A SYSTEM ADPROACH TO THE ANALYSIS OF
THE TEQCI-{ER SUPPLY PROBLEM EN TLWSH
SECONDARY E‘U-CA'E'ION

Bissertafion for the Begree of Ph. D.
B:Z£CHEGA=.‘€ STATE UNW‘ERSW
{(EMALE’TIN AMEN
1974

  
  
   

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3 1293 00069 9136 Michigan ._,_c
University

This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

Systems Approach to Analysis of Teacher
Supply Problem in Turkish Secondary
School System

presented by

Kemalettin Akalin

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph . D . degree in Education

 

 

 

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Major professor

 

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ABSTRACT

A SYSTEMS APPROACH TO THE ANALYSIS OF
THE TEACHER SUPPLY PROBLEM IN
TURKISH SECONDARY EDUCATION

BY

Kemalettin Akalin

The Problem

 

In spite of the struggle and of the requirement of
the national develOpment plans to solve it, the problem of
inadequate supply of secondary school core subject
teachers (teachers for general education) has drastically

grown in Turkey throughout the last score of years.

The Purpose

 

The purpose of this study was to examine the problem
in order to search for an operational approach to solve it,
and at the same time to demonstrate a new way of analyzing
educational problems in general. The operational aim was
to present a systems approach, useful in analyzing educa-
tional problems in general, and to perform an application
of the technique to the particular teacher supply problem
of the country.

Obviously, the need for scientifically processed

data is essential to any effort to solve the problem through

5
“Air. ' Kemalettin Akalin
”a." {3'7
.3

(7 these kinds of studies. Hence another purpose of this
study was to develop a tool, a mathematical model, as a

means for obtaining information relevant to the problem.

Conclusions Drawn from the Analyses

 

A logical block diagram was developed in order to
examine all events which either appeared to be involved in
or to affect the teacher supply efforts and activities in
the Turkish system. The overall conclusion drawn from the
analytical examination was that the causal problem, which
results in the shortage of secondary school core subject
teachers, is essentially a resource utilization problem
rather than a resource scarcity problem. In other words,
the problem is caused basically by ineffective administra-
tive decisions. In view of solid evidence that the
administration has been supported and encouraged by the
environment in its struggle for solution of the problem,
the above mentioned ineffectiveness of decisions may be
attributed to the inert state of the system, which cannot
at present keep pace with the dynamic changes of the
society.

In order to cope effectively with the problem,
needed basic operational measures which may be derived
from the analysis of the problem may be cited as follows:

1. To change the traditional conservative concept
of administration toward the productive modern concept of

management.

Kemalettin Akalin

2. To establish a modern data processing system,
which seems to be an especially urgent need, because the
education system has become too large and too complex to
be managed adequately by the central Ministry of Education
through continuing today's practice, lacking adequate flows
of essential information.

3. To redesignate the teacher supply system in
terms not only of its organizational structure but also
its training programs, so as to better answer the needs of
the changing society.

The Tool DevelOped to Utilize
Processed Data

 

 

To accomplish the purposes of this study, a mathe—
matical model was develOped to facilitate operational
approaches for solution of the problem under consideration.

The model consists of two main parts. The first
part was devoted to a simulation model in order to illus-
trate how alternative solutions are obtained and examined
through manipulating parameters, and to illustrate what
kind of data is needed in simulation for planning.

The second part was developed as a descriptive
model in order to define the state of the system at a
particular point in time. Obviously the purpose of the
second part of the model was to facilitate obtaining

realistic parameters to be used in a simulation model.

Kemalettin Akalin

The model also facilitates cost analyses relevant Unopera-
tional approaches for solution of the teacher supply

problem.

Application of the Model

 

The model was applied to the province of Eskisehir,
which was selected on a nonrandom basis. The criteria for
selection of this province were: (a) to include all known
variables, i.e., all kinds of secondary schools in Turkey,
and (b) to facilitate data collection at minimum cost and
effort.

Since expected performance of the model was
obtained from its application for this particular province,
one logically deduces that similar performances could be
obtained for other provinces through simple 100ping in the
computer program.

Although one should not generalize the findings in
the Eskisehir application of the model for Turkey as a
whole, implications of the results may be cited as follows:

1. Teacher supply and utilization problems exist
in the province of Eskisehir, and the application demon-
strates how the nature and dimensions of the problem may
be apprehended.

2. Cost analyses indicate potential means for

establishing criteria to facilitate improving the system

Kemalettin Akalin

with respect both to quality and quantity of service,
through both short-range and long-range measures.

It is hoped the success of this demonstration may
encourage the Turkish National Ministry of Education to
make greater use of systems approaches, to improve its
flows of information, and to modernize its own adminis—
trative structures based on the outcomes of research and

planning.

A SYSTEMS APPROACH TO THE ANALYSIS OF
THE TEACHER SUPPLY PROBLEM IN

TURKISH SECONDARY EDUCATION

BY

Kemalettin Akalin

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Secondary Education
-‘ &(hurfluflnm

.‘\_,_ .

1974

DEDICATED TO

My wife and children

ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to express his particular appre-
ciation to Dr. Wilbur B. Brookover, his academic advisor
and chairman of his doctoral committee, who generously
gave his time and encouraging advice throughout the
struggles from which this present study originated.

The author is very grateful to his professors for
their help enabling him to bring other relevant disciplines
to bear on this study. These include Dr. H. E. Koenig and
Dr. Thomas J. Manetsch in systems science, Dr. Leonard H.
Rail in economics, and Dr. Martin G. Keeney in systems
science, computer science, and institutional research.

Dr. Keeney served also as a member of the doctoral committee.

The writer expresses his thanks to Dr. Cole S.
Brembeck and Dr. MaryEllen McSweeney, who also served on
the doctoral committee in many helpful ways.

The author is grateful for the assistance of
Dr. Ben A. Bohnhorst and Dr. Kenneth L. Neff who patiently
read the manuscript and improved its style along with
constructive criticisms.

For their assistance in helping to gather and

process the data, and to prepare graphs and figures,

iii

appreciation is extended to the writer's colleagues in the
Ministry of Education.

Sincere appreciation is extended to the Turkish
Government and to USAID for providing scholarships which
enabled the writer to carry out his proqram of graduate

studies abroad.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . .
LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . .
Statement of the Problem . . .
Objectives . . . . . .
Delimitation of the Study . . .
Operational Procedure of the Study .
Organization of the Study . . . .
Definitions of Terms . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . .
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE .

III.

Introduction . . . . .
Development of Systems Concept . .
Application of Systems Concept
Systems Techniques . . . . . .
Management As a Control System
Educational Administration . . . .

Summary . . . . . .

TURKISH SCHOOL SYSTEM AND THE BACKGROUND
OF THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . .

Operational Organization of the Turkish
School System . . . . .

Background of the Problem

Making Use of Information in

Administrative Decisions . . . .
Evidences of Existence of the Teacher
Supply Problem . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . .

Page

viii

CDHKOQONJE-H

Hra

20
20
21
25
28
34
42

44

44

48

65

69
77

Chapter

IV.

VI.

VII.

Page
IDENTIFICATION OF THE SYSTEM AND THE
PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Identification of the System . . . . . 79
Identification of the Problem . . . . . 98
Discussions and Conclusions . . . . . 118
MATHEMATICAL MODEL FOR TURKISH SECONDARY
SCHOOL SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . 132
PART 1. SIMULATION MODEL FOR TURKISH
LYCEE TEACHERS . . . . . . . . . . 133
The Origin of the Model . . . . . . . 133
Objective (or Criterion) Function . . . 137
Student Submodel . . . . . . . . . 137
Teacher Submodel . . . . . . . . . 139
Cost . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Findings and Conclusions . . . . . . 146
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
PART 2. MATHEMATICAL MODEL FOR IDENTIFI-
CATION OF THE TURKISH SECONDARY SCHOOL
SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . 153
Notations . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Section 1 . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Section 2 . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Section 3 . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
EVALUATION OF FINDINGS IN THE APPLICATION
OF THE MODEL . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Introduction . . . . 190
Geographic and Demographic Circumstances
of the Province . . . . 191
Procedures for Collecting and Processing
Data . . . . . . . . . . 192
Evaluation of Findings . . . . . . . 197
SUMMARY OF THE STUDY . . . . . . . . 227
Introduction of the Problem . . . . . 227
Review of Literature . . . . . . . 229
The Background of the Problem . . . . 233
Identification of the System and the
Problem . . . . . . . . . . . 236

vi

Chapter
Mathematical Model for
School System . .
Evaluation of Findings
of the Model . . .
Concluding Statement .
APPENDIX A . . . . . . .
APPENDIX B . . .
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . .

vii

Page

Turkish Secondary

. . . . . . . 241
in the Application

. . . . . . . 243

. . . . . . 244

. . . . . . 246

. . 268

. . . . . . 281

Table

10.

