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02058 6370

This is to certify that the
thesis entitled

Police Pursuit Driving:
A Study Of Municipal Police Discord

presented by

Cecil R. Queen

Q

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Master _o_f_Sc.i_ennbgree in_C.r_imi_na_1 Justice

 

Major professor

Date 05-01-00

0-7639 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution

 

 

LIBRARY

Michigan State
University

 

 

PLACE IN RETURN Box to remove this checkout from your record.
To AVOID FINES retumcqa or before date due.
MAY BE RECAUJED with eagier due date if requested.

 

DATE DUE

DATE Em:

DATE DUE

 

W52). 8 2002

OCT 20 27302 '

 

or.
SEP<32 2002

NOV 1 0 2362

 

NW 2 4&0?

 

667 i? b' 2004.

 

NOV 13 2002

 

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moo chlHCIDateDmpes-p.“

 

 

POLICE PURSUIT DRIVING:
A STUDY OF MUNICIPAL POLICE DISCORD

BY

Cecil R. Queen

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
In partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

College of Social Science
School of Criminal Justice

2000

ABSTRACT
POLICE PURSUIT DRIVING: A STUDY OF MUNICIPAL POLICE DISCORD
BY

Cecil R. Queen

Upon reviewing the literature, it was found that
minimal research had been conducted to determine police
officer perceptions relating to their vehicular pursuit
policies and associated factors. The vast majority of the
research pertains to descriptive analyses regarding the
nature and extent of pursuits.

This study was conducted to evaluate the relationships
that exist, if any, between the varying ranks or job types
within municipal police agencies and their levels of
agreement with the elements of pursuit policy. The purpose
of this research was to assist police executives in their
search for sound pursuit policy by providing empirical data
about their officer's perceptions about current pursuit
issues.

An attitudinal survey was given to all sworn municipal
police officers within one large metropolitan county in
southeastern Michigan. It was predicted that officers'
pursuit—related perceptions would vary significantly based
upon job type.

Several significant differences were discovered in
perceptions involving policies, training, supervisory

support, and experiences as they relate to the job type.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to acknowledge this thesis would not have
been possible without guidance, support, and encouragement
of my thesis committee. Dr. David Carter, chairperson,
shared his vast knowledge and expertise in research design
and writing. He also continued to encourage me when I
needed it the most. His drive to succeed inspired me
greatly. I am sincerely grateful to Dr. Dennis Payne who
shared his interest and incredible insight of police
pursuits with me. His patience and willingness to help was
significant toward the outcome of this project. Finally, I
would to thank Dr. Charles Corley for his kind and
thoughtful assistance in the completion of this thesis.

I would like to thank Ernest A. Costa for his continued
support and encouragement during my undergraduate years and
his suggestion to seek graduate education at Michigan State
University. I also would like to acknowledge to late Dr.
Robert Trojanowicz who convinced me that commuting 200 miles
per day to study at M.S.U. would be worth the effort. He
was correct.

Finally, I recognize the love, support, inspiration,
and continuous encouragement of my wife, Cynthia. She is
the wind beneath my wings. I would also like to thank my
children, Cecil Ryan and Jillian, for their love and support

during the many hours spent on this paper. Thank you all.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vi
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION. 1
Statement of the Problem 3
Purpose of the Thesis 3
Hypothesis . . 7
Definitions 7
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction 9
Prior Officer Perception Research 9
Illinois Police Officers' Opinions Study . . . 9
Police Pursuits and Officer Attitudes Study . . .12
Effect of Pursuit Policies on Officers' Tendency
To Pursue Study . . . .15
Sensation Seeking as a Factor in Police Pursuit
Study . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
Police Pursuit Driving Study . . . .19
Policy Implications for Pursuit Driving Study . .20
Police Pursuit and Use of Force Study . . . . . .23
Policy Content Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Legal Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Research Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
Survey Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
Response Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
Survey Instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
The Chi- Square Statistic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
CHAPTER 4
ANALYSIS OF DATA
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
Policy Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
Training Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
Supervisor Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
Experiential Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
Operational Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
Liability Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
External Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67

iv

CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
Discussion
Conclusion

APPENDICES

Appendix A
Survey Cover Letter

Appendix B
Survey Instrument

Appendix C
Variable Categories and Associated Survey

Question Numbers

BIBLIOGRAPHY

.68
.68
.72

.76

.78

.83

.85

4.10

LIST OF TABLES

Distribution of Responses

Policy Variables - Independent
Variables = Job Type

Policy Variables - Percentages

Training Variables - Independent
Variables = Job Type

Training Variables - Percentages

Supervisory Variables — Independent
Variables = Job Type

Supervisory Variables - Percentages

Experiential Variables - Independent
Variables = Job Type

Experiential Variables — Percentages.

Operational Variables - Independent
Variables = Job Type

Operational Variables - Percentages

Liability Variables - Independent
Variables = Job Type . . . . .

Liability Variables - Percentages

vi

.43

.48

.50

.51

.52

.55

.56

.59

.61

.62

.63

.65

.66

CEUU?TERLIL

INTRODUCTION

The average law-abiding citizen turns to the police to
help them or keep them safe and secure within their
community. Criminals in American society are within all
walks of life and may not be far away. The police have
mandates from their community to protect them and serve them
and the police have promised to do that and attempt to keep
them safe. This social contract immediately is placed in
jeopardy when a criminal runs from the police in a vehicle
and the police chase them at high-speeds. Many of these
pursuits end in vehicle crashes with property damage,
injuries, and even deaths. The media then report the
disastrous outcomes in newsprint and television with vivid
accounts of the details skewed to interest their readers or
viewers. The citizens and politicians become involved and
push for legislation or pursuit policy reviews where the
goals are pursuit restrictions. Civil litigation usually
follows a negative pursuit outcome and can cost the police
department, city, and the public millions of dollars in
damages. This is where sound pursuit policy may be able to
predict and mitigate many of these potential problems, but
first, the police executives must know the true parameters

of the problem. Scientific research may assist them.

Upon conducting initial research regarding pursuit
policy decisions, law enforcement officials quickly discover
that they are faced with a multi—faceted problem. Many new
issues can develop simply form the resolution of one of the
problems, such as deciding that your officers will be
allowed to pursue only felons. The community will take a
dim View of the police when the local kidnap-rapist fails to
stop for a red light and then flees from the police and no
pursuit is initiated. The officer had no way of knowing
that the rapist had his latest victim in the trunk of his
car, but the public will not be pleased. On the reverse
side, if the policy decision is to allow pursuits at the
full discretion of the officer, local citizens will be
enraged when reports of the fifteen-year old joy rider ran
from the police and crashed into an innocent family killing
them. Pursuits have costs attached to them, and those costs
can be measured in human suffering, loss of life, and
financial burden. Police executives must deal with those
costs and construct appropriate pursuit policies that will
find acceptance within their community. The balance between
the need to apprehend criminals and the need to maintain
public safety must be sought and displayed within pursuit
policy. Perhaps, empirical research on pursuit policies
will provide some answers in order to balance these critical

issues.

Statement of the Problem

 

This thesis will examine and evaluate the relationships
that exist between the different ranks or job types within
police departments (i.e. patrol officers, investigators,
first-line supervisors, administrators) and their levels of
agreement with the elements of pursuit policy. It will be
argued that significant differences of perception concerning
pursuit policy factors exist within police agencies pursuant
to the four job categories resulting in disagreement. Thus,
the rank or position held within a police department will
significantly affect the officers' perceptions on the
pursuit issues of policy restrictions, training, supervisory
support, liability concerns, operational aspects,
discretion, and external support mechanisms.

Purpose of the Thesis

 

Among the factors that police administrators should
consider when making policy decisions are the beliefs and
attitudes of their subordinates, the officers and first-line
supervisors in the field who are actually conducting and
overseeing the vehicle pursuits of criminals. The patrol
officers can define what is a pursuit by virtue of their
enormous discretion while on patrol. With this discretion,
they can decide whether or not to initiate a pursuit,
continue it, or terminate the chase. They also decide on
pursuit tactics and, many times, even whether or not to
formally report their actions. Their attitudes,

perceptions, and agreement with pursuit policy can

potentially affect their decisions before, during and
immediately after a pursuit situation. "Policies that are
inconsistent with officers' attitudes require strong
supervision because they can be by-passed or ignored"
(Alpert, 1998, p.348). If there is disparity among patrol
officers about pursuit policy, the lack of cohesive thinking
between the ranks will probably fester.

Many police department investigators have the task of
investigating crime after receiving reports forwarded to
them by patrol officers. These investigators normally have
many years of experience and have been previously assigned
the patrol duties, so their perceptions of pursuit policy
may be similar to the patrol officer. Conducting
investigations, however, may have affected their attitudes
about pursuits, as they may have been required to look into
past pursuit negative outcomes resulting in attitude
modifications._ Supervisors and administrators alike would
then scrutinize the investigators' final reports. The
investigators' perceptions will be a part of the final work
product even if unintentional.

First-line supervisors are given the task of reviewing
and evaluating the work of the patrol officers and
investigators. According to Alpert and Fridell (1992), the
supervisor is "the most important person to insure that
policies are being followed and that risk is balanced
appropriately..." The supervisors' perceptions of pursuit

policy must not be overlooked. If they do not supervise

properly and enforce policy requirements because of their
varied attitudes, then pursuit policy becomes ineffective.
Exposure to public review, media reports, and judicial
assessment will then broaden for those officers involved,
including the supervisor who fails to perform properly and
the administrator from a vicarious standpoint.

It is very possible that supervisors' perceptions of
the policy elements may not be consistent with the patrol
officers or even their own boss, the administrator. If the
supervisors' opinions differ greatly from the department
administrators' opinions of pursuits, this disparity will
become detrimental toward the administrator's ability to
implement, influence and enforce policy. There is also a
high probability that pursuit-related litigation will
increase pursuant to these disparities.

This potential lack of consistency in perceptions of
pursuits and correlated policy within the department may go
unnoticed by the busy police executive over time. The
identification of inconsistent attitude trends toward policy
is crucial for law enforcement's executives so that
appropriate training initiatives and increased supervision
can be facilitated with pursuit-related litigation being
diminished.

It is very clear that pursuits can quickly become
dangerous events resulting in property damage, severe
injuries, and even death. The pursuits with disastrous

outcomes have resulted in substantial civil litigation

against police agencies and the municipalities that govern
them. Increases in pursuit litigation have concerned police
administrators for past decades and may have an affect on
their perceptions as they relate to vehicle chases. As
police administrators draft pursuit policy, they may have
been affected by civil litigation aspects and perceive the
policy elements differently than their subordinates, thus
causing further disparity within the organization.

Police pursuits have clearly become a topic of review
for the police, media, attorneys, legislators, and scholars.
For the past twenty years, the debate surrounding the
viability of vehicular pursuits has evolved into basically
three groups arguing their points of view. The first
position finds that all pursuits are too dangerous and seeks
severe restrictions on pursuits (Alpert & Fridell, 1992;
Beckman, 1987; Blankenship & Moneymaker, 1991). The second
position believes that pursuits are necessary to maintain
public order, but that moderate restrictions must be placed
upon the officers making the pursuit decisions (Abbott,
1988; Alpert & Anderson, 1986; Payne & Corley, 1992; Shuman
& Kennedy, 1989). The third group understands the resultant
mayhem of allowing no vehicular pursuits of criminals and
believes that pursuit of criminals outweighs the needs of
public safety. Therefore, proscribing pursuits would allow
any traffic or law violator to avoid the consequences of
their misdeeds by speeding away in the vehicle, and this

erodes the basic premise of the police mission by not

affording the police the opportunity to protect and serve
them (California Highway Patrol, 1983; Solicitor General
Report, 1985).

