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This is to certify that the

dissertation entitled

The Entomologist As A Science Partner
And Curriculum Advisor:
The Earth School Model For Grades 6-8

presented by

Bethany Johnston Marshall

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

 

 

Ph.D.‘ degree in Entomology

/ fl/zfg/W

Dr. Frederick W. tehr
Dr. Edward D. Walker

Major professor

 

Date 16 November, 1999

 

MSU is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0- 12771

 

 

LIBRARY

Michigan State P

University

 

 

PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record.
To AVOID FINES return on or before date due.
MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested.

 

DATE DUE

DATE DUE

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11m cICIRC/DmDmpGS-p.“

 

 

THE ENTOMOLOGIST AS A SCIENCE PARTNER
AND CURRICULUM ADVISOR:
THE EARTH SCHOOL MODEL FOR GRADES 6-8

By

Bethany Johnston Marshall

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Entomology

1999

ABSTRACT

THE ENTOMOLOGIST As A SCIENCE PARTNER
AND CURRICULUM ADVISOR:
THE EARTH SCHOOL MODEL FOR GRADES 6-8
By

Bethany Johnston Marshall

The Earth School model for creation of partnerships between university scientists
and public schools began with a traditional research project involving the study of
macroinvertebrate recolonization of agriculturally based restored wetlands. From
fieldwork designed to address hypotheses of commmity composition over time,
protocols and equipment evolved for application in middle-school classrooms. In
addition to classroom teachers guiding their students in replicating active scientific
research, the inclusion of a science partner was key to the success of this model. To
ensure that the classroom teachers were themselves comfortable as researchers, monthly
staff development workshops were conducted as a component of the Earth School model.

The use of entomology as a unifying theme for educational scientific investigation
lets the student explore virtually every other system in the biosphere. Because of the
unparalleled survivability and adaptability of insects, we can find examples fi'om all
biomes, all time references and all disciplines. Over the course of long-term continuous

exploration, learners become familiar with relationships and patterns evident in natural

Bethany Johnston Marshall
situations. These same patterns of birth, growth and decay are much more vividly
demonstrated in the field than in textbooks. Similarly, concrete examples of feeding
relationships between organisms are plentiful in nearly any outdoor situation. The
following model incorporates current research from multiple scientific disciplines but
focuses on the many and varied research activities ofl‘ered by the entomological
community.

Teachers and students in a primarily urban setting made extensive use of the
materials developed through the course of this model’s development. Their feedback as
the materials were integrated into an established curriculum allowed for the fine-tuning of
activity development. A conversion template has evolved that gives teachers, curriculum
directors, parents and other educators a simple mechanism for adapting the work of
leading researchers into activities suitable for all age levels and all learning abilities.

As public schools rally to change the course of science education, they are met
with a seemingly never-ending supply of materials promoted as hands-on learning. To
the extent that the manipulation of tangible objects and materials supports identified
outcome objectives, these materials fulfill their promise. Although there is merit in
offering these types of kinesthetic experiences to reinforce theories and principles of
science, this approach does not address the same goal as activities that promote ‘doing
science’ through investigation and discovery using a process that includes observation,
inquiry, design and collaboration. The active recruiting of and collaboration with science
partners from 1miversities offers public school teachers and their students an alternative

for curriculum enrichment as the nation strives to reach literacy goals in the sciences.

COPyright by
Bethany Johnston Marshall
1 999

To all the friends and family so essential to the completion of this project I extend a
humble thank you. To my children, tomorrow’s stewards, I wish for you rich blessings
and the wisdom to honor our Earth.

We join with the Earth and with each other.
To bring new life to the land
T a restore the waters
To refresh the air
We join with the Earth and with each other.

To renew the forests
To care for the plants
To protect the creatures

We join with the Earth and with each other.
To celebrate the seas
To rejoice in the sunlight
To sing the song of the stars
We join with the Earth and with each other.
To recreate the human community

To promote justice and peace
To remember our children

We join with the Earth and with each other.
We join together as many and diverse expressions
0f one loving mystery; for the healing of the
Earth and the renewal of all life.

U.N. Environmental Sabbath Program

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The process of beginning, completing and surviving a doctoral program requires
the support of a great many people. Chief among my supporters were the friends
comprising my committee; Drs. Fred Stehr, Edward “Ned” Walker, Edward Grafius,
Richard Merritt and Frances Ekem. For their attendance at long meetings and for
reading, re-reading and often re-re—reading page after page of learning activities and
philosophical meanderings, I am truly grateful.

Beyond the call of duty, Dr. Stuart Gage was an ever-present force in the creative
aspects of program development for both teacher and student enrichment and
development programs. He, along with my always supportive family, provided a critical
check-system for those times when the push was too hard or the goal too ambiguous.

Dr. Vinston Birdin, Mr. Milton Patch and Mrs. Joyce Butler received and
explored my work with open minds and open spirits. Thanks to them and to the many
students who were honest enough to let me know they liked or didn’t like my work.

For the use of their land I thank the Pick, Reed, Mashne, Holmes and Running
families. A special thank you to Jim VosBurgh of the Lapeer Soil Conservation District
for helping open doors with land owners and to Jim Hazleton for delivering my samples
while my husband and I delivered our son.

Peace to you all and to our global family.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... viii

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ x

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................ xi

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 1

CHAPTER 1

ENVIRONMENTALLY RESPONSIBLE DECISION MAKING THROUGH

SCIENTIFIC LITERACY ................................................................................................... 3

CHAPTER 2

GUIDELINES FOR SCIENCE EDUCATION IN ANERICAN MIDDLE-SCHOOLS .10
Project 2061 Benchmarks for Scientific Literacy ....................................................... 11
National Research Council Standards .......................................................................... 13
State Science Guidelines, Illinois ................................................................................ 16

CHAPTER 3

THE SCIENCE ALTERNATIVES PROGRAM FOR TEACHERS ............................... 19

CHAPTER 4

EXPANDING OUR RESOURCES WITH STUDENT SCIENTIST PARTNERSHIPS .24
The Experiential Learning Initiative (ELI) .................................................................. 26

CHAPTER 5

CONVERTING PRIMARY RESEARCH FOR MULTT-AGE USERS ........................... 34
The Watershed Suite Sample Conversion ................................................................... 38
Landscape Visualization through Interpretive Modeling Sample Conversion ........... 43

CHAPTER 6

INTEGRATTNG EARTH EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS .................................. 56

RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................................... 64

APPENDICES ................................................................................................................... 68

BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................ 121

vii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 5-1 — Interpretation of Mountain Scene (AF) ......................................................... 45
Figure 5-2 — Interpretation of Mountain Scene (PS) ......................................................... 46
Figure 5-3 — Interpretation of Mountain Scene (AB) ........................................................ 47
Figure 5-4 — Interpretation of Mountain Scene (SR) ......................................................... 48
Figure 5-5 - Interpretation of Mountain Scene (AB) ........................................................ 49
Figure 5-6 — Interpretation of Mountain Scene (J S) .......................................................... 50
Figure 5-7 — Interpretation of Mountain Scene (DW) ....................................................... 51
Figure 5-8 — Mountain Biome Landscape Models ............................................................ 52
Figure 6-1 - Earth Education Curriculum Guide ............................................................... 63

viii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AAAS ............................................ American Association for the Advancement of Science
ELI ...................................................................................... Experiential Learning Initiative
GIS ..................................................................................... Geographic Information System
GPA ...................................................................................................... Grade Point Average
GPS ............................................................................................. Global Positioning System
IPM .......................................................................................... Integrated Pest Management
SA ........................................................................................... Science Alternative Program
SSP .......................................................................................... Student/ Scientist Partnership
NRC ........................................................................................... National Research Council
NSES ....................................................................... National Science Education Standards

INTRODUCTION

The Earth School model has evolved from a basic foundation of Earth
stewardship and the belief that answers to our most pressing problems are latent within
the spirits and values of our children. The whole notion that we are killing the planet is so
large and so difficult to process that most people have, at best, only an inkling of
understanding. We may have some idea of the theories and hypotheses that surround key
issues, but without first a basis in one’s belief system and then an understanding of the
science (Van Matre, 1990), we will be unable to do more than live as lightly as our
individual comfort levels allow.

The students we teach today make tomorrow’s decisions. To serve their futures
and our own, we need to be very conscious in our dealings with even the youngest child.
We have taken a ‘hands-ofi’ approach to ethics, values and the development of children’s
belief systems in the interest of a democratic education that doesn’t cross controversial
lines. My personal belief is that all education and especially Earth education must begin,
follow through and end with a personal investment as the foundation. In addition to the
very real potential of teachers sharing their values with their students through word and
deed, authentic field and other nonformal experiences have been shown to have positive
impact of the formation of environmental ethics in young people (Manzanal, 1999;

Meredith, 1997; Orion, 1994). Teachers and other leaders must not be ashamed to reveal

their values to others. Teaching is not a job but rather a responsibility that passes from
one generation to the next (Nash, 1989). Where are children to gain perspective if not
through our leadership? Some children will accept our words without blinking, some will
reject them summarily, and others will consider and accept or reject our teachings now or
later. To this end, the following model is offered. Within its fiamework is presented a
program for increasing scientific literacy among in-service teachers, examples of
programs that unite students with practicing scientists, and a curriculum guide for
integration of Earth education into traditional and non-traditional science classes.
Because the chapter readings are heavily dependent on actual classroom materials, these
materials have been included in an appendix to this work.

Recommendations and suggestions are respectfully submitted. Every school has a
culture based on the administrators in power, the teachers, the students, the community
and the geographic location. Implementation would be very different in Barrow, Alaska
than in Chicago. These works are intended to inspire creative thought and application
rather than to impose a single method presented as the answer to environmental
ignorance.

Our planet is clearly in danger. There are many problems needing our attention
and many people who are willing to take aggressive stands for their beliefs. While some
people are vigilantes for the environment, many more are quietly living the philosophy
they would teach. From either position or from any of the gradations in-between, our
knowledge as scientists comes with a responsibility to provide our successors with a

higher environmental consciousness.

Chapter 1

ENVIRONNIENT ALLY RESPONSIBLE DECISION MAKING THROUGH
SCIENTIFIC LITERACY

Scientific literacy in the developed world may very well be more critical than
general knowledge in developing countries. Our exploitation of resources dwarfs the
minimal impact of indigenous people around the world (Chiras, 1992). If we are to be
viewed as world leaders and the guides in a global economy, we need to be able to make
decisions that lead to sustainability in both economics and ecology. This begins with
education of our young and those who teach them.

As a consequence of our failure to prepare the next generation to take their places
at the heads of economic tables or to lead the world in environmentally responsible
decision making, the problems reported generations ago still exist and have grown more
severe (Ehrlich, 1990). Land management decisions have left a wake of desertification as
an excess of 70 square miles of desert are formed each day in response to population
pressures, burning, erosion and overgrazing (Chiras, 1992). Nutrient deficient soils grow
nutritionally inferior products. More than 50 percent of the biologically rich wetlands in
the conterminous United States have been lost to agriculture and urban development
since the 1700’s. Many of the remaining wetlands have been altered significantly from
their former ecological functions (Mitsch, 1993). Fossil fuels support a questionably

sustainable lifestyle of undervalued and inefficiently used energy (Naar, 1990; Chiras,

1992; Flavin, 1994). Greater than 1000 species will becoming extinct each year as a
result of habitat destruction (Robbins, 1990). Evidence of global warming continues to
mount (N aar, 1990; F lavin, 1996) despite controversy even within the scientific
community (Schneider, 1990) as to the reality of the reports. Economic instability in
environmentally critical comers of the globe has often left nature last in line for
consideration (Renner, 1997).

Around the world species from every kingdom are being displaced as acre afier
acre of tropical and temperate forests are blindly leveled in the name of economic
progress. Each day, trees are harvested for pulp and lumber while land is cleared and
burned to make way for increased agricultural demands or for urban sprawl to
accommodate the housing needs of a rapidly growing human population. The most
apparent motivation for this assault on the planet is monetary gain. As with most things,
a complete explanation is far more complicated.

The developed world has a missionary zeal for spreading technology wherever
it perceives the need to be. This includes electric power, waterworks, dams, sewer
systems, telephone lines and roads. These luxuries are considered necessities for
providing the infrastructure needed to support a ‘better way of life’ that can include
appropriate medical care and education for all the world's people. In the course of
building the necessary utilities, vast debts are accumulated by developing countries
(Chiras, 1992). As notes come due and interest accumulates on loans, these countries
have no way of repaying their debts. Land must be used for cash crops rather than for
growing food. Since the need for food remains, more people become dependent on

international food distribution programs and more land must be converted for agriculture.

Through increased availability of medical care and internationally supported
nutrition programs, life expectancy increases and birth rates climb as people become
healthier and infant mortality decreases (Ehrlich, 1990). This, in turn, adds to the ever
increasing population and augments the problems associated with poverty, hunger and
diseases associated with hunger. More people require more housing and food. More
housing means an increased need for building materials, which means more resources are
used and more of the natural landscape is stripped to provide the resources. The
increased need for food requires that still more land be converted for agriculture.

Many countries have nothing to export except their natural heritage. Exotic plants
and animals are sold through the black-market (Chiras, 1992). Ancient forests are leveled
for the beautiful wood they produce. The landscape is destroyed in mining operations and
still, the debt for progress is barely chipped.

The World Bank and industrialized countries, including the United States, have
been major forces (Sachs, 1993; Grumbine, 1992) in providing loans for countries
seeking assistance for construction projects. In addition to financial investment,
intellectual investment by the funding source is commonplace. Teams of experts draw up
plans for rerouting natural waterways. Dams are constructed to provide power to
generators that carry electricity to the villages. Downstream, water supplies are reduced,
animals die and crops fail due to drought. Now we need to finance an irrigation system.
More debt. . .sell more of the natural heritage. . .clear more land.

This scenario offers an extreme but not unrealistic picture of why tropical and
temperate rainforests are being lost with such alarming speed. There are ‘softer’ or more

direct explanations as well. Villagers need to burn vegetation for fuel to heat their

houses. Land needs to be used to grow food for the animals that provide or become food.
Exotic wood brings a good price. Of what importance is cutting down some trees and
killing off a few bugs, birds and monkeys? Answers to this very sad question can come
from social (IUCN, Inter-Commission Task Force on Indigenous Peoples, 1997), political
(Gunderson, 1995; Rifldn, 1991), ecological, medical and spiritual (Nash, 1989)
perspectives. The ecological perspective is very compelling and can provide a hub for all
the others. Among the critical ecological issues at stake in discussions about the
destruction of the tropical rainforest are biodiversity, energy flow and biogeochemical
cycling.

Biodiversity in the tropical rainforests is so vast that it hasn’t even been
quantified. Estimates of the numbers of species vary widely. Some ecologists and
systematists believe the number of species that will never be identified before becoming
extinct will exceed the total of all extant species. Lost forever will be the genetic
variability, phylogenetic links and interactions associated with these plants and animals
(Forsyth, 1984; Mader, 1985).

Our knowledge about the natural world is imperfect. We theorize about possible
relationships between plants and animals. We know plants have defenses against insects
and insects have defenses against each other. Agents that can kill a human are part of
natural cycles between plants and insects or between insects and other animals. We
know this fi'om our research with encephalitis, Lyme disease and malaria, among others.
Somewhere in these successful and benign cycles rest answers to our questions about
disease control. What chemical and physiological events allow hosts and vectors to

remain unaffected by the pathogen? Can these same biological strategies be used to

prevent disease among humans? How many cures for life threatening diseases will be lost
with the loss of diversity? What diseases unknown and restricted to the confines of the
rainforest community will be released upon the human population as we move into
uncharted regions? Will we have eliminated the antidote just as the pathogen becomes
widespread? Not knowing should be reason enough to stop and rethink our global
perspective. Awareness is the first step.

Solutions rooted in change are complicated and carry certain political risks. The
first step is accepting that ecological impact must be given at least equal consideration to
economic priorities. Until the major political powers around the world make planetary
health a priority, the current downward cycle is likely to continue. Partial solutions might

include any or all of the following:

Stop funding projects that divert water flow.

Stop funding programs that promote monocultures.

Stop expanding fossil fuel dependent energy grids.

Invest in alternative energy.

Forgive or suspend interest generation on existing loans wherever possible.
Promote agri-forestry.

Teach sustainable agriculture.

Promote organic farming worldwide.

Reduce dependence on animal protein.

Establish international guidelines for global food production and distribution.
Eliminate subsidized Western agriculture and forestry.

Rebuild land through responsible planting.

Establish international regulations for pesticide use

Teach human biology and preach family planning.

Enforce trade laws regarding threatened and endangered species.

No single entry on the above list holds the answer to our environmental crisis.
Taken in whole, they may form the beginning for recovery. Included among these is
sustainable agriculture. While the concept of producing food without destroying land in

the process is superficially black and white, sustainable agriculture has gotten mixed

acceptance globally. There are those fiom deep ecology who view such programs as
compromising the original goals of the 70’s ecology movement (Sessions, 1995).
Sustainable development and its companion, sustainable agriculture, represent economic
positions that assume we have ownership of the Earth’s resources and that these
resources exist for our use. They are further rooted in a belief that we are able to
determine the Earth’s carrying capacity and that as long as we operate within this set of
limits, all is well. Progress defined as ‘having more’ is our worldview. The perception
that progress is acceptable and desirable as long as it is sustainable goes unchallenged.
Sacrificing the feeling that comes with a love of nature and our connection with Earth
can’t possibly be progress.

Realistically, people must be fed. Hunger and those diseases secondary to hunger
erode educational progress and make conversations about saving an endangered butterfly
seem insignificant. To feed our growing population while minimizing the impact of
agriculture on the planet, farming practices that use the Earth without using it up are
gaining acceptance. Growers are discovering that short-term sacrifices of production are
yielding excellent long-term results. Such practices include conservation tillage and cover
crops to preserve soil and reduce erosion. Agriforestry combines trees with crops to the
benefit of both. A return to indigenous plant species suited for their environments
reduces the need for water beyond natural inputs. Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

helps reduce the need for chemical intervention to reduce damage caused by insects.

Solutions to the destruction of rainforests, both tropical and temperate, are
dependent on recognizing the resources of Earth as finite. Sustainable agriculture
incorporates this reality into practice and amounts to the first few steps toward a
philosophical shifi.

Systemic change leads to permanent solutions. My personal commitment to
change has a strong attachment to a central theme that the process of change requires a
personal investment. We’re willing to give this essential investment when we recognize
that the outcome has a direct impact on us (Gunderson, 1995). To direct change, we must
be committed to a belief and be steadfast in our determination. Grassroots organizations
are making changes from the bottom up as their collective voices get larger and louder.
Through the election of government officials with track records supporting
environmentally responsible behavior, we influence change from the top down. Good
ideas become good laws.

At the heart of all environmental realities is a set of values that allow us to make
and live with our decisions. Some values have come from indoctrination, ignorance or
wrong information. The experiences we have had and the educational opportunities
we’ve been given shape other personal values (Manzanal, 1999). As a member of the
scientific community, I feel that it is my responsibility to become an Earth advocate and
to embrace the next generation as an elder and as a mentor. To make change happen from
the inside out, live what you believe and those around you risk being swept under your

influence.