11.

12.

LIST OF TABLES

Development in Secondary School Teacher
Training Institutions . . . . . . . .

Planned Development of Education Institutes
(1968-1972) . . . . . . . . . . .

Estimation and Realization of Production of
Teachers in 1961—1971 . . . . . . . .

Produced Weekly Class Hours in General
Secondary Public Schools and Aggregate
Calculations for Average Weekly Class
Hours Per Teacher . . .

Frequency Distribution of Courses in Terms of
Established Load of Teachers . . . . . .

Frequency Distribution of Fields in Terms of
Supply Rate . . . . . . . . . . .

Various Combinations of Training Branches in
Education Institutes . . . . . . . .

Yearly Outcomes of the Lycée in Desired and
Presented Systems in the 20th Iteration,
Analogous to the 20th Year in a Planned
Period . . . . . . . . . . . .

Established Teaching Load of Secondary School
Teachers in Class Hours . . . . . .

Cost Schedule Per Student by Educational Level
Established by State Planning Organization

Groups of Municipalities With Their
Demographic Characteristics in the
Province of Eskisehir . . . . . . .

Teacher Supply and Utilization Problems

Occurring in Eight Municipalities in the
Province of Eskisehir . . . . . . .. .

viii

Page

57

62

64

71

74

75

129

148

161

175

192

203

Table Page

13. Aggregate Calculation for Need and Supply of
Secondary School Core Subjects Teachers
in the Province of Eskisehir . . . . . . 207

14. Partial Results of Cost Analysis for

Secondary Education in the Province
of Eskisehir . . . . . . . . . . . 221

ix

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

1. Block Diagram of the Operational Structure

of Turkish Public Schools . . . . . . .
2. Indices of Increases in the Number of Students
and Teachers in General Secondary Schools .
3. Basic Sources of Teachers in Turkey . . . .
4. Student/Teacher Ratios in Secondary Schools .

5. Indices of Increases in the Number of Students
in Elementary and Secondary Schools and in

the Population . . . . . . . . .
6. General Illustration for Turkish Education
System Within the Society . . . . . . .
7. Organization Chart: The Position of Organiza-
tion for Training Core Subjects Teachers
Within the MOE . . . . . . . . . .

8. Block Diagram for Need and Supply of Teachers

of Secondary School Core Subjects . . . .
9. Increases in Funds and Quantity of Students
of Education Institutes . . .

10. Estimated Need for Education Institute
Graduated Teachers and Realization . .

11. Block Diagram for the Lycée and Its Teachers
in Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . .

12. Estimated Need and Supply of Mathematics and
Science Teachers in Present and Desired
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Page

45

50

52

54

6O

81

84

86

104

126

135

150

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

In this country, we suffer from the lack of the
habit of thinking scientifically--a11 the way from
the private life of citizens to the administration
of the state.

-—Ismail Arar

Statement of the Problem

 

Insufficient supplies of general secondary school
teachers has been a problem in Turkey since the early
fifties. Following the Revolution of May 27, 1960, Turkey
undertook to manage its national development by means of
national five-year plans. The first planning period began
in 1963. Education was considered to be a prime factor in
the development of the economy and the society, and it was
given high priority among other planned activities. How-
ever, in spite of the five—year plans and their yearly pro—
grams, implementation has remained insufficient throughout
the last decade. In particular, the shortage of general

secondary school teachers, which was fewer than 3,0001 in

 

1Milli Egitim Bakanligi, Ogretirme Komitesi ve On
Yillik Plan (Istanbul: Milli Egitim Basimevi, 1961),
p. 82.

 

 

the 1960-1961 school year, grew to more than 18,0002 in

the 1970-1971 school year.

This teacher shortage, which was readily apparent,
manifested itself more and more year by year. The need
to analyze the problem and to achieve effective control
over it became increasingly urgent.

Over the last twenty-five years, the present
writer has been intimately concerned with the problem:
in his capacities as a teacher and administrator of
teacher training schools, and since 1959 in his work in
the central Ministry (a) as an administrator in the
general directorate for teacher training and (b) as a
researcher on the staff of the Ministry's planning office
(which will be referred to in this study by its initials
PAKD--see footnote 2, below).

In 1960 and 1961, this researcher was in charge
of preparing a ten-year plan for meeting the need for
elementary and secondary school teachers. On the basis
of his experiences and his first-hand observations of
implementation during the planned period, he developed the
working hypothesis that a key to the problem might lie in
the decision-making processes by which the system of pre-

paring and supplying teachers was administered. The

 

2Source: Data supplied by the Planlama, Arastirma,
ve Koordinasyon Da1resi (PAKD--the Planning, Research, and
Coordination office of the National Ministry of Education
in Turkey).

V““

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...,-

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rising demand and aspiration in society for more general
secondary educational opportunities exceeded the targets
specified in the national plans. At the same time, the
supply of teachers fell below the targets. The problem
appeared to be more dynamic than the ability to COpe with
it in the present administrative system.

The researcher pursued this problem further in
graduate study at Michigan State University. There he took
up a study of systems analysis with a View to the light
which might be shed by employing a systems approach to the
problems of teacher supply in Turkey.

Working Hypothesis Upon Which
This Study Is Based

 

 

This became the working hypothesis upon which the
present research is based: that a systems approach to
analyzing the processes of teacher supply in Turkey
(a) might help administrators understand better the nature
of the teacher shortage problem, (b) might better identify
the points at which better decisions need to be made and
the variables which need to be considered, and (c) might
indicate new and better kinds of data needed.

What the researcher learned was that a systems
approach represents a new and general method of thinking.
It recognizes that the operations of a particular part of
a system are normally interrelated in complex ways with the

simultaneous operations of other parts of the system. A

systems approach is a comprehensive way of enabling the

analyst to include in his thinking--in ways he might not
otherwise be able to do——those other pertinent variables
which also bear on the particular problem at hand.

The present study therefore is a study in applied
methodology. It attempts to demonstrate how a systems
approach may be usefully applied--in this case, to the
particular problem of teacher supply in Turkey. In addi-
tion to the particular problem, the researcher hopes that
the general usefulness of the approach also will become
apparent. The problem of teacher supply is urgent and for
that reason it was selected as the tOpic for application
in this study. But the problem of teacher supply is only
one part of the total complex of processes making up the
, whole Turkish educational system. Application of the
approach to other problems may promise also to offer useful
results similar to the outcomes of the present study of

teacher supply.

Objectives

 

There would appear to be a great opportunity for
helping Turkish educational administrators by providing
them with better analyses and better data. In this way
their decisions may be more effectively based on scientific
analyses and national understandings. In present practice,
however, such help customarily is neither asked nor pro-

vided. Decisions are made depending on personal, empirical

estimations or on interpretations of aggregate statistical
data which are frequently outdated, and inaccurate, or
insufficiently analyzed. Any attempt to help administra-
tors, therefore, should first of all attempt to facilitate
the provision of sufficient data which has been scien-
tifically analyzed. As indicated above, the primary aim
of this study is to demonstrate one promising new way in
which this might be done in terms of applying a systems
approach to the problem of need and supply of secondary
school teachers.

