SE21; lIHHIHHINHHIWIWWIHIHHHIHIHHIHWIHHHI Date 0-7639 "1- u- v IlllllllllUllllllll‘llllllIlllllllllllllIlllllhlllllllllll 3 1293 020615 LIBRARY Michigan State University This is to certify that the thesis entitled THE USE OF INTERNSHIPS IN POSTSECONDARY SECURITY EDUCATION PROGRAMS IN MICHIGAN presented by LAWRENCE A . JACKSON has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for MASTER OF SCIENCE degree in CRIMINAL JUSTICE Major professor MAY 5 , 1999 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested. 1 DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE 35%2‘5‘30‘95 moo chlRC/DateDuchS-p.“ THE USE OF INTERNSHIPS IN POSTSECONDARY SECURITY EDUCATION PROGRAMS IN MICHIGAN By Lawrence A. Jackson A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE School of Criminal Justice 1999 ABSTRACT THE USE OF INTERNSHIPS IN POSTSECONDARY SECURITY EDUCATION PROGRAMS IN MICHIGAN By Lawrence A. Jackson With postsecondary private security education still in the developmental stage, programs and curricula are in a constant state of evaluation. This study surveyed all Michigan colleges and universities with degree programs in private security/loss prevention. Seven schools were questioned on the use and results of their internship programs. The results show a consistent use of internships in Michigan security programs with positive results. Research also showed a significant reduction in the number of Michigan schools offering security curricula since 1985. Copynghtby LAWRENCEALANJACKSON 1999 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to acknowledge all the people who supported and encouraged me to complete this thesis and degree. My parents Jim and Marie who after 42 years may finally be finished checking their sons homework. My friends Tom Ackerman and Dave Odett who encouraged me and endured my various ups and downs during this project. And my Children who, I hope, will see that it is never too late to learn, even for their father. CHAPTER I CHAPTER II : CHAPTER III : CHAPTER IV : CHAPTER V : APPENDIX REFERENCES TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction General Overview of Education Overview of Private Security Education Internships Overview of the Study Review of the Literature Traditional Training in the Security Field Research Methodology Research Questions Results Benefits of Michigan Internship Programs Discussion and Recommendations Recommendations Future Research Considerations PAGE 10 ll 22 27 3O 31 35 38 41 42 43 50 LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE 1 School of Incorporation for Michigan Security Degree Programs 33 2 Enrollment in Michigan Security Degree Programs 34 vi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION General Overview of Education American formal education has it’s roots deep in the schools developed and nurtured by the privileged classes of Europe. The sciences and arts were available to only the nobles and gentry who could afford to send their children to training rather than out to the fields. Arts such as philosophy, painting, poetry and sculpture were only slightly less marketable and profitable than the sciences such as physics and mathematics (Hillesheim & Merrill, 1971). The thought of educating a child to earn a living was not within the common sense as only those who needed to work did not have the time or leisure or the finances to indulge in the development of character and the mind. The majority of the population was left to be ‘home schooled’ or ‘educated’ in their family’s business or trade. Farmers begat farmers and blacksmiths handed down their knowledge from father to son. These were people who’s primary need was for information or knowledge that would satisfy their immediate needs; to create an existence for their family and themselves. Reading and writing were considered luxuries up thorough the 18th century in England. However the trades and jobs had been somewhat formalized through European guilds and in England through apprenticeship programs. Instituted in 1601 by the English Poor Law, the poor could enter into contracts with skilled tradesmen and exchange sweat equity for training by an accomplished tradesman. Along with this, the tradesman would also teach the apprentice the rudimentary skills of reading and writing (Hillesheim & Merrill, 1971 ). Carried by thOse who migrated to the new colonies in America, apprenticeships were instituted in the colonies but gradually failed. The demise of the apprenticeship has been related to the failure of employers to meet their responsibilities to teach reading and writing. In addition to this the shortage of skilled workers in the 1700’s in America allowed apprentices to move to higher paying jobs without completing their programs (Good & Teller, 1969). With the mid 19th Century came a move to develop and expand the public schools. Reading and writing were now a staple of most schools. Automotive and factory workers were now semi-literate (Serin, 1972). But higher education and University degrees were scarce. Johns Hopkins University was the first institution to offer a master’s degree, in 1876. The PhD. became widespread as the terminal academic degree in the US. by 1890 (Hillesheim & Merrill, 1971). During the late 1880’s community colleges began to develop, and by 1920 were well established. Designed to fill the gap between high school and a full university, community colleges gained an early stake in the growing vocational education field (Hillesheim & Merrill, 1971). This was the beginning of the separation of the university/college or vocational concept. Current estimates place students of vocational student populations at 700,000 or more (Tucker, 1990). Overview Of Private Security Education Private security has no significant history of formal training. Hands on, on the job training (OJT) were the primary methods of educating or training security guards. In some cases employees from other fields such as retired law enforcement or military personnel were recruited bringing with them information and knowledge gained from another employer (A818, 1972 ). But the security field was still considered poorly trained and a haven for poorly selected employees (Kakalik & Wildhom, 1971). In the 1960’s the tasks required of security personnel or watchmen were becoming more complicated and diverse. Electronic access control and alarms were now being introduced into the industry with increasing frequency (Cunningham & Taylor, 1985). The knowledge required of the guard or watchman was beginning to surpass the old standard of ‘common sense’. In the 1970’s the first real acknowledgment of the need for security education surfaced. Booklets published by the American Society for Industrial Security (ASIS) proposed models for both 2 and 4 year academic degrees in private security.1 This call for the development of academic programs in private security coincided with widespread demand for additional education, support, profesionalization of law enforcement. With the Civil disturbances and Civil Rights issues of the 1960’s recently past, law enforcement was seen as being reactive or catching up with the demands placed upon it. 1 In this study the use of the terms “private security” or “Security” will be used to include all the various terms currently used to identify the field. This includes terms such as Loss Prevention, Private Police, and Asset Protection. Movements to develop a new field of management specific to law enforcement was well received and supported by the recently created Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA). With billions of dollars in funding for new and innovative programs, the LEAA was soon a supporter of the new Police Administration and Police Science curriculums being developed at colleges across the country (U S News and World Report, 1980). Traditionally considered an allied field (Jackson, 1990; 1998) private security practitioners soon saw the potential for increased professional status and development to be gained by creating academic management programs for their field. This seemed even more necessary in the face of considerable industry growth and the fact that security personnel had outnumbered public law enforcement officers since 1950 (Cunningham & Taylor, 1985). The impetus for private security academic programs grew during the early 1980’s. But while making significant progress and creating over 200 security educational programs between 1976 and 1984 (Bottom et al., 1986) the security education movement was faced with an obstacle. Academics challenged the propriety of elevating security training or education to the academic level. Critics stated that it would be better served by teaching it as a vocational or career program. Community colleges and vocational schools were suggested as