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FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE TACTICAL DECISION-MAKING IN

NORTH CAROLINA POLICE OFFICERS

presented by

WARREN DUKES

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Factors That Inﬂuence Tactical Decision-Making In
North Carolina Police Ofﬁcers

By

Warren Dukes

A Thesis

Submitted to
Michigan State University
In partial fulﬁllment of the requirements
for the degree of

Masters of Science

Department of Criminal Justice

1999

ABSTRACT

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE TACTICAL
DECISION-MAKING IN NORTH CAROLINA
POLICE OFFICERS

BY

Warren Dukes

This research project was formulated through a research internship through the
North Carolina Justice Academy in Salemburg, North Carolina. The purpose of this
research was to explore concepts determined influential on decision-making in police
officers during tactical response situations. Data for the study was collected via survey
instrument to 855 police officers statewide. A total of 52 police agencies were randomly
selected for participation in the study.

For the purpose of this study, tactical decision—making was defined to be
incidences in which police officers must apply force to resolve a particular situation. It is
important to understand the causal factors that motivate police ofﬁcers to act in tactical
response situations. Understanding the causal factors is important because this
information will serve useful in determining training requirements for police officers to
increase their safety while on calls.

Results from data analyses indicated four of the five main hypotheses were found
not significant. More specific, level of commitment to police department, level of

identification to police subculture. and political and religious beliefs of police officers

were not significantly related to the dependent variable police officers comfort in tactical
training received. The research did however find three independent variables to be
significant. The three variables are military experience of police officers, branch of
military experience, and tactical response training of police officers. Further research is
recommended to determine effects of these significant variables on police officer

decision-making.

Copyﬁghtby
VVAFU{EBLDRHKES

1999

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First, giving honor to God to Whom all praises is due. I thank God for it was only
by His Mercy and Grace, which He bestowed upon me, that I was able to make it through
this long, and oftentimes painful road to completion. I thank God for I know He has
blessed my life.

I give precious thanks to my mother Ms. Ella Mae Dukes for all her support and
confidence in me. Mostly, I thank you for your continuous prayers for me these past two
years and my entire life. I know you were praying for me. I thank God for you my
mother.

Thank you to Rev. and Mrs. Owens and members of my home church Freedom
Chapel AME Zion in Raeford, North Carolina. Thank you for the many prayers and
consideration to my endeavor’s. Words can not express my sincere appreciation’s for
you all.

1 also want to thank the staff at the North Carolina Justice Academy where this
research originated. Thank you to my former supervisors Michael Helm and Chet
Jemigan. Your support and conﬁdence in this research initiative was very important to
me.

Thank you to Dr. David L. Carter, Chair of my thesis committee. You believed in
me. It was your belief in me that allowed me to keep going to finish this project. I
enjoyed working with you during this research and learning from you. It is good to have
someone working on your side who can see your greatest potential and help them

develop. Thank you for caring.

A big thank you to Dr. Charles Corley for helping me get through the beginning
stages ofthis project. Without you none ofthis would be possible. Thank you for being
there from the development of the proposal stage to the final product. I leaned on you
and you did not waver. Thank you.

Not least, greatest thanks to Dr. Sheila Maxwell for all your assistance in the
statistical analyses of this project. You challenged me to learn greater statistics than I
was familiar and I thank you. Thank you also for your tireless efforts in working through
my thesis project to ensure everything was correctly worded.

Thank you to all my committee members in unison. You made a great team and I
am eternally grateful to each of you.

I would also like to thank some special friends for their encouragement’s during
my lowest hours. Special thanks ﬁrst to my sister in Christ Ms. Clay “Fabulous” for your
devotion in ministering to me to keep me working forward. Thank you for the moments
we prayed together. I know it was God who made our paths to cross because He knew I
would need the strength you provided me during the dark times of uncertainty. I thank
God for you.

Special thanks to Alfred James, James Lyons (you paved the way NCCU style),
Melissa Redmon, Tomeka Prioleau, and Elica Moss for all the laughter, support, caring
and truly understanding the meaning of friendship. You guys are always remembered in
my heart. May God continue to share His Grace on each of you and your individual

endeavors.

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................. xi
CHAPTER

I. THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM ........................ 1
Introduction to the Problem ..................................... 1
Purpose of the Study .............................................. 3
Problem Statement ................................................ 4

11. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ............................ 6
Police Officer Tactical Decision-Making ..................... 6
The Police Department’s Culture ............................... 9
Police Subculture ................................................ 14
Employee Job Satisfaction ...................................... 19
Employer-employee Relationship ............................. 23
Affects of Community-Policing on the Study . . . . ...26

III. METHODOLOGY .................................................. 30
Goals and Objectives .............................................. 33
Methods ............................................................. 34
Research Design .................................................... 34
Sample ............................................................... 37
Data Collection ..................................................... 38
Data analysis ........................................................ 39

IV. RESULTS ............................................................. 41
Respondents Characteristics ..................................... 42
Testing Hypotheses ............................................... 46

V. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSION ...................... 63
Implications of Findings ......................................... 63

vii

Problem Statement Revisited ................................... 63

Hypotheses Revisited ............................................ 64
Limitations of the Study ......................................... 66
Suggestions for Future Research ............................... 67
Conclusion ......................................................... 68
LIST OF REFERENCES .......................................................... 71
APPENDICES
A. Research Survey Instrument .................................... 75
B. Regression Analyses ............................................. 85

viii

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE Page
1. Demographics of North Carolina Police Officers ................ 44
2. List of all hypotheses and associated null hypotheses ............48
3. Scales used as variables (Police Culture) .......................... 49
4. Scales used as variables (Police Subculture) ...................... 50
5. Scales used as variables (Tactical Response Training) .......... 51
6. Statistical Analyses for Research Hypothesis 1 .................. 53
and Associated Null Hypothesis.

7. Statistical Analyses for Research Hypothesis 2 .................. 54
and Associated Null Hypothesis

8. Statistical Analyses for Research Hypotheses 3 .................. 56
and Associated Null Hypothesis

9. Statistical Analyses for Research Hypothesis 4 ................... 57
and Associated Null Hypothesis

10. Statistical Analyses for Research Hypotheses 5 .................. 58
and Associated Null Hypothesis

11. Weighted Regression Estimates and Standard Errors ............ 60

For Predictor Variables.

ix

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

This research project developed from a research internship through the North
Carolina Justice Academy in Salemburg, North Carolina. The objective of the project is
to explore detemiinants that could inﬂuence the tactical decision-making in North
Carolina police officers during tactical response situations. By tactical decision-making,
we are referring to incidences in which police officers must apply force to resolve a
particular situation. Tactical force used by police officers includes pepper spray
application, use of black jack, hand-to-hand combat, or use of a firearm. Police officers
receive training in their respective police academy on use of force and when force is
necessary to take control of a situation. Police officers also receive training in
determination for which type force is applicable for specific situation.

Currently, there is limited research done to explore the various influences that can
affect police officers’ decision to use force, or their determination of which force
application is sufficient for a given situation. This research is the first phases to explore
some of the concepts determined important inﬂuences to police officer decision-making.
The concepts we are measuring in this research are police officer’s commitment to their
police department, police officer’s level of identification to the police subculture, and
political and religious beliefs or prejudices of the individual officer.

In recent years, police agencies across the nation have been greatly scrutinized by
media reports of police misuse of force and police corruption. The American media has
painted a picture for the public of police agencies embedded with racial discriminatory

practices on minority groups that are victims of police brutality. As these reports are

generated, police ofﬁcers across the nation seek to overcome these stigmas to
successfully accomplish their agency’s objectives. It is easy to understand how the stress
on police ofﬁcers accumulates to the point where their judgement’s becomes obscured.
Some research examining stress on police ofﬁcers have explored the effects of role
conﬂict as it relates to police ofﬁcers performance. What is needed is further research to
probe more in depth to examine the decision-making determinates of police ofﬁcers.

Other media reports that prompted this research initiative are the many reports of
police ofﬁcers across the nation struck down while in the line of duty. In 1998, a total of
six law enforcement ofﬁcers in the state of North Carolina were killed during the
performance of their duties. These numbers compare with national ﬁgures of police
ofﬁcers killed across the nation both on duty and off. The years of experience of the
police ofﬁcer forms certain instincts that aid in detecting dangerous situations and
individuals. These instincts are called on by the police ofﬁcer for their protection while
on duty. At some point in the police ofﬁcer’s career, the ofﬁcer compromises these
instincts and eventually jeopardizes his safety. More research initiatives are needed to
determine factors that cause police ofﬁcers to relax their instincts thus compromising
their safety while on duty.

This research initiative is important for several reasons. First, this research will
be important in discovering areas in the procedures used by these police ofﬁcers for
corrected improvements. Of additional importance is the potential this research will
provide for training assessments at the North Carolina Justice Academy to determine

training needs of police ofﬁcers in North Carolina. Finally, the data obtained through the

survey instruments can be further explored for future research of North Carolina police

ofﬁcers.

Pro le atem t

This research will identify the factors that inﬂuence tactical decision-making
among North Carolina police ofﬁcers. It is important to understand the causal factors that
motivate police ofﬁcers to act in tactical response situations. Understanding the causal
factors is important because this information will serve useful in determining training
requirements for police ofﬁcers to increase their safety while on calls.

For the purpose of this research, tactical decision-making will be deﬁned as the
decision of police ofﬁcers to use force, and the amount of force necessary to effect a
desired outcome. More speciﬁc, police ofﬁcer tactical decision-making will involve a
police ofﬁcer’s use of a weapon (i.e. pepper spray, ﬁrearm, or self-defense) to effect an
arrest. Police ofﬁcers are given the legal right to use force in performing their duties as
authorized by police department guidelines. The level of escalation in a particular
incident determines the type of force applied by police ofﬁcers that could result in
unarmed self-defense to deadly force.

The signiﬁcance of this study is to identify factors that contribute to tactical
decision-making among police ofﬁcers, and to explore how these decisions affect issues
such as quality of life as it pertains to the individual ofﬁcer, society, and the police
profession as a whole. Understanding decision-making factors of police ofﬁcers will
provide predictors in determining areas of concern for department managers to best
provide training to their ofﬁcers for controlling unlawful tactical responses. Also, these

predictors can be used to further study the complexity of police work to assist police

ofﬁcers in coping with various stressors that could jeopardize their safety during tactical
response situations. If nothing were done to explore the dynamics of police ofﬁcer
tactical decision-making, these ofﬁcers would go unimpeded and continue such acts that

may pose a greater risk to society, to the police ofﬁcer himself, and fellow police ofﬁcers.

Pu se f tud

According to Vincent (1979), in his book Policeman, a police ofﬁcer “must have
common sense, good judgement, be able to take charge in crisis situations, and, of course,
display courage and bravery when the occasion demands” (Vincent, 1979: 36). As
Yarmey (1990) states, “the ideal ofﬁcer has been described as being mature, emotional,
stable, reliable, and self-reliable, and able to take initiative and responsibility; as having
personal integrity and being free of disruptive prejudice; as displaying professional traits
of knowledge, dedication, and commitment to law enforcement” (Yarmey, 1990: 30).
The profession of police ofﬁcer is one of the most complex, legal organizations within
society. As suggested by Yarmey and Vincent, the characteristics of a good police
ofﬁcer require the candidate to possess exceptional personal character. Each new police
ofﬁcer must possess the mental and physical capabilities to be accepted in an
organization at times not well received by society as a whole. The ideal police ofﬁcer is
not born but he/she is molded into the professional ofﬁcer to represent the values and
nature of their respective departments. Yarmey (1990) states, “although these
characteristics are relevant to some extent, what is leﬁ unsaid is that recruits are selected
and socialized toward the ‘ideal’ if they can ﬁt into both the formal police organization

and the police subculture” (Yarmey, 1990: 30).

Police agencies throughout the nation are subjected to a great deal of criticism
primarily resulting from media coverage of incidences of police violence on citizens.
Reports of police corruption in isolated areas will impact all police organizations, as well
as police ofﬁcers across the country. Isolated incidences as the March 3, 1991 Rodney
King beating at the hands of four Los Angeles police ofﬁcers perpetrated negative images
of the police profession in the general public. A more recent event involving the horriﬁc
beating of a Haitian immigrant by four New York City police ofﬁcers in January 1998,
heightened the awareness of problems within the police organization. Social science
researchers and interested politicians aware of these situations question the oversight of
police ofﬁcers that allow these incidents to occur. Police use of force in perceived
tactical incidences are guided by the interpretations of police policy by the police ofﬁcer,

yet, the ramiﬁcations of these acts are far reaching.

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

This section of the research proposal will explore relevant literature, concepts,
and strategies that will help to explain the factors that inﬂuence tactical decision-making
of police ofﬁcers. In our discussion of these factors, we will deﬁne and critique each
factor and strategy as they relate to police ofﬁcer decision-making. This section will also
discuss the independent variables that are used to explain police ofﬁcer decision-making
which are level of commitment to the police organization, level of identiﬁcation to the -

police subculture, and common beliefs and prejudices of the individual police ofﬁcers.

i ' i -

MacNamara and Riedel (1974) describe three areas they consider as major
criticisms of the police. They include (1) their failure or inability to meet their overall
responsibility for crime and delinquency prevention and control, (2) to provide for the
maintenance of order, (3) and to provide such other controls, protections and public
protections which have been traditionally allocated to the police (MacNamara and Riedel,
1974). MacNamara and Riedel (1974), goes on to state, “these three areas of negative
police evaluation are frequently related to allegations of police corruption, police
brutality, discrimination against minorities and violations of due process” (MacNamara
and Ridel, 1974zl).

Jerry Bomstein (1993), in his book WNW mentions

“police brutality is not a new phenomenon in American society” (Bornstein, 1993: 25).

Bomstein continues by stating that while allegations of police brutality are often linked to
racial incidences, the problem has not historically been an issue of race, but economics
(Bomstein, 1993). According to Bomstein, “the violence that police had to deal with has
been prevalent where poor people live” (Bomstein, 1993: 25).