The overall objective is to accomplish this aim
through facilitating a more compehensive identification
of the problem and its relevant variables. The following
main objectives may be specified:

1. To utilize a systems approach in analyzing
the education system under consideration in order to
identify the relevant variables involved in causing an
inadequate supply of general secondary school teachers,
and to explore the interrelationship among these variables.

2. To develop a mathematical model for approxi-
mating the state of the system related to demand and
supply of secondary school core smflxfixfi: teachers at a
given particular point in time.

To be more specific, one may break down the above

primary objectives into secondary ones, as follows:

1. In terms of identification of the problem:
a. Isolate and identify the problem in terms of
its internal structural and functional
nature and its external environment.

b. Illuminate possible interrelationships of vari-
ables which maylxacausing the problem.

2. In terms of the system as it relates to need and
supply<1fsecondary school teachers, identifytfluafollowing:
a. Anatomy of structural elements in the
existing situation in terms of need and

supply of teachers.

b. Existing functional relationships among vari-
ables relatedtx3need and supply of teachers.

c. Assessments of actual observed utilization
of teachers in an existing situation.

d. Opportunities for better utilization of
teachers under existing circumstances.

e. Assessments of the utilization of funds with
respecttxithe observed utilization<mfteachers.

f. Estimates of cash expenditures.
g. Estimates of investment and prorated costs.

h. Estimates of unit costs of educational
services.

Delimitation of the Study

 

The sc0pe of this study includes only identification
of quantitative elements in The Turkish secondary school sys-
tem which relate honeed and supply of secondary school core
subject teachers. Qualitative aspects of teachers and all
aspects relating to vocational and technical subjects in the
secondary schools are not in the scope of this study. One

may, however, use the mathematical model in the quantitative

aspects of vocational and technical education which relates
to need and supply of teachers through extending the indices

of teachers' fields to vocational and technical subjects.

Operational Procedure of the Study

 

Procedures followed in completion of this study
were as follows:

A logical block diagram of the structure of the
system under consideration was developed to set forth
through a systems approach the possible location of key
decision points in the operation of the system.

Sets of possible functional relationships were
develOped among variables of the system and stated in the
form of mathematical functions so as to generate a model.

To demonstrate how the model might illuminate
circumstances in a real situation, the province of Eskisehir
was selected for study. The criteria used in the selection
of this province were as follows:

The model was built to facilitate identification
of Operations at either microcnrmacro levels, i.e., from
individual schools to national levels. Turkey is divided
into 67 provinces, each of which functions as a self-
sufficient administrative unit subordinated to the central
government.

Therefore, a given province may serve both as the
Smallest unit in a model of the entire country where less

detail is needed, and as the largest aggregate in a model

of the province. In any case it will serve as an adequate
unit for testing the model. However, every province does
not at present have every kind of secondary school con-
tained in the system. A province was needed which might
more nearly represent the nation as a whole in terms of
including all kinds of secondary schools. This was the
first criterion: to be inclusive. As a second criterion,
the province should be as small as possible, so as to
facilitate collecting of data with minimum effort and
expense.

Eskisehir mettflmeabove cited criteria. In addi-
tion it is conveniently located next to Ankara. Moreover,
if application of the model were to illuminate relation-
ships in such a province, one might expect it to serve
similarly for the others simply by executing the computer
program with the data for each province.

Data collection was carried out in a manner similar
to that by which the Ministry of Education regularly col-
lects its data. Forms for requested data were mailed to
all of Eskisehir's 48 secondary schools, to be filled out
by teachers and school directors so as to represent the
circumstances on May 2, 1972. An English version of the
list of requested data is included in Appendix A. Completed
forms from all schools except one were received in six
weeks. After coding the items in the forms, the data were

transformed to punch cards and processed through the IBM 360

digital computer at the Middle East Technical University
in Ankara. Examples of reduced copies of the resulting
printouts are included in Appendix B.

Accuracy of the data was not strictly a matter of
concern in this study because they were primarily used for
building the model. However, one expects dependability
of Unadatato be sufficient to reflect the real world
represented by the model. One should not generalize the
findings to other provinces because of the biased selection
of the province and of socioeconomic, demographic, and
geographic differences between the selected one and other

provinces.

Organization of the Study

 

This study is organized as follows:

Chapter I includes a statement of the problem,
assumptions, objectives, and delimitation of the work.
Definitions of terms are included at the end of this chapter
to clarify understanding of their specialized meanings in
this work or in the Turkish culture.

Chapter II contains a review of literature, in
terms of information for administrators on the systems
approach to the solutions of problems, and on the uses of
models in analysis. No previous research in education of
exactly the same kind as the present study was available

for review.

10

Chapter III is devoted to a review of the back-
ground of the teacher supply problem in the context of
the total system. In this chapter, the particular state
of the overall system in relation to the problem is
briefly presented along with statistics on the extent of
the problem.

For Chapter IV, a logical block diagram was
developed of the operations of the teacher supply system
under consideration. Use of the block diagram demonstrates
how one may use a systems approach to investigate possible
locations and characteristics of key variables causing the
teacher shortage problem. A brief discussion of possible
improvements of the system concludes Chapter IV.

Chapter V is devoted to a mathematical model
developed to identify the state of the system in terms of
need and supply of teachers at a particular time. More-
over, to demonstrate the uses of such a descriptive
model, an abridged version of a previously prepared simu-
lation model and the outcomes of its application also are
included in Chapter V. Thus Chapter V consists of two
basic parts: (1) Simulation Model for Turkish Lycée
Teachers and (2) Mathematical Model for Identification of
the Turkish Secondary School System.

Basic findings deriving from an application of the
model, utilizing data as of May 2, 1972, from the province

of Eskisehir are included in Chapter VI. This chapter

11

therefore stands as an example of one of the many concrete
applications which would need to be carried out in order

to use the models and systems approach developed in previous
chapters fully. Chapter VII is the final chapter of this
study and consists of a summary of the work and its conclu-

sions.

Definitions of Terms

 

For clarity of understanding, the following terms
are defined either because of their specialized meaning for
the purposes of this study or because of their meaning in
the Turkish culture.

Adaptive control: Control of a system so that it

 

attains a specified or optimum performance through changing
the system's parameters by automated means without changing
the system's structure.

Block diagram: "A block diagram is a shorthand,

 

pictorial representation of cause and effect relationships
between the inputs and outputs of a physical system."3

Closed system: A system that operates under control

 

which is dependent on its own output. In other words, it
utilizes feedback from its own operation to control suc-

ceeding outputs.

 

3Joseph J. Distefano, III, et a1., Theory and
Problems of Feedback and Control Systems (New York: McGraw-
Hill Book Company, 1967), p. 12.

 

 

 

12

Constraint: A result of previous actions or condi-

 

tions external to the system which constrains another

action or variable. It may also be due to a performance
specification. Constraints are classified in two cate-
gories--functiona1 and regional. Functional constraints

are mathematically represented by equations and do not
change as long as the variables of the system remain as
they are. A regional constraint is mathematically repre-
sented by an inequality which assumes a value between a
minimum and maximum limit. The desired value in between
the two limits can be defined as the optimum or best solu-
tion subject to the functional constraint.

Control: To bring a system into a desired state
or to keep it in its desired state.

Core subjects: Subject matter included in the

 

curriculums of all kinds of secondary schools as the core
of general education.

Delay time: The time required for a unit-step

 

input to reach the final stage in the system's interactions.
It can be distinguished as the time-domain specification
or as the speed of response to input.

Design: ". . . a purposeful activity directed

toward the goal of fulfilling human needs."4

 

4Morris Asimow, Introduction to Design (Englewood
Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice—Hall, Inc., 1962), p. l.

 

kh)

 

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--.a
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d..-

4/:

o

13

Dynamic structure: "Time-dependent structure of

 

a model; i.e., the rules for moving from one system state

to another."5

Education institute: A three-year higher education

 

institution in Turkey, which trains general education
teachers for secondary education and inspectors for ele—
mentary education. It is essentially a boarding school
and was established for training the first cycle of
secondary school teachers. However, its graduates teach
at the second cycle also.