the appropriate institutions to deal with the growing subject of security education (Bottom et al., 1986). Having seen the same resistance offered to law enforcement education, security educators modeled programs after what had become a successful start up venture; the Criminal Justice degree. One aspect of these programs that was seen to be a successful teaching and learning tool was also adopted from Criminal Justice, the internship. Internships Arising from the guild systems in Europe, the concept of experiential learning is an derivation of the English apprenticeship used by schools to gain entry into the workforce by students. Currently experiencing great success in secondary and post secondary vocational education, experiential learning is designed to give students real world experience that cannot be easily duplicated in the classroom (L. M. Jackson, personal communication, April 12, 1998). This is one of the techniques used extensively in the recent School to Work initiatives designed help give students real world job skills. Internships are experiential learning experiences, generally of a short or predetermined period, in which a student is allowed inside an organization to perform as a member of this organization. Students normally receive academic credit and are supervised throughout the internship. Goals and Benefits of Internships Traditional goals of internships include: 1. To experience the actual environment of the job. 2. To gain firsthand experience specific to the t0pic of study. 3. To gain an understanding of the nature of the specific job that may not be available through normal academic study. A positive internship experience may produce benefits for both the student and the employer (Gilbert, 1995). Benefits for the student may include: 1. 2. Gaining work experience on the job. Exposure to potential employers. . An understanding of the relationship between theory and practice. An in-depth understanding of the social and political environment of thejob. Employers also experience benefits such as: l. 2. 3. 4. A temporary employee to fill an opening at no cost to the employer. An opportunity to evaluate a potential full time employee. A short term employee with up to date skills and information. A motivated and energetic employee. The Use of Internships in Security With the recently successful integration of Criminal Justice into the University environment, private security has sought to emulate the accomplishment. By using a multidisciplinary model that reflects the nature of private security, diverse and complex (Christian & Payne, 1987)it is still in its development stages (Cunningham & Taylor, 1995). Considered by some to be a “career option that tends to be hidden” (Ortmeier, 1996; p 99), security internships often expose students to facets of the industry that are not part of the modern culture. This exposure allows students to make a more informed choice of curriculum and career. Another serious need that internships meet is the bridge from theoretical study to practical applications. By nature academic education focuses on theory and concepts (ASIS, 1972). But as an applied field, security functions in an open environment. By its nature it deals with unusual and emergency situations. This is something that is not easily taught through the academic model. The use of an internship helps to reconcile both the theoretical and the practical perspectives to give the student a well rounded view of the industry and field. The Need for Studying Security Internships The use of teaching methods without a full understanding of them may be detrimental to the long term goal: effective security education. With the grth of security as a business and an institution, effective means must be developed to efficiently educate members and disseminate knowledge to the industry. Ineffective or negative experiences with techniques such as experiential learning must be documented and may be of value in reordering the thinking of faculty and administrators. One way to achieve this is through the use of survey research to determine attitudes toward this method of learning and its effectiveness. Internships can provide a wealth of benefits to both the student, school, and employer only if they produce valuable experience germane to the subject matter. The Purpose of the Study The purposes of this study are as follows: (1) to collect information regarding the uses of internships in formal academic programs in Michigan, (2) to examine the advantages or disadvantages of internships, and (3) to explore changes that will allow internships to improve their level of service to the student and the university. Need for the study As the American security industry strives to become recognized as an independent field of study, it must constantly evaluate and correct itself, much as a plane whose course must be constantly watched and monitored, and from time to time adjusted to maintain an efficient and accurate path to its destination. Only by knowing what works and what doesn't can educators advance security to a true professional status. Significance of the Study This study will provide information related to security education in the following fashion: It will (1) establish the extent to which colleges and universities in Michigan use internships within their security education programs; (2) verify or reject claims of benefits attributed to internships by writers, practitioners and educators in past writings and research; and (3) combine the new survey data with previously published data and research to determine how internships may be changed in the future to yield increased benefits. Research Design To collect the desired data, survey research was utilized. A survey instrument was developed with the assistance of Dr. Mahesh Nalla and Dr. David Odett. Schools were selected for participation in the survey that reported offering security or loss prevention curricula leading to an associates, baccalaureate, master’s, or doctoral degree. This data was gathered from the Michigan Department of Education publication, 1996-97 Michigan Postsecondm Admissions and Financial Assistance Handbook (Michigan Department of Education, 1996), which lists all programs ranging from vocational training through the doctoral academic programs offered by Michigan institutions. Data is self-reported and compiled in this handbook by the State. Based on programs officially reported to the Michigan Department of Education, and supplemental research into past programs on record, the survey was sent to all eligible schools within Michigan. A cover letter was drafted to inform the participants of the goal, intent and the voluntary nature of the survey. Participants were offered a copy of the completed study as an honorarium for their participation. Scope and Limitations Scope The geographical scope of this study was limited to institutions within Michigan, including only those with degree programs (minimum of 2 year or associates level) in security, loss prevention or another similarly titled curriculum dealing with the "private" security industry. Limitations This study is limited to the issues raised in the literature review on the subjects of security education and related internships. It is also limited by the validity of the responses given by participants and the reliability of the survey instrument itself. Overview of the Studv The study will consist of five chapters. Chapter I includes the introduction, significance of the study, research problem, research design, scope and limitations of the study, and an overview of the study. Chapter 11 includes a review of associated literature and the history and nature of private security internships and higher education. Chapter 111 describes the research design and process involved in carrying out the study. Chapter IV consists of the results of the data collected from the survey. Chapter V contains a discussion and recommendations as well as suggestions for future research. 