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DRUMMING FOR VIOLENCE PREVENTION: THE EFFECTS OF GROUP MUSIC
THERAPY ON SELF-ESTEEM AND PEER RELATIONSHIPS
IN HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
By

Jennifer G. Wyatt

A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
MASTER OF MUSIC IN MUSIC THERAPY
School of Music

2000

ABSTRACT

DRUMMING FOR VIOLENCE PREVENTION: THE EFFECTS OF GROUP MUSIC
THERAPY ON SELF-ESTEEM AND PEER RELATIONSHIPS
IN HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
By

Jennifer G. Wyatt

Violent, and other problem behavior, has been associated with many factors, including
low self-esteem (Deihl, Vicary, & Deike, 1997), poor interpersonal skills (Matlac,
McGreevy, Rouse, Flatter, & Marcus, 1994), and other social deficits (Dwyer, Osher, &
Warger, 1998; Snyder, Dishion, & Patterson, 1986). Music therapy has addressed these
issues in adjudicated and psychiatric populations (Eidson, 1989; Gardstrom, 1996;
Haines, 1989; Henderson, 1983; Montello & Coons, 1998), while “normal” high school
populations have been ignored. This study sought to document psychological changes in
public high school students who participated in music therapy drumming groups. 20
volunteers participated in ten 55-minute sessions, twice weekly for six weeks, and 19
students were assigned to a control group that received no services. The Rosenberg Self-
Esteem Scale (RSE) and the Index of Peer Relations (IPR) were administered before and
after the 6-week intervention. Independent samples t-tests revealed: (a) the difference
scores for the control group were greater than for the drumming group, but did not reach
significance on the IPR (p=0.081), and (b) the difference scores for the drumming group
were greater but not significant on the RSE (p=0.251). Exit interviews revealed that 13

students (N =20) stated they felt better about themselves after participating in the sessions.

Copyright by
JENNIFER GRACE WYATT

2000

iii

This research is dedicated to the students who volunteered their time, creativity,
and energy to participate in this project. This researcher and the students experienced

many benefits that reached beyond the quantitative results described in this report.

iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am grateful to Families and Communities Together (FACT), formerly the Child,
Youth, and Family Coalition (CYFC), of Michigan State University (MSU), for funding
this project.

I thank Christy Hicks-Bowman from the Michigan State University Extension
(MSUE) 4-H Program in Oakland County, M], for all of her valuable assistance in
carrying out this research. This project would not have been possible without her
practical help, advice, and knowledge of the school system. I also appreciate the efforts
of Thomas Schneider from the MSUE 4-H Program in Oakland County, MI.

I extend many thanks to Dr. Jabari Prempeh, Deborah Caldwell, and the rest of
the faculty and staff at Oak Park Academy for their support and generosity. I also
appreciate Alison Gravlin from Oak Park High School (OPHS) for volunteering her time
and energy, and Mr. William Murrell, Principal of OPHS.

I express gratitude to two members of my committee, Roger Smeltekop and Dr.
Michael Largey, for their insightfirl feedback and thoughtful comments on my research.

I thank Dr. Hilliard Foster for his guidance in the analysis and interpretation of
the quantitative data in this project.

I am indebted to Dario Dema for his unwavering support and understanding
during the course of my graduate career. I also thank my family.

I acknowledge that Dr. Frederick Tims served as the chair of my committee.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... viii
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION AND RATIONALE ............................................................................. 1

Self-Esteem and negative behaviors ....................................................................... 4

Social skills and negative behaviors ....................................................................... 6

Risk and protective factors ..................................................................................... 7

Successful characteristics of intervention programs and the arts ............................ 9
CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED RESEARCH ............................................................................ 13

Improvisational strategies ..................................................................................... 18

Framework of music therapy sessions ................................................................... 23

Opening and warm-up interventions ......................................................... 23

Structured interventions ............................................................................ 24

Group improvisation ................................................................................. 24

Closing intervention .................................................................................. 24

Dependent measures .............................................................................................. 26

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale ................................................................... 26

Index of Peer Relations ............................................................................. 27

Participant Opinion Survey ....................................................................... 27

Purpose and hypotheses ........................................................................................ 28
CHAPTER 3

METHOD ......................................................................................................................... 29

Participants ........................................................................................................... 29

Procedure ............................................................................................................. 29

Recruitment of participants .................................................................................. 30

Materials ............................................................................................................... 30

Experimental design ............................................................................................ 31

Pilot procedure ..................................................................................................... 31

Consent and approval ........................................................................................... 31

Analysis of data .................................................................................................... 32
CHAPTER 4

RESULTS ......................................................................................................................... 33

Sociodemo graphic variables ................................................................................. 33

Drumming group ...................................................................................... 34

Control group ........................................................................................... 34

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale ............................................................................... 34

Pretest ....................................................................................................... 34

Gender analysis ........................................................................................ 35

Vi

Posttest ...................................................................................................... 36

Difference scores on the RSE .................................................................... 36
Index of Peer Relations ......................................................................................... 37
Pretest ........................................................................................................ 37
Gender analysis ......................................................................................... 37
Posttest ...................................................................................................... 38
Difference scores on the IPR ..................................................................... 38
Participant Opinion Survey ................................................................................... 39
Retention of volunteers ......................................................................................... 40
CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................ 41
Limitations ............................................................................................................ 43
Successful accomplishments ................................................................................ 46
Suggestions for future research ............................................................................ 47
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 51
APPENDD( A
Participant Opinion Survey .................................................................................. 55
APPENDIX B
Sociodemographic questionnaire .......................................................................... 56
APPENDIX C
Consent form ........................................................................................................ 58
APPENDIX D
Long Lane School Intake Assessment of Needs ................................................... 63
APPENDIX E
Long Lane School Intake Assessment of Risk ...................................................... 68
APPENDIX F
Complete answers to selected questions on the POS ............................................ 71
APPENDIX G
Raw data ............................................................................................................... 74

vii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Means and standard deviations on the RSE at pretest ......................................... 35
Table 2. Means and standard deviations on the RSE at pretest; grouped by gender ......... 35
Table 3. Means and standard deviations on the RSE at posttest ........................................ 36

Table 4. Means and standard deviations for difference scores on pretest and posttest on

the RSE by group ................................................................................................... 36
Table 5. Means and standard deviations on the IPR at pretest .......................................... 37
Table 6. Means and standard deviations on the IPR at pretest; grouped by gender .......... 38
Table 7. Means and standard deviations on the IPR at posttest ......................................... 38

Table 8. Means and standard deviations for difi‘erence scores on pretest and posttest on

the IPR by group .................................................................................................... 39

viii

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION AND RATIONALE

In a survey of leisure interests of 211 Irish adolescents in an urban area,
Fitzgerald, Joseph, Hayes, & O’Regan (1995) found that listening to music was the most
preferred activity for both boys and girls. Mainprize (1985) noticed the “pervasiveness
and the importance of music” in a residential treatment facility for adolescents (p. 55). He
also observed the tendency of many adolescents to choose music that expressed values,
attitudes, and behaviors that were consistent with and relevant to their own lives. Finally,
music therapists have observed that music-making has many positive effects, particularly
on self-esteem (Eidson, 1989; Henderson, 1983; Johnson, 1981; Michel & Martin, 1970;
Sears, 1968) and social skills (Eidson, 1989; Henderson, 1983).

Since most adolescents are naturally attracted to music, it seems logical to use
music therapy groups to improve the lives of at-risk teenagers. It makes sense to
capitalize on this connection by developing a primary prevention pro gram in which music
is the central medium of change.

Stephens, Braithwaite, and Taylor (1998) utilized music from the hip-hop culture
to address the primary prevention of HIV and AIDS in small groups of African-American
adolescents. The authors presented a protocol that has not been empirically tested, but
was supported in theory by the results of previous research studies and cultural
observations. Their program was based on the following principle:

It is important to acknowledge the social environment of African-American youth

when dealing with their mental and physical health needs. Through the use of hip-

hop music and a small group environment, helping professionals can create a
situation that facilitates cooperative learning (Stephens et al., 1998, p. 135).

The authors also stressed the significance of using culturally relevant material in the
service of prevention programs in other areas, including violence and substance
prevention.

Hammond and Yung, in 1991, observed that structured programs in violence
prevention that have been “both designed for Afiican—American youth and shown to be
effective are virtually nonexistent” (p. 362). While this article is almost nine years Old, it
calls for the development of empirically-based interventions that are culturally responsive
to the needs of African-American youth.

Hanser (1987) observed that improvements in social and emotional domains are
often produced as a by-product of music-making. This idea is one of the basic principles
of professional music therapy practice; however the interventions used by the music
therapists are designed to influence changes in a desired direction. In this project, for
example, the researcher employed specific music therapy interventions and techniques
that were created to increase self-esteem and improve peer relationships.

Weitz (1996) reported that students who participated in arts activities at school,
such as hand, choir, or school plays, were significantly less likely to be arrested, use
substances, binge drink, or drop out of school. However, the students who were most in
need of the benefits of these programs tended to spend less time in creative activities
(Weitz, 1996). This may have been due to several reasons. For example, they may not
have been able to purchase the musical instruments necessary to develop the level of
competence and skill required to participate in organized musical groups. It may have
been an issue of after-school transportation, or that the students required more individual

attention than was available to help them learn. Lastly, the students may have felt that

established arts programs were not relevant or responsive to their lives and needs.

This is where music therapy is beneficial to the students. As a music therapist, I
have based my practice on the following principles. First, I have found that many
students with no musical experience were able to participate in music therapy groups.
Second, I believe that early successfiil experiences in music serve to enhance the
students’ sense of competence, creativity and self-esteem. Third, by making music with
others, I feel that adolescents learn appropriate interpersonal skills and how to resolve
conflicts nonviolently. The present study attempted to add to the existing literature that
studies music therapy’s effect and value as an intervention with adolescents.

There are many reasons why public high school students should become involved
in a violence prevention program. Violence, in its many forms, affects the lives of
everyone in the community, including teenagers, teachers, and parents. Weitz (1996)
reports the following alarming statistics:

1. In the US, a child dies from a gunshot wound every two hours, and three million
children each year are reported abused or neglected,

2. In 1993, over one-third of male high school youth, and nearly one in ten female
students, reported that they have carried a weapon (a knife, razor, club, or
firearm) at least once during the previous 30 days,

3. One in seven male high school students reported carrying a gun within the last
month (p. 5).

While these figures may seem overwhelming, they reflect the reality for today’s youth.

The Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry (GAP) Committee on Preventive
Psychiatry (1999) stated that of all the issues affecting modern youth, violent behavior is
the problem most amenable to prevention, because (a) it develops gradually, and (b) early

warning signs are generally present before the adolescent begins to behave violently.

