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LIBRARY 14

Mlchigan State
University I

 

 

This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

Parents' Selection of Child Care Type:
an Ecological Perspective

presented by

Sojung Seo

has been accepted towards fulﬁllment
of the requirements for

M.A. degree in Child Development

 

 

 

Major profe r

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0.7639 MSU is an Afﬁrmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution

PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record.
To AVOID FINES return on or before date due.
MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested.

 

 

 

 

DATE DUE DATE DUE BéTmE lgU ,

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MAY 1 2 2002
022102

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

11/00 mm.“

 

PARENTS’ SELECTION OF
CHILD CARE TYPE: AN ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
By

Sojung Seo

A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan State University
In partial fulﬁllment of the requirements
For the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

DEPARTMENT OF FAMILY AND CHILD ECOLOGY

2000

ABSTRACT
Parents’ Selection of Child Care Type: an Ecological Perspective
By

Sojung Seo

The purpose of this study was to identify characteristics that may be related to
parents’ selection of child care type in both suburban and urban communities in the
Mid- West. Speciﬁcally, this study investigated the differences in child care selection
between parents using center-based care and parents using family day care settings as a
function of each of the variables in this study. Variables included in this study were:
child care program characteristics (e.g., program location, cost, and availability); family
characteristics (e.g., parents’ education and income); parental perceptions of program
(e. g., parents’ accessibility to written child care resources such as brochure, ﬂyers, or
parent handbooks and referrals available from the community and recommendations of
others such as friends, relatives, coworkers, or neighbors). Results of t-tests of means
showed that parents using center care identiﬁed their access to child care resources and
referrals as being signiﬁcantly more inﬂuential to child care selection than parents using
family or group home care settings. There were no signiﬁcant differences between
parents’ selection of child care type as a function of other program characteristics
(location, cost, and availability), family characteristics (family income and education),

or parental perceptions of program (e. g., recommendations of others).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to acknowledge sincere gratitude to Dr. Brophy-Herb, my major
professor, for her assistance with the development of this study. She helped a lot in
directing my thesis work as well as my study from the very beginning of my graduate
work at MSU.

I would like to thank my guidance committee members, Dr. Tom Luster and Dr.
Robert Boger for their contributions for their time, comments, and guidance.

Special thanks are extended to the respondents, who volunteered for my research
and made this study possible.

My great appreciation goes to my dear parents who offered me tremendous
support, encouragement, and love throughout my years at MSU. I also thank for my
sister and brother for their concern and support that gave me to complete this thesis.

Finally, I would like to offer my special thanks and love to my husband,
HanSeung Shin. His emotional support and trust gave me the determination to

complete my master’s program and this thesis.

III

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page

I. Introduction _ . _ , . . 1
Statement of Problem. 2
Signiﬁcance of Study ‘ , . 3
Human Ecological Model Mv‘w " " 3
Conceptual and Operational Deﬁnitions 8

II. Review of Literature

Need and Child Care Usage . . . . . . 12

Characteristics Inﬂuencing Parents’

Selection of Child Care Type . . . . . . 13
Child Care Program Characteristics . . . . . . 13
Family Characteristics . . . . . . 14
Parents’ Beliefs about the type of care . . . . . . 17
Parental Perceptions of Program . . . . . . 18
Summary . . . . . . 20

IH. Methodology

Research Design . . . . . . 21
Research Subjects . . . . . . 21
Sampling Procedures and Data Collection . . . . . . 23
Research Questions and Hypotheses . . . . . . 24
Research Instrument . . . . . . 26
Data Analyses . . . . . . 27

Quantitative Analysis . . . . . . 27

Qualitative Analysis . . . . . . 28

IV

IV. Results

Research Question One
Research Question Two
Research Question Three
Research Question Four
Research Question Five
Research Question Six
Qualitative Data

Parental Observation

Open-ended Questions

V. Discussion and Conclusions

Limitations
Implications for Future Research

APPENDICES

Appendix A: Consent Form
Appendix B: Parent Survey Questionnaire
Appendix C: UCRIHS Approval

BIBLIOGRAPHY

29
29
30
31
32
33
38
38
38

41

46
47

49
5O
58

59

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1: Family Demographic Characteristics.

TABLE 2: Correlations among Family Demographic Variables.

TABLE 3: T-Test Differences in Two Groups of Parents’ Child Care
Choices as a Function of Parents’ Accessibility to
Printed Child Care Resources

TABLE 4: T-Tests for Differences between Two Groups of Parents’ in the

Identiﬁcation of the Inﬂuences of Written Child Care Resources
and Referrals on Child Care Choices.

VI

Page

22

31

34

36

LISTS OF FIGURE
Page

Figure 1: Characteristics Potentially Inﬂuencing Parents’ Child Care Choices
from an Ecological Perspective. . . . . . 6

Figure 2: Potential Child Care, Family, and Parental Perceptions of Program Variables
Contributing to Parents’ Child Care Selection. . . . 7

VII

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

One of the most important decision parents make is to choose an appropriate
child care program outside the home while they work (Hammer & Turner, 1990;
Atkinson, 1994; Fuller, Holloway, & Liang, 1996; Larner, 1996; Long, 1996; Singer,
Fuller, Keiley, Wolf, 1998; Scrivo, 1998; Children’s Defense Fund, 1999). Scrivo
(1998) asserts that the biggest problem among working parents is ﬁnding good quality
care or simply ﬁnding child care at all. As the supply of high quality day care does not
keep pace with the rapidly rising demand of parents, dual career parents face difﬁcult
decisions in choosing care for their children (Scrivo, 1998; Children’s Defense Fund,
1999).
In recent years many researchers (Payne, 1994; Fuller, Holloway, & Liang,
1996; Johansen, Leibowitz, & Waite, 1996; Larner, 1996; Long, 1996; Cryer et al.,
1997; Curtis, 1997; Ispa, Thomburg, Venter-Barkley, 1998; Singer, Fuller, Keiley,
Wolf, 1998; Scrivo, 1998) have focused on parents’ selection of center-based case and
examined the ways in which working parents choose center-based child care program
for their young children. Initial research on the determinants of selection of child care
type has focused on the following variables: maternal employment status (e.g.,
Leibowitz, Klerman, & Waite, 1991; Glass & Estes, 1997), family income (e.g.,
Hoﬂ‘erth & Wissoker, 1992), and child care program fee (e.g., Hoﬁ‘erth & Wissoker,
1992). The attributes most ﬁ'equently cited as inﬂuencing parents’ choices of child care

type for their infants and toddlers are based on child care program characteristics such

as location, cost, and hours as opposed to its quality of care (J ohansen, Leibowitz, &
Waite, 1996). Accordingly, most research has focused on the inﬂuence of variables
such as program characteristics (e.g., program fee, location, and availability) (e.g.,
Hoﬂ‘erth & Wissoker, 1992; Johansen, et al., 1996) and family characteristicsi(e.g.,
parents’ education, income, and age) on parental child care selection (Long, 1996;
Scrivo, 1998). Also, research has found the following reasons, in general, to be
considered as important to parents in choosing a center-based child care over other
types of child care arrangements for infants and toddlers: cleanliness of the center
(Hammer & Turner, 1990: Galinsky, Howes, & Kontos, 1994; Cryer et al., 1997; Ispa et
al., 1998), staff-child interactions (Hammer & Turner, 1990; Cryer et al., 1997; Ispa et
al., 1998), program curriculum (Hammer & Turner, 1990; Cryer et al., 1997), hours of
operation, location, and space available (J ohansen et al., 1996).
Statement of the Problem

Overall purposes of this study were to identify characteristics parents consider
when choosing types of child care (center or family day care) and to identify how
inﬂuential the characteristics are to parents’ choices of child care type. In addition, this .
study investigated differences in parents’ choices of child care type as a function of
variables including child care program characteristics (program location, cost, and
availability), family characteristics (parents’ income and education), and parental
perceptionsof program (parents’ accessibility to child care resources and referrals in the
community and recommendations of others such as ﬁ'iends, relatives, coworkers, or

neighbors).

Signiﬁcance of the Study

First, this study offers an ecological framework to research to understand how
parents make their choices of type of child care. Understanding parents’ values
regarding types of child care choices is also useful to caregivers serving children and
families in marketing their services to meet individual parents’ needs in ﬁnding child 7
care by making efforts to inform parents of their program beliefs or philosophy.
Finally, this study is useful to professionals to help parents improve their child care
consumer skills by offering parent education and providing guidelines regarding
characteristics of high quality care.
Humim Ecological Model

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model offers a useful context from which to study
inﬂuences on parents’ choices of types of child care. Bronfenbrenner (1989) provides
insight into the study of human development within a family and the environment
which surrounds and interacts with it. In investigating why working parents choose a
particular type of child care, it is important to look at dynamic interactions between the
family system and the surrounding environments. Using an ecological model, a
conceptual framework illustrating characteristics that may inﬂuence parents’ choice of
types of child care arrangements was developed in this study (Figure 1). Next, possible
paths that may characterize parents’ choices of child care type were also developed
(Figure 2).

