Paula’s grandmother expects her to do well, and she
does more than just talk about it. She really does those things that
will help Paula do well.

Mrs. Cee: It’s obvious that Mrs. Parks has high expectations for Paula. I
remember times when she has made sure that Paula made up her
school work and would even come to the school to get it.

As stated earlier, I observed that the Parks home had many games,
books, a computer, and other materials that helped to create an environment

that supported learning.

Cpnpluaions

Paula’s family was headed by her paternal grandmother, who was her
legal guardian. They lived In a modest, well-maintained home on the south side
‘ of the city. Paula was the only child born of very young parents who were
married shortly before her birth and soon went their separate ways. She felt

close to her father and visited him often, but was apparently somewhat

267

estranged from her mother. Paula occasionally visited and Interacted with an
aunt and cousins about her age, but she spent the majority of her time with her
grandmother, whom she described as being “really nice.“ Paula also perceived
that her grandmother taught her many lessons about Ieaming respect,
responsibility, and spirituality.

Paula was a bright-eyed, warm, and receptive youngster who loved
attention, especially from adults. Her teachers described her as different,
individualistic, creative, and charming. Paula was still being encouraged to
Improve her academic performance and work habits, and one teacher reported
that the child had shown great improvement since her grandmother had taken
over her care. She was named the “1998-99 Title I Student of the Year“ and was
very proud of that honor. Paula said her goal was to become a scientist when
she grew up, but she wanted to start out working at a department store.

At the time of this inquiry, Mrs. Parks was like a staff member at Paula’s
school and was In the building almost daily. She served as a substitute office
clerk, teacher aide, teacher, lunchroom aide, and volunteer. Mrs. Parks’s other
school involvement included attending meetings and school-related activities,
participating in parent-teacher conferences, and visiting the classroom.
According to Paula, her father and mother were also involved in her school
experiences, but that claim was not corroborated by any other data source.

The family’s out-of-school Involvement was structured to include routines

that supported school-related Ieaming and participation in church-related

268

activities. There was no evidence that Paula took part in the after-school
enrichment activities offered at Cottage School.

Paula’s teachers and other staff members at Cottage School were highly
complimentary of her grandmother. They credited her with making a big
difference In her granddaughters school attendance, attitude, and performance.
Finally, the evidence Indicated that Paula’s school experience was enhanced by
the change in her home environment and the support and involvement of her

grandmother.

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CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS

Introduction

In this study, the researcher investigated perceptions, actions, and
relationships of eight urban African American families relative to their
involvement in the education of their fifth-grade children. The study also
investigated the students’ perceptions of how their parents, extended family,
teachers, and peers influenced their school experiences. In essence, the
researcher found that these families had skills and strengths that they used to
overcome multiple barriers In order to participate in the school experiences of
their children. The analysis of the data, responses to the research questions,

conclusions, implications, and reflections are the focus of this chapter.

Conclusions
The process of analyzing and Interpreting the data for this study was
guided by inductive analysis, which Patton (1990) defined as “a process of
analysis in which the patterns, themes, and categories emerge out of the data“
(p. 390). He further stated that researchers may use “analyst-constructed
typologies“ (p. 393) to reflect a classification scheme used by people in the

setting under study. Marshall and Rossman (1995) described analyst typologies

270

as “those created by the researcher as reflecting distinct categories, but not
generative of separate language categories“ (p. 114). In this case, the
researcher applied a typology to naturally occurring variations in observations.
Alasuutari (1995) delineated a qualitative data-analysis process in which the
researcher groups related indicators under particular umbrellas (p. 130). This
process provided a rationale for grouping the 18 symbols, factors, and indicators
in this study under the umbrellas of three themes, which are discussed in the
following pages. In the literature, the term “theme“ was defined as a motif or
subject for development. LeCompte et al. (1992) stated that, “in qualitative
ethnography, themes are used (a) to capture the variability of, spontaneity, and
creativity of human social interactions, [and] (b) to organize patterns of
regularities amid chaos and complexity“ (p. 94). It should be noted that, in this
study, there was considerable overlap among the three themes and their

components.

Primapy Research Question

How do urban African Americans perceive and actualize their
involvement in the education of their children, and how do these
perceptions and actions influence the school experiences of their fifth-
grade youngsters? The data analysis revealed that:

1. Against all odds, the eight families in this study participated In the
education of their children. For example, in Kala’s and Junior‘s families, there

were seven and eight children, respectively, in households headed by single

271

parents. Although they had full households, the parents participated In school

activities, as shown in Figure 5.1. Both Darien and Paula resided In households

headed by elderly grandparents who frequently visited and volunteered in the

school; their biological parents provided little or no support. Shelly’s father, a

single parent, was employed full time in a profession that required him to work

many hours; however, he was very active In the school. Despite these

circumstances of each family, the parents or guardians were perceived to be

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Involved.

Students/Parent Perceptions of Parents“ Participation

Kala Mother makes Informal visits to the school almost daily. She attends

(Single Mother) parent meetings, parent-teacher conferences and programs. Helps with
most field trips and monitors Kala programs.

Junior Father works in a school. Assists with after-school programs, frequently

(Single Father) monitors Junior’s progress, requests homework and make-up
assignments, and supervises completion of work.

Darien Grandparents visit the school frequently. Attend some parent meetings,

(Grandfather 8. parent-teacher conferences, and support school niles.

Grandmother)

Paula Grandmother works and volunteers in the school, visits the school almost

(Single daily. Monitors Paula’s progress and supervises homework and make-up

Grandmother) work, supports school policies.

Shelly Father attends and supports most school-related programs, parent-

(Single Father) teacher conferences, monitors Shelly’s progress, supervises homework,
and supports after-school activities.

Tyrone Father’s job flexibility allows him to be more involved than the mother.

(Father 8. Mother) He supports fundraisers, assists with field trips, attends special meetings
and programs. Serves on superintendent’s task force.

Leesa Mother visits the school frequently. States her Involvement was recently

(Single Mother) limited due to an injury. Previously assisted with field trips, attended
some parent meetings and parent-teacher conferences. The
grandmother substituted for mother at some school functions.

 

 

 

Figure 5.1: Perceptions of parent participation/involvement (N = 8).

2. The parents perceived that their participation provided support for the

performance, attitudes, and behavior of the youngsters. Parents indicated that

272

 

they participated in their children’s education more than their own families had
done when they were students In school. According to the parents’
recollections, their mothers had been the primary participants in their schooling.
The parents also perceived that their frequent visits to the school and Informal
contacts with teachers provided support for the school experiences of their
youngsters. It was also the parents’ perception that the students felt good about
their participation In the schools.

3. There was a discrepancy between the ways in which parents,
teachers, and administrators perceived parent involvement and participation.
Parents perceived that their participation was adequate, considering their
circumstances. There was evidence to support the researchers conclusion that
teachers and administrators perceived that the parents’ participation met their
expectations. Teachers and administrators structured parent involvement '
programs to elicit peripheral participation. The perceptions of the parents and
teachers were not congruent with the research and literature distinguishing
between involvement and participation (Dauber & Epstein, 1986; Scott-Jones,
1995). For example, Dauber and Epstein found that “parent involvement is
strongly limited to the actions and practices of the teachers“ (p. 104).

4. The students thought that their parents’ participation was adequate
and supportive. Further, these perceptions and actions had both positive and
negative Influences on the school experiences of the fifth-grade youngsters.
These statements are grounded in the data presented under Themes 1, 2, and
3. Likewise, the related literature and research supporting these findings was

referred to in the analysis and in the discussion of the themes.

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Sumuestion 1: Parenting, Kinship, and
Blag Family Values

1. What are some traditional Black family cultural factors that
appear to enhance or inhibit the Involvement of urban African American
families in the education of their children? The data consistently supported
the researchers conclusion that there is a common set of traditional African
American cultural factors that both enhance and inhibit the involvement of urban
African American families in the education of their children. To respond to this
question, the researcher applied the lens of the symbolic-Interactionist theory
informed by Blumer (1969), thereby inquiring what common set of symbols has
emerged to give meaning to Black family interactions with schools.

Interwoven throughout the data is a common set of six Black family
strengths and values that were prevalent in the eight families in this study, and
were representative of those symbols. These strengths and values Included (a)
extended family and kin support and strong kinship bonds; (b) emphasis on the
importance of education; (c) spirituality and strong religious ties; (d) adaptability
of family roles; (e) family rules, roles, and responsibilities; and (f) students
exhibit respect and admiration for parents. In addition, the presence of these
strengths and values in the data is documented by citing specific examples (see
Figures 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, and 5.4).

These Black family strengths and values have been documented in the
related literature and research (Billingsley, 1968, 1992; Hale, 1986; Hill, 1972;
McAdoo, 1997). As stated earlier in this dissertation, Hill (1972) noted five major

strengths of Black families: strong kinship bonds, strong work orientation,

274

adaptability of family roles, high achievement orientation, and strong religious
orientation (p. 37). Subsequent researchers have substantiated Hill’s work.
Furthermore, Peters (1988) found that African American parents place a high
value on developing the self-esteem of their children. Many Black parents instill
the values of love, respect, pride in self, and pride in the race as a means of
preparing their children to survive in a racist society (Hurd et al., 1995).

In discussing African American family values, Sudarkasa (1997) referred
to some of the values that other scholars of Black family life had identified as
Important through their research. She further identified seven values that
emerged from her research as guiding principles for interpersonal relations in
African American families. The “Seven R’s,“ as Sudarkasa called them, are
respect, responsibility, reciprocity, restraint, reverence, reason, and
reconciliation (p. 32).

In the present research, evidence of the six Black family strengths and
values was uncovered, in some measure, in all of the families in the sample.
Therefore, it was concluded the involvement of urban African American families
In the education of their children is influenced by traditional Black family
strengths and values.

Extended family and kin Support: Strong kinship bonds. It was found
that, among the families participating in the present research, there was a
noticeable tendency to rely on the support of extended family and kin networks.
The support that these kin networks provided included such services as
occasional child care; rides for students to and from school, church, and

recreational activities; assistance with child rearing; and help with laundry,

275

cooking, and housekeeping. With regard to Leesa’s family, the grandmother
lived in the household with the family and helped out in a number of ways. With
one or two exceptions, the other families reported living close to their extended

family and kin support networks (see Figure 5.2).

 

Kala My aunt Toni, my grandma Jean, the pastor of our church, Elder
Jackson, which Is my grandfather, my great grandmother, Jessie
Williams, my cousins Valisa, Tamiliathese aren’t people that are the
same ages as me, may wouldn’t let nobody harm me or anything like
that. They have came to sit for me before. My grandmother lives on the
next block, and my aunts and uncles live three or four blocks away. I
could walk to their houses. At times we have family outings where we
take other family members. We might all go skating, to the beach,
downtown, the Expo. Two or three families might go.

Leesa My grandmother lives with us, and sometimes when nobody can be
home with us she’ll stay home with me. Mostly everybody takes care of
me, like my big sister. My aunt and my uncles help out too, and if my
mother is not home and it’s an emergency the school calls them and
they come and get us and we stay over at their house.

Junior Junior’s father Junior’s grandmother lives a couple of blocks away. She
does quite a bit to help out Two of my nieces live with her, and they
help me as well.

Junior. My grandmother helps take care of me. She lives here in the
city, and sometimes I go and spend the night with her.

Tyrone Sometimes my sister and I stay with my grandmother, and sometimes
we stay with “Big Mama,“ who Is my godmother.
Ronald My grandmother, my uncle Brian, and sometimes my aunt Sheila pick
my brothers and sisters up from nursery school.

Paula Mrs. Parks: Every once In a while Paula visits her maternal
grandmother, who has a daughter about a year or two older than Paula,
whom she loves to be with but seldom gets to see.

Shelly Mrs. Dobson: Shelly is very involved with her older sisters, and visits

them often as they have children around her age that she can interact
with.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 5.2: Extended family and kin support (N = 8).