Chapter 2

GUIDELINES FOR SCIENCE EDUCATION IN AMERICAN
MIDDLE-SCHOOLS

Teachers have heard the call for hands-on teaching and are responding to the
seemingly limitless supply of kits available in current supply catalogues. What appears
to be missing from hands-on education is a careful analysis about the goals of individual
learning activities. As long as students are touching materials and talking about a
scientific principle or principles, the activity is considered hands-on learning. Does
manipulating materials alone actually lead to inquiry, discovery or ultimately,
comprehension and integration? Employing the traditional use of convergent thinking, a
known outcome is carefully choreographed using step by-step instructions. These
“cook-book” style activities often include questions leading the students to a specific
“discovery” as they progress through the experiment and converge upon predicted results.
These hands-on activities serve as effective examples of the principles, theories or facts
but do not generally support inquiry-based learning.

Contrasted with this example of convergent thinking is an inquiry-based approach
that is centered around divergent thought processes where even the teacher may not know
where the lesson will take her learners. I recently had the pleasure of participating in a
rather ambitious outing to the overflowing banks of a river in the Des Plaines watershed

that flows through a region just west of Chicago. We were prepared to do traditional

10

measurements of turbidity, pH and invertebrate community composition. As teachers
and facilitators open to the widely divergent thought processes of young people, we soon
abandoned the prescribed materials and shared in discovery as hundreds of snail shells
became the focus of a statistics exercise. A few students were engaged in finding every
possible kind of spider while another small group spent an inordinate amormt of time
methodically dissecting a partially decomposed turtle carcass. The experiences of that
day were joyful, student-directed and provided deep impact on the learners. We are not
seeking a single answer but rather moving closer to a range of new knowledge that
provides insight into the topic. We now have data about the turbidity, pH and
macroinvertebrate community of this area of the watershed but we also know a bit about
snail populations, spider homes and turtle morphology.

Guidelines such as those outlined by the National Research Council or Project
2061 Benchmarks can be used to help teachers and curriculum developers break from the
tradition of letting text book publishers and kit builders determine curriculum and look at
new goals for scientific literacy. In developing these goals, students were considered
respectfully as the next generation of decision-makers. Goals were developed to serve
the needs of children who will need to be high functioning adults in a rapidly changing
world.
Project 2061

Science for All Americans (1990) and the subsequently published, Benchmarks

 

for Science Literacy (1993) were landmark publications of the American Association for
the Advancement of Science (AAAS). Based on the collective research and collaboration

of experts fi'om math, science, engineering, technology and education, AAAS’s Project

11

2061 established a set of benchmarks required for scientific literacy. The original
Science for All Americans does not propose instructional methods or curriculum design
for reaching the benchmarks, but rather establishes a baseline of knowledge for high
school graduates. Contained within its fifieen chapters are recommendations for science
literacy based on the nature of science, mathematics and technology, physical science, the
environment and human beings as organisms. Additional chapters include historical
perspectives, change, values, and ultimately, a direct call for reform. Integral to the work
and included throughout are common sense reminders to teachers about living what we
teach and recommendations for getting these changes airborne.

Included among the recommendations of Project 2061 is a call for the inclusion of
academic and professional colleagues for in-service teachers. This includes not only
those teaching in universities and colleges but also partners who are practicing
professionals in all fields of science, engineering and technology.

Project 2061 calls on teachers to embrace responsibility for the component of
educational reform within their control. Teachers are viewed as central to broad changes
in education. As such, training for in-service and pre-service teachers is very much a part
of the recommendations from Project 2061.

As a planned Phase 11 production of Project 2061, the overall conceptual
frameworks from the chapters of Science for All Americans were carefully dissected and
refined. The key concepts were restated as age-specific benchmarks for primary, upper
elementary, middle school and high school students. The same twelve major divisions
used in the original work were continued in Benchmarks. Among these chapters are

specific treatments of the physical setting and the living environment. Chapter five deals

12

with the living environment. Within its pages are six areas; diversity of life, heredity,
cells, interdependence, evolution, and flow of matter and energy that serve as the
foundation for understanding.

The benchmarks established within each division offer a framework for
progressive knowledge and understanding. An example of the use of benchmarks
includes those established for teaching lessons about diversity within the living Earth.
Diversity benchmarks progress from Kindergartners looking for similarities and
difference between plants and animals to high school students evaluating the validity of
DNA-fingerprinting and DNA’s role in speciation. The primary grades are viewed as an
appropriate time to bring light to reality verses fiction in the anthropomorphic nature of
many books written for children while older students progress through sorting,
classification and morphology/physiology related to classification.

The final phases of the long-term reform program developed by AAAS through
Project 2061 include a third work entitled, Designs for Science 1433,93! which addresses
alternative curricula and a final published work, Blueprint for Reform. which considers
the broader scope in which a curriculum must function. Together, these four publications
form the AAAS Curriculum Design Education System.

National Research Council Standards

Similar to the work of AAAS, the National Research Council (NRC) published
Mal Science Education Standards (1996) as a guide to improving science education
nationwide. Included in its eight chapters are recommendations for content standards as

well as standards for science teaching, professional development, learning assessment,

13

program evaluation, and science education system standards that involve the school as
part of a community. At the core of this work is an emphasis on teachers and teaching.

The National research Council’s content standards are very similar to those of
AAAS and similar to most local and state content standards. The eight categories of
content standards include: unifying concepts and processes in science, science as inquiry,
physical science, life science, Earth and space science, science and technology, science in
personal and social perspectives, and history and nature of science. Within each category
are specific recommendations for subject matter at three grade divisions: K-4, 5-8, and 9-
12. Expanding on the Earth and space science standards, students in the K-4 grades
would focus on properties of Earth materials, objects in the sky and changes in Earth and
sky. As the knowledge base increases with age, 5th through 8th grade students would be
expected to study the structure of the Earth system, Earth’s history and Earth in the solar
system. At the high school level, students explore energy in the Earth system,
geochemical cycles, origin and evolution of the Earth system, and origin and evolution of
the universe.

The standards for science teaching are based on five assumptions (p. 28).

o The vision of science education described by the standards requires changes
throughout the entire system.
What students learn is greatly influenced by how they are taught.
The actions of teachers are deeply influenced by their perceptions of science as an
enterprise and as a subject to be taught and learned.
Student understanding is actively constructed through individual and social processes.
Actions of teachers are deeply influenced by their understanding of and relationships
with students.

14

From these five assumptions are six standards for teachers (p. 30-51).

Teachers of science plan an inquiry-based science program for their students.
Teachers of science guide and facilitate learning.
Teachers of science engage in ongoing assessment of their teaching and of students
learning.

0 Teachers of science design and manage learning environments that provide students
with the time, space and resources needed for learning science.

0 Teachers of science actively participate in the on-going planning and development of
the school science program.

To complete the vision for both division content standards and for teaching
standards, a professional development component is critical. The authors make an
analogy about professional development for other professions and stress the importance
of maintaining current information in a rapidly changing world. Included in the four
professional development standards are requirements for; learning essential science
content through the perspectives and methods of inquiry; integrating knowledge of
science, science learning, pedagogy and students; building understanding and ability for
lifelong learning; and the fourth standard which specifies that professional development
programs for teachers of science must be coherent and integrated (p. 59-70).

All the standards listed for improving the quality of teaching and teacher
development reflect a changing emphasis from traditional fi'agmented learning with the
teacher as follower to a new paradigm emphasizing inquiry and the use of outside
expertise with the teacher acting in a leadership role.

Although the Standards are often referred to as the “bible” by teachers and
teacher trainers, these standards are not without criticism. While one of the stated
premises of Standards is the equity-directed goal of “. . .excellence for all students
regardless of age, gender, cultural or ethnic background, disabilities, aspirations, or

interest and motivation in science” (p. 2), Alberto Rodriguez (1997) describes the

15

document as a “discourse of invisibility” (p. 19) in which the intended goals of the NRC
are not only not addressed but compromised by “. . .not directly addressing the ethnic,
socioeconomic, gender, and theoretical issues which afflict science education today” (p.
19). In a similarly negative perspective, Angelo Collins (1998) ofl‘ers a discussion about
three political aspects and four tensions involved in the development of the document.
Because the purpose of my mentioning guidelines, standards and benchmarks
appropriate to the teaching of science is only to point out that various guides exist, I will
not pursue the political or philosophical issues proposed by these authors. Sufiice to say
that no guide for content, training, or pedagogy is accepted by all in the dynamic field of
science education.
State Science Guidelines, Illinois
The Proposed Illinois Learning Standards (PILS, adopted in 1997) were developed
based on earlier Illinois guidelines, NRC’s National Science Education Standards (N SES)
and “various other state and national guides”. In addition to the use of professionally
developed guides for educational standards, including those for science, the state of
Illinois considered the input from more than 28,000 Illinois citizens responding to a
survey in their development process. Of the thirty goals identified in the PILS three are
content-based science goals. (Illinois State Board of Education, 1997).
0 Understand the processes of scientific inquiry and technology design to investigate
questions, conduct experiments and solve problems.
0 Understand the relationships among science, technology and society in historical and
contemporary contexts.

0 Understand the fundamental concepts, principles and interconnections of the life,
physical and Earth/space sciences.

l6

Within each goal are specific learning standards and sub-standards based on
development from early elementary, late elementary, middle/junior high school, early
high school and late high school. Of the three goals, State Goal 12 dealing with
fundamental concepts is the most extensively developed. Comprising this goal are six
learning standards and thirteen sub-standards.
Examples of learning standards associated with fundamental concept goals
include the following.
Know and apply concepts that explain how living things fimction, adapt and change.
Know and apply concepts that describe how living things interact with each other and
with their environment.

0 Know and apply concepts that describe properties of matter and energy and the
interactions between them.

0 Know and apply concepts that describe force and motion and the principles that
explain them.

0 Know and apply concepts that describe the features and processes of the Earth and its

resources.
0 Know and apply concepts that explain the composition and structure of the universe

and the Earth’s place in it. (p. 34-37).

Each of the three sources discussed; Benchmarks, Standards and PILS have been
designed to assist school districts, administrators, curriculum directors and teachers in the
very large task of teaching science in the public schools. While each addresses specific
content standards, only Benchmarks and Standards address more over-reaching goals for
knowledge-based teacher development and methods skills. All of these guides promote
fairness of education for all children but none address specific needs related to cultural,
racial, socioeconomic or gender issues in their plans (Blueprints does openly
acknowledge these issues as factors in fairness but offers no proposal for mitigation). It
is assumed that fair education for all includes a common point of origin for all as they

enter the educational system. Of the three documents or series, the AAAS series,

17

(Science for All Americg, Benchmarks for Science Litergy, and Blueprints for
Reform) provides the most comprehensive approach to science education but its use is
cumbersome without intimate familiarity and a district wide systemic approach to

implementation.

18

Chapter 3

TRAINING FOR IN-SERVICE TEACHERS, SCIENCE METHODS
The Science Alternatives Program in Bellwood School District 88

Two fundamental goals of the Science Alternatives program were to increase
scientific literacy among teachers and to reduce the anxiety level of classroom teachers
about their abilities to teach science. Working toward these goals, it was necessary to
include teachers fi'om all grade levels and from all backgrounds. Participating in the
monthly workshops were art teachers, gym teachers and classroom teachers from grades
K-5, and middle-school teachers fi'om all subject areas. Language Arts, math and science
teachers work as teams with sections of students in the regular school setting.
Maintaining this existing collaborative effort meant having materials that would appeal to
each team member.

While most elements of the activities were clearly intended to teach science to the
teachers, cross-curricular extensions were included to help generate material ownership
and to foster a sense of familiarity for science-shy teachers. Extension activities
incorporated art experiences, writing exercises and current event analysis. Although a
Language Arts teacher may not have been familiar with the ramifications of introduced
exotic insect species, she could explore the topic as a current event and integrate the
scientific vocabulary into class discussion as political or cultural issues. Through the use

of science topics in language arts and social studies, students were provided with an

19

opporttmity to make an intellectual investment into their opinions about environmentally-
charged realities. Similarly, an art experience could include a fabric collage illustrating a
biome. Through the creation of such a collage, students are combining the aesthetic
quality of the landscape mosaic and combination of landscape elements with the
manipulation of concrete materials and consideration of related habitats.

The workshop materials were based on a combination of influences. Frequently,
teachers were interested in materials they could use in upcoming units. If there were
specific topics of interest, materials were developed for the next workshop.
Occasionally, a workshop topic itself became the inspiration for additional materials. If
informal formative assessment indicated that a particular activity didn’t live up to its
intended goal, there was always the possibility of redesigning it with the teachers’ help
and offering the revised edition at subsequent workshops. With a heavy emphasis on
natural materials, availability was nearly always significant to the development of
learning activities. Many materials were of a seasonal nature such as seeds or flowers
while others were simply serendipitous finds. An example of the latter was the discovery
of dozens of hawk pellets as the winter snows cleared.

The general framework for each workshop was fairly consistent and typically
included; 60-second science demonstrations, experiments and activities, project ideas and
instructions: guidelines for enhancing classroom atmosphere, reading lists and snippets
fiom the news, vocabulary lists and resource sites, and variations and extensions. In
addition to standard format materials for teacher use were special topics such as:

classroom atmosphere, collections, research, science fairs, and values clarification.

20

Sixty-second science demonstrations were quick demonstrations that could be
done at the beginning or end of class time. These may serve multiple purposes including
introduction to a unit, brainteasers, fill-time at the end of a class or simply to get
attention. Examples included simulating a lung with a plastic pop bottle and balloons.
By cutting the bottom ofl a 2-liter bottle, covering this open bottom with a piece of cut
balloon or rubber, and inserting an inverted balloon into the top, pressure changes are
easily created by pulling on the flat rubber bottom. The result is partial inflation of the
inverted balloon as the pressure changes. (Many students were seen demonstrating their
“lungs” in the hallway after class).

Another popular 60-second science demonstration can be used to show sound
waves. Cut both ends ofl a metal can. Cover one end with a piece of balloon or rubber
so it is flat and relatively tight. Glue a small mirror to the rubber side and hum or talk
into the open end. By shining a flashlight onto the mirror so that the reflection is
received on a flat, white surface, one can see the efl‘ect of changing pitch as the reflected
vibrations move.

Experiments and activities were rarely presented cook-book style. One exception
was a unit on growmg crystals. By providing a foundation with recipes pre-tested for
success, the teachers were able to grow crystals and carefully consider the factors
involved in the process of crystallization. Based on the questions asked by teachers, such
as, ‘...what happens if...’, it was evident that they were engaged. Their enthusiasm as
they participated in show-and-tell with their products indicated that transfer into the
classroom was imminent. Several teachers did, in fact, squeeze the unit into their lesson

plans very quickly with positive results.

21

Several activities involved building models with a variety of materials fiom
islands of sand and glue to landscape elements represented with grape tendrils and moss.
Several of the island models became very artistic as teachers entered an impromptu
competition for Best Island. At several points, teachers left the workshop to collect extra
materials from their classrooms for use in the model building. Such landscape units were
very conducive to model building, as was a project about erosion.

Experiments were more often discussed rather than completed. The idea
throughout the workshop program was to build confidence and enthusiasm. When
completion was a benefit to confidence building, experiments were completed. When a
new perspective was all that would be required for a teacher to run with an idea, the
teachers were provided with supplies, planning time and any assistance they required.

Classroom atmosphere was a minor component of the workshops. Teachers have
a strong sense of ownership over their classrooms. As such, rather than ofi‘er specific
topics directly addressing classroom atmosphere, enhancements such as materials design,
display and arrangements were included in practice as elements of my presentations.
This modeling proved effective as a non-invasive delivery strategy. Additionally, by
teaching in their classrooms with children ranging from sixth through eighth grades, I
was able to provide real-life demonstrations. This helped build their confidence in me as
a partner and as a consultant much more quickly than an artificial laboratory situation
could.

As a monthly feature created to integrate reading about science with thinking
about and doing science, I reformatted current news from a science news server and

provided short articles relative to the month’s topic. These reading packages typically

22

included thirty articles that could each be read in less than five minutes. For each group
of articles, I provided questions in a worksheet that was duplication ready. These were
especially popular with the language arts teachers and were frequently the first section
they turned to at the beginning of each workshop.

The combination of activities, readings, discussions and demonstration was
efi‘ective for stafl-development workshops. As the formdation for a month’s topic, the
concrete learning experiences provided a good foundation for discussion and integration
with existing curriculum and classroom materials. The opportunity to discuss events and
collaborate with other teachers fi'om across the curriculum helped create and maintain an
atmosphere of cooperation and progress toward a unified goal. From the experiences
enjoyed during the five-hour workshops teachers were enthusiastic about transferring

their new knowledge into classroom activities promoting scientific literacy.

23

Chapter 4

EXPANDING OUR RESOURCES WITH STUDENT SCIENTIST
PARTNERSHIPS

By middle school, most students have seen enough worksheets and ‘chapter
questions’ to be thoroughly familiar with questions designed to elicit very specific
answers. Multiple choice, true/false and short-answer are all typical forms of questions
used to gauge the acquisition of knowledge. Students at this age often think that all
questions have answers and that someone besides them already knows the answer. From
this perspective, it follows that learning may be perceived as the digesting and
memorizing of an unmanageable collection of facts. This can seem a very daunting task
for a young child still trying to make sense of his or her world. Creative questioning and
shared inquiry includes children in the discovery of knowledge and makes them partners
in their own education rather than recipients. Student-scientist partnerships (SSPs) ofl‘er
children a new perspective on learning. The emphasis is on exploration rather than
evaluation.

Student-scientist partnerships provide a special opportunity for practicing
scientists to share their intellectual investment with the students who represent the next
generation of scientists and political decision-makers. It is this sharing of knowledge and
acquisition of state-of—the-art technological expertise that benefits students, teachers and

researchers alike as students graduate with more than textbook information. Damrosh

24

(1998, in Marks, 1999) goes so far as to argue that “circulation of knowledge may be
more important than the generation of new knowledge” (p. 42) As such, many in the
scientific commmity feel a personal sense of duty to make an effort to provide a far-
ireaching and potentially pivotal event in the lives of school children. No longer is the
teacher the only source of adult academic interaction; scientists are becoming a presence
in education through often rich and involved partnerships and relationships with
individual students, class groups, school districts and global programs. Students are able
to refine their images of stereotypical scientists by gaining personal access to people who
are surprisingly like themselves. By blurring the line that separates ‘them and us’,
careers not previously considered become new and exciting possibilities for the students
(Kesselheim, 1998). Advanced studies in the sciences become more enticing and the
study of math and science can become desirable for children of all backgrounds as they
are given experiences that bring them within the professional and cultural communities of
scientists (Richmond, 1998).

The university environment is rich with concrete materials, ideas and information.
Through the creation of academic partnerships between universities and public schools
scientists are available to provide specialization and depth of subject knowledge while the
classroom teacher supports pedagogy needed for age-appropriate curriculum design. The
often limited resources of schools and inadequate scientific training of teachers can be
greatly expanded as professional contact, equipment and supplies are made available
(Druger, 1998). Materials considered too specialized or too expensive for limited
fimding available to schools may be provided through loan programs included in the

design of the partnership (Ebbers, 1999).

25

The Experiential Learning Initiative

In 1997 an academic partnership was established between public school District
88 located in Bellwood, Illinois and myself as a graduate student in Michigan State
University’s Department of Entomology. Under the umbrella of this student-scientist
partnership (SSP), the Experiential Learning Initiative (ELI88) was designed to give
urban students an opportunity to break fi'om traditional educational methods and to
practice scientific investigation in the field.