Scales (1996) concurred that problem behaviors do not happen all of a sudden, but

gradually develop over time. Dwyer, Osher and Warger (1998), in their summary of
violence prevention research, reported that there was convincing evidence to support the
efficacy of intervention eiforts in reducing violent behavior and its correlates. Dwyer et
a1. (1998) compiled a list of early warning signs that may have indicated impending
difficulties. They cautioned that these signs should not be used as a checklist for
individual cases, but that clusters of warning signs suggested the need for some
intervention. 1

Social withdrawal, excessive feelings of isolation and loneliness, and extreme
feelings of rejection, which are related to peer and other interpersonal relationships, were
part of this list. Dwyer et al. suggested a number of intervention tactics, including
teaching positive interaction skills. The present study attempted to implement such

intervention strategies in the context of music therapy drumming sessions.

Self-Esteem and negative behaviors

Davis and Beverly (1991), who interviewed 20 adolescents adjudicated for
“assault with the intent to commit great bodily harm or murder,” found that teenagers in
their sample tended to be narcissistic and insecure, and had low self-esteem. These
conclusions were based on interviews by clinical social workers, and were meant to
comprise the data for a descriptive study. Dukes, Martinez, and Stein (1997) concluded
that youth with lower self—esteem were recruited by gangs, and therefore engaged in more
delinquent behavior than peers who were not involved in gangs.

Branden (1992), a prominent researcher in self-esteem, stated the importance Of

self-esteem in terms of relationships with others:

 

The higher our self-esteem, the more inclined we are to treat others with respect,

benevolence, good will, and fairness—since we do not tend to perceive them as a

threat, and since self-respect is the foundation of respect for others (p. 15).

It may be that an individual who has respect for, and cares about, others could
simultaneously engage in violent behavior.

Deihl, Vicary and Deike (1997) conducted a longitudinal study to measure
changes in self-esteem in 142 lower to lower-middle class rural teenagers over a four-
year period. Data collection began immediately after the students entered junior high
school and included the participants’ transitions to high school. The authors were also
interested in connecting changes in self-esteem to other personal and psychosocial
variables, including gender, problem/competency behaviors, and peer social support. A
final goal of the study was to identify self-esteem trajectories in the students over time.

A cluster analysis was used to identify the trajectories. Deihl et a1. (1997)
suggested that “. . .to consider only the total mean would have concealed the
interindividual differences amount [the] sample” (p. 403). Three self-esteem groups
emerged in this analysis: (a) consistently high, (b) small increase, and (c) chronically low.
Students in the first group were considered to be resilient by Deihl et al., in that they were
able to negotiate transitions to new schools without sustaining damage to their self-
esteem. Most of the participants in this group also evaluated their peer and family
relationships positively. The authors postulated that these relationships served as
protective factors for their self-esteem

Participants in the small increase group exhibited slow steady improvements in

self-esteem over time. This finding supports the developmental tenet that self-esteem is

gained through the successful mastery of experiences over time (Deihl et al.).

 

Finally, Deihl et al. found that students in the chronically low group scored lowest
during the seventh to eighth grade school year. Therefore, the authors theorized that this
drop was more a function of students’ perceptions and experiences in the school, than
related to specific transition times themselves. When compared to the other groups,
students in the chronically low group seemed to be more susceptible to negative
outcomes (Deihl et al.).

Additionally, the chronically low and consistently high participants evaluated
their peer and family relationships with less and more satisfaction, respectively. The
authors concluded that the psychosocial variables that were related to high self-esteem,
such as positive peer social support, might have worked as protective factors, thus

insulating the adolescent’s self-esteem from the efiects of negative experiences.

Social skills and negative behaviors

Snyder et a1. (1986) concluded that both family and peers were influential in the
development of antisocial, delinquent behavior in teenagers. They found that pre- and
early adolescents who associated with deviant peers exhibited a lack of social skills.
These results have implications for prevention programs in that teaching appropriate
social skills may reduce the likelihood that students will seek out antisocial peers, thereby
reducing the chance that they will engage in negative violent behaviors.

Hammond and Yung (1991) developed a social skills program based on the notion
that if adolescents were made aware of their options in problem-solving and
communication, they would be better equipped to form and sustain nonviolent

relationships. Cole (1995) also highlighted the importance of teaching alternatives to

violence through school-based activities. Matlac, McGreevy, Rouse, Flatter, and Marcus
( 1994) found that incarcerated adolescents demonstrated poorer social skills than
nonincarcerated adolescents.
Dwyer et a1. summarized the social precursors to violent behavior in youth and
implications for prevention:
We know from research that most children who become violent toward self or
others feel rejected and psychologically victimized. In most cases, children
exhibit aggressive behavior early in life and, if not provided support, will continue
a progressive developmental pattern toward severe aggression or violence.
However, research also shows that when children have a positive, meaningful
connection to an adult—whether it be at home, in school, or in the community—
the potential for violence is reduced significantly” (p. 12).
Thus, the challenge for the schools and communities is to ofier programs that attract

youth so that these insulating relationships may be formed.

Risk and protective factors

The GAP Committee on Preventive Psychiatry (1999) suggested applying a risk
and protective factors approach to the problem of youth violence. This method considers
risk factors in addition to insulating, or protective, factors that work within an individual.
For example, an adolescent may live with one parent who has substance abuse problems.
These risk factors impede his/her healthy development. If the same teenager also has the
ability to solicit the attention of a teacher at school who provides those things that his/her
parent cannot, the adolescent becomes protected against the negative risk factors. This
was a simple example of how both risk and protective factors work in the lives of at-risk
adolescents.

Risk factors for delinquency and violence include the following: (a) lack of

 

parental monitoring, (b) academic failure, (c) rejection by positive peers, (d) inability to
regulate strong emotions, (e) low self-esteem, (t) substance abuse, and (g) living in an
economically deprived environment (Appalachia Educational Laboratory (AEL), 2000;
Oflice of Juvenile Justice & Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP), 2000). Protective factors
consist of anything that may positively affect the adolescent, including the following: (a)
an optimistic attitude, (b) individual intelligence, (c) a personal orientation towards the
future, ((1) parents that discipline in a consistent and predictable manner, and (e) schools
that incorporate techniques to address diverse learning styles and multiple intelligences
by offering classes in academics and the arts (AEL, 2000; OJJDP, 2000).

Another approach that emphasizes positive aspects of adolescents’ lives is the
asset-based approach. The Search Institute, based in Minneapolis, Minnesota, has
conducted extensive research on assets that are associated with healthy development of
youth. They have collected information on the lives and needs of sixth- to twelfth-graders
fiom about 250,000 youth across the United States (Scales, 1996). This mass collection
of data has been distilled into 40 assets that are present in the lives of successful youth.
These have been further separated into eight broad domains: (3) support, (b)
empowerment, (c) boundaries and expectations, ((1) constructive use of free time, (e)
commitment to learning, (I) positive values, (g) social competencies, and (h) positive
identity (Roehlkepartain, 1999).

This project addressed several of these assets. Under the category Of constructive
use of free time, asset number 17 stated that the “teenager participates in creative
activities” and asset number 18 stated that the teenager participates in school or

community programs (Roehlkepartain, 1999). A “healthy sense of personal power” and

“high self-esteem” comprised assets 37 and 38 under the positive identity area
(Roehlkepartain, 1999). Teenagers that “have empathy, sensitivity, and fiiendship
skills,” “resist negative pressure fiom others,” and “resolve conflicts peacefully”
demonstrated assets under the social competencies category (Roehlkepartain, 1999).
These assets were directly related to the present program.

In an important longitudinal study on a sample of children from the Hawaiian
island of Kauai, Werner (1996) reported on a cluster of protective factors that emerged in
adults who had been classified as at-risk children, but successfully adapted to their lives.
Two of these clusters were relevant in this discussion. First, individuals who possessed
social skills that elicited caring support from adults were able to negotiate childhood
challenges (Werner, 1996). Second, children whose parents fostered self-esteem and
feelings Of mastery through their parenting styles also fared better than children who did
not experience this protective factor.

Zimmerman, Copeland, Shope, and Dielrnan (1997), in a longitudinal study of
self-esteem, concluded that “the successfiil development of a positive sense of self-worth
may help enhance healthy outcomes or protect youth from engaging in problem
behavior” (p. 118). This represents the spirit behind the asset-building approach to youth

development.

Successful characteristics of intervention programs and the arts
Over thirty years ago, Sears (1968) recognized the benefits of music applied in a
therapeutic context. Sears classified and described the effects of music on individuals, his

efforts culminating in a series of processes. These processes were separated into three

broad categories: (a) experience within structure, (b) experience in self-organization, and
(c) experience in relating to others. Each of these classes was further divided into specific
behavioral descriptions. His processes in music therapy were applied to and compared
with the characteristics of successful arts and humanities programs, as described in a
report from the Presidential Committee on the Arts and Humanities (Weitz, 1996).

Weitz (1996) surveyed several youth development programs that utilized the arts
and humanities to enhance the positive development of at-risk children and adolescents in
a variety of community settings:

Perhaps the most distinguishing aspect of these programs is their ability to take

fiill advantage of the capacity of the arts and the humanities to engage students.

Beginning with this engagement, programs impart new skills and encourage new

perspectives that begin to transform the lives of at-risk children and youth (p. 2).
The arts programs provide another way to direct the development of children and
adolescents along healthy pathways (Weitz, 1996).

Sears (1968) discussed music’s ability to provide Opportunities to relate to others
in delineating the processes of music therapy. In a group setting, it allows for the
experience of each person as a group member, it can encourage the acceptance of
responsibility to self and others, and music enhances both verbal and nonverbal
communication and social interaction (Sears, 1968). Music therapy groups can teach the
basic social skills necessary to function as part of a larger community or organizations
(Sears, 1968). Weitz (1996) cited the ability to “create safe places for children and youth
where they can develop constructive relationships with their peers” (p. 2) as a
characteristic of a successful program.

The importance of developing close and interactive relationships with adults led

Weitz (1996) to suggest that successfiil programs have offered small classes and groups.

10

She also recommended providing opportunities for the adolescents to build their sense of
self-worth and accomplishment. Sears (1968) explained that the adaptability of musical
situations, (i.e., performance, listening, etc.) allowed for the experience of self-expression
and personal acknowledgment. He also thought that when a patient or client has a
successful musical experience, or feels needed by others, his/her self-esteem might
increase.

Weitz (1996) noticed that a successful youth program “builds on what youth value
and understand, and encourages voluntary participation” (p. 2). Stephens et al.
specifically observed this when they used hip-hop music to get a prevention message
across to African-American youth. Since adolescents are naturally drawn to music, this
motivation is incorporated into a music therapy program Youth express and explore their
values, beliefs, and feelings through musical experiences (Emunah, 1990; Mainprize,
1985). It seems logical for music therapists to guide them through this process using a
medium that is familiar, fun, and intrinsically valuable to the adolescent.