276

As mentioned earlier, Billingsley (1968, 1992) used the term “extended
families” to refer to ‘households In which family members, such as grandparents,
reside with nuclear families” (p. 94). This symbol has been reiterated by several
authors writing about Black families (Martini & Martin, 1978; McAdoo, 1988,
1997; Nobles, 1988; Stack, 1974; Taylor et al., 1997). A few of these studies
were cited in the literature review. They are referred to again here to
substantiate the prevalence of the strengths and values regarding extended
family and kin support in the lives of Black families.

Sudarkasa (1997) reported that studies of African American families have
indicated that they, like their African ancestors, accept responsibility for a wide
range of kin, If for no other reason than that they consider it their duty to do so.
Sudarkasa concluded that African Americans traditionally have accepted
responsibility for a much wider network of kin than is typical of Americans with a
nuclear-family orientation.

Emphasis on the importance of education. The data revealed that all
eight families in this study gave the impression that they emphasized the
importance of education to their fifth-grade children. Excerpts from the
interviews included in Figure 5.3 are evidence of this conclusion.

It was also documented in the data that at least five of the eight parents
not only emphasized the importance of education, they demonstrated their belief
in the concept. These five parents and one grandparent had all returned to
school after getting married and starting a family to further their education and to

improve their job skills. For example, Ronald’s mother attended business school

277

and later completed a cosmetology course before opening her own beauty
salon. Tyrone’s mother described how she began working at the hospital as a
nurse’s aide, then entered college, completed the training program, and became
a registered nurse. Shelly’s father completed the training to become a skilled
tradesman In the factory. In addition, both Kala’s mother and Junior‘s father
indicated that they had attended trade school, and Paula’s grandmother had

attended junior college.

 

Kala They tell me to never give up, and If I want to do something I must keep
trying until I get it

Leesa My mom tells me it’s important. If you don’t go to school you can’t go to
college, and when I grow up I want to be a doctor, so I know I have to
stay In school.

Darien If I can get my education I can get a better job and have my own house
and a bad car.

Junior. He tells me to do better in my schoolwork. He always tells me he wants
me to get an education.

Tyrone My parents told me if I do well in school I can get a scholarship like my
cousin Brandon. He went to college to be an engineer.

Ronald They expect me to do my best and try not to fail. They also tell me to
study hard for my tests.

Paula Mrs. Parks: Without your education you don’t have much of a future.

Shelly Mr. Carter”. My family didn’t encourage me to go to college, but if they
had I would have gone. That’s why I want college for my Shelly.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 5.3: Emphasis on the Importance of education (N = 8).

Johnson (as cited in Billingsley, 1992) documented the high value African
Americans place on education. From her study of 50 successful Blacks born
during the half-century after the Civil War, Johnson concluded,

The Reconstruction autobiographies revealed parents, communities, and

organizations initiated a variety of activities that resulted in schooling for
Black children. These activities ranged from mothers taking in laundry to

278

pay tuition for children, and fathers risking their lives in order that children

might go to school, to communities meeting for the express purpose of

building a school. (p. 329)

Likewise, Morris (1992) stated that “research indicates that many African
American families, even those of low Income, have high educational aspirations
for their children“ (p. 104). She further stated that empirical data Indicate that
African American children from poor circumstances can succeed in school (Blau,
1981; Clark, 1983; Scott-Jones, 1987). Willie (1981 ), Lightfoot (1981), Peters
(1981), Irvine (1990), and Ford (1996) are among the researchers and scholars
who have supported the premise that Black families emphasize the importance
of education. Irvine Implied that all parents value education for their children,
but noted that the aspirations of Black parents have been described as “culture-
specific, compelling, and passionate“ (p. 105). She further posited that Black
parents have come to understand that “the only way out of poverty for their
children is through education’ (p. 106).

Honig (1987), In the statement that follows, also presented evidence of
the importance that Black families attach to education: “African American
parents overwhelmingly support high standards, tough courses, and more
homework for their children; and they realize that the ability to compete, both in
school and in the job market, is their children's greatest chance to achieve
lifelong success” (p.12).

Spirituality and strong religious ties. Six of the eight families in this study

made It known that they placed a high value on spirituality (see Figure 5.4). At

least three of these families, Kala’s, Leesa’s, and Paula’s, Indicated that their

279

spiritual leaders were members of the extended family. Apparently, two of the
teachers who were interviewed also believed in the importance of spirituality to
the socialization of children as they took some of their students to church with
them. Those families who acknowledged strong ties to the church suggested in
their interviews that they derived considerable comfort, guidance, and inspiration

from participating in a variety of church-related activities.

 

Kala Saturdays l have choir rehearsal. Sundays we all go to church,
sometimes my little brother and I go to church with our teacher. I’m
very Involved In the church, my grandmother, grandfather, we all go to
church faithfully.

Leesa Ms. Brown: Oh yes, spirituality is very important, because if you’ve got
that environment, It helps the child’s mind to be more settled.

Darien . Mrs. Henry: Sometimes Darien and other students go to church with
me, and they have taken part in a summer enrichment program there.

Junior Mrs. Henry: I take Junior and Darien with me to my church sometimes,
and they both have participated in a summer enrichment program that
is run by our minister.

Tyrone They tell me that families are good to you, and they do stuff for you,

and they say respect is when you treat others like you want to be
treated.

Ronald I go to church at Kingdom of Heaven Ministry. I go to the little kids’
church, and they teach you about God.

Paula Mrs. Parks: I am a Christian woman, and at my church they have a
person to tutor the children. Paula comes to Bible study with me on
Tuesday nights, and then she goes to the fellowship hall for Christian

‘Youth Fellowship. They teach them, In their language, about the Bible,
and they do crafts and things.

Paula: I’m kind of in the middle or mixed up, because my grandmother
on my mother’s side Is a Buddhist, they believe in a different God, and
my grandma on my dad’s side Is spiritual to God.

Shelly Sometimes I go to church with my older sister.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 5.4: Spirituality and strong religious ties (N = 8).

280

It was noted that, in addition to spiritual support, the churches these
families attended provided both human and social capital for these African
American families. Among the services provided by the churches were
academic tutoring programs, computer classes, day care and latchkey programs,
after-school and summer arts camps, and youth leadership classes. This
awareness of the efforts of the Black church to support family education of
families is not new. Jane (1991) chronicled many such initiatives in Black
churches, including classes dealing with parenting, hands-on science, resumes,
careers and job skills, suicide prevention, peer pressure, teen pregnancy, and
numerous other social issues.

. Traditionally, spirituality and strong religious ties are common threads that
run through the characterization of African American culture. A strong religious
orientation Is one of the Black family strengths identified and analyzed by Hill
(1972) and later substantiated by a number of other scholars and researchers.
Among the writers who referred to the Importance of religion to Black families
are Billingsley (1992), Hale (1992, 1994), June (1991 ), McAdoo (1985, 1988,
1997), and Taylor et al. (1997). The term “spirituality,“ In this discussion, refers
to a devotion to religion and Christian principles. Additional literature has been
cited supporting the ideology that spirituality and strong religious ties are
interwoven throughout the fabric of the Black family. Billingsley (1997) reported
that, over the centuries, the church has become the strongest institution in the
Black community. He further stated that, in these communities, the church

functions as more than a religious institution; it functions in numerous other

281

capacities, Including community service, family counseling support, leadership
and advocacy training, and the promotion of scholarship and education.
Likewise, Sudarkasa (1997) indicated that “among African Americans, after the
family the church has been the strongest institution and continues to be one of
the strongest Institutions today’ (p. 36).

Furthermore, Hale (1982) described how Black child rearing and
socialization are linked to a strong religious orientation. As a point of emphasis,
she quoted the following excerpt from a 1975 speech by Na’im Akbar: “Black
women didn’t know nothin’ ‘bout Dr. Spock, but they did know the Bible, raise up
a child in the way he should go and when he is old he will not depart from it“

(p. 52). In addition, Ellison (1997) indicated that an expanding body of literature
has linked religious participation and beliefs with various family attitudes and
practices, including but not limited to child rearing and socialization.

Adaptability of family roles. Adaptability of roles is another of the Black
family symbols that emerged in this study. The data indicated that three males
had assumed the role of both mother and father. They were Junior’s father,
Shelly’s father, and Darien’s grandfather. Likewise, the two single mothers,
Leesa’s and Kala’s mothers, and Paula’s grandmother all had assumed the role
of mother and father (see Figure 5.5).

The phrase “adaptability of family roles“ is used in the Black family
literature to refer to the ease and flexibility with which African Americans have
learned to adjust and modify their attitudes and responsibilities to fit whatever

situation they face. Comer and Poussant (1994) described the adaptability of

282

family roles as a cultural tradition born of the necessity for Blacks to prepare
their children to form a bicultural existence. However, they stated that, In the
early years after slavery, African American women frequently had to assume the
role of family breadwinner and work outside the home because it was difficult for
Black men to obtain jobs. The men, in turn, remained at home to take care of

the children and do the housekeeping.

 

Kala We get ten minutes to clean up two rooms, the kitchen Is me and my big
sister, Carla, we take turns, my little brother has to clean off the table,
my little sister puts the silverware away, and my other brother sweeps
the floor.

Leesa They teach us to have manners, don’t talk back, to clean up behind
ourselves, and in school to do what the teacher says.

Junior My father says not to do drugs.
Tyrone They tell me to respect other people's things and don‘t break them or tear them

up....They say I should always use good manners, like, [say please, thank you,
and excuse me]...and don't talk back to grown-ups.

Ronald Mrs. Adams: I always try to give them structure at home.

Paula I think they expect me to be respectful to the staff and my peers, and to
do my work and don’t talk. They want me to Improve in all my subjects.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 5.5: Family rules, roles, and responsibilities (N = 8).

Hale (1992) revisited Hill’s (1972) declaration of the five Black family
strengths, which include the adaptability of family roles. Hale continued her
discussion of this theme by describing how Nobles (1974a, 1974b) related this
same concept to the African principles of cooperative work and collective

responsibility. According to this analysis, In Black families relations are
egalitarian. Not only are the women frequently employed while the men share

the responsibility for homemaking and child care, but older children also

283

participate by sharing in the care of young siblings. In these families, children
often work outside the home to contribute to the financial support of the family.

There is no shortage of research and literature on African American
single mothers. However, there is a scarcity of writings on the positive roles
played by a growing number of single African American fathers. Instead, there is
a tendency for writers and researchers to focus on the numbers of absentee
fathers. However, McAdoo (1992) provided a theoretical perspective for
understanding the roles African American fathers play In their families.
Ecological theorists have considered the context in which African American
fathers play the roles of provider, protector, shared decision maker, child
socializer, and supporter of his spouse. From an ecological and historical
perspective, despite economic, employment, and educational barriers, African
American fathers are no different from fathers in other ethnic groups in terms of
the roles they play within their families. Better evaluations of the interactions
between African American fathers and the various institutions with which they
come in contact will help human service practitioners develop better services
and programs.

Family rules, roles, and responsibilities. In analyzing the data for this
study, this researcher discovered that at least six of the families tended to
organize the family interactions around specific rules, roles, and responsibilities.
It was apparent in the Interview responses that four of these families operated
according to a complex system of scheduling that required family members to

take responsibility for their assigned roles. This apparently helped the family

284

function in a timely and efficient manner. For Instance, Shelly and her father had
what they described as a “tight schedule“ (see Figure 5.5). Similarly, Kala’s
family, with eight siblings living in the household, also intimated that their
family’s schedule was highly structured so that the needs of all family members
could be met. Junior and his father also implied that rules, roles, and
responsibilities were a priority at their home.

In addition to those examples Included In Figure 5.5, some other
comments made by participants provide evidence that family rules, roles, and
responsibilities were a recurring theme in these families. For instance, Paula’s
grandmother stated that her rule was that homework and chores must be done
before play. Shelly’s father, also, discussed their after-school routine, which
Included sharing the responsibility for household chores and care of the pets.
Darien was the only student in the group who did not appear to have any rules,
expected roles, or responsibilities at home.