This cross-section of opinion can cause tremendous
indecision by police administrators when developing and
implementing pursuit policy, and also when deciding which
philosophy to consider and how much discretion to give to
the field officers.

During the past twenty years, a significant amount of
research pertaining to pursuits has been reported. Amongst
this profusion of literature, most of the data aligns itself
with descriptive analyses, such as accident rates,
environmental conditions, vehicle speeds, as well as other
issues. It is important to note that only five studies have
investigated officers' attitudes and perceptions toward
pursuits with some this research being minimal in depth,
especially when considering differences between the ranks.
Britz and Payne (1994) and Alpert (1998) conducted the most
comprehensive attitudinal comparisons to-date where
significant explorations into perception differences of
officers and supervisors about pursuits were reported.

In order to design and implement sound pursuit policy,
police executives must analyze and understand perceptual
differences between the various job types within their
agencies as it correlates to the elements of pursuits. With
this as motivation, it was strongly believed that it was

necessary to investigate the perceptual harmony among

 

()7

LA

various police officer ranks within sixteen municipal police
agencies in close proximity from the same Michigan county.

Hypothesis

 

The null hypothesis assumes that there will be no
significant relationship between the perceptions of the
different job types (road patrol, investigator, first-line
supervisor, and administrator) and the variables of police
pursuits (policy, training, supervisory, liability,
operational, perceptual, and external).

Definitions

 

The definitions that follow should enhance the
understanding of the remainder of this thesis.

Police pursuit: an active attempt by a law enforcement
officer in a police patrol vehicle to stop or apprehend a
the occupants of another moving vehicle where the driver is
aware of the officer's attempt to stop and the driver is
resisting by ignoring or taking evasive action to elude.

Officer: a sworn municipal police officer, county

deputy sheriff, or member of the state police.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

Past research conducted about high-speed pursuits have
tackled many different issues with the majority of
significant pursuit-related research in the past twenty
years aimed at descriptions, characteristics, incidents, and
outcomes. Most of this research has played a role in the
formulation of opinions about police pursuits. However,
very little empirical research has analyzed police officer's
perceptions and opinions. This leaves police administrators
with very little data which to build policy and consider
behavior training programs. Sound policy requires
substantial data in which to guide policy direction (Alpert,
1998; Wells & Falcone, 1992).

Prior Officer Perception Research

Illinois Police Officers' Opinions Study

Charles and Falcone (1992) conducted an exploratory
qualitative analysis of police officer opinions regarding
police pursuits. Their intent was to assist police
administrators by developing a cache of data related to
officers' opinions about pursuits. Charles and Falcone
believed that having a clear understanding of pursuits from
a street perspective would be useful in developing new

pursuit policies and procedures. If policy was developed

without this viewpoint in mind, pursuits may become
increasingly problematic from the standpoint of officers
failing to adhere to policy demands. The study's objective
was to determine the officers' and supervisors' levels of
understanding of their pursuit policy.

Charles and Falcone conducted interviews with 107
police personnel of different job types from 29 police and
sheriffs' departments throughout Illinois from a purposive
selection of 51 agencies. The departments used in the non-
random sample were selected in order to provide a
representation of department sizes and geographical
locations within Illinois. The selection of interviewees
was determined by the respective police agencies with a
request to include officers of both genders, minorities, and
officers of varying levels of experience. The departments
provided officers (N = 64) fitting the descriptors from
road patrol and traffic assignments. Police supervisors and
administrators (N = 43) were interviewed either in-person or
by telephone as schedules permitted. The authors admitted
that the sample of selected officers might have been
purposefully selected by department administrators in order
to place their agencies in the best light. Some departments
even gave officers copies of their pursuit policy just prior
to their interview so that they would be better prepared.
Generalizability of findings was very limited.

The interviews consisted of verbal answers to eleven

open—ended questions where the field interviewers attempted

10

 

 

In 0]

ff)

#4; r1

:1

to develop an understanding of the officer's perceptions and
attitudes about pursuits.

Most officers, including field training officers and
supervisors, reported not knowing or understanding the
policy, they could describe acceptable pursuit field
behaviors, but could not provide appropriate details about
their policies. The officers further had "developed a
unique understanding of how far they could push a pursuit"
and avoid discipline and civil litigation (Charles &
Falcone, 1992, p. 78). Even a police chief admitted reading
his policy five times prior to his interview and reported
that he did not understand the policy (Charles & Falcone,
1992, p. 77).

With respect to pursuit discretion, the officers
differed considerably with many wanting increased discretion
and others requesting that their pursuits be limited to
serious felonies only. While most officers agreed that
supervisors should monitor their pursuit activities, some
officers felt that supervisors should not be able to
terminate pursuits because they may not have enough
information to make that determination. Percentages were
not provided.

They found that officers indicated that three main
control mechanisms steered their behaviors while working.
The first control factor was a clearly written pursuit
policy and procedure. The policy must be understood and

enforced by the department to be effective. The second

11

factor that controlled pursuit behaviors was training.
Training helps to reiterate and provides a better
understanding of the policy objectives. The third pursuit
control mechanism was found to be command supervision. If
policy is understood by officers and enforced by
supervisors, the officers reported that they were more
likely to adhere to policy mandates.

The officers also reported that they did not wish to
violate judicial standards and become exposed to pursuit
civil litigation. Critical incident review panels further
supplied an influence on the officers' pursuit behaviors.
If policy is vague with training and supervision
nonexistent, police officer reactions to pursuits will vary
greatly over time. The authors conclude that these
variations will exist throughout police agencies within the
same geographical area.

Police Pursuits and Officer Attitudes Study
During the summer of 1992, Falcone (1994) conducted another
qualitative analysis of police officer perceptions. He
formulated several research questions pursuant to a AAA
Foundation research grant that was a larger research project
exploring pursuit issues. The research questions were

(Falcone, 1994, p. 144):

0 Do officers generally believe that a no-pursuit
policy would result in increased numbers of chases and
encourage offenders to attempt to elude?

0 Do officers hold their pursuit attitudes independently
or are there discernable patterns within departments
and across departments?

12

 

 

5.

“Us

 

 

0 Is there evidence that departments with
discouraging/highly restrictive policies have a greater
number of offenders who attempt to elude?

0 Do departments with discouraging policies actually
experience fewer pursuits?

In order to answer these questions, Falcone developed
17-question structured interview and conducted interviews
with officers from five police departments and one military
police operation within one county outside of Chicago,
Illinois. State highways ran directly through the military
base, so vehicular traffic traveled freely there. The
departments were intentionally selected based upon their
pursuit policy characteristics, such as restrictiveness and
comprehensiveness, and based upon their size, location, and
organizational structure. Two agencies were described with
discouraging pursuit policies, three departments had a
restrictive policy, and one agency had a discretionary
policy.

The discouraging policies forbid pursuits except under
exceptional circumstances that were specified within the
policy. The restrictive policies granted pursuits under
many circumstances, but limited officer discretion. The
discretionary pursuit policy allowed officers full authority
and discretion in pursuit decisions.

The study involved interviews with a 13 percent sample
of the total number of sworn officers (N = 26) within the
five selected departments and a 6 percent sample of military

police officers from the military installation (N = 10).

13

cul‘.
dis
res

 

ab C L .C
.Q 0 h

 

 

The respondents (94%) clearly indicated that they
thought pursuits would substantially increase if a
no-pursuit policy was enacted. The data also show that 42%
believed that pursuit attitudes were related to intra-agency
culture. Falcone found that intra-departmental attitudes on
pursuits had a strong measure of central tendency leading to
a finding that internal agency culture substantially impacts
pursuit perceptions and attitudes. He indicated that the
officers were concerned about peer approval and disapproval
on discretionary decisions made during pursuits, especially
within the smaller departments.

The next question regarding whether departments with
discouraging policies would have more attempts to flee
resulted in 94% of the officers reporting that they believed
that discouraging policies would result in more attempts to
elude. The self—reported number of pursuits did not confirm
this, as the departments with the most discretionary
policies had the most pursuits.

The last research question asking whether agencies with
discouraging policies have fewer pursuits revealed that the
officers felt that departments with discouraging policies
had the most pursuits. Again, this was found not to be the
case. Pursuits and the number of attempts to elude officers
appeared to increase as the departments' policy restrictions
decreased.

The research additionally revealed that 5% - 15% of the

officers believed that the general public would be

14

encouraged to flee if a no-pursuit policy was known. The
officers felt strongly (94%) that a no-pursuit policy would
have a negative impact on law enforcement as a whole

Falcone uncovered an element of underreporting pursuits
in departments with discouraging policies. The officers'
underreporting actions were conducted in order to avoid
supervisory inspection and to avoid paper work. If the
chase ended quickly and positively, the offender was usually
just ticketed and released. Supervisors and administrators
would not have knowledge of these pursuits as no official
record was made. This might help explain some of the other
findings of underreporting pursuits (Payne, 1997; Payne &
Corley, 1994).

Falcone concluded that officer behaviors could be
significantly affected by their pursuit policy restrictions.
This finding could have a noteworthy impact on pursuit
policy development.

Effect of Pursuit Policies on Officers'
Tendency to Pursue Study

Homant and Kennedy (1994) took an exploratory,
quantitative approach toward studying the effects of
different pursuit policies on police officers' likelihood to
chase as well as other factors. They stated that while many
police departments have recently changed their pursuit
policies, others have maintained the policy approach of wide
discretion for their officers in pursuits. This policy

direction leads to negligible amounts of attention on the

15

4‘
CL

 

effects that policy plays on the actual field officer's
behavior.

The researchers surveyed officers from departments with
varying pursuit policies seeking their perceptions on recent
pursuit involvement (past twelve months) and on their
likelihood to pursue in two hypothetical situations. An
attempt was made to study 47 state-level police departments
and 24 municipal agencies. Due to police concerns of
enhanced liability or embarrassment, only seven state
agencies agreed to participate. A survey was distributed to
the officers of each department either randomly or selected
by the post commanders with 614 surveys being returned and
useable.

The survey instrument was designed to measure: 1) the
officers' knowledge of the policy, 2) what type of policy
the officers' preferred, and 3) the officers' likelihood to
pursue. Homant and Kennedy gave the respondents a list of
five pursuit policy types and they were (Homant & Kennedy,

1994, p. 97):

0 Pure Judgment. The officer is cautioned against
unreasonable danger to the public. Guidelines to
consider may be given, but the officer has wide
use of discretion.

0 Limited Judgment. The officer is aware of close
supervision over his or her decision making. A
fairly detailed list of things to consider is
given. The general tone is that the officer must
be ready to justify the decision to pursue, but
the basic policy is to support law and authority
as long as the risks do not outweigh the benefits.

0 Mild Restrictive. Some clear guidelines are given
for when not to pursue. Minimizing risk is more

16

important than enforcing the law. Officer
liability may be stressed, but there are no firm
restrictions on the type of offense for which one
may pursue.

0 Severe Restrictive. The burden of justifying the
pursuit is clearly on the officer. There are
clear restrictions on the way in which to pursue,
and pursuits arising from routine traffic stops
are typically prohibited.

0 Pursuit Discouraged. Pursuit must be a last
resort to prevent escape when there is probable
cause of a dangerous felony. There is a clear
statement that the policy is to avoid pursuits.