Bronfenbrenner's (1989) model of the ecology of human development can be

conceptualized as a series of concentric circles with four levels progressing outward

ﬁ'om the center of the target. In this study the parental unit represents the centric target,
with the four levels progressing outward.

The ﬁrst and smallest circle represents the microsystem. Bronfenbrenner states
that the microsystem is "a pattern of activities, roles and interpersonal relations
experienced by the developing person in a given face-to-face setting with particular
physical and distinctive characteristics of temperament, personality, and systems of
belief“ (1989, p.227). In this study, the parents’ system, or the parents, is the major
microsystem being examined as it relates to choice of child care arrangement for their
children. The mesosystem constitutes the second circle and comprises the linkages and
processes taking place between two or more settings containing the developing person
(Bronfenbrenner, 1989, p.227). The linkages between parents and child care settings,
neighbors, and community resources can be included in this mesosystemic level with
regard to their choices of types of child care arrangements. Parents’ social networking,
as related to their child care decision, is one of the important parts of the mesosystem.
The mesosystem interactions between parents and child care arrangements were the
primary focus of this research. Exosystems are settings that have a bearing on the
developing persons (parents), but in which those parents do not play a direct role. A
spouse’s work environment including ﬂexible work schedules and family- friendly
policies represents the exosystem. In this study, parents’ employment status was
examined at this level, but the scope of this study was limited to only a full-time dual
career families’ child care choices. Thus, the focus was just at the mesosystemic level.

Macrosystems are set within the broad ideological, demographic, and

institutional patterns of a particular culture or subculture that indicated how children

should be or should not be treated by parents, and which environments parents should
provide for their children. These values differ from culture to culture and all of the
experiences parents have for their children in home, child care settings, community, and
all other contexts directly ‘or indirectly inﬂuence parents and children. Thus,
macrosystems are composed of societal environments in the US. In addition, the US.
economy in relation to child care market represents the macrosystem. There is a
disparity between the demands of quality child care and its supply in the child care
market of the US. economy (Johansen et al., 1996). This situation might indirectly
affect parents’ decision making regarding child care arrangements, though quality exists
both in some center—based care and in some family or group home care settings.

The primary focus will be on the mesosystemic linkages between the system of
parents and that of child care arrangement chosen by parents. Thus, the level of

analysis was at the mesosystem.

 

 

Macro-level

US. Economy

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F igure 1. Characteristics Potentially Inﬂuencing Parents’ Child Care Choices
From an Ecological Perspective

 

 

Center Family Day
Care ‘ Care

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I I Child Care Choice ‘

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Program Charc. Family Charc. arental Perceptions
of Program
1. Location 1. Income
2. Cost 2. Education 1. Formal
3. Availability 2. Informal
* Parental Perceptions of Program
1. Perceptions of Formal Program = parents’ access to written child care resources & referrals
from the community

2. Perceptions of Informal Program =recommendations of others

Figure 2. Potential child care, family, and parental perceptions of program
characteristics contributing to parents’ selection of child care type.

Families differ along such dimensions as parents’ level of income and education. This
may inﬂuence parents’ choices of child care type. Other constructs such as child care
program characteristics which include program location, cost, and availability/ hours of
Operation and parental perceptions of program including parents’ access to written child
care resources and referrals from the community (formal) and recommendations of
others (informal) may inﬂuence parents’ selection of child care type.

Conceptual and Operational Deﬁnitions

Child care selection is conceptually deﬁned as the choice to provide a child
with non-parental care at a particular site when there are alternative sites available to the
parents.

Child care selection is operationally deﬁned as actual usage or child enrollment
by parents in a type of child care arrangements as identiﬁed by parents on the Parent
Survey Questionnaire (See the front page of the survey question in a box).

Spedding (1995) gives the following descriptions that are intended to offer brief

overviews of two child care options in the United States:

Day Care Center provides group care for children in a non-residential setting for all or
part of a day. Most centers enroll three to ﬁve year olds, but a growing number of
centers also offer care for infants, toddlers, and school-age children. Most day care
centers in the US. operate year round. Day care centers in the US. are primarily
private businesses and can be either “ for proﬁt” or “not-for-proﬁt” centers. In either
case, they are usually subject to the regulatory system of their particular state. From the
perspective of convenience for adults, centers have reliable, albeit rigid, schedules.
Their predictability is welcomed by working parents whose hours coincide with a
center’s (p.540).

Family Day care which is provided in a caregiver’s home for all or part of a day has
practical advantages for many parents. Family day care is more likely than center-
based care to accept children under one year of age. Care is usually year round, ﬁve
days per week, early morning to early evening, with somewhat more ﬂexible hours than
day care centers. Most family day care providers are private entrepreneurs working
under private arrangements made with parents, often outside any governmental
regulatory system (p.541). Group Family Day care which is provided in a caregiver’s
home for all or part of the day by at least two adults and for larger groups of children
(6-12) than regular family day care. Care is usually year round, ﬁve days per week,
early morning to early evening, with local variations. Most group family day care
homes accept children from infancy through school age (p.541).

Child care program variables are conceptually deﬁned as the following child
care setting characteristics: fee, location, and availability (convenience of hours of
operation).

Child care program variables are operationally deﬁned as measures of
parents’ responses to the following question on the Parent Survey Questionnaire
(Question #Al): I chose this type of child care for my child for the following reasons
(Check all that apply)

This information is obtained through the following possible Parent Survey
Questionnaire items:

1) Location was convenient; 2) cost was reasonable; 3) the hours that the
program was open ﬁt our needs.

Family variables are conceptually deﬁned both as family descriptive
characteristics including parents’ age, parents’ education, income, and size of the family
and parents’ beliefs about optimal child care settings. Parents beliefs about optimal
child care settings are conceptually deﬁned as parental perceptions of what a program is
and of what it should offer to their children.

Family variables are operationally deﬁned as information about parents’
demographics (parents’ age, education, income, gender, ethnicity, and size of the
family) and beliefs (e.g., parents’ beliefs about types of program) as reported on
questions found on the Parent Survey Questionnaire:

I am the mother or father (Question #Cl); Your age (Question #C2); What is the

highest level of education you have completed? (Question #C3); What is your

total household income? (Question #C4); What is your ethnicity? (Question #
C5).

10

Parents’ beliefs about types of child care are operationally deﬁned as the
responses to the following Parent Survey Questionnaire items:

If you use a center-based care, please specify the reasons why you chose this
type of care over family/home care? (Question #38); If you use a family day
care why you chose this type of care over another? (Question #B9); If you use
both center-based and family day care for your child why you combine two
types of child care?(Question #BlO).

This information is obtained through the following items:

1) Family day care was expected to provide an intimate and secure environment

to my child; 2) Center-based care was expected to provide an educational

environment to my child; 3) These types of child care settings provide both an
intimate and educaitonal environment to my child.

Parental perceptions of formal program are conceptually deﬁned as parental
identiﬁcation of and perception of inﬂuences of written resources (e. g., checklists,
brochures, Parent Orientation Packet for Parents, or ﬂyers), referrals within community
agencies on their child care selection.

Parental perceptions of formal program are operationally deﬁned as parental
identiﬁcation of and ranking of the level of inﬂuences of written resources (e.g.,
checklists, brochures, Orientation Packet for Parents, or ﬂyers) and referrals from
community agencies on their child care selection. Information about whether parents
were given written resources and how they perceive the inﬂuences of formal program
on their child care selection are obtained through the following Parent Survey
Questionnaire items:

The corresponding questions to these above items are:

When I was trying to ﬁnd child care, I was given printed information that was

available from a community agency (e.g., child care resources and referrals),
workplace, or child care program setting (Question #BS).

ll

1) Yes; 2) No.

Please indicate how inﬂuential these following sources of information you
received were to your choice in child care type? (Question #B7)

1) Written information (e.g., brochures, checklists, Orientation Packet for
Parents, or ﬂyers) that was available from community, child care settings, or
workplaces; 2) Discussion with the personnel in child care resources and
referral agencies; 3) Discussion with the child care center director and/or
caregivers.

Parental perceptions of informal program are conceptually deﬁned as
parental identiﬁcation of and perception of the inﬂuences of the program reputation
according to relatives, friends, coworkers, and neighbors.

Parental perceptions of informal program are operationally deﬁned as
parental identiﬁcation of and ranking of the inﬂuences of recommendations of others
(e.g., relatives, co-workers, friends, and neighbors) on parental selection of types of
child care. This information is obtained through the following Parent Survey
Questionnaire items:

The corresponding questions to these above items are:

Please check each item that accurately reﬂects factors you considered in

choosing your child care (Question #Al)

Please indicate how inﬂuential these following sources of information you
received were to your choice in child care type? (Question #B7)

1) Discussion with friends, coworkers, or other parents who had used the
services; 2) Recommendations of ﬁiends, coworkers, relatives, or other parents
who had not used the service but believed the day care was a good place for
children

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Need and Child Care Usage

The 1994 Bureau of the US. Department of Labor reported that working
mothers in two-parent families with young children make up over 60% of the labor
force (cited in Brofenbrenner, McClelland, Wethington, Moen, & Ceci, 1996). Further,
the fastest-growing segment of employed mothers represent mothers with infants
between 3 weeks and 3 months of age (Scrivo, 1997). The State of America’s Children ‘
Yearbook of 1999 reported 57% of the women with children younger than three were in
the workplace (Children’s Defense Fmrd, 1999). In fact, about 58.8% of all new
mothers return to work before their babies are 1 year old (Leibowitz, Klennan & Waite,
1996; Mueller, & Orimoto, 1997; Pungello & Kurtz-Costes, 1999). Thus, many of
mothers of infants are working and need non-matemal care for their young children.