Endogenous: "Caused from the inside; originating

 

from or due to internal causes."6

Entity: "Object of a system; also, any distin-
guishable item, being, or processing unit within a
system."7

Environment: "In systems terminology, objects which

 

are outside the boundaries of the system but which can
influence the system are said to constitute the environment
of the system."8

Exogenous: "Caused from the outside; originating

 

9
from or due to external causes."

 

 

5A. Alan B. Pritsker and Philip J. Kiviat, Simula-
tion with Gasp II (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall,
Inc., 1969), p. 291.

61bid. 71bid.

8 9

Ibid., p. 8. Ibid., p. 291.

14

Feedback: "Feedback is that property of a closed-
1oop system which permits the output (or some other
controlled variable of the system) to be compared with
the input of the system (or input to some other internally
situated component or subsystem of the system) so that the
appropriate control action may be formed as some function
"10

of the output and input.

First cycle secondary school: A Turkish school

 

analogous to "middle school" or "junior high school." It
provides three years of general education after elementary
school.

General directorate: The highest Operational

 

administrative unit in the Turkish Ministry of Education.

General secondary school: In Turkey either a

 

middle school or lycée, or both.

Higher school: Any higher education institution

 

in Turkey other than a university. It is subordinated to
the Ministry of Education and, depending on the kind of
school, provides from two to four years of technical or
vocational education.

Higher teacher training school: A boarding school

 

which provides some vocational courses for the teaching
profession. Lycée graduates are admitted. Students
attend universities. Graduates are qualified to teach at

the second cycle of secondary school.

 

10Distefano et_al;, op. cit., p. 3.

15

Input: All sources supplied to a system enabling
it to take action for accomplishing desired objectives.

Load of teacher: The total class hours taught in

 

a week by a teacher. It is classified in two categories,
as follows.

Observed load of teacher-n-The load carried
by a teacher when an observation is made.

 

Established load of teacher-n-The load expected
by law to be carried by a teacher.

 

Lycée: Three-year academic high school after the

 

middle school. The Turkish spelling is "lise." It is the
second cycle secondary school.

Middle school: Synonymous with first cycle

 

secondary school.

Model: "Representation of a system. A model can

 

be physical, mathematical, graphical, logical, or combina-
11
tions of each."
MOE: Abbreviation for the Ministry of Education.

Normal school: Teacher training school for ele-

 

mentary education. In Turkey until 1970, it was a three-
year second cycle secondary school. Now it is a four-year
secondary school. Some of them also include the first
cycle (total of seven years) and recruit students from
Villages. It is basically a boarding school.

Open system: A system that operates under controls

 

which are independent of its output.

 

llPritsker and Kiviat, op. cit., p. 293.

16

Output: "The output signal is the response of the

"12 In this work it is the

system of the input signal.
final production of administration and central decisions
and of teachers for the system or subsystem.

PAKD: The Turkish initials of the Planning,

 

Research, and Coordination Office of the Ministry of
Education.

Planned period: Refers to the era beginning in

 

1963 in terms of national management of social-economic
development activities in Turkey.

Public school: This term is used in this study to

 

refer to schools operated by the Ministry of Education.

Qualification of teachers: Refers to qualitative

 

classification of teachers in terms of their training,
such as

Qualified teachers-- Those trained in the
particular subject-matter they are teaching, at
or above the level required by law for the school
in which they teach.

 

Semi—qualified teachers-— Those trained in the
particular subject-matter they are teaching, but
below the level required by law for the school in
which they teach.

 

Unqualified teachers-- Those not trained for
the particular subject-matter they—Ere teaching,
either at or below the level for the school in
which they teach, or who are not trained for
teaching at all.

 

 

12George R. Cooper and Clare D. McGillem, Methods

of Signal and System Analysis (New York: Holt, Rinehart
and Winston, Inc., 1967), P. 4.

 

17

Second cycle secondary school: The lycée, analo-

 

gous to the "senior high school" in the U.S. Any kind of
high school after the first cycle. They provide three to
four years of education and include three categories:

(a) academic, (b) vocational, and (c) technical.

Simulation: "Simulation is a numerical technique

 

for conducting experiments on a digital computer, which
involves certain types of mathematical and logical models
to describe the behavior of a business or economic system
(or some component thereof) over extended periods of

"13

time.

State of system: Mathematically, the vector or

 

the set of all variables needed to describe the system at

a particular time. In other words, description of the
system through all necessary information related to objects
of the system at a particular time.

Static structure: "Time-independent structure of

 

a model; i.e., the framework within which system states

are defined."14

Subsystem: A particular collection of objects

 

(persons, activities, etc.) that is a part of a larger

system.

 

13Thomas H. Naylor et a1., Computer Simulation

Techniques (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1968),
p. 3.

 

 

 

l4Pritsker and Kiviat, op. cit., p. 294.

18

System: There is no all-purpose definition of
system. It can be determined in terms of a particular
purpose. However, "a very general definition of a system
is that it consists of a group of objects that can inter-
act with one another and are assembled in a manner intended
15

to achieve a desired objective."

Systems analysis: Using the lexical meaning of

 

the word of "analysis,' systems analysis means investiga-
tion or examination of the properties of the system
through studying its structure and components.

Undersecretary: The immediate subordinate to the

 

Minister. He has the highest authority to act on behalf

of the Minister in the Ministry of Education.

Summary

The basic purpose of this study is to demonstrate
the utility of applying a systems approach to the analysis
of problems in Turkish education. The problem of supplying
secondary school core subject teachers has been selected
for particular study. The analysis presented in Chapter
IV will indicate the value of looking at entire systems,
thereby providing a structure for unifying and integrating
various sub—systems which may also be studied. Chapter IV
illustrates the application of the general method to a

15Cooper and McGillem, op. cit., p. 2.

19

particular problem and shows how a specific study is a
part of and is related to the total system. Definitions
are presented above for terms which will be used in the

following analysis.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Introduction

 

This chapter presents a review of only a portion
of the literature on systems procedures and their appli-
cations to education. The whole literature is too massive
in scope to try to include in the present type of study.
Here the literature selected for review is restricted to
serve two purposes:

a. To provide readers with a sample of general
statements of the concepts, techniques, and applications
of systems procedures, avoiding highly technical aspects
of the discipline.

b. To provide a set of references in particular
on the uses of systems procedures in studying social
processes and organizations, with special emphasis on

information, planning, and control in education.

Development of Systems Concept

 

The scientific origin of the systems concept goes
back into the history of science. However, the systems
concept as an explicit set of interrelated elements was

first introduced prior to the Second World War, by Ludwig

20

21

Von Bertalanffy, the biologist. He called attention to the
general systems concept through asserting that "organisms
are organized things and, as biologists, we have to find

out about it."16

To him, observation of biological systems
in a laboratory creates artificial situations different
from real environments and can lead one to incorrect and
wrong conclusions.
The great contribution of general systems theory
is that it is not exclusive to a particular field or to a
particular complex phenomena. Its basic contribution to
science and technology is to present a new way of thinking
applicable to any field of knowledge.
It is a change in basic categories of thought
of which the complexities of modern technology are
only one--and possibly not the most important--
manifestation. In one way or another, we are
forced to deal with complexities, with "wholes" or
"systems," in all fields of knowledge. This
implies a basic re—orientation in scentific think—
ing.
Application of Systems Concept
The new technology indicated in the concept of
"systems approach" was applied and developed by the allied
military services during the second World War. Scientists

drawn from many disciplines performed multi-disciplinary

teamwork Mdifii great success during the war.

 

l6Ludwig Von Bertalanffy, General System Theory
(New York: George Braziller, 1968), p. 89.

17Ibid., p. 5.

 

22

These teams of scientists were usually assigned
to the executive in charge of operations--to the
"line"--hence their work came to be known as opera-
tional research in the United Kingdom and by a
variety of names in the United States: operational
analysis, operations evaluation, Operations
research, systems analysis, systems evaluagion,
systems research, and management science.