The officers were then asked to select the policy type that
corresponded the most with their pursuit policy. This
allowed judgment in reference to policy knowledge. They
were also asked which policy type that they liked the least
and liked the most. The respondents' pursuit tendencies
were examined by direct survey questions.

The researchers found a weak relationship between
policy type and the officers' probability to chase. Most of
the officers perceived their policies as the opposite of the
actual restrictiveness rating given by the researchers.

More discretionary policies were perceived as restrictive
and the officers saw the more restrictive policies as
permissive. The data show that officers with discretionary
policies were more apt to pursue and officers with
restrictive policies were less apt to pursue.

Homant and Kennedy also determined that officers'
perceptions of policy have more to do with their experiences

with their supervisors than it does with the actual words

used in the policy. The researchers admitted that some

17

 

to

 

internal validity issues may have been factors in the
results as several extraneous variables may have affected
the data outcomes.

Homant and Kennedy summarized that no particular policy
is better than another. They added that clarified policy
and definite enforcement of pursuit policy make pursuit
decisions more predictable and consistent with policy
requirements. This finding correlates with some the
conclusions of Charles and Falcone (1992).

Sensation Seeking as a Factor in Police Pursuit Study

A study was conducted to assess the relationship of an
officer's personality trait, sensation seeking, with their
potential become involved in pursuits by Homant, Kennedy,
and Howton (1993). The sensation-seeking variable relates
to physical feelings as opposed to mental intentions.

The researchers conducted exploratory, quantitative
analysis by using a survey instrument and testing a group of
officers from one police department in a suburban
metropolitan area. All 72 officers agreed to participate
resulting in 69 useable surveys. They theorized that the
officers' sensation-seeking scores would correlate
positively with their inclination to engage in pursuits.

Official department records were studied for pursuits
that involved police car damages for the previous two years.
Homant, et al. believed that officers would be very likely

to report chases that involved damage to their patrol car as

18

they were aware of officers' tendencies not under report
their actual pursuits.

They concluded, with much reservation, that the self-
report measure of pursuit activity correlated significantly
with the total sensation seeking score. The authors clearly
steered away from the practical applications of their
methods and provided that their causal findings may be more
theoretical than practical. It was recognized that the
results need further research in order to ascertain other
influential factors in pursuit driving decisions. Homant et
al. believe that supervisors should account for officers'
personality differences when implementing pursuit policy.

Police Pursuit Drivinq Study

Alpert and Madden (1994) conducted quantitative
research of attitudinal issues pertaining to police pursuits
by surveying police recruits, citizens, and police
supervisors. They concluded that prior research has
identified four important factors related to police
decisions to engage or not engage in a pursuit. These
factors were: 1) the precipitating violation; 2) the area
that the chase occurs; 3) traffic variables; and 4) weather
conditions. These factors lead them to study the impact of
these four variables on the three groups: police recruits;
police supervisors; and a group of citizens (civilian law
enforcement students).

The sample consisted of 46 police recruits attending

their second day of the police academy, 27 police

19

supervisors from several different police departments in
Texas, and 139 citizens of similar age to those who tend to
flee from the police. A questionnaire consisting of pursuit
scenarios was distributed to the three groups in order to
evaluate their attitudes on pursuits.

The data reveal that the most important factor in their
decision (60%) to pursue a fleeing suspect is the need to
apprehend. The respondents (40%) felt that the risk to
public safety was less critical. Traffic conditions were
the most important risk factors for all three groups. The
supervisors were most likely to pursue based upon the
scenarios and were most likely to support pursuits when they
occur. The students were least likely to pursue at all.

The police supervisors' perceptions of pursuit issues
varied significantly from the other two groups. This should
come as no surprise as they view the subject from many
different perspectives and experiences.

Policy Implications for Pursuit Drivinq Study

Britz and Payne (1994) designed quantitative research
to establish whether different police job types had
different perceptions about pursuit policy attributes. They
realized that the officer in the field has much discretion
and is the primary decision maker in pursuit occurrences.
They posit that policy and training will be the officers'
guide. Administrators who make pursuit policy must
understand the affects that policy has on the officers' and

supervisors' perceptions. They explored the perceptual

20

 

 

 

 

 

m

b.)

differences among the department's rank structure as they
related to numerous policy issues, training aspects,
supervisory issues, experiential factors, operational
issues, and external factors.

A survey instrument was developed and distributed to
2,220 sworn officers of the same agency. Regardless of
rank, all of the officers had prior road patrol experience
with the likelihood of previous pursuit involvement. The
respondents described their job type as patrol officer,
investigators, first-line supervisor, or administrator on
the questionnaire and answered 63 questions regarding their
agreement with the various pursuit topics.

A 55 percent response rate was achieved (N = 1212) that

incorporated patrol officers (N 675), investigators (N =

202), First-line supervisors (N 170), and administrators

(N = 165).

The analyzed data reveal that patrol officers were most
likely to find their policy restrictive and discouraging
toward pursuits. Administrators were the least likely to
see the policy as restrictive, but reported that they (46%)
had pursuits that went unreported. When observing the
entire sample, 35% of the respondents admitted unreported
pursuits in the past.

Patrol officers agreed more than supervisors and
administrators that they have received adequate training in
pursuit driving tactics. A noteworthy finding was that

supervisors (49%) were the most likely group to find their

21

policy to be confusing or vague. The officers in the field
must depend on the supervisors for guidance and if the
supervisors are confused on the policy, this is a mixture
for disaster.

Several supervisory variables were analyzed, and it was
discovered that while most supervisors thought that they
supported the field officers, patrol officers were least
likely to believe that the support was present. Another
notable finding was that 80% of supervisors and 72% of
administrators admitted that they had not provided policy
training to the patrol officers. It would be difficult for
the supervisors to train subordinates on policy that they
themselves were confused about.

The patrol officers and administrators disagreed on the
mechanisms in place to ensure safe patrol vehicles. The
officers were least likely to believe that they had safe
cars while the administrators were most likely to agree that
the department provided safe patrol cars. The data also
show that 38% of the all respondents admitted to being
involved in intentional collisions. This reveals that the
officers might not be adhering to policy requirements.
Patrol officers (84%) favored to use of roadblocks during
pursuits, while administrators (64%) sharply disagreed. The
entire sample, however, revealed that 74% agreed with this
pursuit tactic.

The researchers found that most patrol officers favored

enhanced discretion in pursuit decisions, ramming suspect

22

vehicles, and using firearms to stop fleeing vehicles. To
the contrary, administrators were least likely to support
these discretion enhancements.

When viewing the external variables studied by Britz
and Payne, the data reveal that patrol officers and
investigators were least likely to agree that the public and
the courts supported them in pursuit matters.

The researchers concluded that many training and
supervisory implications had been identified that should
assist administrators in their quest to reduce pursuits with
negative outcomes. The lack of training and communications
between supervisors and road officers must be addressed
because they are significant factors toward management of
pursuit events. The officers wanting more discretion to use
extreme force (ramming and handguns) to stop vehicles
clearly support the authors' recommendations for more
training and supervision. The research did find, as
expected, perception differences between the job types
studied as related to pursuits.

Police Pursuit and Use of Force Study

Alpert et al. (1996) conducted research into multiple
police pursuit issues under grant for the National Institute
of Justice. A portion of that research (Alpert, 1998)
studied the perspectives and attitudes of police officers
and their supervisors as they correlate to pursuits. The
sample involved surveying 1,055 police officers consisting

of 881 police officers and 174 supervisors from four police

23

 

in

nd

fa:
Thi
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a .

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di,

agencies. The researcher's purpose was to determine if
patrol officers' attitudes on pursuits differed across
police agencies, differed from officers who had never been
in a chase, and differed from police managers.

The surveys consisted of pursuit scenarios that
encapsulated the need to apprehend with public safety risks
and risk potential based environmental conditions.

Alpert found that the percentage of officers and
supervisors willing to pursue or authorize a pursuit
increased as the precipitating event or crime increased.
The nature of the original crime was the most important
factor in the officers' decisions to continue a pursuit.
This variable was twice as important as the environmental
factors.

The need to immediately apprehend was found to be the
most important concern for all respondents. The data
revealed that the need to apprehend (75%) was significantly
more important than the public safety risk (25%) to the
respondents.

Both supervisors and officers were less likely to
pursue in residential areas than commercial or freeway
environments. Less congested roadways accounted for three
times the likelihood of a pursuit than congested roads.
Both groups reported that their pursuit likelihood for dry
roads was 1.7 times greater than that for wet roads.

The data further reveal that the officers from the

different agencies had similar perceptions about pursuits

24

regardless of the nature of their policy. Alpert discovered
that there was consensus between the officers and
supervisors because there were no significant differences in
pursuit attitudes between the groups.

Alpert concluded that officers' behaviors may change
swiftly with the enactment of new pursuit policies, but
their perceptions and opinions will not change at the same
rate. Findings from attitudinal research can ultimately
help administrators with their duty to train officers to
understand and internalize their pursuit policies.

Policy Content Research

An area that might relate to officers' perceptions and
attitudes on pursuits is the content of the policy itself.
Administrators design pursuit policy and adopt levels of
restrictions as one of their main objectives. The
administrators develop and implement the policy, and the
supervisor's job is to ensure that the policy restrictions
and mandates are followed. It is finally expected that the
officers will integrate the policy content into their
pursuit behavior patterns. This is the intent and goal of
substantive policy. The results may be somewhat different.

James Auten (1990) conducted quantitative analysis on
existing pursuit policies by studying 296 municipal and
county police agencies in Illinois. The sample agencies
were randomly surveyed about their pursuit policy content as
it was related to 16 policy elements. He was surprised to

find that nearly 21% (N = 61) of the agencies did not have a

25

written pursuit policy, especially with the common practice
of police operating vehicles and the potential of liability
exposure. Auten further determined that 100% of the
policies required officers to consider their safety as well
as the safety of others when deciding to initiate and
continue a pursuit. Consideration of the seriousness of the
precipitating event was mandated in nearly 94% of the
policies reviewed.

Auten's survey revealed that 93% required dispatcher
notification and supervisors had the authority to terminate
pursuits in 83% of the policies. Supervisors could
authorize roadblocks in 40% of policies and special
permission was required to assist in an interagency pursuit
in 57% of the pursuit polices. Written reports were found
to be required in only 73% of the policies, which allows
under reporting of pursuits as a matter of policy.

Some of the researchers significant findings were that
more than half of the police agencies with written policy
failed to regulate the use of roadblocks, caravanning
practices, and the use of marked police cars only. While
the percentages were generally low in most categories, 80%
of the departments had taken the first step of implementing
pursuit policies.

Wells and Falcone (1992) theorized that the
organizational environment is relevant to the study of
pursuit policy and customs. They stated that, "... the

structure and environment of police organizations constrain

26

re
di

br

the content of policing activities that occur within them,
and they do this through the mediating effects of department
policy" (1992, p. 319).

They surveyed 51 municipal, county, and state police
agencies resulting in 35 useable survey forms being
returned. They also conducted telephone interviews with
each agency that returned a questionnaire to obtain further
clarifying data. Their data show that 82% of the
departments had written pursuit policies with varying
content. This obviously leaves six departments (18%)
admitting that they do not have a written policy.