The US. National Household Education Survey (1995) reported that infants
under the age of one were more likely to be cared for in their homes either by a relative
or a non-relative than in a center-based setting (National Center for Education Statistics,
1997). Six million infants and toddlers spend part of their day being cared by someone
other than their parents, and ﬁfty one percent of those children are cared for by center-
based care and/or family day care (Scrivo, 1998; Children’s Defense Fund, 1999).
Leibowitz, Klerman, and Waite (1991) reported that 14% of infants and 17% of
toddlers, not cared for by their mothers, were cared for in organized child care centers,

and the remaining received care from other types of care, such as family day care care.

12

13

The National Child Care Survey (1990) found that only 14 % of children under one year
age whose mothers were employed were in center-based care, while a much larger
portion of the children received child care in non-center based care including family day
care (Hofferth, Brayﬁeld, Deich, & Holcomb, 1991; Galinsky, 1994; Kagan & Cohen,
1996). Therefore, many parents of children under three were reported to be more likely
to select child care in family day care settings over center-based care settings.
Characteristics hﬂuencmgmw’ Selection of Child Care Type

The following section addresses characteristics inﬂuencing parents’ child care
selection including child care program characteristics (program location, cost, and
availability), family characteristics (parents’ education and income), and parental
perceptions of program variables (program reputation via the availability of child care
resources and referrals in the community and parents’ social networking) (Payne, 1994).
Child Caﬂrogram Characteristics

Several studies have focused on the child care program characteristics including
program location, cost, and availability as related to parents’ selection between center-
based care settings (Long, 1983, 1996; Kagan & Neville, 1992; Payne, 1994; Fuller et
al., 1996; Curtis, 1997). Length of day (full-day service or a half day service), cost, and
location were reported as being inﬂuential to parents’ choices of center-based care
(Payne, 1994). Kagan and Neville (1992) also reported that variables such as the
location of child care and ﬂexibility on parents’ time scheduling were inﬂuential in their
selection of one center care over another. Location and cost were reported as the most

common reasons for choosing one center care over another ( Fuller 'et al., 1996).

14

In terms of the type of care (center vs. family day care) selected by parents,
Hammer & Tumner (1990) reported that the existence of family day care by non-
parents (e.g., caregivers including both relatives and non-relatives) is difﬁcult to
document and regulate because this kind of care is transient and informal. Despite the
challenges in identifying family daycare, some data suggest that family day care has
been chosen by parents over center-based care due to several reasons (Hammer &
Turner, 1990; Hoﬂ‘erth & Wissoker, 1992; Atkinson, 1994; Larner, 1996). Family day
care providers are more likely than centers to take children who needed care early and
late in the day (Siegel & Loman, 1991; Atkinson, 1994; Larner, 1996). Location is also
reported as important factor to parents’ family day care selection over center-based care
because centers may not be conveniently located, especially in rural areas (Galinsky,
Howes, Kontos, & Shinn, 1994; Johansen et al., 1996; Larner, 1996). Family day care
is usually located in parents’ neighborhoods (Larner, 1996). Galinsky’s (1994) study of
parents who used family day care (provided by non relative caregivers and relatives) for
their infants showed that parents rated variables related to adult needs, like cost,
location, and convenience, as being important to their child care choices.

Famin Characteristics

Several studies have examined the inﬂuences of family income on parents’
selection of child care type. Hoﬁenh and Wissoker’s (1992) study, in which 971
mothers (from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth) of children under the age of
6 were interviewed, found that higher income was associated with a higher probability
of choosing center care over other types of care (sitter care, relative care ’or father care).

In contrast, Leibowitz et a1. (1991), also using data from the National Longitudinal

15

Survey of Youth, did not ﬁnd a relationship between family income and care type
selected, but they did not include relative care in their equations. In addition, sitter care
in these studies (Iioﬁ‘erth & Wissoker, 1992; Leibowitz et al., 1991) referred to
nonrelative care in the child’s or caregiver’s home considering in-home care and famil y
day care homes as one group in these two studies. Erdwins and Buﬂ‘ardi’s (1994) study
(in Pungello & Kurtz-Costes, 1999) examined in home care (sitter care) and family day
care separately and found that income did not differentiate center and family day care
users. However, Jghansen et a1. (1996) found diﬂ‘ering results; parents who are high
level professionals (e.g., medicine and law) and earn higher wages are more likely to
choose family day care for their children younger than three years old because of the
ﬂexibility of extendible hours associated with family day care. Although more research
is needed regarding the inﬂuences of family income on parents’ selection of child care
type, both family day care and center care appear to be related to higher income and
lower income is associated with use of relative care (Pungello & Kurtz-Costes, 1999).
The literature to data has shown inconsistent ﬁndings in the relationship
between parental education and type of care selected. Better-educated mothers (with a
college degree or an advanced degree) tend to select child care centers, whereas less-
educated mothers are more likely to use family day care (including care by sitters,
relatives, or non-relatives at child’s home or someone else’s home) for their infants or
toddlers (Hammer & Turner, 1990; Fuller et al., 1996). Thronburg and Venter-Barkely
(1998) also reported that better-educated mothers tend to prefer to center-based care for
children under 3 years old over family day care (including care by sitters, relatives or

non-relatives at child’s home or someone else’s home) because they perceived center-

16

based care as having a strong educational program than family day care. However,
these two studies (Hammer & Turner, 1990; Fuller et al., 1996; Thronburg & Venter-
Barkely, 1998) did not differentiate between home care (by sitters or relatives at child’s
home) and family day care (by non relatives at someone else’s home). In contrast,
Johansen and colleagues (Johansen et al., 1996) distinguished among three types of care
according to location: care at home, which includes care by both relatives and
nonrelatives; care in someone else’s home, including relatives as well as non relatives;
and care in a day care center. Better educated parents of children under three years old
tend to select family day care (non relative care in some else’s home) over center-based
care because parental concern with the educational component of care only increased
with the age of the child (Johansen et al., 1996). This result is also consistent with the
evidence from the 1997 National Center for Education Statistics which reported highly
educated parents favored family day care (non relative care at some else’s home) for
their children younger than three years old because they considered their child’s
education at a later age (older than three). However, Erdwins and Buﬁ‘ardi’s (1994)
study (in Pungello & Kurtz-Costes, 1999) found that parental education was associated
with an increased likelihood of selected a type of paid care such as family day care or
center-based care, and center care and family day care parents did not signiﬁcantly
diﬁ'er on this variable.

Research has supported that the age of the child inﬂuences the types of care
parents select because very young children (infants) are least likely to receive care in
day care centers (Hofferth et al., 1991; Hofferth & Wisoker, 1992; Johansen et al.,

1996; Larner, 1996). The National Survey, conducted by Hofferth, Brayﬁeld, Deich,

17

and Holcomb (1991), found that only 14 percent of children under one year of age,
whose mothers were employed, were in center-based care while the remainder received
other types of care including family day care by relatives or non relatives (Hofferth,
Brayﬁeld, Deich, & Holcomb, 1991; Larner, 1996). These ﬁndings are consistent with
those reported in 1997 by the National Center for Education Statistics. According to
this organization, approximately 29.2% of these infants were not in child care (21.6%
were care for by their fathers and 7.6% were cared for by their mothers while their
mothers worked). A total of 3 l .3% of these infants were cared for by a family members
(11.4$ in the child’s home and 19.9% in the relative’s home); the majority of these
infants (23% of all infants of working mothers) were cared for by a grandparent.
Approximately, 20.5% of the infants were placed in family day care settings, while
11.5% of the infants were enrolled in center care settings.

Parents’ beliefs about the type of ca_r_e.

 

Parents’ goals and beliefs about appropriate early childhood education inﬂuence
their enrollment decisions (Stipek, Milburn, Calluzzo, & Daniels, 1992; Payne, 1994).
As Payne (1994) pointed out, parents’ perceptions of a program are inﬂuenced by their
beliefs of what it ought to be, reﬂective of the values, social comparisons, and
philosophical orientation of the parents. Parents who considered the inﬂuence of the
child’s relationship with the caregivers as important were more likely to choose family
day care rather than a day care center for infants and toddlers (Atkinson, 1994;
Johansen, Leibowtz, & Waite, 1996; Larner, 1996;). On the contrary, parents who

chose center-based care over another type of family day care were more likely to

 

l8

emphasize developmental outcomes in their children (J ohansen et al., 1996; Larner,
1996).
Parental Perceptions of Prom

Parents’ selection of child care type may be inﬂuenced by parents’ social
networks/social relationships. The following is addressed to examine how program
reputation via the parents’ access to written child care resources and referrals from the
community (formal) and their social networks such as recommendations of others
(informal) inﬂuence parents’ selection of child care type.