Another characteristic was that successful programs clearly stated expectations
and awarded positive progress (Weitz, 1996). Musical performances, for example, could
provide an opportunity for social reward and acknowledgement in the form of audience
applause. This was based on Sears’ (1968) idea that “music provides opportunities for
socially acceptable reward and nonreward” (p. 33).

Weitz (1996) recommended that program leaders document the interventions
used, continuously evaluate the strengths and weakness of their programs, and compare
their abstract goals with the concrete results of the program. Finally, Weitz (1996)

stressed the importance of resourcefulness and creativity in developing arts and

11

humanities programs for at-risk youth. She noticed that “the individuality of each
program is testimony to the field’s ingenuity” (p. 2).

In summary, low self-esteem has been linked to problem behavior and has been
associated with interpersonal difficulties (Branden, 1992; Deihl et al., 1997). Poor social
skills have been seen in incarcerated adolescents (Matlac et al., 1994). From an asset-
building approach, some of the 40 assets present in the lives of positive youth have been
reviewed and incorporated into the present study.

Cole (1995) stated that programs focusing on social skills training, self-esteem,
and anger management for example, were all necessary in addressing violent behavior in
youth. While music therapy has not been Officially linked to violence prevention
programs, it has been used to address the correlates and predictors of violent behavior in

adolescents.

12

CHAPTER 11

REVIEW OF RELATED RESEARCH

Many of the research studies that have been completed with adolescents in music
therapy have focused on emotionally-disturbed, hospitalized or adjudicated youth. The
present study sought to determine the effects of participation in music therapy groups on
“normal” high school students. Despite this difference, many research articles reviewed
in this chapter share similar characteristics, such as using music therapy to address self-
esteem and other interpersonal issues of adolescents.

Eidson (1989) wanted to determine the efi‘ects of behaviorally-oriented music
therapy on the generalization of interpersonal Skills from music therapy sessions to the
classroom Twenty-five emotionally disturbed students between the ages of 11 and 16,
were participants in one of three treatment conditions: (a) a music therapy group that
targeted the selected behaviors (n=17), (b) a general music therapy group (n=3), and (c) a
control group with no music therapy intervention (n=5). The researcher “designated
subjects from the only inner city classroom as a subgroup” in order to “stack the
experimental group against showing a treatment effect” (Eidson, 1989, p. 208). This
subgroup participated in a targeted-behavior music therapy group, but it was unclear to
which one they were assigned. The Eidson did not define the term “inner city”, but he
described the other groups as comprised of students from middle class neighborhoods.
Thus, it may be assumed that Eidson used this term to refer to adolescents of lower
socioeconomic status.

A token economy system was enacted to encourage the adolescents to learn the

13

 

 

targeted behaviors during the music therapy sessions (Eidson, 1989). Examples of the
targeted behaviors were the following: (a) treat others with respect (e. g., wait his/her turn,
interact appropriately with adults and peers); (b) on-task (e.g., eye contact, participation);
and (c) accept consequences (e. g., stop inappropriate behavior and begin on—task behavior
when verbally redirected).

Eidson (1989) found that the students in the targeted-behavior music therapy
group generalized the learned interpersonal behaviors to other classroom settings better
than the other two groups, as rated by their teachers. The students in the general music
therapy group also performed the interpersonal behaviors better than the control group.
Eidson (1989) pointed out that the general music therapy sessions occurred twice as often
as the targeted-behavior group.

It should be noted that the 17 students in the experimental groups were split into
smaller groups: there were two targeted-behavior groups and two general music therapy
groups. Interestingly, three of these four experimental groups contained only three
students. It is possible that the behavioral changes were due to the increase in personal
attention given to each student, rather than to the treatment itself.

Eidson (1989) observed that the performance of the desired behaviors increased
towards the end of each music activity. It is possible that the students learned that they
would receive a verbal redirection if they misbehaved during the activity, since the
opportunity to earn tokens was only given at the end of each activity.

A critique of this study was that the small number of students in each group is not

realistic in today’s educational delivery systems. Additionally, from a research

14

perspective, a larger number of participants were preferred. In the present study, a larger
number of students were assigned to each group in order to strengthen the
generalizability of the results. Part of the Eidson’s design that was adopted was that the
students were chosen fiom intact classrooms. This practice violated the principle of
random assignment, but it reflected a more natural setting. It was not possible to break
the classes up for practical reasons.

Finally, Eidson (1989) employed a group setting. Group settings have been
recommended by Yalom (1995) as the best place to learn and practice social and
interpersonal skills. Yalom has written several books on group and individual therapy and
is respected as an authority in the field. He believes that group settings are ideal for
learning social skills, because the group fimctions as a social microcosm. Yalom (1995)
stated that the patients will “over time, automatically and inevitable begin to display their
maladaptive interpersonal behavior in the therapy group” (p. 28). When this behavior is
observed and experienced by the other group members, the group can bring it to the
person’s attention. Thereby beginning the therapeutic process with the first step:
awareness. While Yalom wrote about a long-term, growth-oriented and adult group
psychotherapy model, his ideas had applications for this study.

Montello & Coons (1998) compared the behavioral effects of an active, rhythm-
based music therapy group with a receptive, listening-based music therapy group in
emotionally disturbed adolescents. They measured changes in attention, motivation, and
hostility through a teacher’s rating form. Three intact classrooms were selected to
participate in the project. Group A and Group C had six students, and each received one

45-minute active music therapy session per week for 12 weeks, and Group B (n=4)

15

participated in the receptive music therapy condition. After the 12-week period, Group B
received active music therapy, Group A switched to passive music therapy, and Group C
continued with active music therapy, for another 12 weeks.

The active music therapy condition focused on learning to read and write
rhythms, play percussive instruments, and improvise music. In the receptive music
therapy sessions, the groups listened to and discussed songs that were brought in by the
therapist and the members of the group. Montello and Coons (1998) found that when
Group A attended the active music therapy sessions, the members’ hostility ratings
increased. The authors observed that some of the members of this group displayed
behaviors that prevented them from becoming part of a cohesive group. They postulated
that the creativity and spontaneity required to play and improvise music were too
threatening for a group who may have done better in a more structured and secure setting.
Montello and Coons (1998) reported that the preferred experience of listening to music,
seemed to slowly foster cohesion in Group A.

Overall, an interesting implication for clinical practice was found in this study for
building a therapeutic alliance with adolescents with oppositional defiant and attention
deficit disorders. The therapist’s focus in the receptive music therapy sessions was to
learn about the students’ experiences and preferences. In the active music therapy
sessions the students were asked to learn new skills (i.e., improvising, learning to read
and write rhythms, etc.). The students in the receptive group were not challenged as much
in the active group, as they were asked to comment on and share their opinions about the
musical selections with the rest of the group:

This approach seemed to soften the defenses of the oppositional/defiant subjects
who needed to be listened to unconditionally and to feel a sense of power and

16

control in relation to the authority figure represented by the music therapist. The

passive “listening” approach seemed to take the focus off the therapist and her

“agenda,” and ofl‘ered it back to the subjects. This helped to facilitate the growth

of the therapeutic alliance between therapist and group members which led to

increased levels of trust and a willingness among group members to be more

cooperative, spontaneous, and creative” (Montello & Coons, 1998, pp. 61-62).
On the other hand, the students in Group B, who were all diagnosed with externalizing
behaviors (i.e., acting out, conduct disorder, aggressiveness) seemed to benefit fi'om the
active sessions. The authors suggested that the rhythm-based interventions provided an
outlet for their anger, fi'ustration, and energy.

The present study employed a rhythm-based setting. A difference from Montello
and Coons (1998) was that this researcher taught the rhythms primarily by rote, while
Montello & Coons (1998) included reading and writing as part of the active sessions.
Many adolescents with oppositional defiant and attention deficits also have problems
with cognition that affect their ability to perform academic skills, such as reading and
writing. They may have experienced fi'ustration during these academic components of the
music therapy setting, which may have accounted for the increase in hostility.

Another advantage of rote learning is that many students, and people in general,
are able to play more complicated rhythms than they can read. By avoiding the use of
written music, this researcher believed that she was able to provide successful and
effective music therapy experiences.

Montello and Coons (1998) reported using some of the improvisation techniques
described by Bruscia (1987). Bruscia was one of the first authors to categorize and
describe the models, techniques, and processes of improvisation as a therapeutic

intervention. The proposed study also employed several of the improvisation strategies

explained by Bruscia.

17

Improvisational strategies

The researcher utilized standard improvisational techniques, as described by
Bruscia (1987). The author primarily employed strategies from three of Bruscia’s (1987)
categories: (a) structuring techniques, (b) techniques of empathy, and (c) redirection
techniques.

Rhythmic grounding, tonal centering, and shaping belong to the structuring
techniques category. In rhythmic grounding, the researcher provided a basic pulse or
rhythmic ostinato in order to create a stable foundation for the group to improvise over.
The difference between rhythmic grounding and the next strategy was that the author
employed melodic elements to ground the group’s music (i.e., scale, harmony, tonal
center). Finally, shaping involved helping the group to develop the contours of their
musical phrases in order to encourage expression.

The next category, techniques of empathy, contains the following improvisational
strategies: (a) imitating, (b) synchronizing, (c) incorporating, (d) pacing, (e) reflecting,
and (f) exaggerating (Bruscia, 1987). Imitating involved mimicking certain elements of a
group member’s music, and in synchronizing, the author mirrored what the group
member was doing, simultaneously. The author elaborated on a participant’s musical
theme or behavior in the incorporating technique, and a music therapist using the pacing
technique focused on matching the group member’s energy level. The reflecting strategy
required the researcher to musically match the behaviors and moods of the student.
Lastly, when a music therapist magnified a unique aspect of the participant’s music,
he/ she used the exaggerating technique.

The final category of Bruscia’s (1987) improvisational strategies used in the

18

 

present study was comprised of the redirection techniques. These included introducing
change, in which the researcher initiated new rhythmic or melodic material in an effort to
influence the direction of the improvisation. In differentiation, the music therapist
improvised complementary but diflerent music. Finally, if the researcher altered the key
or meter of the music, she employed the modulating technique.

The preceding was a brief introduction to some of the improvisational techniques
the researcher used during the improvisation section of the sessions. Bruscia (1987)
offered many other strategies that may have been applied, depending on the needs of the
group members. Since the purpose of the improvisations was for the students to play
together as a group, the author’s role was to facilitate, support, and provide a ground for

this process.

Henderson (1983) studied the effects of a music therapy program on awareness of
mood in music, group cohesion, and self-esteem among hospitalized adolescent patients.
The researcher randomly assigned 13 adolescents with the diagnosis of adjustment
reaction to adolescence, to a music therapy group (n=8) and a control group (n=5). It
appeared that Henderson (1983) used primarily receptive listening interventions (e.g.,
drawing to music, group discussions of mood in music, story composition to background
music) in the study. He used an adjective checklist to determine changes in the agreement
of mood in music, scores on the Coppersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (CSEI) measured
self-esteem, and sociograms to measure group cohesion.