Today, the terms systems analysis, operations
research, management science, and applied economic analysis
are used almost interchangeably with one another.19

Systems scientists who had worked together in the
military became available after the war for peacetime
employment in industry, business, and public organizations,
but the electronic computers which they had used were not
yet available in the market. The wide range of mathematics
needed for the applications of operations research far
transcends the capacity of a few mathematicians. The
flourishing development systems applications to industry
became possible only in the late 408 when electronic compu-
ters became available for commercial use. Some say that

this period marks the beginning of the "Second Industrial

Revolution, which was developed by the hardware

 

18

 

Russell L. Ackoff and Maurice W. Sasieni,
Fundamentals of Operations Research (New York: John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., 1968), p. 5.

19

Richard W. Judy, "Systems Analysis and University
Planning," Socio-Economic Planning Sciences, Vol. 2,
Nos. 2/3/4 (April, 1969), p. 179.

 

23

of computers, automation and cybernation, and the software

of systems science."20

Systems Approach

 

A systems approach is essentially a point of view,
rather than a particular technique. This approach leads
scientists to use scientific methods and knowledge along
with considerations of systems concepts proper to the
problem of concern. Bertalanffy indicates this in the
following quotation:

An important consideration is that the various

approaches enumerated are not, and should not be
considered to be monopolistic. One of the impor-

tant aspects of the modern changes in scientific
thought is that there is no unique and all-

embracing "world system." All scientific constructs
are models representing certain aspects of perspec—
tives of reality. The various "systems theories"

also are models that mirror different aspects.21
Identifying the interrelationships of components
which constitute the system is imperative in a systems
approach. The approach may require a team of scientists
and specialists from various fields, such as economics,
mathematics, sociology, education, etc. A systems approach
facilitates not only looking at a system as a whole but
also dealing with the details of any problematic area in
the system. Utilization of a computer along with a systems

approach facilitates scientific analysis of large, complex

 

20Von Bertalanffy, Op. cit., p. 4.

ZlIbid., p. 94.

24

systems which otherwise might lie beyond the sc0pe of

human analysis.

Systems Analysis

 

Systems analysis is a purposeful research technique
employed in terms of predetermined objectives. Regardless
of the Objectives, the systems analyst follows ways
demanded by the systems approach. Any scientific way to
accomplish the objectives of an analysis can be used.

Cooper and McGillem22

offer a rather sophisticated explana-
tion of the advantages of using systems analysis:

1. To determine the response of a system to a
specified input by analysis is easier and
cheaper than by experiment.

2. Analysis is the only possibility to determine
the feasibility of a particular system that
is not actually in existence.

3. Analysis may assume conditions that would be
impossible or dangerous to create on an
experimental basis.

4. Systems analysis is often an important part
of system design.

Perhaps the most significant contribution of
systems analysis to management and administration is its
ability to facilitate anticipating the probable outcomes
of alternative measures without requiring experimentation
(or "trial and error," or "wait and see") in the real world
throughout a given period of real time, which would be

highly consuming of resources.

 

 

22Cooper and McGillem, Op. cit., pp. 4-5.

25

Systems Techniques

 

n One of the advantages of a systems approach is
modeling the real world for the purposes of systems analysis
and design. In general, modeling is the approximated repre—
sentation of the real world. The concept of model is
introduced by Ackoff and Sasieni, as follows:

Models are representations of reality. If they
were as complex and difficult to control as reality,
there would be no advantage in their use. Fortu-
nately, we can usually construct models that are
much simpler than reality and still be able to use
them to predict and explain phenomena with a high
degree of accuracy. The reason is that although a
very large number of variables may be required to
predict a phenomenon with perfect accuracy, a small
number of variables usually account for most of it.

The trick, of course, is to find the right variables
and the correct relationship among them.2

Models can variously be classfied in terms of pur-

poses. There are three types of models: iconLc,analogue,
and symbolic.24 Iconic models are representation of the
properties with a change of scale, such as photographs,
maps, model airplanes, etc. Analogue models consist of
sets of properties which are used to represent other sets
of properties, such as contour lines on a map are analogues
of elevation, graphs are analOgues of geometrical magni-
tudes, etc. Symbolic models include letters, numbers, or

other symbols to represent variables and relationships

among variables. Mathematical models are symbolic models.

‘

23Ackoff and Sasieni, op. cit., p. 60.

24Ibid.,pun 60-61.

26

Block diagrams and flow charts are usually made up of a
combination of iconic and analogue models.

In a given research, any one of the above mentioned
types of models may be used. In many cases, all three
types of models are used in sequence. Iconic and analogue
models or combinations of them are frequently used as
initial approximation. In the present study, Chapter IV
includes such models. Relationships among variables are
usually quantitatively presented and stated by means of
symbolic models. Chapter V in this study represents such
uses of symbolic models.

The contribution of models in explaining problems
is explained in the following quotation:

Models are normally thought of as instruments
for selecting the best (or at least a good) course
of action from that set of courses of action that
is "covered" by the model. However, models have
another very important use that is frequently over-
looked: they can be used heuristically, that is,
as an instrument of discovery. They provide an
effective tool with which to explore the structure
of a problem and to uncover possible courses of
action that were previously overlooked. The dis-
covery of such courses of action may often be the
most important use to which the model can be put.25

Models are used for varying purposes which may be
classified, as follows:

Originally models were used exclusively for
descriptive purposes. With the advent of mathe-
matics, models became predictive as well. Later,
man's curiosity and his ever-increasing need for

x

251bid., p. 89.

27

control drew him to explanatory models. It was not
enough to know that something could be expected to
happen; man had to know why this was so, to simplify,
amplify, reduce, or change it.

One may construct models to predict future events.

Such models are presented as "simulation models," and

this sort of model deserves further explanation.

Simulation Models

 

Simulation, as a problem—solving technique, is imi-
tation of the real world. In other words, simulation
involves "setting up a model of a real situation and then
performing experiments on the model."27 Sinmlation models
are mathematical models which "consist of four well-defined
elements: components, variables, parameters, and func-

tional relationships."28

Appearance of high-speed
electronic-digital computers has facilitated uses of simu-
lation models for complex and large socioeconomic systems.
Through manipulating controllable variables in the models
and iteration loops in the computer program, one may obtain
a number of alternative solutions of a problem so that the

decision maker can choose a best or good alternative under

the circumstances.

 

26Pritsker and Kiviat, op. cit., p. l.

27Naylor et a1., op. cit., p. 2.

 

28Ibid., p. 10.

28

Realization of the chosen solution of the problem
necessitates exerting "control," which is another key
systems concept. Management and administration are inti-

mately concerned with the process of control.

Management As a Control System

 

In general, the terms Pmanagement" and "administra-
tion" are used for the same purpose--the agency and process
for operating an organization. However, the term "manage-
ment" usually refers to business oriented administration.
Strictly speaking, "management" indicates guiding and
operating an organization, and "administration" indicates
determination of the policy and aims of the organization.29
Nevertheless, in many cases--especia11y in public organiza-
tions--"administration" often connotes the function
indicated in "management" also. "Management" and/or

"administration" is a consequence of the existence of

organizations.

Organization

 

Here the term "organization" refers to socio-
economic organizations, not to the organized physical
things, which exist in the world. "Organizations are

social units which pursue specific goals; their very

 

9Ordway Tead, The Art of Administration (New York:
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1951), p. 101.

 

29

raison d'etre is the service of these goals."30 Obviously,

organizations are systems, i.e., sets of interrelated
entities. "Organizations are distinguished by four essen-
tial characteristics, each of which is subject to managerial
manipulation."31 The four characteristics to which this
latter quotation refers may be summarized, as follows.32

1. Content: Consists of at least two purposeful
entities which are capable of selecting objectives and the
means by which to pursue them. The purposeful entities
are men. The three resources--machines, materials, and
money--are also included in the content.

2. Structure: The purposeful entities (men) are
divided into at least two sub-groups which are responsible
for different kinds of activity.

3. Communications: The purposeful entities must
be capable of communicating to each other and the organiza—
tion's environment.