Given my own personal experience of growing up as the tenth child in a
Black family of 11 siblings, the importance of specific rules, assigned roles, and
responsibilities is a familiar concept. This practice involves every family
member, except the babies in arms, taking an active part in the family’s work
load. Even the toddlers and preschoolers are trained to put away their toys,
books, and playthings. Further, In the Black culture, this is a sophisticated
system in that the older siblings generally Ieam how to perform every task in the

household. Thus, when a member of the family is unavailable due to marriage,

285

illness, or military or other obligations, another sibling takes over that person’s
responsibility.

Furthermore, related research and literature has documented the
tendency for Black families to emphasize rules, roles, and responsibilities in the
home. Barbour and Barbour (1997) described how family rituals, roles, and
routines help to prepare children to be successful in the school setting, which
also Is structured. Holliday (1985) discussed some lessons that can be learned
from Black children who must adapt to different sets of rules, depending on the
people with whom they are interacting and/or the place in which they are
involved.

Students show respect and admiration for parents. The data include
several instances In which the tendency for students to show respect and '
admiration for their parents and grandparents was apparent. For example,
Shelly gave this description of her father: “My dad is nice. I like living with him
because he gives me opportunities to say what I want to do.“ When asked how
she felt about her mother, Kala responded: " My mother, she is the best!“
Among Paula’s positive comments about her grandmother was this statement:
“My grandmother is nice; she takes good care of me and helps me to understand
how to solve my problems.“ Ronald was also very complimentary of his parents,
saying, “My parents are great, they cheer me on!" Darien indicated that he could
depend on his grandparents to see about him, but said he knew that someday

when they are no longer with him he will have to carry the ball for himself.

286

Billingsley (1992) noted that respect ranked high among the values that
guided behavior within African American families and communities. It governed
the behavior of children, not only toward their parents but also toward all elders
with whom they came In contact (p. 84).

The tendency in Black families to emphasize respect was also addressed
by Nobles (1988), Comer and Poussant (1992), and Hale (1987). For instance,
Sudarkasa (1997) stated that “when Africans came to America, they retained
respect as a fundamental precept on which their families and communities were
built“ (p. 33). She further described how younger people showed respect to
grown-ups and elders by the way they addressed them (i.e., Uncle, Aunt, Mister,
Miss, Mrs.) and treated them with courtesy and honor while in their presence
(9- 34)-

The inclination for African American families to emphasize children and
young people showing respect for their elders is another one of the traditional
cultural strengths and values that some families still practice today. Many
contemporary African American families teach respect on a different level
because they think the ways in which respect was taught years ago are old-
fashioned and inappropriate today. For instance, very few children today are
still being taught to say, “yes Ma’am, and no Ma’am,“ as was the practice In the
older families.

Summam. In summary, the degree to which the strengths and values
were present in the families differed from one family to another. For example,

Kala’s family and Junior’s family, with large numbers of children, appeared to be

287

more structured than some of the others. Extended family support also was
more prevalent in some families than In others. Leesa’s grandmother lived in the
home with the family and was, thereby, able to provide constant extended family
support. From the overall picture, Darien’s family appeared to be more different
from than similar to the others.

The researcher concluded that existence of the six Black family strengths
and values in these eight families enhanced family functioning, family
competence, and family relationships. These strengths and values also
enhanced the family’s ability to support and participate in the school experiences
of the fifth-grade children. For instance, the social support provided by extended
families and kin provided human capital that enabled the families to be more
productive (Ogbu, 1981 ). The tendency of these families to emphasize the
importance of education, in most cases, served to clearly communicate to the
fifth-graders that their parents expected them to succeed in school. Those
families that had strong religious ties benefited from the support of the outreach
programs and members of the church. Some of the churches in this urban area
even participated in community partnerships with schools.

Finally, adaptability of family roles, family rules and responsibilities, and
the students’ respect and admiration for their parents are family values that,
when practiced in the home, generally enhance the student’s ability to be more
successful in adjusting, functioning, and producing in the school setting.

Implications. The conclusions drawn from the data pertaining to the

traditional Black family cultural factors that enhance or inhibit parent Involvement

288

in the education of their children raise some questions that have Implications for
families, educators, researchers, and policy makers. The questions concern
such issues as cultural and human capital in families and schools, racial
socialization of urban African American children as a coping strategy, perceived
discrimination based on races and classes in schools, and the roles of churches
and other community groups In the education of their children.

Implications for families Include such challenges as socializing their
children to learn about and have pride in their race, culture, and heritage.
Spencer (1985) recommended that If families use racial socialization to motivate
students to reach their highest achievement potential, it should be presented in
such a way that it will not be interpreted as an excuse for not doing their best
(racial socialization was defined and described in the review of literature). Ogbu
(1981) explained how cultural and human capital in Black families enhances
family functioning and provides needed support. His work supports the practice
of maintaining close ties with extended families and kin networks. Finally, the
traditional Black family strengths and values can be used to help prepare
children for successful adjustment to the school setting.

In the case of educators, the implications center on involving teachers
and practitioners in training to Increase their awareness of traditional cultural
factors that enhance and inhibit the involvement of urban African American
families in the education of their children. The literature and research of Kaplan
(1992), Scott-Jones (1988), and Epstein (1 986) suggests that educators should
be responsible for providing training for those parents who are not equipped to

assist their children with Ieaming at home.

289

Implications for researchers include a need for more study pertaining to
such topics as (a) strengths and competencies of urban African American
families and (b) comparisons of urban African American families with those of
two and three decades past. Identification of those parenting practices that are

most closely related to successful school experiences is Important.

Spbgpestions 25: What Is Authentic Involvement?

2. How do urban African American families perceive that their
involvement In the education of their fifth-grade children Is influenced by
current family ecological factors? It was found that urban African American
families perceived that their involvement in the education of their fifth-grade
children was both positively and negatively influenced by current family
ecological factors.

3. How do urban African American families perceive that they
structure after-school activities and the home environment to support
school Ieaming? The families perceived that their after-school activities and
home environments supported Ieaming. However, when these variables were
examined using the ecological-psychology lens and Epstein and Lee’s (1995)
model for family and home support for Ieaming, a discrepancy was found
between the families’ perceptions and actions.

4. How do urban African American families perceive that they
negotiate their involvement In school and school-related activities? The
families perceived that they negotiated their involvement in schools and school-
related activities using their family strengths and resources to'overcome
obstacles and circumvent family and school-related barriers.

290

5. How do African American families, and teachers, perceive that
schools encourage family involvement in the formal education of their
children? The data reflected that the families and teachers In this study
perceived that the schools encouraged family Involvement in the education of
their children.

Family participation in schools and related activities. In analyzing the
data pertaining to the above questions, the researcher used the ecological-
psychology lens Informed by Bronfenbrenner (1979). The process involved
examining the three nested structures of each of the eight families. As stated
earlier, the structures include (a) the macrosystem (informal support networks;
(b) the mesosystem (family participation and interaction with schools, churches,
and work places; and (c) microsystem (the family culture, interactions, parenting,
and daily home life).

From this Investigation, the researcher identified six ecological and
cultural factors that positively or negatively influenced the involvement of the
eight families in the education of their fifth-grade children. Some of these six
factors are family, culture, and home related, whereas others are family, school,
climate, and personnel related. These six factors include (a) family participation
In school and related activities, (b) relationships between parents and teachers,
(c) family and home environment support for Ieaming, (d) family participation in
after-school activities, and (e) family satisfaction with schools and teachers.
These factors are grounded in the data, and each of them is described with

accompanying documentation in the pages that follow.

291

Ecological factors these families perceived as positively influencing their
involvement in the education of their fifth-grade youngsters Included (a)
extended family and kin support; (b) school climate that promotes and
encourages family involvement; (c) family skills, strengths, and values that
enabled them to participate against all odds; and (d) family after-school
interactions and activities that helped to build character and reinforce school
Ieaming.

0n the other hand, the families identified some ecological factors that had
a negative effect on their involvement in their children’s education. These
factors Included (a) the socioeconomic characteristics of the family and
community, (b) the family size and structure, (c) the absence of adequate social
support, and (d) teacher practices of Involving parents. The data from the
present study provided evidence of family and home support for Ieaming through
the families’ daily routines, rituals and traditions, their sharing of Interests and
skills, providing stimulating home environments, and participating in after-school
involvement during school-related activities. Some examples of their comments
on the subject are included below.

Junior’s teacher". Mr. Wilson is a very Involved parent. He not only works
here, he volunteers many hours of his time to help out with
special activities for the kids. He Is our chess coach,
assistant coach for soccer, baseball, and track. He also
helps me with the math tutorial program, and just generally
helps out anywhere we need him. He is a good parent.

Kala’s mother: Right now I’m working with Cottage School wherever l’m
needed, subbing or as a lunch volunteer. I check with the
teachers to see how Paula Is doing. I’m involved with all of
the children. I haven’t gone on many field trips, but I am in

the office. The teachers know I’m here, and they can talk to
me anytime.

292

Darien: My grandpa and my grandma come to my classroom. They
talk to the principal and the teachers. My grandpa brings
me to school every day, and sometimes he brings me money
to buy Ice cream, popcorn, and other stuff.

Ronald’s mother. I was Cub Scout leader for the boys, but I gave it up
because I felt they needed a male to teach them “manly“
things. I still go to the meetings. I attend all the parent
meetings, and the conferences to pick up Ronald’s report
card.

Ronald’s teacher: Ronald’s parents attend meetings and conferences, pick up

report cards, and respond to any request for assistance with
fundraising and other special events.

Shelly’s teacher: Whenever there’s a program, Mr. Carter has always been
here for It. He’s always been very positive whenever we’ve
had parent/teacher conferences.

The nature and value of family participation in school-related activities

were addressed in the works of Epstein and Lee (1995), Scott-Jones (1995),

Ryan (1995), Kaplan (1992), Chavkin (1993), Batey (1996), and others. The

authors described patterns of family participation, school-family involvement

programs, teacher practices of involving parents, home-school communication,
parent-teacher Interactions, benefits of family Involvement, and barriers to family
involvement In schools. Based on the documentation from the data and the
implications from the literature, it was concluded that all eight families in the

study were regular participants in school-related activities.

Relationships between parents and teachers. Aside from a few hints of
some potential tensions, the relationships were agreeable and seemingly
positive. The data provided examples of parents expressing their support for the
teachers, and teachers indicating their satisfaction with the cooperation of the

parents. An exception was Leesa’s teacher, who expressed some concern

293

about the mother’s tendency to be more focused on the social aspects of her
daughter’s school experiences than the academics. Similarly, Darien’s
grandfather indicated that he thought the school needed to find alternatives to
suspension for his grandson and other students who frequently behaved
inappropriately. This grandfather said he understood that the school had a
responsibility to discourage children’s acting out, but he thought it was unfair to
keep these students out of classes, which caused them to fall further behind in
their work. One other comment was made by Ronald’s mother regarding a
previous teacher “stereotyping“ her son according to what she referred to as
“some statistics.“

Notwithstanding the participation of these families, based on a
comprehensive review of the literature and the researcher’s past experiences as
a parent, grandparent, and educator, some pertinent questions are raised
relative to definitions and descriptions of parent involvement. The questions are
as follows: “What is authentic involvement?“ “What is peripheral Involvement?“
and “How Is involvement distinguished from participation?” The term “authentic“
is defined In the dictionary as something’s being real and genuine, and actually
being what it seems or Is claimed to be. The term “peripheral” is the opposite of
authentic, and was operationally defined hereto refer to superficial involvement,
or involvement that is outlying and surface in nature.

In this study, peripheral involvement included such family contributions as
sending Kleenex, cookies, and juice for the class, and supporting school
fundraisers and millage campaigns. The researcher argues that, based on the

tendency for families to engage In “peripheral,“ as opposed to “authentic,“

294

Involvement in both the homes and the schools was a recurring theme that was
noted in examining the home environments and the in- and out-of-school
involvement of the eight families. According to the definitions and descriptions
portrayed in the family Involvement literature (Epstein & Lee, 1995; Kaplan,
1992; Ryan, 1995, Scott-Jones, 1995), to be involved suggests support,
whereas participation stands for action and potential change. Thus the term
“peripheral involvement“ may be used to categorize support for and participation
in school-related activities and programs. On the other hand, “authentic
participation occurs when parents Influence or attempt to influence decision
making in areas of substantial impact such as personnel, programs, school
policy, and budget“ (Kaplan, 1992, p. 132).