To fully appreciate the difficulties and opportunities inherent in this and other
partnerships, a look at demographics is in order. District 88 is located approximately 10
miles west of Chicago along I-290 between I-94 and I-294. Approximately 5000 children
from the villages of Stone Park, Bellwood and part of Hillside are served by the early
childhood, elementary and Jr. High Schools of the district. District 88 serves a
predominantly minority community. The racial mix is approximately 85% black, 12%
Hispanic and 3% white and Asian combined.

This is an economically depressed area with the majority of employed adults
working in the service industry. Approximately 85% of the students are eligible for
school lunch assistance, and roughly 15-25% of the children live in court-appointed
foster care. Nearly 80% of the children reside in single-parent or extended, multi-
generational family settings (Birdin, 1999).

All commonly known gangs are represented in the community and provide strong
challenges to law enforcement and social service agencies. D.A.R.E. and The Boys and

Girls Clubs of America provide well-attended alternatives to street activities.

26

Within the physical structure of Thurgood Marshall Academy in District 88, 150
students in 6‘”, 7th and 8th grade classes are formally considered academy students.
During its first year with academy status, only the 6th and 7th grade classes were
‘academy classes’. Eighth grade was added the second year. Students attending
Thurgood Marshall were selected from the school district’s population based on test
scores in math and science. As a public school, there are no additional expenses
associated with the students’ opportunity to attend academy classes designed around a
central theme of math and science. As the academy program entered its second and third
years, parents from around the district were actively lobbying to get their children
admitted to Thurgood Marshall. Based on the success of the first group of students to
graduate fi'om the academy, the local high schools have indicated a strong position in
support of the academy’s ability to prepare students for entry into high school.

Students selected to participate in the first and second years of the ELI88 Project
were all fi'om the Thurgood Marshall Math and Science Academy. There were no
additional test requirements for participation in ELI88 but the students selected all
showed a high level of interest in science, were able to work cooperatively in groups,
generally exhibited behavior conducive to success and were willing to commit to the
project for a period of five months. Final selection was done by the ELI88
coach/teachers. It is important to note that Grade Point Average (GPA) was not among
the selection criteria. Because ELI88 ofi‘ered students an alternative educational
experience, traditional measurement instruments would not necessarily provide an
effective screen and could actually eliminate the most qualified candidates. This process

resulted in the selection of 16 children from the two 6'“ grade and two 7‘11 grade classes

27

for the 1997 pilot program. Students understood that failure to complete assignments on
time, lack of cooperation, or any disciplinary actions associated with school would result
in removal from the program. Happily, none of the original students were removed from
the program.

Over a period extending from December 1997 through May 1998, I met with the
original sixteen students in monthly pull-out sessions during the regular school day.
Most sessions lasted between 30-minutes and two hours. During these meetings,
designed to facilitate a sense of cooperation and trust, skills needed for scientific
investigation were practiced. Observation and inquiry were key to preparing students for
the final field trips. During an early activity, students observed crickets for various
lengths of time and recorded observed features, behaviors and interactions of the insects.
These physical and behavioral observations provided a base fi'om which students could
begin to formulate questions and develop hypotheses. Physical features such as size,
coloration and antenna length generated questions related to adaptability and survival in
the wild. Behavior observations typically resulted in students wondering about
competition, hierarchy and social interactions among the crickets.

The observation and inquiry practices developed during this and other early
lessons helped prepare the students to approach a field experience at a local pond with a
more finely honed perspective. Many of these students had never been to a natural
environment nor used the outdoors as anything more than space. As such, it was
important that they be given the tools necessary to reduce any anxiety associated with a
field experience (Bunderson, 1997). This included the ability to quickly assess a

situation, become situationally acclimated and actively engage in appropriate activities

28

such as insect surveys or plant sampling. Several studies involving the use of ponds or
streams as entry level experiences for school children have indicated that such activities
serve a valuable function in science education and values formation (Stein, 1997;
Teutseh; Friday 1997; O’Sullivan, 1999; Atha, 1999; Margolis, 1999; Mattingly, 1994;
O’Neal, 1995).

During the first year’s field experience, a heavily managed pond located a few
miles fiom the school was chosen. Although not ideal biologically, the pond provided
these urban students with many new experiences. Catch-and-release collection
techniques were used for insects and one very large fiog. The original intent had been for
the students to collect, sort, identify and label insects collected at the site for the purpose
of analyzing commrmity composition. This goal was immediately abandoned when we
realized that the students were simply not prepared well enough to provide reliable
information. Instead, the students’ heightened interest in the natural environment was
allowed to flow and techniques involving the use of insect nets and traps were refined.
This provided the students with concrete experiences in the techniques of insect
collecting and allowed them to begin formalizing their observation and inquiry skills.
The fi-equency and complexity of their questions increased dramatically over the period
of two field trips.

The interests expressed by the EL188 participants became the topics of their final
posters. Some of the topics explored as a result of inspiration fi'om the field trips
included algae, insects, birds, animal homes and plants. Working in small teams or as
individuals the students prepared posters to be presented during a campus visit to

Michigan State University. Eleven of the sixteen students in the pilot program traveled

29

by train to MSU for a three-day event hosted by the Department of Entomology. The
students stayed in dorms, ate dorm food and enjoyed the MSU museum, the Michigan
State Capitol, the 4-H Children’s Garden and the Impression Five Children’s Museum
during their stay. They also presented their posters to the faculty and staff members
attending the poster session. Although very nervous, the students were all extremely
proud of their work and very excited to have an opportunity to talk with professional
scientists

The second year of EL188 was a time of rapid growth. The academy status of
Thurgood Marshall was expanded to include 6'”, 7‘“ and 8‘“ grade classes. This resulted
in two classes of each grade level and enrollment of approximately 150 students. After
the successful first year with the pilot group, all 6‘”, 7th and 8th grade students were
included in the second year of ELI88. Because all 150 students were included, pull-out
sessions with me as the science partner were no longer needed. Instead, I taught in the
classroom two or three days each month September through April and maintained contact
through e-mail between sessions.

From the beginning, students knew that only forty-five students would travel to
MSU in the spring to present a poster about a topic they selected and investigated. It
wasn’t necessary to conduct an experiment, but rather an investigation in an area they
found interesting. Toward this end, each month included learning activities that were
non-traditional in context and delivery but that aided in the development of skills deemed
necessary for success in science. Key to this investigation was the ability to conduct keen

observations and to ask questions based on these observations.

30

The final two meetings with the ELI88 students took place in the Cook County Forest
Preserve Des Plaines Watershed (Appendix C). The site selected was a flooded portion
of the Des Plaines River only a few miles from the school district. Following a short
orientation on site, the students formed small teams and began self-directed supervised
explorations. Self-direction provided the students intellectual independence (Bencze,
1999) although some structure was provided by a list of items to be found during the trip.
Included on the treasure hunt list were animal tracks, animal homes, examples of
different kinds of insects, and similar natural items or organisms. The students quickly
engaged in the treasure hunt. Within less than an hour, all students were focused on
something of their own choosing found during the treasure hunt. The heavy floods had
left an unexpected find of snails along the banks of the river. A group of three male
students began collecting the shells and soon had more than one hundred specimens.
They asked if they could do something with the shells for their project. Back at school,
they washed, weighed and measured their samples. This became a very interesting
investigation into statistics as these 7‘“ and 8‘” grade students completed calculations by
hand and with the use of Microsoft Excel’s graphing functions. Their results were
discussed and presented in the final poster session at MSU.

Another group was intrigued by all the animal tracks found along the river banks.
Using plaster of Paris mixed on site, this group of students prepared plaster casts that
were later identified and organized by theoretical food webs. Their samples provided a
very nice display to support further research into the animal communities of woodland
forests. The twin sisters conducting this project have declared veterinary medicine as

their career choice.

31

In total, there were twenty-one posters completed covering topics ranging from
spiders and aquatic insects, animal homes, plant pressing and identification to water
quality analysis. All students choose their own topics and were assisted in reaching their
goals for the project by their teachers and by me. The poster presentations were held at
MSU for a second year with very positive results. The students participating in the
program as well as their teachers and the staff and faculty of MSU were all very
enthusiastic about the program. The students involved in the ELI88 project experienced
success at many levels throughout the various stages of the ELI88 project. Most notable
was the completion of their presentations before a panel of experts. The students enjoyed
the experience and district officials have encouraged the continuation of the project for
the next school year.

Student-scientist partnerships provide involvement with practicing scientists and
can offer a valuable association with universities. Both sides should pursue such
associations. The university gains an ideal forum for outreach while the students’
experience of being junior researchers creates a non-traditional dynamic within
traditional public school settings. Flexibility and personal contact are two of the
cornerstones of these programs. Spontaneous consultations between the scientist and the
junior researcher give the student a great deal more than just information about a science
topic. The contact with a caring adult who is a science professional can go a long way
toward helping students fi'om many backgrounds understand science from a broader
perspective and to consider what it means to work in the sciences. Additionally, research
indicates that positive natural experiences like these contribute to an overall expansion of

values associated with environmental ethics and leadership (League, 1997; Orion, 1994;

32

Meredith, 1997). The extent to which this student-scientist partnership will influence the
lives of these students may never be known. We do intuitively know that whatever level
of impact programs such as ELI88 have on young people, they have the potential to offer

a contact of significance.

33

Chapter 5

CONVERTING PRIMARY RESEARCH TO
MIDDLE-SCHOOL CURRICULUM

The ‘pipeline’ through which research findings are distributed is very small and
restricted. Cooperative extension, university outreach activities, visual media including
‘educational television’ and print media including lay publications have been the
traditional routes by which new and exciting information goes from the lab to the people.
The path to public schools is even smaller. Converting current research into usable
curriculum for children is the objective of this student-scientist partnership. The
younger the students are, the more challenging it becomes to translate significant
primary research into classroom-fiiendly materials. Determining the age at which
children are able to understand the significance of natural events is often a difficult but
critical element in applying scientific research to classroom materials and activities
(Marks, 1999).

In this section we will establish a template or model that can be used to translate
the most innovative, the most interesting and the newest topics in research into lessons
that involve tomorrow’s leaders in this very exciting discovery process.

As members of the scientific community, we have more access than others do to
professional journals and fellow scientists. Editors and publishers look for research that

is new and exciting or innovative in some way. Likewise, most scientists are fascinated

34

by the questions that lead them to choose their research. By talking with colleagues and
by reading professional journals we learn about what is leading edge. By reading
contemporary lay publications, we get a sense of where the public’s interest rests or
where the media is focused. This is where we can find material for the new paradigm in
science education. The general science of today was the current research at some time in
history. Today’s leading edge research will be the general science of tomorrow. If we
teach science that includes current investigations, those investigations that are as of yet
without firm grounding in theory or principle, we will bring up a generation of
collaborative, drinking, questioning investigators. By teaching only what is included in
textbooks or that which is “proven” we ofi‘er several injustices to our successors. First,
we position ourselves as the embodiment of knowledge and challenge them to know all
that we do. Second we offer activities in the name of ‘hands-on’ science when, in reality,
these activities are not investigative but rather demonstrative of what is already known.
Recent articles have ofl‘ered guidance for selection of educationally appropriate “hands-
on” activities (Moscovici, 1998; Jefiies, 1999) and promotion of inquiry-based learning
(Roth, 1996; Hand, 1999; Edwards, 1999).

Bookstores and classrooms are filled with how-to books and recipes for science
fair projects. Select your experiment from the menu, follow the directions exactly and
the outcome is nearly assured. Many, if not most of these how-to books go one injustice
further and explain the outcome and solve problems (divergent outcomes) with flow-
charts. Any science fair in the country is filled with the products of these mock
investigations. Certainly there is value to following a path to a known outcome but we

need to stop accepting this as research or as investigative science.

35

In selecting materials for conversion to learning activities, individual interests and
enthusiasm need to be valued. If a teacher or curriculum developer is not interested in
the research then even a best effort will fall short. This is very much like the old saying
about writing about what you know. When talking to colleagues or while looking
thorough magazines and journals certain articles will grab your attention. Begin with
these. The second consideration is the sophistication of equipment used in the research.
Is the equipment readily available? Is there a way to build or adapt equipment to suit the
need? Is there a simpler way to do an investigation that could parallel the professional
work or is there a tangent that could be followed as a springboard to the research?

The question does not need to be the same as the research seeks to answer. It only
needs to provide inspiration. Once you and/or your students have brainstormed a few
questions of your own, the rest is easy and consistent with the scientific method. Ask the
question, formulate a hypothesis, design an experiment, isolate or identify the variables
and determine a method for data collection and organization. Not all investigations need
to have results or data as an outcome. Observation may be needed, and is itself a
valuable skill. From time spent in observation, more questions will likely be asked.
Formal data collection isn’t always needed. Formal procedures may prove one’s intuitive
sense but the lack of formal data does not disprove anything. It isn’t necessary to
quantify the joy of discovery. All that’s really needed is eye contact to see the proof.

In our professional existence, we use what is already known to color our
observations and shape our questions. A difference between adults and children is that,
generally, adults know more things. They have more experience to draw from and have

developed ideas about what works and what doesn’t work. This advantage can be a

36

disadvantage. In addition to not knowing what works, children don’t know what doesn’t
work and feel freer to try the “impossible”. While searching for answers using
impossible methods children will come upon all sorts of wonderful things.

I recently read about French scientists who were doing research about friction in
granular materials (Weiss, 1999). Since kids love sand, this one caught my interest.
Without sophisticated rotating drums and humidity sensing devices, even the youngest
students could add measures of water to sand in jars and roll them to see what happens.
As the dry grains of sand flow freely and the moist sand sticks a bit longer we can then
talk about the general science of fiiction, adhesion, surface tension and the physical
properties of water that allow it to become a bridge between granular materials. All kids
on the beach know the castle turns out better with moist sand than with dry sand.

In a similar publication, there was a brief article about communication in insects
based on scent (Travis, 1999). By relating known smells to defined messages, students
could easily communicate without looking at or talking to each other. Small spray bottles
with diluted peppermint oil could be used to spray a “go sharpen your pencil message”.
The smell of lemon could mean, “line up at the east door” and garlic could signal “get out
your lunch, it is time to eat”. Playing with scents sets the stage to talk about non-verbal
and non-visual commlmication in insects and other animals. Natural extensions could
include chemistry, chemical properties, density and concentration and sensory receptor
physiology. Again, we’ve been inspired by current research to explore the cutting edge

and bridge with general science.

37

The steps to research conversion for curriculum can be summarized as follows:

a) Notice what sparks your interest (the same applies for students).

b) Decide if an identical, a parallel or a tangential investigation is most
appropriate for your equipment availability, and your students’ ages, abilities

and time.

c) Determine whether a full investigation is needed or if an observation or
demonstration activity is most appropriate.

d) Consider the possible sphere of support from general science. What theories,
principles or patterns might be used to understand this conversion?
Conversely, into what theories, principles or patterns might this investigation
provide a segue?

e) Establish a working list of key vocabulary words to support discussion of the
topic. Avoid the trap of relying on the use of vocabulary as a key to student
comprehension. Some students may be very masterful with words but fail to
understand the concept. Teachers need to listen carefully to explanations as
students discuss the new concepts.

f) Gather materials as needed for your approach to the topic.

Sample Conversion — The Watershed Suite

The hydrologic cycle is at the heart of every ecosystem (Speidel, 1988).
Vegetation is present or absent largely because of the presence or absence of water, the
duration of the water and the quality of the water. Birds, insects and other animals are
present in predictable measure based on the water regime and resulting vegetation. The
water, vegetation and animals are the major factors in defining the community structure
that, in turn, defines the ecosystem and biome (Johnson, 1997). Understanding the broad
scale landscape patterns associated with regional watersheds and small, local aquatic
systems provides generalized understanding of the natural world in general. Due to the
large scale of the Great Lakes, circulation patterns are very similar to those expected in

oceans (Canadian Hydrographic Service, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, 1999).

38

Additionally, the Great Lakes make up the largest source of freshwater in the world.
Freshwater is becoming a premium commodity as ground and surface waters are sold,
rivers diverted and aquifers depleted. There are potentially serious ecological and
biospheric ramifications if water use issues in and arormd the Great Lakes are not dealt
with in an intelligent, scholarly manner.

The Watershed Suite was created to offer students an experience that a landscape
approach to aquatic ecosystems through the use of mapping and visualization strategies.
In this suite of activities, background information about the Great Lakes provides the
student with an overview of Great Lakes history, mapping with GIS and vector-based
approaches, multi-factor two and three-dimensional graphing and, finally, circulation in
the Great Lakes. The first learning activity in the Watershed Suite uses student data from
GLOBE (Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the Environment) to demonstrate
graphing with multiple factors and in three dimensions. Students begin with simple
graphing of three significant biological factors. In this example, combinations of time,
temperature and pH are used. The time sequence covers a short three-year period but has
representative temperature and pH measurements from all seasons. By comparing
different sorting priorities, students are asked to consider the relative nature of data sets
and to become aware of the different representations and stories that can be told with
identical data. This first activity is included in the Watershed Suite found in Appendix A.
As a follow-up to single plane graphing, students are also asked to use Legos or other
suitable materials to create 3-dimensional graphs that include time along the x-axis, pH

along on y-axis and temperature on a built-up z-axis.

39

We are finding more opportunities to include visualizations in daily lives. From
the meteorologist who files us through a virtual storm to the physician who reads an MRI
to the teenager in an arcade driving his super-speed race car through an obstacle course,
we are becoming more dimensional and looking at our real worlds, virtual worlds and
data sets from new perspectives. We see in 3-dimensions and are naturally better able to
comprehend complex data when it can be presented the way we see. The Geographic
Information System (GIS) has put an almost limitless supply of data and data
combinations literally at our fingertips. By following the contours created as
demographics, geography and resource distribution come together we are able to
determine who is using what where. The learning activity described takes students a base
graph and allows them to create their own dimensional show. With this as a background
for further use of visualization strategies, the student is not only able to appreciate the
complexity of such visualizations but also approach them more critically as she considers
the selection of data, the priority with which the data is shown, and the strategies that can
be used to ‘change the story’. This is a very ‘back-to-basics’ approach to new age
information easily taken for granted. By increasing awareness and by adding to a
student’s ability to conduct critical analysis, he may be less likely to accept information
at first glance and put additional thought into his acceptance or rejection of evolving
truths.

The second activity in the Watershed Suite (see Appendix A) uses the basic
graphing knowledge gained in the previous activity and elsewhere to stress the creation
of maps with the use of points, lines and polygons. Any feature found on a map can be

represented with a point as in the case of a radio tower, a line that might show a highway,

40

river or political bormdary, or polygons for lakes, towns and preserve areas. A point can
be further defined as a coordinate (x,y) on a grid. Pairing coordinates yields a line while
grouping coordinates yields a polygon. This being the case, we can ‘draw’ on a grid
simply by defining the coordinates.

The vector-based mapping activity stresses the use of points, lines and polygons
while teaching data organization through grouping into classes and using color as a
visualization tool. Data sets for temperature and depth in Lake Superior are organized by
the student into classes. Each class is color coded and the associated color is applied to a
grid map of Lake Superior based on the temperature or depth class represented at each of
several data collection stations. To complete the activity, students must be able to
determine class groupings that most efficiently represent the data, locate the research
stations based on their coordinates and apply the appropriate class color symbol to the
station. Once completed, visual patterns coincide with temperature and depth patterns.