Several research has examined the inﬂuences of parents’ accessibility to written
information such as brochures, checklists, ﬂyers, or Orientation Packet for Parents
about child care as well as referrals ﬁom community agencies, workplaces, or child care
settings) on parents’ selection of center-based care (Long, 1983, 1996; Atkinson, 1994;
Lechner & Creedon, 1994; Payne, 1994: Zinzeleta & Little, 1997). However, little
research has examined the diﬁ‘erences in parents’ child care type as a fimction of these
variables between parents using family day care and parents using center—based care
settings. Long (1996) noted that one of the primary functions of child care resources is
to link parents with child care by providing referrals to centers and day care homes
suited to the parents’ and child’s needs. Lechner and Creedon (1994) reported that
child care resources and referrals helped working parents decide what child care options
are right for them (e.g., family care, child care centers) and how to judge the quality of
the care provided in either type of center-based or family day care. Child care resource
and referral services were reported to be helpful to parents who are trying to locate the

best possible and most aﬁ‘ordable center-based care among oftentimes limited choices

l9

(Lecher & Creedon, 1994; Payne, 1994). Families new to communities may be more
likely to use child care resources and referral services available from the community
(Atkinson, 1994). Long (1983, 1996) reported that parents who had fewer friendships
were more likely rely on the formal child care resources and referral services in locating
child care.

Zinzeleta and Little (1997) investigated how parents used available resources
such as brochures or checklists (e.g., a description of characteristics associated with
high quality as deﬁned by the NAEYC) from a child care resource and referral agency
in making their decisions about choosing a center-based care setting. Contrary to
expectations that educational resources and checklists might play an important role in
parental selection of a type of care, checklists and other educational resources within the
community were not tools parents used in selecting child care (Zinzeleta & Little,
1997). Reasons included believing that the checklists were irrelevant, having parental
own perceptions or values, misplacing the checklist, not having the time to complete
checklists, and relying on personal perceptions or values instead of checklists to make
child care decision (Bogat & Genseheimer 1986; Zinzeleta & Little, 1997). In another
study done by Atkinson (1994), parents reported that they did not used educational
resources and referral services when choosing child care for their young children
(infants and toddlers).

Inﬂuences of recommendations of ﬁ'iends, coworkers, relatives, and neighbors
on parental selection of types of child care (center care or family day care by non
relatives or relatives) have been examined in several studies (Long, 1983; Hofferth,

Brayﬁeld, Deich, & Holcomb, 1991; Atkinson, 1994;Lamer, 1996; Singer et al., 1998).

20

Parents may rely on informal sources of information from relatives, friends, neighbors,
and co-workers in choosing types of child care (Larner, 1996). A National survey
(1990) indicated that 66% of parents who arranged child care outside the family relied
on such informal sources of information about child care, whereas 13% used
advertisements, and 9% turned to resource and referral agencies (Hofferth, Brayﬁeld,
Deich, & Holcomb, 1991; Larner, 1996). Parents depended ﬁrst on their informal
network (e.g., relatives, neighbors) to locate child care, and they turned to formal
services only if that network was limited or unable to help (Long, 1983; Long, 1996).
Summa

The empirical data support that working parents’ child care decisions are
inﬂuenced by many variables including family demographic characteristics (e.g.,
parents’ levels of income, education, and age of child), program characteristics (e. g.,
program location, cost, and availability), and parents’ perception of program variables
(e.g., parents’ accessibility to child care resources and referrals, and recommendations).
Research has shown that child care program characteristics (e.g., location, cost, and
availability) are more inﬂuential to parents’ selection of child care type (center care vs.
family day care). For family demographic characteristics (e.g., parents’ education,
income, and child age), research to date has shown inconsistent ﬁndings with regard to
the inﬂuences of family income and maternal education on their types of child care.
The parents with higher education are reported that they do not emphasize the
educational programs of child care for their children under age 3 years when choosing

their child care.

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

Research Desigr_r

In order to carry out the research objectives most effectively, a non-experimental
survey research design was undertaken. The unit of analysis in this study was
individual parent’s indication of child care selection of either center-based or family day
care. Self-report questionnaires were sent to parents afﬁliated with center-based and
family day care facilities in both urban and suburban communities in the Mid-west area.
Research Subiects

The subjects for this study were 47 dual career parents, employed full-time, with
young children, aged birth to 36 months, who were enrolled either in center care or
family day care settings. Approximately 21% of the parents responding to the survey
were males; most (78.7%) of the parents responding to the survey were females. The
age the respondents ranged from 18 to 49 years, with a mean of 30.68 years (S_D=.96).
Parents in this sample were highly educated with most parents (77%) holding at least a
bachelor’s degree (M=4.34, STE-1.16). Annual family income ranged from less than
$20,000 to over $120,000. The average family income was S 21,100 SD=1.36). A

summary of demographic characteristics of the sample is presented in Table 1.

21

22

Table 1. Family Demographic Characteristics (_N_=47).

 

Parent’s Age
18-25 years
26-33 years
34-41 years
42-29 years
50+ years

Parent’s Education
high school/GED
2 yrs. College
4yrs. College
Masters
Ph.D.

Family Income
<$20,000
20-840,000
40-$60,000
60-880,000
>$80,000

Ethnicity
Caucasian
African-American
Hispanic-American
Other (Arab-American)

Family Size (including adults)
3
4

Years Living in the Community

l-5yrs.

6-10yrs.

1 1-15yrs.

16-20yrs.

21-25yrs.

26-30yrs.

>30yrs.

1 1%
57%
23%
4.2%
4.2%

8%

15%
26%
36%
15%

49%
17%
9%
21%
4%

51%
40%
6.4%
5.5%

2%
98%

47%
32%
2%
2%
4%
2%
1 1%

 

23

Sampliag Procedures and Data Collection

A list of all licensed centers, family child care, and group day care home
facilities serving infants and toddlers was provided by a local child care referral agency
in a suburban community in the Midwest. Though this study speciﬁed two types of
family or group home care settings: a licensed family child care for 6 children, a
licensed group day care home for 12 children, it treated family or group home care
settings as one type of family day care setting. A minimum of 50 families was expected
in this study. Family day care settings were expected to have a lower number of
participating subjects than day care centers because family day care home facilities
typically enrolled far fewer families at a time. In order to ensure equivalent sample sizes
from center and family day care facilities, 20 directors of licensed centers and 40
directors of family day care facilities were contacted by the investigator by mail, with
follow-up phone calls made shortly after. Ten out of 20 center-based and 16 out of 40
family day care settings (r_r=6 for family child care and r_1=10 for group home settings)
agreed to participate in this study.

All directors who agreed to participate in this study were asked to distribute
Parent Survey packets, containing a letter describing the study, a consent form, and a
survey questionnaire, to all parents who met the qualiﬁcations (a two parent full-time
working family with children, aged birth-36 months). All participants provided written
consent of their participation. Stamped, addressed envelopes were included so the
Parent Survey Questionnaire and the consent form could be returned directly to the
investigator. Each survey was identiﬁed by a code number. Therefore, all survey

‘ responses were conﬁdential. Forty seven surveys out of the 100 surveys distributed

 

24

were returned to the investigator: 18 from parents using center-based care, 20 from
parents using family day care, and 9 from parents using a combination of both center
based care and family day care.
Researgch Questions and Hypotheses

In this study, six research questions and seven hypotheses were developed.
Research Question 1: Does parental selection of child care differ as a function of family
income?

H1: Parents who earn higher wages will choose a family day care over center-

based care (Johansen et al., 1996)
Research Question 2: Does parental selection of child care differ as a function of
parental educational level?

HZ: More educated parents will choose a family day care over center-based care

(J ohansen et al., 1996; National Center for Educational Statistics, 1997).
ReseaLch Question 3: Are family demographic variables related to each other?

H3: There are correlations among demographic variables (e.g., parents’ income,

education, family size, years living in the community) of parents in this sample.
Research Question 4: What are the variables identiﬁed by parents of this study when
choosing child care?
Resegch Question 5: How inﬂuential do parents perceive child care program
characteristics (location, cost, and availability) to be in their child care choices?

H4: Parents using family day care will rank child care program characteristics

(location, cost, and availability) as being more inﬂuential to child care choices

25

than parents using center-based care (Long, 1983; Johansen, Leibowitz, &
Waite, 1996; Larner, 1996).
Resgrph Question 6: How inﬂuential do parents perceive formal program (child care
resources and referrals from the community and recommendations of others) to be in
their child care choices?
H5: Parents using center-based care will report that they had been given more
access to formal program image variables (written child care resources and
referrals available from the community) in their child care selection than parents
using family day care settings.
H6: Parents using center-based care settings will rank formal program (written
child care resources and referrals from the community) as being more inﬂuential
in child care choices than parents using family day care settings.
H7: Parents using family day care settings will rank informal program (e.g.,
recommendations of others such as friends, neighbors, relatives, or coworkers)
as being more inﬂuential in child care choices than parents using center-based
care settings.