Significant improvements were noted in the music therapy group in the area of

agreement on mood in music and in the increase in the use of group versus personal

19

 

pronouns in describing group feelings. The patients in the music therapy group improved
more than the controls on the self-esteem measure, but the improvement was not
statistically significant. Significance was also not achieved on the group cohesion
instrument.

Henderson (1983) assigned eight patients to the experimental group, which is
close to the number of students assigned to the music therapy groups in the present study.
One difference in this article was that the music therapy treatment consisted of receptive
interventions. The present study employed active interventions in which the students
created music together. Montello & Coons (1998), found that each group reacted
difl‘erently according to the structure of the music therapy sessions; that is, whether or not
primarily active or receptive interventions were used. Another difference was that the
present study sought to involve a larger number of participants. This larger number
enhanced generalizability, and the overall strength of the study.

The purpose of the next study was to compare the effects of two treatment
approaches, music therapy) and verbal therapy, on self-esteem in emotionally-disturbed
adolescents between the ages of 11 and 16 (Haines, 1989). Ten students participated in a
music therapy group, and nine attended a verbal therapy group. Haines (1989) conducted
both the music and the verbal therapy groups. Treatment occurred in two stages, each
consisting of six 30-minute sessions.

The goals for sessions one through six were the following: (a) each member will
recognize one strength about her/himself and one other participant, (b) the group will
name itself, and (c) each group will decide on a final product (i.e., performance of a song

in the music group; a poster in the verbal group). The second set of six sessions focused

20

 

 

 

on the participants taking leadership roles, and organizing the group to produce the final
project. The CSEI was used to measure changes in self-esteem. The researcher also
developed a form, which listed 15 behaviors related to self-esteem. The form required her
to rate each group session on a 5-point Likert-type scale. No significant differences were
found on the CSEI or on the experimenter-created form.

The interesting information in this study came in the form of comments made by
the participants about the group process. The author reported that the students in the

music therapy group “initiated work from the beginning, playing music together,

 

discussing, criticizing, reflecting, and changing their relationships” (p. 88). They first
focused on concrete activities, such as setting up the instruments, and eventually moved
into the conflict and resolution stages. According to the author, they then discussed and
implemented solutions to their group problems.

TO put this into perspective, Yalom (1995) described the developmental stages of
therapy groups. In the initial stage, the members of the group are orienting themselves to
each other and to the therapist. This stage is characterized by confusion, in which the
patients are trying to understand how their problems will be solved, and are generally
dependent upon the therapist to heal them (Yalom, 1995). The second stage is
characterized by conflict among the members of the group, and between the therapist and
the members (Yalom, 1995). Negative comments are more common as “each member
attempts to establish his or her preferred amount of initiative and power” (Yalom, 1995,
p. 297). Finally, in the third stage and last stage described by Yalom (1995), the group
begins to develop cohesion. As mutual trust, intimacy and closeness are experienced by

the group members, self-disclo sure increases.

21

Haines (1989) stated that the participants in the verbal group were resistant to
working and were disappointed about not being in the music therapy group. It is possible
that the verbal setting was too threatening for this group of students, or that the unique
nonverbal nature of music was able to cut through some of the group’s defenses. The
author decided to run both the music and verbal therapy groups herself. It is also possible
that she may have inadvertently influenced the results in one direction or another. While
this design may have accounted for differences in therapist style and approach, it may
have clouded her objectivity.

Haines (1989), in her review of literature, erroneously reported the findings of a study
by Henderson (1983). Haines (1989) stated that “listening exercises which emphasized
mood recognition and awareness have been effective in improving self-esteem and group
cohesion” (p. 79), while Henderson (1983) clearly reported that “significance was not
achieved for scores on group cohesion and self-esteem. However, on both measures,
experimentals improved more than did controls, and significance was approached for the
cohesion measure” (p. 20). Haines’ statement was confusing, because it implied that the
improvements on self-esteem and group cohesion were statistically significant.

Finally, two similarities between this study and the proposed study are (a) the
framework for the sessions, and (b) the number of students in the music therapy group.
Haines (1989) also employed a set structure for each session: (a) warm-up, (b) musical or
verbal activity, (c) self-reflection and discussion, and (d) closing exercise. This researcher

also utilized a four-part design, but the inner steps served a difierent purpose.

 

 

Framework of the music therapy sessions

In the current study, each music therapy session followed the same basic
fiamework: (a) an opening or warm-up intervention, (b) a structured intervention
focusing on the process of ensemble-playing, (c) a group improvisation, and (d) a closing
verbal intervention. Each session was planned to address issues of self-esteem and peer
relationships through improvisation and ensemble-playing, respectively. The author
chose from a variety of standard music therapy techniques based on the immediate needs
of the group members.

The following interventions were used by the researcher in clinical practice with
adolescents in both inpatient and outpatient treatment programs. Some of the
interventions were adapted from music education. Together, the music therapy
interventions formed the beginning of a violence prevention program that was
empirically tested in this project.

Opening and warm-up interventions. For the first two or four sessions, each group
began with “say and play” interventions. Each member was given an egg shaker, and
asked to stand in a circle. Each person said his/her name when prompted, then said and
played his/her name on the shaker, and finally played his/her name on the egg shaker
alone. The main goal of this intervention was to familiarize the group members and the
researcher with each person’s name. Another benefit was that each person was given a
chance to be recognized both verbally and musically by the group.

Another warm-up intervention was called “echoing.” Schmid (1998) presented
this idea for teaching world music drumming rhythms to students. It consisted of one

person playing a rhythm, and the rest of the group imitating the same rhythm, in tempo.

23

 

The goals of this technique were (a) to assess the rhythmic ability of the participant, (b)
to provide a successful group experience, and (c) to encourage group recognition for each
member of the group.

Structured interventions. These interventions were designed to foster ensemble-
playing. They required the members to listen and respond to each other. An example in
this category consisted of another technique described by Schmid (1998). One person
began playing a simple rhythm, and another person “filled in the space,” by playing a
complementary rhythm. This process continued until everyone was playing together.

Group improvisation. This section addressed self-esteem. The participants were
asked to play the instruments together as a group. The researcher’s role in the
improvisation was to facilitate and support this process. The goal of this section was to
allow for each group member to contribute something that was uniquely their own to the
group. It was thought that self-esteem would be positively affected, by accepting each
member’s musical input.

Closing intervention. During this last section of the session, the group formed a
circle. Each member was asked to describe how the group’s music felt to him/her in one

word.

The last study reviewed in this chapter was conducted by Roskam (1997). She
described a project that she supervised with five adolescents, three of which finished the
study, at a residential treatment facility in California. Her purpose was to begin to
demonstrate “. . .the power of music to make a positive contribution in the lives of young

people” (p. 1). Roskam’s (1997) specific goal with this project was to “. . .chronicle

24

 

evidence of musical interaction among adolescents that could be described as improving
self-esteem and allowing constructive group participation” (p. 1).

The primary music therapy intervention was improvisation with drums, in which
the adolescents were encouraged to express all of their feelings, including anger,
happiness, fi'ustration, and sadness (Roskam, 1997). The group met twice a week for 45-
minute sessions. Roskam (1997) described the structure of the sessions as imperative to
the group; the same opening and closing songs were used for the entire two semester time
period. The sessions were also videotaped to evaluate the participants’ progress toward
objectives related to self-esteem and interpersonal skills. Some of these Objectives were
(a) making positive self-statements, (b) behaving in a manner consistent with feelings of
belonging to the group, and (0) following directions (Roskam, 1997).

Roskam’s (1997) clinical evaluation of the project was that it utilized a musical
model to “. . .provide a safe, engaging, peer-valued avenue for maturation, increased self-
awareness, the practice of better behavior and an opportunity for the teenagers to relate
more positively to their world, their fiiends, and themselves” (p. 3). Finally, she
discussed plans to expand the project to involve many more students.

This study appeared to be qualitative in design and analysis, as it focused on the
experiences of three adolescents. The data included an analysis of their comments, and
the therapist’s observations of the their progress. No quantitative statistics were reported
and there was no comparison group.

The present study shared similar characteristics with, and attempted to improve
upon, Roskam’s “Music making as therapy” (1997) project. The present study employed

quantitative statistical analyses in order to evaluate the results. Second, the sample size

25

 

was increased to involve more students. The sessions in the present project were
videotaped to analyze the most effectiveness of the interventions. Lastly, a drumming

ensemble was also the basis for most of the interventions in this study.

Dependent measures

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE) (Rosenberg, 1965). This scale, developed by
Dr. Morris Rosenberg, was used to assess improvements in self-esteem It is a 10-item
self-administered scale that has been widely used since its creation in 1962 in
psychological research. Scores range from 10 to 25, with higher scores indicating lower
self-esteem. (Please see the second edition of Measures for Clinical Practice: A
Sourcebook, edited by J. Fischer & K. Corcoran and, published in 1994, for a copy of the
test.)

In terms of reliability, Fischer & Corcoran (1994) stated that the RSE had a
Guttman scale coeflicient of reproducability of .92, which implied excellent internal
consistency. They also cited two-week test-retest reliability from two studies at .85 and
.88, which established excellent stability.

With regards to validity, Fischer & Corcoran (1994) reported that a large number
of research studies using the RSE have corroborated its concurrent, predictive, known-
groups, and construct validity. The RSE has been significantly correlated with other
assessments of self-esteem, including the Coppersmith Self-Esteem Inventory. Finally,
the RSE correlates in predicted directions with measures of depression, anxiety, and peer-
group reputation, thus demonstrating good construct validity by correlating with

measures with which it should theoretically correlate, and not correlating with those with

26

 

which it should not (Fischer & Corcoran, 1994).

Index of Peer Relations (IPR) (Hudson, 1992). Developed by Walter W. Hudson,
the IPR is a 25—item self-administered questionnaire that measures the severity of peer
relationship problems (Fischer & Corcoran, 1994). For this project, the participants will
refer to their friends at school as the designated peer group.

Scores range fi‘om 0 to 100, with higher scores designating more severe problems.
The IPR utilizes two cutting scores; namely 30 and 70 (Fischer & Corcoran, 1994).
Scores below 30 (i5) signify a clinically insignificant problem. Scores between 30 and
70 indicate a clinically significant peer relationship problem. Finally, scores above 70
strongly suggest that the respondent’s relationship problems with his/her peers are severe.
Fischer & Corcoran (1994) reported a mean alpha score of .94, which demonstrated
excellent internal consistency, and a low Standard Error of Measurement of 4.44. No
information on test-retest reliability was available. They continued to state that the IPR
had excellent known-groups validity, in that it accurately distinguished between
respondents who did and did not have peer relationship problems. (Please see the second
edition of Measures for Clinical Practice: A Sourcebook, edited by J. Fischer & K.
Corcoran and published in 1994, for a copy of the test.)