4. Control: The organization must be capable of
self-control in order to set its own objectives and to

evaluate and improve its performance. Thus, the organiza—

tion must be "adaptive" and "self-organizing."

 

30Amitai Etzioni, Modern Organizations (Englewood
Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1964), p. 5.

31

 

Ackoff and Sasieni, op. cit., p. 16.

321bid., pp. 16-19.

30

Control

Obviously, the accomplishment of desired perform-
ance by socioeconomic organizations is assured only by
means of a functional control unit in the organization.
The unit of an organization which is in charge of control
responsibility is classified as the "control system." To
be effective in its responsibility, the control unit should
have a place in the organization with access to the deci-
sion makers and must directly be responsible to the managers
who have authority to modify the organization in opera-

tion.33

In addition, as is mentioned in item 4 above,

the organization should be adaptive so as to improve its
performance. An adaptive system is "one which measures its
performance related to a given IP (index of performance)
and modifies its parameters to approach an optimum set of

values."34

Decisions

 

In socioeconomic organizations, Operations and
controls are put into action through decisions rather than
through automation. Decision—making is therefore the
fundamental process in management and administration.

Decision—making is a process by which information is

 

33Ibid., p. 442.

34Virgil W. Eveleigh, Adaptive Control and Optimiza-
tion Techniques (New York: McGraw Hill Book Co., 1967),
p. 135.

 

 

31

converted into action. Productivity of an organization
depends largely on: (a) information available for use in
making decisions and (b) skill of managers and/or adminis-
trators for making good use of information in the decision-
making process. Forrester emphasizes this point as follows:

If management is the process of converting
information into action, then it is clear that
management success depends primarily on what
information is chosen and how the conversion is
executed. The difference between a good manager
and a poor manager lies at this point. Every per—
son has available a large number of information
sources. But each of us selects and uses only a
small fraction of the available information. Even
then, we make only incomplete and erratic use of
that information. 5

Forrester presents a structure of the decision-

making process that also implicates the process of control

action, as follows:

First is the creation of a concept of a desired
state of affairs. . . . Second there is the apparent
state of actual conditions. In other words, our
available information leads us to certain observa-
tions that we believe represent the present state of
the system. . . . The third part of the decision
process is the generation of the kinds of action
that will be taken in accordance with any discrepancy
which can be detected between the apparent and the
desired conditions.36

Apparently, adequate information is a prime need

for making effective decisions.

 

 

35Jay W. Forrester, Industrial Dynamics (Cambridge,
Mass.: The MIT Press, 1969). p. 93.
36

Ibid., pp. 95-96.

32

Information

 

One may classify the sources Of information to be
used in management and/or administration in three groups,
as follows:

1. Managers and/or administrators, The knowledge

 

and experience they acquire in developing their skill in
making decisions and conducting organizations.

2. Environment, Information from the environment

 

is needed to answer the questions which need to be answered
and, in turn, to indicate whether its objectives are being

fulfilled by the organization.

3. The organization itself. Information from

 

the organization itself is needed for control, e.g., for
maintaining productivity and effectiveness in terms of
fulfillment of the organization's objectives.

The difference between data and information is
that data is the raw material and information is the end
product of interpreting the data. However, "in certain
situations, raw data may require little or no processing
before constituting information for the user."37 Item 3
above indicates the need for "feedback" information in

socioeconomic organizations. This is an especially

important form of information in analyzing systems.

 

37Gene Dippel and William C. House, Information
Systems--Data Processing and Evaluation (Glenview, 111.:
Scott, Foresman and Co., 1969), p. 2.

 

 

33

"Feedback" is information about the output of an
organization, which is to be compared with the desired
performance of the organization. Consequently, modern
socioeconomic organizations, in order to be effective and
productive, require the application of information-feedback

control systems.

Educational Administration

 

Education is one of the largest enterprises, and
is typically an insatiable consumer of resources, in almost
every society. Education is therefore a field which may
derive tremendous benefit from systems technology. For a
long time societies have been suffering from the problems
of utilizing scarce resources to meet expanding educational
needs. Even so, educators have only recently become readily
interested in the new quantitative, scientific techniques
of system analysis.
The irony is that the educational system, which
has been so much the home and mother of the modern
scientific methodé has applied so little of it to
1ts own affa1rs.
Philip H. Coombs claims that resistance to change
and innovation in education is not because teachers are

more conservative than anyone else. To him, education's

organizational structure and the inadequate nature of

 

38Philip H. Coombs, The World Educational Crises--
A Systems Analysis (New York: Oxford University Press,
1970), p. 116.

 

 

34

research in education are depriving it from utilizing pro-
ductive technology.

Yet ironically, the absence of a strong innova—
tive spirit in educational systems is traceable in
part to the very nature of traditional educational
research. Not only was it starved for resources,
both money and talent, but for years it tended to
stagnate in quiet intellectual backwaters isolated
from the main stream of scientific research and
development.

Thus much of "educational research" until very
recently, though bearing the superficial hallmarks
of scientific research, was essentially philo-
sophical or descriptive in nature. It was not
within the modern scientific tradition of rigorous
analytical, experimental, and developmental
research that was producing notable results else-
where. Further, educational research for the most
part was a fragmented collection of sporadic and
ineffectual attacks--especially by Ph.D. candi-
dates--either on problems which by their very
nature required a broad-scale and sustained attack,
or else on trivial but manageable topics of little
basic significance.3

A frequent recommendation of scholars dealing with
innovation and reform in eduction is to begin educational
reforms with improving educational administration. They
urge that a concept of management should be created and
utilized in education.

The new technology for management is not merely

a theoretical exercise nor is it restricted to
applications in the military and industry. The
size and complexity of present day educational
organizations have created a need for rapid and

efficient methods of analysis planning and commu-
nication control in educational administrative

 

functions. The administrator with the ability to

get along with people as his primary or sole

resource can no longer function effectively. In
39

Ibid., p. 115.

35

order that the new concepts of management be imple-
mented, new training programs are required. These
training programs include such courses as quanti-
tative methods in educational administration,
computer science, statistics, mathematics, quanti-
tative business management, econometrics, and urban
planning.

Systems analysts believe that systems procedures
can effectively be utilized in educational administration,
starting from individual schools up through the central
ministry of education. This fact and need have been
recognized and introduced into education by many noneduca-

. 41
tors in recent years.

The basic responsibilities of administrators can
be stated in two words: decision making. Effective and
productive decisions are based first on adequate informa-

tion and secondly on a talent for appropriate utilization

of information in the decision-making process.

Information in Education

 

An administrator (or a manager) is a decision maker.
In many cases, the decision maker is not an individual. It
may be a team or a committee. Regardless of whether it is
an individual or a group of individuals, the decision maker

needs information.

 

40Frank W. Banghart, Educational Systems Analysis
(London: The Macmillen Company, Collier-Macmillen Limited,
1969), PP. 4-6.

41

 

Ibid., p. 25.

36

Information is data which is used as an aid to
decision making. The knowledge which alerts us to
the fact that a decision is necessary is one form
of information. The objectives which are to be
met by the system constitute another type of infor-
mation. Details on the available alternatives and
the likely outcomes resulting from each of these
alternatives are further examples of how informa-
tion is a necessary ingredient in the decision-
making process.

In addition, purposively processed data, which are
collected from schools or other organizations, are infor-
mation also. The degree of need for scientific and modern
data processing is defined by the degree of complexity and
the extent of administrative responsibility.

The decision maker in larger organizations no
longer has direct contact with his Operations,
and therefore, is dependent upon information flow-
ing to his desk from another source. Only through
the use of modern technology can this continuous
flow of information reach the decision maker at
the apprOpriate time to be effective. High speed
equipment for storage, retrieval, and processing
information coupled with newer mathematical con-
cepts that permit an Optimal amount of information
to be abstracted have a vital role to play in
administrative decision making. Applications of
this technology will result in quicker and better
decisions on the part of the administrator. In
any management system there is no substitue for
quick and valid information.43

Collected and processed data are valuable only as
long as they affect decisions for the present and/or future
administrative operations. Some of the criteria related

to need for establishment of an information system are

 

 

 

42Gary M. Andrew and Ronale E. Moir, Information-
Decision Systems in Education (Itaska: F. E. Peacock
Publishers, Inc., 1970), P. 2.