Information provided by McNamara, Riedel, and Bomstein provide a basis to
understanding the dynamics of police ofﬁcer tactical decision-making and relevance of
this study. The three criticisms of the police as explained by McNamara and Riedel
(1974) indicate criticisms that contribute to public dissatisfaction of police and the
potential outcomes of these dissatisfactions which are police corruption, police brutality
and violations of due process. Bomstein (1993), in conjunction with McNamara and
Riedel (1974) indicate these problems of the police are not necessarily racially oriented
but links the problems to economics. Police ofﬁcers working in low economically
developed communities are more prone to allegations of police brutality during
incidences of tactical response. Citizens living in these communities will perceive any
act of force by police on them as unnecessary force and discriminatory. Thus, police
ofﬁcers should be aware of the potential damage that could erupt from tactical response
in these communities. This is not to suggest police ofﬁcers should create separate
treatments in enforcing the law on different economic groups. But, by understanding the
sensitive areas in dealing with the various groups in society, police ofﬁcers should ensure
any use of force they apply are in regulations with department policy to eliminate
potential legations.

Carl B. Klockars (1985), in his book W, suggests the police

cannot be satisfactorily deﬁned in terms of its ends, yet, a proper deﬁnition of it must be

based on its means (Klockar, 1985). Klockar continues to say police “must be based on
the fundamental tool police use to do their work rather than what they use that tool to do”
(Klockar, 1985: 9). In general terms, the objective of effective police work is not
measured by the end results of the objectives, but most important is the steps taken in
achieving the objective. In terms of tactical police operations, Klockar would suggest
that for any tactical situation, the important factor to a successful completion would be
the actions taken by the ofﬁcer. In seeking an exhaustive mean to distinguish police,
Klockar (1985) mentions coercive force. Klockar (1985) explains “at no point has there
ever existed, nor is it possible to conceive of a genuine police ever existing, that does not
claim the right to compel other people forcibly to do something” (Klockar, 1985: 10).
With this established, Klockar (1985) deﬁnes police in the modern state as “institutions
or individuals given the general right to use coercive force by the state within the states
domestic territory” (Klockar, 1985: 12).

Police ofﬁcer’s use of coercive force is most evident during incidences of tactical
response. Police management assures the legitimate use of coercive force by their
ofﬁcers through proper tactical training and procedures authorized by department policy.
As new ofﬁcers enter into the police department, they are expected to perform according
to the values and beliefs of the police department they serve. Thus, the environment of
the police department’s culture is the ﬁrst social experience the ofﬁcer will have upon
entering the department.

To further explore the factors/concepts that affect police ofﬁcer tactical decision-
making, police department culture, and police subculture will be discussed. It is the

premise of this research study that a police ofﬁcer’s bond with their police department,

i.e. identity to department values, beliefs, and management, will guide the ofﬁcer’s
tactical decision-making during incidences of tactical response. Likewise, an ofﬁcer’s
level of identiﬁcation with the police subculture and low organizational commitment to
the police department will serve as guiding inﬂuences on the ofﬁcer’s tactical decision-

making during incidences of tactical responses.

T ' n t

As it was mentioned earlier, the culture of the police department is the ﬁrst
inﬂuences a new police ofﬁcer will experience when ﬁrst entering the police profession.
The new ofﬁcer will be trained according to the requirements of the police department for
which he/she will serve. To better understand the composition of police culture, we will
begin by exploring basic concepts to explain the dynamics of this composition.

George Herbert Mead (1938), in his book MW, mention the
term perspectives as being more important than values in the individual in guiding their
actions (Mead, 1938). Mead (193 8), according to Lauffer (1985), observed that when
people face problematic situations, they attempt to develop coordinated views to guide
their actions (Lauffer, 1985: 131). Lauffer (1985) also suggests that when people go to
work they bring with them different perspectives which are based on earlier experiences,
and, to a larger extent, on our identiﬁcation with others whose opinions we value
(Lauffer, 1985). According to this distinction of perspectives, when people are faced
with a situation that require a certain action, they consider the response of those whom
they respect of whether they would approve or disapprove of the action. In reference to

the new ofﬁcer in the department, after initial training in accordance to police department

policy and regulation, the ofﬁcer will reﬂect back to that training and the expectations of
his department management of his actions.

These reﬂections of the ofﬁcer’s before their actions lead to what Lauffer (1985)
refers to as short term and long term perspectives. According to Lauffer (1985), there are
three branches of short-term perspectives. The ﬁrst branch is deﬁned as the initial phase
when the police ofﬁcer is determined to learn everything he/she can about being a police
ofﬁcer. In this stage, it can be assumed the ofﬁcer is more assertive and demanding of
himself in doing all that is right to gain the competence of department management.

The second stage of short-term perspective as is the intermediate phase. In this
stage, the police ofﬁcer’s main objective is to satisfy his supervisor. In reference to
police ofﬁcers, it is suggested the police ofﬁcer may have come to the realization that his
persistent diligence in trying to do an exceptional job to gain competence of department
management does not impact management at all. The ofﬁcer then focuses his attention
on his supervisor in whom his actions will have a direct impact where he can receive
immediate gratiﬁcation.

The third phase of short-term perspectives is the ﬁnal phase. In this phase, the ofﬁcer
begins to feel he just want to ﬁt in with the organization. Quite possibly, the police
ofﬁcer begins to feel that he is just another ofﬁcer in the police organization and looks to
assimilate into the accepted norms of the organization.

In contrast to the different phases of short-term perspectives, the long-term
perspective reveal the police ofﬁcer has a desire to be the best police ofﬁcer'he/she can
possibly become. It can be assumed the police ofﬁcer is initially satisﬁed with his/her

career choice as police ofﬁcer and foresees a long career with the organization.

10

Lauffer (1985) makes the general distinction between values and perspectives
when he mentions “whereas values may lead to a general predisposition that we may
choose to ignore in a given situation, perspectives contain judgements about speciﬁc
situations and tend to lead to action” (Lauffer, 1985: 132). Lauffer (1985) continues by
stating

The emergence of perspective leads to a body of collective

understanding that inﬂuence the behavior of people in speciﬁc

roles. When the perspectives that people hold are related to the

position they hold in an organization, we can say that an

organizational culture is emerging. As a matter of fact, it may

result in two cultures: a “management culture”, and a “worker

culture” (Lauffer, 1985: 133).

Lauffer (1985) also suggests agency culture or cultures take on characteristics of
their own. Accordingly, the culture informs people subtly about the rights and privileges
they possess and the duties and obligations associated with particular positions. Also, it
was suggested while the culture may be inﬂuenced by the work situation, it also tends to
be inﬂuenced by external factors: norms, values, and ethics inherent in the profession to
which the majority or dominant staff members belong, and the larger societal culture.

Lauffer (1985) continues his discussion of organizations by stating like other
professions and occupations, organizations develop their own cultures, complete with
taboos, folkways, and mores. According to Lauffer (1985),

The organization or the units within it will develop collective

feelings and beliefs about the appropriate way to do things and

pass these to group members. Perspectives developed in the pass

are imposed on those who enter the organization or the unit within

it. Thus the culture of each organizational unit provides a frame of

reference within which members interpret the appropriateness of
certain activities and actions (Lauffer, 1985: 137).

ll

John Kleinig (1996), in his discussion of police culture deﬁnes the culture as
being separate of any other organizational culture. He referred to the police organization
as being a culture in itself that is alienated from society that also has varying differences
between “management culture” and “street cop culture”. According to Kleinig (1996),
police tend to have diminished social contracts with the community they serve, they
become alienated from it and a “us-them” mentality develops (Kleinig, 1996). To
compensate for their alienation from society, there are features of the police culture to
reinforce the police ofﬁcer’s identiﬁcation with each other. As mentioned by Kleinig
(1996), whether or not police actually spend a great deal of time in high—risk situations,
much in police socialization emphasizes the dangers of police work, and the need for
mutual dependence (Kleinig, 1996, 69). Also, police ofﬁcers quickly learn there is no
better friend than another cop, especially a partner, who believes that there is nothing a
cop won’t do for his partner. Kleini g (1996) deﬁnes the bond of police culture when he
writes:

an intense loyalty develops which ﬁnds expressions not only in

acts of great heroism, even recklessness, on behalf of another cop,

but also in the notorious ‘blue wall of silence’ that shields

miscreant cops behind the ‘ignorance’, or lies of their fellows

(Kleinig, 1996: 69).

Both Lauffer (1989) and Kleinig (1996) assist in deﬁning the dynamic
compositions of organizations. From these two authors, we can begin to understand the
various networks that operate inside organizations to create bonds among organizational
members. Lauffer (1989) ﬁrst introduced the term perspectives as the initial bonding of

an individual to an organization. This is important because the initial commitment of the

individual to the organization can be used to determine particular behaviors of the

12

individual on the job. It can be suggested an individual characterized as having long-
terrn perspectives as it was deﬁned will prove to be more committed to the organization
than individuals of short-term perspectives. Therefore, police ofﬁcers that are hired into
the police organization determined on a long-term career are suggested to have greater
commitment to the police agency they are employed.

Kleinig (1996) determined the police organization to be a culture itself alienated from
the rest of society that has both management and street cop cultures operating within.
This view provides us with the ﬁrst interpretation of a second culture operating within the
main organizational culture. Also, we are able to see the bond that is created between
police ofﬁcers when they become apart of the police culture as they identify with the “us-
them” mentality.

Goel (1993), in his discussion on ethical policing, states the as police ofﬁcers are
promoted in the police hierarchy, he is evaluated by more ofﬁcers within the police
department along with his becoming more visible to the public. When police ofﬁcers are
promoted, whatever they do has an impact not only on the welfare of the public, but also
on the conduct and behavior of subordinate ofﬁcers. According to Goel (1993) the
ofﬁcer’s example “encourages” or “inspires” subordinate ofﬁcer to act in a similar way to
the way he has in a particular situation (Goel, 1993: 21). For this reason, police ofﬁcers
not only have obligations to the public, but to his subordinate ofﬁcers as well due to the
signiﬁcant inﬂuence he has on the ofﬁcers serving under him.

The unique characteristic of the police culture was generated in large by the
structure of the police organization. The very nature of police work, as the overseer of

societal laws puts the police organization in natural opposition to the society they are

13

sworn to serve. Thus, the police organization has become alienated from society as
explained by Kleinig. This alienation of the police organization from society forms the
culture of the police organization as a quasi-military structured rank-order unit with
higher standards than any organization in society, and well-deﬁned policies and
procedures as guidelines for the members of the organization.

The police culture, whether it is found in a small police organization (less than 50
ofﬁcers), or large organization (more than 50 ofﬁcers) is predicted to have the same
characteristics among its ofﬁcers. As new ofﬁcers come into the organization, they will
eventually leave the formal training they learned in law enforcement training and take on
the informal training of the police organization as to what is accepted as organization

behavior.

Police Subculture

Some researchers have referred to the police department and it’s ofﬁcers as a
police family where the values and ideas of the police family shape the actions of each
member. Arthur and Elaine Niederhoffer (1978), in their book RQﬂcgEamﬂy, contend
all police families-happy or unhappy-are like one another, patterned by the lathe of the
police occupation... they dwell in the shadow of the job (N iederhoffer and Niederhoffer,
1978: 1). The rules and accepted behaviors of members in the police family are outlined
in the department’s formal ethical codes. These codes establish a family of professional
police ofﬁcers dedicated to the moral and ethical standards of the police family they
represent. Even though these codes are widely adopted, there is some question as to their

relevance to some police ofﬁcers (Pollock-Byrne, 1989: 73). Pollock-Byme continues by

14

insisting “one of the most resistant to the adOption of and allegiance to a formal code of
ethics is the police subculture” (Pollock-Byme, 1989: 74).

One element to inﬂuence police ofﬁcers likelihood to identify with the police
subculture is the relationship shared with department administrators. A strained
relationship could occur between police ofﬁcers and department managers if the ofﬁcers
do not feel support from department managers concerning their careers, or are not
objective to their suggestions for job improvements. This perceived lack of support
increasing risk the ofﬁcer will identify with the informal police subculture. Haynes
(1978) supports this fact during his discussion of WW
when he states,

frequently the patrolman has little or no contact with the decision-

making echelon of his department and the consequent lack of

communication leads to misunderstanding on both sides... the

patrolman feels he has little or no voice in policies which may well

affect his survival, while all too oﬁen the hierarchy tends to ignore

the ofﬁcer on the street” (Haynes, 1978: 17).

Consequently, the patrolman that is isolated by his situation from the public and his
supervisors, often feel he has nowhere to turn (Haynes,l978). Thus the feeling of
isolation from the public and department managers encourages the bond of the police
ofﬁcer to the police subculture where he identiﬁes with other ofﬁcers with similar
perspectives as his own.

Additionally, in his discussion of subcultures, Lauffer (1985) suggests within
limits, it is possible for a single organization to develop a number of subcultures, so long

as they reﬂect the general norms, and values of the larger system (Lauffer, 1985: 137).

Also, subcultures may be inﬂuenced by the types of people the organization attracts, it’s

15

work processes, physical layouts, modes of communication, and the exercise of authority
within the system (Lauffer, 1985).

As police ofﬁcers begin to identify with the police subculture, that identity will
become the dominant, inﬂuential factor for job performance replacing those of the police
department. If the police department is unstable, or has weak oversight of the actions of
it’s police ofﬁcers, the ofﬁcer will perceive the acts of the police subculture as normal.
Police subculture was chosen as an independent variable in order to show the behaviors
of police ofﬁcers are ﬁrst formed in the police department where these ofﬁcers work and
through the process of socialization the ofﬁcers accepts the values and beliefs of the
police subculture which are reinforced by others.

Further insight into the police subculture is provided by Pollock-Byme (1989) as
she suggests some elements of the police value system are inconsistent with the high
ideals of the police codes. Some common themes of police attitudes as deﬁned by
Pollock-Byme is ﬁrst, loyalty to colleagues is essential; and second, the public, or most
it, is the enemy (Pollock-Byme, 1989). Most important, and relevant to this research, the
values of police ofﬁcers include the use of force, discretion, and a protective use of the
truth. While exploring the concept of police ofﬁcer tactical decision-making, some
common themes discovered in various literature are police use of force, police discretion
and police ofﬁcers protective use of the truth. The commitment the police ofﬁcer has to
either the police organization or the police subculture will have signiﬁcant inﬂuences on
these factors. This research suggests that police ofﬁcers that are committed to the police

organization will behave different on issues as use of force, discretion and protective use

16

of the truth than police ofﬁcers who identify with the police subculture especially during
incidences of tactical response.