With every weather report, students see maps that were created in a similar
fashion. As with the previous visualization activity, this vector-based mapping activity
goes back to the formdation of visualization with color and creates awareness for the
complexity of the product and possible biases imposed by color assignment or class
definition.

The next activity in the suite is also based on mapping, but this time we use a
primitive layering to demonstrate data visualization with GIS layers. Students are given
several transparencies and overhead markers to use in creating layers of themes from
their watershed. Students are asked first to draw a map of their neighborhood including

the school they attend. This in itself proved to be a worthwhile activity. The very routes

41

traveled daily could often not be mapped without assistance. After completing the basic
shape map, students created single-theme maps of lakes, ponds, ditches or other sources
of water in their neighborhood. Additional themes included residential property,
commercial property, recreation areas, and paved areas. The winning question was
inevitably, “What order should I put these in?” Bingoll GIS allows you to choose data
you need and organize it into whatever type of sandwich you require. Alter each student
had created several of the theme maps, they were asked to look at different combinations
of information with and without the lmderlying shape map. They were further asked to
consider some of the biological implications of the relative location of water and land and
to discuss their thoughts.

Horizontal circulation was the theme in the final activity of the watershed suite.
In this activity, students talked about different kinds of shadows. Light shadows from the
sun or a lamp, solar and lunar eclipses, “snow shadows” cast as trees block the falling
snow, and finally, wind shadows. Since even toddlers understand the concept of shadows
being created as one factor is blocked by another, the cognitive transition to wind
‘shadows’ being created by landscape elements was elegantly simple.

After discussing shadows, students were given worksheets (Appendix A) and
asked to position V2” square blocks in the spots marked on the worksheet. With the
overhead lights off, students used flashlights to cast shadows across their blocks.
Colored markers were used to outline the shadows cast from various directions around
the worksheet. With the lights back on, the next task was for the students to predict wind

shadows based on assigned wind headings.

42

As the students predicted the effect of wind over the landscape, other concepts
relating to circulation were offered. This discussion and potential additional activities
and extensions can include issues of density. Since fresh water is most dense at 4°C, the
Great Lakes are dimictic, meaning they lmdergo vertical mixing twice each year. This
fall and spring overturn impacts not only the biological community but also the
distribution of nutrients and pollutants (Speidel, 1988). The predictable overturn of water
in the Great Lakes is a critical contribution to vertical circulation as are pressure gradients
and basin topography. By breaking circulation down into these digestible packets; wind
shadows, horizontal circulation, vertical circulation and the efi'ects of the Earth’s rotation,
students are more easily able to follow the patterns.

Sample Conversion — Landscape Visualization through Interpretive Modeling

The ability to learn a subject is often directly related to the appropriateness of the
delivery model used to present the materials. In order to develop the most appropriate
delivery vehicles for teaching complicated environmental processes, we need to be able
to identify the student’s existing level of understanding . The level of understanding a
student brings to a lesson is likely to be based on a combination of fact, interpretation and
confusion. Conclusions based on personal observations may or may not be correct and
may or may not be complete (Gardner, 1993). For many students, a tree is a tree,
mountains are mountains and a stream is likewise not seen as relating to the other
elements in a landscape.

Pre- and post-testing has been added to much of the new material used in public
schools, but even this attempt to qualify the leamer’s background is based on standard

testing methods such as short-answer or multiple-choice questions. The following

43

activities represent a multi-sensorial approach to teaching a landscape patterns unit and
the relationship between patterns common to various biomes and associated
biogeochemical processes.

The Mini-Mountains learning activity was created to facilitate the recognition of
landscape patterns through the use of three-dimensional objects. (Refer to the complete
learning activity in Appendix B). By recognizing basic patterns found in natural and
humanmade environments, the student may gain a greater understanding of
environmental processes and the relationships that exist between patterns and processes.
Throughout this lesson’s development, students from the Experiential Learning Initiative
(ELI88) were encouraged to comment freely on the activities. Based on their input and
the results of these initial activities, refinements were made in the choice of objects,
selection of images and documentation appropriate for quantifying outcomes. It should
be noted that this was not an experiment but rather a learning activity that shows potential
diagnostic value for learning styles. Through this visualization activity, students were
given concrete materials with which to consider landscape patterns.

Each student was given a large sheet of presentation paper marked into l-inch
squares, a set of Styrofoam objects, a marking pen, and a landscape photograph typical of a
defined biome such as mountain, desert or prairie. Available objects included several
different sizes of Styrofoam balls, cones, disks and rectangles. All materials are readily
available fiom craft and office supply stores. The instructions were very simple. Use the
objects to build a model of the landscape being viewed. There was no time limit and
students could use as many of the objects as they wanted. Further, there were no

restrictions on how the objects could be used. They might be flat, lying on their sides,

44

stacked or piled into groups. After the students were satisfied that their models were
complete, they traced around the bases of their objects with marking pens. Only after this
step were students allowed to see what the other students had done in their interpretations.
The results were quite surprising. The students themselves commented about how two
people could see a scene so differently.

Many students wanted to do additional models after the first one and were
allowed to do so using photographs of other landscapes. After several rounds of model
building, students were talking among themselves about the relationships between mil
mountains and their trees and mtg rocks. While possession was not intended as part of
the exercise, it was a nice add-on toward environmental awareness. It was interesting to
hear students explaining to each other why a particular combination of elements made
more sense than another combination would. Samples of the models have been included

in Figures 5-1 through 5-8.

45

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Figure 5-1. Interpretation of Mountain Scene (AF)

Figure 5-1 is one student’s interpretation of a mountain scene. She used twelve of the
available objects and included all of the shape classes. She used cones to represent pine
trees, balls to represent rocks and squares in two positions to represent shrubs and trees.
Also used as a large tree was the 12-inch tall block. The most interesting use of
manipulatives in this example was the 8-inch diameter disk on its side to represent the
mountain range. There was also a noticeable use of angles in her choice of object

positions.

46

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Figure 5-2. Interpretation of Mountain Biome (PS)

The student’s interpretation of a mountain scene in Figure 5-2 included fourteen of the
available objects. Broad symbolic representation was used to represent piles of rocks and
clusters of trees. The combination of objects used to represent the mountain was
especially interesting. She included four objects fiom three shape groups to build her

model and all were used in a traditional configuration.

47

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Figure 5-3. Interpretation of Mountain Biome (AB)

Sixteen total objects were used and all shape classes were included. Similar to Figure 5-2,
the student’s model in Figure 5-3 included the identical combination of objects, all used in
a traditional configuration to build his motmtain. In addition to broad scale representation
of areas using a single object, the rocky area in the center of the image was encompassed

with a large area, then built up with only two smaller objects.

48

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Figure 5-4. Interpretation of Mountain Biome (SR)

Figure 5-4 was the simplest of the models. This student summarized the image with only
nine objects distributed as a ‘spray’ across the field. The mountain range in the far right
rear was represented with a single block. Similarly understated, very different rock
formations and tree clusters were symbolized with the use of balls varying only slightly in

size.

49

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This student chose to use thirty-seven objects fiom all shape groups for his model. Great
care was taken to build up complex areas in a way that maintained proportional scale from
one group of elements to the next. Where possible, the number of objects used in the
representation equaled the number of objects comprising the landscape element.
Positioning within each cluster was as accurate as possible. Within the mormtain range at
the far rear right, angles were included to indicate that the range did not occupy only a

single diagonal plane.

50

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Figure 5-6. Interpretation of Mountain Biome (J S)

Despite a rather simple approach to the symbols used in the model shown in Figure 5-6
and an almost linear design layout, this student chose to ignore the artificial boundary
imposed by the edge of the paper in the front left. Although twenty-one objects were
used, none were combined as clusters. The mountain range was minimized by giving a

nearly equal representation of scale to trees, rocks and other formations.

51

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Figure 5-7. Interpretation of Mountain (DW)

Thirty-one objects were used in the representation shown in Figure 5-7. In general, the
use of objects to represent the landscape elements and formations in this model was
positionally accurate and appropriate in scale. However, the entire motmtain range was
built opposite to its actual position in the photograph. This selective reassignment of
position was inconsistent with the student’s otherwise correct interpretation and is
interesting when we consider that the range represents the largest and most significant of

the landscape features.

52

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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different interpretations of an identical
landscape. All the students were in the same
age class, had the same quantity of objects
available to them and had no time limit for
the creation of their models. The differing
perspectives on scale, position and
importance of landscape elements may hold
clues for creating Earth Science learning
activities.

 

Figure 5-8. Mountain Biome Landscape Models

53

 

The next activity in the Landscape Visualization suite is similar to the original
Mini-Mormtains activity but involves more complicated analysis, smaller manipulatives
and the possibility of a computer lab. The goal again is to help students gain a sense that
landscape patterns and landscape processes are interrelated. As with the previous
activity, this has not been designed as an experiment but as a learning activity with very
few restrictions.

Each student or group of students is given a set of manipulatives. In this exercise,
wooden blocks and balls ranging from Mt” to 1” diameter were used. Each student also
received a piece of craft canvas (a plastic grid available in craft stores), a bulldog clip,
blank paper and a black felt pen. Several photographs of landscape characteristics of
defined biomes were given to each student or group of students. Using the blocks and
balls, the students created models of the landscape elements they saw in the photographs.
After completing their models, pushing the felt pen through the holes in the plastic
canvas covered by the manipulative created a ‘footprint’ of the landscape. These maps
were then compared to the work of other students and the concepts of landscape elements
and biogeochemical processes were discussed.

By using a grid to lay out the landscape models, the resulting footprints were
easily converted to a vector matrix that could be used to generate graphs in a spreadsheet
program like Excel. Wherever there was a “hit” or a dot on the map as a part of the
footprint, the coordinates were entered into the database. Alter converting several of the
maps to vector matrices, comparisons of interpretations could potentially be quantified.
The students could carry their interpretive work from the classroom to the computer lab

and continue with cross-curricular connections while remaining within a science theme.

54

This activity is included in its entirety in Appendix B. This exercise was not intended to
be an experiment. However, based on the enthusiasm of the students and the exciting
possibility of quantifying visual interpretations and landscape patterns, further research
into this activity as a method for analysis of spatial interpretation of landscapes would

likely prove valuable.

55

Chapter 6

INTEGRATING EARTH EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS

The preceding chapters have provided the reader with the philosophy of the Earth
School model. Consistent with this model is a template for conversion of current
research in the sciences to learning activities in the classroom and an outline for a
biospheric curriculum (Figure 6-1) approach to Earth education. This chapter provides
some suggestions about integration and program development for public schools.

In any effort to bring change to public education, we need to recognize that every
school has its own culture, its own personality and its own underground. In some cases,
the administrators are exciting and vital people who truly have vision and an eye to the
future. In other cases, this is much too far fi'om reality. The combined efl‘ect of
administrators, teachers, students, and community structure creates the unique culture
that surrounds the learner. This very combination of factions, each with its own agenda,
is exactly the reason Earth education will be more successfully integrated on a small scale
with teachers as the catalysts of change and students as the quiet leaders from within the
system.

My suggestions for integration begin with the teacher. Ultimately, the teacher is
the person who decides how the district’s curriculum will be applied in the classroom.

He or she is the one who decides how the text will be used, which experiments will be

56

conducted, how tests are to be given and graded, and how students will perceive science
at the end of their training. To that end, it is critically important that teachers spend time
at various points in their development in careful appraisal of their own values. For
teachers, these values will be used to filter information that is vital to the health and well
being of the planet. The science teacher is the person most highly charged with
responsibility for creating a scientifically literate population. No small task. The
magnitude of this responsibility needs to be acknowledged and taken seriously. The
process for values clarification outlined below is one I’ve used and taught. It’s simple and
can be applied to a wide variety of topics fiom nearly any discipline.

1) Consider the global picture

2) Define the issues

3) Locate relevant scientific principles, theories and processes

4) Identify opposition and support

5) Consider and frame arguments in alternative value systems

Among the critical global issues1 at this writing are population, urban sprawl,
resource allocation and use, threatened and endangered species, loss of diversity,
freshwater use and diversion, bioinvasion, salinization and desertification of soil, global
warming, air pollution, resource valuation, energy, human health and environmental
racism. This brief list is by no means presented as all-inclusive. Additional sources for

highlighting key issues of concern to the scientific and global communities can come

fiom newspapers, professional journals, popular press, and observation.

 

' Each year the Worldwatch Institute publishes their State of the World Report. This report, along
with the annual Earth Journal published by Buzzworm magazine can offer a broad picture of
environmental issues without adding undue pressure to the limited time of most teachers. For a highly
readable and thought provoking analysis of globally significant issues, Daniel Chiras’s Igssons figm
Nature published by Island Press is an excellent investment. Action plans proposed for environmental
cleanup in Jon Narr’s Design for a Livable Planet published by Harper and Row offers pages filled with
information, ideas and classroom adaptable action plans on several critically important environmental
issues.

 

57

In evaluating any issues, the reader should remember to consider the agenda of
the publisher. It stands to reason that the publishers of Worldwatch, Environment and
National Wildlife will present information differently than the Loggers’ Union or
Economist due their readers’ interests. Awareness of the potential for biased reporting is
essential for position and value clarification and should be included in any critical
analysis of information.

The reader is encouraged to become very deliberate in breaking down significant
issues into scientific principles. Based on these principles and accepted or controversial
theories, what does the evidence indicate? How then, does this evidence support or
disclaim your position? Persuasion in casual debate and in education is a valuable
component of education. We persuade our listeners to consider what we’re saying. We
ask them to truly evaluate the evidence that they’re seeing, reading or hearing. We
further need to ask them to use this evidence to consider what we’ve said and to arrive at
a position they can defend with a logical, persuasive argument. While the debate of
untrained participants can quickly degrade into loud voices and irrational, emotionally
based positions, this is seldom persuasive. An argument based on fear or ignorance does
nothing to advance one’s cause and can prove detrimental to the image and effectiveness
of others who share the same perspective.

In an effort to clarify a position on ecological issues, begin with a clear definition
of the issue. If asked whether they are for or against the loss of usable land, most people
will generally be opposed or have no opinion. Get to the point of conflict. This same
loss of land issue could be stated as a question such as, “Should a developer be allowed to

build a mobile home park on agricultural property?” or “Should cities have the right to

58

limit growth?” Either question could easily become the topic of a heated debate. This
leads to the next phase of deciding where your vote would be cast. If an emotional
response wells up with a clear N01! to the question of the developer, ask yourself why.
If the answer is based only on emotion or even on aesthetics, your position will be a weak
one regardless of how strongly you feel. If the position is based on research indicating
that a threatened species depends on the habitat provided by that agricultural land or if
the land provides a critical biological corridor for wildlife or if changing land use would
most likely result in degradation of ground water quality, these may be arguments worth
investing in.

Determine what groups or individuals would hold opinions opposed to your own
and consider why they would disagree. In our example, the landowner might be opposed
to leaving agricultural land undeveloped based on his perception of lost financial
opportunity. Those seeking economical housing might be opposed to your vote against
the development because it limits their choices. City administrators might be interested
in the possible tax dollars to be generated. When you have exhausted the list of possible
supporters and detractors, consider the values they may hold that influence their opinions.

While we all like to believe that ours is the best possible decision fiom the facts,
even facts change color as they travel through our value systems. Loss of land can
certainly be considered an ecological or biological issue, but it is also a political issue, a
social issue and a financial issue. To be persuasive, frame your argument in the context
of more than one primary value. A position might be based on the biological
considerations of habitat, heat islands, water quality or flood buffer zones. If the primary

opposition operates fi'om within a financially motivated value system, what argument

59

would they consider persuasive? Would the cost of creating an artificial system of
sewers and drains to replace the existing natural buffer offer a significant consideration to
the deve10per? Would the revenue generating potential of the land be equal or greater
with an alternative use? If you are speaking to someone in their own language, it is much
easier for them to understand what you’re saying.

To be scientifically literate includes the ability to speak knowingly and to think
critically about globally significant scientific issues. These skills, once mastered by the
teacher and matured in the students, can become the core of values formation and
information assessment throughout one’s life. With conscious attention to issues of
concern to the global commrmity and a clear sense of ones own positions and values, the
integration of an Earth education curriculum becomes almost second nature. We start to
teach fi'om the heart and use available materials rather than teaching fi'om the text and for
the test.

Below are some suggestions for teachers who want to integrate Earth education
into existing curricula.

Critically evaluate the text pied in your classroom. My own experience has shown that
many textbooks are filled with misinformation and outdated information. Read carefully
in the context of your own ongoing research to locate and correct inaccuracies.

Consider the flow of tgpics presented by the author! s 1. Because the information has been
organized in a particular order does not mean this is the only or best way to structure your

lesson plans.

60

Establish your annual plan. A curriculum guide has been suggested in this chapter
(Figure 6-1). Use this or your own version of an Earth education curriculum to lay out
your goals and activities for the entire school year.

Locate p__r1r_n_gy° and supplementagy materials. The use of a specific textbook may be
favored by your school district. Even if you prefer to supplement heavily, materials
found in the textbook can still be included as topics arise. Supplementary materials are
perhaps the more critical component of a public school Earth education curriculum.
Consistent with the call to use current research and innovative ideas to present science
lessons, professional journals and the popular press are excellent sources of information
when integrated with a critical evaluation.

A word of caution is in order for materials for on the web. Be aware that there is
no governing body to assess the accuracy of materials found on the web. As such, you
may wish to use only those sites developed by government agencies or reputable
organizations like National Geographic, The Smithsonian, Nova and other familiar
organizations. At a minimum, avoid having web-based materials as the only or as
primary references.

Convert research for classroom use. Reading about current research is very much
different from participating in an exciting discovery process. Although much of the
research being conducted may be too difficult or equipment intensive to bring to the
classroom, many investigations can be designed to duplicate, simulate or parallel current
research. Examples or conversions have been included in the appendices and discussed
in Chapter 5. Don’t overlook the possibility of establishing your own research and

including your students. I have found that simply doing my own work, whether pinning

61

insects or mounting plant samples will always bring about student interest. While
teaching an especially energetic and disruptive group of 7th graders, I asked one of my
students why, with all of my assigned detentions, homework assignments, and calls to his
house, he was in my room before school, during ltmch and after school. His honest and
unhesitating response was, “’Cause you’ve got cool stuff.” Thanks Brian! You set me on

my path to experiential education.

62

Earth Education Curriculum Guide

1) Acclimatization - Gaining familiarity with the natural world via the senses

2)

3)

8)

Sight

b) Smell

C)
d)

6)

Sormd
Touch

Taste

Observation and Inquiry — Learning to experience the world with an open and
creative mind. Asking questions based on all the senses and intuition
The Biosphere - Overview of the living planet

8)
b)

c)
d)

e)

1)

Biogeochemical Cycles — Basic to the understanding of everything else in the
Earth system
Hydrologic cycle
i) Nitrogen cycle
ii) Carbon cycle
Energy flow — Directions and diversions within the Earth’s circulatory system
Lithosphere
i) The landscape
ii) Ecological Systems (begin where you live)
(1) Desert
(2) Prairie or Grassland
(3) Temperate forest
(4) Tropical forest
(5) Mountains
(6) Tundra and Ice caps
Hydrosphere
i) Oceans
ii) Freshwater
Atmosphere

4) Biostatistics and Measurement

5) Time — Geologic history and 7G decision making
6) Issues of scale — Differing perspectives from the molecular level to the universal
7) You - Values formation

Figure 6-1. Suggested Curriculum Guide for Earth Education

63

Position your students for success by honing their presentation skills. If integration of
Earth education is to be successful, the students forming the core of the revolution must
become ambassadors. Their work should be showcased at every opportunity. Help them
create posters, exhibits, newsletters, websites, Power Point presentations, videos and
models to replace the time-honored book report or lab notebook. A portfolio of the
students’ work can easily be modified to include not only the written work and research
of a discovery project but also the disks, CD’s and photos of models. This creates a
dynamic means of assessing performance and makes use of the visual and kinesthetic
learning capabilities of our students. Create opportunities for your students to present
their work to others. This can be in the form of a mentor program with older students
teaching younger students, open houses for parents or as extreme as the Experiential
Learning Initiative (ELI) that provided annual outings to cooperative universities for
presentations by the students.