The majority of the policies were described as
restrictive or discretionary, with 25% leaving the pursuit
discretion completely with the officer and 80% allowing a
broad range of precipitating events for pursuits. The
researchers' working definitions of policy ratings were: 1)
discouraging (severely restricts or discourages any pursuit,
except in the most extreme circumstances); 2) restrictive
(places some specific restrictions on officers' judgments
and decisions); and 3) discretionary (allows individual
officers to make their own decisions when and how to
pursue). These policy types mirror the policy descriptions
by Nugent et al. (1989).

Wells and Falcone found that 54% of the agencies had no
pursuit training requirements and 92% had no in-house
pursuit training. However, it was learned that 75% of the

departments required firearms (deadly force) training, even

27

 

cha-

though, vehicle pursuits were much more prevalent than
police shootings.

Only half of the departments kept records of their
pursuits leaving post-pursuit study very difficult.
Further, it was found that the larger departments had the
most comprehensive pursuit policies and that pursuits were
most likely to occur in agencies with less comprehensive
policies. Smaller departments with minimal policy content
equaled increased pursuits.

Agencies with more focus on department hierarchy and
chain—of—command were found to have more extensive and
restrictive policies. Higher stratification in structure
reveals tighter control over the field officers' pursuit
decisions. Wells and Falcone found that policy
restrictiveness had no bearing on the frequency of pursuits.

The researchers concluded that organizational culture
and customs were significantly related to pursuit policy and
behaviors.

Kinney and Alpert (1997) found that 57% of municipal
police agencies had drafted new pursuit policies since 1990
and the 47% of the departments had done so during the past
two years. They surveyed a national sample of police
agencies (N=737) regarding pursuit policy elements and
determined that many of the departments admitted to only
minimally preparing their officers for pursuits. Municipal
agencies were more likely to restrict pursuits, such as

marked cars only and mandate supervisor responsibilities

28

 

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9'

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than the county sheriff departments. The researchers
discovered also that 31% of the police agencies kept regular
pursuit statistics while 71% could provide data detailing
the number of pursuits encountered during 1993. Nearly 16%
of the law enforcement agencies revealed that they had been
involved in pursuit litigation, and 25% indicated that they
had pursuits that additionally resulted in the use of force
over and above the chase itself in order to apprehend the
suspect.

Falcone and Wells (1998) studied a nonrandom national
sample (N=288) of pursuit policies by conducting a content
analysis on twelve policy variables divided into 114
specific issues. In 1994 and 1995, the Police Executive
Research Forum (PERF) collected the policy data that was
used. Their analysis reviewed the typical items that should
be present in pursuit policy, such as, when to initiate a
chase, driving tactics, restrictiveness, and the balance of
public safety. The levels of pursuit restrictions used by
the researchers were the same three policy models suggested
by Nugent et al. (1989), which included discretionary,
restrictive, and discouraging. They discovered that 59% of
the policies were discretionary, and that when dissecting
the policy content there were no statistically significant
differences between municipal and county agencies. A strong
relationship was found between the size of the department
and the extensiveness of the policies with larger agencies

being much more detailed. Falcone and Wells predict that

29

policies will become more restrictive over time and
increasingly comprehensive due to liability concerns. They
concluded that a comprehensive pursuit policy with vigorous
training would negate most liability exposure when pursuits
have negative outcomes.

Legal Considerations

In 1988, California enacted legislation granting
immunity from pursuit litigation to police agencies that
adopt minimum pursuit policy standards (California Vehicle
Code, 17004.7, 1988). Fick (1997) looked at the statute to
determine if it actually works and found, that as long as
the departments limit officer discretion in determining when
to initiate, continue, and terminate a pursuit, that the
courts are still upholding the statute.

The law set four minimum standards to allow immunity
from claims resulting from pursuit personal injuries or
deaths and damage to property resulting from a collision
with the vehicle driven by the fleeing offender. The
statute further delineated that it was a question of law for
the courts and not juries to determine whether the policy
complied with the required standards that provide immunity.
The four standards include 1) supervisory control of the
pursuits, 2) the policy must designate a primary car and
limit the number of cars to be involved, 3) provide
procedures to coordinate with other police agencies, and 4)
describe guidelines for balancing law enforcement needs to

apprehend with public safety needs.

30

Fick found that the policies that failed the judicial
test neglected to provide any substantial criteria for
continuing or terminating pursuits and allowed officers too
much freedom in their decisions while under stress. The
courts mandated that the decision factors must be
specifically listed and cited another out-of—state agency
that would be a prime example to follow. Multiple factors
were to be employed when making pursuit decisions, such as
driving environment, speeds, seriousness of precipitating
event, weather, road conditions, time of day, traffic, and
the location, as well as others. Perhaps, other states may
adopt this type of statute to align their police departments
with statutory requirements on policy content.

In Fiser vs. City of Ann Arbor (1983), the Michigan
Supreme Court reviewed several prominent issues surrounding
police pursuits. The court examined governmental immunity
in the light of negligence standards and emergency vehicle
statutory exemptions.

The case involved Ann Arbor police officers attempting
to stop a person for disobeying a traffic signal. The
suspect ignored the officer's signal to stop and drove
through residential and business areas of the city at speeds
of up to 110 miles per hour. The suspect lost control of
his car and was struck by the police car. As one officer
approached the suspect on foot, the suspect sped away nearly
striking the officer. The officers continued to pursue the

suspect the wrong way on a one-way street and eventually

31

 

 

 

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off

and

lost sight of the suspect vehicle. Another Ann Arbor police
supervisor spotted the suspect car within two minutes and
pursued the vehicle with lights and siren activated. After
about six blocks at 55 mile per hour speeds within 25 mile
an hour zones, the suspect struck a third party broadside at
an intersection causing serious bodily injuries to an
innocent third party, the plaintiff in the case.

The city and the officers argued that they were immune
from tort liability due to Michigan statute (MCL 691.1407)
providing immunity when a government agency is exercising a
governmental function. However, another Michigan statute
(MCL 691.1405) provided an exception from government
immunity for injuries stemming from the negligent operation
of a government-owned vehicle when operated by a government
employee. The court determined that if the pursuit amounted
to negligent operation, then the officers and city were not
immune from tort liability. In order to be liable the
officers had to violate the due care standard owed to Fiser
and negligently cause his injuries.

The lower court and the Michigan Court of Appeals
upheld the officers' and city's claim to governmental
immunity. The Michigan Supreme Court reversed the ruling by
indicating that the officers and city were not automatically
immune from liability. The court remanded the case for a
jury to decide whether the actions of the officer during the

high-speed pursuit were unreasonable, whether an emergency

32

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5

17h

dEC

existed, and whether the officer violated the standard of
care owed to the plaintiff.

The court found that Michigan Vehicle Codes (MCL
257.603 & 257.632) might have not protected the officer's
actions because he was not proceeding to an emergency call
and was not proceeding with due regard of the safety of
others. The statute authorizes an emergency vehicle, when
responding to an emergency call to: l) violate parking laws;
2) disregard traffic signals and stop signs after slowing
down for safe operation; 3) exceed the speed limits as long
as life and property are not endangered; and 4) disregard
direction of movement or turning laws. This is authorized
if the emergency vehicle sounds a siren, horn, bell, or
whistle and is operating a flashing or oscillating light.
The statute had no specific mention of driving while in
pursuit of a fleeing suspect, only when driving to an
emergency call.

Michigan Vehicle Code 257.632 does allow police to
violate speed limitations, when driving with due regard for
safety, to an emergency or in pursuit of law violators. The
exemption only applies if an audible bell, siren, or whistle
is operated in conjunction with a flashing or oscillating
light. Reckless disregard for the safety of others also
voids the exemption.

The ruling in Fiser must still be incorporated in
police pursuit policy and when making pursuit driving

decisions for both officers and supervisors.

33

In County of Sacramento v. Lewis (1998), the United
States Supreme Court ruled on a case pertaining to police
pursuit driving. The case involved a Sacramento County
sheriff deputy chasing two teenagers on a motorcycle who
were fleeing from the deputy. Within 75 seconds, the
suspects skidded to a stop, but the officer was unable to
stop in time striking and killing the passenger. The family
sued the officer, the police department, and the county for
civil rights violations under 42 USC 1983.

The court ruled that the deputy did not violate the
deceased's "due process by causing death through deliberate
or reckless indifference to life in a high—speed automobile
chase aimed at apprehending a suspected offender" (p. 833).
Further, the court held "that in such circumstances only a
purpose to cause harm unrelated to the legitimate object of
arrest will satisfy the element of arbitrary conduct
shocking to the conscience, necessary for a due process
violation" (p. 836).

While this decision favored the officers' conduct, this
decision does not protect officers from future lawsuits
because the case was based on fourth Amendment arguments of
search and seizure. The court stated that neither occurred
because the deputy did not stop the deceased's freedom of
movement (Becknell et al., 1999). The police conduct must
be so terrible that it "shocks the conscience" of the
community, and the police must have intended to harm the

suspects. Currently, there is no additional protection in

34

Michigan from state civil litigation pertaining to pursuits.
(Police Law Bulletin, 1998)

Conclusion

This chapter has provided a view of previous research
that pertains to police officer attitudes and perceptions of
pursuit correlated issues and pursuit policy content.
Several central themes were present within the literature
that may shed light on these topic areas.

One reoccurring theme was the finding that many
officers and supervisors misunderstood their pursuit
policies. This lack of policy understanding highlighted
other concerns, such as under reporting of pursuits and
negligible pursuit training in many departments. Civil
liability also is a continued threat in the State of
Michigan, but may have been somewhat lessened as a federal
civil rights concern.

The literature concludes that in order for policy to
affect behavior of officers to any significant level, four
things must be present. First, the police agencies must
have a pursuit policy. The literature revealed that
approximately 20% of police departments did not have written
pursuit policies. Second, the pursuit policy must be
clearly written and fully understood by the officers and
supervisors. Third, the pursuit behaviors will most likely
change with repetitious and substantive training. And last,
supervision must be constant and ready to enforce policy

mandates throughout pursuit activities. Policy may change

35

or even begin in some cases, but officer attitudes will not
change without effective supervision and training, and
attitudes may affect behaviors.

Officers and supervisors were found to have different
attitudes and perceptions about the many pursuit aspects.
Officers want more pursuit discretion in areas of serious
concern, such as intentional ramming of suspects and the use
of firearms to stop vehicles from fleeing. Supervisors and
administrators usually disagree with them. The perceptual
disparity on these issues and others reveals many serious
pursuit issues that require further research and examination
in order to provide policy makers with prominent data on
which to build their pursuit policy. This thesis intends to
delve further into the attributes of the disparity that
exists between officers, supervisors, and administrators as

it pertains to police pursuits.

36

CHIJNEER 3

METHODOLOGY

Research Design

The goal of this thesis is to provide insight into
decision processes used by police officers during vehicle
pursuits. The research should allow police agency policy
makers to see certain demographical, environmental, and
judgmental conditions that exist when police officers are
making pursuit decisions in the field. The results and
conclusions of this study will assist those same police
executives in designing substantive policy, training, and
methods of supervision relating to vehicular pursuit
incidents.

The survey instrument used in this research was
somewhat of a replica of the instrument used by Britz and
Payne (1994) during their research into the policy
development issues discussed here. A self-administered
General Opinion Survey was distributed to all 2,200 sworn
members of the Michigan State Police who perform or had
performed duties that involved general road patrol
functions. A survey was developed to determine the opinions
of officers who have made decisions while actually
performing pursuit-driving tactics (Britz and Payne 1994).
The goal of this study was to replicate that research by

using the same instrument and exploring a different subject

37

population: sworn municipal police officers. This study
selected the known 1,034 sworn municipal police officers
that either currently perform or had performed general
patrol duties. Each of the enlisted personnel was asked to
describe their job from one of four categories: 1) Road
Patrol, 2) First Line Supervisor, 3) Investigator, and 4)
Administrator.