10 CHAPTER 11 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Traditionally, security has been of concern to all peoples of all cultures. Biblical passages tell us of community and individual duties to guard the flocks as well as the encampments (Holy Bible, 1909). In fact many cultures seem to have developed and functioned around the security concept. The ancient Greeks and Romans subordinated the needs of civilian populations to equip and supply armies to ensure the security of their borders and governments from external threats. As recently as the late 20th century the Soviet Union and the United States incurred staggering debts as a result of spending for their ”national security” budgets. Cited as one of man’s primary needs, security can take on many forms but it is always a priority to individuals and groups (Beins, Feldman, & Gall, 1996). This element of criticality seems to apply to all societies and organizations. It seems that the degree of sophistication of a society, while it may affect the culture and activities, does not reduce the natural need and desire for physical safety. Historically, under English common law, the burden of law enforcement and the security of the community was placed upon the King’s subjects or the members of the community. Maj or insurrections and civil disorder were handled by the standing army. And although there were govemment officials in the form of sheriff and various constables, all citizens were expected to help keep the King’s peace. At any time, a 11 member of the citizenry was obliged to follow along with another be they government official or citizen, following the 'Hue and Cry' to assist in apprehending a murderer or thief (Jackson, 1998; Corpus Juris Secundum, 1967). These long—standing traditions were imported from England by the colonists who settled America. Along with the traditional offices of constable and Sheriff came the concept of a citizens responsibility for the security of the group or community. The engineers of the Constitution let their opinions be known on the role of government in the preservation of personal security within a society. In doing so they set limitations that still govern law enforcement today. The issues of security were crucial to the Continental Congress and are reflected in the principle documents for the United States. The Constitution, Bill of Rights and the Declaration of Independence were not designed to set forth and guarantee the security of the government, but primarily to guarantee the citizenry their personal security. Clauses that address the quartering of military troops, and the security of personal property and papers, all focus upon the security issues of late 1700's America (Constitution of the United States of America, 1787; Bill of Rights, 1789 ). Throughout the early history of the US, different measures were developed to address specific security challenges as they arose. Armies were the first solution and acted as a unified armed force to protect the country from invasion and to guarantee the sovereignty (security) of the borders. With limited “street crime” there seemed to be little concern regarding a concerted or organized approach to personal security or the safety of individual’s property or businesses. At this time these concerns were seen as the 12 responsibility of the individual, to protect the home and family within the boundaries of the common law and community standards. The thought of government or third parties being responsible for a man's home was not within the current realm of thought. Although the offices of constable and sheriff were adopted from the English tradition, these men were few and far between and many times had other duties that minimized their law enforcement activities (Jackson, 1990; 1998). Communities in the early 1800's commonly banded together to deal with any significant threat to the security of the community. Common crimes were dealt with by the constable or sheriff, or by a military unit if the location of the community fell within their jurisdiction. The first non-military organized units designed for the protection of the populous were the local firewatch. Patrolling at night, the watch dealt with any crime they might encounter during their rounds. The natural progeny of the firewatch, or night watch, police departments were slow to take hold. Frequently in the 1800’s, as today, cost was a major factor. For example, the City of Detroit voted down a proposal to establish a police department in 1854 based on the exorbitant annual cost of $1500 (Ackerman, 1996). The result was the creation of the private Merchants Police patrol hired by local businessmen to patrol the small business district (Ackerman, 1996). But as populations grew and industrialization continued, municipalities gradually developed police agencies to supplant the traditional watchman or firewatch system of public safety. 13 The first formal police force to promote the safety and security of the citizenry at large was instituted in 1844 by New York City (National Advisory Committee, 1976). Primarily dealing with strikes, mobs, and peacekeeping issues, little of the average police officer's job involved addressing the security or safety concerns of individuals (Cunningham et al., 1990). During these times citizens still contracted privately for security or watchmen to protect their business and property from the criminal element or their employees. The opening of the West also increased the need for law enforcement and protection. Newly built railroads that spanned many states, and the crimes carried out on or against the trains, called for an enforcement agency able to cross the various jurisdictions. Since at that time no public law enforcement agency had jurisdiction beyond its own locale, the railroads hired private police officers. These men were selected, directed, and paid by the railroads, and these organizations still exist today. Restricted to the jurisdiction of the railroad right of way, the railroad police have become absorbed into the public law enforcement community even though they are still hired and employed solely by the railroads (Jackson 1990). One of the more famous private security companies that protected the railroads was the North West Police Agency (N alla & Newman, 1990). Created in 1855 by former Chicago Police Detective Allen Pinkerton, the private investigation and protective company tracked criminals such as the James Gang and other train robbers, as well as bank robbers and others who sought to escape prosecution by crossing state boundaries. Later, Pinkerton and his agents acted as espionage agents for the North during the Civil 14 War. This lead to Pinkertons assignment to protect the President prior to the creation of the Secret Service (Kakalik & Wildhom, 1971). As companies and industry grew, business owners continued to hire ‘contract employees,’ as they had for hundreds of years (Jackson 1998). These private police or security guards were responsible for protecting company profits and property. They were also used to effectively manage strikes and to enforce company rules. Many times these security groups carried considerable political weight based on their affiliation with large corporations. At a time when many police departments had significant graft problems, some were susceptible to being influenced by large companies. It was not unusual for officers to coordinate with or assist the security men. This continued well into the 1900's with the Ford Motor Company "Service Department" standing as a prime example. Totally under the control of Ford management, the Service Department enforced rigid company rules and standards of conduct both on their property and off. With large property holdings and financial power, Ford held a great deal of political influence with local governments and the police (Serin, 1972). After World War 11, Changes in political and management conditions allowed public police departments to distance themselves somewhat from the strong influence of large influential companies, and began to shift their focus. Officers concerned themselves more with the response to individual requests and complaints and the suppression of 'street crime' than they had in the past. At this same time private companies and organizations were still hiring their own employees to act as watchmen to ensure the attention to their properties and facilities. 15 During World War II the use of Private security personnel increased with the wartime perception or fear of sabotage. During this period over 200,000 watchmen and security guards were appointed Auxiliary Military Police to secure and protect plants and facilities (National Advisory Committee, 1976). After the war the use of private security personnel continued to grow until it outpaced public police growth. The ranks of privately paid security workers continued to grow and in 1950 there were 1.42 private security officers for every one public police officer (Cunningham & Taylor, 1985). As the country experienced the civil unrest and violence of the late 60’s and early 70's, public law enforcement came under closer scrutiny and the need for improvement and professional status was recognized (Cunningham & Taylor, 1985). One Federal approach was to create the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA) to help improve the ability of police officers to cope with crime and future challenges. Although billions of dollars were spent on technical improvements and hardware, one of LEAAS most significant impacts was on education. Through it's financial arm, the Law Enforcement Education Program (LEEP), millions of dollars of educational funds were disbursed in the form of grants and low interest loans to students enrolled in the newly created "Police Science" and “Police Administration" programs in colleges and universities (US News and World Report, 1980). During this time private sector security continued to grow larger and at a faster rate, but with a much lower profile (Cunningham & Taylor, 1985). 