Messible to your £613 Students themselves are likely to carry the momentum for a
change to Earth education, but for the wave to spill into other classrooms, be receptive to
fellow teachers. While ego will prevent many teachers from seeking help or information,
some will want to know what you’re doing to stir up such a fire in the students. (This fire
can exist regardless of age, class size, culture, or previous history). New teachers are
likely to become your best source of ‘recruits’. If possible, make yourself available
formally or informally as a mentor to these new teachers. Don’t limit yourself to only

science teachers. All teachers in all subject areas can be Earth educators.

Be cooperative with administration. Under the best of circumstances, administrators will
ofl‘er full support and financial assistance. In other cases, the battle to use non-traditional
methods will be hard fought. In either case, it makes sense to align your supporters and
have patience with opponents. In the end, it is the success of your students that will
persuade the administration, school board, and parents of the merit and worth of any
program change. Always assume that opposition is based. on fear or lack of
lmderstanding. Assuage their fears with student performance and create understanding
with ongoing dialog and access to your philosophy. An old rule of thumb in business
applies in education as well. Ifyou make your boss look good, he or she will want you to

continue doing what you do.

65

RECOMNIENDATION S

Science education in America has begun the critical shift from memorization of
formulas and principles to a more engaging format. Teachers have heard the call for
hands-on learning and are responding assertively to the many packages being offered by
textbook publishers and others eager to maintain or capture market share. While many
excellent and exciting options have become available through prepared materials, what is
often still missing is the discovery that comes not from following cookbook instructions
guaranteed to lead to one or more defined and explained outcomes, but the true discovery
of doing science from a position of divergent thought and open-minded analysis.

Hands-on is a beginning. To expand on the learning potential of kinesthetic
manipulation of materials, the addition of discovery, analysis and application should
come fi'om the learner rather than fi'om the teacher. All members of the educational
composite could benefit fi'om a reform in thinking. Rather than viewing the sciences as
discreet units suitable for a sequential progression in a defined curriculum, learners
should be guided through the discovery process as they make observations, ask questions
of their own latent knowing and look for relationships within a biospheric context. Such
a biospheric approach and divergent method call for a new paradigm, one that
incorporates current research to facilitate comprehension of accepted theories, and that
accepts the scientific community not as apart from the educational process but, in fact, a
critical base element in the evolution of tomorrow’s general science. Teachers working

with students and scientists as the core of a partnership that extends to include the

families as well as local and global commrmities form the human infrastructure of the
model proposed by this work.

Essential to the discovery process is an open end. If we are less sure of the facts,
if we are uncertain about cause and effect, then certainly, children and other learners are
more able to become partners in discovery rather than the receivers of information. To
this end, the use of current research is an important component of this educational model.
By establishing a template for the conversion of current investigations within the
professional scientific community for use in K-8 classroom, we offer young learners an
opportlmity to literally grow up with the discoveries of a changing world. No longer will
they be lost in the lag time created by the limited paths by which findings from primary
research enter the public domain. Teachers and other leaders can apply the conversion
template to the daily classroom materials while districts can integrate the literacy training

models as appropriate for their individual needs.

67

APPENDICES

68

APPENDIX A

69

APPENDIX A

Learning Activities
Watershed Suite

BflCMI’flllllll Information

a-Illeeelel. lam-teeter Grantee

leeter Iesel mules: lake Selefler

its-lentil et the Watershed

sleetetlel letter-e ell lenient Inerslel II tIe Greet lelee

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The Great Law
The Great Lakes are the five inland fiesh water lakes
located in the northern Midwest region of the United
States of America. The states of Minnesota,
Wisconsin, Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio,
Pennsylvania and New York along with the Canadian
province of Ontario share the shorelines of Lakes
Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie and Ontario.
Historically, the Great Lakes provided habitat for ‘3
a unique assemblage of animals including many fur-
bearers. The early settlers found a bountiful harvest in their trapping of an apparently
limitless supply of muskrat, mink and beaver. Pines, birch, maple and a variety of other
trees dominated the landscape until the clearing of land for agriculture, industry and
urban expansion substantially reduced their numbers. Today, we can still find heavily
forested areas and many of the animals associated with the early terrain surrormding the
Great Lakes. Foxes, wolves, coyotes, deer and rabbits along with other fur-bearing
animals such as mink and muskrat, and many fish and birds make their homes in the
Great Lakes region. The fishing industry has been a cornerstone in the historical
development of the Great Lakes states. Salmon, trout, bass and many other species
provide not only food but also recreation in the form of sport fishing.

 

Circulation

The Great Lakes individually cover significant area and reach depths sufficient to hold
the secrets of lost freighters and missing mariners for many generations. Collectively
they amount to an incredibly complex matrix of fi'eshwater lakes, rivers, and streams
comprising the Great Lakes watershed. As working models for the physical phenomena
characteristic of oceans, the Great Lakes are of exceptional value. They provide living
examples of the effect of horizontal and vertical circulation and, to a lesser extent, the
relationship between Coriolis force, basin topography and large-scale circulation patterns.
Additionally, seasonal thermal stratification is well developed and

70

provides an excellent vehicle for discussions about water density associated with
temperature, salinity and nutrients.

The primary components of circulation include horizontal and vertical patterns along
with the influence of basin topography and Coriolis force on each of these. Horizontal
circulation is the movement of water across a plane within the system. This can be the
actual surface of the lake or any significant plane established by stable stratification. The
most significant impact on horizontal circulation comes from wind patterns. These
patterns are created by the “wind shadows” cast from coastal landscape elements and
upland topography. Wind stress associated with weather patterns is generally uniform
across the lake basins but will be further modified by torque generated as difl‘erences in
depth lead to higher or lower wind drag.

Vertical patterns are most strongly influenced by the dimictic nature of the Great
Lakes. That is, the twice annual overturn of the water column. Fresh water reaches its
maximum density at 4°C. Because maximum density occurs significantly above freezing
temperature, overturn of the water column occurs as autumn brings cooler surface
temperatures. As spring waters warm through the 4°C mark, they again cause overturn as
warmer waters rise to the surface. As the entire surface temperature rises, warmer waters
settle on cooler waters creating a weak stable stratification. This stability reduces the
degree to which vertical circulation can occur and further affects large-scale horizontal
circulation.

In the spring, the water near the shore increases in temperature more quickly than
ofi‘shore waters. The resulting onshore-offshore pressure gradients created by the density
differences tend to push the warm water offshore. The effect of the Earth’s rotation
(Coriolis force) is to deflect this offshore flow and set up fairly steady circulation with
warm water moving counter-clockwise (Northern Hemisphere) and following the bottom
contours. Comparing this pattern to that of summer, we find that during summer
stratification the warm surface layer tends to slide downwind over an undisturbed
thermocline (lower layer) as wind blows over the lake. At the downwind shore, the warm
water will force the thermocline down. Where the warm water moves offshore the
thermocline must rise. The pressure gradients associated with onshore-ofl‘shore flows
generally mean that the strongest currents occur between 1 and 10 km from shore.
Offshore, beyond 10 km, the currents are more variable and show a tendency in the
summer to rotate clockwise. Very close to the shore, within the surf zone, additional
currents are generated by the breaking surface waves.

As circular flow patterns associated with the effects of the Earth’s rotation are
combined with wind-driven horizontal circulation and density-driven vertical circulation,
we can begin to analyze the very complex nature of nutrient and pollutant circulation
within individual lake basins. When we also include the impact of in-flow and out-flow
through the vast network of reaches (drainages) within the entire Great Lakes watershed,
it becomes more evident that water-use decisions made anywhere in the system afi‘ect the
entire system.

71

3-Dimensional. Multi-tgctor Graphing

Graphs allow us to visualize numerical data sets through the organized use of points lines
and polygons. An individual data point may be shown as simply an x,y coordinate.
Scatter graphs include many such points that form a pattern of distribution. Data may
also form lines when x,y coordinates are linked in some meaningful way. Time
sequences, growth rates and other data that show a progression are efl‘ectively
represented with line graphs. The histogram or bar graph is frequently used to show
quantity comparisons. Area or shape graphs and maps are useful for geographically
referenced data. While any of these (and many other) styles can be used effectively for
individual data sets or themes, combining themes offers a point of reference or
comparison with other information.

Because we view the world in 3-dimensions, our ability to comprehend complex
data sets is enhanced by the ability to present data 3-dimensionally. This can be
accomplished by the creation of models, by viewing computer generated 3-dimensional
graphs or by actually building a “graphic landscape” for multiple-theme data sets.

Vector-Based Mappipg

Mapping is an essential element in biological and ecological studies. Maps are used to
identify the locations of critical populations and to delimit specific landscape features
such as wetlands, forests and agricultural bormdaries. They are used to identify survey
locations and to provide a visual shorthand for the larger picture. Comparing maps over
time, trends are more apparent.

The ecological world is a very dynamic place. Shorelines change under the influence
of erosion, the flow of a river shifts as it meanders. Hills form as sands push their way
across the land. Mapping allows us to see these changes in a quantifiable way. All
geographic, political and biological features on maps are represented with points, lines
and polygons. A tower might be shown as a dot or point, while roads, rivers and
highways are symbolized as lines. Cities and bodies of water are typically shown as
colored polygons. We can go a step further and determine the specific location of each of
these points, lines and polygons through a simple planar coordinate system. Each
coordinate (x,y) represents the location of a point . The pairing of coordinates (x1,y1 and
xz,y2) creates a line while coordinate sets (three or more points) can be used to create
polygons. Simple graphing programs can be used to build or ‘draw’ maps simply by
organizing sets of x,y coordinates on a grid. Since lines of latitude and longitude can be
used to identify points on the planet, understanding a coordinate or vector-based map can
be used as a bridge to understanding co-georeferenced points and associated attributes
within a GIS mapping system.

GIS Mapping
Whether tracking wolves in Michigan’s Upper Peninsula, cataloging the flora and fauna

of national parks, or recommending the best site for a new hospital, Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) are becoming an integral part of our daily lives. More than
just a method for collecting or organizing data, GIS is a computer system capable of
assembling, storing, manipulating and displaying geographically referenced information.
It combines hardware, software and special data to create customized maps defined by
the user’s interest and available data. Multiple attributes can be combined to give an

72

infinite variety of comparisons. Scale can be adjusted up or down to reveal patterns not
readily apparent.

Imagine several maps, each with a different focus. One map might show geographic
boundaries, another the ecoregions and still another the distribution of agricultural land.
All the data compiled to create those maps is georeferenced to a specific point on the
map. Through GIS, those maps can be combined through an overlay process that keeps
all data aligned with the specific location on the map. Data showing the population,
mean income and ethnic diversity of Cleveland can be combined with land use to create a
map of urban pressure on agriculture. Land managers in Michigan’s Upper Peninsula can
combine information about soil, fire damage in Christmas tree plantations and bark beetle
infestations to analyze the efl'ects of human and natural phenomena on tree production.
Possible combinations of data and uses are virtually limitless.

The use of GIS technology to manage watersheds is proving to be very effective. By
combining information showing local watersheds, rivers, reaches, regional and local land
use, nutrient and pollutant levels fiom the many measurement stations nationwide,
managers are able to get rapid assessment of the environment and make appropriate
decisions based on current information.

As GIS technology becomes accessible to all sectors, its use will continue to expand.
Our questions will become more sophisticated and our ability to visualize patterns and
relationships will become richer. In concert with imagination, art and science, our
understanding of the natural world can be taken into the 21’t century while avoiding
repetition of past mistakes.

SW!

The following suite of activities offers the user an opportunity to establish a foundation
for understanding the complexities of a watershed, in this case, the Great Lakes. Water
regime and circulation determine the potential impact of chemical influx and the resulting
commrmity composition. The plant and animal community drives and is driven by the
water available. To communicate about and to analyze relationships or to track changes,
mapping skills are essential. While vector-based mapping lays out a planar view, 3-
dimensional and GIS-mapping combine many georeferenced planar views into a single
picture.

Aclmowledgment
Header clip art from Microsoft Clip Gallery 3.0
Shape files for Great Lakes region from Arc-View GIS software

Additional Readlng and Retbrencas

Ashworth, William. 1986. The Late Great Lakes: An Environmental Histogy. Wayne
State University Press, Detroit, MI.

Boyce, F .M. 1989. Thermal Structure and Circulation in the Great Lakes, Atrnosphere-
Oceans, 27 (4) 607-642.

Cohen, Karen C. (Editor). 1997. Internet Links for Science Education: Student-Scientist
Partnerships. Plenum Press, New York.

73

 

Postel, Sandra. 1996. Dividing the Waters: Food Security. Ecosystem Health. and the
New Politics of Scarcity. Worldwatch Paper #132. Worldwatch Institute, Danvers,
MA

Speidel, David H., Lon C. Ruedsili and Allen F. Agnew (editors). 1988. Perspactives on
Water: Uses and Abuga. Oxford University Press, New York.

www.Greatnges.com. 1999. The Canadian Hydrographic Service, Department of
Fisheries and Oceans - Information about circulation in the Great Lakes.

 

74

 

Llama—v 7‘ _

Matti-theme Graphing
III TWII- and TIII’GB-IIIIIIBIISIIIIIS

 

Purpose
To become familiar with graphing methods used to combine multiple data sets on a
single visualization.

Overview

During the exercises included here, students will combine multiple data sets on graphs
to show the numerical relationships between themes. Graphs using identical data sets
will be created to show the differences that can result from varying the sort sequence or
scale. Additional exercises will be completed to see how different styles can be used to
make the data visualization clear. Upon completion of two-dimensional multi-factor
graphs, students will create true 3-dimensional representations of multiple data sets
using Legos, Duplos or similar materials.

77me

One class session initially, followed by use whenever appropriate. (It’s most helpful to
begin the graphing activities early in the school year and continue using the methods
throughout).

Level

Basic to advanced

Prerequisites
None
Prior experience with planar coordinate systems and vector graphing is helpful.

Key Concepts and Sldlls

Concepts

All data is relative

Multiple data sets can be effectively combined on a single graph.

Comparing data from multiple themes offers a relative comparison that can be useful in
understanding broader concepts and systems.

Data may be presented more clearly on one type of graph than on another.

Technology has been partly driven by the data analysis and database management
needs of the scientific commrmity.

Skill:

Graphing data

Managing and manipulating data sets

Conceptualizing relationships

Hypothesizing about biological and geophysical relationships

 

 

 

 

75

 

‘u—s din \ .
l -

 

 

Materials and Tools

Transparencies of the graphs included in this exercise

Overhead projector and dry erase pens

Data sets (provided is a set that includes the date and measurements of water
temperature and pH for lakes in the Michigan area. Data was collected by GLOBE
(Global Learning and Observation to Better the Environment) students using GLOBE
protocol).

Legos, Duplos or similar stacking and locking blocks (Lego “freestyle” are
recommended for ages 5-12. For young children, the size certified for 3-5 year olds
will be easier to handle).

Lego baseboard (optional but recommended).

Plain paper

Colored markers

Visualizations (graphs) showing computer generated multi-theme data. (Many are
available through www.§pa. gov or www.globe.gov or w. Great_lakes.com).

Preparation
1. Make transparencies of graphs included in this exercise and other graphs that show
style differences.

2. Gather materials needed for activity (markers, plain paper, data sets).
3. Sort Legos into sets for easier distribution to groups.

 

 

Additional Resources and References
Glassman, Bruce S. (editor). 1996. The MacMillan Visual Almanac. Blackbird Press,
Simon and Schuster MacMillan Company. New York. 608 pages.

Aclmowledgment

Header clip art fi'om Microsoft Clip Gallery 3.0

EPA Region 5 shape files were created using Storet Data Hydrostat.

Data imposed on Region 5 shape files were collected by GLOBE schools.

What To Do and How To Do It

1. Show the transparencies of the graphs in this activity. Point out the difl‘erences in
representation although all the data is identical. Compare data presentation based on
different sort priorities

2. Distribute data sets (use sets provided or use data the students have generated or
formd), colored markers and plain paper. Graph paper may be used but to promote
more creative representation of data, plain paper is less restrictive.

3. Provide students with a general overview about the data. Include information about
how it was collected (if known) and who might be interested in using the data.

4. Have students create “flat” graphs using the data. The more creative the better
but. . .the data shouldn’t get lost in the artwork.

76

5. Compare the students’ graphs and discuss which graphs are confusing and which ones
help you understand the data.

6. Show students transparencies or printouts of visualizations created with multiple data
sets or themes. Geographically referenced data is especially good for this part of the
lesson. Other sources of good 3-dimensional representations of multi-theme data
come fi'om medical and other scientific fields.

7. Distribute Legos (or other blocks) and have the students create true 3-dimensional
graphs of the same data they worked with in two dimensions during the previous
activity. Suggest difl‘erent x, y, and z axes for each group to allow for later
comparison. (Groups of 2 or 3 students are recommended. The concept sounds
simple until you actually get started. After that, a collaborator might be very much
appreciated). Tip: Use the Lego colors to establish the number of classes to be used
in organizing data. Then create stacks based on progression through the classes. For
example if there are 5 colors there would be 5 classes. If the data ranged fi'om 4-23,
data points of 4 or 7 might be represented by a white Lego. Data point of 8 or 10
would be represented with a yellow block stacked on a white block. At the top of the
data range, the Lego stack would include a block of each color.

 

2 3 5 6 7 8
Mar May Jim Sep Sep Nov

15 21 21 22 23 8
8.4 8.7 .. ,_ 8.2 8.6 8 8.7

 

If we use the x-axis for time (month and year) and the yards for pH, we can build
up dimension with our temperature data. Color classes may be defined as follows:

 

4-7°C 8-11°C 12-15°C l6-19°C 20-23°C
White Yellow Green Blue black

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Stacks of blocks would reach a maximum of 5 pieces. In our example, point 1 data
would be at the coordinates of March (x-axis) and 6.5 (pH on y-axis) with a Lego
stack of one white and one yellow piece. Point 4 data would be at the coordinates
of ere and 8.7 (pH) with a Lego stack of four pieces (white, yellow, green and
blue). 5...... . ..

    

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ClassI[:_—J ClassII HQ: ClassIII 0"“ ClassIV

 

 

 

 

 

 

77

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

H Vertical scale
. ;: is based on
\ H the class
/\ designations
9'0 />\ \ described
8-0 />\ \ previously.
7 0
pH 6,0 Mar Mar Mav June June Sen Sen Nov

 

 

 

Sample 3-Dimensional, Multi-factor Graph

Vocabubry

Shape file — A large collection of data points that, when used in a planar coordinate
system, create a shape outline or a lake, region or other geographically referenced
polygon

Trend line -— A moving average showing the general up, down or stable trend

Theme — A group of data sets about a common descriptor such as temperature, pH,
dissolved oxygen, ammonia, and so on

Discuss/on Quesdons
What are some of the benefits and disadvantages of combining data sets on a single

graph?
How does the addition of a second y axis scale make data comparisons more relevant?