The rationale for studying this separation in police
job classifications was to identify differences of thinking
or perceptions that may exist between the officers in the
field making the pursuit decisions and the police policy
makers themselves. If significant differences of
perceptions are present, then substantive actions such as
training and tighter supervision might be warranted in order
to ensure consistency on the street. Furthermore, it is
believed that the resulting information will be very useful
in creating a solid barrier against civil litigation by
formulating and implementing sound pursuit policies.
Pursuit policy that has an empirical research foundation
should assist in that battle, but no policy alone will keep
municipal police agencies from being sued as their deep
pockets are always targeted.

Survey Design

The replicated opinion survey consisted of the original
64 questions that were limited to the subject of vehicular
pursuits and additional seven questions related to the

respondent's race, gender, age, educational level, police

38

job experience level, and agency size. These independent
variables were added to provide for an enhanced database for
future research and were not the focus of this study. The
job type was used as the dependent variable under review.
The study was designed to be anonymous in a direct effort to
achieve maximum internal validity. Anonymity was
facilitated to eliminate any biased responses from officers
who might feel supervisory influence or pressure when
responding to the survey.

To obtain the goals of anonymity, all sworn members of
the police departments surveyed were provided with the
survey by it being placed within their personal department-
provided mailboxes. The surveys were delivered to the chief
executive officers or their designate whom then arranged for
the delivery of the survey packets to the individual
mailboxes. Each survey packet contained a cover letter with
an explanation of the study's purpose, along with the survey
instrument, and a self-addressed stamped envelope for the
survey's anonymous return by the U.S. Mail receptacle of
their choice. Removing the return process from the normal
organizational chain of command aided in providing for an
atmosphere of confidentiality and anonymity.

Several meetings were held with the chief executive
officers of the agencies selected in order to receive their
approval and permission to distribute the survey packet
within their departments. Their support was necessary to

obtain the highest possible return rate and to provide their

39

subordinate officers with a clear understanding that they
may complete the survey instrument during duty hours without
fear of reprisals from their supervisors. The chief
executive officers indicated that they would provide each
member with a letter requesting their assistance with this
research project. Another meeting was held with the
county's police chief association where a presentation was
given requesting their support. That agency voted
unanimously to approve and support this endeavor. A thirty—
day time limit was placed upon the return of the
instruments. Responses were ordered in a Likert-type scale
with four possible answers: 1) Strongly agree, 2) Agree, 3)
Disagree, and 4) Strongly disagree. No neutral option was
available to the respondents. The personal characteristic
questions were either open (fill the blank line) or multiple
choices depending upon their personal history or agency of
employment.

Population

The population of this study consisted of all known
sworn police officers from one county located within
southeastern Michigan and included 15 police departments and
the county sheriff department. The only exception was that
only one police department in that county refused to allow
the survey to be distributed within that department. The
police chief forbid any contact with any of the officers due
to two pending civil suits against the agency, which were

pursuit related.

40

The officers surveyed were either presently assigned or
had been assigned to general patrol duties during their
tenure as a police officer. The respondents were from one
county placing them within close proximity with regard to
geographic and demographic conditions. It was decided that
the entire population of each department would be utilized
in order to bring about the greatest amount of difference
among the job types and to gather as much information as
possible from each agency. Therefore, samples were not
drawn from the departments; rather the entire population of
each was used.

The pursuit policy of each agency surveyed was
reviewed, and the policies were found to be very similar in
structure and scope. The policies provided for patrol
officer discretion with some limitations on their judgment.
The officer was aware that constant supervision during the
pursuit initiatives is taking place and that as long as the
risks did not outweigh the benefits, the policies generally
supported law and order. Only one policy strongly
discouraged pursuits unless a life or death situation was in
progress, and that was the one department within the county
that would not authorize the survey to be distributed.
Therefore, the one policy that was well outside the county
norm was not a factor of this research.

Of the 454 respondents, 435 (96%) of males and 19 (4%)
were females. The educational level mean was just higher

than two years of college, and the mean age was 37.7 years

41

with the mode 30 years of age. The department size average
was reported to be between 101-250 officers. The experience
level ranged from six months to 37 years of police duty.

The race of the respondents was reported a 423 white, 11
Native Americans, 4 Hispanics, 4 African American, 1 Asian,
and 4 others, with the remaining 7 persons not identifying
their race. The mean of the respondents' pursuit
experiences was between 10 and 20 pursuits.

Response Rate

The total number of known sworn police officers within
the selected Michigan county was 1,034, and they were all
sent a survey packet. Four hundred and fifty four (n=454)
useable surveys were received providing an overall response
rate of 44%. Table 3.1 illustrates the response
distributions for the four job types. This response rate
was lower than expected, however, it is still considered as
a substantial_rate for social science research. The
explanations for this lower than expected response rate are
many. Two recent fatal accidents within the county
involving police pursuits may have created anxiety on the
part of many officers not to reply. Some respondents did
not answer all of the questions on the survey instruments,
thus resulting in a variance of numbers from question to

question.

42

Table 3.1 Distribution of Responses

 

 

Job Type N Percentage
Road Patrol 261 57
First Line Supervisor 71 16
Investigator 82 l 8
Administrator 40 9

 

Survey Instrument

The research design implemented is meant to be
exploratory and descriptive with goals to discover various
facets within criminal justice management, such as training
needs, supervisory assessments, and policy direction for
police pursuits. The questionnaire was replicated knowing
that its authors were determined to discover the opinions of
police officers, who have made decisions on the job
regarding vehicular pursuits. It was also designed to
discover whether strong differences of opinions or attitudes
existed between varying rank levels within the departments
relating to pursuit decisions and existing policy (Britz and
Payne, 1994).

The survey instrument was replicated with the intent to
further explore the attitudes of police officers on several
issues related to vehicular pursuits. Officers of all ranks

were queried, but were placed into four general job

43

categories; 1) Road Patrol, 2) First Line Supervisor, 3)
Investigator, and 4) Administrator. Of the 63 perception
questions, seven classifications of variables are present.
These classifications include the following: 1) policy; 2)
training; 3) supervisory; 4) liability; 5) operational; 6)

perceptual; and 7) external factors. Because of the nominal
characteristics of the data collected, the Chi-Squared (x2)

statistic was utilized. In order to determine the strength
of the relationships, if any, Cramer's V statistic was
utilized. The Proportional Reduction in Error (PRE) measure
used was the Lambda measure of association. Lambda was
utilized because at least one of the variables was nominal
which precluded the use of Gamma and Spearman's Rho measures
of association.

The Chi-Square Statistic

As the variables used in this research design are
categorical in nature, the Chi-Square (x2) statistic was

utilized because of its capability to measure the
independence of the relationship between categorical
variables. It is based upon a distribution of frequencies
and on the null hypothesis or the assumption that there is
no relationship between the two variables in the total
population. The Chi-Square determines whether two variables
are independent, have no relationship, or are dependent
where the relationship would seldom occur by chance. The

Chi-Square test was also used in order to be able to compare

44

and contrast the discovered data with the data found by

Britz and Payne (1994) during future research endeavors.

45

CHIGNHER 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Introduction

The data will be analyzed and presented by using the
method of cross tabulation of the independent variables, the
four job types, against the sixty-three (63) dependent
variables.

The independent variables were operationalized into
four categories: 1) road patrol — the officers whose main
function is patrol duties; 2) investigator - the officers
whose primary assignment is to investigate and are not
supervisory in nature; 3) supervisor - first line superior
of patrol officers and investigators; and 4) administrative
- upper management of the police agency. The respondents
placed themselves into one of these four job types based
upon their current position or job duties.

The dependent variables consisted of sixty-three
questions that consisted basically of seven different
categories. The seven categories are the following: 1)
policy; 2) training; 3) supervisory; 4) experiential; 5)
operational; 6) liability; and 7) external. The sixty-three
variables were tested for statistical significance in order
to make determinations as to whether or not the differences
in attitude or perception exist between the four job types.

The intent of this data analysis is to confirm or deny the

46

existence of perceptual disparity amongst the ranks. In
order to enhance the data analysis by enlarging the cells of
the cross tabulations, each of the sixty—three responses
were collapsed into a two-category answer. The strongly
agree and agree responses were combined into an agree
category. The strongly disagree and agree were combined
into a disagree category. The exact difference between
strongly agree and agree, for example, is difficult to
ascertain, thus making the data analysis more efficient
while still sufficient.

Policy variables

Nine of the questions of the survey instrument
(Appendix A) were categorized into the policy variable
analysis due to their significance in relating to policy
issues. The questions either directed referred to policy or
were indirectly related to policy matters. The policy
variables involved issues, such as, their understanding of
the policy, whether the pursuit policy guides them in their
pursuit decisions or whether they believe that the policy is
too restrictive thus eliminating their discretion.
Compliance and the ramifications of non-compliance with the

policy are also queried.

47

Table 4.1 - Policy Variables - Ind. Variable = Job Type

 

 

 

Dependent

Variables 12 sig Lambda V
Policy is clearly written. (Q5) 13.372 .004 .000 .1716
Policy is too restrictive. (Q7) 13.613 .003 .013 .1737
Involved in unreported

pursuits. (Q9) 8.533 .036 .000 .1371
df=3

 

The data in Table 4.1 reveal that three of the nine
variables were found to be statistically significant.
Significant differences therefore exist between the officers
in each of the job types and their attitudes toward the
clarity and objectives of the pursuit policy. Therefore,
the null hypothesis was rejected for the three variables in
this category.

Upon reviewing the percentages associated with the
level of agreement with each variable in Table 4.2, it was
discovered that administrators (88%) and investigators (77%)
were most likely to agree that their policy is clearly
written. Patrol officers, who at the time of the research
actually perform most of the pursuit activities, were the
least likely to agree (63%) that the policy was clear to
them. This should not be surprising as the administrators

develop, write, and implement the policy. They should be

48

extremely clear about their own policies and should be very
up-to-date on the latest tactics and techniques used in
successful vehicular pursuits. To their credit and
advantage, administrators should also have the most
experience and a current view of the larger picture within
law enforcement.

The data also indicate that patrol officers believe
that the pursuit policy is too restrictive, leaving one to
infer that they feel that their personal discretion may be
limited. This indicates a significant disagreement with the
policy restrictions, but does not necessarily mean that they
will violate the policy. The patrol officers are most
likely to dissect the policy, as they have to work with it
on a daily basis and administrators see the policy mostly
during revision stages or after negative pursuit outcomes.

The respondents reported overall (77%) that they have
not been involved in unreported pursuits. However, an
element of under reporting pursuits exists as the groups
agreed that 23% had been involved in unreported pursuits.
This factor resembles the findings within the literature.

The administrators should take heed in these results as
their officers in the field find the policy less clear and
too restrictive. This discord has resulted in some policy
'Violations, not reporting pursuits, and will continue if

training and supervision is not enhanced.