16 During the time of the LEAA the field of law enforcement management grew into the now recognized discipline of Criminal Justice. In addition to the public law enforcement courses, private security coursework was adopted into the curriculum (Bottom et al., 1986 ). Although not actually public law enforcement, many similarities were seen between the police and the private officers that so often seemed to mirror the public officers in actions and appearance (Cunningham & Taylor, 1985). Over the course of several years, Police Science and Police Administration programs gradually evolved into the multidisciplinary field now known as Criminal Justice. By expanding their scope to incorporate corrections, judiciary, and probation and - parole, police science programs took on a broader systems approach to crime and its management. The use of the multidisciplinary approach also allowed Criminal Justice to draw upon the theory and knowledge of other human sciences . This influx of theory, borrowed from sociology, psychology, and other relevant subjects, helped to develop the early police management programs into a field that could withstand external criticisms and influences (Report of the Task Force, 1976). During this time there was a similar but less visible effort to professionalize the security industry. This movement was lead by the American Society for Industrial Security (ASIS) with its first educational publication entitled Academic Guidelines for Security and Loss Prevention Programs in Community and Junior Colleges (ASIS, 1972). With this publication, ASIS began the push to develop the field of security management as an individual academic program. Trade publications and the establishment of 17 ‘scholarly‘ journals, such as the “Journal of Security Administration and Private Police,” also helped to move the field toward academic orientation and assisted scholars in developing programs built around the growing body of information in the field (Cunningham & Taylor, 1985). But the battle was on to show that the traditionally poorly paid and educated field of private security was worthy of an academic discipline and professional status for it's members (Ortmeier, 1996). Many critics theorized that since security was basically an unskilled job, the best that could be expected was to develop a vocational education approach to teach basic tasks and skills. It was felt that the theory and concepts required of a true academic subject were beyond the reach or need of the private security industry (Bottom et al., 1986; Christian & Payne, 1987). This criticism was similar to the one leveled at Police Administration in it’s early stages (Bottom et al., 1986). Proponents of academic education for the private security field cited the large growth and increasing complexity of the work. They also began to see evidence of acceptance and integration of security into the general business operations, especially in the areas of planning and risk management (Nalla et al., 1995; Fischer, 1981). Companies seemed to begin to see the financial contribution and value of a string loss prevention programs (Cunningham et al., 1990). Some saw similarities between private security and the battle being waged by the Criminal Justice movement (Nalla et al.; 1995; Fischer, 1985). 18 With changes in the police and society the use private security personnel increased. The reasons for this upsurge in security use may be the result of several factors. Four primary causes have been cited as: 1. Increased workplace crime. Assaults and thefts centering around the workplace have become an increasing problem in US. business (J. May, personal communication ,April 16, 1998). Increased fear of crime. In spite of reductions in crime, the fear of crime is sill considered a problem by citizens. Decreasing rate of government spending for public protection. Tax initiatives in the 1980’s caused many police departments to reduce or curb the expansion of protective services to citizens and companies. Increasing awareness and use of private security products and services as cost-effective protective measures. The use of new technology and methods in the fields of access control and intrusion detection allows their effective use to fill the gap between public police protection (Cunningham et al., 1990). In the late 19603, concurrent with this growth trend, the development of private security educational programs began and quickly blossomed. During the period of 1970- 1980, colleges in Michigan offering degrees relating to security grew from one to 15. One strong influence on the growth of security industry was the reduction of police services. In the early 1980's, as law enforcement funding saw cutbacks of funding due to 19 tax reforms, security was thriving. Between 1980 and 1990, annual revenues for security guards and patrols alone grew from $3.8 billion to $9.8 billion. But in spite of the strong growth within the industry, the security education initiative seemed to be slowing. The number of security programs seemed to be dwindling rather than increasing . Industry and journal articles appeared seeking the cause of this shift (Bottom et al., 1985). As a result, various theories were advanced to explain why the change. Survival of the Fittest Natural order was cited by Spain (Bottom et al., 1985) as a possible reason for the reduction of college security programs. The theory of some was that the loss of programs was merely the system ridding itself of weak programs that were destined to fail, while Spain theorized that the programs may have been pulled down with Criminal Justice programs reeling from the LEE cuts (Bottom, et al., 1986 ). Academic Isolation The fact that some academics have never been comfortable with security as a legitimate field of study for university students may have helped to reduce the number of programs that survived. A lack of understanding and integration with the industry was seen by some as a possible cause for halflrearted implementation of programs that eventually resulted in failure (Bottom et al., 1986). Lack of Proper Funding The successful growth of police educational programs in the 70’s and 80's was due in part to the dynamic funding effort of the Federal Government. Once LEAA/LEEP 2O funds disappeared, however, the growth rate declined considerably (Fischer in Bottom et al,. 1986). Studies such as the Hallcrest Report pointed to the need for funding to help private security programs expand to their natural size (Cunningham & Taylor, 1985). Although ASIS has remained a supporter of increased education for security industry, no other entity has appeared to fund to the effort as was the case with LEAA/LEEP. Lack of Financial Future The lack of funding for security education may be in some part due to the perceptions held by the public, and to some extent by business and the govemment. These perceptions revolve around the image of the private security field as a haven for poorly trained, marginally intelligent underachievers (Kakalik & Wildhom, 1971; Cunningham et al., 1990). The concept of private security for most peOple is a single uniformed guard in a fast food or retail establishment. This is also the perception that many businesses have of contract security personnel when they hire them (J. Weaver personal communication, March 3, 1998). This public image helps to maintain the traditionally low pay for jobs in the private security field (Kakalik & Wildhom, 1971). With contractors competing aggressively for accounts, most commonly the lowest bid wins. Wages and overhead must be kept to a minimum by the contractor and this frequently translates into low wages (Cunningham et al., 1990). But with the development of a new academic discipline comes questions such as how the programs are going to be organized, which schools or departments are most appropriate for organizational alliance, what methods are best for teaching the material, 21 and what focus should be used on each level of academic achievement? Many of these have been addressed and varied degrees of agreement exist (Bottom, 1985). One teaching method borrowed from the fields of criminal justice, medicine, and education is that of internship. The use of college time to experience the security field (or some very limited portion of the field) has been adopted by some schools for use in their private security /loss prevention curricula. The manner in which they utilize internships and the value of the technique may be open to question, however. Some critics of academic education for security practitioners have cited the lack of need. As a job perceived by many as a low paying service job many critics fail see the necessity of establishing academic programs (Cunningham & Taylor, 1985). Similarly, employers may also contribute to this with little recognition given to job applicants or employees with advanced education (Barkley in Bottom et al., 1985). Traditional Trainipg in the Security Field Historically, the training and education in the private security industry has been poor. Surveys Show that much of the training and skills are brought with employees to this field from previous jobs and experience. Past military and law enforcement education has accounted for much of the 'training' reported by workers (Cunningham & Taylor, 1985). On-the-job training (OJT) is the most frequent type of training encountered in the security industry. Although increasing regulations in some areas have helped to modernize the methods of training and education and elevate them beyond the eons old 'hands on method'(Cunningham & Taylor, 1985), most receive the absolute minimum. 