Participant Opinion Survey (POS). This survey was administered to the
experimental group by the researcher at the end of the drumming sessions. It was
developed by the researcher and consisted of a series of five “fill—in—the-blank,” two ‘yes-
or-no,” and one open-ended question. (Please see Appendix A for a copy of this test.) The
survey was designed (a) to briefly assess the experiences of the participants in the

drumming group, (b) to determine whether or not the students felt better about

27

'_

themselves after participating in the drumming sessions, and (c) to provide closure for
each of the students.

The first questions on the POS were structured to help the students feel more
comfortable with the interview process. The most important information on this
instrument related to each student’s experience of self-esteem (Please see Questions 3

and 7 on the POS in Appendix C).

Purpose and hwotheses

The purpose of this research was to document psychological changes in public
high school students who participated in music therapy groups. The research hypotheses
were as follows:

1. Students who participated in music therapy groups will evidence greater
improvement in self-esteem than the control group, as measured by the
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE).

2. Students who participated in music therapy groups will evidence greater
improvement in peer relationships than the control group, as measured by the
Index of Peer Relations (IPR).

3. Music therapy will be valued by the students in the drumming group, as

measured by responses on the Participant Opinion Survey (POS).

28

 

CHAPTER III

METHOD

Participants

Thirty-nine students fi'om Oak Park High School (OPHS) and Oak Park Academy
(OPA) in Oak Park, Michigan, took part in the project. There were 19 students in the no-
contact control group, and 20’ students in the music therapy group. The Oak Park school
district was composed of primarily Afi'ican-American students, with a small population
of Arabic adolescents. It was located in a metropolitan Detroit community.

Participants who attended OPHS were assigned to a no-contact control group, and
students who attended OPA participated in the drumming sessions. The control group
completed the testing procedures, but did not receive music therapy services. Volunteers
in the music therapy group participated in the music therapy groups, and completed the
psychological measures.

The students in the music therapy group attended ten 55-minute sessions, twice

weekly for six weeks. The sessions took place during the school day at OPA.

Procedure

Each music therapy session followed the same basic framework: (a) an opening or
warm-up intervention, (b) a structured intervention focusing on the process of ensemble-
playing, (c) a group improvisation, and (d) a closing verbal intervention. Please see

Chapter II, pp. 23-24, for a detailed description of the procedure.

29

Recruitment of participants

The students at OPA were selected to participate in this primary prevention
program, because most of them had begun to engage in at-risk behavior. Many of the
adolescents at OPA were truant in school attendance, had fought with other students,
tended to disrupt the classroom, or began to display other behaviors that increased their
at-risk status. This project was a primary prevention study, and it was not assumed that
the students had been involved in violent behavior. The assumption was that they became
involved in negative behaviors that increased the likelihood that they may begin to react
violently. In other words, the students began to display more at-risk behaviors, and OPA
was a place where they could receive extra support before their behavior escalated.

Students were recruited in several ways. First, an informational presentation was
given at a faculty meeting in order to solicit faculty support. Second, once teachers who
were interested in the project were identified, a short in-class presentation was given for
the students. Then, another presentation was given for the parents at the high school’s
Open House. Finally, the researcher gave a presentation in a classroom at OPA, in which
the students were encouraged to play the hand drums.

The names and addresses of the interested students were collected, and the
consent form was mailed to the parents. When the researcher received the signed consent

form back, the students completed the first psychological questionnaire packet.
Materials

A variety of percussive and melodic instruments were used in the implementation

of this project, including bongos, maracas, a metallophone, a djembe, tubanos, a

30

 

xylophone, claves, and several shakers. A video camera was used to record each music

therapy session.

Experimental design

Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected. The quantitative design
employed two testing periods: (a) one week before treatment and (b) one week after
treatment. During these time periods, the psychological tests were administered to the
music therapy and control groups. Sociodemo graphic and music lesson history was
collected during the first testing period. (Please see Appendix D for a copy of this form.)

At the end of the drumming sessions, the POS was administered to the experimental

group.

Pilot procedure

Many of the interventions used in this study were informally piloted at the
Rivendell Youth Center (RYC), a high-security private facility for adjudicated
adolescents with psychiatric disorders. Some of the clinical music therapy techniques

were refined and restructured based on the clients’ responses.

Consent and approval

The Michigan State University Committee on Research Involving Human
Subjects (U CRIHS) was satisfied that the procedures in the study did not violate the
rights of the students. Permission was granted by the Superintendent of Oak Park School

District, the Principal of OPHS, and the Chairman of OPA to conduct this research.

31

 

Informed consent was Obtained fiom one parent or guardian of each student that
volunteered to participate. Additionally, each participant and one witness were asked to

sign the consent form. (Please see Appendix E for a copy of this form.)

Analysis of data

Descriptive statistics were collected on the sociodemo graphic data. The Systat 8.0
computer program was used to run independent samples t—tests on the dependent
measures for each time point. Gender was included in a t-test on the IPR and the RSE at
pretest. Responses on the POS were categorized according to similarity, and fiequencies

were noted.

32

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

Sociodemographic variables

A total of 39 students completed both testing periods. The mean age for the
sample was 16.31, with a standard deviation of 0.86. The ages ranged from 14.00 to
17.00. The mean grade level was 11.21, with a standard deviation of 0.89. The grade
levels ranged from 9.00 to 12.00.

There were 24 females and 15 males in the sample. Lastly, there were 30 students
who identified themselves as “Black or Afiican-American,” six students who identified
themselves as “Chaldean or Chaldean American,” two students who identified
themselves as “Bi-racial,” and one student who was identified as “White or Caucasian.”
The Chaldean and Chaldean American students indicated their ethnicities in the “Other”
category. The Chaldean American Student Association defined the Chaldeans as “a
Catholic minority [group] originating primarily fiom Iraq” (2-25-00).

Most of the students did not attend any organized music lessons during the time
that they participated in the drumming sessions; however, many had had some
experiences with music in the past. There was a student who had one year of trumpet in
elementary school. Another student took saxophone lessons in middle school. One
student played the clarinet in elementary school for about 2 years. Another student played
percussion instruments for about 3 years in school. There were five students who used to
sing in church choirs; these experiences ranged from two to six years. Several students

had had no instrumental or vocal musical experience at all (n=12). Lastly, one student

33

 

 

 

was involved in playing music during the time he/she participated in the drumming
sessions. This student played a variety of instruments for five years.

Drumming group. The mean age for this group was 16.05, with a standard
deviation of 0.83 (N=20). The ages ranged fi'om 15.00 to 17 .00. Fourteen students who
identified themselves as “Black or Afiican-American” participated in the drumming
group. There were also four students who identified themselves as “Chaldean,” and one
student who was identified as “Bi—racial” in the drumming group. There were 11 males
and nine females in the sample. The students in the drumming group ranged in grade
level from 10.00 to 12.00, with a mean of 10.80 and a standard deviation of 0.77.

Control group. The mean age for the control group was 16.58, with a standard
deviation of 0.84. The ages ranged from 14.00 to 17.00. There were 15 females and 4
males in this group. Sixteen students identified themselves as “Black or Afiican-
American” in the control group. Additionally, there were three students who each
identified themselves as “Chaldean,” “Bi-racial,” or “White, Caucasian.” The grade
levels in the control group ranged from 9.00 to 12.00, with a mean of 11.63, and a

standard deviation of 0.83.

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale

Pretest. Hypothesis 1 stated the following: Students who participated in music
therapy groups will evidence greater improvement in self-esteem than the control group,
as measured by the RSE. An independent samples t-test on scores on the RSE at pretest
revealed no significant differences between the drumming group and control group

(please see Table 1). Therefore, the groups were equivalent for comparison purposes. The

34

 

 

 

mean for the drumming group was slightly higher, indicating lower self-esteem.

Table 1. Means and standard deviations on the RSE at" pretest.

 

Group N M df t p
(SD)
Drumming 20 16.350
(5.264)
37 -1 . 153 0.256
Control 19 14.684
(3.544)

Gender analysis. A t-test was run on the RSE scores in which the sample was
separated in terms of gender. There was almost a significant difference between males
and females on the self-esteem measure at pretest (t=-2.024, p=0.051, djE37). The mean
for the females was higher than the mean for the males, indicating lower self-esteem for

the girls (please see‘ Table 2).

Table 2. Means and standard deviations on the RSE at pretest; grouped by gender.

 

 

Group N M df t p
(SID
Male 1 5 14.000
(2.299)
3 7 -2.024 0.05 1
Female 24 16.500
(5.307)

35

 

Posttest. An independent samples t-test on the RSE scores at posttest revealed no
significant differences between the drumming group and the control group. The mean for
the drumming group decreased by almost 2.0 points, indicating some improvement in

self-esteem (please see Table 3).

Table 3. Means and standard deviations on the RSE at posttest.

 

Group N M df t p
(SD)
Drumming 20 14.650
(3.216)
37 -0.561 0.579
Control 19 14.053
(3.440)

Difference scores on the RSE. The mean difference scores for the drumming
group were not significantly different from the mean in the control group; therefore, the
drumming group did not evidence improved self-esteem when compared to the control

group, as measured by the RSE (please see Table 4). Hypothesis 1 was not confirmed.

Table 4. Means and standard deviations for difibrence scores on pretest and posttest on
the RSE by group.

 

 

 

Group N M df t p
(SD)
Drumming 20 1.700
(3.600)
37 -1 .172 0.251
Control 19 0.632
(1.862)

36

 

Index of Peer Relations

Pretest. Hypothesis 2 stated the following: Students who participated in music
therapy groups will evidence greater improvement in peer relationships than the control
group, as measured by the IPR. An independent samples t-test on the IPR scores at
pretest revealed no significant differences between the drumming group and control
group. Therefore, the groups were equivalent for comparison purposes. The mean for the
control group was higher than the drumming group, which indicated more peer

relationship problems (please see Table 5).

 

Table 5. Means and standard deviations on the IPR at pretest.

 

Group N M df t p
(SD)
Drumming 20 52.950
(19.108)
37 0.941 0.353
Control 19 58.737
( 19.295)

Gender analysis. A t-test was run on the IPR scores in which the sample was

separated in terms of gender. There was no significant difference between the males and

 

the females on the IPR at pretest (please see Table 6).

 

37

Table 6. Means and standard deviations on the IPR at pretest; grouped by gender.

 

Group N M df t p
(SD)
Male 15 52.200
(16.428)
37 -0.917 0.365
Female 24 58.000
(20.721)

Post-test. An independent samples t-test revealed no significant difierence

 

between the drumming group and the control group at posttest on the IPR. The mean for
the drumming group was higher than the control group, which indicated more peer

relationship problems (please see Table 7).

Table 7. Means and standard deviations on the [PR at posttest.