Family and home environment support for Ieaming. The importance of
family and home environment support for children’s school Ieaming has
repeatedly been validated in the literature (Barbour & Barbour, 1997; Berger,
1994; Entwisle & Alexander, 1990; Epstein, 1986; Procidano, 1992; Scott-
Jones, 1995). For instance, Morris (1992) declared that “family life shapes
African American students’ behavior, school adjustment, and achievement in the
context of ecological and cultural factors” (p. 113). This statement underscores
the importance of the family and home to children’s school experiences.

Although many researchers have acknowledged the significance of the
roles families and home environments play In children’s school experiences, the
message is not universally accepted. Personal experience has made the

researcher aware that some African American families still believe that education

is the sole responsibility of educators and the schools. However, the data from

295

this study indicated that most of the participating families apparently saw a need
to provide family and home support for Ieaming.

The literature contains a variety of models for family and home support.
Scott-Jones’s (1995) model was used In this study as a guide for evaluating the
participants’ family and home support. The model of family interactions and
school achievement includes the following four levels of family Interactions that
may contribute to children’s school performance: valuing, monitoring, helping,
and doing (p. 77). Figure 5.6 contains evidence ofthe family and home support

provided for the fifth-grade students in this study.

 

Kala Mrs. Proud: I cook dinner and then we clean up the kitchen. After
they do their homework I let them watch television for a while.

Leesa When we come home we have to do our homework, and my
mother will ask me how was school, and I tell her all about It.

Darien I play with my computer games, then I go to my friend’s house
and we sell Kool-Aid; sometimes I just watch television. On
weekends I ride my bike and go over to my friend’s house to play
basketball.

Junior Mr. Wilson: If he has homework he has to do that first; if they
don’t have any, sometimes I bring things home for them to do.
Then we have dinner and they help clean up. After that they have
to get their clothes ready for the next day.

Tyrone My mother and father tell me I have to do my homework first, and
then I can go outside and play.

Ronald When I get home I go on the computer to do my homework, and
then practice basketball. On weekends, we go bowling, skating,
or bike riding in the park.

Paula When I get home after school, I get right on my homework.
Sometimes I ride my bike, go over to a friend’s house and we play
on the computer. On weekends I visit relatives and go to church.

Shelly Mr. Carter. Our after-school routine Is jam packed! She is very
athletic, but If she has homework she gets right on it; then she
can do her other activities or go outside and play.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 5.6: Family and home environment support Ieaming (N = 8)

296

Egmily participatipn in fier-smool activities. Recreation and enrichment

activities played a major role In the lives of the participating families. Leesa and
Paula were the only two students who did not appear to be involved In the after-
school enrichment activities provided at the school or community center.
However, they were both involved in outreach programs at their churches.
Among the concerns that families addressed pertaining to participation in after-
school and community activities was the issue of safety. For example, Leesa
stated that she did not stay after school because her mother had instructed her
to find her younger sister each day at dismissal, and the two of them were to
come straight home from school together. This mother’s concern for the safety
of her two little girls, who were 11 and 8 years old, is understandable
considering the circumstances. The school was located next to a middle school
that dismissed students a half-hour earlier than Leesa’s school. Consequently,
older students often hung around the elementary school to make sport of teasing
the little children. The distance from the school to the family’s home was
approximately four blocks. Leesa said an older brother drove her and her sister
to school in the mornings and occasionally picked them up in the afternoon
because their mother did not have a car. Likewise, Paula’s grandmother
indicated that she walked Paula to school every day and usually accompanied
her home, like many of the other parents. There was no indication that Paula
participated in the after-school activities provided by the school.

Triangulation of the data revealed that Junior's father was actively

involved with him as a teaching assistant In the after-school reading and math

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tutoring class, a volunteer for the chess team, and a sports activity coach.
According to Junior’s father, that was one of the ways he could spend some time
interacting with all of the children.

Family aatigaction with schools anp teachers. To say that the families
were completely satisfied with the schools and teachers would be misleading, as
there were one or two instances in which parents expressed dissatisfaction. For
instance, Leesa’s mother was dissatisfied with not being given a paying job at
her daughter’s school. Likewise, Darien’s grandfather expressed his displeasure
with the way the school kept suspending his grandson for inappropriate
behavior. Ronald’s mother alluded to a problem she had with a previous
teacher, but said she was pleased with her son’s teachers during the current
year.

However, the majority of the parents and children Indicated that they were
satisfied with schools and teachers. Examples of some of their comments are
included below:

Ronald: I like my teacher, and I think she’s doing a good job of making me
get my education.

Kala: I want to be a teacher like Mrs. Miller, because she’s a good
teacher. Sometimes she lets you have fun. Then, at times, she Is
strictly business. . . . Sometimes she takes me to church with her.

Shelly’s This Is a great school. The teachers are very dedicated.

father. They go out of their way to give the kids great Ieaming
experiences.

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Eagntal pride in student ac_hiavament. The data reflected that, among

the eight families in this study, there was a tendency for parents to exhibit pride
In their children’s achievements. For Instance, Kala’s mother proudly described
how many extracurricular activities her daughter was Involved in, while still
keeping her honor roll status. Paula’s grandmother provided copies of
newspaper articles featuring her granddaughter as the “Title I Student of the
Year.“ During the year-end fifth-grade awards program, Shelly‘s father
endeavored to photograph her each of the several times she received an award.
He also expressed his pride regarding her participation In sports and enrichment
activities. Ronald’s mother seemed delighted to share the family’s experience of
attending the citywide musical program in which he performed.

The importance of family nurturance and support for achievement is '
grounded in the parent involvement literature (Berger, 1994; Clark, 1983;
Entwisle, 1992; Epstein, 1987; Kaplan, 1991). In addition, McAdoo (1997)
defined the term “nurturance“ as “the expression of warmth and positive feelings
of the parent toward the attitudes and behavior of the child“ (p. 154). The Black
family literature (Billingsley, 1992; McAdoo, 1997; Taylor et al, 1997), also has
documented the tradition of African American families exhibiting pride In
achievement and success. The importance of verbal praise was documented in
studies conducted by Clark (1983), Hale (1982), Baumrind (1972), and Barbour
and Barbour (1997). Likewise, some authorities, especially in the field of
psychology, have cautioned parents against the overuse of verbal praise as this

often results in its becoming meaningless.

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Summary. There are inherent problems with the exploration of
perceptions. Unless specific criteria are assigned to the term “involvement,“ the
perceptions of each of the interviewees could be different. There are also
numerous definitions and Interpretations of the term “involvement.“ There was
general agreement among the students, parents, and teachers in this study
about the degree of involvement of the eight families in school and school-
related activities. It was also apparent In the analysis of data that In the home
environments it appears that more emphasis is placed on providing materials,
equipment, and artifacts than on parents spending quality time working with
children on Ieaming-related tasks. Perhaps more study would improve our
understanding of this phenomenon. Family and home support was evidenced by
the “homework-first rules“ that were operative in most of the households.
Likewise, there was general consensus among the participants that the schools
welcomed and even encouraged family involvement. Close examination of the
parent involvement Initiatives and programs in the five schools revealed that
they were strubtured primarily to elicit peripheral involvement.

Implications. The perceptions of African American family involvement
pertaining to (a) the influence of ecological factors, (b) family after-school and
home environment support for Ieaming, (c) participation in school-related
activities, and (d) school support and encouragement of family raises some
pertinent questions. Given the findings of the present study and the review of
current research and literature, the investigator proposes the following

implications.

300

The analysis challenges the literature and research that suggests that
urban African American parents are not interested or Involved, are unconcerned
or incapable, and do not value education. Hence, the researcher proposes
some implications for families, educators, researchers, and policy makers.

The analysis of this study supports the research and literature maintaining
the premise that many urban African American families have strengths and skills
that enable them to actively participate in and support the education of their
children (Clark, 1983; Hurd et al, 1995; Morris, 1992). Further, the analysis
showed that among the eight families there was a tendency to promote
traditional African American cultural values that contributed to positive and
successful school experiences for their fifth—grade youngsters. Thus, the
analysis raises questions about those family practices and interactions that
promote positive and negative student attitudes, behavior, and school
performance, and challenges families to focus their energies on those that will
have a positive impact.

The analysis challenges the literature and research that has attributed the
prevalence of underachievement and problematic school experiences among
' urban African American children to limited family involvement, inadequate
childrearing and socialization, and the children’s lack of motivation to succeed.
Consequently, the analysis raises questions for educators concerning (a) the
school culture, teaching quality, teacher practices for involving parents, and the
school’s role in aiding the development of self and cultural identity; (b) finding

meaningful ways to involve urban African American families In leadership,

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decision-making, and advocacy roles in schools; (c) providing professional
training and development that sensitizes and prepares staffs to meet the needs
of students and families of diverse backgrounds and cultures; and (d) developing
and implementing curriculum that incorporates African American culture and
history, and addresses the unique Ieaming styles of these urban children.

In the analysis, limitations were discovered in previous studies of African
American families’ involvement in the school experiences of their children.
These limitations are offered as challenges for future researchers. Although
there are a number of areas in which more research on African American
families is needed, six areas of need are presented here. Their selection was
based on their relationship to the present study. These areas are (a) qualitative
and theoretical research; (b) research on Black family strengths; (c) research
from perspectives of African American families; (d) studies of African American
families and schools in context; and (e) African American families, schools, and
contemporary issues.

Although the last two decades have given rise to a considerable increase
In the numbers of research studies based on theoretical constructs, there is still
a need for more Investigations focusing on the Involvement of contemporary
urban African American families in the education of their children. Spencer et al.
(1985) stated, “More research is needed that seriously questions the
applicability of conventional theories, measures, and methods to the study of
Black child development“ (p. 309). Similarly, this investigator perceives a need

for future researchers to evaluate theories and approaches to determine the

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appropriateness of their underlying values and assumptions to the realities of
Black families’ involvement in their children’s school experiences. The analysis
In the present research raises questions about the use of culturally biased
models In which minority, poor, single-parent, and female-headed households
are viewed as deficient In the study of Black families.

In family research, the variables most commonly studied are such
ecological factors as socioeconomic status, race, family size, family structure,
place of residency, and parents’ level of education. Studies focusing on these
family factors invite challenge because they tend to treat these factors as family
weaknesses. Thus, more research focusing on family strengths and values Is
needed, especially as it relates to the school experiences of Black children.
Spencer et al. (1985) intimated that the school experiences of Black children
continue to be difficult for many youngsters. The author maintains that their
achievement levels are too low, and dropout rates too high; there is a need to
account for these facts.

Such opinions give rise to the question, What are the institutional, family,
and/or individual factors that act to produce under-achievement among African
American children? Thus, Spencer and associates included In the Implications
of their research a call for additional studies from the perspective of Black
families, and focusing on families’ involvement in the school experiences of their
children. During the process of completing the analysis of the present study, the

researcher concluded that there Is a need to echo that call.

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Another Implication for future researchers Is the need for more studies on
how contemporary educational Issues, as well as societal factors such as
changing family demographics, school reform, charters, and vouchers, influence
African American families’ involvement in the school experiences of their
children. There Is also a need for more research on the strengths and
competencies of Black families that enhance and support the education of their
children. Taylor et al. (1997) recommended that “future research examining the
supportive behaviors of the Black family, and othersocial networks, should
explore ways to capitalize on the unique features of ethnographic approaches
(e.g., kin maps and life history calendars)“ (p. 318). They further suggested that
ethnographic methodologies could be used to investigate a wide range of Black
family Ieaming support behaviors.