Decision Rule: A decision rule with a chance probability of p_<_ .05 will be used.

26

Researchlnatrument

A revised version of the Parent Survey Questionnaire, designed by Payne
(1994), was utilized to examine family demographics and contextual factors as potential
variables in the selection of child care settings. For the purposes of the current study,
the Parent Survey Questionnaire was adapted for use with parents whose children were
enrolled in center-based or family day care settings. The following variables of this
study were measured by the Parent Questionnaire: 1) Child Care Program Variables
which included location, cost, and availability; 2) Family Variables which included
parents’ income, education, and beliefs about types of programs; 3) Parental perceptions
. of program which included parental perception of formal program (parents’
accessibility to child care resources and referrals from the community), informal
program (recommendations of others), and Family Demographic Variables which
included parents’ income, education, family size, ethnicity, and years living in the
community. Additionally, a series of open-ended questions were developed to ascertain
parental beliefs about types of programs and rationales for selecting one type of care
over another.

A ﬁve point likert scale was included in the Parent Survey Questionnaire on
which respondents were asked to indicate how (not important/not inﬂuential to most
important/most inﬂuential) each of the variables was to their selection of the program.
Scores were derived from the following questions (Question # A2, #B6, and #B8) on

the Parent Survey Questionnaire that asked parents to:

27

Please indicate how important each of the factors was to your decision making
in choosing this type of care (Question #A2); Please indicate how inﬂuential any
printed information that you received was to the decision making on choosing a
type of child care (Question #B6); Please indicate how inﬂuential these
following sources of information you received were to your beliefs about the
type of child care you chose (Question # B8).
For purposes of data analyses, these scales were dichotomized into “very
inﬂuential/ important and “less inﬂuential/important”. Scores of these likert scales were

computed by using t-tests of means to test hypotheses.

Data Analyses

Mﬁtative Analysis
Data were coded and entered according to the type of child care (center vs.

family day care). The data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSS). The analyses were conducted for the two groups of parents, those
using center-based care settings and those family day care settings. Four statistical
methods were employed for data description and analysis: Descriptive statistics, cross-
tabulation, t-test of means, and correlation analyses.

First, descriptive analysis was used to describe the demographic characteristics
(e.g., parents’ income, education, age, family size, ethnicity, years living in the
community) of the sample in this study. Second, cross tabulation tables were prepared
to examine frequencies and percentages of responses that were calculated for each
survey item on the Parent Questionnaire Survey. Third, t-tests of means were used to
test research hypotheses (Hypothesis l-Hypothesis6). Finally, Pearson correlations
were used to examine the relations among family demographic variables of the parents

in this study.

28

Pearson Correlations were used to examine the relations among the predictor
variables that were scored on a continuous scale such as parents’ age, income,
education, and years living in the community.

Qaalitative Analysis

On the survey, two sets of questions were developed to ascertain parental beliefs
about the type of child care program they chose: parental involvement in program
observation prior to enrolling in it and parents’ rationales for choosing one type of the
program over others. The following questions were used to collect some qualitative
data on the Parent Survey Questionnaire:

o If you use a center-based care for your child, please specify the reasons why

you chose this type of care over family/home care? (Question # B8)

0 If you use a family day care, please specify the reasons why you chose this

type of care over a center-base care? (Question # B9)

c If you use both center-base and family day care for your child why you

combine two types of child care? (Question #310).
The qualitative data were not analyzed statistically, but were examined carefully

using data from the actual parental responses to these questions on the survey to identify

their reasons or rationales in choosing one type of care over another.

CHAPTER 5

RESULTS

Demographic data were collected about the gender and ethnicity of each parent,
the income level of the family, the level of education of the respondent and spouse,
family size, and years living in the community. There were no signiﬁcant differences
in these family demographic variables between parents using family day care and
parents using center-based care.

Research Question 1: Does parental selection of child care differ as a function of
family income?

Hymthesis 1: Parents who earn higher wages will choose a family day care over
center-based care (J ohansen et al., 1996).

This hypothesis was not supported using an independent t-test of means.
Parents using family day care settings (M=1.80, $31.19) did not report that they
earned higher wages than parents using a center-based care (M=2.38, §Q=l .33),
t(36)=1.43, p=.l6. Income levels did not vary by types of child care settings.

Research Question 2: Does parental selection of child care differ as a function of
parental educational level?

Hyppthesis 2: More educated parents will choose a family day care over center
based care (Johansen et al., 1996; National Center for Educational Statistics, 1997).

T-test of means showed that parents using family day care settings (M=4.10,
_S_D=l .33) did not report that they had higher levels of education than parents using

center-based care settings (M=4.33, §Q=.97), t(36)=.611, p=.545.

29

30

Research Question 3: Are family demographic variables related to each other?
Hypothesis 3: There are relationships among demographic variables (e.g.,
parents’ income, education, family size, years living in the community) of parents in
this sample.
Pearson Correlations were used to examine the relations among the predictor
variables that were scored on a continuous scale such as parents’ age, income,
education, family size and years living in the community. There was a strong

association between parents’ education and their spouses’ education. The relationship

 

between years living in the community and parents’ education was statistically V a
signiﬁcant in the negative direction. Parents who were less educated reported that they
lived much longer in the community than their counterparts did. Table 2 presents these

ﬁnding

31

Table 2. Correlations among Family Demographic Variables.

Overall Sample (N=47)

 

Respond- Respon- Family Family Years in Spouses’ Spouses’
ents’ dents’ Income Size Living Age Education
Education Ag

Parents’

Education 1.00

Parents’

Age .24 1.00

Family

Income -.08 -.02 1.00

Family

Size .17 -.10 .01 1.00

Yearsin

Living -.47** .28 -.19 .09 1.00

Spouses’

Age .03 .66" .07 -.06 .19 1.00
Spouses’

Education .65" -.09 .25 .04 -.55** -.16 1.00

 

Note: **p<.01 (2-tailed)

Research Qpestion 4: What are the characteristics identiﬁed by parents of this study in
their child care selection?

On the survey (Q#A1), parents were asked to select as many items from a list as
they considered a factor to their child care decision without ranking them. Ninety four
percent of the total sample selected location as a factor to their child care selection.
Next, more than half of the total respondents (65.2%) selected program cost as a factor
in their child care decision. Sixty two percent of the parents in this sample chose

program availability as a factor to child care choices. No signiﬁcant differences were

32

found in parents’ identiﬁcation of these program characteristics as a function of child
care selection (family day care or center-based care).

Sixty nine percent of the parents in the total sample selected an informal factor
(e. g., recommendations of others such as neighbors, friends, relatives, or coworkers) to
their child care choices. For the formal factor (e.g., written child care resources and
referrals from the agency in the community or workplaces), twenty four percent of the
parents of this study selected as a factor to their child care selection. T-tests of means
showed indicated no signiﬁcant differences in parents’ identiﬁcations of both formal
and informal program variables as a function of child care selection (family day care or
center-based care).

Research mestion 5: How inﬂuential did parents perceive child care program
characteristics (e. g., program location, cost, and availability) to’be in their child care
choices?

On the survey (Q#A2), parents were asked to rank how inﬂuential these items
were to their child care decision. Each item was scored on a 5 point likert scale ranging
from “1(not inﬂuential)” to “5(most inﬂuential)”. For analyses, these scales were
dichotomized into “very inﬂuential” and “less inﬂuential”. Forty four percent (p=21) of
the total parents ranked program location as being very inﬂuential to child care choices,
while 56% n=27) of the parents in this sample ranked this as being less inﬂuential.
Program cost was ranked as being very inﬂuential by 51% (r_r=20) of the total sample.
In addition, 66 % (p=42) of the total parents sample ranked program availability as
being very inﬂuential. All available choices made by the parents in this study are found

in Appendix I.

33

Hypothesis 4: Parents using family day care will rank child care program
characteristics (e.g., program location, cost, availability) as being more inﬂuential to
child care choices than parents using center-based care settings.

This hypothesis was not supported in this study. T-tests of means showed that
parents using family day care settings (M=3.45, S_D_=.88) did not report program
location as being more inﬂuential to their child care choices than parents using center-
based care settings (M=3.44, §l_),=.70), t(36)= -.021, p=.983. In terms of program cost,
the mean scores for parents using center-based care settings CM=3.52, §Q=1 . 12) did not
signiﬁcantly differ from those of parents using family day care settings (M=3.43,
§Q=1.15), t(36)=.232, p=.818. For program availability, results of t-tests of means
showed that parents using family day care settings (M=3.89, S_D=.65) did not
signiﬁcantly differ from the parents using center-based care settings (M=3.76, _S2=.90)
in identifying program availability as being inﬂuential to their child choices, t(36)=-
.497, p=.622.

Research Question 6: How inﬂuential did parents perceive formal program variables
(written child care resources and referrals from the community and recommendations of
others) to be in their child care choices?

On the survey, a speciﬁc question (Question #B5) was developed to examine
whether the parents of this study had been given access to written child care resources
and referrals from the community. Accordingly, a consecutive question (Question
#B6) was developed to ascertain how parents who reported that they had been given the
access perceived the inﬂuences of this information on their child care decision making.