22 Various attempts have been made by industry groups such as ASIS to guide and promote the slow movement toward professional security education (ASIS 1972, 1978). The ASIS publications served as blueprints for the deve10pment of community college and university security programs in the 70's. However, many factors seemed to work against the ultimate development of security as an academic discipline. Lack of Theory Cited as a major obstacle to the acceptance of the field, security began with little in the way of formal theory (Cunningham & Taylor, 1985). Although Cunningham (1985, p.3) noted that “security is not a body of knowledge girded with a strong research base,” he did recognize “that security is a specialized area of knowledge” (Cunningham & Taylor, 1985). This leads some academics to view security education as a candidate for traditional OJ T. Seen as a collection of manual tasks and skills, it is better taught, say some, by the community college or vocational school (Spain in Bottom et al., 1985). But security educators have chosen to follow the criminal justice model and work toward a multidisciplinary approach by relying on the theory developed by psychology, education, and the other social sciences, as well as developing their own proprietary theory and concepts unique to the security/loss prevention field (Ortmeier, 1996; ASIS, 1972). Economic Disincentives Historically private security had been a low paying profession (Report of the Task Force, 1976; Cunningham et al., 1990). Commonly thought of as a minimum wage job, all too often this view has been true (Report of the Task Force, 1976). During the early 23 70’s it was hoped that as the field of security grew and developed professionally, pay rates would also grow to something more representative of the responsibilities of its personnel. Some theorized that higher salaries would attract better qualified candidates, and their entry into the field would also boost the quality of the profession (Cunningham & Taylor, 1985). Unfortunately, this has not occurred across the board. While there has been improvement in management wages and compensation, the line officer has retained their low pay scale (Cunningham & Taylor, 1985). This has been particularly disenchanting in view of recent worker shortages which allow fast food workers to earn more than some armed security officers (J. May, personal communication, April 16,1998). But concurrent with these impediments are forces that promote security education. The academic movement has been furthered by several factors. Professional Improvements In an effort to improve standards many professional credentials programs have been created across the country. Internationally recognized certifications such as Certified Protection Officer (CPO), Certified Protection Professional (CPP), and Certified Fraud Examiner (CFE) have been developed to allow practitioners to gain knowledge, recognition, and possibly a boost in salary for their skills and experience. ASIS has also developed an extensive series of professional seminars that it hosts around the world in an attempt to disseminate new techniques and theories to practitioners in the field. Educational programs have been developed through the doctorate level at universities. Both Michigan State University and the University of Detroit Mercy boast 24 master’s level degree programs. These schools have made it a point to involve both the faculty and students in security research and professional programs to expand the knowledge base and also to aid in the development of the industry (C. Mateer, personal communication, April 4, 1997). The effort to be recognized as a peer in management circles has been successful in that more security managers are being placed in the upper management strata of businesses. It seems that companies are recognizing security’s contribution to loss prevention and the general well-being of the corporation. Growth Of Securitv Personnel In The Workforce Growing at a much faster rate than public police officers, private security employees already outnumber police three to one in Michigan (Cunningham, 1990). Projected as one of the top 20 growth employment fields (Cunnningham & Taylor, 1985) the expansion shows no sign of reversing. Spawned in the early 1980's during budget troubles, the concept of government subcontracting non-essential duties to save money is still being used. The move to increase the use of private security officers as a supplement to public police has not died. Currently, many military bases, municipalities, and courts use contract security officers in positions formerly the domain of police officers (Jackson, 1998). Recent Development Of The Industry In some States (such as California) legal circumstances have spurred the use of private security to supplement local police through preventative patrols and alarm 25 responses. These patrols operate fully marked patrol vehicles and are normally armed as well as the local police (Jackson, 1998). Michigan also makes provisions for expanded arrest authority for certain security officers, allowing security departments from Michigan companies to seek special status that expands their arrest powers to the level of municipal police officers (MCLA 338. 1051). Under PA 330, many hospitals and shopping centers in the Detroit area have applied for and received special status as Certified Security Police Agencies. Their officers (who must meet the employment standards for police officers in Michigan) attend a 120 hour academy and, upon graduation, are Certified as Security Police Officers (CSPO’S). These officers are empowered to make misdemeanor and certain felony arrests that the normal security officer is denied. While on duty and in uniform, these officer posses virtually the same authority as the Michigan State Police (Personal Communication ,F. Matz, Apri12, 1997). This hybrid type of private policing allows a city to allocate its police resources to other locations and to know that the specific (and sometimes high volume)law enforcement needs of the hospital or shopping mall are being met. At the same time the full cost of the CSPO force is borne by the private employer and is not a drain on the police department budget. This method has worked well in the Detroit area, and 12 such Security Police Agencies now exist. 26 CHAPTER III METHODS Due to the nature of the data and the location of the schools, survey research was selected as the method of data collection. Nature of the Data The data requested was primarily descriptive and the opinions of participants subjective. The lack of groups, multiple subjects, random assignment, or a large sample population eliminated the use of any experimental or quasi-experimental treatments. The survey was intended to gather information last compiled in 1984 (ASET, 1984). While the target data was similar to that used in the 1984 research, this survey focused exclusively on Michigan and was designed to be specific to Michigan schools and rograrns. Limitations With seven schools originally selected to participate in the original survey it was decided that the total population/sample was too small to support any type of inferential statistics. As schools were later added and eliminated from the sample, the lack of ability to infer to other populations became even more clear. With the small number of schools participating and the variance of academic levels (associate, baccalaureate, and masters) it was acknowledged that the differences in degree levels might further reduce the potential for inference between the other academic programs in Michigan, let alone to institutions outside of the state. 