Another implication for research on Black families’ school involvement is
the need for more studies from the perspectives of these families and children.
Many studies have been based on data obtained from outside the culture and
context of the family and home. Similarly, Ogbu (as cited In Chavkin, 1993)
called for researchers to study families from a cultural-ecological perspective.
He maintained that the child-rearing strategies of racial and ethnic minority
parents must be examined in the appropriate cultural context. Conducting
studies from the perspective of the Black families and within the context of the
naturalistic environments of their homes and schools, as opposed to comparing
them with nonminority families, allows researchers to capture the diversities that

exist among Black families.

304

This need for more studies from the Black family perspective also raises
the issue of limited research on competent African American fathers. Current
literature Indicates that there has been a tendency for researchers to focus on
Black family involvement as maternal involvement because mothers frequently
are the family members who are at the center of the home-school connection.
Similarly, research on African American fathers has dealt with absent or
uninvolved fathers. However, changing family demographics have resulted In a
growing number of African American family households being headed by single
fathers. As was discovered in this research, there are some conscientious and
responsible fathers who are successfully rearing children, supporting and
participating in their education as well.

Future challenges for policy makers. Further, the analysis of the present
research pointed to a need for future policies containing specific mandates for
school districts to Implement programs that provide parenting training and skill
development experiences. The analysis also highlighted a need for policies that
address equal opportunities and access for urban African American families in
the current educational alternatives. These alternatives include, but are not

limited to, public school charters, educational vouchers, and schools of choice.

Supguestion 6: School Experiences
of Fifth-Grade Students

6. What are the perceptions of urban African American families, and
teachers, regarding the school experiences of the fifth-grade students?

There were some discrepancies between the perceptions of the families and the

305

teachers regarding the school experiences of the fifth-grade children. Further,
the school experiences of the students were diverse. The participants were
questioned about their beliefs and feelings concerning various indicators of the
fifth-grade students’ school experiences, such as (a) attitude toward school and
Ieaming; (b) work habits and performance; (c) relationships with teachers and
peers; and (d) citizenship, attendance, and adjustment. Responses from the
interviews were triangulated with the data obtained from the review of each
student’s individual records and theobservation nOtes.

The data indicated that three of the students maintained exemplary
achievement levels. Three of them were considered to be average achievers by
their teachers; however, their records indicated excellent progress. The other
two students were described as being low achievers. Specific information '
relative to their work habits and achievement levels is provided in Figure 5.7.

Interwoven throughout the fabric of the data collected for this study was
the tendency for the fifth-grade students to have diverse school experiences.
The term “school experiences“ refers to what happens to African American
children in schools. It was found that there were more differences in the school
experiences of these students than there were similarities. As stated earlier, the
eight students attended five elementary schools in a large urban school district.
The sample Included one student each from three different schools, and two

students from each of the two other schools.

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Kala

Miss Martin: She’s a hard worker. She normally stays on task.
She’s very smart, and she catches on very easily to everything. I
don’t have to explain It several times before she catches on to it.

 

Leesa

Mrs. Williams: I would consider her to be an average student.
She could be better if she put forth more effort.

 

Darien

Mrs. Henry: Darien’s work habits are inconsistent and sporadic.
At times he is on task, and at other times he does everything but
his work. His attention span is short, and he is constantly seeking
my attention and help. When I refuse to give it to him and try to
make him work Independently he gets angry and pouts.

 

Junior

Mrs. Henry: Junior is struggling with fifth-grade work. His skills
are below grade level, and his reading is extremely low. Often he
does not understand the assignment, but will not ask for help.

 

Tyrone

Miss Ham: Tyrone is a pleasant student. When I look at him, he
always has that big smile. He has a good attitude about his work.
He doesn’t moan and groan when I tell him he has missing
assignments. He just wants to know what has not been turned in.
If he can’t find it in his folder, he prepares to do it over.

 

Ronald

Mrs. Fizzer: Ronald works well independently and In a group. He
Is very concerned about keeping up with his work. When he goes
out of my class for music, he tries to make up all of the work he
missed.

 

Paula

Mrs. Cee: She processes math concepts very slowly, and requires
a great deal of direct instructions. I try to keep her near me, so I
can give her eye contact, as she tends to let her mind wander.

 

Shelly

 

 

Miss Dobson: Shelly’s work is very, very top quality. She takes
an awful lot of pride in her work. She’s very self-directed, and
very inquisitive. She also expresses a lot of empathy as we are
studying different subjects.

 

Figure 5.7: Varied work habits and achievement levels (N = 8).

For the purpose of this analysis, the similarities and differences in the

school experiences of the students are organized according to the following five

indicators: (a) attitudes toward school and Ieaming; (b) attendance, citizenship,

and adjustment; (0) work habits, performance, and achievement levels;

(d) relationships with teachers and peers; (e) peer relations; and (f) school and

classroom climates.

307

 

Attitudes toward school and Ieaming. All eight students liked and enjoyed
school. Each of them had goals and aspirations for the future. All of them were
11 years of age at the time the data collection began. Aside from these three
similarities, all of the other categories reflect differences. Therefore, It was
concluded that the eight students had dissimilar school experiences.

As stated before, all eight students liked school. However, there were
vast differences In their attitudes toward learning. For instance, the three
students whom teachers described as high achieving (Kala, Shelly, and Ronald)
exhibited similar, positive attitudes toward Ieaming, as evidenced by comments
from the teachers’ interviews, observation notes, and review of school-related
documents. Some examples of comments are as follows:

Kala’s teacher: She’s a hard worker. She normally stays on task, and she’s
very bright. She catches on to things easily.

Ronald’s teacher. Ronald is a really neat student. He takes pride in his school
work and is very serious about it. He shows enthusiasm for
getting good grades. He will often ask me, “What did I get
on my spelling test?“ before I’ve even had a chance to
correct the papers.

When one of the teachers was asked to describe her student, she
responded, “Shelly is a great student. She has Intrinsic motivation.“ She
explained that Shelly was a student who had it in her nature to love Ieaming and
was willing and eager to produce excellent work. Likewise, the three students
whom the teachers referred to as average (Leesa, Paula, and Tyrone) also

exhibited positive attitudes toward Ieaming. Unlike the three former students,

the latter group apparently experienced more frequent distractions and did not

308

appear to be as focused and task oriented. On the other hand, the remaining
two students, Darien and Junior, were described by their teacher as low-
achieving, and they displayed attitudes toward Ieaming that were significantly
different from those of the other six students. Although their attitudes could
hardly be described as positive or negative, they can perhaps be called
apathetic-that is, unconcerned, indifferent, sluggish, and lacking enthusiasm.
Attendance, citizenship, and adjustment. This indicator is grounded In
both the data and the literature arid addresses the patterns that were discovered
in the main ingredients (attendance and adjustment) embedded In the school
experiences of the fifth-grade students. “Attendance“ is the term schools use to
refer to the number of days a student attends school. It is recorded daily and
tabulated in subtotals at the end of each marking period. Composite totals are
recorded at the end of the year, as documented earlier in Figure 3.2 (Chapter
III). Students’ attendance is recorded on their individual report cardsand in their
cumulative records and folders. These records provided a broad overview of the
attendance patterns of these students. Three of them (Tyrone, Ronald, and
Shelly) had excellent attendance records dating back through their first-grade
year. Kala’s attendance was also excellent, but It was recorded only for her fifth-
grade year because her previous records had not been fonrvarded by the
transferring school. The other four students (Junior, Paula, Darien, and Leesa)
had sporadic attendance patterns. Teachers indicated that all of them except

Darien had recently shown improved attendance. Because of the overlapping

309

themes, additional Information relative to the attendance patterns of some
students is included In the analysis of other themes.

The term “adjustment“ was operationally defined in this dissertation as a
student’s ability to make a smooth transition from the context of the home
environment to the school setting. It includes citizenship and an ability to adapt
to the rules, regulations, and processes at school. Again, data retrieved from
the individual records of the students, observation notes, and comments from the
student and teacher Interviews were used in assessing students’ adjustment. It
was noted that those students who were described as high-achieving were also
the ones whose citizenship was rated excellent. Kala, Shelly, and Ronald were
also among the students with excellent attendance records. The data indicated
that the citizenship of the three students described as average was rated
excellent or good. The records of two other students, Junior and Leesa,
evidenced occasional problems with fighting, which resulted in “closed classes“
or suspension. On the other hand, Darien’s records documented a number of
suspensions for various violations of school rules, including fighting, disrespect
to teachers, and refusal to serve detention time. Given this analysis, it was
concluded that the attendance and adjustment of the eight students were
diverse.

Work habits, arformance, and achievement. The data reflected a range
of work habits and performance levels among the eight students. The term
“w0rk habits“ applies here to the way in which the students approached the

completion of their daily assignments, group activities, special experiences such

310

as computer time, and so on. Due to the limitations of short-term observations,
the students’ portfolios, teachers’ comments on report cards, and responses to
the interview questions, which asked them to describe the students’ work ethic,
also were considered. Excerpts from the data are Included in Figure 5.7.

The students who were rated high achievers worked well independently
and in a group. However, most of the time the students who were called
average also worked well. Of the eight students In this study, Darien and Junior
were the ones who appeared to have the most difficulty with work habits and
performance. Darien often left his seat to get materials of one kind or another.
He was frequently out of his seat, crawling on the floor to get something he had
dropped. Several times he was seen playing with toys in his desk. His attention
span was very short, and he often did not listen attentively when the teacher
gave directions. He continually asked her to explain to him what he should do.
The teacher described Darien’s work habits as “inconsistent.“

Junior was another student in that same classroom whose work habits
needed improvement. After working one-on-one with Junior on three or four
different occasions, the researcher concluded that perhaps his poor work habits
were due to a deficiency in his cognitive skills. His reading level was low, and
he had problems understanding the directions for completing the work.

In summary, because of the researcher’s recent review of the literature
(Ford, 1996; Hillard, 1973; Irvine, 1990), she was uncomfortable with the use of
the labels “high achieving,“ “average,“ and “low achieving.“ The above-

mentioned authors and several other sources referred to the tendency of some

311

schools and teachers to base the evaluation of students regarding their

performance on standardized tests. This occurs despite the fact that research

has shown minority children frequently do not score well on such measures.
Teachers’ and students’ relationships. There was a tendency for the eight

students in the sample to exhibit respect and admiration for their teachers.

When the researcher Inquired how the students felt about their teachers, some

of them gave explicit statements. The following comments are excerpts from the

data:

Leesa: I like the way the teachers aren’t mean to you, and they don’t holler
at you. I like it when they don’t punish the whole classroom for the
actions of just one person.

Ronald: I like my teacher because she’s doing a good job, and she’s
teaching me. She’s doing a good job helping me to get my
education.

Kala: I don’t know if anybody else in my class likes school! Maybe

they’re just bored, but my teacher, Miss Martin, I feel that with her,
she’s my friend. I can tell her everything, not family business, but
in school if I’m having any trouble I can go to her. When I grow up
I want to be a teacher just like Miss Martin.

Even Darien, who had many other problems, appeared to admire his teacher.

It was concluded that this indicator is grounded in the traditional Black
family literature. As a general mle, African American children are taught to show
respect for their elders, all adults, and especially those in authority such as
teachers, ministers, and the like (Billingsley, 1992; Sudarkasa, 1997).

Peer relations. The interview data and observation notes provided

evidence of diverse relationships between these students and their peers. Four

312

of the eight students (Tyrone, Shelly, Paula, and Ronald) indicated that they had
good relationships with their peers at school. Some examples are as follows:
Tyrone: I’ve got lots of friends In school, and I hang out with my brother.

Paula: Going to school is like being at my house. I’ve got lots of friends,
but I don’t hang out with groups.

Shelly: I look forward to coming to school, and l have some good friends in
my class that I hang around with. Some of them are on the soccer
team with me.

Ronald’s Ronald Is a really neat student. He is respectful of adults

teacher. and gets along very well with boys and girls. Lately, I’ve noticed he
shows more interest in girls, but he has many friends, including his
brother who is a year younger than him. They share a very close
bond with each other at school.