43

Banghart, op. cit., p. 83.

37

indicated in the following questions: "Why is the Informa-
tion Needed?" "What Information is Needed?" "How is The
Information to Be Used?" "When Is The Information Needed?"
"Who Is to Use the Information?" and "Where Should the
Information Be Collected or Used?"44

"There are three main phases in an information
system--(l) the data collection or input, (2) the data
manipulation or processing, and (3) the information

"45

dissemination or output. The effectiveness of an

information system depends largely on realistic considera-
tions of these phases in the system's design.

Indeed, a computerized information system does help
administrators not only through providing needed informa-
tion, but also through facilitating improvement and
innovation in administration.

Studying an administrative system as essen-

tially an information system provides a useful
model. To define who originates, processes, uses,
or needs information is to describe much of the
actual Operation of administration. In a manual
system, many rules and procedures can be left unde-

fined, and intuition and experience can substitute
effectively for logical precision.

 

44Andrew and Moir, op. cit., pp. 57-58.

451bid., p. 59.

46John G. Caffrey, "The Computer Imperative,"
Socio-Economic Planning Sciences, Vol. 2, Nos. 2/3/4
(April, 1969), p. 329.

 

38

Planning and Control

 

Definitions of planning may be stated in various
ways. The following definition is well suited to the pur-

poses of the present study. "Planning is the process of

preparing a set of decisions for action in the future."47

Though there are many statements of the pros and cons for
adopting social planning sytems, and for utilizing systems
procedures in planning processes as well, some common argu-
ments regarding utilizing a systems approach to planning
can be found in Michael S. Silvester's conclusion:

To conclude then, the state of systems theory
as appliedonPlanning Systems seems to me to suffer
from,

(a) the lack of clearly stated philosophic
principles,

(b) an inadequate study of the political
process and

(c) a lack of consideration of the limits which
time and money may put on its use.

It is very much at the engineering level. It
provides techniques for control, but says nothing
about the circumstances in which these controls may
be used. If these areas could be covered then I
see no reason why the systems approach should not
be the most effective approach to analysis, gore-
casting and planning in the social sciences. 8

Opposition to use of systems procedures in educa-
tional planning may stem partially from certain character-

istics which are common to many human beings. As mentioned

 

47Arnold Anderson and Mary Jean Bowman, "Theoretical
Considerations in Educational Planning," in Educational

 

Planning, ed. by Don Adams (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse
University, 1969), p. 9.
48

Michael S. Silvester, "The Contribution of the
Systems Approach to Planning," Socio-Economic Planning
Sciences, Vol. 7, No. 1 (February, 1973), p. 103.

 

39

by Paul L. Dressel, (a) administrators who tend to operate
on a "free-wheeling basis" do not like to be restricted by
predetermined requirements of plans,49 and (b) educators
who do not know mathematics and who may have different
concepts or points of view from model builders, may have
prejudices against utilization of systems procedures in
planning: ". . . the planner works to develop an applicable
model, the educator works to destroy its applicability-—
although both may join in trying to increase the number of
educated persons."50
Indeed, the educational enterprise is one which is
a massive enterprise, quantitatively speaking, and one which
also requires qualitative considerations that are political,
social, and philosophical in nature. In addition, educa-
tion is a field in which large resources are invested and
consumed. Education involves far—flung, compex organiza-
tions. Because of these characteristics of education,
systems procedures (including management science techniques)
may be expected to be more helpful to the administration
and planning of education than any other presently available
technique. The interdisciplinary characteristic of systems

procedures not only permits but also requires that

 

49Paul L. Dressel, "Comments on the Use of Mathe-
matical Models in Educational Planning," Mathematical
Models in Educational Planning (Paris: OECD, 1967),
pp. 275-288.

SOIbid., p. 279.

 

 

40

qualitative social, political, and philosophical considera-

tions be taken into account.

The design of different educational alternatives
to be evaluated may involve studies of changes in
curricula, acceptance rules, financial incentives,
creation of new branches, etc. Consequential analy-
ses of the future implications of the alternatives
may give ideas concerning the formulation of new
alternatives. Educational long-range planning can
thus be considered an iterative feed-back process
which in each iteration may require innovations and
both qualitative and quantitative considerations.
An inter-disciplinary approach with a close
co-operation between "qualitative" and "quantita-
tive" analysts may therefore be essential. This
co-operation may be easier to establish when simu-
lation models are used, as they break down
complicated situations into a series of simple
interactions. . . .

Simulation models may be appropriate whenever
it is a matter ofsftudying the development of a
system over time.

Systems approaches can effectively be utilized in

designing or redesignation of educational organizations
also.

Another principlecfi systems analysis is that
the design of an improved system or a new system
must be derived from a precise knowledge of what
the system has to do, in other words, its mission
or functional objectives. What is the system sup-
posed to do and why? This may be expressed as
"working backward" from effect to cause. Then we
can design that cause much like an engineer does
when he creates a new piece of hardware or weapon
to perform a specific task. In education we might
call this type of person an "educational engineer."
The place to begin then, is with the requirements
of the system, since this is the basic element
that prescribes relationships between "inputs" to

 

51

Educational Planning," The Use of Simulation Models in
Educational Planning (Paris: OECD, 1971), p. 25.

 

 

Brita Schwars, "The Use of Simulation Techniques in

41

the system (human and material resources, financial
investment, etc.) and the "output" (the educational
product, i.e., the educated students).

Consequently, although "the model builder implement-
ing the theoretical model is faced with some real
constraints,"53 systems procedures provide effective tools
for administration, planning, and control in education.

When complete or exact solutions cannot be
found because of the large size of the system,
intractable mathematical representations, system
phenomena that are not well understood, etc.,
computer simulation techniques may be helpful in
arriving at approximate solutions or in assisting
the user in experimenting with selected changes
in parameters, exogenous variables, and control
inputs.54

Utilization of systems procedures frequently
requires computer assistance. Computers are especially
useful in facilitating the updating of parameters, thereby
facilitating the making of required changes under changing
circumstances, i.e., performing adoptive control.

For this type of control of large-scale socio-

economic systems, the use of high-speed computer
is clearly essential. In addition to digesting
vast quantities of data in a short time, the use

of a computer permits simulation of planned changes
under newly-observed conditions. Examinations of

 

52Andrew and Moir, op. cit., pp. 27—28.

53George Van Dusen and Martin G. Keeney, "Experi-
menting with a Computer Simulation Program," Journal of
Educational Data Processing, Vol. 8, NO. l (1971), p. 2.

54H. E. Koenig, M. G. Keeney, and R. Zemach, A
Systems Model for Management and Resource Allocation in
Institutions of Higher Education, A Technical Report
from Division of Engineering Research (East Lansing:
Michigan State University, 1968), p. 4.

 

 

 

 

42

the response under computer simulation may help to
avoid decisions that will affect the systems in a
way that is economically, socially, or politically
undesirable.
Summary
The prime contribution of systems concepts to
science and technology is to present a new way of thinking
applicable to any field of knowledge. Systems approaches
provide scientific techniques which may be made compatible
with the problems of the field and which can be utilized
for solution of the problems through systems approaches.
Tools of systems approaches are usually derived
from mathematical and physical sciences. It has been
frequently claimed that systems approaches are incompatible
with certain social phenomena, in which non—quantitative
considerations are important. In fact, however, the inter-
disciplinary characteristic of a systems approach not only
permits but also requires considerations of non-quantitative
aspects of any problem. In addition, systems procedures
facilitate experimenting with alternative solutions in
which non-quantitative-considerations and their expected
effects may be experimentally included.
It follows that systems procedures may be utilized
effectively in approaching solutions of educational prob-
lems. Basic advantages of this conclusion may be summarized

as follows:

 

551bid., pp. 5-6.