27 At the earliest stages of planning it was apparent that the number of schools that qualified for this project was small. Due to the small population there is little potential to project beyond Michigan and the specific schools that participated. Likewise it was recognized that there are many factors and influences on the administration that contribute to the success of a particular program within an academic curriculum. Variables such as location, local economic conditions, job availability, as well as others all can exert unknown influence over a college internship program. These things, while they are acknowledged, were not controlled by the use of any statistical technique or method. The fact that there are no state or industry wide guidelines or control also made it apparent that the survey may identify substantial differences between schools that were relatively similar in size, location, and character. Survey Design The survey instrument was designed with the assistance of the faculty at the Michigan State University, School of Criminal Justice. Questions were constructed as multiple choice and fill in the blank. The two page questionnaire contained 27 questions and consisted of two parts (Appendix A). General Institution Information Section Questions number 1-7 requested general information regarding the school and the security curriculum. Questions regarding the degrees available and the number of full and part time students were included in this section. Question 8 inquired about the schools use of an internship program in their security program. Participants who indicated their program did not use internships were 28 asked to not fill out the second part of the survey but to place comments in final section labeled General Comments (Appendix A). InternshiLInformation Section The remaining 19 questions related to information on the internship program offered at the respondents institution. Topics such as selection of businesses and prerequisites for internships are included in this section. Questions number 26 and 27 solicit specific, subjective opinions from the respondents on the overall benefits and future of the intern program (Appendix A). A cover letter was developed to accompany the survey. Both this letter and the survey were submitted to the University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS) at Michigan State University, for approval by the committee prior to the distribution of the surveys. Upon approval (IRB# 97-437) in June 1997, the surveys and cover letters were mailed out to all seven schools listed with the Michigan Department of Education as having degree programs in security or loss prevention that . . 7 resulted in and assocrates, baccalaureate or advanced degree“ 2 The six schools listed in the 1996-97 Edition of the Michigan Department of Education publication were: Henry Ford Community College, Lake Superior State University, University of Detroit Mercy, Macomb Community College, Northern Michigan University, and Oakland Community College. Michigan State University was added due to its security degrees. Early in 1998 the revised edition of the handbook was published and listed Grand Valley State University and Kalamazoo Community College as having security degree programs. When it was confirmed that Grand Valley State University had an on going Loss Prevention degree program since 1985 they were added to the survey sample. Kalamazoo Community College was contacted and confirmed that their program had been reduced to an independent study that was not in operation but had not been removed from the curriculum. Clerical or proofreading error was apparently the cause of these two programs not being listed in the 1997-98 edition of the handbook. 29 This information was retrieved from the 1996-97 edition of the Michigan Postsecondary Admissions and Financial Assistance Handbook (Mich. Dept. of Ed 1997). Surveys were mailed in June 1997, and follow up letters and calls were made through February 1998. Six of the eight schools responded by mailing back surveys filled out to various levels of completeness. The survey for Oakland Community College was filled out after a personal visit to the college to speak to the Dean. Information pertaining to Northern Michigan University was gathered from alternate sources after repeated phone calls and mailings were not answered. Research Questions The questions that originally spurred this research effort were: (1) how extensively is the internship experience used in Michigan security degree programs; (2) that are the benefits to schools and students that use security internships; and (3) how can internships be used more efficiently in security education? 30 CHAPTER IV RESULTS This study was intended to gather information from Michigan postsecondary institutions regarding internships and how they are used in security education programs. The data was to be evaluated to determine (1) the extent to which Michigan colleges and Universities use experiential learning, specifically internships in their programs; (2) the benefits that students and schools accrue based on their internship program; and (3) how security internships can be used in the future to greater benefit. In 1984, security education in Michigan seemed to be at its peak as far as the number of programs offered, with 21 degree programs being sponsored by 15 schools throughout the state (ASET, 1984). The number of programs increased from 1972 to 1984, 1500 percent (Bottom et al. 1986). Surveys were distributed to eight Michigan schools with security degrees. Of which seven completed surveys. Northern Michigan University was eliminated from the survey after determining that it has dropped its security program. Of the six schools that remained in the survey there were many similarities, but there were some differences. Like the industry they serve, security education programs in Michigan vary greatly in their use of terminology. This may result in some confusion which can be overcome on an individual level, but it may cause greater difficulty on an industry level. With varying terms for educational programs, practitioners and academics may find it difficult to categorize programs or to index them in journals or government databases. 31 This could greatly increase the effort needed and the potential for error in searching for information in electronic databases. One such case in point is that of Michigan State University’s two programs, which are technically a "Concentration in Security.” Since they are officially granted as degrees in “Criminal Justice with a concentration in Security,” they are not listed under security programs in the Financial Assistance Handbook (Michigan Department of Education 1997; 1998). This can also affect a student job search. Employers who compare a Loss Prevention degree with a Security Administration degree may find it easier to evaluate academic education and degrees if more uniform terms were used. Throughout the review of literature there are many references to the common organizational association between criminal justice programs and those developed for security (Bottom et al., 1985). Although the school affiliation or association varied, 50 percent of the surveyed programs reported they are organized under or affiliated with their School of Criminal Justice. This is illustrated in Table l. The concept of internships is accepted and utilized by the majority of security programs in Michigan. Six of seven programs surveyed (85.7% )use internships in their private security education programs3 . Henry Ford Community College, having recently started its program, had not placed any students to date. All other schools indicated satisfaction with their experiential learning activities. 3 Macomb Community College is the only school which does not have an ongoing internship program. 