49

Table 4.2 - Policy Variables - Percentages

 

 

Dependent
variables Patrol Super. Invest. Admin. All
A D A. D A D A D [k D
Policy is clearly written.
«35) .63 .37 .70 .30 .77 .23 .88 .12 .69 .31
(164) (97) (50) (21) (63) (19) (35) (5) (312) (142)
Policy is too restrictive.
«27) .51 .49 .31 .69 .37 .63 .33 .67 .44 .56
(132) (127) (22) (49) (30) (52) (13) (26) (197) (254)
Involved in unreported
pursuits. (Q9) .21 .79 .18 .82 .26 .74 .40 .60 .23 .77
(54) (207) (13) (58) (21) (61) (16) (24) (104) (350)

 

fl=()

Training Variables

Nine of the variables were classified as associated

with training, such as in-house training objectives

involving driving tactics and maneuvers, written policy

review, and post-academy pursuit testing.

This category

also included the variable regarding the officers'

capabilities of balancing the needs of apprehension against

the needs for public safety.

50

Table 4.3 - Training Variables - Ind. Variable = Job Type

 

 

Dependent

Variables x2 sig Lambda V
Adequate training in pursuit 12.014 .007 .000 .1632
policy. (Q15)

Post-academy testing on 7.969 .046 .006 .1325

pursuit policy. (Q16)

Understanding reasonable vs.
unreasonable driving behavior.

 

«240) H1967 .012 .010 .1568
Difficult to balance of need to apprehend

and public safety. (Q58) 7.907 .048 .000 .1325
df=3

 

The data in Table 4.3 disclose that four of the nine
training variables were found to be statistically
significant. Therefore, significant differences exist
between the officers in each of the job types and their
perceptions toward the adequacy of department training,
pursuit policy testing, and the ability to balance the need
to apprehend criminals with the needs for public safety.
Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected for these four

variables.

51

Table 4.4 - Training Variables - Percentages

 

Dependent

Variables Patrol Super. Invest. Admin. All
A D A D A D A D A D

 

Adequate training in pursuit
policy. (Q15) .58 .42 .63 .37 .68 .32 .85 .15 .63 .37
(150) (109) (45) (26) (55) (26) (34) (6) (284) (167)

Post-academy testing on
pursuitpolicy. (Q16) .30 .70 .31 .69 .31 .69 .52 .48 .33 .67
(79) (182) (22) (49) (26) (56) (21) (19) (148) (306)

Understand reasonable vs.

unreasonable driving behaviors.

(Q40) .98 .02 .91 .09 .96 .04 1.00 .00 .97 .03
(252) (4) (64) (6) (77) (3) (40) (0) (433) (13)

Diflicult to balance of need to apprehend vs.
public safety. (Q58) .71 .29 .83 .17 .73 .27 .87 .13 .75 .25
(184) (75) (58) (12) (59) (22) (35) (5) (336) (114)

 

I:

=()

The data show that disagreement exists as it relates to
the pursuit training endeavors within the police agencies.
For example, administrators were most likely to agree that
they had received adequate training on their department's
pursuit policy. They realistically should have the clearest
knowledge and understanding as they most likely designed and
developed the policy prior to implementation. This may
allow them to feel better trained. The patrol officers were
least likely to agree, but still had 58% of the respondents
in agreement. First line supervisors were only slightly

more agreeable (63%) than patrol officers with regard to the

52

adequacy of their department's policy training. With 37%
overall indicating inadequate pursuit training, a clear
message is sent to the administrators a: to the immediate
need for pursuit-related training.

The data in Table 4.4 show that administrators were
most likely to agree that they had received post-academy
testing on pursuit policy. The other three job types were
much less likely to agree on that issue as each group had
respondent percentages of nearly thirty. The lack of
testing and training after academy training may become
issues of exposure to civil litigation. Additionally, it
has been many years since most of the respondents attended
the police academy, as the mean for years of experience for
all respondents was 13.7 years.

Also shown in Table 4.4, all four of the job
classifications were extremely likely to agree that they
understand the difference between reasonable and
unreasonable driving behaviors. The administrators were in
unanimous agreement (100%) with patrol officer respondents
showing 98% agreement. Investigators and supervisors were
also both in the ninety percentile ranges of agreement.
This outcome should be seen as favorable to policy makers
and trainers alike because almost all of the respondents
know when pursuit-driving behaviors have become
unreasonable. This ability should clearly aid the officers
in their decisions as to whether or not they should continue

the pursuit.

53

A finding from the data in Table 4.4 is that
administrators (87%) find it most difficult to understand
the balance between a police officer's need to apprehend
fleeing violators and the public's need for safety.
Supervisors (83%) are very close to the administrators in
being unable to balance the need for police apprehension and
the need for public safety. These are important findings
because they must understand the balance question better
than the officers that they must teach and direct. It is
very difficult to teach something that you do not
understand. Patrol officers (71%) still struggle with this
issue, but surprisingly have the least amount of difficulty
finding this important balance. Patrol officers make the
decisions for the most part and might have decided that the
need to apprehend is more important as was found in the
literature. As a result, all of the job types uniformly
have difficulty with the balancing of social needs with law
enforcement needs, which really should not be surprising.
This overall outcome was expected, as the balance is
difficult to define. Training will be necessary in order to
add clarity to this issue, and place all officers in line
with the policy direction.

Supervisor Variables

Eight of the sixty-three dependent variables in this
research related to supervisory perceptions, such as how the

officers perceived support from their commanding officers.

54

Other questions used were more generally related to their
interactions with supervisors.

Table 4.5 - Supervisory Variables - Ind. Variable = Job Type

 

 

Dependent
Variables 12 sig Lambda V
Supervisor has instructed on 9.712 .021 .000 .1464

pursuit policy. (Q17)

Pursuit policy applied equally 13.488 .004 .015 .1739
to everyone. (Q18)

Supervisors support officers

 

regardless of policy. (Q20) 24.890 .000 .029 .2362
Supervisors support me when there

are injuries. (Q42) 28.055 .000 .091 .2525
Supervisors will support me if

I am not at fault. (Q45) 15.856 .001 .000 .1877
df=3

 

The data in Table 4.5 reveal that five of the eight
variables were found to be statistically significant as the
four job types were more likely to disagree on the five
issues. Therefore, significant differences exist between
the officers of each of the job types and their perceptions
of supervisory support and interactions. Therefore, the

null hypothesis was rejected for these five variables.

55

Table 4.6 - Supervisory Variables - Percentage

 

Dependent

Variables Patrol Super. In vest. Admin. All
A D A D A D A D A D

 

Supervisor has instructed

on pursuit policy.

(Q17) .54 .46 .69 .31 .57 .43 .75 .25 .59 .41
(141) (119) (49) (22) (47) (35) (30) (10) (267) (186)

Policy applied equally to
everyone. (Q18) .49 .51 .61 .39 .57 .43 .77 .23 .55 .45
(125) (131) (43) (27) (46) (34) (31) (9) (245) (201)

Supervisors support oflicers

regardless of policy.

(Q20) .32 .68 .46 .54 .21 .79 .63 .37 .35 .65
(82) (173) (33) (38) (17) (63) (25) (15) (157) (289)

Supervisors will support me
when injuries. (Q42) .40 .60 .57 .43 .45 .55 .82 .17 .47 .53
(100) (152) (41) (30) (35) (43) (32) (7) (208) (232)

Supervisors will support if
[am not at fault. (Q45) .68 .32 .85 .15 .74 .26 .92 .08 .74 .26
(175) (82) (60) (ll) (61) (21) (37) (3) (333) (117)

 

()

I:
ll

As Table 4.6 indicates that there is overall agreement
(59%) that supervisors have provided instructions on the
pursuit policy. Supervisors and administrators were the
most likely to agree. Patrol officers (54%) were the least
likely to agree with 46% indicating that they have had no
pursuit policy instructions from their supervisors.

Overall, 41% of the respondents indicated that they have not
received this policy training. This finding relates clearly
with the lack of supervisor pursuit training amongst the

police agencies being studied.

56

Administrators and supervisors were found to most
likely believe that the policy of their departments is
applied equally to all personnel. In contrast, patrol
officers and investigators were least likely to agree with
the statement. Fifty-one percent of patrol officers
perceive that their policy is not being applied equally.
Noteworthy is the finding that 39% of the supervisors
perceive the same unfairness of management, and they are a
major part of that management team. Overall, only 55% of
the respondents agreed that pursuit policy is applied
equally throughout the departments. This reveals that
management implications exist and must be dealt with.

With regard to supervisory support, patrol officers and
investigators were least likely to agree that their
supervisors support them regardless of policy. The majority
of supervisors also disagree that they support officers
without considering policy. A critical result is that 63%
of the administrators and 46% of the supervisors agree that
they support the officers regardless of policy. These high
percentages indicate that there might be mistrust between
administrators and their first-line supervisors on the
perception of proper management. If administrators believe
that supervisors are supporting officers without considering
policy, then they feel that the supervisors are aligned too
closely with field officers and not aligned with the upper
management or administration. Lines of communication

between these management ranks must be open and honest in

57

order to remedy these perceptions. Management training may
assist in this venture.

Patrol officers and investigators readily disagree that
supervisory support is present when their pursuits result in
injuries. To the contrary, administrators (82%) and
supervisors (57%) indicate that they do support the officers
when pursuit injuries occur. This issue is difficult to
interpret as the extent of the injuries is not defined and
might make considerable response differences based upon
injury severity.

If the officers are found not at fault during the
pursuit, then the patrol officers and investigators reverse
their disagreement showing agreement percentages of sixty-
eight and seventy-four, respectively. Administrators (92%)
are very likely to agree that supervisors' support is
prevalent when the officers are not at fault. The overall
agreement of 74% of the respondents shows confidence in
their supervisors and their departments.

Experiential Variables

Eleven of the sixty-three dependent variables involved
the officer's perceptions about their discretion levels and
their work experiences as it relates to pursuits.

The data in Table 4.7 show that four of the eleven
variables were found to be statistically significant as the
patrol officers, investigators, first-line supervisors, and
administrators are more likely to disagree on the four

subjects. Significant differences were found between the

58

 

officers in each of the job types and their perceptions on
their experiences and discretion threshold. Therefore, the
null hypothesis was rejected for these four variables.

Table 4.7 - Experiential Variables - Ind. Variable = Job
Type

 

Dependent
Variables x2 sig Lambda V

 

Officers should have more
discretion in pursuits. (Q10) 62.795 .000 .080 .3719

Decision to ram should be
officers discretion. (Q24) 45.71 1 .000 .007 .3198

Officers with personal problems
more apt to crash. (Q20) 11.254 .010 .011 .1597

Support greater officer discretion to use
firearms to stop fleeing vehicles.
(Q53) 15.833 .001 .030 .1869

 

df=3

 

As shown in Table 4.8, the data indicate that the
patrol officer and investigators are least likely to agree
that officers with personal problems are more apt to crash
during pursuits. The supervisors (53%) agreed more often
that it would be factor, where the administrators were split
on the issue at fifty percent. Overall, 39 percent of the
respondents believe that personal problems are a factor in
pursuit driving situations and that officers with those

difficulties will crash more often. The respondents'

59

agreement levels indicate that they are aware of the
psychological effects on pursuit driving.

The remaining three dependent variables dealt with
perceptions of officer discretion where the patrol officers
and investigators were more likely to agree with each other.
The data show that officers (79%) and investigators (72%)
want more general discretion in pursuit decisions. The
supervisors (65%) and administrators (57%) disagree. There
is overall agreement that officer should have more pursuit
decision discretion. This shows that the officers want to
make their own pursuit decisions. Strong supervision and
policy training will be important to maintain adherence to
policy requirements.