Even greater insight into the dynamics of police subculture is provided by
Armstrong and Cinnamon (1976) when they state the processes of the police subculture
continue to inﬂuence a policeman’s behavior when he is not in the immediate presence of
his peers (Armstrong and Cinnamon, 1976). The values of the police subculture is
determined to be a great inﬂuence on police ofﬁcers to impact their actions while
performing their duties outside the presence of the other ofﬁcers. It is this inﬂuence on
police ofﬁcers that this researcher has determined to be greater than the inﬂuence of the
police organization. Thus, during moments of tactical response, police ofﬁcers that
respond to these incidences that are inﬂuenced by the subculture and its values will
perform their actions in accordance to the values and beliefs of the dominant inﬂuence.
Armstrong and Cinnamon (1976) deﬁne these inﬂuences further when they write:

the creation and reinforcement of these group processes appear to

operate more strongly on two occasions; one is during the

assembly period at the beginning of each shift; the other occurs

during spontaneous gathering of police ofﬁcers following an

incident of an especially dangerous or emotionally arousing nature

(Armstrong and Cinnamon, 1976, 108).

This is not to suggest that each tactical response 0 these ofﬁcers will result in
police misconduct of the responding ofﬁcers, nor does it suggest that in all cases, police
subcultures are inherently bad. The nature of police work creates an environment where
police ofﬁcers must depend on their fellow ofﬁcers to save their lives in the event of
dangerous tactical incidences. It is natural for individuals in such work environment to

bond on the pretense of dependency to those they trust for protection. The police

subculture then serves as a positive inﬂuence to these ofﬁcers because they will best be

17

able to perform their tasks with assurance their fellow ofﬁcers will protect them in the
time of danger.

A primary assertion of this study is the hypothesis that police ofﬁcers’ level of
organizational commitment to their respective department will govern their actions
during tactical situations. In relative terms, the linkage between the police ofﬁcer to the
police department will serve as the control enforcement to govern the actions of police
ofﬁcers when performing their duties. To make this assertion of police ofﬁcer-police
department linkage a major element of this linkage, commitment, must be explored. The
concern here is the types of links the police ofﬁcers have to police organizations, and the
strengths of these links.

The linkage between police ofﬁcer’s and their police department is jeopardized
when the ofﬁcer begins to identify with the police subculture. It is at this moment when
the standard operations and procedures guidelines outlined by the department are
compromised. Barker and Roebuck (1974) refer to such actions as deviant acts when the
formal and informal guidelines of the police department are in conﬂict with those of the
police subculture. According to Barker and Roebuck (1974),

acts proscribed by formal departmental police administrative rules,

law, regulations, and policies, as well acts proscribed by informal

operating procedures, are also deviant because they transgress

norms proscribed by the group to which the law enforcement

ofﬁcer belongs and swears allegiance (Barker and Roebuck, 1974:

5).

It can be assumed that police ofﬁcers who associate with other ofﬁcers in the
department with deviant intentions will be less likely to conform to those deviant acts if

the ofﬁcer has close attachments to the values of the department. In other terms, police

ofﬁcers attachment to the values, and beliefs of the department deﬁned by department

18

administrators are unlikely to be inﬂuenced by acts of fellow ofﬁcers that are inconsistent
with the values of the department. If, however, police ofﬁcers have stronger
identiﬁcation with the police subculture, it will be assumed the ofﬁcer has a weak
association with department policies and procedures to guide decision-making. It is the
premise of this study that the police ofﬁcers’ attachment to either their police
departments’ ideals, beliefs, and values, as well as their beliefs in these policies, will
cause a weak association of these ofﬁcers in the police subculture, thus guiding their
inﬂuence in tactical decisions. Likewise, police ofﬁcers strong association with the
police subculture will weaken the bond police ofﬁcers have in the police department and

inﬂuence these police ofﬁcers in their decision-making.

m o ' i
In their book, Emplcxeeﬂrgamzatmnhnkageslheﬁmhglggm
MW Mowday, Porter, and Steers (1982) deﬁne two

categories of employee-organization linkages. The ﬁrst linkage they deﬁne is
W, which they deﬁne as the acts of joining, and staying or leaving an
organization (Mowday, Porter, and Steers, 1982). According to the concept of
membership status, as further explained by Mowday, Porter, and Steers (1982) if an
individual is fully connected in terms of membership status it would mean that he or she
has joined the organization, is not absent, and has not left the organization.

The other category of linkage mentioned reference to the qualitmﬂmmbeﬁhip
that would include such terms as loyalty, attachment, involvement, and commitment.

For the purpose of this research, quality of membership as discussed by Mowday, Porter,

19

and Steers (1982) will be explored in this study. More speciﬁc, the concept of employee
commitment to the organization will be discussed in detail to determine whether a police
ofﬁcer’s commitment to the police organization will inﬂuence their tactical decision-
making.

Mowday, Porter, and Steers (1982) begin their discussion by asserting various
studies have repeatedly shown commitment to be an important factor in understanding
the work behavior of employees (Mowday, Porter, and Steers: 1982). Three reasons are
listed to why organization commitment has received much attention. First, the theory
underlying commitment suggests that an employee’s commitment to the organization
could serve as a very reliable predictor of certain behaviors. Further explained,
committed people are thought to be more likely to remain with the organization and to
work toward organizational goal attainment (Mowday, Porter, and Steers: 1982).
Second, Mowday, Porter, and Steers (1982) suggests the concept of organization
commitment is appealing to both managers and behavioral scientists where the interest is
enhancing employee commitment (1982). Finally, an increased understanding of
commitment may help us comprehend the nature of more general psychological
processes by which people choose to identify with objects in their environment and to
make sense out of this environment (Mowday. Porter, and Steers, 1982).

In their discussion on Wm Mowday, Porter, and Steers (1982)
discussed several researches that have attempted to identify those circumstances
surrounding the selection of a job that are likely to lead to a high commitment to the
choice. They discuss the ﬁndings concluded by Salancik (1977) where he identiﬁed

several important characteristics of behaviors to make people committing to their job.

20

The ﬁrst characteristic identiﬁed states the decision or behavior must be explicit... the act
is unequivocal and observable by others. Second, the choice must be difﬁcult to revoke
or change. The ﬁnal characteristic states the decision or choice must be freely engaged in
(Mowday, Porter, and Steers: 1982: 53). Furthermore, freedom of choice is increased
when the individual has several alternatives from which to choose and there is limited
external pressure to choose one alternative over another (Mowday, Porter, and Steers,
1982). The important point gained from this realization is that when job choices are
characterized by these factors, individuals will become behaviorally committed to their
decision and will develop more positive attitudes toward their chosen job in an effort to
justify their decision.

The information suggests people are more committed to their job when they
without outside inﬂuence chose the job they are to be afﬁliated and will work toward
attaining the goals and objectives of the job. In contrast, when the people are limited in
their job choice and work within a organization they are not able to fully identify they are
less committed to the organization and organizational goals. As further explained by
Amitai Etzioni (1961), in his book WWW
writes, when participants are alienated from the organization they are less likely to
identify with its representatives than if they are committed to it (Etzioni, 1961: 83).

In looking more in depth to the subject of employee job satisfaction, Edward E.
Lawler III (1973) in his book WW insists that job factors
could be classiﬁed according to whether the factors contribute primarily to satisfaction,
or to dissatisfaction. In his research, Lawler III found that different job factors inﬂuence

employee feelings of satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Factors determined to inﬂuence job

21

satisfaction are achievement recognition, the work itself, and responsibility were
mentioned in connection with satisfying experiences. As for inﬂuences of job
dissatisfaction they include factors as working conditions, interpersonal relations,
supervision and company policy (Lawler III, 1973).

The research concluded the only way satisfaction can be increased is by effecting
changes in achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement, company
policy and administration, supervision-technical, salary, interpersonal relations-
supervision, and working conditions.

As for police ofﬁcers job satisfaction, it can be inferred these same factors will be
important for increasing job satisfaction in the police organization. Every employee, no
matter their profession has the need to feel important in the organization with recognition
from their superiors of their contributions and achievements. The structure of the police
organization does not always allow for police ofﬁcers to receive recognition, nor does it
allow for rapid advancement within the organization. The extreme nature of police work
places a great deal of responsibility on the police ofﬁcer which in turn gives a sense of
self-worth to the organization and the society in as a whole. Thus, the elements for
increased job satisfaction as discussed above are readily available in the police
organization. Police management must ensure ethical and provincial means for their
ofﬁcers to grow within the organization and feel secure in the organizations commitment

to their advancement.

22

Employer-Employee Relationship

Important to the police organization are the relationships between the police
ofﬁcers to each other, and the relationship they share with department management. The
cohesion of these relationships will aid the organization in working towards
organizational goals and objectives. As with any organization that is composed of
individuals with varying perspectives and beliefs, various forms of organizational strain
can occur in the relationships of the police organization. Police managers should be
concerned with any problems that may arise between police ofﬁcers, and problems the
ofﬁcers may have with management.

Police management and subordinate relationships can be deﬁned on three levels,
which are (l) management-line ofﬁcer, (2) supervisor-line ofﬁcer, and (3) and
management-supervisor relationships. The basic structure of the police organization and
the nature of their work will create challenges to each level in maintaining positive
relationships.

Hirschhom and Barnett (1993), in their book, IheEsycthmamigiQf
Qrgmizatjons, refer to employer-employee relationship as superior-subordinate
relationships, and a managerial couple. They begin their discussion of this relationship
by insisting through this primary interpersonal link, the delegation of work along with
division of labor, and accountability are all realized (Hirschhom and Barnett, 1993).
Also, together both members of the managerial couple must accomplish a job, but neither
can control that job individually... therefore, each must trust each other while coping

with feelings of dependence on the other” (Hirschhom and Barnett, 1993: 3).

23

According to Hirschhom and Barnett (1993), every managerial couple shares two
features that distinguish it from other kinds of couples which are (1) every managerial
couple contains a hierarchical boundary, (2) and a superior’s accountability for a
subordinate’s performance (Hirschhom and Barnett, 1993). The latter was explained to
be simultaneously the curse and blessing of the arrangement. They explain this statement
when they write,

on one hand, it enables organizations to adhere to a primary
mission and to multiply effort efﬁciently through successive levels
of delegation and accountability. On the other, it ties the
subordinate and manager together in an emotionally charged,

interdependent bond: they need each other to succeed (Hirschhom
and Barnett, 1993: 6).

One aspect of consideration to affect employer-employee relations is conﬂict
between staff and line personnel. Richard Hall (1982), in his book Organizations;
Stnicturaandlrocgss, analyzes staff-line relationships and the conﬂicts that occur
between them. They found that these personnel are in rather constant conﬂict with
management in several particular areas. One of the areas of conﬂict involved age
disparity between staff personnel and management. In this area, age disparity created
conﬂict where the staff personnel tended to be younger. Another area of conﬂict relates
to education level. Conﬂict occurred where staff personnel tended to have more formal
education than management in these instances. Other areas of conﬂict occurred when
staff personnel were found to be more concerned with proper dress and manners, and be
more theoretically oriented than the line managers.

These exact factors can operate to produce conﬂict between younger staff-line

police ofﬁcers and veteran managers of police departments. Aﬁer formal police training,

24

the young ofﬁcer will come into the department with a clean cut professional police
mentality that was bestowed upon him while in the academy of the ideal professional
police organization. These traits are noticed in all military and quasi-military
organizations and their new members. The training regiments stress professionalism at
all times including formal etiquette in professional appearance, manner of conduct and
job performance. When these new ofﬁcers are then released into their respective
organization they expect every ofﬁcer and manager in the department to have the similar
professional traits they were given during training. Conﬂict occurs when their
expectations are not met and they are dissatisﬁed with those in the organization that does
not exhibit professional qualities.

Within the police organization, staff managers such as the lieutenants and higher
echelons who are in conﬂict with line ofﬁcer supervisors will create a chain of conﬂict to
include the line ofﬁcers. As discussed earlier, managerial couples work and interact
within a group context and are therefore profoundly inﬂuenced by the group’s dynamics.
Therefore, a variety of systemic and group-level dynamics can cause managers and
subordinates to regress rendering the individuals of the managerial couple even more
vulnerable to disabling forces (Hirschhom and Barnett, 1993). A strain in the
relationship in any of the three levels of the police organization will effect relations in the
entire organization. Thus, conﬂict between staff and line personnel will affect the quality
of decisions by the ofﬁcers during their performance of duty.

Employee-employer relationship was discussed to explore how the dynamic
composition of this relationship can inﬂuence job performance of the employee, the

employee’s level of commitment to the organization, and to relate this dynamic

25

relationship to police ofﬁcers experiences within the police organization. This
relationship in conjunction with information offered in the sections discussing job
satisfaction, police subculture, and department culture correlate with each other in
understanding the dynamic composition of organizational cultures and how these cultures
can adversely inﬂuence employees. Organizational cultures are within themselves
extremely complex at every level of the chain of command. A strained relationship
between employers and their employees will greatly enhance the web of complexion in
the organization thus affecting organization goal attainment. Police department managers
should employ open door policy for improved relations within the police organization to
decrease sentiments of isolation that are common among police ofﬁcers. Employer-
employee relationships within police departments are the ﬁrst steps in creating an
effectively operating police agency as well as increased departmental accountability of

their police ofﬁcers.

This study discussed factors considered relevant inﬂuences on police ofﬁcers
tactical decision-making. In our discussion, particular concepts were identiﬁed as being
signiﬁcant inﬂuences on police ofﬁcers during the performance of their duties. These
concepts were used to explore various aspects of the independent variables measured in
this study which are police ofﬁcer level of commitment to the police department, police
ofﬁcer level of identiﬁcation to the police subculture, and individual political and
religious inﬂuences of the police ofﬁcers. The literature obtained for this study that

addressed these concepts measuring the independent variables addressed the more

26

traditional idea of policing. Therefore, it is relevant that we explore the affects of these
concepts in terms of community-policing to determine differences and increase the
validity ofthis study.