The responses of the parents in the total samples were scored on a 5 point likert scale

34

ranging ﬁ'om 1(not inﬂuential) to 5(most inﬂuential). For analyses, these scores were
dichotomized into “very inﬂuential” and “less inﬂuential”.

On the survey (Question #BS), parents were asked to indicate whether they had
been given printed child care resources from a community agency (e.g., child care
resources and referrals) or workplaces in choosing child care settings. Eighty three
percent of (a=39) of the total parents in this study reported that they had been given
printed child care information from a community agency (e.g., child care resources and
referrals) or workplaces in choosing their child care settings.

Hypothesis 5: Parents using center-based care setting will report that they had
been given more access to formal program variables (written child care resources and
referrals from the community) in their child care selection than parents using family day
care settings.

The hypothesis was supported. There were signiﬁcant differences in parents’
accessibility to written child care resources between the parents using center-based care
settings and parents using family day care settings. This ﬁnding is presented in Table 3.

Table 3. T-Test for Differences in Two Groups of Parents’ Child Care Choices
as a Function of Parents’ Accessibility to Printed Child Care Resources.

 

 

 

Type of Care
Center Family Day Care t-value df P value.
(n=l8) (n=20)
M M
Accessibility to
Child Care .88 .55 2.41 36 .02*
Resources (.32) (.51)

 

Note: *p<.05

35

Parents (p=39) who responded to the Q#B6 (“Please indicate how inﬂuential
any printed information that you received was to your decision making in choosing
child care”) ranked printed information as being very inﬂuential (38.3%, p=18), while
approximately 62%(p=21) of the total parents ranked this as being less inﬂuential to
their child care choices. According to the question #B7 (“ Please indicate how
inﬂuential these following sources of information you received were to your choice in
child care type?”), approximately 33% (p=15) of the parents in the total sample ranked
child care referrals (e.g., discussion with the personnel in child care resources and
referrals agencies) as being very inﬂuential. Sixty seven percent (p=33) of the parents
in this sample reported this as being less inﬂuential to their child care choices.

Hypothesis 6: Parents using center-based care settings will perceive formal
program variables (written child care resources and referrals) as being more inﬂuential
to child care choices than parents using family day care settings.

Parents using center-based care settings reported their access to written child
care resources as being signiﬁcantly more inﬂuential in their child care decision making
than parents using family day care settings. In addition, parents using center care
settings ranked child care referrals (e.g. discussion of the personnel in child care
resources and referrals agencies) as being signiﬁcantly more inﬂuential to their

selection of center care than parents using family day care settings. These ﬁndings are

presented in Table 4.

36

Table 4. T-Test for Differences between Groups of Parents’ in the Identiﬁcation of the
Inﬂuences of Written Child Care Resources and Referrals on Child Care Choices.

 

 

 

 

Type of Care

Center Family or Group Home Care t-value df p value

(p=18) (p=20)

M - M
Written
Child Care 3.55 2.5 3.86 36 .00*
Resources (.78) (.88)
Child Care 3.94 2.3 4.52 36 .00*
Referrals (.72) (1 .3 8)
Note: *p<.05

On the survey (Q#B7), three types of parental perceptions of informal program
variables (recommendations of others) were included: discussion with the personnel in
child care settings; discussion with others who had used the program before; discussion
with others who had not used the program, but believed the service was good for
children. Parents in this study asked to identify how inﬂuential they perceive these
informal program variables were to their child care choices using a ﬁve- point likert
scale. For analyses, these scores were dichotomized into “ very inﬂuential” and “ less
inﬂuential”.

Approximately 51% m=24) of the total parents reported the discussion with the
personnel (e.g., directors, caregivers) in child care settings as being very inﬂuential to
their child care choices. For the discussion with others who had used the program, this

category was ranked as being very inﬂuential, reported by approximately 45% (p=21),

37

while 55% (p=27) of the total parents ranked this as less inﬂuential. Compared with
other two categories, sixteen percent (p=6) of the parents in the total sample reported
the discussion with others (e.g., ﬁiends, relatives, coworkers, neighbors) who had not
used the program, but believed it was good for children as being very inﬂuential to their
child care choices.

Hypothesis 7: Parents using family day care settings will be more likely to
perceive informal program variables (e. g., recommendations of others who had used the
program before and recommendations of others who had not used the program) as being
inﬂuential to child care selection than parents using center-based care settings.

T-tests of means showed that there were no signiﬁcant differences between
parents using family day care (M=2.93, SQ= 1.43) and parents using center-based care
settings (M=3.06, §Q=1.38) in the ranking of informal program image variables
(recommendations of others who had used the program before), t(36)=.25, p=.80. Also,
no signiﬁcant differences between these two types of parents in the ranking of
recommendations of others who had not used the program as being inﬂuential to their
child care choices (M=2.53, S_D_=l.18 for family day care vs. M=2.54, §Q=1.21 for

center care), t(29)=.-1.42, p=.l7.

38

Qualitative Dag

On the survey, two sets of questions were developed to ascertain parental beliefs
about the type of child care they chose. The ﬁrst set of questions with regard to parental
observation was developed quantitatively, but is discussed with the qualitative data
because it gave additional information regarding parental rationales or reasons for
choosing one type of child care over another. A complete copy of the questions is
found in Appendix A.
Parentﬂbservation. First, the questions (#B1-#B4) were given to the parents in this
sample to identify whether parents had spent time observing the program they chose
prior to enrolling in it. Then, parents were asked to identify as many items as they
considered reasons for program observation they chose. Parents (p=36) in this sample
who had observed the program they chose prior to the enrollment responded to the
following categories as to why they observed: observation of adult-child interaction
(a=33); observation of toys and materials available (p=31); observation at the
suggestion of director/staff (p=11); observation at the suggestion of friends of family
(p=14); observation of safety and cleanliness (p=9).
Qpen-endedpuestions. On the survey, parents were asked to address their reasons for
choosing the type of child care program over another on a series of open-ended
questions (Question #C8-#C10). Thirty parents from the total sample (p=48) in this
study gave their responses. Some common themes or patterns in the groups of parents’
responses were revealed. The following phrases are parents’ direct responses to these
open ended questions. “Close and intimate interactions of caregivers with children”,

“family-oriented atmospheres”, “more ﬂexible program schedules”, and “good

39

reputation” were revealed by parents as their main reasons for choosing family or group
home care settings over center-based care. For parents using center-based care settings,
the issues of “sanitation”, “safety”, and “diversity” as well as the dimensions of
“educational/structural program” and “professional staff” were found as main reasons
for the type of selection. Among the parents who combined two types of child care
programs, the type of center care was their primary choice during weekdays while they
were using the family or group home care on special occasions (e.g., holidays,
weekends). Ensuring structural/educational programs for children, providing a family-
like environment for children, and ﬁtting their working schedules were found as main
reasons for combing the two types of child care selection. For example, one parent
combining the two types of child care said, “I chose this type of care because it can
provide both educational program and family-like environment for my child.”
Summary of Results

This study was designed to examine factors inﬂuencing parents’ types of child
care settings. This study sought to explore demographic, child care program, and
parental perceptions of program characteristics which might be related to parents’
choices of child care selection for their infants and toddlers. Statistically signiﬁcant
results found were that parents using center-based care settings reported access to
written child care resources as being more inﬂuential to their child care decision than
parents using family day care settings. Also, parents using center-based care settings
ranked child care referrals (e.g., discussion of the personnel in child care resources and
referral agencies) as being signiﬁcantly more inﬂuential in their selection of center-

based care than parents using family day care settings. However, no other signiﬁcant

40

differences were found in comparison of how differently two groups of parents using
family day care and parents using center-based care settings perceived the inﬂuences of
both family demographic characteristics (family income and education) and child care
program characteristics (program location, cost, and availability) on their child care
choices. Also, recommendations of others who had either used the program before or
who had not used the program, but believed it was good for children, were also found as
being important to both parents using family/group home care or parents using center-
based care settings. However, no signiﬁcant differences were found between parents
using family day care settings and parents using center-based care settings in the
identiﬁcation of the inﬂuence of this variable on their child care choices. Qualitative
explanations of parents’ beliefs about child care settings revealed that parents who
stressed the importance of close/loving environments for their children reﬂected this in
their child care decision and chose family day care settings, while parents who
emphasized the signiﬁcance of safety and sanitation as well as educational programs for

their children selected center-based care settings.

CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

In this study, the parents system, the major microsystem was examined as it
related to choices of types of child care arrangements. Six research questions and seven
hypotheses were tested. First, contrary to the ﬁndings from other studies (e.g.,
Atkinson, 1994; Johansen et al., 1996), parents’ selection of child care type (Hypothesis
1-2) did not vary as a function of family income and education. In closer examination
of family income and education in this study, almost 50% of the total sample reported
an annual family income of less than $20,000, but 77% of the total sample attained at
least a four year college degree. This ﬁnding is surprising since higher education is
typically associated with higher income. How can families with income under $20,000
afford to pay for care in either center or family day care for their young children? The
federal child care (FCC) tax credit may inﬂuence a parent’s choice of care if parents are
eligible (e.g., mother is working or has a working spouse) for claiming the credit
(Johansen et al., 1996). This was supported by Hoﬂenh and Wissoker’s (1992) study
which found that family income appeared unrelated to parents’ child care decisions and
many low income and working poor families received subsides (e.g., federal child care
tax credit). Also not all types of care are eligible for this tax credit because payments to
in-house caretakers (e.g., care by relatives or father) often are not reported to the IRS
(J ohansen et al., 1996).