 

Group N M df t p
(SD)
Drumming 20 55.250
(19.054)
37 -0.723 0.474
Control 19 51.368
(13.953)

Difference scores on the IPR. The means for the control and drumming groups

were almost significantly different on the IPR. The mean for the control group was lower,

 

indicating less peer relationship problems than the drumming group at posttest (please see

Table 8). Hypothesis 2 was not confirmed.

38

Table 8. Means and standard deviations for difference scores on pretest and posttest on
the IPR by group.

 

Group N M df t p
(SD)
Drumming 20 -2.300
(21.330)
37 1.807 0.081
Control 19 7.368
(10.563)

Participant Opinion Survey

 

Hypothesis 3 stated the following: Music therapy will be valued by the students in
the drumming group, as measured by responses on the POS. These data were descriptive
in nature. Each student in the drumming group was asked to state something positive that
they learned about themselves after participating in the music therapy sessions (N=20).
Seventeen completed this task. Some of their comments were: (a) “I got skills,” (b) “I’m
very talented,” (c) “I’m good at drumming,” and (d) “I didn’t know I could participate
like that; I didn’t know I could play drums that well.” When asked if they felt better about
themselves after participating in the drumming club, 13 students answered, “yes,” and
seven answered “no” (N=20). Lastly, 12 adolescents stated that they enjoyed participating

in the drumming sessions, when asked for additional comments (N=20). A sample of

 

their comments follows: (a) “I’m glad we had an opportunity to do this,” (b) “It wasn’t as
boring as I thought it would be,” (c) “Are we going to do this again?” and (d) “I loved it,
I loved it, I loved it!” Based on this descriptive data, it appears that the participants
valued the music therapy sessions, and Hypothesis 3 was confirmed.

The full answers to the pertinent questions on the POS are located in Appendix H.

39

Retention of volunteers
Before the pretest, 22 students expressed interest in the drumming sessions and
completed the initial questionnaire. At posttest, 20 students completed the questionnaire.

There were two students who dropped out of the study. Hypothesis 3 was confirmed.

4O

 

 

 

CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study were mixed. While a significant result was not achieved
in self-esteem, the mean in the drumming group moved in a positive direction. The small
N probably adversely affected the results, in that the variance was not reduced enough for
the means to become separate. Future studies should involve more students in each group

in order to address this problem.

 

Secondly, the IPR scores for the drumming group increased at posttest, which
indicated more peer relationship problems. While this result did not achieve significance,
it is interesting that the mean in the drumming group increased on this measure.

The students in the drumming group had all evidenced some type of at-risk
behavior that warranted placement in an alternative high school. It may be that the
lessening of affiliation with peers who engage in at-risk behaviors would produce a
positive result. This researcher is currently employed at Long Lane School in
Middletown, CT, which is the only state-operated facility for adjudicated juvenile
offenders who require secure or semi-secure programming. A four-page Intake
Assessment of Needs, and a two-page Intake Assessment of Risk is completed on every
newly committed resident. The Intake Assessment of Needs lists several problem areas in
which youth typically evidence needs (i.e., drug use, behavioral problems, family
problems, etc.). Each problem is assigned a score between 1 and 3 if the youth has needs
in the given area, and the rated areas are summed to arrive at a total needs score. (Please

see Appendix F for a copy of this form.)

 

41

There are two specific areas in which peer relationships are included in the Intake
Assessment of Needs. First, affiliation with a gang is seen as a problem, and it increases
the resident’s total needs score. Second, problems with peer relationships, which is
marked by an association with negative peers, adds an additional point to the total needs
assessment score. Therefore, the increased IPR scores may have pointed towards a
lessening association with an at-risk peer group. This observation, coupled with the small
improvement in self-esteem scores, certainly warrants further exploration.

The Intake Assessment of Risk is utilized by Long Lane School in order to place

 

residents appropriately according to their level of risk. There are different living
arrangements for residents who require secure and semi-secure environments. This form
also lists several behavioral problems, and assigns levels to each category, in order to
arrive at a total risk score. In the area of peer relationships, the following levels exist: (a)
a score of 0 indicates that the resident has good support and influence from his/her peers;
(b) a score of 1 suggests that the resident is not peer-oriented, or that some of his/her
companions are involved in delinquent behavior; and (c) a score of 2 indicates that most
of the resident’s companions are involved in delinquent behavior. (Please see Appendix
G for a copy of this document.) Future researchers may wish to use these forms as
indicators of risk and need, and to equate the groups at pretest.

Association with negative peers has been suggested in the literature as one of
many explanations for why youth engage in at-risk behavior (Bemdt, 1996; Crockett &
Crouter, 1995). Bemdt (1996) wrote the following: “Friends’ influence can contribute to
undesirable behaviors by adolescents, but it can also contribute to desirable behaviors

like putting effort into school wor ” (p. 79). He continues to state that teenagers will

42

listen to their peers’ reasons and opinions, but will make their own decisions based on the
closeness in, and respect and rewards for the relationship. Brendt (1996) concludes the
paragraph by stating: “...Adolescents often behave the way they perceive their fiiends as
behaving. Unfortunately, adolescents often perceive their fiiends as engaging in socially
undesirable behaviors (e.g., using drugs) more often than the fiiends actually do” (p. 79).
Crockett and Crouter (1995) published some results from the Denver Youth
Survey, which is an “ongoing longitudinal study of the development of prosocial or
conventional behavior and of the development of delinquency, drug use, and other

problem behavior” (p. 19). They specifically wrote about four categories of individuals:

 

(a) adolescents who are nonaggressive and remain so, (b) teenagers who are

nonaggressive and become aggressive, (c) adolescents who are aggressive and become

nonaggressive, and (d) youth who are aggressive and remain aggressive. They reported:
For both boys and girls, involvement with delinquent peers appears to be the
variable that most clearly distinguished the four groups. The nonaggressive
youths who become aggressive have a substantially greater number of delinquent
fiiends. Similarly, the aggressive youths who maintain their aggressive behavior
have a substantially greater number of delinquent fiiends than do their age mates
who “terminate” this behavior over the next 2 years (pp. 29-31).

This finding has implications for lessening the associations between adolescents who

engage in violent and problem behaviors.

The quality of the change in peer relationships of students who participated in this

study is unknown. Future research may incorporate other measures to test this theory.

Limitations

 

There were several limitations to the present study. First, there was a relatively

43

small sample size. The statistics would have been more meaningful if there had been a
larger number of students in the control and drumming groups. Since this study required
that students in the drumming group receive music therapy services twice weekly for six
weeks, it was diflicult to attain a larger group size with only one music therapist. A larger
N also helps to decrease the variance, which increases the likelihood of achieving a
significant effect.

A second limitation involved the inequality of the drumming and control groups
at pretest. A t-test analysis indicated that the two groups were almost significantly
different when gender was included in the comparison, at pretest on the self-esteem
measure. Future researchers may strive to attain equal numbers of males and females in
order to avoid a gender efiect. It may also be helpfirl to focus on either males or females
so that the gender efiect is removed.

Another limitation was that it was difficult to control the environment. On two
occasions, the students did not attend the drumming sessions due to school programming.
Every effort was made to communicate the dates of the sessions and to encourage
attendance, however, the students attended two events during the course of the program
in which they were required to be absent. Therefore, the students attended 10 out of the
12 planned sessions.

Along this line of reasoning, I observed inconsistencies in the school system
itself. At times, I felt that some of the educational practices were contradictory to my
efforts to help the adolescents increase their self-esteem and improve their social skills. A
reasonable explanation of the results was that this program was essentially implemented

in isolation within the school system. The results may have been better if the goals were

44

 

addressed consistently throughout all of the educational activities. A team approach, in
which the educators, administrators and support staff all work together, is ideal.

Another problem was that no reliable data to measure changes in fighting or other
negative behavior outside Of the sessions were available to the researcher. During a
discussion with a teacher, the researcher learned that the disciplinary paperwork filled
out by the teachers was largely affected by individual tolerance levels for negative
behavior, and by political pressure to limit the number of suspensions given out by OPA.

These data could have been used to determine whether or not fighting behavior decreased

 

during the time period when the music therapy sessions were being conducted, and after
the sessions had ended, in order to observe any lasting effects.

The last limitation concerned the ability of the psychological tests to capture the
benefits of the therapeutic process. In hindsight, it may have been wise to incorporate
measures of irnpulsivity and anger. These two issues seemed to emerge as important with
the population of at-risk youth. An obstacle to conducting such research is to find
appropriate measures Of these areas. Future researchers may employ a qualitative design
that follows a few students through their experiences in a music therapy drumming group
in order to illuminate the process. This type of design may also allow for a discussion of
the clinical progress of the students in the group.

Another explanation for the results may be that the selected tests were not
appropriate for this sample. Many standardized tests tend to be written in language that
can be understood by white middle-class males (Fine & Gordon, 1992). Since most of the
students in this sample were Afiican-American or Chaldean, cultural difl°erences may

have accounted for the discrepancy. Additionally, it was not practical to administer long

45

 

tests that may have been more valid and reliable, due to time constraints. Future
researchers may wish to pilot the questionnaires on a similar type of sample before they

are chosen, or remain sensitive to cultural factors, which may affect the results.

Successful accomplishments

While the quantitative results did not support the hypotheses, several important
achievements should be mentioned. Weitz (1996) stated that successfirl programming for
preventing violence through the arts included (a) voluntary participation on the part of the
students, (b) that the intervention was valued by the participants, and (c) that the program
engaged the students. Firstly, only two out of 22 students dropped out of the program
after completing the initial testing period. This fact suggested that the students who
committed to participating in the program were sufficiently engaged by it to continue
attending the sessions.

Secondly, the results of the POS suggested that the 13 out of 20 students believed
that they derived some increase in self-esteem from participating in the drumming
sessions. This may have been possible, because the students invested themselves in the
group. It is also important to note that these students became involved in a prosocial
group.

Lastly, 17 out of 20 students stated that they learned something positive about
themselves. As a music therapist, I consider positive self-statements an indicator of high
self-esteem. I believe that the opinions of the students are important, and wonder whether
or not they are more important than scores on psychological tests.

There was a marked difference between the results from the psychological

46

 

 

llLlIllI]..I.IIIII|IIllIIIII]||IIII: | {If}

 
 

measures and the answers to the POS in this study. This type of discrepancy has been
described in the literature. Bolletino (1997) reviewed a book that chronicled the
experiences of women with breast cancer who participated in a research study on the
effects of complementary therapies (e. g., meditation) on the progression of the cancer.
The researchers reported that the women who received the complementary therapies not
only fared worse than the control group, but also that the therapies were detrimental to
their health. When the findings were made public, the women protested the report, and
questioned the validity of the research, citing a poorly-designed measurement tool, and a
host of other factors. This is one example of how a quantitative study did not accurately
reflect the experiences of the participants.

Finally, this project was a cooperative effort between a music therapist and two
members of Michigan State University Extension 4—H. One problem Often encountered
by the 4-H representatives was that it was difficult to involve males in voluntary
programming. Eleven boys voluntarily participated in the drumming sessions, which
suggested that it was appealing to males. Future programming may incorporate an active

music-making component in order to attract boys.