C ommunity-policing was introduced as a contemporary new approach to policing
that employed historical ideas to the nature of police work that suggest police
departments must be more responsive and connected to the communities in which they
serve. At the core of community-policing is the idea that the nature of policing is a broad
problem-solving network that include more than reactive law enforcement that suggest
line police ofﬁcers on the streets and in the community should play a major role in the
process (Weisheit, Wells, & Falcone, 1994). Though inherently this is no single deﬁned
approach to community policing which is mostly dependent on the type of department it
is employed, the ideas are similar. Much of community-policing is derived from
concepts of total quality management which concerns reducing layers of bureaucracy
within organizations, empowering line employees to made faster decisions, and
responsiveness to the customers (Weisheit, Wells, & Falcone, 1994). These components
align other purposes of community-policing to include concerns of social order that is
most productive where police-citizens cooperation is essential for job effectiveness.
Three broad themes can be suggested of community-policing:

l. The police are accountable to the communities as well as the formal police

hierarchy.

2. Police will become more connected with and integrated into their
communities which means the police will interact with citizens on a personal
level, will be familiar with community sentiments and concerns and will work
with the community to address these concerns.

3. Police will be oriented to solving general problems rather than only

responding to speciﬁc crime incidences. (Weisheit, Wells, & Falcone, 551:
1994)

27

From this infomration presented on community-policing, we can begin to explore
the impact this policing philosophy will have on other topics in this study concerning
police ofﬁcer tactical decision-making. This study explored the dynamics of police
ofﬁcer decision-making and its inﬂuences by discussing relative information on the
culture of the police department, police subculture, employee job satisfaction, and
employer-employee relationship. These concepts were considered relevant in
determining inﬂuences on police ofﬁcer decision—making from the traditional policing
perspective.

One of the objectives of community-policing is to empower line police ofﬁcers to
make decisions they feel will best resolve social issues in the communities which they
serve. By empowering the ofﬁcers, formal structures within the police department are
reduced with less hierarchical demands on job performance. Thus, it can be assumed the
police ofﬁcers within these departments are not experiencing sentiments of isolation from
the decision-making hierarchy in the department, nor from the communities they are
serving. Some literature presented earlier suggests these sentiments of isolation from
department management and the community forms within these ofﬁcers’ feelings of
isolation and the formation of subcultures within the larger organization. Community-
policing, as it was proscribed to be implemented in police departments reduces feeling of
isolation by police ofﬁcers thus granting them more determination and discretion in
performing their duties.

Community-policing can also be suggested to inﬂuence tactical decision-making
by police ofﬁcers in issues of use of force during incidences of tactical response. Again,

the core philosophy of community-policing suggests police ofﬁcers will become more

28

connected with and integrated to the communities they serve forming a co-productive
relationship between police and citizens. Through this relationship, police ofﬁcers will
become familiar with residents of the community and best identify trouble areas within
the community. One other result of the relationship is the relationship shared between
police ofﬁcers and the citizens will serve as a social control mechanism on police ofﬁcers
in performing their duties to the best interest of the department they serve and the
communities they are obligated.

A ﬁnal point of discussion regarding community-policing to this research study
concern the differences between rural and urban departments of this study and the affects
community-policing have on each. This study consisted mainly of rural police
departments of North Carolina and a small number of urban departments. Many rural
police departments are not fully aware of their practices of community-policing and most
do not embrace the philosophy entirely. Rural departments are mostly small in the
number of ofﬁcers employed and provide a wide range of services to their communities
such as ﬁre, and emergency response. Likewise, the rural police departments are
normally viewed by citizens as an integral part of the community. Therefore, the very
nature of the composition of rural police departments forms an organization practicing
community-policing. It can be assumed the rural police departments of this research
study have implemented within their organizational operations particular characteristics
of community policing.

Thus, the affects of community-policing on this research are twofold. First, the
essence of community-policing empowers the line ofﬁcers to make judgement decisions

regarding social issues in the community they serve. This empowerment of line police

29

ofﬁcers should serve to increase these ofﬁcers level of job satisfaction and improve their
relationship with department management. These ofﬁcers will not feel the strain of a
regimented, highly structured police agency more concerned with policy and department
politics. Police ofﬁcers will feel they are a valuable entity in their department giving
them greater satisfaction of their job. As police ofﬁcers are more able to exercise their
judgements in making decisions about their job, their satisfaction level increases thus
increasing their level of commitment to their job.

Another affect of community policing can suggest the connectedness these police
ofﬁcers have to the communities they serve will govern their actions in the communities.
This is to suggest the more connected police ofﬁcers are to communities, it is less likely
that the ofﬁcers will have sentiments of an “us-them” mentality. This certainly may not
be true in all cases. It is very likely the close connections these ofﬁcers have with the
community could also create unconscious feelings of prejudices. These unconscious
prejudices can result from working close to people who the ofﬁcers perceived as different
from them with different value systems. Either situation, the connectedness of
community-police ofﬁcers to their community will foster close ties to the citizens of the
communities that require ofﬁcers to consider cooperative means in assisting the citizens
improve their quality of life.

These affects of community-policing will impact tactical responses of police
ofﬁcers in the communities. The connectedness with the community will sensitize the
ofﬁcers to the citizens within thus seeking other means of resolving situations that are

less threatening.

3O

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

The concepts outlined in this section were presented to show various inﬂuences
on tactical decision-making of police ofﬁcers. These concepts were not determined to be
exclusive factors in inﬂuencing police ofﬁcer tactical decision-making, but they were
found to be relevant for the scope of this research study. The two independent variables
of this research police department culture and police subculture was discussed to
emphasize the dynamics of these variables. The police department culture was
established to be the initial culture environment the new police ofﬁcers will enter once
they have received formal training in the police academy. It was determined in the
discussion on perspectives that in fact these perspectives will guide the ofﬁcer in
decision-making when they reﬂect back on the training they received as being proper
procedure.

Also, the reﬂections of these ofﬁcers will change, as they grow accustomed to their
role as police ofﬁcer according to standards of short-term and long-term perspectives.
The progressive stage of police ofﬁcer growth, according to standards of short-term
perspectives begin with the enthusiastic police ofﬁcer wanting to learn everything about
being a police ofﬁcer, to an intermediate stage of satisfying the supervisor, and a ﬁnal
stage of just wanting to ﬁt in the organization.

It was also mentioned that the police culture, as with any organizational culture take

on characteristics of it’s own. Within this culture, police ofﬁcer are informed subtly of

31

the rights and privileges they possess in the organization, and their duties and obligations
associated with their position. Additionally, while the police culture may be inﬂuenced
by the work situation, it also tends to be inﬂuenced by external factors as the norms,
values, and ethics inherent in the profession. These values, norms and ethics are then
passed on to all police ofﬁcers who come into the organization of what is expected, as
well as what is acceptable actions in the organization.

The police subculture, the other independent variable of this research study was
discussed in this section also to explore the dynamics of the subculture and its inﬂuential
effects on the police organization. It was determined the police subculture was as
inﬂuential on police ofﬁcers as the department culture. One factor considered relevant in
determining police ofﬁcers identiﬁcation with the police subculture was the relationship
these ofﬁcers share with department administrators. It was suggested that police ofﬁcers
with little or no contact with the decision-making echelon of the department will lead to
misunderstanding on each side leaving the ofﬁcer feeling isolated from the public, and
his supervisors with nowhere to turn. The ofﬁcers then create bonds one with another in
a brother system to have someone that identify with their situation. Literature that
describes some common themes in police attitudes as loyalty to colleagues is essential,
and the public or most of it is the enemy substantiates this point. Also, it was inferred
that the inﬂuences of the police subculture continue to inﬂuence police ofﬁcers behaviors
even when they are not in the immediate presence of their peers.

The dynamic composition of police subculture establishes this culture as an entity
within the larger organization with it’s own values, judgements, and accepted behaviors

guided by the code of ethics of the “blue shield”. It is suggested in this study that the

32

police subculture will socialize police ofﬁcers to the accepted norms of the subculture
transcending those established by police department management. Some literature
offered in this section suggests that police subculture is one of the most resistant to the
adoption of and allegiance to a formal code of ethics. The purpose of this research is to
explore those factors of the police subculture that increase police ofﬁcer’s level of
identiﬁcation with the subculture.

Employee job satisfaction, and employee-employer relationship were explored in this
section to suggest these concepts will have signiﬁcant impact on police ofﬁcers level of
identiﬁcation to either police department culture established by department management,
or the police subculture. First, it was determined police ofﬁcers job satisfaction will
serve as a systemic social control mechanism to inﬂuence the actions and decision-
making of police ofﬁcers. The premise of this determination suggests certain
characteristics of job satisfaction such as commitment to the police organization, loyalty,
and involvement used to measure quality of membership to organizations, will determine
level of commitment to the police organization. As suggested by literature discussing
this concept, studies have shown commitment to be an important factor in understanding
the work behavior of employees. Police ofﬁcers level of commitment to the police
organization was determined to be a reliable predictor in explaining certain behaviors of
police ofﬁcers.

Employer-employee relationships was discussed to suggest the relationship shared
between police ofﬁcers and management, supervisors and police ofﬁcers, and
management and supervisors will have signiﬁcant inﬂuences on the decision-making of

police ofﬁcers. Organization goals and objectives are channeled through these various

33

relationships to ensure compliance to the goals and objectives of the organization are
accomplished. A strain in one or more of the relationships will create a chain of conﬂict
throughout the organization. Some literature offered on the subject suggest these couples
work and interact within a group context and are therefore profoundly inﬂuenced by the
group dynamics. Also, a variety of systemic and group—level dynamics can cause
managers and subordinates to regress, rendering the individuals of the managerial couple
even more vulnerable to disabling forces. Thus, the literature suggests level of

commitment is inﬂuenced by identiﬁcation to the police department and police

subculture.
Ooals and Objeotives

The goals of this research are to show how police ofﬁcers tactical decision-
making processes are inﬂuenced by their level of commitment to the ethical codes,
values, and beliefs in their police department. In order for this goal to be accomplished,
an extensive study in police decision-making and police subculture was conducted to
identify speciﬁc concepts that can be measured statistically to view correlation. To get
an accurate measure of the problem, a controlled test was used to compare samples of
police ofﬁcers who have received advanced police training at the justice academy, and
those who had not received any advanced training.

Another related objective of this research is to determine whether the level of
conﬁdence that police ofﬁcers have in their ability to perform during tactical incidences

will inﬂuence their decision-making process. It is hypothesized that police ofﬁcers that

34

demonstrate high conﬁdence in their ability to react in tactical incidences will react
quickly according the tactical training they have received.

To realize that these stated goals have been achieved, a number of steps were
accomplished. First, an adequate representation of police ofﬁcers with advanced police
training, and those without advanced training was used to conduct this research. In
addition, these ofﬁcers exhibited a complete range of police ofﬁcer experience to
determine whether years of service is a factor in explaining some of the differences in the
sample. Second, a variety of data was collected that reﬂect individual and organizational
dynamics. If it can be shown that the steps taken to conduct this research were error free,
then any ﬁndings from the research ﬁndings that gives support to the stated goals will be

valid.

Methods

The following section will outline the research strategy used to carry out the goals
and objectives outlined previously. The research design, sample, information about the
data collection, data analysis, and limitations of the research study will be included in this

section.

Researchmign

The design type for this research will be exploratory. The study sought to explore
factors that inﬂuence police ofﬁcer decision-making during tactical situations. The data
for this study was collected in the form of a survey instrument. The use of the survey

instrument allows one to gather adequate information for measurement to determine

35

correlation between the variables. The proposed study’s target population consisted of
police ofﬁcers throughout the state of North Carolina. A random sample of law
enforcement ofﬁces in North Carolina was conducted to select the departments to
participate in this study. The names of the departments were randomly drawn from a
computer disc database consisting of all law enforcement ofﬁces in North Carolina.

The dependent variable in this study is police ofﬁcer tactical decision-making and
three primary independent variables are as follows: (1) level of commitment to the police
department, (2) level of identiﬁcation with police subculture, (3) political beliefs of
police ofﬁcers, and (4) religious beliefs of individual police ofﬁcers. Sex, age, police
ofﬁcer experience, and military experience will examine the variables for variations. A
factor analysis was conducted on the variables to test for multiple dimensions of
inﬂuence. The variables are operationalized and conceptualized as follows:

William:

The dependent variable in this study is police ofﬁcer tactical decision-making.

Police ofﬁcer tactical decision-making is deﬁned as police ofﬁcers use of force

to effect a desired outcome to include pepper spray application, use of baton,

unarmed self-defense, and deadly force. More speciﬁc, the dependent variable
measured in this study is police ofﬁcers’ comfort in the tactical response training
they have received and whether they rely on that training while in the ﬁeld.

Comfort will be deﬁned as the police ofﬁcers intuitive reactions based on the

training they received during incidences of tactical response.

36

lndepondont Variables:

1. Level of commitment to the police department is deﬁned as the police ofﬁcers
beliefs in the ethical codes, and values of the police department as established
by department managers. This variable is measured in Section IV on the
questionnaire in Appendix A, questions 1 to 16.

2. Level of identiﬁcation to police subculture is deﬁned as the bond the
individual shares with fellow police ofﬁcers whose views are inconsistent
with the high ideals of the police codes. Also, the ofﬁcer exhibits attitudes as
loyalty to colleagues as essential, and the public, or most it, is the enemy, and
the values of police ofﬁcers include the use of force, discretion, and a
protective use of the truth. This variable is measured in Section V of the
questionnaire in Appendix A, questions 1 to 14.

3. Political beliefs of police ofﬁcers is deﬁned as the police ofﬁcer’s personal
political beliefs that shape their frame of thinking of society and societal
issues. This variable is measured in Section VI, and Section VII of the
questionnaire in Appendix A.

4. Religious beliefs will be deﬁned as the police ofﬁcer’s personal religious
beliefs and understandings that operate to inﬂuence the ofﬁcer’s decision-
making process. Additionally, the police ofﬁcer’s self-perceived conﬁdence
in their ability to perform during spontaneous decision-making incidents will
be used to measure this variable. This variable is also measured in Section VI,
and Section VII of the questionnaire in Appendix A, questions 1 to 15, and

questions 1 to 12 of Section VII.

According to the goals of this study, the following hypotheses were tested in the
study:

HI: There is no signiﬁcant relationship between police ofﬁcers
tactical decision-making and level of commitment to
the police department.

Ha: There is a signiﬁcant relationship between police ofﬁcers tactical
decision-making and level of commitment to the police department.