Next, for child care program characteristics (Research Question 4), program
location, cost, and availability were selected by the parents across the sample as being

“very inﬂuential”, reported by 44%, 51%, and 66% respectively. Given the

41

42

percentages (44%, 51%, and 66%) among these characteristics (location, cost, and
availability), it supports the ﬁndings of previous studies (Galinsky, 1994; Fuller, et al.,
1996; Johansen et al., 1996; Pungello & Kurtz-Costes, 1999) that adults’ needs (such as _
hours of Operation, cost, and location) were rated as inﬂuential in parents’ child care
choices. However, parents using family day care or center care did not differ
signiﬁcantly in their ranking of these child program characteristics. This ﬁnding is not
consistent with those of other studies (e.g., Long, 1983; Johansen et al., 1996; Larner,
1996) which reported parents using family day care rated their child care program
characteristics as being more inﬂuential than parents using center-based care because of
the ﬂexibility of extendible hours, relatively low cost, and convenient location
associated with family or group home care for their infants or toddlers. One possible
explanation is that these two types of care do not diﬂ‘er substantially in practice.
Center-based care settings included in this study may also offer the ﬂexibility of
extendible hours, relatively low cost, or convenient location that were usually expected
to be related with care at family or group home care. Another explanation is that this
study only included licensed care settings (center and family day care) by a non-relative
caregiver outside the child’s home, unlike other studies (Atkinson, 1994; Fuller et al.,
1996) which included other alternative forms of care (e.g., care by relatives or baby-
sitters) and reported parents’ types of child care varied according to these child care
program characteristics.

With regard to parental identiﬁcations of and perceptions of the inﬂuences of
formal program (e.g., written child care resources such as ﬂyers, brochures, parent

information handbook, or referrals) on their child care decision making (hypothesis 5-

43

6), 38% of parents in the total sample ranked the written child care information as very
inﬂuential. This ﬁnding conﬁrms the ﬁndings from previous studies (e.g., Long, 1983;
Atkinson, 1994; Zinzeleta & Little, 1997) which reported many parents did not rate
these types of resources and referrals as being inﬂuential to their child care decision.
Previous research (e. g., Zinzeleta & Little, 1997) showed that parents’ attitudes toward
these types of resources were not positive, and they ‘were more likely to rely on their
own beliefs and values than these resources (e.g., ﬂyers, brochures, or parent
information handbook) and referrals when choosing their child care. Further, parents
using center-based care reported that they had more access to written child care
resources and referrals available from the community than parents using family or
group home care and ranked this access as being more inﬂuential to their child care
choices than their counterparts did. This information implies that these resources may
be more available in center settings than in more informal family day care settings when
parents may rely more on recommendations of others, although this was not supported
in this study.

The results of this study suggest parents’ child care choices were inﬂuenced by
the word of mouth from their relatives, coworkers, friends, or neighbors, though no
signiﬁcant differences were found between the two groups of parents’ perceptions of
these inﬂuences on their child care choices. However, parental perceptions of
inﬂuences of these variables on their child care decision using retrospective data should
be examined carefully. Retrospective data can not determine the process of how
factors/variables (studied in this study) were considered in relation to one another when

parents made their child care choices. In other words, it cannot explain how parents

actually consider each variable while they are searching for care, how the importance of
variables might change during the process of searching for care, and how other factors
may be related to this change. Other studies using retrospective data also found
(Hoﬂ‘erth et al., 1990; Atkinson, 1994; Fuller, 1996) that parents are very likely to
consult ﬁiends and relatives for advice when they search for child care, but they did not
examine parents’ selection of child care type (center vs. family day care) as a ﬁrnction
of this variable (recommendations of others). This evidence brings up the issue that
parents without social networks may need assistance in ﬁnding their child care. How
do parents who are new to a community or who do not have a social network obtain
information in choosing their child care? More research is needed to specify parents’
selection of child care type including other alternative types of care (e.g., in-home care
by babysitters or relatives) as a function of these variables using a larger sample.

Both groups of parents who responded to the qualitative question, whether they
were using family day care or center-based care, seemed that they had their own
rationales or reasons for choosing one type of care over another. The evidence on the
qualitative data of this study supported this, but it limits in generalizing because very
few parents responded to the question. Parents who placed high values on close
interactions with the caregivers chose family day care, while parents who stressed
structural (e.g., ratio of child to caregiver) leducational (e.g., curriculum) and safety
aspects of child care selected center-based care. Information obtained through these
qualitative data implies that parents do not perceive all of these elements as being found
in one place. For examples, a certain parents’ belief (elicited from the actual parents’

response such as “a home-like environment is important”) was shown to be a parent’s

45

preference of a certain type of care over another (e.g., family day care). However,
parental beliefs as a causal effect on their behaviors of child care decision should be
examined carefully with retrospective data. Examining the direction of causality
between parental beliefs about type of care and child care decision behaviors remains
unclear using retrospective data in this study. As Pungello and Kurtz-Costes (1999)
pointed out, parents may choose a child care program ﬁrst and then construct beliefs in
order to self-rationalize their child care decision. It may be possible that parents would
reported diﬂ‘erent beliefs before they made a child care choice, but later their beliefs
were changed to conﬁrm their child care decision. In addition, Larner (1994) pointed
out (in Ispa et al., 1998) that parents are likely to be particularly concerned about child
care characteristics (e.g., safety, cleanliness, or educational curriculum) they perceive to
be problematic. Parents may think a clean and safe environment is all infants/toddlers
needs. At the same time, extra eﬁ‘orts are needed to educate parents to consider all of
the facets of the early childhood education as being equally important to their types of
child care selection. The development of literature for parents’ brochures in knowing
what good care looks like is also needed. There is much information available, but
perhaps parents do not know where to ﬁnd the information. Though this study did not
address the quality issue of the early childhood program, disseminating information
especially developed for parents to help them determine whether or not the child care
environment available to them meet their needs as well as acceptable standards of
quality is imperative. All of the elements (e.g., safety, cleanliness, staff-child close
interaction, and educational/structural curriculum) that were stressed by parents of this

study should be in place in every type of child care setting. In summary, results of this

46

study addressed the importance of parents’ social network (e.g., access to child care
resources and referrals available from the community and recommendations of others)
as related to parents’ selection of child care type. Like other studies, child care program
characteristics such as program location, cost, and availability were still inﬂuential to
parents’ child care choices, but it did not differentiate parents’ selection of child care
type. Qualitative data show that parents did not perceive all of the facets of the early
childhood education as being equally important in every type of child care setting.
Parent education as well as the development of and dissemination of child care
information are needed.
Limitations

The primary purpose of this exploratory study was to collect information about
the contextual factors of the mesosystemic connection between the family system and
the system of day care as related to parental selection of types of child care. Due to the
small sample size and purposive sampling in nature, the researcher is limited in
generalizing the ﬁndings in this study. Another limitation of the study is the use of the
research instrument. This study collected self-reported data through the Survey
Questionnaire. How these self-reports reﬂect actual parents’ child care decision making
is unknown. As addressed earlier, retrospective data cannot determine how parents
actually consider each characteristic while they are searching for care. Explaining how
the importance of various characteristics might change during the process of searching
for care and how other factors may be related to this change is unclear. Further, using
retrospective data is unclear to explain the stability of parents’ beliefs about the type of

care (e.g., “ a home-like environment”) and inﬂuences (e.g., age of the child) on this

47

stability. Finally, this study excluded other alternative types of care such as a non-paid
care (by relatives or fathers) which represents signiﬁcant parties of care for infants and
toddlers. It limits the generalizability of our results pertaining to parents’ types of child
care choices for infants or toddlers.
Implications for Future Rm

Given the results of this study, these are several recommendations for extensions
of this research. First, in order to extend the generalizability of the study ﬁndings,
future research needs to be extended to a larger population. Next, the present study
included only two parent full time working families and how they chose child care for
their infants or toddlers. Future research is needed to fully understand how the marital
status and age of child inﬂuence parental child care selection. The present study
utilized only self-report retrospective measures to examine variables related to parental
child care choices. Employing a prospective design may provide different data. Thus,
more research is needed to clarify parents’ beliefs in seeking a certain type of care using
both prospective and retrospective data. Accordingly, open-ended interviews may
provide better assessments of parental beliefs on non-parental types of care than
surveys. In keeping with the ecological perspective, ﬁiture research should address the
effect of type of community (rural vs. urban or suburban areas) and parents’
childrearing beliefs varying among and within ethnic groups on child care decision
making. For example, informal types of care such as in-home care by relatives may be
much more corrnnon in nnal areas (center care may be less available) than in urban or

suburban area. Also, parents’ values and expectations regarding non-matemal types of

48

child care vary by cultures that may have important implications for selection of child

care type.