32 School of Incorporation for Michigan Security Degree Programs Table l Institution School or College Number of Programs Michigan State University(2) Criminal Justice 3 Henry Ford CC Criminal Justice Grand Valley State University Social Science 2 Lake Superior State University Social Science University of Detroit Mercy Education and 1 Human Service Macomb CC Public Service 1 Of the six programs that offer internships, only Lake Superior State University lists it as a requirement for graduation. The other five offer the program on an elective basis. Of the schools that offer internships, all have established a position of Internship Coordinator, and the responsibility for selection and placement rests with this individual. This may indicate, to some extent, the value placed upon these programs by their parent institutions. All schools surveyed with internship programs use a variety of sources to develop employer contacts, the most common of which includes a combination of sources consisting of the school and student. A Michigan State University lntemship Coordinator indicated that many times organizations are recruited by a student for their own 33 internship, and the University cultivates the employer to allow other students to follow at a later date (E. Hitch personal communication, April 19, 1998). The largest employer bank is Michigan State University, that reported over 65 businesses or sponsors on file. These participants are local, regional, and even international organizations. Grand Valley State listed 18 individuals and companies that offer students an opportunity to participate in the internship experience. While the University of Detroit did not relate a specific number, it cited “many” employers involved in their internship effort. Enrollment in Michigan Security Degree Programs Table 2 Number of Students Number of Institution Enrolled Programs 1-20 4 Henry Ford CC, Grand Valley State University University of Detroit 21-40 0 41-60 1 Michigan State University 61-80 1 Macomb CC 81 -More 0 Note: Lake Superior State U. did not respond to this question. 34 As illustrated in Table 2., of the schools with internship program, four (66%) have an enrollment of under 20 students. Enrollment in security programs seems to be low when compared with criminal justice programs that frequently flourish in the same building (J. Shouldice personal communication, April 12, 1998 ; J. Allen personal communication, September 4, 1997). Benefits of Michigan Internship Programs Student Benefits Henry Ford Community College and Grand Valley State University stressed the value of employment experience gained from internships. Henry Ford indicated that the school was looking for their new program “to give students verifiable work experience in the field they are studying. This should give them a tremendous advantage when they begin to seek employment. In fact, in strong programs you often find employers offering to hire interns before they have completed their full studies “(J . May ,personal communication, April 16, 1998). Both Michigan State University and the University of Detroit Mercy noted that the internship “gives students an insight into their chosen career” (Witkowski, 1998). This allows a student to make a career decision based on personal experience rather than third party recommendations, written job descriptions, or postings (C. Mateer personal communication, April 16, 1997). School Benefits When examining internships the primary focus is frequently on the benefits to the student who participate and are involved in the day to day workings of the program. But 35 there are benefits and advantages that are experienced by the school and programs that place them. Above and beyond the goal of facilitating a positive learning experience for the student, the surveyed schools reported institutional benefits. Both Michigan State and Henry Ford Community College cited the enhanced reputation that a strong internship program gives the institution. The fact that a school supplies top quality interns becomes known quickly within a local area. The reputation of a university is sometimes developed and cultivated over a hundred years or more and is a valuable asset to any educational institution. While a security program may only have a history of 30 years or less4 , its reputation and public standing are critical to it’s success. Participants in the study mentioned the value of a strong program to their image within the security and business community. They indicated that the word soon gets out if you consistently deliver responsible, well prepared interns to the business in your area. If you have a good product, your advertising costs go down. We sometimes have businesses who have heard positive things about our program call to get involved” (B. Johnson personal communication, April 14, 1998). Respondents comments were very similar regarding the future of their programs. None of the schools indicated an anticipated cutback or reduction in their placement efforts, although the University of Detroit Mercy and Michigan State University, indicated potential adjustments in focus or administration. Michigan State indicated one of their future goals was to increase the student-coordinator contact time. 4 Macomb Community College started its program in 1969 and is the second oldest security degree program in the country. 36 The University of Detroit Mercy noted that it planned an “increased emphasis on service” in the fiiture. The issue of on-the—j ob experience was cited by both Grand Valley State University and Henry Ford Community College as a considerable advantage for internship participants. The intern comes away from an internship with concrete, verifiable job experience in his or her Chosen field. Frequently employers will hire a good intern at the end of their program, or at least make some type of commitment for future employment (J. May personal communication, April 16, 1998). Potential Changes While all six schools indicated satisfaction with their programs, two stated that they were planning to make some changes to improve their already positive program. For example, Michigan State University plans to increase the amount of contact between the student interns and the intern coordinator. The importance of this contact was echoed by other participants “ The key to a good internship is planning and control. A coordinator must keep in Close touch with the student to ensure the placement is as productive as possible (B. Johnson personal communication, April 14, 1998).” The University of Detroit Mercy stated that it was attempting to revise their program to place more emphasis on “service” to the community. 37 CHAPTER V DISCUSSION When reviewing the results of this study there appears to be a clear predominance of the use of internships in private security education in Michigan. When compared to the many of the fields that utilize internships and other forms of experiential learning it seems that the growing field of security has chosen an effective and popular teaching technique to adopt. The traditional use of hands on internships in medicine, social work, engineering and other fields supports the administrators and participants of this study in giving internships a passing grade. The schools surveyed seem to be very satisfied with the benefits that the students receive from their internship program. Exit interview data from Michigan State University drawn from graduating students in their Criminal Justice program (which includes security graduates), contains many positive comments citing the importance value of internships. Several students suggested more or longer internships and recommended that other students take ”as many internships as you can participate in” (Senior Exit Survey, 1997). All the results and the supplemental data from interviews seems to support the premise that students who complete a successful internship are more likely to be hired and obtain valuable hands on experience. They also gather information critical to the making of career choices. 38 Another benefit of internships that was less expected was the benefit to the schools and universities that used programs. A schools reputation and standing in the community seem to be positively affected by a strong intern program. The interaction of faculty and coordinators with students and security practitioners helps to reduce the “incubator effect” cited by Hertig (1989). In other words, it opens up the environment and brings in new ideas and feedback on both education and practical applications. Stratification Of Labor In addition to this the data collected in this survey the existing literature seems to indicate an issue not commonly discussed. This is the fact that security ‘education’ must acknowledge that it needs to be both vocational and academic. With the stratification of the field we see a large section of security workers employed in low level jobs. These jobs with lower wages cannot be expected to cultivate the drive for advanced education. With the industry still uncertain of educational needs and values, low end employees cannot be expected to pay their way through college to gain a degree for which they may earn no additional income. These are workers who need to be tgaipgd rather than receive advanced or academic education. But at this same time there is a growing segment of the industry that aspires to management positions in this growing field. These individuals are the target market for the security education programs offered by colleges and universities. Until there is a broader view of the field by both academics and practitioners the question of the need for academic education within security will continue. 