37

H2: There is no signiﬁcant relationship between police ofﬁcers tactical decision-
making and their level of identiﬁcation with the police subculture.

Ha: There is a signiﬁcant relationship between police ofﬁcers tactical decision-
making and their level of identiﬁcation with the police subculture.

H3: There is no signiﬁcant relationship between police ofﬁcers tactical decision-
making and political beliefs police ofﬁcer.

Ha: There is a signiﬁcant relationship between police ofﬁcers tactical decision-
making and political beliefs of the police ofﬁcer.

H4: There is no signiﬁcant relationship between police ofﬁcers religious beliefs
and tactical decision-making of police ofﬁcers.

Ha: There is a signiﬁcant relationship between police ofﬁcers religious beliefs
and tactical decision-making of police ofﬁcers.

am I

The sample that was used in this research study was collected from a study
population of law enforcement ofﬁcers in the state of North Carolina. More speciﬁcally,
municipal and rural police departments statewide comprise the sample population. The
sampling frame used in this research to obtain a study population was derived from the
1997 computer database listing of all police departments in North Carolina. This
research study was conducted using an over sample of 724 law enforcement ofﬁces in
North Carolina.

Each police ofﬁcer in North Carolina had an equal chance of being selected for
this study. The police chiefs of these departments was called to ascertain the total
number of sworn, full-time ofﬁcers they have on force. In cases of small departments
(under 30 ofﬁcers), each police ofﬁcers received a survey in these departments. In the
incidences of larger departments (50 or more ofﬁcers), a list of all police ofﬁcers in the

department was solicited by the researcher to produce a systematic random sample of

38

police ofﬁcers to participate in the research study. To ensure a representative systematic
random sample, each department, according to size was sampled on separate sampling
intervals. The sampling interval for departments of 50 police ofﬁcers consists of every
fourth ofﬁcer from that department to be chosen as an element in the research study.
Likewise, the sampling interval for departments greater than 50 (most departments
greater than 50 are more than 100 police ofﬁcers) consist of every seventh ofﬁcer from

that department chosen as an element in the research study.

mm

Data for this research was collected through mail questionnaire surveys that will
be mail to the police departments in care of the Police Chief. Those police ofﬁcers
chosen through systematic random sampling in the larger departments had their
questionnaires mailed directly to them. Each survey packet included a self-addressed
envelope for the ofﬁcers to mail the survey questionnaire back to the justice academy
once they had completed. A pilot study was conducted in three police departments that
are representative of the target population to pretest the survey instrument in order to
ensure reliability.

Empirical measures concur with the individual mental images about police
ofﬁcers tactical decision-making and the three independent variables outlined as being
factors contributing to improper tactical decision-making. These measures were
considered necessary to obtain validity of the survey instrument. The questions
formulated for this research instrument were designed to cover the range of meanings

included within the concepts. Respondents were presented with questions designed to

39

measure attachments to their police departments. These questions examined attitudes
regarding beliefs in department policies and procedures, trust in supervisors and
management, and overall compassion for being a police ofﬁcer. Police culture was
addressed to examine the level of identiﬁcation ofﬁcers have in identifying with the
views and beliefs of a particular police network. Police personal perceptions were
measured to indicate whether police ofﬁcers are guided by personal political, religious, or
cultural beliefs in forming decisions. Tactical training was also measure to indicate self-
conﬁdence of ofﬁcers during incidences of tactical situations.

A Likert scale was be used in some portions of the survey instrument to measure
the intensity of the responses from 1 to 4. The respondent was given a statement and

’9 “

asked if they “strongly agree , agree”, “disagree”, or, “strongly disagree”.

Data Analysis

The data are analyzed using these tests. Chi-square was be used to determine if
there are associations between the dependent and independent variables f the study. A
.05 level of signiﬁcance will be used to determine if the null hypothesis will be accepted
or rejected. Phi coefﬁcient (CD) was used to determine the strength in the relationship of
the dependent and independent variables. Pearson’s product-moment correlation (r) will
measure differences between the dependent and independent variables. Prior to running

any test, a factor analysis was be run to test the strengths of the variables.

40

CHAPTER IV
RESULTS

The study population for this research consisted of all sworn police ofﬁcers and
auxiliary ofﬁcers in the state of North Carolina. The respondents included all ranks from
patrol ofﬁcer to police chief. In total, eight hundred ﬁfty-ﬁve questionnaires were mailed
to ﬁfty-two police departments statewide. The study population included both rural and
metropolitan police agencies throughout the state of North Carolina. Rural police
departments account for the majority police agencies in this study. The study yielded a
sample of 301 ofﬁcers from the 855 total sample population responding to the
questionnaire. These ﬁgures equate to a return rate of 35%. The research staff at the
North Carolina Justice Academy determined a 30% return rate would be sufﬁcient to
make adequate generalizations of the overall police population in North Carolina.

Respondents were asked if they had received additional tactical training since
their completion of Basic Law Enforcement Training. Tactical training for these police
ofﬁcers consisted of a wide range to include such training as weapons training, defensive
driving, verbal judo, surveillance, hand—to-hand combat, etc. There were two hundred
ninety-three valid responses and eight no responses treated as system missing. Two
hundred sixty-nine (92%) of the ofﬁcers indicated they had received and twenty-four
(8%) indicated they had not received additional tactical training. Frequency distributions
for these statistics are provided in Appendix D. Descriptive characteristics for all 301
respondents are presented in Table lin the next section.

Also, respondents were asked to describe a recent tactical response they were

involved and to rate the tactical performance of the back-up ofﬁcer on the scene. The

41

question asked the ofﬁcers if they felt the ofﬁcer or ofﬁcers who assisted them were well
trained in tactical decision-making. This information was used to receive ﬁrst hand
insight of police ofﬁcers perception of their fellow ofﬁcers. There were 247 (82%)
respondents responding to this question. Of these 247 respondents, 45 (18%) indicated
the assisting ofﬁcers were well trained in tactical decision-making. Remarkably, 202
ofﬁcers (82%) indicated the assisting ofﬁcers were not well trained in tactical decision-
making. These opinions by police ofﬁcers were expressed for both young and veteran
ofﬁces alike. These percentages attest to the relevance of this study to explore training
needs assessment for the North Carolina Justice Academy on police ofﬁcer tactical

response training.

n r ' 'c

There were a total of 268 males in the study accounting for 90.8% of the study
population. Female respondents totaled 27 accounting for 9.2% of the study population.
These percentages are consistent with national ﬁgures that indicate female ofﬁcers are
less than 10% of all police ofﬁcers (Martin, 1990). The demographics of these ofﬁcers
are presented in Table 1.

Race of the police ofﬁcers is not represented in the demographics of this study. It
was determined that race of the ofﬁcer would not be a signiﬁcant factor in exploring
tactical responses in North Carolina police ofﬁcers. It was determined that tactical
training of police ofﬁcers is not categorized on the basis of race. Race of the ofﬁcer will

not be useful in determining tactical inﬂuences of police ofﬁcers.

42

Police ofﬁcer years of service were explored to detemiine whether differences in
tactical response occurred between younger and veteran ofﬁcers. Years of service were
divided into ﬁve—year intervals to view any inﬂuences of tactical response in small
increments. Police ofﬁcers of 0-5 years experience account for the largest percent of
respondents with 42%. Other police ofﬁcers years of experience is noted in Table 1.

Military experience of police ofﬁcers was explored to determine whether
signiﬁcant difference are evident in tactical police response ofpolice ofﬁcers possessing
military experience to those ofﬁcers with no military background. For those ofﬁcers
indicating some military experience, branch of military was also explored for signiﬁcance
in police ofﬁcers tactical training response. There were 88 respondents (29%) of the total
sample population indicating military experience. Of the 88 respondents, 46% (40
respondents) indicated they possess US. Army background experience. Police ofﬁcers
with some Navy experience claim the second largest population with 22% followed by
Marine Corps with 15% respondents. These demographics and frequencies are listed in

Table 1 below.

43

Table 1: Demographics of North Carolina Police Ofﬁcers

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Characteristics Frequency Percent Number of cases
Gender
Female 27 9.2 Valid cases = 295
Male 268 90.8 Missing cases = 6
Ram:
Patrol Ofﬁcer 145 50.5
Master Patrol Ofﬁcer 20 7.0
Detective 21 7.3 Valid cases = 287
Corporal 7 2.4 Missing cases = 14
Sergeant 60 19.9
Lieutenant l 9 6.6
Captain 9 3.2
Major 1 .3
Dep. Chief l .3
Chief 3 1.0
Watch Commander 1 .3
X ears as Polio: Otticer
0-5 years 126 42.4
6-10 years 65 21.9 Valid cases = 297
11-15 years 38 12.8 Missing cases = 4
16-205 years 35 11.8
21+years 33 11.1
Education
High School 165 55.6
Assoc. Degree(2yr.) 65 21.9 Valid cases = 297
Bachelor’s Degree 44 14.8 Missing cases = 4
Graduate/Professional 4 1.3
Degree
Ag:
20-29 106 36.2
30-39 11 1 36.9 Valid cases = 293
40-49 56 19.1 Missing cases = 8
50+ 20 6.8

 

44

The study population comprised ofa wide range of police ofﬁcer ranks and years
of police service experience. Patrol ofﬁcers accounted for 67% (patrol ofﬁcer, master
patrol ofﬁcer, detective, corporal) of the sample and supervisors (sergeant, lieutenant,
captain, major, deputy chief, chief, watch commander) 32% of the sample. It was
predicted patrol ofﬁcers would provide the greatest amount of information on decision-
making factors of police ofﬁcers. Patrol ofﬁcers’ daily face a variety of situations that
require them to use their judgements while on patrol. The ninety-four supervisors
responding to this study are able to provide a diverse range in opinions regarding the
contents of this research.

The education levels of North Carolina police ofﬁcers are also given in Table 1
that reveal the majority of police ofﬁcers (55.6%) possessing a high school education.
Education levels of police ofﬁcers was examined to determine whether police ofﬁcers
possessing greater than high school education would show differences in tactical

decision-making.

45

Testing the Hypotheses

Results of Ordinary Least Squares regression computed on data relating to the
stated hypotheses examining inﬂuences on tactical decision-making of North Carolina
police ofﬁcers were analyzed and checked for signiﬁcance. A list of all the hypotheses of
this study is listed in Table 2 below. For convenience, each hypothesis and associated
null hypothesis is restated prior to presentation of the data for the hypothesis.

The initial step in testing these hypotheses required a signiﬁcance test of the
independent variables for use in the data analysis. A factor analysis test was performed
to examine the scalability of the independent variables to determine whether these
variables were adequate for measurement of the stated hypotheses. Several variables
were computed in the factor test for each independent variable to check the distribution of
components these variables created. The variables that loaded highly on a construct
(i.e.,5 or higher) was used to create the construct. Cronbach’s alpha was used to
determine the strength of the variables in explaining the speciﬁed independent variable.

It was determined for an independent variable to be used in this study a Cronbach alpha
level equal to or greater than 0.6 would be sufﬁcient. Descriptive characteristics of each
independent variable along the individual variables that were combined to create the
independent variable are listed in Table 3 of the next section.

Results from the factor analysis test revealed political beliefs and religious beliefs
of police ofﬁcers were not signiﬁcant in determining inﬂuences of tactical decision-
making and was rendered inconclusive. The Cronbach’s alpha statistic for variable

reliability in measuring the concepts of political and religious inﬂuences were less than

46

0.6 indicating these variables could not be measured with the available data in this
research.

Bivariate data analyses were computed for the dependent variable to each
independent variable to determine the strength of relationship between the variables.
Pearson’s chi square statistic was used to measure differences between the dependent and
independent variables at the .05 signiﬁcance level. Phi ((D) and Cramer’s V statistics
were also computed to estimate the strength of the relationship among the variables.
Results of the bivariate analyses are presented in the sections discussing each dependent
and independent variable relationship.

Multivariate data analyses were also computed to view signiﬁcant relationships
among the dependent variable and multiple independent variables. Pearson’s chi square
was also used to measure difference in the interaction of the dependent variable to each
independent variable. Results from the multivariate analyses indicated the independent
variables when loaded onto the dependent variable were not signiﬁcant. Therefore,
multivariate analyses will not be presented in this study.

Once bivariate and multivariate data analyses were completed and signiﬁcant
relationships were determined, an Ordinary Least Squares Regression model was
computed to quantify signiﬁcant inﬂuences of each independent variable on the police
ofﬁcers tactical decision-making. These signiﬁcant inﬂuences are presented in the

discussion of each dependent and independent variable computation below.

47

Table 2: List of all Hypotheses and Associated Null Hypotheses

H1: There is no signiﬁcant relationship between tactical decision-making of
North Carolina police ofﬁcers and their commitment to department culture.

Ha: There is a signiﬁcant relationship between tactical decision-making of North
Carolina police ofﬁcers and their commitment to department culture.

H2: There is no signiﬁcant relationship between tactical decision-making of
North Carolina police ofﬁcers and their identiﬁcation with the police
subculture.

Ha: There is a signiﬁcant relationship between tactical decision—making of North
Carolina police ofﬁcers and their identiﬁcation to the police subculture.

H3: There is no signiﬁcant relationship between tactical decision-making of
North Carolina police ofﬁcers and tactical training received by police
ofﬁcers.

Ha: There is a signiﬁcant relationship between tactical decision-making of North

Carolina police ofﬁcers and tactical training received by police ofﬁcers.

H4: There is no signiﬁcant relationship between tactical decision-making of
North Carolina police ofﬁcers and Military background experience of police
ofﬁcers.

Ha: There is a signiﬁcant relationship between tactical decision-making of North
Carolina police ofﬁcers and military background experience of police
ofﬁcers.

H5: There is no signiﬁcant relationship between tactical decision-making of
North Carolina police ofﬁcers and branch of military experience.

Ha: There is a signiﬁcant relationship between tactical decision-making of North
Carolina police ofﬁcers and branch of military experience.

H6: There is no signiﬁcant relationship between tactical decision-making of
North Carolina police ofﬁcers and years of police experience.

Ha: There is a signiﬁcant relationship between tactical decision-making of North
Carolina police ofﬁcers and years of police experience.

H7: There is no signiﬁcant relationship between tactical decision-making of
North Carolina police ofﬁcers and age of police ofﬁcers.