The data in Table 4.8 indicate that officers and
investigators believe that they should have the discretion
to ram a fleeing offender. Sixty-three percent of the
supervisors also agree that officers should have the option
to ram. Administrators were the least likely to agree, but
nearly half of them (48%) were in agreement.

Patrol officers were most likely to agree that greater
officer discretion in firearms usage to stop fleeing
vehicles is warranted. A surprising result was that 45% of
administrators agreed with the statement. The
administrators must be aware of the public safety and
liability ramifications related to shooting firearms at
fleeing motorists, yet they still had a high level of

agreement. The public safety elements of shooting and

60

ramming fleeing suspects and their legal considerations

should be a vital part of policy training, as well as strict

supervision of pursuit are warranted.

Table 4.8 - Experiential Variables - Percentages

 

 

Dependent
Variables Patrol Super. Invest. Admin. All
A D A D A D A D A D
Officers should have more discretion
in pursuit decisions.
(Q10) .79 .21 35 .65 .72 .28 .43 .57 .68 .32

(207) (54) (25)

Decision to ram should be
officer’s option. (Q24) .88 .12 .63
(224) (32) (45)

Oflicers with personal problems

more apt to crash.

(Q32) .35 .65 .53
(88) (164) (37)

Support greater discretion in firearm use

to stop fleeing vehicles.

(Q53) .52 .48 .27
(136) (124) (19)

(46) (59) (23) (17) (23) (308) (146)

.37 .81 .19 .48 .52 .79 .21

(26) (65) (15) (19) (21) (353) (94)

.47 .32 .68 .50 .50 .39 .61
(33) (25) (54) (20) (20) (170) (271)

.73 .40 .60 .45 .55 .45 .55
(52) (33) (49) (18) (22) (206) (247)

 

n=()

Operational Variables

The variables in this category were related to the

officer's operational involvement in pursuits, such as

tactics, patrol vehicle safety inspections, policy

violations, and collision experiences. This category had

the widest range of variables and included officer

perceptions on pursuit termination decisions.

61

 

Table 4.9 - Operational Variables - Ind. Variable = Job Type

 

Dependent
Variables 12 sig Lambda V

 

Vehicle repair system assures

 

safe patrol vehicle. (Q10) 9.562 .022 .01 1 .1461
I have rammed vehicles to

stop them. (Q25) 22.426 .000 .000 .2240
Experienced intentional collisions

in pursuits. (Q36) 10.922 .012 .056 .1566
Experienced non-intentional

collisions in pursuits. (Q37) 13.617 .003 .000 .1753
Support use of roadblock as pursuit

pursuit tactic. (Q51) 10.444 .015 .000 .1520
df=3

 

As revealed in Table 4.9, the data show that, of the
fourteen operational variables, five were found to be
statistically significant as the respondents were more
likely to disagree on the five issues. Significant
differences are present between the officers in each job
category and their perceptions of the operational issues.
Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected for these five

variables.

62

Table 4.10 - Operational Variables - Percentages

 

Dependent

Variables Patrol Super. Invest. Admin. All
A D A D A D A D A D

 

Vehicle repair system assures

safe patrol vehicle.

(Q10) .32 .68 .37 .63 .44 .56 .55 .45 .37 .63
(83) (174) (26) (45) (35) (45) (22) (18) (166) (282)

I have rammed vehicles to
stop them. (Q25) .26 .74 .45 .55 .50 .50 .45 .55 .35 .65
(66) (190) (32) (39) (40) (40) (18) (22) (156) (291)

Experienced intentional collisions
in pursuits. (Q36) .45 .55 .59 .41 .61 .39 .65 .35 .52 .48
(116) (139) (42) (29) (48) (31) (26) (14) (232) (213)

Experienced non-intentional

collisions in pursuits.

(Q37) .51 .49 .65 .35 .71 .29 .70 .30 .59 .41
(130) (123) (46) (25) (56) (23) (28) (12) (260) (183)

Support use of roadblock as
pursuit tactic. (Q51) .79 .21 .61 .39 .73 .27 .70 .30 .75 .25
(207) (54) (42) (27) (60) (22) (28) (12) (337) (115)

 

I:
ll

()

As Table 4.10 reveals, patrol officers are most likely
to disagree that their vehicle repair systems assures them
of a safe vehicle. Supervisors (63%) and investigators
(56%) also disagree with the operational issue showing
additional dissatisfaction with the repair systems utilized.
Administrators are most likely to agree that their vehicle
maintenance systems provide safe patrol vehicles. Perhaps
the administrators do not have to work in patrol cars, as
they are more likely to have new and less mechanically used

vehicles during their daily activities.

63

The data further show that 45% of the supervisors and
administrators and 50% of the investigators have been
involved in ramming suspect vehicles. In contrast, only 26%
of patrol officers agree that they have rammed vehicles in
order to stop them. This difference may be due to the
probability that most supervisors, administrators, and
investigators have more experience than patrol officers,
however, not always. Experiences reported here may relate
to policing and pursuits dating back to when pursuit policy
and restrictions may have been non—existent or minimal in
scope.

Administrators, supervisors, and investigators were
most likely to agree that they were involved in collisions
that were both intentional and non-intentional. Patrol
officers were admitted involvement in pursuit collisions the
least. Once again, the past experiences of the potentially
older supervisory and command personnel may account for
this. Restrictions on ramming were not prevalent and may
have been an approved practice resulting in more collisions
occurring back then. Another factor that may be presenting
itself is that many officers may not be complying with their
policy mandates regarding intentional collisions.

Table 4.10 shows that patrol officers (79%) are most
likely to support the use of roadblocks during pursuits.
Administrators (70%) also firmly support roadblocks with
supervisors (61%) the least likely to support them. The

total percentage for all of the respondent's support for

64

roadblocks (75%) was significant. This may reveal that
administrators want pursuits to end as quickly as patrol
officers, so they agree with roadblock tactics to get the
job done swiftly. Training with regard to the applications
of roadblocks is necessary due to the high levels of

agreement with a tactic that has many legal considerations.

Table 4.11- Liability Variables - Ind. Variable = Job Type

 

Dependent
Variables x2 sig Lambda V

 

Less pursuits since becoming aware

 

of law suits. (Q44) 8.369 .039 .000 .1367
Personally know oflicers involved in

pursuit litigation. (Q62) 8.193 .042 .000 .1345
df=3

 

Liability Variables

Seven of the sixty—three dependent variables related to
liability perceptions and the effects that liability may
have on the officer's actions in the field. Fear of
discipline and lawsuits were explored along with knowledge
of others involved in or personal involvement in pursuit
litigation.

The data in Table 4.11 reveal that two of the seven
liability perception issues were found to be statistically

significant as patrol officers, supervisors, investigators,

65

and administrators are more likely to disagree on the two
subjects. Significant differences exist between the
officers of the various job types and their perceptions of
two liability topics. Therefore, the null hypothesis is

rejected for the two significant variables.

Table 4.12 - Liability Variables - Percentages

 

Dependent

Variables Patrol Super. Invest. Admin. All
A D A D A D A D A D

 

Pursued less since becorrring

aware of law suits.

(Q44) .60 .40 .75 .25 .67 .33 .77 .23 .65 .35
(155) (102) (53) (18) (54) (26) (31) (9) (293) (155)

Personally know oflicers involved

in pursuit litigation.

(Q62) .73 .27 .79 .21 .85 .15 .87 .13 .78 .22
(190) (70) (56) (15) (70) (12) (35) (5) (351) (102)

 

I:
ll

()

As the data in Table 4.12 project, administrators and
supervisors are the most likely to agree that they have
pursued less since becoming aware of civil ramifications.
The majority of patrol officers (60%) and investigators
(67%) also pursue less because of lawsuits. The percentage
of agreement for all respondents is at the 65% level. This
indicates the clear impact of civil litigation across all
levels of the agencies studied.

The table further shows that administrators,
supervisors, and investigators are most likely to agree that

they personally know officers involved in pursuit

66

 

litigation. Patrol officers (73%) are not far behind others
with their agreement to this question. This may additionally
impact their pursuit decisions when deciding whether or not
to initiate the pursuit.

External Variables

Of the sixty-three variables, five were related to
perceptions of external aspects of pursuits. These five
dependent variables dealt with the perceived influences of
television, the courts, the legislature, and the public.
The external impact of these issues on the respondents was
measured to determine if they affect the officer's pursuit
decisions. The analysis revealed that none of the five
variables were statistically significant showing that the
respondents were not more likely to disagree on the factors
queried. As a result, the null hypothesis fails to be
rejected for all five of the variables.

Conclusion

This chapter has presented the data as analyzed by
using the method of cross tabulation of the four independent
variables as they affect the sixty-three dependent
variables. This research discovered twenty-three (23) of
the dependent variables to be statistically significant and

the implications of each were discussed.

67

CHIQNHER 5

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Introduction

This research was conducted by administering a self-
report questionnaire to 1,034 sworn officers who comprised
the entire police population of a large metropolitan county
located in southeastern Michigan. The aggregate data was
analyzed in search of attitudinal disparities regarding
police pursuit issues between various job classifications in
police agencies. It was hypothesized that disparities would
exist. Several supervisory, training, and policy
implications were discovered that should be considered by
police executives when developing or redesigning pursuit
policy.

Discussion

Perception disparities were discovered to exist
between the four police job types of patrol officer,
investigator, first-line supervisor, and administrator.
This was found by using the respondents' job types as the
independent variables and statistically analyzing whether
they affect perceptions on the sixty-three dependent
variables utilized. Significant differences were observed
on the variable issues of policy, training, supervision,
operational considerations, discretion, and liability

concerns .

68

The generalizability of these results is limited due to
the small sample that utilized. The respondents were
officers from only one county with Michigan and this county
may not provide a cross representative sample of police
officers in Michigan. Further, ninety-three percent of the
respondents were white with two percent Native American and
one percent African American. Ninety-six percent of the
sample officers were male and four percent were female. As I
a result, these factors limit the generalizability of the

data reported herein. 1

 

The policy variables provided a view of officer
perceptions about restrictiveness and found that patrol
officers were most likely to agree that their pursuit
policies were too restrictive. Of all of the respondents,
44% agreed with the premise. The respondents of all job
types also reported that they had been involved in
unreported pursuits at a rate of twenty-three percent. The
literature finds these same two factors to be prevalent
throughout pursuit research. One policy issue that did not
mirror the literature was policy clarity. The officers
overall stated that their policies were written clearly.
This was not the norm within the literature reviewed.

Pursuant to the training aspects of this study, the
author found that pursuit policy training was reported to be
adequate by 63% of the subjects surveyed. While this may be
a substantial amount, 37% of the officers rate their pursuit

policy training unacceptable. The majority of respondents

69

indicated that they have not been tested on policy since the
police academy and that they were having difficulty
balancing the need to apprehend suspects with the need for
public safety. Similar results were found repeatedly in the
literature. The most alarming finding was that 87% of the
administrators and 83% of the supervisors had difficulty
with balancing law enforcement needs with public risk.

Those two groups are responsible to teach and guide less
experienced officers. One cannot teach what one does not
understand.

The issue of supervisory support for officers was
examined and revealed that nearly sixty percent of the
respondents had not received supervisor instruction on
pursuit policy and nearly half felt that policy was not
applied equally to all department members. The groups in
total strongly agreed that supervisors would support them if
they were not at fault showing confidence in their
supervision, but reversed directions when injuries were
added to pursuit situation. A lack of communication was
noticed between administrators and supervisors on the issue
of supervisors supporting officers regardless of policy.