In contrast, Kala talked about what she thought was some jealousy on the
part of one girl in her class. It was Kala’s perception that the jealousy was
caused by her mother’s frequent visits to the school, and her involvement with
the staff and students. Kala said she thought the girl was upset because her
own mother was not involved at school. When Kala discussed her feelings
about her relationship with the teacher and her classmates, she made a.
statement about some of the other students in the class calling her “Miss Goody
Two-Shoes.“ Based on Kala’s comments and the references from the
observation notes, the researcher concluded that there was, perhaps,
occasional friction between Kala and her classmates, although the teacher

emphasized how Kala willingly assisted other classmates with their work, and

there were no indications of fights during her recess.

313

F urstenberg et al. (1999) and Hrabowski et al. (1998) addressed the
Issue of less successful students’ exhibiting negative peer pressure toward
those students who are more successful. Other writers have alluded to the
adolescent-group practice of referring to academically talented students as
“nerds.“ Thus, Kala’s situation was not unusual. Several studies have
Investigated the influence of peer pressure on high achievers.

The other three students (Leesa, Junior, and Darien) did appear to have
occasional friction with their peers, which ultimately ended In fights. It should be
noted that past experience has made the researcher aware that friction is
common for students in this age group. They will fight today and be friends
tomorrow. Based on these considerations, It was concluded that the majority of
fifth graders in this study had good relationships with their peers.

School and classroom climates. The five schools involved In the study
were diverse In a number of ways. Data were obtained from the observation
notes and review of school-related documents. The location of the schools, the
aesthetic quality, the disciplinary climate, and the academic atmosphere of the
buildings were noted. The students and parents also were asked to describe
how they felt about the schools.

The researcher also reviewed annual reports, school improvement plans,
newsletters, school calendars, and other documents that contained information
pertaining to the school culture. The purpose of examining the schools was not
to compare one school with another, but rather to identify elements that might

enhance or inhibit the involvement of urban African American families in the

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school experiences of their fifth graders. All of the schools exhibited an
Impression of being well maintained and crafted to create a stimulating Ieaming
environment. Like the classrooms, some schools appeared to be warmer and
more Inviting for parents and students than others.

Three exceptions were noted that may be considered somewhat different
from the themes in other schools. The first was the principal’s character-
education program at Leesa’s school, in which the students and parents
appeared to be quite involved. The second was the accelerated program at
Shelly’s school, which included a strong family involvement component that
entails parents’ working closely with teachers and students on camping trips and
special projects, and sharing their employment skills with the classes. The third
was the somewhat unsettled climate at Darien’s school. Perhaps the reason the
researcher examined the climate of this school and classroom so critically was
that It was the school that both Darien and Junior attended. They were the only
two students Who were rated as low achievers, at risk for retention In fifth grade,
and they exhibited more than the usual difficulty with school adjustment.

Studies related to the school experiences of African American students,
especially boys, have indicated that their behavior and achievement levels are
greatly influenced by the classroom climate and teacher expectations.
Understanding that both Darien and Junior had some family ecological concerns
to contend with, the researcher questioned whether their school experiences
could have been enhanced by a more settled classroom and school

environment. For instance, Morris (1992) stated,

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Teacher expectations and perceptions have a profound influence on
student outcomes. Teachers, and other school professionals, can
promote enabling behaviors by providing a positive school and classroom
climate, accepting students’ rights to their feelings, monitoring their
progress, and establishing clear expectations andboundaries. (p. 110)
Summag. Based on the evidence presented by the data, the researcher
concluded that the eight students in the study were either below average or
exemplary. As noted on the demographic chart (Figure 4.1), the teachers had
labeled three of the students “average.“ However, their performance, as
documented on previous records 'and currently rated by the teacher, was not
consistent with the description of an “average“ student. Perhaps further study
would provide information to either support or refute the opinions of the
teachers. Scholars and researchers such as Hillard (1973), Irvine (1990), and
Neisser (1990) have warned against labeling students based on their
performance on standardized tests or some other narrowly prescribed criteria.
All but two of the parents expressed pride and satisfaction in the progress
and achievement of their fifth graders. All of them indicated general satisfaction
with the school experiences of the youngsters. The students were pleased with
the involvement of their families. Most of them expressed positive feelings about
their families’ participation and visibility in their schools. Examples of how the
students perceived that their families influenced their school experiences were
given earlier in the discussion.
Among other factors that influenced the students’ school experiences

were (a) student relationships with teachers and peers, (b) the school and

classroom culture, (0) the socioeconomic culture, (d) the roles and attitudes of

316

peers and siblings, and (e) the quality of teaching. All of these factors and
others raise questions for future investigations, for family and educational policy,
and for the practitioners and primary caregivers of African American children.

Implications. Given the analysis of the data in this study, the review of
literature, and the researcher’s professional and personal experiences, some
questions were raised that have implications for improving the school
experiences of urban African Ameriwn children. These Implications have
relevance for families, educators, researchers, and policy makers.

It was evident from the data in this study that the eight students perceived
that their school experiences were helped by the Involvement of their parents.
Thus, families are encouraged to find out what types of Involvement will have the
greatest influence on student Ieaming and concentrate their efforts in that
direction. Likewise, the literature pertaining to the school experiences of urban
African American children challenges parents not only to strengthen and
increase their in-school involvement, but also to devote more attention to early
Intervention and a home curriculum that supports school Ieaming (Barbour &
Barbour, 1997; Berger, 1994; Clark, 1983; Hale, 1994; Lomotey, 1990). Further,
the analysis of this research raises questions for families relative to the influence
of parenting practices and family expectations on the school experiences of
urban African American children.

Implications for educators are based on the perceptions of the eight
students and their families regarding other factors that Influenced the school

experiences of the children. Educators are challenged to (a) devise programs

317

that strengthen and improve teaching quality and attitudes, (b) help to build
cultural Identity, (c) encourage family and community support and involvement,
and (d) ensure academic and social success for students of diverse
backgrounds.

The analysis also raises some questions for future research exploring
ways of improving the school experiences of urban African American children.
The Implications are that more studies are needed that address the following
topics: (a) the effects of peer pressure and alienation on Ieaming and
performance. For example, exemplary students are stereotyped as “nerds,
acting white, teacher’s pet“; (b) the effects of racial socialization on students’
school performance and attitude; (c) the effects of school and classroom
climates and student-teacher relationships regarding the school experiences of
urban African American children; and (d) the patterns and themes that are
present in the family relationships, homes, and interactions of students who
enjoy successful school experiences.

Finally, the analysis of the findings from this study raises questions that
have implications for policy makers. Among the questions pertaining to local
policies that directly influence the school experiences of urban African American
children are those initiatives that pertain to (a) community programs to support
Ieaming, and wholesome recreational activities that build character and foster
teamwork; (b) economic opportunities for parents; and (0) family access to child

health and welfare services.

318

Rel ionshi of This tud to urrent Res arch

A goal of this researcher was to add to the current literature by examining
perceptions and actions regarding the involvement of urban African American
families In the education of their children, and how this involvement influenced
the school experiences of their fifth-grade youngsters. This study was similar In
design, methodology, and findings to three other studies cited in the review of
literature.

1. Clark (1983) studied poor families of diverse structures and concluded
that the school success of poor Black children was not the result of the structure
of their family Income or the educational level of their parents. Rather, their
school success was determined by the total family culture.

2. Hurd et al. (1983) examined strengths of African American parents
and concluded that these families used their strengths to improve their situations
and to support their child-rearing efforts, as well as the education and
socialization of the children.

3. Schneider and Edelman (1983) researched several important issues
related to the implications of family involvement for the school experiences of
their children. The oversample of African Americans and other minorities in the
study contributed to the relevance of its findings for urban African American
families.

The present study contributed to the literature by presenting current
information relative to (a) current family ecological and demographic factors,

(b) current school practices and teacher policies regarding family Involvement,

319

(c) current characteristics of the school experiences of African American
children, and (d) positive urban African American male role models and

participants in the socialization and education of their children.

Reflections

First of all, returning to the declaration made at the beginning of this
dissertation, the researcher concludes that the indictment that has been handed
down against urban African American families, blaming their perceived limited
involvement in the education of their children for the problems many of the
youngsters experience in schools, Is unfair. The analysis of this study
challenges that notion because It is clear from the comprehensive review of the
literature and the data that the school experiences of these youngsters were
Influenced by the traditional Black family strengths and values, current
ecological factors, the family’s involvement in Ieaming both at home and at
school, and what happened to the fifth graders in the school environment. This
broad range of Influences includes the relationships between these families and
the schools, the families and the teacher and classroom, the child and the
classroom environment, the child and the teacher, and the child and the
family/home.

It Is also evident those researchers and scholars who have accused
urban African American families of not being concerned about or interested in
the education of their children because many of them are not involved at a level

commensurate with their Caucasian counterparts have done these families a

320

great Injustice. Research has indicated that it is a universal truth that most
families, regardless of race, class, or color, want the best for their children. In
the case of urban African American families, even those with low incomes have
high educational aspirations for their children. Further, empirical data have
indicated that African American children from poor circumstances can succeed
in school with supportive families and school professionals, and methods,
materials, and activities that address the unique aspects of their culture and
Ieaming styles. It is equally clear that a wide range of cultural, ecological,
economic, and social tensions influence the involvement of urban African
American families in the education of their children. Although they were not
focused on In this research, racism, discrimination, and classism are high on the
list of factors that impede the involvement of these families in the education of
their children. Likewise, the lack of cultural synchronization between these
families and their children’s teachers can also have an influence.

Frequently, the emphasis of research and the topic of educators’
complaints is urban African American families whose children are not
succeeding in and adjusting to school. As a result, scholars often have
overlooked families like most of those In this present research, whose strengths,
values, and ecological factors have enabled them to participate in the Ieaming of
their children, and positively influenced the school experiences of those
youngsters. The understanding that current family involvement is primarily

peripheral, and not authentic, points to the need for changes in the way

321

educators define family involvement, as well as in the frameworks that guide
school-involvement initiatives.

Finally, the fact remains that the Involvement of contemporary urban
African American families in schools and in the school experiences of their
children is a complicated Issue and should not be lumped into a single category
orjudged from a prejudiced perspective. In addition to the family-related
tensions that impinge on the involvement of these families In the education of
their children, the expectations, perceptions, and actions of school professionals
also have an effect. The researcher’s final word is a challenge to families,
educators, researchers, and policy makers to remember that numerous studies
have indicated that all children do better in school when parents and schools
become partners in education. What happens in the family room affects what
happens In the classroom. What happens in the classroom affects what
happens in the schools. What happens in the school affects what happens in
the nation. Therefore, regardless of our differences, preferences, perceptions,
and problems, it is important for all stakeholders to work together to improve the
school experiences of our nation’s children, especially those urban African

American children who begin the race behind most of the other runners.

322

 

APPENDICES

323

APPENDIX A

LETTER OF APPROVAL FROM THE UNIVERSITY COMMITTEE
ON RESEARCH INVOLVING HUMANSUBJECTS (UCRIHS)

324

 

OFFICE or
RESEARCH
AND
GRADUATE
STUDIES

ty Committee on
search lmrolvlng
Human Subjects

an State University
inistration Building
Lansing, Michigan
48824-1046
517355-213!

we 517/353-2976
Isu.cdu/user/ucrihs
l: wihSOmsuedu

MICHIGAN STATE

U N I V E R SIT Y
Febmary 11, 2000

TO:

FROM:

RE:

TITLE:

CC:

Maenette K. BENHAM
425 Erickson Hall

David Wright, Ph.D.
The University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects
246 Administration Building

Renewal of IRB # 99-119 CATEGORY:1-B,C,D,E
Most Recent Approval: March 9, 1999

CONTEMPORARY AFRICAN AMERICAN PARENT INVOLVEMENT-«HOW
DOES IT AFFECT THE SCHOOL EXPERIENCES OF THEIR CHILDREN

Our records indicate that this project was approved on the date shown above. As
you know, UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year. DATA COLLECTION
CANNOT CONTINUE IF YOUR APPROVAL HAS EXPIRED. If you are planning
to continue your study, please return the enclosed green Renewal Application
Form (fill in both sides!) to our office with a copy of your most recent consent
form, if applicable.