Ha: There is a signiﬁcant relationship between tactical decision-making of North
Carolina police ofﬁcers and age of police ofﬁcers.

H8: There is no signiﬁcant relationship between tactical decision-making of
North Carolina police ofﬁcers and gender of police ofﬁcers.

Ha: There is a signiﬁcant relationship between tactical decision-making of North
Carolina police ofﬁcers and gender of police ofﬁcers.

48

Table 3:

Scales Used as Variables

Department Culture (7 items)

1.

ix.)

The line supervisors and management of this
department are competent and reliable.

Both management and supervisors enforce compliance
to the department’s policies on all rules and regulations.

This department’s standard operating procedures manual
is a good guide in addressing any situation I may encounter.

This department stresses legal tactical decision-making
I ﬁrmly believe in this department’s policies.

Overall I feel I can trust all line ofﬁcer supervisors and
management in this department.

I strongly believe in the values deﬁned by management
of this department.

Reliability Analysis:

Cronbach’s Alpha = .89

49

Fa

.8744

.8740

.8856

.8897

.8800

.8727

.8644

OI'C

Table 4: Scales Used as Variables (cont’d)

Police subculture (6 items) antor Spore
l. Often I feel department management is more .8417

concerned with public image ofthe department
than ﬁghting crime.

2. At times my line ofﬁcer supervisor and .8449
management are not very reliable.

3. The values of this department do not necessarily .8289
represent the sentiments of all ofﬁcers of this

department and are perhaps outdated.

4. The department management rarely expresses .8346
concerns of my experiences in these neighborhoods.

5. Very often I feel I can trust my fellow ofﬁcers before .8433
I can department management.

6. Many police ofﬁcers in this department have the
same I have regarding problems in this department. .8625

Reliability Analysis

Crombach’s Alpha = .87

50

Table 5:

Tactical Training (13 items)

I.

oo

10.

ll.

12.

13.

Scales Used as Variables (cont’d)

There is nothing wrong with proﬁling certain

crimes to certain members in society because

of their race if they are known to be violators

of such crimes.

When decisions are to be made quickly I feel

conﬁdent in my ability to make fast and adequate
decisions.

Police ofﬁcers should be given greater discretion in

issues on use of force.

When I arrest some violent offenders I sometimes ﬁnd
myself having to control my natural instincts to harm

the individual.

I feel conﬁdent I my ability to react quickly in

hostile situations.

Repetition in tactical training exercises has helped

increase my motor skills in tactical situations.

When I am forced to make a tactical decision such as

use of force safety of the offender is a consideration.

The rank of an ofﬁcer is important in making tactical decisions
During moments of tactical incidences, I consider possible
reactions of my supervisor of my actions.

There are times when gut instincts for defense are used
instead of tactical techniques during incidences that happen
very suddenly.

Much of the tactical training I received in BLET or other
police training facilities are encouraged by my department.
I rely more on hand-to-hand tactical defense measures than
use of force when the offender is unarmed.

After incidences of use of force in tactical confrontations,
recommendations by supervisors are always helpful.

Reliability Analysis
Crombach’s Alpha = .63

51

8C

01'

.5891

.5910

.5736

.5885

.5710

.5822

.5541

.5693

.5677

.5774

.5611

.5505

.5743

Null Hypothesis 1. Tactical decision-making of North Carolina police
ofﬁcers and their commitment to department culture are independent
events.

Researoh Hypothesis 1. Tactical decision-making of North Carolina

police ofﬁcers and commitment to department culture are not independent

events.

The dependent variable testing this hypothesis asked police ofﬁcers if they
were comfortable with the tactical training they have received and rely on that
training in the ﬁeld. Findings of the 279 respondents indicate 34.4% (N = 96) of
police ofﬁcers that are committed to the department culture are not likely to be
comfortable with their tactical training and do not rely on the training in the ﬁeld.
Conversely, 65.6% (N =183) of police ofﬁcers indicated they are very likely to be
comfortable with their tactical training and are very likely to rely on the training
in the ﬁeld. Table 6 below provides a breakdown to the 279 respondents
regarding their level of commitment to the department and their comfort in
tactical response training. Also, the value for chi-square given in Table 6 is
14.083 with three degrees of freedom. This value is shown to be signiﬁcant with a
signiﬁcance level of .003 that is less than the designated .05 critical level.
Therefore, the null hypothesis that states there is no relationship between tactical
decision-making of North Carolina police ofﬁcers and commitment to department
culture is rejected. It is then concluded level of commitment to police department
does inﬂuence comfort in tactical decision-making of North Carolina police
ofﬁcers.

Table 6 also report strength of the relationship between the dependent and

independent variable. Phi (CD) coefﬁcient is used to determine amount of variance

52

in comfort in tactical decision-making explained by level of commitment with the
police department. The Phi value given for commitment to department culture is
.225 with a approximate signiﬁcance level .003. This Phi (CD) value indicates a
weak relationship between the two variables.

Results of Weighted Least-Squares regression analysis (see Table 11) that
measure the effects of the independent variables of the study on the dependent
variable conclude the fact that police ofﬁcers commitment to department culture
has no effect on tactical decision-making ofpolice ofﬁcers. Referring to the
Table 11, a t-value of -.154 was reported for commitment to department culture.
The observed signiﬁcance level associated with this t-value was .880. Therefore,
the null hypothesis stating tactical decision-making of North Carolina police
ofﬁcers’ and police ofﬁcers’ commitment to department culture are independent
events is rejected. These ﬁgures conclude police ofﬁcers commitment to
department culture has no effect on tactical decision-making of North Carolina

police ofﬁcers.

Table 6: Statistical analyses for research hypothesis (1) and the
associated null hypothesis.

Total Sample- Department Culture on Comfort

Commitment to

Department %Very Likely

Strongly Disagree 45.5
<N=10>

Disagree 56.0
<N=47>

Agree 69.3
<N=88>

Strongly Agree 82.6
<N=38>

%Not Likely Chi Sq. (If (D Sig.

54.5 14.083 3 .225 .003
<N=12>

44.0
<N=37>

30.7
<N=39>

17.4
<N=8>

Department culture was operationalized in this study to deﬁne environmental

elements within police agencies that operate to inﬂuence conformity and adherence to the

value system of the police agency. A list of the combined variables used to form the

independent variable for police culture was outlined on page 48 above. For the purposes

of this study, referring to the ﬁndings in data analyses tests, the combined variables are

not factors of inﬂuence on tactical decision-making of North Carolina police ofﬁcers.

Null Hypothesis 2. Tactical decision-making of North Carolina police Ofﬁcers
and identiﬁcation to police subculture are independent events.

Rosoaroliﬁypothosisz. Tactical decision-making of North Carolina police
ofﬁcers and identiﬁcation to police subculture are not independent events.

Results from crosstabulation comparison of police ofﬁcer comfort with tactical

training to police ofﬁcer identiﬁcation with police subculture indicate of the 276

respondents, 34.8% (N =96) of police ofﬁcers identifying with the police subculture are

54

not likely to be comfortable with the tactical training they have received. In contrast,
65.2% (N =180) of the same police ofﬁcers indicated they are very likely to be
comfortable with their tactical training and relying on the training in the ﬁeld. Table 7
below provides a breakdown to these responses regarding the level of identiﬁcation with
the police subculture. These ﬁgures were further analyzed for signiﬁcance and strength of
association. These results are also reported in table 7 below.
Table 7: Statistical analyses for research hypothesis (2) and

associated null hypothesis.

Total Sample-Police Subculture on Comfort
Identify with
Police Subculture %Very Likely %Not Likely Chi. Sq. (If (D
Sig.

Strongly Disagree 91.7 8.3 8.967 3 .180 .030
<N=11> <N=1>
Disagree 71.8 28.2
<N=51> <N=20>
Agree 65.1 34.9
<N=82> <N=44>
Strongly Agree 53.7 46.3
<N=36> <N=31>

Referring to Table 7 above, the chi-square value 8.967 was calculated with three
degrees of freedom. The corresponding signiﬁcance level for the chi-square value is
.030. Thus, the null hypothesis that states no signiﬁcant relationship exists between
identiﬁcation with the police subculture and tactical decision-making of North Carolina

police ofﬁcers is rejected.

55

Table 7 also provides additional information to the association between the
variables with the Phi (CD) coefﬁcient. The value of Phi is .180. This value indicates a
weak relationship between the independent and dependent variable.

Referring to Table 11 of the Weighted Least Squares Regression model, a t-value
of .734 was calculated for identiﬁcation with police subculture. The observed
signiﬁcance level associated with this t-value was .473. The signiﬁcance level is greater
than the .05 level. Thus, the null hypothesis was not rejected concluding there is a
statistical relationship between identiﬁcation with police subculture and comfort in
tactical decision-making of North Carolina police ofﬁcers.

Null Hypothesis 3. Tactical response training of North Carolina police ofﬁcers

and police ofﬁcers comfort in tactical training and relying on the training in the
ﬁeld are independent events.

Researohﬁypotlﬂsl Tactical response training of North Carolina
police ofﬁcers and police ofﬁcers comfort in tactical training and relying on the

training in the ﬁeld are not independent events.

Results from crosstabulation comparison indicated of the 279 total respondents,
66.7% (N =1 86) of police ofﬁcer respondents are very likely to be comfortable with thee
tactical training they received and relying on the training in the ﬁeld. Comparatively,
33.3% (N =93) of police respondents indicated they are not very likely to be comfortable
with the tactical training they received and are not likely to rely on the training in the
ﬁeld. These percentages are further analyzed in Table 8 below.

Table 8 below provides the chi-square value testing the associated hypothesis.
The obtained value for chi-square in Table 6 is 95.568 with 3 degrees of freedom. The
associated signiﬁcance level for the value for a 2-tailed test is .000. Therefore, it can be

determined there is a relationship between tactical response training of North Carolina

56

police ofﬁcers and their comfort in the tactical training while relying on the training in

the ﬁeld.

Table 8:

Statistical analyses for research hypothesis (3)

and associated null hypothesis.

Total Sample-Tactical response training and Comfort

 

Tactical Response

 

Training %Very likely %Not Likely Chi Sq. (If (D Sig.
Strongly Disagree 100 0 95.586 1 .585 .000
<N=3>
Disagree 18.2 81.8
<N=6> <N=27>
Agree 52.9 47.1
<N=64> <N=57>
Strongly Agree 95.1 4.9
<N=116> <N=6>

Referring to Table 8, the Phi ((1)) value for tactical response training of police

ofﬁcers is .586. This value suggests a strong relationship between the dependent and

independent variable.

Referring to Table llof the Weighted Least Squares Regression model, a t-value

of 5.540 was computed for police ofﬁcers tactical response training. A signiﬁcance value

of .000 was also computed indicating signiﬁcance at the .05 level. Therefore, the null

hypothesis stating police ofﬁcers tactical response training and their comfort in the

tactical training they received are independent events is rejected. Thus, it is concluded

there is a statistical relationship between tactical response training of police ofﬁcers and

police ofﬁcers comfort in the training they receive.

Null he i 4. Military experience of police ofﬁcers and comfort in tactical
training are independent events.

Researeh Hypothesis 4. Military experience of police ofﬁcers and comfort in

tactical training are not independent events.

Statistical analyses for military experience and comfort in tactical training
indicated no relationship between the variables. Of the 301 total respondents, 28.6% (N
= 81) indicated they were previously enlisted in the armed forces. When asked if they
were comfortable with the tactical training they received, 70.4% (N =57) of ofﬁcers with
prior military experience responded they were very likely to be comfortable with the
training while 29.6% (N =24) indicated they were not likely to be comfortable with the
tactical training.

The obtained chi square value reported for military experience is 1.617. Thus, the
data indicates there is no relationship exists between military experience of police
ofﬁcers and their comfort level in tactical decision-making.

Table 9 below report a Phi (CD) value of -.076 the relationship between military
experience and comfort in tactical training. The value indicates a negative association

between the variables.

 

 

Table 9: Statistical analyses for research hypothesis 4 and associated Null
Hypothesis.
Total Sample-Military Experience and Comfort

Military Exp. %Very Likely %Not Likely Chi Sq. df (D Sig.

Yes 70.4 29.6 1.617 1 -0.76 .204
<N=57> <N=24>

No 62.4 37.6
<N=126> <N=76>

58

Referring to Table l 1 of the Weighted Least Squares model, an obtained t-value

of 1.471 with a signiﬁcance level of .159 is provided for this relationship indicating the

null hypothesis is accepted

Null Hypothesis 5. Branch of military service and comfort in
tactical training are independent events.

Research hypothesis 5. Branch of military service and comfort
in tactical training are not independent events.

Statistical analyses for branch of military service and comfort in tactical training

are reported in Table 10 below. The analyses are reported for 81 respondents who

indicated they have military experience. A chi-square value of 12.785 was obtained with

5 degrees of freedom. Thus, a relationship exists between branch of military experience

of police ofﬁcers and their comfort in police tactical response training.

 

 

Table 10: Statistical analyses for research hypothesis 5 and associated null
hypothesis.
Total Sample for Branch of Military and Comfort
Branch %Very Likely %Not Likely Chi Sq. O df Sig.
Army 86.1 13.9 12.785 .397 5 .025
<N=3 I > <N=5>
Navy 66.7 33.3
<N=1 2> <N=6>
Air Force 83.3 16.7
<N=5> <N=1>
Marine 53.8 46.2
<N=7> <N=6>
Coast Guard 0 100
<N=2>
National 50.0 50.0
Guard <N=3> <N=3>

59

Referring to Table 1 l of the Weighted Least Squares regression model, the
obtained t-value for military branch is —3.258. The signiﬁcance value fort is .004, which
is signiﬁcant at .005. These ﬁgures further support the relationship between branch of
military experience of police ofﬁcers and their comfort in police tactical response
training.

To receive a clear understanding regarding signiﬁcance between branch of
military service to comfort in tactical training, each military branch was separated into
different variables. The objective is to determine the level of signiﬁcance each military
branch has on comfort in tactical training independent of the others. It was estimated
both Army and Marine military experience due to their combat nature would prove to be
more signiﬁcant than other military experiences of police ofﬁcers. Thus, police ofﬁcers
with Marine Corps and Army backgrounds were computed into one variable and
measured against the other branches.