What differences (and difficulties) might be encountered by listing months with their
names instead of their numbers. (Eg. April 1998 vs 0498)?

Give examples of information that would be best presented as a pie chart, a histogram, a
shape map or a line graph.

Further Invesdmdons

Use Microsoft Excel or other spreadsheet and database software to create a variety of
single and multiple factor graphs.

Design an investigation and determine the best method for graphing your data.

Locate examples of graphs in your local newspaper. How else could the data be shown?

78

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take Sunerlor ‘1 \
Purpose 3

To use vector-based mapping as a vehicle for presenting the concept of relationships
existing between surface thermal structure and depth in lakes.

Overview

Students will create visual representations of the thermal structure and depth of Lake
Superior using vector-based mapping. After locating ten coastal and ten open water
research stations by their coordinates, temperature and depth data organized into classes
will be added to the base map using colored dots. Students will be asked to consider the
biological and geological implications of the surface temperature distribution.

    

 

77me
45 minutes with extensions possible

Level

Basic to intermediate

This learning activity can be as basic or as sophisticated as the students’ skill levels
permit. Providing a variety of data sets allows ‘layering’ and creates a visualization
foundation for discussion of biological and geophysical relationships.

Prerequisites

Some experience with graphing is helpful.

Prior knowledge about thermal regulation and conductivity will allow greater depth of
lmderstanding.

Advanced data sets may require familiarity with biogeophysical cycles and energy flow
through aquatic systems.

Key Concepts and Sid/ls

Concepts

Maps are created fiom points, lines and polygons.

All points on a map are identifiable by specific coordinates.

Relationships exist between the depth of water and the water’s temperature.
Water temperature and depth impact the resident biological community.

Sid/ls

Creating base maps within a planar coordinate system

Using point coordinates to locate specific locations

Grouping data by class

Visualizing data classes with gradient color

Hypothesizing about biological and geophysical relationships

 

 

 

79

 

 

Materials and Tools

Copies of each of the two base maps from this activity

3/ ” stickers of four colors (blue, green, yellow and orange)

Colored markers, pencils or crayons

Overhead transparencies of base map, data sets and instructions (Optional for teaching
style preference).

Preparation

1. If there isn’t already a map or globe in your classroom, locate one for this exercise.

2. Determine the quantity of stickers each student or group will need for the
visualization(s).

3. When using new data sets, always do the visualizations yourself before class.

4. Create overhead transparencies if desired. Use erasable markers in several colors
during introduction and summary phases of activity.

5. Review biogeochemical cycles if necessary.

 

Vocabulary

Attribute — A piece of information describing a map feature. An attributes of a lake
might include name, depth and land area..

Line — A pair of x,y coordinates

Planar coordinate system — A two-dimensional measurement system that defines
locations on a map based on their distance from an origin along two axes.

Point — A single x,y coordinate

Polygon — A set of x,y coordinates

Raster format — A cell-based representation of map features. Each cell in the structure
has a value and a group of cells with the same value represents a feature.

Theme — A set of features of the same type such as pH readings, nitrogen counts or
surface temperature at all the research stations on Lake Superior

Vector format map — a coordinate-based representation of map features

Mm To Do and How To Do It

1. Point out that points, lines and polygons represent all features on maps. Depending
on the skill level in your class, it may be helpful to begin with a simple graph drawn
on the blackboard or overhead. Remind students that the x-axis is the horizontal line
and the y-axis is the vertical line. Allow several students to locate specific points on
the graph by using coordinates you give them. After several points have been
correctly located on the graph, connect two points and offer the students a definition
for the term ‘line’ that includes wording such as, “A line is represented by a pair of
coordinates.” After locating several lines, create a closed shape on the graph. Ask
the students if they know the name of the shape that you’ve created. They are likely
to say hexagon, octagon or pentagon. Introduce the term polygon, meaning ‘many
sides’. As a working definition, you can add that a polygon is a group of coordinates.

80

 

 

. Review (or introduce) latitudes and longitudes on maps. Stress that latitude lines
always run parallel to the equator at equal distances and that lines of longitude
converge at the poles. Equate the point 0,0 from the graph to a point on the globe at
the intersection of the equator and the prime meridian.

. Show students Lake Superior (or other lakes as appropriate) on a map or globe.
Remind them that all map features were created using points, lines or polygons and
that with enough points, they can create an outline of Lake Superior or any other
landscape element. Small towns may be represented with points while roads, rivers
and reaches are represented by lines.

. Point out also how color and symbols help us visualize specific features. Locate a
large city and talk about how it is shown in a particular color and covers more space
than a smaller city or town shown in the same color. What are the most common
colors on your sample map and what do the colors symbolize? Examples may be
blue for water, yellow for cities and red for highways.

. Ask the students what some colors represent to them. It is useful at this point in the
introduction to help students associate cool colors such as blue or purple with cold
temperatures or deep water. Likewise, an association between red and orange with
hot, warm or shallow water will be useful later in the exercise.

. Discuss how research stations collect information for many difl‘erent purposes. What
types of agencies might want data about water? What are some indicators we might
use for water quality studies? Students may need prompting about the kinds of things
that determine water quality. Pollution. . .what kind of pollution?. . .Chemicals. . .what
kinds of chemicals?. . .Pesticides. . .Can you name any pesticides? .. .Trash...why is
trash bad?. . .Dead fish. . .Why did the fish die?

. Before we can analyze data about chemicals, we need to know a little about the lake’s
structure. This exercise will focus on temperature and depth1 . Both of these
attributes are significant in the lake’s ability to difi‘use and filter nutrients and toxins.
(Save any discussion about the relationship between temperature and depth until after
the students have completed both maps. See the background section for more
information about this and other relationships in aquatic systems).

. Stress the need to follow the directions printed on each activity sheet. Remind the
students to re-read any instructions they don’t understand and to refer to the examples
done druing the introduction.

. Students will divide the twenty temperature means and depth measurements into four
classes of each. Students will apply their stickers to the maps using the color that
represents the class for each particular temperature mean or depth reading. If this is
the first time students have worked with data classes, it will be helpful to arrive at the
class intervals together. The temperature range is fi'om 5-l6° C. Ifstudents are asked

 

' For the purpose of this exercise, data has been reformatted fiom figures 5-1, Profile of the Great Lakes,
and Figure 5-2, Surface temperature patterns for Lake Superior in Pmpeptives on Water: Uses and
Abuses. Original temperature data is for July 29, 1964, from an airborne infiared radiometer.

81

to arrive at four equal classes, they are most likely to say 1-4, 5-8, 9-12 and 13-16.
Point out that with the classes divided like that, there would be no data for the first
class. This point can be exaggerated by suggesting classes 1-25, 25-50 and so on.
Although these are equal classes they do not provide an emcient scale for organizing
the data. Again ask the students to suggest the range for four equal classes. This time
they should arrive at 5-7, 8-10, etc.

10. Provide students with enough time to locate each station, add a sticker to each station
representing the class for that station’s temperature reading and depth measurements
and to discuss the patterns shown by the placement of stickers. Where is the water the
coldest? The warmest? Why do they think the edges are the warmest spots? Do you
see any distinct patterns?

11. As a homework assignment, pens, pencils and markers can be used in place of
stickers to color each circle with the appropriate class color. While coloring generally
moves the exercise along more quickly, the use of stickers provides more physical
activity and adds an element of frm to the learning activity.

12. If it isn’t possible to include time in class for discussion, the discussion questions
listed below should be answered in writing and handed in as soon as possible after
completion of the maps.

13. Include the vocabulary either formally by assigning the vocabulary list or informally
through inclusion in your introduction and summary phases.

Discussion Questions

What differences do you see between coastal and open water temperature readings (depth
readings)?

What are some possible explanations for these differences?

Do these twenty points give you an accurate picture of the surface temperature patterns
(or depth patterns) for Lake Superior?

How could this map be made more informative?

Do surface temperatures give you a good clue as to deep-water temperatures? Why?
Why not?

Where is the deepest part of the lake? Why do you think so?

What would you expect the temperature map to look like for spring, fall or winter?

What additional data would you expect research stations to collect?

How does water temperature impact the biological communities in a lake?

Any questions about biological, chemical and geophysical relationships are appropriate.
(Adjust as needed for your students’ backgrounds. Dissolved oxygen, biological
oxygen demand, turbidity, vegetation, freezing and thawing, water density associated
with temperature, stratification, overturn, indicator species, urban influence, thermal
pollution and fi'eshwater classification are among the many possible discussion topics
possible from this exercise).

82

Further Invesflmdons

Add more research stations and data points to this activity

Repeat the exercise using the other Great Lakes.

Search the web for additional data sets to incorporate into your maps. (www.cpa. gov and
www.globe.go_v are good places to start).

Create similar activities in a raster-based format and compare the two types of maps.
Have students create their own maps (town, school, house, local ponds, etc.) using
point coordinates on Microsoft Excel.

Explore Geographic Information System (GIS) software.

Explore the role of Global Positioning Systems (GPS) in satellite generated maps.

83

Vector Based Mapping: Lake Superior

Temperature and Depth Name

1. What is the temperature range for the twenty stations listed?
2.
3. Create four groups or “classes” for the temperature data and for the depth data. Write

 

What is the depth range for the twenty stations listed?

 

the temperature and depth ranges for each class in the spaces below. v;

The range for each class must be the same but the classes do not 0
need to contain the same number of stations. ‘

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Temperature (low to high) &
Class 1 (Blue) = Class 3 (Yellow) =
Class 2 (Green) = Class 4 (Orange) =
Depth (shallow to deep)
Class 1 (Orange) = Class 3 (Green) =
Class 2 (Yellow) = Class 4 (Blue) =
Put an “X” in the box in Table l for the class represented by each station’s
temperature and depth reading.

Indicate the temperature class on your first map by attaching the correct color sticker

for each station.
Use your second map to indicate the depth class represented by each station’s depth

reading.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

’""”°’“"" 3 3 3 3 3 i 3 3
3 Temperature °C 1:33:26; O U
l4 16 10
23 16 18
25 ll 40
28 12 24
29 12 26
33 10 92
34 12 100
35 14 26
36 6 305
39 10 140
41 5 400
43 7 285
44 7 190
48 12 35
49 7 240
52 7 200
55 8 180
56 12 30
57 10 65
58 12 30

 

Table 1. Temperature and Depth Data

84

Visualizing Your Watershed
With GIS-style Manning (4

.fi

 

 

 

 

 

film -i "J .332-“533'23‘3 5533.11? ‘1
To learn Geographic Information System (GIS) Principles through the creation of local
and regional watershed maps.

Overview

Students will use the principles of GIS-mapping to create a series of overlays
representative of their local watershed. Transparencies can be co-georeferenced to
include a shape map showing the relative location of schools, reaches, rivers and lakes
comprising the local watershed. This local representation will be put into the context of
a larger regional watershed by continuing the activity with increasingly broader
measures of scale.

”me
45 minutes with possible extensions

Level
Basic to advanced

Prerequisites

Completion of the previous activity, “Vector-based mapping: Lake Superior”.

Students should be able to draw parallels between the concept of vector-based graphs
and georeferenced landmarks.

Students should understand that a watershed can be delimited relative to scale. Included
are local water bodies, regional water systems and the entire Earth system of oceans,
lakes and rivers.

Key Concepts and Sid/ls

Concepts

A watershed is a geographic area defined by the flow of water from high to low
elevations.

The definition of watershed is dependent on issues of scale.

The watershed impacts community composition.

Water flows in predictable patterns relative to elevation and topography.

Reaches, rivers and lakes may be seasonal or permanent.

Water flows into progressively larger systems. (Eg. Reaches to rivers to lakes to
oceans).

SIdILs

Mapping a familiar area by isolating its components

Visualizing the positions of locally significant water bodies and aquatic systems
relative to GLOBE schools

Identifying the position of the local area relative to the regional watershed

 

 

 

85

 

 

Materials and Tools

Several clean transparencies for each pair or small group of students

Water-base overhead markers

Overhead projector, light table or window

Maps, aerial photos and/or satellite images of the GLOBE local and regional areas

Preparadon

l. Ifthere isn’t already a map or globe in your classroom, locate one for this exercise.

2. Collect visual representations of your local and regional areas. These might
include local and state maps, satellite images or aerial photographs.

3. Create a basic map of your school’s territory showing main roads, the school, other
schools in the district, major landmarks or other elements you consider
significant. This map can serve as an orientation reference for overlays of
additional attributes. Make a copy (on paper or transparency film) for each pair
or small group of students. If possible, ‘ground truth’ the local map.

4. Locate GLOBE student data for land cover biology and hydrology fiom your
school. If your school does not collect hydrology data, check data archives for
neighboring schools. Have data available in either printed form or by providing
the appropriate URL for your students.

 

 

War To Do andHow ToDo It

1.

Discuss the components of typical maps. All maps will include boundaries of one
type or another. For some, these boundaries might be political in the form of county
or state lines. On other maps, there are no political boundaries but demarcations
determined by shorelines, mountains or other major landforms. Conservation areas,
resource availability or depletion, economic distribution and population distribution
are among some of the many other themes that can be used to create maps.

Show students maps depicting various themes and begin a brainstorming session
about how themes may be interrelated. For example, if a map of the local watershed
were compared to a map of agricultural production or of urbanization, what
relationships stand out?

Show students a series of overhead transparencies beginning with the shape-map of
the Great Lakes region. (Transparency masters have been included at the end of this
activity). Leaving this map on the overhead, position or co-georeference additional
maps of the Great Lakes showing GLOBE schools, local watersheds, rivers and

reaches.

Lead a brief discussion about agricultural and manufacturing distribution within the
Great Lakes region. Discuss the relationships between water and vegetation, or water
and commerce.

Distribute a shape-map of your school’s area (or have the students create one), several
clean transparency sheets, water-base markers and data sets (if applicable) to each
pair or small group of students.

86

6. Instruct students to begin by aligning the first clean transparency with the local shape
map.

7. Color in all areas where lakes and rivers are located. When creating your local base
map be sure to use a large enough scale to include water that might be located a few
miles fi'om your school.

8. Choose another color marker and on a second clean transparency, color in all the
areas where vegetation is found. This might include parks, playgrounds or residential
lawns.

9. On a third overlay, color in all commercial or industrial areas.

10. Steps 7-9 can include mapping anything of significance in your area. Urban schools
might focus on industry, commerce and parks while a rural setting would call for
mapping crops, grazing territory or forests. The key to choosing themes for this
mapping activity is to look for areas that are familiar to your students and related
biologically or economically.

11. After several overlays have been completed, have students compare them and look
for relationships.

Vocabuny

Attribute - A piece of information describing a map feature. Attributes of a lake might
include name, depth and land area.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) - A computer system capable of assembling,
storing, manipulating and displaying geographically referenced information.

Line — A pair of x,y coordinates

Planar coordinate system — A two-dimensional measurement system that defines
locations on a map based on their distance from an origin along two axes

Point — A single x,y coordinate

Polygon - A set of x,y coordinates

Raster-based mapping — A cell-based representation of map features. Each cell in the
structure has a value and a group of cells with the same value represents a feature.

Theme — A set of features of the same type such as pH readings, nitrogen cormts or
surface temperature at all the research stations on Lake Superior

Vector-based mapping — a coordinate-based representation of map features

Discussion Ouesflons

How might GIS tracking be used to aid decision making in agriculture?

How can GIS technology be used to reduce human fatalities caused by natural disasters?

What are some limitations of GIS technology or data?

Describe ways that GIS might aid in cataloging biodiversity.

Could a similar mapping strategy help us learn more about other planets?

What data sets would you combine to do an analysis of water quality 300 miles
downstream fi'om a nuclear reactor?

How could GIS technology be used to gauge the success of a program designed to
reintroduce a threatened butterfly species?

87

Pumper Invesflgdons

Choose an environmental issue and brainstorm ways that GIS could be used to research
or correct the problem.

Use the GIS software ArcVoyager to create similar maps on the computer.

Explore the role of Global Positioning Systems (GPS) in satellite generated thermal
maps.

Potential websites serving as links for additional information and activities

United States Geological Survey - Information about GIS and its applications
th://www.usgs.gov/research/gis/smcial4html

Information about GIS application software for K-12 students
Mpzl/wwwearieom/industries/k-l2/k-12.html

GIS activities for K-12 using ArcVoyager software
ptpp1//www.estfi.convmdusuies/k-12/voyager.html

The Earthwatch Global Classroom
http://wwweaith-watchorg/ed/home.html

Locate Your Watershed

ht_tp://www.gpa.gov/surf2/locate/
United States Environmental Protection Agency

WWW.CQ&.gOV

88

 

Transparency Master
The Great Lakes Region

 

 

89

 

Transparency Master
Watersheds in the Great Lakes

 

Transparency Master
Rivers in the Great Lakes Region

 

91

Ilorlzontal circulation ”i
In the creatures ll

\
s
i

e
.‘t
i t
\
..t

 

 

Purpose
To explore horizontal circulation patterns in lakes.

Overview

Students will begin the exercise by creating light and wind shadows with dimensional
objects. After observing actual shadows, the students will predict shadow patterns
based on a set of given wind headings. These predictions can then be used to
determine horizontal circulation on a lake’s surface when the effects of Coriolis force
are imposed. By taking into consideration the effect of the surrounding landscape on
the circulation patterns in lakes, students can predict the circulation and dispersion of
various nutrients and toxins fi'om strategic points around the Great Lakes.

Time
45 minutes with extensions possible

Level

Basic to intermediate

Providing a variety of shoreline features such as bays and inlets and landscape
elements such as cliffs, high terrain or upwind farmland will increase the complexity
of the predicted circulation patterns.

Prerequisites

Students should have some knowledge about global wind patterns. (The Great Lakes
are under the influence of “Westerlies”).

Students should recognize that some materials are water-soluble and others are not.
Students should understand the concept of density, specifically as it relates to the
vertical layering of materials submerged in water.

Key Concepts and Sldlls

Concepts

Circulation patterns are predictable for any body of water.

Nutrients tend to stay along the coast and do not readily mix with central waters.
Biological productivity tends to be higher in coastal waters than in central waters.
Circulation patterns in water bodies are influenced by the Earth’s rotation, the moon,
landscape elements, temperature and water depth.

Nutrients and pollutants are dispersed in patterns that are predictable based on their
density, solubility and concentrations.

Sldlls

Visualizing wind ‘shadows’ based on observation of light shadows.
Predicting the influence of landscape elements on circulation patterns.
Hypothesizing about biological and geophysical relationships.

 

 

 

92

 

Materials and Took

“Wind Shadows” worksheet package for each student or group.

Dimensional objects ranging from simple cubes to complicated natural materials.
Light source for each group. A movable lamp, microscope illuminator or flashlights
with stands are all good options. Any light source direct enough to cast a shadow will
work.

Broad-line colored markers, pencils or paints.

Prepandon
1. Locate or collect the objects to be used. Each student should have a minimum of
three objects.

2. Check that flashlight batteries and bulbs are fiesh. Because this exercise is heavily
dependent on a reliable light source, be sure to have extra batteries and bulbs on
hand.

3. Create overhead transparencies if desired. Use erasable markers in several colors
during introduction and summary phases of activity.