Suggestions for future research

First, the music therapy sessions in this study occurred in the absence of
supportive programming. For example, educational and therapeutic goals do not always
correlate. In music therapy, psychological objectives are of primary importance, whereas,
for teachers, educational goals are the main focus. An ideal situation is one that embraces

both of these philosophies, so that, theoretically, the total needs of the students can be

47

 

 

 

 

met. Historically, school systems have not incorporated psychological programs into their
curriculum. It may be that the inclusion of this type of intervention may prevent firture
problem behavior, by improving the students’ coping skills and helping them to handle
strong negative emotions; thereby providing them with alternatives to violence, and the
guidance in expressing themselves appropriately.

While no significance was attained on the psychological measures, the means on
the self-esteem measure were numerically lower in the drumming group after the

intervention. Additionally, responses on the POS and the retention rate suggested that

 

music therapy was valued by, and engaging to, the students. More research is needed to
systematically test these Observations.

The primary medium of intervention in this violence prevention program was a
drumming ensemble. I felt constrained over the course of the study to use drumming
interventions, even though I felt that other music therapy interventions may have been
beneficial to the students. I also found that variety is important in order to hold the
attention of the adolescents. For example, at least four students expressed an interest in

learning to play the guitar after observing its use in the group. Future researchers may

 

wish to explore a program that incorporates many varied music therapy treatment
methods in order to create a more interesting group.

Another suggestion was that the treatment time should be increased. A trend
towards increased self-esteem was observed in the drumming group. If the sessions had
lasted for a longer period of time, a significant result may have been achieved. Future
researchers may wish to empirically test a program that is more than six weeks in

duration, or that meets more often than twice a week.

48

 

Many of the teenagers in the sample had been identified as at-risk by the school
system due to behavioral and academic problems. It is my view that these students need
to be challenged. Based on my contacts with the participants, I found them to be highly
creative and intelligent. It may be that they require nontraditional educational strategies
in order to become engaged in the learning process. It seems logical to apply an asset-
based approach to working with at-risk youth.

There were several strategies that seemed to work during the music therapy
groups. First, appropriate limit-setting is important to help the students shape their
behavior and control their irnpulsivity. Second, a respectful and consistent personal
manner is required on the part of the therapist. A sense of trust and safety can emerge
when the therapeutic relationship is based on mutual respect and understanding.

Third, presenting challenging tasks at the appropriate moment will help the
students to cope with fi'ustration, and in addition, keep them interested in the program.
Lastly, the most important part of this program was the fact that music was central to the
intervention. Rapport was immediately established as each group created its own unique
music together. Many adolescents express and define themselves by the music they listen
to. It aids them in developing a sense of personal identity, and allows for the release of
strong emotions. It seemed that the act of actively making music was healing for many of
the students in this program.

Finally, future researchers may include measures of anger and irnpulsivity. I
observed several situations in which students utilized the program for what it was that
they needed at the time. For example, one student became angry and upset at a teacher

who filled out a disciplinary form. The student came into the music room, kicked a chair

49

 

 

across the room, and left crying. The student returned during the improvisation part of the
session, and made music with the rest of the group. When asked how the music made this
student feel at the end of the session, he or she reported feeling “calm and peaceful.” In
this case, the music seemed to help this student calm down alter an emotional incident.

There was another student who had a lot of difficulty with impulse control. This
student fi'equently disrupted the session. When given the role of time-keeper, which
required that he or she constantly pay attention, the student did not disrupt the session.
Further, when challenged to play a diflicult rhythm, the student displayed excellent
frustration tolerance and perseverance. It took the student two sessions to learn the
rhythm, but he or she was able to control his or her impulses long enough to succeed in a
diflicult task.

A music therapy program, no matter how inviting, and valued by the students,
cannot be effective in reducing violence in public schools without the support of the
parents, the community, and the school system. A school system that cultivates both
psychological health and educational growth may be necessary to meet the diverse needs
of the students. Future research is needed to evaluate this idea.

This project served as a beginning to the long process of constant evaluation and
modification. With every new research endeavor, new understanding is gained, and
should be incorporated into the base of knowledge available to researchers in this
exciting area. Through interdisciplinary projects, it is hoped that we will be able to
develop a comprehensive approach to the primary prevention of violence, by using the

assets and positive characteristics of the students to help us along the way.

50

 

 

 

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54

 

APPENDIX A

PARTICIPANT OPINION SURVEY

1. My favorite instrument was the

 

2. My most memorable experience in the Drumming Club was when

3. One thing I learned about myself was

 

4. My least favorite part of the Drumming Club was

 

5. I really liked it when

 

6. Have you become interested in playing a musical instrument after being in the
Drumming Club? Cl Yes Cl No
7. Do you feel better about yourself alter being in the Drumming Club?

E! Yes C! No

8. Is there anything else you would like to say?

 

55

APPENDIX B

SOCIODEMOGRAPHIC QUESTIONNAIRE

 

 

 

 

 

 

Name: Date:

Class: Code:

Grade: 08‘“ [39‘h C110th 1:111th C112th
Gender: 0 Male 0 Female

Age: 012 013 014 015 016 017 018

Ethnicity: 0 Asian or Pacific Islander 0 Black, African-American
0 Hispanic, Latino 0 Native American, Eskimo, Aleut
0 White, Caucasian

0 Other (please explain)

 

 

In school, do you:
1. Take private music lessons? 0 Yes 0 No a. Instrument (or voice):
2. Play an instrument in a band or other group? 0 Yes 0 No

a. Instrument (or voice):

 

 

3. Sing in a choir or other group? 0 Yes 0 No

4. Attend music class? 0 Yes 0 No

56

Outside school, do you:
1. Take private music lessons? 0 Yes 0 No a. Instrument (or voice):
2. Play an instrument in a band or other group? 0 Yes 0 No

a. Instrument (or voice):

 

3. Sing in a choir or other group? 0 Yes 0 No

 

57

APPENDIX C

CONSENT FORM
0 What is the purpose of the study?

9 Participation in music therapy groups has been described by professional
music therapists as having beneficial effects for high school students. While no beneficial
effects are guaranteed, the groups may provide an opportunity for the teens to strengthen
their self-esteem and social skills, improve their reactions to stressful Situations, and learn
to resolve conflicts without violence. It is hoped that by building up these skills during

the high school years, teens may be better able to make positive choices in their lives.

0 Who is involved in the project?

-) This project is a cooperative effort between the Michigan State University
Music Therapy Department and the Oakland County 4-H Program. Jennifer Wyatt, MT -
BC (Music Therapist - Board Certified), will conduct the drumming sessions. Tom
Schneider and Christy Hicks-Bowman from the 4-H Program will collaborate on the
study. Finally, Frederick Tims, Ph.D., MT-BC, Professor and Chair of Music Therapy at

MSU, will oversee the project.

0 What will the teens be asked to do?
9 The volunteers in this project will be split into two groups: (a) a control
group, who will complete tests, but not participate in the music groups; and (b) a

drumming group, who will participate in the music group and fill out tests. The teens in

58

 

 

 

the drumming group will be further split into groups of 10. During the school day, each
group will attend a 55-minute drumming session twice a week for 6 weeks. During the
session, the teens will learn hand-drumming techniques, and how to play other
instruments, such as the maracas and the xylophone, along with their peers. During the
first part of the session, the group will learn to play a song together on the drums. For the
second half, the group will make their own music on the instruments. The group will
work on resolving conflicts nonviolently, leaning social skills, strengthening self-esteem,
and improving their coping skills, through the music they make. Each session will be
videotaped and watched by 3 professional music therapists, who will provide information

on the effectiveness of the music therapy techniques.

0 What tests will the teens take?
9 The participants will be asked to complete 3 brief tests to measure changes
in the groups over time. They will be given before the sessions begin, and alter the

sessions are over. The tests will measure mood, social skills, and self-esteem.

0 How will the volunteers’ privacy be protected?

9 All tests will be coded by number rather than by name. All of the results and
records will be kept confidential to the extent permitted by law. Consent forms, tests,
codes, and videotapes will be kept in a locked office to which only Jennifer Wyatt and
Frederick Tims have access. All of the results will be treated with strict confidence and
the volunteers will remain anonymous in any report of research findings. On request and

within these limitations, the results may be made available to you. Additionally, the 3

59

music therapists who will observe the tapes will not disclose, to anyone, the names of the
participants in the study. Lastly, excerpts from the videotapes may be shown to

professionals in order to document and demonstrate effective music therapy practices.

0 Will there be a penalty if the teens do not complete the study?
9 NO. Your son’s or daughter’s participation in this study is completely
voluntary. He or she may refuse to participate in certain procedures or answer certain

questions, or discontinue the experiment at any time, for any reason, without penalty. If

 

you have questions concerning the study, please refer to the phone numbers on the next

page.

0 What are the benefits to the volunteers?

9 Since most people report pleasant experiences in music therapy groups, it is

 

believed that your son or daughter may have fim with music, strengthen relationships
with peers, and learn a new skill that he or she may find enjoyable. The results of this
research will be used to determine if music therapy would be a helpful component to

violence prevention programs in high schools.

60

 

 

 

/ My child, , has my permission to
(Last name, first; please print)

participate in this study.

 

 

Signature of Parent of Guardian Date

\/ I give consent for excerpts of the videotapes to be shown to professional audiences.

 

 

Signature of Parent Of Guardian Date

/ I voluntarily agree to participate in this study.