39 Technology Another area that does not seem to have garnered much interest or examination is the growing technical portion of the security industry. With technology and electronics playing a greater part in the industry, (and our lives) every year it would seem that the technical employees that design, implement, and maintain the electronic information net would receive more attention. This would be only natural for a group responsible for computer crime and security “one of the greatest challenges facing private security in the next ten years” (Cunningham et al., 1990 p.317). This is a field that has been ignored by many educators. While it may look like a strict vocational field, it has multiple facets. With the complexity of the computer and data security fields today we are long past the circuit soldering projects of the 1950’s electronic programs. System design, architecture, and security are all areas that will be in need of strong academic programs to train managers and the high functioning and educated people that will be needed to work for them. This group could prove to be a very significant and fast growing segment within the security industry. And estimated losses of $1 billion to $200 billion annually (Cunningham et al., 1990) makes it a filed that should not be ignored by security academics. 4O RECOMMENDATIONS The fact that private security programs are utilizing an effective educational tool such as internships should be applauded. But at the same time we should heed the old advice against sitting on ones laurels. The current programs should all consider the information and electronic aspect of security market. Efforts to develop technology oriented internships should be made by all schools wishing to stay current. In addition to the development of new fields, more effort should be made to expose students to a greater diversity of security topics. When reviewing their programs administrators should consider the use of a three part internship model. Each student could participate in three separate internship experiences: Management One phase should remain management oriented. This is an important foundation upon which the internship program has been built. Line Operations The majority of all positions in the security industry are at the lower or entry level of the industry. Any manager who begins his supervision career with hands on experience regarding the tasks and people he manages has an advantage. The fact that they have performed the tasks they are required to critique, evaluate, and manage will be valuable to their development as effective managers. 41 Electronics/Information management A short internship in this field could open up a whole new world to students who had never considered the information security field. Placement in access control or intrusion detection companies could also prove valuable to the students. The final advantage to this type of rotation could be a more rounded experience and more understanding of the total Operation as recommended by many security educators (Nalla et a1. 1996). FUTURE RESEARCH The largest area for future research seems to be that of the electronic and information security workers and managers. Efforts should be made to establish reliable data for their numbers, employment, growth trends, and future. This would be of value to any institution seeking to address this segment of the industry. 42 APPENDIX 43 SECURITY INTERNSHIP SURVEY Please note that participation in this survey is voluntary. You indicate your voluntary agreement to participate by completing and returning this questionnaire.lt is estimated that the time required to complete it will be 30 minutes or less. Organization 1. What are the titles of your security degree programs? 2. What degrees are conferred? A. B. C. D. Associate Bachelors Masters Other 3. Under which school/college is your security program organized? 4. Is your security program/degree: A. B. Preparatory ? Terminal ? 5. When was your program started? 6. Number of students currently enrolled in your program(s)? A. B. Full time Part time 7. Please list the titles of security classes offered in your program? (Use additional sheet if necessary) 44 Desigg 8. Does your security program offer internships? Yes _ No _ Note: If the answer to this question is “No please fill in any comments in the final section and return it as explained in the attached instructions. 9. If “Yes”, when did you first begin your internship program? 10. Is your internship program mandatory ? Yes No 11. What is the length of your internship? 12. Who is responsible for placement in your program? A. Coordinator B Placement Team/Committee C. Individual faculty members __ D Other 5.21%}: 13. Who selects students for participation in your internship program? A. Student __ B. Staff __ C. No selection done due to required nature of internship D. Other 14. What minimum GPA (if any) is required for participation in your internship program? 15. What minimum number of hours must be completed for students to be eligible for participation? Quarter hours Semester hours 16. Which classes (if any) are required prior to participation in your internship program? 45 Reporting 17. How many reports do internship participants submit to the program coordinator/advisor during the course of the internship? 1-3 _ 4-6 _ 7-10 ___Other 18. Are reports written or verbal ? (Please attach any forms used) 19. How frequently do employers report to the program coordinator/advisor? Weekly _ Monthly __ Upon completion _ Other 20. Are reports written __ or verbal _? (Please attach any forms used) 21. In which areas does the school use these reports or data? (Please Check any that apply) A. Student Grades B Curriculum Development C. Program Evaluation D Other Placement 22. How are employers selected? A. Recruited by School B. Recruited by Student C. Other 23. How many employers participate in your internship program? 24. Number of employers by location. Local __ Regional __ National __ 25. Do you have an employer recruitment program? Yes __ No __ If so, please describe: 26. What changes/improvements in your internship program do you anticipate making in the next 2 years? 46 27. What do you consider the most significant contribution or benefit of internships to your school or program? General Comments Please note that the names of those persons completing this survey will not be used in the study and will remain confidential. Institution Name: Completed by: Title: Date: Address: Telephone: E-Mail: Fax: 47 RETURN INFORMATION Please return this completed survey in the enclosed envelope by 08/01/97. INQUIRIES Questions or inquiries may be directed to: Lawrence Jackson CPP 4816 Strathcona Drive Highland, MI 48357 (810) 213-5705 or (810) 887-0987 48 COVER LETTER Dear Sir or Madam; The attached survey is part of a research project being conducted for a graduate thesis at the Michigan State University School of Criminal Justice. The purpose of this questionnaire is to gather data on security internship programs in Michigan postsecondary institutions. The collected data will be evaluated and the results will be made available to participating schools. This information will help to expand the base of knowledge in the areas of security education, administration, and placement. When filling out this form please complete as much as possible. If your school does not offer internships as a part of your program, please complete questions 1-8. A brief explanation of why you do not offer internships may be placed in the General Comments section and would be very beneficial to the study. Thank you for your prompt attention and assistance in completing this survey. Your participation in this survey is entirely voluntary. The deadline for return of the surveys is 08/01/97. The results will be available by 01/01/98. Copies of the completed study will be mailed out to all participants at that time. Should you have any questions please contact me at (810) 887-0987. Sincerely, Lawrence A. Jackson CPP 49 REFERENCES 50 REFERENCES Ackennan W. (1996). History of law and order in early Detroit and the formation of the Detroit Police Degrtment. Unpublished manuscript. ASIS Foundation. (1978). Establishing baccalaureate programs in security and loss prevention. Washington, DC: Author. ASIS. (1972). Academic guidelines for security and loss prevention programs in community and mior colleges. Washington, DC: Author Bottom, N. D. (Ed.) (1981). Appendix. Journal of SecurityAdministration. vol. 4 no. 1. Bottom, N. H. (Ed.) (1984). Table. Journal of Security Administration. vol. 7 no. 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