The most administrators believed that their supervisors
would support the officers even if policy mandated
otherwise. The nearly eighty percent supervisors thought
just the opposite. Perhaps, mistrust by the administrators
had appeared. This discord must be faced and dealt with by

intense management and communication skills training.

70

Managerial support, such as praise, feedback, and
involvement in decision making, has been found to improve
police officer commitment to the organization (Beck &
Wilson, 1997). These methods should be implemented.

Officers have tremendous discretion while in the field
as most of their activities have no direct or immediate
supervision. When relating to pursuits in general, the
patrol officers overwhelmingly wanted enhanced discretion.
Past police pursuit research indicates similar findings.
When asked about the use of pursuit tactics, the respondents
overall reported that the decision to ram the suspects
vehicle should be the officers' option. Even most
supervisors agreed with the statement. Most of the patrol
officers indicated that they supported greater discretion in
firearm use to stop fleeing vehicles. In a surprising
result, forty—five percent of the administrators agreed with
them. Strict supervision and pursuit tactic training must
be provided to preclude officers' behaviors from mirroring
their wishes without justification.

This study found that many officers admitted to ramming
cars to terminate pursuits and the most indicted that they
had experienced intentional and accidental collisions during
chases. Some of these incidents may have violated policy or
occurred before policy was enacted. The use of roadblocks
was strongly supported by all job levels indicating the

officers' desires to end the pursuit quickly. Supervisors

71

must be continually vigilant in their assigned duties
particularly when a pursuit is in progress.

Finally, two-thirds of the respondents reported being
involved in fewer pursuits since becoming aware of civil
litigation and more than three-fourths indicated that they
knew officers engaged in similar litigation. It might be
likely that these factors are intertwined as they impact
police officers' perspectives on pursuit driving.

Conclusion

Understanding the perceptions and attitudes of police
officers strengthens the knowledge of pursuit driving while
simultaneously provided sound data for police executives.
Several studies and cases have been reported that analyze
and review officer perceptions, policy content, and
liability as it relates to this research.

This research somewhat replicated the study conducted
by Britz and Payne (1994) by using similar dependent and
independent variables and statistical analysis methods. The
survey instrument was also adopted in order to provide true
comparison of data in future research projects. Municipal
police officers were surveyed instead of Michigan State
troopers.

The data reported here can aid police administrators by
providing them with insight and perspective into the
attitudes of patrol officers, investigators, first-line
supervisors, and themselves. The empirical results of the

comparisons that were statistically significant will assist

72

police executives in their quest for pursuit policy
implementation and training enhancements. Several
discrepancies in perception have been identified and
reported as well as previous literature that pertains to
this topic. Police executives can now vigilantly examine
all of the findings presented here and determine which areas
of supervision and training that must be addressed.

Police executives must keep in mind that just because
police officers request greater discretion in pursuit
tactics and decisions (i e. ramming, firearms usage, and
roadblocks) that it does not mean that officers will
necessarily disregard policy demands.

Finally, more research on officer perceptions and
attitudes is necessary. Researchers have only just begun to
scratch the surface in this area. It is hoped that this
study and its results will inspire future research in this
area to further expand and develop criminal justice

management .

73

APPENDICES

’3”- -- ..

 

74

APPENDIX A

SURVEY COVER LETTER

75

Dear Michigan Law Enforcement Officers:

This is to request your participation in a brief survey to determine the opinions of
oflicers when making decisions during police pursuits. Attached is a copy of the
“Michigan Police Pursuit Survey” which we would like you to complete with respect to
your own experiences during high-speed chases. A similar survey was administered to the
Michigan State Police several years ago, and this study is focused on the opinions and
attitudes of Michigan city/municipal/county law enforcement officers. The goal of the
research is to provide data that will (1) assist police agencies in the development of
training programs, (2) aid in the development and refinement of police policies, and (3)
provide feedback to officers in order to help them make the best decisions during pursuits.

There are no right or wrong answers, only your opinions. Your honest response is
the only thing can truly explain the breadth, scope, and nature of these police actions.
Proper training programs and police policy cannot be clearly enhanced until your
perceptions are known and thoroughly understood. Only police officers who have truly
been there, in the heat of a pursuit, can clarify many of the issues surrounding this topic.
Your participation will involve indicating the amount of agreement that you have with a
series of pursuit related statements and should take approx. 15 minutes to complete.

All of your responses will remain anonymous at all times. The results of this survey
will be reported only as aggregate data so that no respondent or their respective police
agency can be identified. We strongly request that you do m); identify yourself by name.
You indicate your voluntary agreement to participate by completing and returning
this questionnaire.

This research is being conducted by Sergeant Cecil R. Queen of the Sterling Heights
Police Department while under the direct supervision of Dr. David Carter and Dr. Dennis
Payne of Michigan State University. If at any time you have questions about the research,
please contact the researchers at the numbers listed below.

Simply enclose the completed or uncompleted survey in the accompanying envelope
and place it in the US. Mail for direct delivery to the researchers. Please return the

survey no later than Januan 30L1997.

A fellow police officer thanks you very much for your assistance.

David Carter, PhD. Sgt. Cecil R. Queen (Master’s Student)
Dennis Payne, PhD. Sterling Heights Police Department
Michigan State University (810) 977-6123, Ext. 362

(517) 355-2197

Please Continue With The Next Page

76

APPENDIX B

SURVEY INSTRUMENT

77

Michigan Police Pursuit Study
1997

Please express your honest feelings and perceptions about each statement by
indicating whether you Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D), or
Strongly Disagree (SD). Circle the appropriate answer. Please choose only
one answer per question. Feel free to use pen or pencil.

 

1. Reporting details of pursuit to a dispatcher provides support 1 2 3 4
for the officer.

2. Reporting details to dispatcher puts officer in a favorable 1 2 3 4
position should an accident result.

3. I have been involved in pursuits in the past in which the l 2 3 4
dispatcher or supervisor was not informed.

4. Because of potential lawsuits. the more detail reported 1 2 3 4
the better.

5. My agency policy is clearly written. 1 2 3 4

6. Department policy provides guidance to me for making 1 2 3 4
sound decisions.

7. My agency policy is too restrictive. l 2 3 4

8. Paper work following pursuits discourages officers to l 2 3 4
report pursuits.

9. I have been involved in pursuits which were not reported. 1 2 3 4

10. Officers should have more discretion in pursuit decisions. 1 2 3 4

11. There have been occasions when I felt I should have pursued l 2 3 4
and did not.

12. Supervisors generally support my agency‘s pursuit policy. 1 2 3 4

13. Existing policies on emergency response and pursuits 1 2 3 4

discourage officers from initiating or continuing pursuits.
14. I have been adequately trained in high speed driving techniques. 1 2 3 4

15. l have been adequately trained in my agencies pursuit policy. 1 2 3 4

78

16.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

Since graduation from the academy. I have been tested on
pursuit policy.

. My supervisors have instructed me on pursuit policy.

The policy of my agency is applied to all oflicers equally.
Supervisors always follow the written policy.

Supervisors generally support officers - regardless of policy.
Our vehicle maintenance program assures me of a safe vehicle.
I check my emergency equipment prior to going on patrol.

I make a physical check of my tires and brakes prior to going
on patrol.

Deciding to ram 3 car should be an option of the oflicer.

I have rammed cars in order to stop them.

My decision to pursue is affected by liability issues.

The more serious the incident the more risks 1 will take.

I have pursued vehicles after being instructed to discontinue.

I feel as though I have failed when I discontinue a pursuit.

An ofl‘icer’s physical conditioning affects the success of a pursuit.
Training affects the success of a pursuit.

Officers with personal problems are more apt to have
accidents when pursuing.

Fear of discipline affects my decision to pursue.

Generally. I am confident when driving at high speeds.
Older officers pursue much more than younger officers.

I have experienced intentional collisions in pursuits.

I have experienced non-intentional collisions in pursuits.

I know the pursuit policy of my department.

I frequently watch TV police shows depicting pursuits.

I understand reasonable and unreasonable driving behavior.

Pursuits depicted on television are realistic.

79

42.

4?.

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

51.

52.

53.

54.

55.

56.

57.

58.

59.

60.

61.

62.

Generally. supervision will support me when there are injuries
resulting from pursuits.

The risk of injury to other people is a primary factor in my
decision to discontinue a pursuit.

I have pursued less since becoming aware of lawsuits.
Supervisors in my agency will back me up if I am not at fault.
The courts generally support the police in pursuit matters.

As a general rule: My agency supports oflicers who follow
policy in pursuit matters.

The State Legislature has given adequate support to police
in pursuit matters.

Generally, the public supports police pursuits.

I seldom report successful pursuits.

I support the use of a road block as a pursuit tactic.
I support the use of boxing-in as a pursuit tactic.

I support greater officer discretion in the use of firearms to
stop fleeing vehicles.

I continue pursuits because I suspect a serious crime.

Over confidence is a primary cause in pursuit driving
accidents. '

Experience is a primary factor in avoiding emergency response
accidents.

I am sometimes confused: “I feel I can’t pursue the people
I am supposed to apprehend.“

It is difficult to balance a police need to apprehend criminals
against the need for public safety.

My personal safety is a primary factor in my decision to
initiate or terminate a pursuit.

1 have been disciplined as a result of my actions during a pursuit.

I have been involved in litigation as a result of being involved
in a pursuit.

I personally know officers that have been involved in litigation
as a result of a pursuit.

80

63.

64.

65.

66.

67.

68.

69.

70.

71.

Patrol car “cornering and handling” characteristics are primary

factors in my decision to initiate or terminate a pursuit.

My job can best be described a:.; Road Patrol 1
First Line Supervision 2
Investigative 3
Administrative 4
My gender is: Male 1

Female 2

My race/ethnicity is: African American/Black
Asian
Hispanic
Native American
White/Non-Hispanic
Other

@M&WN_

My education level is: High School/GED No College
Two years of college or less

More than Two years of college but no degree

Bachelor Degree

Some Graduate School

Graduate Degree

Post Graduate Education

I have years experience in police work.

My police agency has sworn. police officers.

1 - 20 1
21 - 50 2
51 - 100 3
101 - 250 4
251 - 500 5
Over 500 6
My current age is: years old.

 

I have been the primary pursuing officer in

More than 30
Between 20 -30
Between 10 -20
Between 1 - 10

None (0)

PLEASE RETURN THE SUR VEY N0 LA T ER THAN

5
4
3
2
l

\lChm-‘inv—

vehicle pursuits.

JANUARY30, I997

81

Per the Instructions,
Please Place Your Survey in the Envelope Provided
and Deposit it in the US. Mail

Thank You For Participating In This Study

82

APPENDIX C

VARIABLE CATEGORIES AND

ASSOCIATED SURVEY QUESTION NUMBERS

83

VARIABLE CATEGORIES SURVEY QUESTION NUMBERS

Policy Variables: 3-5-6—7-9-13-38-50-60.

Training Variables: 14—15-16-29-31—40—57-58-63.

Supervisory Variables: 12-17-18-19—20-42—45-47.

Experiential Variables: 1-10-24—30—32-34-35-53-55-56-
59.

Operational Variables: 2-8-11-21-22-23—25-27-28-36-

37-51-52-54.

External Variables: 39-41-46-48—49.
Liability Variables: 4-26—33—43—44-61-62.
Job Type: 64.

84

BIBLIOGRAPHY

85

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88