49

CONSENT FORM

My name is Sojung Seo, and I am a graduate student at Michigan State
University. I am conducting a survey on how parents choose child care. I am interested
in what factors inﬂuenced your choice in selecting child care for your infant or toddler.

If you choose to participate in this study, the Parent Survey Questionnaire
should take 10-15 minutes to complete. There are no right and wrong answers. This is
the only form that you will be asked to complete in this study.

Your participation in this project is voluntary. You may refuse to answer certain
questions or discontinue the survey at any time without penalty of any kind to you and
your child. All responses will be treated as conﬁdential, and you will remain
anonymous in any report of research ﬁndings. You do not need to write your name on
the Parent Survey Questionnaire.

Your participation is really important in completing my academic program in
child deve10pment. Please take your time to complete the survey. Your responses will
provide valuable information about parents’ concerns in choosing child care for their
children. Stamped, addressed envelopes are included so your survey package, including
this consent form, can be returned to me or you can return it directly to the director of
your program.

If you have any questions or concerns regarding your participation in the study,
you may telephone Dr. Holly Brophy-Herb at Michigan State University at 517-353-
1664 or the researcher, Sojung Seo, at 517-333—4319.

Thank you for taking time to complete this survey.

 

I agree to participate in this project by completing this consent form and the
attached survey.

 

 

Your Name Child Care Program

 

 

Your Signature Date

50

Program Code #:

PARENT SURVEY QUESTIONAIRE

Date:

 

Instructions

Thank you for taking time to complete this questionnaire. This survey is to identify
factors inﬂuencing parents’ choice of child care arrangements for their infants and
toddlers.

Some parents choose a center-based program and other parents choose a family/home
day care program for their children. It seems likely that there is no one best kind of
program for every parent. I would like you to help me prove if this is true.

The following questions have no right or wrong answers. Your responses will be
conﬁdential. I greatly appreciate your willingness to provide candid answers and share
your opinions about your decision in selecting this child care setting.

51

Program Code #:
Measurement of Factors inﬂuencing Dual career parents’
Choice of Types of Child care Arrangements

Date:

Your Child’s Age:

 

(please specify in months)

Family day care is broadly deﬁned to include care in the home of a non-relative (called
a caregiver), and has recently been taken more seriously by professionals.

Center-based care (either or proﬁt or not-for proﬁt) is deﬁned to include group care for
children in a non-resident setting for all or part of a day. It is either for proﬁt or not-for
proﬁt centers.

 

 

Please check out the type of care you are using for your child now.

[ ] We are using center-based care for my children.

[ ] We are using family day care for my children.

[ ] We are using both type of center-based and family day care for
my children.

 

(Please specify)

 

 

52

Section A

This section is designed to address the factors that inﬂuenced your choice in choosing a
certain type of child care arrangement.

When you made a decision on choosing a certain type of child care for your children,
what were the factors that inﬂuenced your decision? Please check each item that
accurately reﬂects factors you considered in choosing your child care. Please feel free
to add additional explanations, if any.

A1. I chose child care for my child for the following reasons:
(Check all that apply)

—The location was convenient.

—The cost or fee of the program was reasonable or affordable

——'1he hours that the program was open ﬁt my needs.

—I had previous experience using this program for another child.

—Neighbors, ﬁiends, or relatives also used this program for their children.

—Recommendations of neighbors, coworkers, other parents, or relatives who had not
used this program.

— An agency (e.g., child care resources and referrals) in the community or workplace
recommended it to us.

__ Other: (Please specify)

 

 

A2. What were the most inﬂuential factors in your selection of child care (center
based or family/home care)?

Please indicate how sigg'ﬁcant each of the factors was to your decision making in

choosing this type of care.

For the following questions indicate 1 - 5 as it applies to you

Not inﬂuential Less inﬂuential Inﬂuential Very inﬂuential Most inﬂuential
1 2 3 4 5

—The location was convenient.

—The cost or fee of the program was reasonable.

—The hours that the day care was open ﬁt my needs.

—I had the previous experience using this program for another child.

—Neighbors, ﬁiends, or relatives also used this program for their children.

_ Recommendations of neighbors, coworkers, other parents, or relatives who had not
used this program.

_An agency (e.g., child care resources and referrals in the community or workplaces)
recommended it to us.

_Other

 

(Please specify)

53

W

The following questions focus on how you gathered information about your child care
program.

B 1. Did you spend time observing this program before choosing it?

_Yes
__ No

B2. Please estimate the amount of time you observed the child care prior to
enrolling your child in this setting. '

—I did not observe it (Go to #B4 question)
—-Less than a half hour

—A half hour - an hour

—More than an hour

B3. Why did you observe the program?
(Check all that apply)
— I wanted to see how adults interacted with children
—- I wanted to see what kinds of materials were available.
— Friends or family suggested I observe the program.
__ The program director Istaff suggested I observe the program

 

__ Other
(Please specify)
B4. If you did not observe the program, please describe why?
(Check all that apply)
— It did not seem important.

— I did not think of it/ no one suggested it.

— I did not have the time/ my work schedule would not allow time off.
_ The program director/staff did not seem to support parent observation.
_ Other '

 

(Please specify)

54

B5. When I was trying to ﬁnd child care, I was given printed information that was
available from a community agency (e.g., child care resources and referrals),
workplace, or child care program setting.

__Yes (Go to # B6 question )
_ No (Go to # B8 question)

B6. Please indicate how inﬂuential any printed information (e.g., program brochure,
ﬂyers, or parent handbook) that you received was to your decision making in
choosing child care:

1 2 3 4 5
Not inﬂuential Less inﬂuential Inﬂuential Very inﬂuential Most inﬂuential

B7. Please indicate how inﬂuential these following sources of information you
received were to your choice in child care type?

1 2 3 4 5
Not inﬂuential Less inﬂuential Inﬂuential Very inﬂuential Most inﬂuential

-—Discussion with the personnel in child care resources and referrals agencies.

—Discussion with ﬁiends, coworkers, or other parents who had used the service

—Recommendations of friends, coworkers, relatives, or other parents who had not
used the service but believed the day care was a good place for children.

_Reading an Orientation Packet for Parents

__Reading written information that was available to community resources (e.g., ﬂyers
or newsletters)

_Observing the program

_Previous experience with the program

__ Discussion with the child care center director and/ or caregivers

 

55

B8. If you use a center-based child care program, please specify the reasons why you
chose this type of care over family/home care?

 

 

 

 

 

B9. If you use a family/home care, please specify the reasons why you chose this
type of care over a center-based care?

 

 

 

 

 

B10. If you use both center care and family/home care for your child why do you
combine two types of child care?

 

 

 

 

 

 

56

Section C .
Please tell me a little about your family.

For each question, please check the one response most appropriate for you.

C1. Iamthe l[]mother

2[ ] father
C2. Your age:
1[ ] 18-25 years old 4[ ] 42-49 years old
2[ ] 26-33 years old 5[ ] 50-57 years old
3[ ] 34-41 years old 6[ ] 58+ years old

C3. What is the highest level of education you have completed?

1[ ] 8‘h - 11‘h grade 4[ ] bachelors degree
2[ ] high school diploma or GED 5[ ] masters degree
3[ ] associates degree 6[ ] doctoral degree

C4. Total household income:

1[ 1 less than $20,000 5[ ] $80,000 - 100,000
2[ ] $20,000 - 40,000 6[ ] $100,000 - 120,000
3[ ] $40,000 - 60,000 7[ ] $120,000 +

4[ ] $60,000 - 80,000

C5. What is your ethnicity?
Caucasian

— African-American
I-Iispanic- American
Asian-American

Other (specify)

 

 

 

 

C6. How many children live in your household?

C7. How many adults live in your household including biological parents?

C8. How long have you lived in this community?

57

Questions C9-11 are asking information about your spouse! partner.

C9. Your spouse/partner’s age is:

1[ ] 18-25 years old 4[ ] 42-49 years old
2[ ] 26-33 years old 5[ ] 50-57 years old
3[ ] 34-41 years old 6[ ] 58+ years old

C10. What is the highest level of education your spouse/partner has completed?

1[ ] 8'“ - 11th grade 4[ ] bachelors degree
2[ ] high school diploma or GED 5[ ] masters degree
3[ ] associates degree 6[ ] doctoral degree

C11. What is your spouse/partner’s ethnicity?
Caucasian
—— Aﬁican-American
Hispanic- American
Asian-American
Other (specify)

 

 

 

 

Thank you for taking the time to complete this survey!

 

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58

MICHIGAN STAIE

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APPROVAL DATE:ApriI 12. 1999

TITLEzFACTORS INFLUENCING PARENTS‘ CHOICE OF TYPES OF CHILD CARE
ARRANGEMENTS: AN ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Atkinson, A. (1994). Rural and urban families’ use of child care. Family Relations, 13,
16-22.

Bogat, G., & Gesheimer, L. (1986). Discrepancies between the attitudes and action of
parents choosing day care. Child Care Quarterly, QB), 8-11.

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