 

 

Signature of Teen Date

 

 

Signature of Witness Date

61

 

 

 

PLEASE TEAR OFF AND KEEP THIS PAGE FOR FUTURE REFERENCE

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX

i For further information about this project, please contact: 2
Jennifer Wyatt at (517) 355-7951, or Frederick Tims at (517) 432-2613,
MS U Music Therapy Department
Christy Hicks-Bowman (248) 858-0890, or Tom Schneider (248) 858-0905

Oakland County 4-H

 

For information about the rights Of you and your teen as a participant in a research study,

please call David E. Wright at (517) 355-2180

62

APPENDIX D

Long Lane School Intake Assessment of Needs

 

63

LONG LANE SCHOOL
INTAKE ASSESSMENT OF NEEDS

CMS #_
1. Evidence of Drug/Alcohol Use
- LEVEL OF USE: '

INDICATE DRUG USE: Low Moderate High

139 YES (+1) (+2) (+3)

1:] [:1 Beer or Wine Cl [:1 E]

E] [:1 Alcohol other than Beer or Wine El 1:] 1:]

El [:1 Marijuana/Hashish D D 0

E] 1:] Other (spedfy) __ El 13 El
Comments:

DRUG USE SCORE:
2. Evidence of Behavioral Problems:
A. Prior Behavior in Program Setting

E] NO [:1 YES Assaultive El Low 1:] High
COMMENTS: (+1) [(+3)
[:1 NO [:1 YES Disruptive E] Low 1:] High
COMMENTS: (+1 ) (+3)

[:1 NO [:1 YES Placement Termination Problems (+1)

COMMENTS:
PROGRAM SETTING SCORE: _
B. Sexual Behavior Problems
1:] NO D YES Sexual Assault [3 Low C] Moderate 1:] High
(+1) (+2) +
[:1 NO E] YES Sexually Inappropriate Behavior [:1 Low 1:] High
(+1) (+3)

[:1 NO E] YES Sexually Victimized (+1)
COMMENTS:

64

C. Other Behavioral Problems

[:1 NO CI YES History of Aggressive Behavior

COMMENTS:

1:] NO 1:] YES
COMMENTS:

[:1 NO [:1 YES
COMMENTS:

1:] NO [3 YES
COMMENTS:

[I NO [:1 YES
COMMENTS:

1:] NO [:1 YES
COMMENTS:

D NO E] YES
COMMENTS:

[Z] NO D YES
COMMENTS:

Car Theft

Escape Risk

Fire Setting Behavior

Gang Affiliation

EILow

Needs Assessment Instrument Page 2 '

DLow

(+1)

(+1)

1:] Low
(*1)

Cl Low
(+1)

[:1 Low
(+1)

Self Destructive/Self-Mutilating Behavior

History of Suicide Attempts

Threatening Behavior

65

1:] Low
(+1)

Cl Low
(+1)

1:] Low
(+1)

I] High
(+3)

1:] Moderate C] High

(+3)

[I] High
(+3)

El Moderate C] High

(+3)

0 High
(+3)

1:] High
(+3)

[3 High
(+3)

[:1 High
(+3)

SEXUAL BEHAVIOR SCORE:

OTHER PROBLEMS SCORE:

 

Needs Assessment Instrument Page 3
3. OTHER ITEMS: ,
A. Educational
D NO E] YES Habitual Truant (+1)
COMMENTS:
Grade Placement

Instructional Level __

E] NO [I YES School Problems E] Low [:1 Moderate C] High
COMMENTS: (+1) (+2) . (+3)

1:] NO [3 YES Special Education Needs I] Low [:1 Moderate [(3 3High
COMMENTS: (+1) (+2 )

 

List Any Resources Wtal to Accommodating Special Education Needs:

 

EDUCATIONAL SCORE:
B. Family/Home Environment

[:1 NO YES Family as Viable Placement Resource (-2)
RE SOURCE NAME, ADDRESS, RELATIONSHIP TO YOUTH:
[3 NO [I YES Financial Difficulties (+1)
COMMENTS:

Checklist of Family/Home Environment Needs: (+1 for each “yes" answer)
D NO 1:] YES Serious Loss

Relationship to Deceased:
Nature of Death:
Age of Youth at Time of Loss:

NO E] YES Commitments to/ Intervention by Child Protection Agency

NO 1:] YES History of Documented Abuse/Neglect

NO E] YES Removal from Home for Abuse/Neglect

NO [:1 YES Absence of Parent Figure (Due to divorce, abandonment, imprisonment, etc.)
NO I] YES Indications of Domestic Violence

00000

O
0
E
g
111
Z
.q
0)

FAMILY SCORE:

66

Needs Assessment Instrument Page 4
C. Health and Hygiene
Checklist of HealthII-Iygiene Needs: (+1 for each "IoW', +3 for each "high")
[I NO [I YES Chronic Condition that Requires Medical Follow up
[:1 Low C] High

[:1 NO [:1 YES Acute Condition that Requires Medical Follow up
[:1 Low C] High

[:1 NO [:1 YES Dental Condition that Requires Medial Follow up
I] Low C] High

[:1 NO [:1 YES Physical Challenges [I Low [:1 High
COMMENTS:

1:] NO [:1 YES Current Psychiatric DSM IV Diagnosis (+1)
Diagnosis:

HEALTHIHYGIENE SCORE: __
D. Personal Background

Hobbies/Special Interests: (-1 for each)

 

Hll

0
z
o

[:1 YES Problems with Peer Relationships (+1)
COMMENTS:

PERSONAL SCORE:

List Any Specialized Services Needed for General Adjustment:

 

Summary of Strengths/Support:

 

TOTAL NEEDS SCORE: __
10 or Less 11 to 25 26 or Higher
Low Needs Moderate Needs High Needs
(Scores within 2 points of another category are borderline.)

67

 

 

APPENDIX E

Long Lane School Intake Assessment of Risk

68

LONG lANE SCHOOE

 

 

 

INTAKE ASSESSMENT OF RISK
Name __ Town of Residence _
DOB Admission Type __
Age Date of Commitment __
Gender __ ' Date of Arrival __
OMS Number __

 

 

 

SCORE
1. Age at First Adjudication
3 3 12 or younger
2 = 13
1 = 14
0 = 15 or older

2. Prior Delinquent Behavior
0 = No previous adjudications or non-judicial adjudications only
1 = Pn'or judicial adjudications; no ofiense classified as assaultive
2 = Prior judraal adjudications; at least one assaultive ofi'ense recorded

 

3. Number of Prior Adjudications
0 = None
1 = One
2 = Two
3 = Three or more

4. Prior Out of Home Placements
0 = None
1 = One
2 = Two or more

5. Current Offense (Long Lane School Classification)
0 == Violation of court order or probation only
1 = Property ofiense
2 = Person oti'ense
3 = SJO

6. Runaways from Prior Placement
0 = None
1 = AWOL only
2 = One or more previous runaways from placement

7. History of Alcohol Use
0 = No known use or no interference with functioning
1 = Occasional use; some interference with functioning
2 = Chronic abuse or serious disruption of functioning
3 = Evidence of committing delinquent activity while under influence

69

 

LONG LANE SCHOOL
INTAKE ASSESSMENT OF RISK (continued)

8. History of Drug Use _
0 = No evidence of drug use or experimental use only
1 = Occasional use; minimal to moderate interference with functioning
2 = Chronic abuse or serious disruption of functioning
3 = Evidence of committing definquent activity while under influence

9. Parental/Caretaker Control __
0 = Generally Effective
1 = lnconsistenVlnetTective
2 = Little or none
3 =Evidence Parent/Caretaker Contributes to Delinquency

10. School Problems
0 = Attended, no problems, graduation anticipated
1 = Problems handled at school or district level
2 = Severe truancy, repeated suspension, or behavioral problems
3 = Not attending, expelled, homebound instruction (not for health reasons)

1 1. Peer Relationships
0 = Good support and influence
1 = Not peer oriented, or some companions involved in delinquent behavior
2 = Most companions involved in delinquent behavior

 

 

12. Gang Involvement
0 = No known involvement
1 = Peripheral involvement, or claimed involvement not evidenced
2 = Strong involvement, claimed or evidenced

13. Illegal Firearms and Dangerous Weapons History
0 = No known illegal involvement with firearms or dangerous weapons
1 = History of carrying an illegal firearm or dangerous weapon only
2 = History of using a firearm or dangerous weapon illegally

W
OVERRIDE:
In a few cases, there may be additional facts or observations which make you believe the level
of supervision indicated by this instrument is too high or too low. Indicate the primary reason
for the override:

 

Minimum Score: 0 0-9 10417 was
Maximum Score:33 Low Risk Moderate Risk High Risk
(Scores within 2 points of another category are borderline.)

7O

 

APPENDIX F

Complete answers to selected questions on the POS

The answers to each of the questions were categorized according to content, and

examples follow:

Question #3: One thing I learned about myself was. ..

> Seventeen students made statements indicating that they possess good musical skills,

 

and three students answered “nothing.”
Examples of statements in this category: “I’m good at drumming,” “I got skills,” “I’m
very talented,” “I’m a fairly good musician,” “I didn’t know I could participate like

that; I didn’t know I could play drums that well,” and “I could be good at drumming.”

Question #4: My least favorite part of the drumming club was when...

> All 20 students answered this question. Their answers follow:

 

a. “Nothing” (n=6).

b. “The peers” (n=3).

c. “When we didn’t sound right” (n=2).
d. “WhenI kept messing up” (n=l).

e. “The bell” (n=l).

f. “Singing” (n=1 ).

g. “Playing songs that were already made up” (n=l).

71

 

 

 

h. “When I didn’t get no candy for the first time” (n=l).

i. “Fanga Alafia” (n=l).

j. “Having to go back and start over” (n=l).

k. “Doing the beat by ourself” (n=l).

l. “The sessions were very long” (n=l).

Question # 5: I really liked it when...

> All 20 students answered this question. Their answers follow:

a.

b.

“We had to make up our own beats” (n=7).
“We were all drumming together” (n=4).

“We sung Fanga Alafia” (n=2).

. “We sang the Banana song” (n=2).

“The teacher told me I was going to get an “A” every time we participated”
(n=l).

“Everything” (n=1 ).

. “You played the guitar” (n=l).

. “There was a whole lot of people there” (n=1 ).

“I played the ocean drum” (n=l).

Question # 6: Have you become interested in playing a musical instrument?

> “Yes” (n=8).

P “No” (n=12).

72

 

Question # 8: Is there anything else you would like to say?

> Nineteen students answered this question. Twelve students stated that “It was a lot of

fun,” or “I liked it.” Other comments were:

a.

b.

“You should’ve brought in a keyboard” (n=l).
“Are we going to do this again” (n=l).

“I enjoyed working with you” (n=l).

. “It wasn’t as boring as I thought it would be” (n=l).

“It should have stuck around longer” (n=l).

“I’m glad we had an opportunity to do it” (n=l).

. “I loved it, I loved it, I loved it” (n=1)

73

 

 

APPENDIX G

Raw data

74

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

F
m
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803
R .2
2.432
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P2 .29 _1_.
E14 .140 12
S 100 52 .
R 13 .3 l
E 1.83 3m 21
1 —1
m 1mw4 4M7 40
En7 18 . B .43
m 16 1.0.3 .35 14
16 10 .2 .2
13 14 00 .3
T 1.5 13 4 .3
% 1H0 1M6 B7 .2
P 34 15 18 .0.
1 11 15 .14 0
R33 26 1.2 .100
P 46 1.6.9 11 ..41
I 34 10 16 .26
500 1 100
73 m3 16 .fl/.—2
M Sfll 12 1M1 .0.02
M6 3W8 1W4 100 .fl3
26 1 .
P48 5&9 11 180 .
49 l
I 200 90 3 27
600 14 12
E 57 . 67 15 11
N1 34 10 10
003 14
m. 21 4%0 3M6 17 1
1 36 4e 1mo
P 1 30 15 24
U l 38 3 15
1 56 320 14
O 2 46 46 12
R1. 1 003 5 20
1 2 27 30
2 5 60
1 2 6%9 4
22 22 5
22 22
2 1
2
2 21
2 2
2 2
2 2
22
2
2
222
2
2

 

 

75