Results of the Weighted Least Squares regression model in Table 11 indicate
police ofﬁcers with other military experience was more signiﬁcant than police ofﬁcers of
Marine Corps and Army background. A t-value of -3.258 was obtained for other
branches with a signiﬁcance level of .004. Therefore, it is concluded police ofﬁcers of
other branches of the military has a signiﬁcant relationship to comfort in tactical training
than police ofﬁcers of Marine Corps and Army background.

Other branches of the military were examined further to identify the branches
within this group having greater signiﬁcance. Each branch was compared individually
with the other stated independent variables on comfort in tactical training. Results

indicate police ofﬁcers of Air Force and National Guard background explained 100%

60

(r2 =1 .00) ofthe variation ofthe variables. Neither a t-value nor signiﬁcance level was
computed because there was a small number of respondents in these categories. Given
the r-square value obtained for these two branches, it can be determined police ofﬁcers of
Air Force and National Guard background are more comfortable with the tactical training
they have received.

One element not controlled in this analysis is time between military service and
their joining the police agency. The time span between organizational entry and training
would serve as indicator to account for the 100% explained variance. Time between
military service and police training could offer signiﬁcant limitations to these ﬁndings.

Table 11 presents the ﬁndings of a weighted ordinary least squares (OLS)
regression analysis. The model explains 78 percent of the variation in police ofﬁcers
comfort in tactical training they received and relying on the training in the ﬁeld. The
model suggests four of the model’s 8 variables are related signiﬁcantly to police ofﬁcers
comfort in tactical training received. Branch of military service and other military
branches than Marine Corps and Army explain the greatest amount of variance. The
indicate the regression coefﬁcient for other branches of service is the model’s strongest
prediction of police ofﬁcer’s comfort in tactical training (beta=3.336); the coefﬁcient for
branch of service is the second strongest predictor (beta=-3.25 8). Branch of service has
an inverse relationship to police ofﬁcers comfort in tactical training and relying on the
training in the ﬁeld to indicate as ofﬁcer’s military experience changes across the various
branches, comfort in tactical training changes accordingly. This ﬁnding ﬁrrther supports
ﬁndings in bivariate analyses that indicated police ofﬁcers of Air Force and National

Guard background explained 100 percent of variation between the variables.

61

Table 11: Weighted Regression Estimates and Standard Errors for
predictor variables

Regressed on comfort in tactical training and relying on the training in the

 

 

ﬁeld
Variable OLS Standard Beta t Sig.
Estimate Error

Commitment to -.00267 .174 -.024 -.154 .880
Department
Identiﬁcation with -.115 .157 -.106 -.734 .473
Police Subculture
Age -.301 .239 —.395 -1.262 .223
Branch of Service -2.018 .619 -3.731 -3.258 004*
Other Branches 2.732 .819 3.763 3.336 .004*
Military Exp. .815 .579 .193 .14741 .159
Years as Police .173 .167 .337 1.038 .313
Tactical Training .983 .177 .738 5.540 .000*

 

NOTE: *p>.05; R =.882; Rz= .778; F = 7.886; **p > .001; 3p > .0001

62

CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Implieations ofthe Findings
A discussion of the implications related to this study’s ﬁndings requires a review
of the problem statement and stated hypotheses. The problem statement will be revisited
ﬁrst for discussion. Afterwards, each signiﬁcant hypothesis and its associated null

hypothesis will be explained according to the research ﬁndings.

The Problem Statement Revisited

The purpose of this study was to identify factors that inﬂuence tactical decision-
making of North Carolina police ofﬁcers. This research was important to understand the
causal factors that motivate police ofﬁcers to act in tactical response situations to
determine training requirements at the North Carolina Justice Academy and to improve
overall police safety in the ﬁeld.

The literature review section provided basic concepts that was determined to be
important in assessing police ofﬁcer decision-making. From the literature, evidence was
gathered to suggest concepts as police ofﬁcer tactical decision-making, the culture of the
police department, the police subculture, employee-employer relationships, and job
satisfaction were inﬂuential factors in on behaviors of police ofﬁcers. These factors were
transformed into four independent variables to determine their signiﬁcance on decision-
making in police ofﬁcers. Research ﬁndings did not support concepts measuring police
department culture, police subculture, political or religious beliefs of ofﬁcers as

signiﬁcant inﬂuences on tactical decision-making of police ofﬁcers. Research ﬁndings

63

did however ﬁnd tactical training of police ofﬁcers to be signiﬁcant inﬂuences when
determining police ofﬁcers comfort in the tactical training they have received.
The following section will discuss those hypotheses found not to be signiﬁcant in

the study. Also, possible explanations to their insigniﬁcance will be considered.

The v' '

Hypothesis 1 (level of commitment to the police department) was developed on
the rationale that as police ofﬁcers are found to be more committed to the value system of
their respective department they will be more likely to exercise rules and regulations
outlined by department management during tactical response situations. The ﬁnding
suggests police ofﬁcers that are committed to the values established by management of
the department will conduct themselves according to established rules and regulations of
the police agency during tactical response situations.

Hypothesis 2 (police ofﬁcers identiﬁcation with police subculture) was formed on
the rationale that as police ofﬁcers become to accept the ideals, values and beliefs of the
police subculture, the values and beliefs of the department less inﬂuence them. Police
subculture was found to be signiﬁcant inﬂuences on police ofﬁcers comfort in tactical
response training of police ofﬁcers and their relying on the training in the ﬁeld.
Therefore, it is determined aspects of the police subculture operate to inﬂuence police
ofﬁcers beyond that of the department culture.

Hypothesis 3 (political belief of police ofﬁcers) was developed through the
rationale that police ofﬁcers political identity will form certain prejudices in the way

ofﬁcers perceive societal conditions and citizens within these communities. Political

64

belief was not measured in this study for lack of variables representing this concept.
Thus, political beliefs of police ofﬁcers as a factor in inﬂuencing decision-making are
rendered inconclusive.

Hypothesis 4 (religious belief of police ofﬁcers) was formulated through the
rationale that religious afﬁrmations of police ofﬁcers would inﬂuence the police ofﬁcers
decision-making when in the ﬁeld. The hypothesis suggests police ofﬁcers of devout
religious afﬁrmations would be more compassionate towards citizens and their
conditions. Religious beliefs were not measure in the study due to lack of variables
representing this concept.

In reference to the tested hypotheses on page 48, the following hypotheses were
found not to be signiﬁcant. A brief explanation as to why these hypotheses were not
found to be signiﬁcant is offered in the discussion.

Hypothesis 6 (years of police experience) was thought to be relevant in decision-
making of police ofﬁcers. The rationale for the formation of this hypothesis suggests
veteran police ofﬁcers are capable of making decisions faster with greater self-
conﬁdence. Police ofﬁcer years of police experience were not found to be relevant for
the purpose of this study. Perhaps the best explanation to explain this ﬁnding is that each
category of years of police experience had a large number of respondents indicating they
are comfortable with their tactical training and rely on the training in the ﬁeld.

Hypothesis 7 (age of police ofﬁcer) was considered to be a relevant inﬂuence in
decision-making of police ofﬁcers. The hypothesis suggests there is obvious differences
between junior and veteran police ofﬁcers in decision-making processes. Age of police

ofﬁcer was not found to be signiﬁcant in this study. One explanation offered is the

65

variable was measured categorically in ﬁve years increment. Larger increments of the
age variable may have produce different results.

Hypothesis 8 (gender) was also thought to be relevant inﬂuences on police ofﬁcer
decision-making but was found not to be signiﬁcant. This could be explained by the
small number in female respondents compared to male respondents in the study in the

study.

Limitations ofthe Study

One obvious limitation to this study is the fact that the information was gathered
strictly from police agencies in North Carolina. Information was not solicited from
Sheriff ofﬁces, Highway Patrol, or State Police agencies that have various tactical
training programs. This information could have been used for a comparative analysis of
specialized tactical training units to gain a clear understanding of decision-making levels
in these units.

A second delimitation to this research study is found in the dependent variable.
Comfort in tactical response training can be interpreted differently police ofﬁcers which
can affect the meaning in which the question is answered. The concept comfort was not
deﬁned in the research questionnaire to give each ofﬁcer a predetermined deﬁnition of
comfort in tactical response training. Therefore, varying interpretations to this question
by ofﬁcers is suggested.

Another limitation to this study is honesty of police ofﬁcers responses when
completing the research questionnaire. Although honesty in survey responses is

assumed, possibilities do exist that some responses were not true sentiments of the

66

ofﬁcers. Though the researcher tried to be clear in presenting questions in the
questionnaire, it’s extremely possible many police ofﬁcers could have interpreted the
same question differently.

A ﬁnal limitation to the study is the large number of unanswered questions by
police ofﬁcers to limit the results in data analysis. Though conﬁdentiality was expressed
to the respondents of the research, some ofﬁcers may have felt vulnerable to being

identiﬁed by their responses and chose not to answer.

u ti n for F t r 5 ar

This research initiative is the frontier of larger research studies to explore tactical
decision-making in North Carolina police ofﬁcers. The research produced an extensive
amount of data that can be transformed to various research projects. To increase the
knowledge base of tactical decision-making in North Carolina law ofﬁcers, similar
information should be solicited from the various law enforcement agencies to compare
tactical training programs. A comparative analysis between the different agencies would
render valuable information on training regiments that are dependable. This information
can then be used to identify training programs that are affective and mandatory for all
ofﬁcers. One objective of this project is to identify areas in police ofﬁcer decision-
making that need improvement for overall protection of police ofﬁcers. By identifying
these problem areas, we would hope to see a decrease in police ofﬁcers deaths by
providing safer training at the Justice Academy.

Another advantage for further research will be to ensure that all police ofﬁcers

regardless of their agency receive the same tactical response training. This will ensure

67

conﬁdence and safety to each ofﬁcer assisting in the tactical situation. As was indicated
earlier, this research found a large percentage of police ofﬁcers felt the responding
ofﬁcers were not well-trained in tactical response. In incidences as these, each ofﬁcer
has endangered their own life as well as the other ofﬁcer’s if their actions are
miscalculated.

glonclusion

This research has presented an exploratory study of inﬂuences in tactical
decision-making of North Carolina police ofﬁcers. Fifty-two police agencies and 301
police ofﬁcers throughout North Carolina are represented in this study.

Overall, the data indicated many statistically signiﬁcant relationships in several of
the research hypotheses. With regard to police ofﬁcers comfort level in the tactical
training they have received and their relying on that training in the ﬁeld, the following
independent variables were found to be statistically signiﬁcant: (1) level of commitment
to police department, (2) level of identiﬁcation to police subculture and (3) tactical
response training of police ofﬁcers. Tactical response training of police ofﬁcers was also
found to be statistically signiﬁcant. This ﬁnding suggests there are particular elements in
tactical response training received by North Carolina police ofﬁcers that increase their
comfort level in the tactical training. Understanding there are various forms of police
ofﬁcer tactical response training available to police ofﬁcers, further research is needed to
examine these tactical responses comparatively to determine whether differences exists in
police ofﬁcers comfort level.

Other independent variables found to be statistically signiﬁcant are military

experience and branch of military. In regards to military experience of police ofﬁcers,

68

the research found a signiﬁcant relationship exists between comfort in tactical response
training and relying on the training in the ﬁeld and whether the police ofﬁcers had
military experience. Military experience was then transformed into two separate
variables (yes and no) to determine if one was more statistically signiﬁcant. These
variables were unable to compute analyses due to a signiﬁcant loss in cases when
transformed. Therefore, what can be concluded is a signiﬁcant relationship does exist
between the variables, but it can not be determined whether military experience or no
military experience of police ofﬁcers is more signiﬁcant.

In reference to branch of military service, the research found a signiﬁcant
relationship exists between branch of military service of police ofﬁcers and their comfort
in tactical training. Branch of military was transformed into separate variables to view
each military branch separately of each other for signiﬁcance. The researcher estimated
police ofﬁcers with Marine Corps and Army background would prove more signiﬁcant
than the other military branches. Yet, data analyses results indicated when National
Guard and Air Force variables were computed separately, each variable explained 100%
(r-square = 1.00) of all the variance between the variables. Signiﬁcance levels could not
be computed due to a signiﬁcant loss in cases when the variables were transformed.
Thus, it can be concluded that both Air Force and National Guard experiences of police
ofﬁcers are more inﬂuential in decreasing the variance in police ofﬁcer comfort in
tactical response training and relying on the training in the ﬁeld.

One explanation offered for this ﬁnding relates to the nature of each military
branch. Both Marine Corps and Army personnel are combat oriented organizations.

These personnel are give high levels of combat training than other military personnel.

69

Thus, when these military personnel leave the military to pursue careers in law
enforcement, they take with them the advance combat training offered them in the
military training they received. The repetitive nature of military training engrains within
these personnel tactical responses that become second nature. Therefore, these personnel
become more comfortable with the military training they received regarding the training
superior to any offered in police agencies. Conversely, Air Force and National Guard
personnel are less combat structured than Marine and Army personnel’s and they would
regard the tactical training in police agencies as sufﬁcient for their needs.

A delimitation to this ﬁnding is the time element between military personnel
actually leaving the military and receiving tactical training in police agencies. It is
estimated this time element could offer signiﬁcant differences in police ofﬁcers comfort
with their tactical training and relying on that training in the ﬁeld.

Future research is recommended to further explore the signiﬁcant ﬁndings in this
research study. Much information can be gained by further exploring the relationship
between branch of military service and their affects on these personnel entering police

agencies.