4. Review the concepts of density and solubility if necessary.

 

 

 

Vocabulary

Coriolos force — The effect of the Earth’s rotation on fluids

Density - The measure of a substance’s mass per unit volume. (D x V = M)

Dimictic — Lakes that undergo vertical mixing at 4°C twice each year

Gradients — Gradual increases or decreases in some measurable element

Isothermal period —- Time of uniform temperature in a lake

Pelagic - A region of open water extending fi'om the surface to the depth of light
penetration

Solubility - How much of one material (solute) can be dissolved into another (solvent)

Stratification — Division caused by temperature difi'erences in a water body

Thermal bar — A vertical division between near-shore waters and central waters

Thermocline — A division within a water body based on an abrupt change in temperature

Torque — Twisting or turning motion arormd a pivotal point

What To Do and How To Do It

1. Discuss with your students the concept of shadows being created as light is blocked
by an object. Remind students that an eclipse is a very specific type of shadow.
Additional shadows include rain shadows that occur on the leeward side of mountains
and snow shadows that occur as a system passes strongly in one direction. Finally,
discuss the idea that winds also create shadows. Wind is blocked by objects,
landforms or landscape elements and these shadows affect wind flow (and wind stress
or torque) over a body of water. Demonstrate variations in shadows as the angle of
the light source changes.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2. Instruct students to complete the observation activity during which they use a
flashlight or other direct light source to create shadows around the cubes, balls and
other objects in their exercise kits. Worksheets can be easily created using the
example in Figure l — Wind Shadows Observed. This can also be completed as a part
of your mini-lecture or eliminated to accommodate time constraints. It is important,
however, to bring to the surface the students’ existing knowledge about shadows.

 

Wind Shadows Observed

(3) Position each of your dimensional objects as indicated on
the worksheet template.

(b) Use the guide indicators (arrows) located along the edges of
your worksheet to position your light source with the

 

 

location having the same pattern. i Q
(c) Use your markers, pencils or crayons to completely outline
and fill in the shadows cast by the objects. (a

 

 

 

Figure 1. Wind Shadows Observed

3. For the next activity, begin by drawing a large circle on the board and asking the
students to identify the points on a compass beginning with north (0/360°). Alter
identifying north, south (180°), east (090°) and west (270°), have the students identify
each quadrant as NE, SE, SW and NW. The previous activity asked students to
observe shadows whereas this activity asks them to predict shadows. A simple
worksheet can be created by drawing a lake (real or hypothetical) and surrounding it
with a compass. Indicate with symbols some landforms or landscape elements that
might be found around the perimeter of a lake. Draw a small compass around each
landscape element and have the students locate an assigned wind heading for each
quadrant. It is important to include the smaller compass around each landscape
element. Without this, it is common for students to adjust the direction of wind flow
to meet the correct point on the larger compass. An important lesson in this section is
that wherever you are, cast is still east and 230° is still 230°. (See Figure 2 —

Wind heading 090° (Wind is hour the east).

Conceptualizing Wind Direction).
320° {A 0900
K/ 0900 k/ 0900

A. Incorrect interpretation of winds from 090°. B. Correct interpretation of winds fi'om 090°.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 2. Conceptualizing Wind Direction

94

4. Instruct students to complete the next activity by predicting and drawing shadow
patterns. (See Figure 3 — Wind Shadows Predicted)

 

Wind Shadows Predicted

(8) Identify the major points on the lake’s compass
(b) Name each compass quadrant (cg. NE, SW, etc.).
(c) Draw a compass arormd each landscape element.

(d) Locate the wind direction assigned for each landscape
element in each quadrant. (You’ll have a difl‘erent wind k E

 

heading assigned for each quadrant).
(e) Draw a predicted wind shadow for each landscape element.

 

 

 

 

Figure 3. Wind Shadows Predicted

5. The presence of certain landscape elements results in protection from wind. If wind
on water is reduced by the ‘shadows’ cast by mountains, hills or a floodplain forest,
the horizontal circulation patterns are most directly
afi‘ected. Once students have predicted shadows
for a given diagram, they should be able to
identify areas of the lake that would be :
characterized by relative calm and those open
areas where wind would have a greater impact. In
Figure 4, we might expect the upper portion of the
NW quadrant to be relatively calm while the SW
quadrant, characterized by open water, would
likely have rougher water.

 

 

 

Figure 4. Analysis of Shadow Patterns

6. If it isn’t possible to include time in class for discussion, the discussion questions
listed below should be answered in writing and handed in as soon as possible after
completion of the exercises.

7. Include the vocabulary either formally by assigning the vocabulary list or informally
through inclusion in your introduction and summary phases.

Discussion Questions

Do surface temperatures give you a good clue as to deep-water temperatures? Why?
Why not?

How do density differences drive circulation?

What impact would a sudden influx of flesh water have on a salt-water system?

Why do the circulation patterns difl‘er in the southern and northern hemispheres?

How does thermal stratification impact the biological community?

What would you expect the temperature map to look like for spring, fall or winter?

How does water temperature impact the biological communities in a lake?

(Any questions about biological, chemical and geophysical relationships are appropriate.
Adjust as needed for your students’ backgrounds. Dissolved oxygen, biological oxygen
demand, turbidity, vegetation, freezing and thawing, water density associated with

95

 

temperature, stratification, overturn, indicator species, urban influence, thermal pollution
and freshwater classification are among the many possible discussion topics possible
from this exercise.)

Further lnvesdpdons

Research the various methods by which temperature readings are taken in water bodies
arormd the globe.

Repeat this exercise using specific freshwater lakes.

Search the web for interesting data sets to incorporate into your maps. (www.cpa.gov and

www.globe.gov are good places to start).
Create a model of a lake (true-to-scale) and simulate circulation patterns.

Compare biological communities around the perimeter of the lake.
Explore the role of Global Positioning Systems (GPS) in satellite generated maps.

96

Observing Light Shadows
(Duplication Master)

 

97

 

'-r-.-_

Observing Light Shadows
(Duplication Master)

 

98

APPENDIX B

99

APPENDIX B

Learning Activities
Landscape Visualization

landscape Visualization
Intermediate level

 

 

Purpose
To introduce students to the concept of spatial relativity of elements within a biome.

Overview

The beginning level of Mini-Mountains is intended to give students an opportunity
to gain a physical connection with the relationships that exist among the elements
comprising a biome. Students will use 3-dimensional manipulatives to create
representations of standardized biome images. Students will then mark their
layouts on a grid and compare to the layouts of other students.

”me
On t F' 1 'ods

eo rvecasspen anbpmfimfiwm“
Level , no Luger 466 to maintain the duh/it,
Begrnmng E\
None I‘V? . FUKUOka
K er Concepts and 5qu
Concepts

Landscapes are comprised of a mosaic of biotic and abiotic elements.
Landform elements can be represented by common shapes and combinations of
common shapes
The spatial relativity of biotic and abiotic elements is biologically significant.
Relationships exist based on spatial relativity of landforms within a biome and
biogeochemical cycles.
Landform patterns are specific to biome types.

Sldlk

Observing landscape photographs

Interpreting observed associations

Using symbols for representation of landforms
Mapping by transferring interpretations to a grid system

 

 

 

 

100

 

 

Materiak and Took

Wooden objects provided in activity kit (Suggested quantities in Table l are based
on student usage with an unlimited supply of materials).

Plastic canvas

Landscape photographs

Fine tip felt pens (black and red)

Tape or ‘Bulldog’ clips

Plain paper

Preparation

Sort wooden objects into kits and choose landscape photographs for the students to
interpret.

Highlight each 10-square increment on the plastic canvas using a permanent
marker.

Label each photograph in the biomes collection. (One set for every 2-3 students is
recommended).

 

 

 

What To Do and How To Do It
1. Give each student a sheet of the plastic canvas and 2-3 sheets of plain paper.

2. Give each student (or group of students) a set of standardized photographs from the
biomes collection and a kit containing the manipulatives as listed in Table l.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Manipulative Code Quantity in Symbolic representations (typical representations are
each kit listed but they will vary by student)

1 1/2 inch ball LB 4

3/4 inch ball MB 10

3/8 inch ball SB 20 Rocks, trees, mountain formations, water, shrubs, bluffs,
1 inch cube LQ 10 buttes, falls and clifi‘s.

3/4 inch cube MQ 15

1/2 inch cube SQ 20

 

 

 

Table 1. Contents of Manipulatives Kits

3. Have the students position the manipulatives on the plastic canvas to duplicate the
biome(s) in their photograph(s). There is no time limit in this exercise but ask the
students to note their beginning and ending times. They may use as many or as few
of the manipulatives as they think are needed to represent the biome. (See Figure l).

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 1. Interpret the landscape by using blocks.

101

4. After they are satisfied with their layouts, have the students mark the “footprint” of
each object or formation by pushing their felt pen through each hole covered by a
manipulative. These need not be exact but should be very close to the actual
coverage.

5. Make a note beside each “footprint” indicating what the wooden manipulative (or
group) represented (eg. rock, tree, etc.).
to

ill—r...

lease 0 O, a.

 

‘0

 

‘
-
O

  
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 2. Outline groups

6. If a group of manipulatives is being used to represent a larger area such as a mountain
range, the group should be circled as in Figure 2.

7. Return the manipulatives to storage.

Discussion Quesdons

Are all the layouts the same? What are some of the differences?

How much variation was there in the number of pieces used? Or in the amount of time
used?

Discuss the relationships that exist between the biotic and abiotic components of each
scene.

Furflrer lnvesdgadons

Develop a series of ‘what if’ problems for each biome. What if a patch of trees was
moved south of the mountain? What if several years of dry weather reduced the pond
volume or the stream depth? What if there was a fire?

Create mapping and navigation exercises using the layouts.

Have students complete layouts and compare patterns for several biomes.

Use grids of difi‘erent sizes and discuss difi’erences of scale and resolution.

Use a software program (such as Excel) to input the data coordinates for the landscape
footprints. Create a digital “map” by selecting the scatter point graphing command.

102

Mini-Mountain
Landscape Visualization Activity 1 Name

Supply list
Wooden objects (see table 1 for a complete list)

Plastic canvas
Landscape photographs
Fine tip felt pens (black )
Tape or ‘Bulldog’ clips
Plain paper

QDDDDD

 

Manipulative Code Quantity in Symbolic representations (typical representations are
each kit listed below)

 

1 1/2 inch ball LB
3/4 inch ball MB
3/8 inch ball SB Rocks, trees, mountain formations, water, shrubs, bluffs,
1 inch cube LQ buttes, falls and cliffs.

3/4 inch cube MQ
1/2 inch cube SQ
Table 1. Contents of manipulatives kits

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1. Before you get started, make sure you have all the things listed on the supply list
and double check to see that you have as many manipulatives as Table 1 shows you
should have.

2. Tape or clip the sheet of plain paper to the plastic canvas so that the lower left
comers of the paper and the canvas match up.

3. Position the wooden manipulatives on the canvas to represent the landscape scene
you’ve been given. There isn’t a time limit but write down the time you start and the
time you finish your interpretation.

TIME

 

End
End
End

 

End
End

 

 

 

0
Figure l. Interpret the landscape by using blocks.

 

 

1. After you are satisfied with your layout, mark the location of each object by
pushing your black felt pen through each hole covered by a manipulative. These need
not be exact but should be very close to the actual coverage. This creates the
landscape “footprint” or pattern.

2. Make a note beside each tracing indicating what the wooden manipulative
represented (eg. rock, tree, etc.).

103

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 2. Outline groups

3. If a group of manipulatives is being used to represent a larger area such as a
mountain range, the group should be circled as in Figure 2.

4. Return the manipulatives to storage.

Discussion Questions

A. Are all the layouts the same? What are some of the differences?

B. How much variation was there in the number of pieces used? Or in the amount of
time used?

C. Discuss the relationships that exist between the biotic and abiotic components of each

scene.

D. How does the presence of water influence plant communities?

B. What do rock formations tell us about an area?

F. How can a mountain impact the water cycle?

G. What animals would you expect to find in each of the scenes you interpreted?

104

APPENDIX C

 

105

APPENDD( C

Sample Learning Activity
Water Studies

 

 

II'BBSIII'B IIIIIIIBIS
Il'lllllllell Water

The following learning activities form the first two sections of
an activity suite focusing on floodplain forest wetlands. The first of these is an
acclimatization exercise during which urban students, generally unfamiliar with
wetland habitats, can gain familiarity and comfort in the habitat. It is during this first
and most critical stage that students gain trust in their abilities to navigate nature.
History has taught me that to begin formal research without at least some degree of
acclimatization yields a rather empty, short-term experience. This may be the case
with most children and it is certainly the case with inner city minority youth.

 

During the second activity, more formalized testing is initiated. Basic water
quality measurements such as turbidity, dissolved oxygen (DO), ninites, ammonia
and pH are taken and a community survey including plants and insects can be started
and continued over many years. Individual research projects may be proposed by the
students and included with these investigations.

 

106

 

Treasure Hunters:
lln lloolimatlntion Activity
For floodplain Forest Wetlands

Purpose
To become acclimatized to a forested wetland area by free exploration and
directed treasure hunting.

Overview

During an exploration designed to help urban students become familiar with and
comfortable in this type of environment, students will attempt to find items typical of
forested wetlands. Each small group (4-10) of students will search for items on a list
that includes both collectable and non-collectable plants, frmgi, insects and animal
evidence. Evidence of animal activity might include signs of damage such as tunnels
or holes in bark created by beetles or tracks left by deer, raccoons, rabbits and other
animals.

Upon completion of the treasure hunts, each group will prepare a display of
their finds fiom the trip. A brief description of techniques used for collection and the
habitat (or micro-habitat) where the items were found or sited will accompany each
section of the display.

 

 

77me
Two hours or more in the field followed by time for assimilation, display creation and
discussion in class. (Note that there are several additional activities in this suite).

Level
Basic to intermediate

mum

None

Any prior experience with outdoor skills will add to a student’s comfort level in the
field. Those with no experience can be led gently into a new world of sights, sounds
and smells.

Key Concepts and Sid/k

Concepts

Water levels cycle through a high associated with spring thaw to a low associated
with late summer dry-down.

Upland forest commrmities are afl’ected by the temporal nature of water.

Deciduous forests all share common characteristics and communities.

Sid/IS

Observing nature

Identifying components of specific habitats
Collecting and managing samples

 

 

 

107

 

 

Materials and Took

F irst-Aid kit

Insect nets (Aerial and aquatic)

Funnels (Sunny-D bottles work very well)
Use to transfer water samples into quart jars.

Small vials with alcohol

Flat forceps

Baggies
For holding moss, bark with lichen, nuts, bones, etc. Keep
litter items such as cigarette butts separate from natural items.

Small jars or fihn canisters
For holding insects

Baggies with pre-measured amount of plaster-of-Paris
Add 1 cup of plaster mix to each baggie. When animals’ tracks are found, add enough water to the
plaster to make a mixture with the consistency of melted ice cream. Create a band around the track
using heavy cardboard. Pour the plaster into the tracks and allow it to set-up (about 20 minutes).
Carefully remove the cast. Let the cast dry thoroughly before attempting to clean off excess dirt
and leaves.

Treasure hunt lists

Pencils

Small field notebook

Material for pitfall trap (eg. Rocks, coffee can and flat board to cover it)

Kritter-keepers or other safe houses for insects

Identification guides (flowers, insects, trees, etc.)

Sorting trays (white enamel pans)

Probes

Eyedroppers

Pruning clippers

Marker flags

Shovel or trowel

Cellular phone and list of emergency numbers

Plepamdon

1. Choose a site for the field trip and arrange for permits or permission from local
authorities or private landowner. Typical government agencies associated with
public lands include the Forest Preserve District, The Department of Natural
Resources or Environmental Quality or the County Sherifi‘ or city/village police

department.

2. Distribute permission slips early enough for students to have them signed and
returned. Because there is some potential risk involved (although minor) from
water, insects, ticks, etc., it is strongly recommended that an additional form
granting permission to arrange for life-saving emergency care be signed. This
form should include the name and phone number for the student’s doctor or clinic,
insurance information and choice of hospital. It is also important to include the
name and phone number for an emergency contact with the student’s family. Do
not rely on information given to the school months previous. This information
must be current.

 

108

 

 

3. Arrange for a bus and driver if needed for transport to the site.

4. Determine what lunch arrangements will be needed. If you will be providing
lunches, get purchase order number or check from school. If students are to
provide their own lunches, remind them several times and decide what you’ll do in
the likely event someone forgets his lunch.

5. Provide water and cups. Pop, juice and milk are not metabolized the same way as
water. To avoid dehydration, water should be taken every 15-30 minutes.

6. Review the supply list (a suggested list is provided) and make additions or deletions
as appropriate. Gather or order supplies. Lead-time for ordered material should
not be less than two weeks (the longer, the better).

7. Do a reconnaissance trip if possible. This activity has been designed to work with or
without a pre-walk of the site. By doing a pre-walk, you will be able to customize
the treasure hunt list, choose routes and survey for potential problems. If you are
not able to do a pre-walk, be extra cautious and observant during the actual trip. A
smaller student/trail guide ratio may also be needed without reconnaissance.

8. Arrange for “trail guides”. (AKA chaperones, helpers, assistants, aids, etc.). Have
a brief meeting with guides in advance if possible or, for experienced trail guides,

a quick on-site review. Advance distribution of material to guides is certainly
helpful.

 

 

 

Backgmund

Wetlands are among the most productive habitats on this planet. Unfortunately,
they are also among the least understood and most vilified. From the earliest settlers,
humans have wanted to dredge, fill or otherwise control these wonders of nature.
Included in the very long list of natural fimctions served by wetlands are flood control,
habitat for breeding birds and biologically sensitive animals, buffer zone for chemical
contaminants, transition zone for import and export of nutrients to surrormding areas, and
a natural sponge for gradual release of stored water. When wetlands exist in a complex
covering a large geographic area, their benefits are multiplied and use by migrating birds
and other animals is intensified.

After years of filling or dredging wetlands to increase available agricultural land,
several problems began to surface. The water retention provided by the unique character
of wetland soils and the associated plants was gone. Areas previously protected from
seasonal highs and lows began flooding. Once the flooding subsided and the wet season
passed, lands became exceptionally dry. The same physical characteristics that allowed
wetlands to hold water at bay also provided for the gradual
release of water over the entire season. Without this slow
release, the cycle of flood and drought were intensified.
Along with the flooding was loss of valuable t0psoil carried
downstream in the flood. Without the fertile topsoil,

 

109

fertilizer needs increased. The increased use of fertilizers meant that more nutrients
would be carried away with next year’s flood and someplace downstream would have an
overabundance of otherwise limiting nutrients. A sudden influx of limiting nutrients sets
the stage for population explosions where such explosions are unwanted, namely, algae
and small plants. Blooms of algae or eutrophication of small waterways, altered the
chemical composition of the water by reducing light, submerged plants and dissolved
oxygen. Without the proper levels of dissolved oxygen (DO) many fish and arthropods
with high biological oxygen demands (BOD) died off and the biological quality of the
waterway was compromised. No oxygen, no trout or salmon or other valuable game fish.