New recommendations regarding consent language by our federal regualtory
agency, the Office for Protection from Research Risk, may affect your consent

fon'n(s). Plaase review the anclpsed Informatipn ape-at ang, if necasaapy,

revi e ur on nt form ri rto submittin ur ren wal.

 

Feel free to contact our office if you have any questions about the renewal
process or the new consent recommendations. NOTE: GREEN RENEWAL
FORM HAS BEEN SENT TO RESPONSIBLE INVESTIGATOR (ADDRESSEE
ABOVE).

essie Muldrew
1325 Eldorado Drive
Flint, MI 48504

325

APPENDIX B

COPIES OF LETTERS OF REQUEST

326

Jessie M. Muldrew
1325 Eldorado Drive
Flint, MI 48504

December11,1998

Dr. James Ray, Superintendent
Flint Community Schools

923 E. Kearsley Street

Flint, MI 48503

Dear Dr. Ray,

You will recall that some time ago I spoke to you about my Interest In conducting
dissertation research in some Flint elementary schools. At that time, I promised to follow up with
a written request.

I am hereby requesting permission to use three to four Flint elementary schools In which
to conduct my study, the topic or which is “Eight Urban African American Families: An
Exploratory Study of Parent Involvement.’ The purpose or the study is to extend and
update the literature related to the relationship between families and schools and the Implications
for the school success of the students. I have a high and long-abiding Interest in how schools
and families can work together more closely to ensure that students achieve maximum
performance, develop positive attitudes toward school and feel good about their school
experience. I am well aware that this is also a priority with Flint Community Schools. Hence, I
am soliciting your support for this research project.

My study is ethnographic In nature and will involve the use of qualitative data collection
methods (observations, interviews and review of documents). Participation In the study will be
strictly voluntary, and confidentiality will be protected via the use of pseudonyms and generic
identifiers. A small sample population of six to eight African American students representing a
cross-section of the district's student body, along with their parentslguardians and teachers will
be needed for the study. Anecdotal notes will be taken during the observations, and the
Interviews will be tape recorded in order that information will be accurately reported.

I look forward to your response with the hope that you will consent to support my
research efforts.

Sincerely,
Jessie M. Muldrew

(810) 733-3000

' 327

Jessie M. Muldrew
1325 Eldorado Drive
Flint, MI 48504

(Date)
Dear Principals,

I recently retired from my position as elementary principal in Flint Community Schools.
After twenty-seven years of service In the district as a teacher and administrator, I retired to
pursue my lifetime goal of earning a Ph.D. degree. As part of my fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree I am conducting a research study.

I have a high and long-abiding Interest in how schools and families can work together
more closely to ensure that students achieve maximum performance, develop positive attitudes
towards school and feel good about their school experience. I have elected to conduct this study
because of a strong feeling that knowing more about family involvement and Its Influence on the
students school experience will help schools and parents do a better job with students. The
superintendent of schools has granted permission for the study.

Your scth has been recommended as one which meets the criteria for selection to
participate In my study. I am requesting your permission to conduct the study
at . Should you give your consent I will need to tape record
interviews of the students, parents and teachers who wnsent to participate in the study, make
school site visitations, and review school related records such as: attendance. test scores and
report cards.

All information obtained in this study will be kept confidential and at no time will your
Identity be disclosed. Participation is strictly voluntary and Individuals may feel free to choose
not to respond to any questions during the Interview, ask that the tape recorder be turned off at a
given time, or withdraw from the study completely with no repercussions.

If you have any questions, or would like to know more about my study prior to consenting
to participate, feel free to call me at (810) 733-3000. If you agree to participate, please sign and
date the attached consent form and return It to me In the envelope provided. Additionally, my
adviser, Dr. Maenette Benham will be available to assist with questions and concerns. She may
be reached at Michigan State University Office by calling (517) 355-6613 or Fax (517) 353—6393.

Thank you for your help.

Sincerely,

Jessie M. Muldrew
(810) 733-3000

328

Jessie M. Muldrew
1325 Eldorado Drive
Flint, MI 48504

(Date)
Dear Teachers,

I recently retired from my position as elementary principal in Flint Community Schools.
After twenty-seven years of service In the district as a teacher and administrator, I retired to
pursue my lifetime goal of earning a Ph.D. degree. As part of my fulfillment of the requirements
forthe degree, I am conducting a research study.

I have a high and long-abiding interest in how schools and families can work together
more closely to ensure that students achieve maximum performance, develop positive attitudes
toward school, and feel good about their school experience. I have elected to conduct this study
because of a strong feeling that knowing more about family involvement and its Influence on the
student’s school experience will help schools and parents do a better job with students. I have
already obtained permission from the Superintendent of Schools to conduct this study.

One of your students has been recommended as one who meets the criteria for selection
to participate In my study. I am requesting permission to Include you In the study, which will
Involve observation and a review of documents. Other Flint schools are also invited to take part
in the study.

The study ls ethnographic in nature and will involve the use of qualitative data-collection
methods (observations, Interviews, and review of documents). Participation in the study will be
strictly voluntary, and confidentiality and anonymity will be protected via the use of pseudonyms
and generic identifiers. A small sample of African American families with 5th/6th grade students
representing a variety of genders, achievement levels, family structures, and parents’
educational attainment levels and the teachers of these students will be needed for this study.
Anecdotal notes will be taken during the observations, and Interviews will be tape recorded in
order that information will be accurately reported.

Should you consent, your participation requires one tape recorded interview
(approximately one hour per person), preferably at the school site, but it can be arranged at an
aliemate location If your choose. Data collection will also necessitate In-school observations and
reviews of pertinent documents such as CA60’s, report cards, attendance and parent and
student-led conference records.

Please Indicate your willingness to participate In this endeavor by completing and
retuming the attached consent form In the enclosed self-addressed envelope. Should questions
or concerns arise, I am available to provide answers upon request. Additionally, Dr. Maenette
Benham, my adviser, will be available to assist in responding to questions or concerns. She may
be reached at her office located in Erickson Hall by calling (517) 355-6613 or fax (517) 353-
8393.

I look fonrvard to your response with the hope that you will consent to support my
research efforts.

Sincerely,

Jessie M. Muldrew
(81 0) 733-3000

329

Jessie M. Muldrew
1325 Eldorado Drive
Flint, MI 48504

(Date)
Dear Parents,

I recently retired from my position as elementary principal In Flint Community Schools.
After twenty-seven years of service In the district as a teacher and administrator, I retired to
pursue my lifetime goal of earning a Ph.D. degree. As part of my fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree I am conducting a research study in the school that your child attends.

l have a high and long-abiding interest in how schools and families can work together
more closely to ensure that students achieve maximum performance, develop positive attitudes
towards school and feel good about their school experience. I have elected to conduct this study
because of a strong feeling that knowing more about family involvement and its influence on the
students school experience will help schools and parents do a better job with students. I have
already obtained permission from the Superintendent of Schools to conduct this study.

Your family has been recommended as one which meets the criteria for selection to
participate in my study. I am requesting your permission to include your family among those
who will take part In this study.

Should you give consent, your participation will require several Interviews, preferably In
your home, but it can be arranged at an alternate location if you choose. Additionally, there will
be several interviews with your child. You may request that an adult Is present during you’re
your child’s interview if you so choose. In-school observations and reviews of pertinent
documents (i.e., report cards, portfolios, etc.) will also be required.

All information obtained in this study will be kept confidential and at no time, will your
Identity be disclosed. Your participation is strictly voluntary and you may feel free to choose not
to respond to any questions during the Interview, ask that the tape recorder be turned off at a
given time, or withdraw from the study completely with no repercussions.

If you have any questions, or would like to know more about my study prior to consenting
to participate, feel free to call me at (810) 733-3000. If you agree to participate, please sign and
date the attached consent form and return it to me in the envelope provided. Additionally, my
adviser, Dr. Maenette Benham will be available to assist with questions and concerns. She may
be reached at Michigan State University Office by calling (517) 355-6613 or Fax (517) 353-6393.

Thank you for your help.

Sincerely,

Jessie M. Muldrew

330

 

APPENDIX C

COPIES OF LETTERS OF CONSENT

331

u rinte ’ Letter of nsent

I hereby approve the dissertation research study, “Eight Urban African American
Families: An Exploratory Study of Parent Involvement,“ to be conducted by
Jessie Muldrew beginning in February of 1999.

l have received and read the letter from Jessie Muldrew dated

which briefly describes the purposes and procedures of the research. The letter
includes her name, address, and methods of communications In case I have any
questions or concerns regarding the study.

I am aware of, and understand, that all interviews and data will be held in the
strictest confidence and that the identity of the schools or individuals will not be
disclosed in any form during the preparation or completion of this study. I also
understand that participation in this study is completely voluntary and that
individuals may choose not to respond to any question, and/or withdraw from the
study at any time with no repercussions.

 

 

Signature Date
Jagie Mplgpew Spmmittee Shair
1325 Eldorado Drive Dr. Maenette Benham
Flint, MI 48505 Michigan State University
(810) 733-3000 425 Erickson Hall
East Lansing, MI 48824-1046
LLQBfl'LS (517) 355-6613
David E. Wright, Ph.D., Chair Fax (517) 353-6393
Michigan State University e—mail: mbenham@pilot.msu.edu

246 Administration Building
East Lansing, MI 48824-1046
(517) 355-2180

Fax: (517) 432-1171

e-rnail: Uchris@pilot.msu.edu

332

Princi als’ Letter of onsent

I hereby approve the dissertation research study, “Eight Urban African American
Families: An Exploratory Study of Parent Involvement,“ to be conducted at
school by Jessie Muldrew beginning in March of 1999.

I have received and read the letter from Jessie Muldrew dated

which briefly describes the purposes and procedures of the research. The letter
Includes her name, address, and methods of communications in case I have any
questions or concerns regarding the study.

I am aware of, and understand, that all Interviews and data will be held in the
strictest confidence and that the identity of the schools or individuals will not be
disclosed in any form during the preparation or completion of this study. I also
understand that participation in this study is completely voluntary and that
individuals may choose not to respond to any question, and/or withdraw from the
study at any time with no repercussions.

 

 

Signature Date
Jessie Muldrew Sommittee Shair
1325 Eldorado Drive Dr. Maenette Benham
Flint, MI 48505 Michigan State University
(810) 733-3000 425 Erickson Hall
East Lansing, MI 48824-1046
QSRIHS (517) 355-6613
David E. Wright, Ph.D., Chair Fax: (517)353-6393
Michigan State University e-rnail: mbenham@pilot.msu.edu

246 Administration Building
East Lansing, MI 48824-1046
(517) 355-2180

Fax (517) 432-1 171

e—mail: Ucrihs@pilot.msu.edu

333

Teachrs’e rf nst

I agree to participate in the study entitled “Eight Urban African American
Families: An Exploratory Study of Parent Involvement.“

l have received and read the letter from Jessie Muldrew dated

which briefly describes the purposes and procedures of the research. The letter
Includes her name, address and methods of communications in case I have any
questions or concams regarding the study.

I understand that my participation in this study requires me to participate by
taking part in a one-hour interview, and permitting the researcher to review
pertinent records and conduct school site observations.

I am aware of and understand that all Interviews and data will be held in the
strictest confidence and that the identity of the school or individual will not be
disclosed In any form during the preparation or completion of this study. I
understand that my participation in this study is completely voluntary and that I
may ask for the tape recorder to be turned off at any time, I may choose to not
respond to any question, and that I may withdraw from the study at any time with
no repercussions.

 

 

 

Signature Date
Jegie Muldrew _C_om_mittee Chair
1325 Eldorado Drive Dr. Maenette Benham
Flint, MI 48505 Michigan State University
(810) 733-3000 425 Erickson Hall
East Lansing, MI 48824-1046
QSRIHS (517) 355-6613
David E. Wright, Ph.D., Chair Fax: (517) 353—6393
Michigan State University e-mail: mbenham@pilot.msu.edu

246 Administration Building
East Lansing, MI 48824-1046

334

Parents’ Letter of onsent

I agree to participate in a study of the influence of African American parents’l
guardians’ involvement, in and out of school, on the performance, attitude, and
adjustment of children.