70

LIST OF REFERENCES

71

Reference

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Bomstein, Jerry. li B t lit :ANational D b te. Enslow Publishers, Inc.: Hillside,
New Jersey (1993)

Broderick, John J. Police in a Time Oft fhange. (2nd Edition) Prospect Hills, Illinois:
Waveland Press, Inc. 1987

Dudycha, George J. Esyehology for Law Enforeernent Ofﬁcers. Charles C. Thomas
Publisher: Springﬁeld, ILL. (1976)

Elliston, Frederick A. & F eldberg, Michael. Moral Issues in Boliee Work. Rowman and
Allanheld Publishers: New Jersey (1985)

Etzioni, Amitai. W. The Free Press of
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Goel, Vikram Chandra. flfhe Power of Ethieal Eolieing. Kitab Mahal Publisher:
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Hall, Richard H. Organizatio_r_rs;_S_tni_c_tur_e_antl_Er_o_cess. Prentice-Hall, Inc.: Englewood
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Haynes, William D. Stress Relatategl Disorders In Bolieernen. R & E Research

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Hirschhom, Larry & Barnett, Carole K. lheﬁmhodynainmergamzanms. Temple
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Kleinig, John. IheﬁthjosoﬂRoLioing. Cambridge University Press: New York, 1996

Klokars, Carl B. it he ldea of Boliee. Vol. 3. Sage Publications: Beverly Hills (1985)
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New Jersey, 1979

Lauffer, Armand. ‘ H. Hi ' H r0 r: u ’2 ‘ 1..
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Lawler 111., Edward E. Motivation in Work Organizations. Brooks/Cole Publishing
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MacNamara, Donal E. & Riedel, Marc. Police: Pers ectives Problems Pros t .
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Niederhoffer, Arthur & Niederhoffer, Elaine. The Poliee Eaniily. Lexington Books:
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Pollock-Byme,Joycelyn M. Ethi I rime n i :Dil
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73

APPENDICES

74

APPENDIX A

Research Survey Instrument

Thank you for your time and consideration in completing this research survey. We
understand that as a law enforcement ofﬁcer your time is extremely limited. It is our
hope that with your response to this research initiative we will be able to offer effective
training needs for law enforcement ofﬁcers throughout the state. Thank you again for
your compliance.

Section I.

For this section of the survey, please indicate your last involvement in a tactical procedure where
you had to react quickly to the situation. Describe in detail the situation as it occurred, and
whether force was used to accomplish your objective. If force was used, indicate the type of
force applied. Also, indicate whether you were alone at the time of the incident, or if other
ofﬁcers were present to assist. Include also whether you feel you successfully obtained your
objective in this incident. or whether unfortunate circumstances prohibited a successful resolution
to the incident.

For the following question, please answer whether you “strongly agree ”(SA),
"agree "(A), “disagree "(D), or “strongly disagree "(SD) with the content of the question.

SA A D SD
O: For the ofﬁcer, or ofﬁcers who were present to assist you in this [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
incident, would you agree they were well trained, and
knowledgeable in tactical decision-making.

76

Section 11.

Q1. Does your department offer After-Action Brieﬁngs for incidents oftactical
response where use of force was applied?

Q2. If your department does offer After-Action Brieﬁngs, describe the brieﬁngs to
the incident mentioned in Section I. Also, if alternative resolutions were offered for
future, similar situations explain the recommendations offered?

Q3. If you were faced with the same incident, would you handle it differently?
How?

77

Section III.

This section of the survey will seek to ascertain the amount, and extent of tactical training
the respondent has received. For the following questions, please answer each as they
pertain to you.

1. Within the past ﬁve years, have you received additional tactical training such as
ofﬁcers’ survival training, ﬁrearms training, etc., since completion of basic law
enforcement training? Yes [ ] No [ ]

la. if you answered yes, in the spaces provided below, please list the training you
have received.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

l. 2.
3. 4.
5. 6.
7. 8
9 10.
11. 12.
l3. l4.

 

 

78

Section IV.

The following statements seek general information about the individual respondents. For

each of the statements below, answer each as they pertain to you.

1. In the space provided, indicate the total amount of time in years you have served as a

police ofﬁcer.

 

2. As a patrol ofﬁcer, my patrols mainly consist of:

A. [ ] foot patrol B. [ ] car patrol C. [ ] motorcycle patrol D. [ ] horse mount
E. [ ] both foot and car patrol F. [ ] desk ofﬁcer, no patrol
3. In the space provided, please indicate your current rank in the police department you

serve.

 

Section V. The Police Department

This section of the survey seek to ascertain information on the police department which
the respondent is employed. For each of the following statements, please indicate
whether you strongly agree (SA), agree (A), disagree (D), or strongly disagree (SD).

8.

9. I am aware of the values and beliefs of this police department.
10.
1 l.
12.

l3.
l4.

. The department in which I serve is committed to excellence

in ﬁghting crime.

The departments mission statement clearly deﬁnes the
departments commitment to ﬁghting crime.

SAAD
[1111]
[1111]

The line supervisors, and management in this department are all [ ]

competent, and reliable.

Both management and supervisors enforce compliance to the
departments policies on all rules and regulations.

I look forward to reporting to work.

This department’s standard operating procedures manual is a

good guide for addressing any situation I may encounter.

My assigned shift is satisfactory with me.

This department stresses legal tactical decision-making.
I look forward to advancing my career in this department.

While executing my daily duties, I am always cautious to

follow policies and regulations outlined by this department.

I ﬁrmly believe in this department’s policies.

Overall, I feel I can trust all line ofﬁcer supervisors and
management in this department.

79

I ]

[II]

III]

I

I

[

SD

1

l

l l

l

SA A D SD

15. Istronglybelieve in the values deﬁned by management ofthis[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
department.

16. WhenIthink about it,Iamexcited about beingapolice [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
ofﬁcer in this department.

Section VI. The Police Culture

This section of the survey will seek to ascertain information of the respondent’s personal
assessment of their police department. For each of the statements below, please indicate
whether you strongly agree(SA), agree (A), disagree (D), or strongly disagree (SD).

SAADSD

1. In my opinion, the police ofﬁcer position isaunique, and [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
demanding job.

2. At times, my assigned routes are hostile and deteriorated by [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
crime.

3. Good instinct is an asset to police ofﬁcers. [
4. In general, I have a great deal of trust in my fellow ofﬁcers. [ ]

5. Often I feel department management is more concerned with [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
public image of the department than ﬁghting crime.

6. There are only a few police ofﬁcers in this department thatl [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
consider close ﬁiends.

7. At times, my line ofﬁcer supervisors and department [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
managers are not very reliable.

8. The values of this department do not necessarily represent the [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
sentiments of all ofﬁcers of this department

and are perhaps outdated.

9. Many days it appears the people in the communities are not [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
supportive to the police, and are often against assisting

police efforts.

10. The department management rarely express concerns for my [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
experiences in these communities.

1 1. Very often, I feel I can trust my fellow ofﬁcers before I [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
can trust department management.

80

12. All things considered, being a police ofﬁcer, there is [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
deﬁnitely a need for each ofﬁcer to look out for his brother
ofﬁcers no matter what the circumstances.

13. Many police ofﬁcers in this department have the same [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
opinions as I have regarding problems in this department.

14. Overall,Iam satisﬁed with mycareerchoice ofpoliceofﬁcer.[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

Section VII. Personal Perceptions

This section of the survey is concerned with the personal perceptions of the individual
respondent. For each of the following statements, please answer whether you strongly
agree (SA), agree (A), disagree (D), or strongly disagree(SD).

SAADSD

1. Lately, it appears crime in society has gotten progressively [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
worse.
2. I do an exceptional job in keeping problems in my [ ] [ ] [ ] [ I

personal life from effecting my job.
3. Currently, I am content with my present rank in the department. [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
4. It seems unfair for criminals to do as they please while [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

police ofﬁcers have to follow strict rules and regulations.

5. I always value the opinions of supervisors and department [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
managers when critiquing my work performance.

6. Any problem I may have with a fellow police ofﬁcer does [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
not effect my job performance.

7. There is nothing wrong with proﬁling certain crimes to [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

particular members in society because of their race if they
are known to be violators of such crimes.

8. Sometimes, my own religious beliefs guide me when making [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
decisions while on duty.

9.1 believe social disadvantages is one of the main causes [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
why some people commit crime.
10. There are some ofﬁcers in this department who donUt [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

agree with the way I perform my duties.

81

SA A D SD
11. When decisions are to be made quickly,lfeel conﬁdent [ ] [ ] [ ] [ l

in my ability to make fast and adequate decisions.

12. Police ofﬁcers should be given greater discretion on issues on [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
use of force.

13. Sometimes mypolitical beliefs inﬂuence my decisions while [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
on duty.

14. When I arrest some violent offenders, I sometimes ﬁnd [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
myself having to control my natural instincts to harm the individual.

15. The opinions of fellow ofﬁcers never inﬂuence my decisions. [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

Section VIII. Tactical Training

The section below presents statements regarding police ofﬁcer tactical decision-making.
For each of the statements below, please indicate whether you respond “Always”, “Most
of the time”, “Sometimes”, or “never” to the criteria of each statement.

Always Most of the Sometimes Never
Time
1. I feel conﬁdent in my ability to react
quickly in hostile situations. [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

IQ

Repetition in tactical training exercises
has helped increase my motor skills [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
in tactical situations.

3. When I am forced to make a tactical
decision such as use of force, safety [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
of the offender is a consideration.

4. The rank of the ofﬁcer is important [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
for making tactical decisions.

5. During moments of tactical incidences, [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
I consider possible reactions of my
supervisor for my actions.

6. I am familiar with the technique of [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
escalation/de-escalation during hostile
confrontations and feel conﬁdent in my
ability to use the technique.

82

Always Most of the Sometimes

Time
7. An experienced and knowledgeable [ ] [ ] [ ]
police ofﬁcer is one who has at least 5 years
of experience.
8. There are times when gut-instincts
for defense are used instead of tactical [ ] [ ] [ ]
techniques during incidents that happen
very suddenly.
9. During incidences of hostile, tactical [ ] [ ] [ ]
confrontations, the race of the offender is
not a consideration on type of force applied.
10. I am comfortable with the tactical [ ] [ ] [ ]
training I have received and rely on that
training in the ﬁeld.
1 1. Much of the tactical training I [ ] [ ] [ ]
received in BLET or other police
training facilities is encouraged for
use by my department.
12. I rely more on hand-to-hand tactical [ ] [ ] [ ]
defense measures than use of a weapon
when the offender is unarmed.
13. After incidences of use of force in [ ] [ ] [ ]

tactical confrontations, recommendations
offered by supervisors are always helpful.

83

Never

[ l

Section IX.

This section seeks to ascertain further personal characteristics of the respondent. Please
answer each of the following questions as they pertain to you.

1. Respondent’s age
2. Please indicate your highest level of education completed.

A. [ ] high school graduate B. [ ] associate degree (2 year college) C. [ ] bachelors
degree D. [ ] graduate/professional degree

3. Were you ever enlisted in the armed forces?

I 1 yes I 1 no
a. if yes, indicate branch of service and number of years served.

Branch Number of years served

 

 

4. Have you previously served with another police department?

[1WS [ln0

5. Sex of respondent:
[ ] Male [ ] Female

84

 

APPENDIX B

Regression Analyses

85

Regression

Notes

 

 

 

Output Created 25 Apr 99 16:33:15
Comments
Input Data A'\tactical.sav

Filter <none>

Weight <none>

Split File <none>

N of Rows in Working Data

File 301

Missing Value Deﬁnition of Missing User-deﬁned missing values are
Handling treated as missing.

Cases Used Statistirs are based on cases with
no missing values for any variable
used.

Syntax REGRESSION
IMISSlNG LISTWISE
ISTATISTICS COEFF OUTS R
ANOVA
lCRlTERlA=PlN(.05) POUT(.10)
INOORIGIN
IDEPENDENT comfort
lMETHOD=ENTER decultur resub2
age2 branch2 others miltarﬂ
yearsZ retactic .

Resources Memory Required 5100 bytes

Additional Memory

Required for Residual 0 bytes

Plots

Elapsed Time 0:00:00.71

 

86

 

Variables Entered/Removedb

 

Variables Variables
Model Entered Removed Method

RETACTIC
tactical
response
training of
ofﬁcers.
RESUBZ
identify with
police
subcluture,
YEARSZ
number of
years in
ranges
served as
police
ofﬁcer,
MILTARYZ.
OTHERS
other
military
experience,
DECULTUR
commitment
to
department,
AGEZ
interval age
range,
BRANCHZ
brach of
military.
service

 

Enter

 

 

 

 

 

 

a. All requested variables entered.

b. Dependent Variable: COMFORT I am comfortable with the tactical training I have received
and rely on the training in the ﬁeld.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Model Summary
7 Std. Error
Adjusted R of the
Model R R Square Square Estimate
| 1 I .882a .778 .679 .4798 I

 

a. Predictors: (Constant), RETACTIC tactical response training of officers, RESUBZ identify
with police subcluture. YEARSZ number of years in ranges served as police ofﬁcer.
MILTARY2, OTHERS other military experience. DECULTUR commitment to department.
AGE2 interval age range. BRANCHZ brach of military service

87

ANOVAb

 

 

 

Sum of Mean
Model Squares df Square F Sig.
1 Regression 14.523 8 1.815 7.886 .000‘I
Residual 4.144 18 .230
Total 18.667 26

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

a. Predictors: (Constant). RETACTIC tactical response training of officers, RESUBZ identify
with police subcluture, YEARSZ number of years in ranges served as police officer.
MILTARYZ, OTHERS other military experience, DECULTUR commitment to department,
AGE2 interval age range. BRANCH2 brach of military service

b. Dependent Variable: COMFORT I am comfortable with the tactical training I have received

and rely on the training in the field.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Coefficients'
Standardi
zed
Unstandardized Coeﬂicien
Coefficients ts
Model B Std. Error Beta
1 (Constant) .250 1 .184

DECULTUR commitment
to department -2.674E—02 .174 -.024
RESUBZ identify with
police subcluture "115 '157 "106
AGE2 interval age range -.301 .239 -.395
BRANCH2 brach of
military service -2.018 .619 -3.731
OTHERS other military
experience 2.732 .819 3.763
MILTARY2 .851 .579 .193
YEARSZ number of years
in ranges served as police .173 .167 .337
officer
RETACTIC tactical
response training of .983 .177 .738
officers

 

 

 

88

Coefficientsa

 

 

 

‘ Model 1 Si .
1 (Constant) .212 .835
DECULTUR commitment
to department "154 ‘880

RESUBZ identify with
police subcluture “734 -473

AGE2 interval age range -1.262 .223
BRANCH2 brach of

military service '3'258 '004
OTHERS other milita

experience '3' 3.336 .004
MILTARY2 1.471 .159
YEARSZ number of years

in ranges served as police 1.038 .313
ofﬁcer

RETACTIC tactical

response training of 5.540 .000
ofﬁcers

 

 

 

 

a. Dependent Variable: COMFORT I am comfortable with the tactical training i have received
and rely on the training in the field.

89

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