Not enough? The reduction of available wetlands and wetland complexes along

3," flyways meant that migrating birds including many songbirds, ducks and geese,
had nowhere to breed or rest during their long migratory flights. Their numbers
went steadily down until the people at Ducks Unlimited noticed the trend, put
their heads together and identified the causal elements, too few wetlands. Now
was a time for action. The consequences of misguided land use were staring
squarely into the faces of those who could make changes. Government agencies

and private landowners were encouraged to stop destroying their wetlands. Ducks
Unlimited purchased acre after acre of threatened land and many dredge and fill
operations became illegal imless accompanied by proper permits issued by the Army

Corps of Engineers.

There still exist no clear and specific protections for many small wetlands. Riding
on the coattails of legislation designed to protect threatened and endangered species,
some wetlands are out of danger. Also, within Part 404 of the Clean Water Act some
protection is afforded. The Soil Conservation Districts, Departments of Environmental
Quality and Environmental Protection and Forest Preserve Districts each have programs
designed to increase wetland acreage. This all helps, but enforcement is an issue, lack of
understanding remains an issue and many of the wetlands already lost are now covered
with major cities including Chicago. Gone is gone in these cases. Our hope for today
and tomorrow is to increase understanding and appreciation of these tremendously
valuable resources, demand legislation targeted at their protection, increase enforcement
efforts and reduce the political bow to developers.

Values were at the heart of the problem. Agricultural production and urban
expansion were held above environmental awareness or concern. There have always
been visionaries who oppose such actions but small in number often means small in
voice. Through the following activity, students have an opportunity to explore a critical
habitat outside the restrictions of the classroom environment. To integrate an experience
into one’s set of values means letting one have his or her own experience. This is
especially important during first and early exposures. The treasure hunt ofl‘ers direction
(find the objects) without forcing any particular agenda (complete and hand in this. . ...).
Allow time to think, to reflect and to have a sensory experience. Talk about observations
when the students are interested. Now. . .later. . .when appropriate. Avoid making too
aggressive an invasion into their explorations. For many urban children, this will be the
first experience of significance with the mysterious out-of-doors. Keep it safe, fun and
personal. Only after acclimatization activities should any formal research begin. (See
‘Further Investigations ’)

110

Resourrer

Bates, John. 1997. Seasonal Guide to the Natural Year: Minnesota. WCM&WISCM.
Flucrum Publishing. Golden, Colorado.

Benyus, Janine M. 1989. The Field Guide to Wildlife Hemats of the E§_stem United
States. Simon and Schuster. New York, NY.

Chinery, Michael. 1994. Qiestions and Answers About Forest Animals. Kingfisher
Books. New York, NY.

Cohen, Karen C. (Editor). 1997. Internet Links for Science Education: Student-Scientist
Partnerships. Plenum Press, New York.

Headstrom, Richard. 1968. N_ature Discoveries with a Hand Lens. Dover publications,
Inc. New York, NY.

National Wildlife Federation. 1989. Nawuest Day Hike Activities Guide. National
Wildlife Federation and Johnson Camping, Incorporated. (Pamphlet)

Sheehan, Kathryn and Mary Waidner. 1991. Earth Child. Council Oak Books. Tulsa,
Oklahoma.

Thomson, John. 1994. Natural Childhood. Simon and Schuster. New York, NY

Aclmorvledgment
Header clip art from Microsoft Clip Gallery 3.0

What To Do and How To Do It

1. Divide students into small groups. Groups should be between 4 and 10 students with
a guide for each group. Have each group identified by tags, wrist bands, T-shirts or
some other recognized method. Your trail guides may not be as familiar with the
students as you are so make it easy for them to identify their charges.

2. Give each trail guide a list of his or her students.

3. Distribute supplies (see list) and treasure hunt check sheets to each member of the
group. The trail guide should keep a master list for the entire group.

4. Demonstrate the use of any equipment. (For large groups, each trail guide can do the
demonstration for his or her smaller group).

5. Establish a time and place to reassemble the entire group. Hold everyone who is
wearing a watch responsible for keeping track of the time. If the bus is scheduled to
leave at 1:30, you might have the groups reassemble at 1:00 to allow for stragglers.
You can always use the extra time to discuss the activity or organize the materials.
You also want to allow time to reorganize the equipment or gear.

6. If each group is to lunch on their own, distribute lunches or establish a time and place
to eat as a group.

7. Send the groups out in difl‘erent directions if possible or stagger their departures if
only a single trail is available.

111

EACH GROUP

8. Review the use of any equipment or gear.
9. Begin the search for items on the list (Attachment 1).

10. Instruct the group to stay reasonably close together. Reasonable depends on the
location, age and experience of your group. In any case, no fewer than two and
ideally four students should be together at all times. (Having four students allows one
to stay with an injured hiker while two seek help).

11. Enjoy the hike. If ever there was a time to watch for the “teachable moment” this is
it! Review the backgrormd and discussion questions sections of this activity before
the hike. Seek opportunities to talk about trophic levels, energy flow, nutrient cycling,
communities and microcommunities, abiotic and biotic factors and anything else that
strikes your interest or your students’.

12. AVOID THE “GATHER ‘ROUND AND LISTEN TO ME” STYLE OF GUIDING!!!
Your students will ask questions that naturally allow you opportunities to share your
knowledge. Be the guide not the boss and students will enjoy their exploration more
naturally.

13. Sign off those finds that are to be left in place after being found. Help students
manage all other samples properly. Explanations are given with the supplies list.

14. Keep track of time and get students back to the designated spot with time enough to
pack gear.

Vocabubly

Abiotic factor - Non-living factors impacting an environment. Examples include light,
heat, moisture, wind, rocks and, debatably, soil.

Adaptive coloration — Coloration on an organism that gives it a competitive advantage in
a habitat. Mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles and insects all provide some
examples of species exhibiting adaptive coloration.

Biotic factor - The living elements in a habitat. Examples include bacteria, plants,
animals and fungi

Consumers — Organisms beyond the producer level in a food chain. Herbivores,
carnivores and omnivores are included.

Decomposers — Those organisms responsible for breaking down organic material in
nature. Examples include fimgi, bacteria and many insects.

Eutrophication — The shift from a low nutrient level, clear water body to one high in
nutrients and biological productivity.

Hydrophytes - Plants that have adapted to living in wet conditions

Oligotrophic — A water body with a low nutrient level and high clarity. Most lakes and
rivers considered good for recreation are Oligotrophic.

Producers — Those organisms responsible for converting the sun’s energy into products of
caloric value (food energy). Green plants including macrophytes, algae and
phytoplankton are included

Riparian zone — The zone along rivers or stream banks subjected to periodic flooding

112

Riverine system — The area specifically referring to the channel or outer banks of a river
or stream

Symbiosis — Relationship existing between two or more organisms. These relationships
may be mutually beneficial, mutually benign or parasitic.

Trophic levels - Level progressing up the food chain as energy is converted and
ultimately flows through each subsequent consumer level

Wetland - An area characterized by predominantly aquatic or semi-aquatic plants, hydric
soils and periods of inundation (water coverage) during each annual cycle.

Discuss/on Querdom
Which items on the list were found near the water? What items were found the farthest
fiom the water?
What was the biggest surprise of your exploration?
How does the location of water afl‘ect where an animal makes its home?
What are the major abiotic factors at play in a forest? In a river?
How do you think the light level in a forest changes from April through November?
Do changing light levels have any impact on the plant commrmities?
What relationships do you think exist between plants, insects and other animals in a
wetland forest?
Why is the riparian zone considered so productive?
How does periodic flooding rather than continuous water flow affect the nutrients
available?
How has this productivity been exploited along the Mississippi corridor?
What problems are associated with construction in the riparian zone?
Should the government continue to provide disaster relief for weather related damage
along rivers?

Fum‘rer Inverdpdonr

Continue and expand investigations in the same wetland. Examples might include
surveys of animal, insect or plant communities. Compare the surveys over the year and
over several years.

Locate Satellite or high altitude aerial maps of the wetland. Compare these maps to
topographic maps and road maps.

Ground truth the topographic maps of the area by using a handheld GPS (Global
Positioning System).

Create a diorama representative of the forest wetland, the riparian zone or the river.

Locate Your Watershed — Find the watershed that includes your wetland. Review
research currently underway.

hgpzl/www.epa.gov/surf2/locate/
GIS activities for K- 1 2 using ArcVoyager (GIS) software

ht_tp://www.esri.com/industries/k-lZ/voyagerhtml
United States Environmental Protection Agency

wwwepa. gOV

113

Troubled Water:
A lllater duality Exaloradon
for Floodnlain forest Wetlands

 

 

Purpose
To use community composition to evaluate water quality in a floodplain forest
wetland.

Overview

Students will sample water from a floodplain forest wetland and conduct a variety of
field and laboratory analyses. Included in the analysis and subsequent profiling of the
wetland will be macroscopic invertebrates and algae, macrophytes, pH, temperature,
turbidity and dissolved oxygen. Additional measurements as appropriate for the ages
of the students can include nitrogen, phosphates, and microscopic organisms.

77me

Two hours or more in the field followed by time for sorting and identification in the
laboratory. Additional time should be allowed, either in class or as home enrichment
to create a display to be used in presenting a discussing the students’ findings.

Level
Basic to advanced

Prerequisites

Students should be briefed on the use of all gear prior to beginning fieldwork. This
may include but not be limited to use of nets, traps, preservation jars (kill-jars),
Secchi disks and any chemical test kits.

Key Concepts and Sid/k

Concepts

Water clarity influences the depth of light penetration.

Light penetration has a large influence over the presence or absence of certain
macrophytes and algae.

The movement of water, composition of plant communities and temperature
determine the level of dissolved oxygen in an aquatic situation.

Dissolved oxygen (D0) is a limiting factor in the survival of many invertebrate
species, therefore invertebrate community composition can be used as an indicator
of a system’s health.

The presence or absence of certain species of algae is a diagnostic indicator of
environmental stresses on an aquatic system.

Sldlb'

Developing environmental testing strategies
Collecting and managing samples in a field situation
Organizing data

Displaying and presenting research findings

 

 

 

114

 

 

Materials and Tools
First-Aid kit
Insect nets (Aerial and aquatic)
Funnels (Some plastic juice bottles work very well)
Use to transfer water samples into quart jars.
Pruning clippers
Marker flags
Shovel or trowel
Small vials with alcohol
For preserving insects
Baggies
Small jars or film canisters
For holding insects
Flat forceps
Probes
Eyedroppers
Sorting trays (white enamel pans)
Zipper-close type plastic bags
Plastic rulers (clear)
Plant presses or newspapers
Pencils
Small field notebook
Identification guides (trees, wetland plants, insects, algae, etc.)
Kritter-keepers or other safe houses for insects being kept alive for observation
Cellular phone and list of emergency numbers

hepaladon

Refer to the previous activity, “Treasure Hunters: An Acclimatization Activity for
Floodplain Forest Wetlands”. The preparation list given includes everything from
permission slips to reconnaissance.

Background

Each year as the winter snow begins to melt and water levels rise, streams and rivers
overflow their banks and give the floodplain a much needed dose of minerals and
nutrients. Plants and animals associated with the floodplain forest are well adapted to
the seasonal nature of these life-giving floods. Trees may have systems allowing
them to respire aerobically or anaerobically, some plants germinate only after the
rich flood waters have receded, animals are able to swim or move quickly and birds
may seek perches high enough to afford both protection and view.

Unfortimately, not all water entering a system is beneficial. The upland or
upstream waters may be a source of otherwise limiting nutrients such as phosphates
and nitrates or they may carry toxins and waste materials from industry and urban
runoff. The influence of these factors may be minor and contribute very little to the
wetland community or there may be disastrous results fiom upsetting the natural
balance established from years of selection and adaptation.

 

115

 

 

 

Many plants and animals have fairly narrow ranges of tolerance for
temperature, light, nutrients and oxygen. Because their presence or absence tells us a
great deal about the overall condition and health of an aquatic system, we’ll be looking
at algal, plant and macroinvertebrate community composition to begin creating a
profile for a floodplain forest wetland. In addition to cataloging the community
composition, measurements of water temperature, turbidity (clarity) and dissolved
oxygen (DO) levels give important information about a wetland or river. Cold water
holds more oxygen than warm water so the relationship between DO and water
temperature is an important one. Too, the turbidity or clarity of water determines how
deeply light can penetrate, and in turn, what plants are able to survive. Since plants
are a primary source of dissolved oxygen (by-product of photosynthesis), their
presence or absence directly affects all other communities.

Resources

See also the reference list provided in the previous activity, “Treasure Hunters: an
Acclimatization Activity for Floodplain Forest Wetlan ”.

Fassett, Norman C. 1957. A Manual of Aquatic Plants. The University of Wisconsin
Press. Madison, WI.

Prescott, G.W. 1978. How to Know the Freshwater Algge, third edition. Wm. C.
Brown Company publishers. Dubuque, IA

Other identification guides as available and age appropriate. (After several trips to the
same site, you might consider creating a customized key for your wetland and the
associated floodplain and upland area).

Aclmorvledgment
Header clip art from Microsoft Clip Gallery 3.0

 

What To Do and How To Do It

1.

Divide students into small groups. Groups should be between 4 and 10 students with
a guide for each group. Have each group identified by tags, wrist bands, T-shirts or
some other recognized method. Your trail guides may not be as familiar with the
students as you are so make it easy for them to identify their charges.

Give each trail guide a list of his or her students.

3. Distribute supplies (see list) to each group.

Demonstrate the use of any equipment. (For large groups, each trail guide can do the
demonstration for his or her smaller group).

Establish a time and place to reassemble the entire group. Hold everyone who is
wearing a watch responsible for keeping track of the time. If the bus is scheduled to
leave at 1:30, you might have the groups reassemble at 1:00 to allow for stragglers.
You can always use the extra time to discuss the activity or organize the materials.
You also want to allow time to reorganize the equipment or gear.

116

 

6. If each group is to ltmch on their own, distribute lunches or establish a time and place
to eat as a group.

7. Assign each group an area to survey. Define the boundaries of each assignment with
marker flags or some other indicator.

INDIVIDUAL GROUPS
8. Review the use of any equipment or gear.

9. Set “Lobster Traps” by unwinding the tether and driving the anchor points into the
ground just at the water’s edge. Force water into the trap by holding it underwater
with the rim of your aquatic net or by hand. The trap should move freely near the
surface of the water within the length of the tether (approximately l-meter). If the
water is too shallow to cover the entire opening, make a note in your field book and
either use a smaller trap or be certain that at least the opening of the funnel into the
bottle is submerged.

Insects swimming or crawling into the trap will be unable to escape.
Occasionally, frogs, fish or tadpoles will wander into the traps. These should be
noted and released. The sooner frogs can be released, the better. They are
amphibians remember, and can actually drown in the trap waiting for you to rescue
them.

10. Mark each trap location with a flag .

11. Different insects will be collected by using a D-net to tap around vegetation or to stir
up those insects living on the bottom of the pond. Carefully lower the net into the
water and either agitate the bottom of the pond slightly or tap the stems of plants
growing in the water. Raise the net straight up out of the water and invert it into a
water-filled sorting tray, a zipper bag or other container. Swish the inverted net in the
contained water to flee any insects.

Be consistent with the number of ‘dips’ for each sample. In other words, if you
do five ‘dips’ in one location, each location should be sampled using five ‘dips’. You
may choose to “catch and release” or keep and preserve your insect specimens. For
first field trips, it may be necessary to keep and preserve for the purpose of
establishing a teaching collection. After such a collection has been created, “catch
and release” is desirable to reduce over-sampling of the area.

12. Decide in advance whether insects will be identified in the field or taken back to the
lab for identification. Time will likely be the deciding factor. Preserved specimens
will last indefinitely. If preserving samples, put the insects in a container partly filled
with 75% ETOH. The insects can be sorted later and transferred in to clean vials with
fresh alcohol.

Be certain to include location tags in any bottles of preserved insects. The date,
collection method and location should all be included on the tag. Use a pencil for the
tags. Ink will smear, run or fade but pencil lead holds up nicely. Save several vials of
the water from each location. Once back at the lab, these samples can be used for

117

measuring pH, analyzing nitrates or phosphates and for finding algae and other
plankton with the use of a microscope

13. If the water is deep enough and there is safe access, lower a Secchi disk or other
turbidity measurement device until it can no longer be seen. Record the depth. For
shallow areas, a similar measurement can be taken with a clear ruler. Lower the ruler
into the water and try to determine at what depth the numbers become fuzzy or
disappear entirely. For sloughs and other temporary retention areas, this method
works fine and can be done easily by any age group.

14. Plant samples can be taken throughout the investigation. For a quantitative study,
cataloge all plants by their dominance level in a specified area (One or more square
meters) or within a l-meter path along a transect representative of the area. If plants
are to be collected, they should be transported flat between newspapers and in a press
if possible. Submerged plants can be taken back to the lab in zipper bags partly filled
with water. Identification is easier when submerged plants are wet. After
identification, they can be pressed using the same method as for terrestrial plants.

15. Keep track of time! Once back at the lab, samples can be sorted, plants and insects
can be identified and preserved and specific water quality tests can be completed.
Many good test kits are available through supply catalogues or greenhouses. All kits
come with specific instructions that can be easily followed by most middle schoolers.

Vocabubty

Abiotic factor - Non-living factors impacting an environment. Examples include light,
heat, moisture, wind, rocks and, debatably, soil.

Aerobic — With oxygen (reference to respiration)

Anaerobic — Without oxygen (reference to oxygen)

Biotic factor -— The living elements in a habitat. Examples include bacteria, plants,
animals and fungi.

Hydrophytes — Plants that have adapted to living in wet conditions

Oligotrophic — A water body with a low nutrient level and high clarity. Most lakes and
rivers considered good for recreation are Oligotrophic.

Riparian zone — The zone along river or stream banks subjected to periodic flooding

Riverine system — The area specifically referring to the channel or outer banks of a river
or stream

Turbidity - The clarity of water

Terrestrial — Living on land

Qualitative — A non-numerical analysis. Can take the form of presence or absence

Quantitative — A numerical measurement of something

Macrophytes — Plants large enough to see without a microscope

Slough — A temporary pool formed as water is held in low-lying areas

Wetland — An area characterized by predominantly aquatic or semi-aquatic plants, hydric
soils and periods of inundation (water coverage) during each annual cycle

118

Discuss/on Querdom

What were your greatest difficulties with the collection methods used to sample insects?

What was the biggest surprise of your exploration?

Were all areas equally turbid?

Were you able to notice any associations between plants and insects?

What differences did you notice between plants near the river’s edge and those at the
edge of the floodplain?

How does periodic flooding rather than continuous water flow afl‘ect the nutrients
available?

What adaptations do you think a plant or animal might require to be successful in a
habitat characterized by periodic flooding?

Further Invesflgadom'

Measure flow and volume of the river. Do these change over the season?

Continue and expand investigations in the same wetland. Compare the surveys over the
year and over several years.

Compare the pH, temperature, DO and insect survey results for each sample location.
What differences and similarities do you notice?

Set up a database using Microsoft Excel or Access. Each season add new data to the file.

Create a 3-dimensional graph of temperature, DO and pH (Excel).

Create cogeoreferenced files fiom your data for use in generating GIS maps.

Create a vegetation map of the wetland.

Create a display of the insects found in your survey.

Create a public service commercial for wetlands.

Locate Your Watershed — Find the watershed that includes your wetland. Review
research currently underway.
Lttp://www.er;_a_.ggv/surf2/locate_[

GIS activities for K-12 using ArcVoyager (GIS) software
http://wwwesricom/industries/k—12/voyager.html

United States Environmental Protection Agency

www.epa. 80V

119

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120

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