I have received and read the letter from Jessie Muldrew dated

which briefly describes the purposes and procedures of the research. The letter
includes her name, address, and methods of communications In case I have any
questions or concams regarding the study.

I understand that my participation In this study requires me to take part in a
series of interviews. I also understand that It will necessitate my child
participating in interviews. I am aware that the researcher will observe my child
in the school setting and review his/her school work and records. I also
understand that I may request that an adult be present during the interview If I so
choose.

I have been informed that all interviews and information pertaining to my child,
his/her school experience, and our family will be held In strictest confidence. I
have also been assured that our identities will not be disclosed in any form
during the preparation and completion of this study. I further understand that my
participation in this study is completely voluntary and that I may ask for the tape
recorder to be turned off at any time, I may choose not to respond to any
question, and that I may withdraw from the study at any time with no
repercussions.

 

 

Signature Date
Jessie Muldrew Sommittee Chair
1325 Eldorado Drive Dr. Maenette Benham
Flint, MI 48505 Michigan State University
(810) 733-3000 425 Erickson Hall
East Lansing, MI 48824-1046
QSRIHS (517) 355-6613
David E. Wright, Ph.D.,Chair Fax: (517)353-6393
Michigan State University e-mail: mbenham@pilot.msu.edu

246 Administration Building
East Lansing, MI 48824-1046
e-mail: Ucrihs@pilot.msu.edu

335

Students’ Letter of Sonsent

I agree to take part In a study about how African American family Involvement, in
and out of school, affects the performance, attitudes, and adjustment of their
children.

I have received and read the letter from Jessie Muldrew dated .
The letter, which describes the purposes and procedures of the research, has
been explained to me by Mrs. Muldrew or another adult (my teacher or parent).
The letter Includes names, addresses, and methods of communications in case I
have questions or concerns about the study.

I have been assured that all of the Information which I share with Mrs. Muldrew
about my school experience and my family will be held In strictest confidence. I
have also been assured that our names will not be used on any forms during the
preparation and completion of this study. I further understand that my taking
part in this study Is completely voluntary and that I may ask for the tape recorder
to be turned off, choose not to answer a particular question, and that I may
withdraw from the study at any time with no repercussions or penalty.

 

 

Signature of Student Date
Jessie Muldrew Committee Shair
1325 Eldorado Drive Dr. Maenette Benham
Flint, MI 48505 Michigan State University
(810)733-3000 425 Erickson Hall
East Lansing, MI 48824-1046
QCRlHS * (517) 355-6613
David E. Wright, Ph.D.,Chair Fax: (517) 353-6393
Michigan State University e-mail: mbenham@pilot.msu.edu

246 Administration Building
East Lansing, MI 48824-1046
e—mail: Ucrihs@pilot.msu.edu

336

APPENDIX D

MATRICES

337

Interview Matrix (Information pertaining to the participants’ perceptions)

 

Students

Teachers

Parents

 

Contact Questions Related to Research Questions

 

1. Describe your family.

1. Describe child’s school work
ethic.

1. Describe family/kin stnrcture.

 

2. Describe how you feel

2. Describe what you know

2. What Is parent’s educational

 

 

 

 

about school about the family structure and level, current occupation?
child-rearing practices.
3. Who takes care of 3. What Is student’s 3. How close do you live to
you besides your relationship with parent? extended family? How
parent(s)? Involved are they In child-
rearirg?
4. What lessons do your
parents teach you about
respect, spirituality,
family, etc.?
Research Question #1

 

1. What stories do your
parents tell you about
their school experi-
ences?

1. Describe the student's
performance and attitude
toward school.

1. Explain how you recall your
parents'lguardians’ involve-
ment with your school?

 

2. What do they expect
of you at school?

2. Discuss your relationship
with parents/guardians.

2. Describe how your parents’
school Involvement compares
to your own.

 

3. In what ways do you
see your parents
Involved at school?

3. What expectations do you
feel the parents/guardians have
for the child’s school experi-
ence?

3. Discuss what, if any,
meaning you feel family
Involvement has for the child’s
school work, attitude, and
adjustment.

 

4. Who else In your
family is Involved In
your school? What do
they do?

4. In what ways do parents
involve themselves in the
classroom, school, and
community?

4. What are some stories of
barriers that you have con-
fronted to school involvement?

 

5. How do your parents
encourage you in
school?

5. Describe how you perceive
the parents’ role in the child’s
school experience.

5. Describe how/what you do in
your child’s class and school.

 

6. How do you get along
with the students In your
class?

6. Discuss the In-school
involvement, or lack of, for this
student’s family.

6. What more would you like to
do?

 

7. What do you like
most/least about your
school?

7. Describe your relationship
with the student.

7. Describe your participation
at school-related activities.

 

8. Describe the student’s
relationship with peers.

8. Explain how you view the
family’s role in the child’s
school experience.

 

 

 

 

9. Discuss your perception of
the opportunities for family
involvement at your child’s
school.

 

338

 

 

 

 

Students L Teachers Parents
Research Question #2
1. Describe what you do 1. Discuss your perception of 1. Describe the family’s after-
after school. how the student feels about school routines and activities.

home as a Ieaming environ-
ment. Give examples.

 

2. Describe what you do
on weekends.

2. In what ways have you
observed the parents structur-
Ing their time to support school
Ieaming?

2. Explain your feelings about
homework and home support
for school Ieaming.

 

3. Describe what your
parents do to help you In
school.

3. What activities do parents
engage In that enrich Ieaming?

3. How do you structure your
family/house time to support
your child’s Ieaming?

 

4. What lessons do your
parents teach you about
school?

 

5. Is there anything
more you would like
your parents to do to
help you with school?

 

Research Question #3

 

1. Describe what your
parents do when they
come to your school.

1. Describe how you feel about
the parent’s involvement and
how it affects student
performance. Give examples.

1. How do you think your child
perceives your school
Involvement?

 

2. How do you feel when

2. What recommendations do

2. How do you think your child

 

 

they come to your you have for increasing parent perceives your Involvement in
school? involvement in education? Ieaming outside of school?

3. Why do you think 3. In what ways do you think
your parents are your involvement helps or
Involved, or not, at hinders your child?

school? How does this

make you feel?

4. What do you think 4. How do you feel about your
your teachers think child’s school experience?
about your parents’

involvement in school?

 

5. In what ways do you
feel your parents’
involvement helps you
or hinders you in
school?

5. What, if any, Improvements
would you like to see made at
your child’s school?

 

 

6. Where would you like
to be after high school?
Why?

 

 

 

339

 

 

Students I Teachers I Parents

 

Research Question #4

 

1. In what ways would 1. In what ways can teachers 1. How do you think parents
you like your parents to encourage parent involvement? can become more Involved?
participate at your
school? Why?

 

2. In what specific ways do you
see them becoming more
involved?

 

 

 

 

 

Note: Each interview concluded with this question: Is there anything more you would like to
share with me about your family and the school?

340

 

Observations

 

Review of Documents

 

Research Question 1

 

Parents: Evidence of Involvement,
participation, visitation

 

Parents: Involvement/participation records
(volunteer sign-in logs, record of attendance
at open house, parent-teacherlstudent-Ied
conferences, attendance sheet from School
Improvement Team (SIT), and Community
Council meetings. Teacher records of parent
participation.

 

Research Question 2

 

Students: (at school) class participation,
readiness for assigned tasks, use of time, .
quality of efforts, etc.

Parents: (at home) family structure, home
environment, parenting styles, types and
socialization practices.

 

Students: (at school) portfolios or daily work
folders, homework, attendance, cunent
grades, citizenship, test scores, etc.

Parents: (at home) family activities, routines,
rules, home atmosphere, tools for Ieaming.

 

Research Question 3

 

Students: respect for school mics and
authority, relationship to peers and adults in
the school environment.

Parents: attitude toward school, evidence of
mind set.

 

Students: evidence of appreciation for
school.

Teachers: comments on report cards, notes
to parents, etc.

Parents: evidence of future plans to change
or not (i.e., notes to teachers).

 

Research Question 4

 

 

Does not apply.

 

Does not apply.

 

341

 

APPENDIX E

INTERVIEW PROTOCOLS

342

Teachers’ Interview Protocol
(Information pertaining to participants’ perceptions)

Re ear uestion #1
1. Describe the student’s performance and attitude toward school.
2. Discuss your relationship with parents/guardians.

3. What expectations do you feel the parents/guardians have for this child’s
school experience?

4. Describe the overall parent involvement picture for your classroom.

5. Do you perceive a difference in African American parent involvement and
that of other groups?

6. Describe how you see that evolvement of African American parent

involvement in recent years.

eer u tion#

1. How do you perceive the family’s school support for this student’s
Ieaming? .

2. Describe how you perceive the student’s relationship with his/her
parents/guardians.

3. Discuss how you perceive that the student feels about the home as a
Ieaming environment.

4. Describe how you encourage, or not, parent Involvement.

Reaearch Question #S

1. Describe how you perceive the parent’s role in the child’s school
experience.

2. Discuss the in-school involvement, or lack of, for this student’s family.

3. Describe how you feel the above affects the student’s work and attitude.

Re§earch Question #4

1. Describe what you perceive as some implications of the family’s

Involvement, or lack of same.

2. Describe how you see future parent involvement in public education.

343

Parents’ Interview Protocol
(lnforrnation pertaining to participants’ perceptions)

Re ue ' n #

1. Explain how you recall your parents’lguardian’s involvement with your
school.

2. Describe your parents’ involvement with your school.

3. Describe how your parents’ school involvement compares to your own.

4. Discuss what, if any, meaning you feel family involvement has for the

child’s school work, attitude, and adjustment.
Research uestion #2
1. Describe the family’s after-school routines and activities.

2. Explain your feelings about homework and home support for school
Ieaming.

3. Describe the Ieaming games and/or tools you have in the home to
encourage cognitive growth.

Re arch ue tion #3

1. Describe your participation in school-related activities. .

2. Explain how you view the family’s role In the child’s school experience.

3. Discuss your perception of the opportunities for family Involvement at your
child’s school.

4. Describe what you feel are some benefits/barriers to parent involvement.

Research Question #4

1. Explain what you feel your involvement, or lack of, means to your child’s

school work and attitude.

2. How do you see your child performing in school four years from now?

Students’ Interview Protocol
(lnfonnation pertaining to participants’ perceptions)

Bamrch Questipp £1

1.

2
3.
4

Describe how you feel about going to school.

Explain how you think you are doing in school.

Tell me what you think your parents expect of you at school.
Do you think school is important?

Baaaarch Question fl

1.

2
3
4.
5

Describe your family and include all members of the household.
Discuss the after-school and home activities with your family.
Explain your relationship to parents and other family members.
What happens at home when you have homework assignments?

What things do your parents do in your home to help you with Ieaming
after school?

Research uestion #3

1.
2.
3.

Describe your parents’lguardian’s participation at school.
Explain how you feel about their involvement, or lack of, at school.

Do you feel that parent involvement has meaning, or not, for your work,
attitudes and behavior?

Do you feel your parents are more or less involved than other parents;
how can you tell?

Research Question #4

1.
2.
3.

Describe how you see yourself in the future (five years from now).

If you have children, will you be involved in their school?

What would you like to be when you grow up?

345

Observation Protocol: In School

 

 

 

Student’s Number. Age:
School:
Grade Level of Student: Sex: M F

 

Number of Years in this School:
School Demographics:
Number of Students:
Number of Administrators:
Number of Teachers:

Description of School Environment:

Description of Classroom Environment: (How students organize desks, lockers,

etc.)

Description of Student: (Work ethics, relations with other kids and teachers)

346

Review-of-Documents Protocol

& Portf Ii :
g‘Lragaa Attendance Sitizenship
cams:
M cor MAT cores Sradea
Atten an # of Schools Attended

EarentlStudent-Led Sonferences:

cher Notations:

347

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348

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