43

1. Demand for accurate data inspires an organiza—
tion to improve and/or establish a computerized data
processing system, which, in turn, requires and facilitates
improvement and innovation in the organization and its
administration.

2. Logical and mathematical precision is substi-
tuted for guessing and intuition.

3. While descriptive researches in education try
to answer the question of "what it was," systems procedures
can provide currently up-dated answers to the questions of
"what it is now" and "what it can be or should be in the
future under the present circumstances." These are vitally
important questions to be answered in decision making and
planning.

4. Through simulation, systems procedures facili-
tate experimental investigation of the future behavior of
a system under given conditions, which otherwise would be
impossible to study. This helps decision makers to choose
the best or most desirable one among several alternatives.
As a result, large portions of scarce resources can be
saved from being wasted, or can be better utilized.

In short, utilization of systems procedures in
coping with educational problems does not cause losses.
Instead, it provides scientific, economical, realistic,
and feasible approaches to the solution of many important

problems.

CHAPTER III

TURKISH SCHOOL SYSTEM AND THE BACKGROUND

OF THE PROBLEM

This chapter presents: (a) diagrams of the
organization of the Turkish school system, (b) data on its
past state and recent development, and (c) evidences of
the existence of the long—standing teacher shortage problem
in secondary education.

Operational Organization of the
Turkish School System

 

 

The basic structure of the Turkish school system
is similar to systems in many countries in the world.
With respect, however, to operational organization, the
system has its own characteristics and is rather complex.
As Figure 1 indicates in simple form, there are various
academic, vocational, and technical schools which are
separated from each other both at the secondary level and
at the higher education level. Differentiation of indi—
viduals in terms of the knowledge and skill they receive
is achieved through different types of schools at the same
level instead of through different or flexible curricula

in the same school. This practice to a large extent

44

45

FIGURE l.--Block Diagram of the Operational Structure of Turkish Public Schools.

 

 

le p e s of E d u c a t i o n Age Group
. . at School
Level of Education Technical Academic Vocational Age (3 in 1972)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

HIGHER
(6) ' -

(2.3.4.5. or 6 years) mineral” ”3' 19—21 6 o
SECONDARY, cycle II » ‘l 1

(3 years, or 4 years (8) L LYCée (14) ‘

for some vocational b (3) 15_r7 17 7
schools) .
SECONDARY, cycle I p 4

(3 years) .. b ‘ 12-14 36.5
ELEMENTARY

(5 years, compulsory) 7-11 88.5

 

 

EXPLANATIONS :
-Arrows indicate channels of transition open to students.

-Figures in the cells enclosed in parenthesis indicate the numbers of different kinds
of schools of that type, among which however there is no horizontal or vertical
transition of students.

-Except for academic lysees, the graduates of other second cycle secondary schools
are allowed to apply only to those particular higher institutions which are related
to their secondary program.

-At the second cycle level, vocational group normal schools and religious schools are
four-year programs.

-At the university, the programs of the college of engineering require five years and
human medicine six years.

—For admission, it is necessary to pass a competitive examination:

a. For all kinds of higher institutions,

b. For normal schools (first and second cycle), the science lycee, and the
preparation class for the first cycle in those lycecs at which science and
mathematics are taught in English, French or German.

c. To receive benefit from boarding facilities or to receive scholarships for
secondary and higher level schools.

46

prevents the student from exercising his own choice in
determining the type of education he is to receive. In
addition, his opportunities for higher education are
legally proscribed by the particular secondary school
which the individual enters at the age of fifteen.

Higher education includes two different groups
of institutions: the universities, and other higher
schools. The universities are autonomous and only lycée
graduates are eligible to apply. A vocational or technical
school graduate is not allowed to apply to the university
even if he completesaifour-year program of a higher school
after his secondary education. Higher schools are estab-
lished and opened in terms of needs and are subordinated
to the Ministry of Education. Some of them also have
academic autonomy. Originally, these schools were estab-
lished to produce needed middle level technical and
vocational manpower who were not trained by the university.
The education institute is one example. Lycée graduates
are eligible to apply to some types of these schools,
especially to the vocational ones.

As years passed, people related to vocational
and technical schools put pressure on the Ministry of Edu-
cation to recognize their secondary schools as equivalent
to lycée and their higher schools as equivalent to the
university. (kuamay think of at least two basic reasons

for this. First, the lycée and the university have the

47

highest prestige at their respective levels and one
naturally tries to get rid of feeling inferior because of
his education or his teaching position. Second, the train-
ing programs and periods of vocational and technical
schools were usually relatively restricted, and one might
expect a person involved in technical vocational education
to try to satisfy his aspirations for more education or for
more social respect by working to establish his field of
education on an equal footing with others.

As a result of the above mentioned pressures,
changes in curriculum and extensions of training periods
for technical and vocational schools took place gradually,
step by step.

However, graduates of vocational and technical
schools are still not eligible to attend the university,
even if they were to take the entrance examination and
achieve the highest score among the applicants. The contra-
diction in this practice is that the university on the one
hand says it relies on the selectivity of the entrance
examination, but on the other hand it ignores examination
selectivity and relies instead on the title of the appli—
cant's secondary school, not the performance of the
individual.

This practice represents discrimination in educa-
tion, whereas one of the first tasks of education is to

unify the society through providing equal opportunity for

48

social, cultural, and economic mobilization of individuals.
An inestimable waste in human potential is another undesired

effect of this practice.

Background of the Problem

 

The recent Revolution of May 27, 1960, marks a
turning point in terms of the socioeconomic development
of the Turkish society. The concept of planned development
was formally introduced after the revolution. Under the
overall rule of the new constitution, the State Planning
Organization came into existence in the governmental
structure, and was set up as the executive secretariat
of the Higher Planning Council, made up of cabinet minis-
ters, among whom the Prime Minister was chairman. Then,
with the First Five Year Development Plan, the country
virtually entered the planned period in 1963.

Because of this shift in approach to solving the
social problems of the country, each of the following
sections of this chapter is presented in two parts:
developments prior to the planned period and develOpments
in the planned period. Because of its function in admin—
istrative decisions, a discussion of the use of information

in educational administration is included also.

49

Need and Supply of Teachers of
Secondary School Core Subjects

 

 

Before the Planned Period

In Turkey, the central Ministry of Education is
the highest authority over all educational affairs excluding
universities. Since secondary education has not been com-
pulsory, the Ministry of Education has manipulated demand
and supply through restrictions on opening new schools.

As part of the rapid changes in socioeconomic and political
structures of the society, the aspiration for education
began to rise sharply after the Second World War. People
became dissatisfied with what was provided by the govern-
ment and asked for more secondary schools. Because of

the public pressure, restrictions on opening new secondary
schools were loosened in the fifties, but without providing
effective measures for producing needed new teachers. The
need for more new school buildings has frequntly been
partly met by scheduling; where possible, two shifts of
students are in attendance during the day.

Consequently, the gap between demand and supply of
teachers has widened as the years passed, as shown in
Figure 2.

In the graph, numbers of both students and teachers
are expressed as 100 in the basic year, 1930. Then per-
centages of increases in five—year increments are traced.

The rate of increase in the number of teachers was

FIGURE 2.--Indices of Increases in the Number of Students

and Teachers in General

Secondary Schools. (*l

 

 

t
u d e n t s

U)

 

w 3500 ..
U)
M
.0
M
3000 ..
U)
«5
O
m
ox 2500 .L
D"
C
4-4
m 2000 .5
0)
0)
(1}
$4
0
C
“d 1000 ..
‘H
O
.3.)
c 500 ..
(D
O
H
w 100
0-: 0 1
1930 1935

(*i Sources:

1960 1965 1970

State Planning Organization and State
Statistical Institute.

51

approximately one-third of the rate for students over
forty years, and the largest widening of the gap took
place after 1960.

There is no free market for teachers in Turkey.
Elementary and secondary school teachers are trained by
the Ministry of Education. Other ministries and the private
sector hire their core subject teachers from MOE sources.

In 1957, the General Directorate for Teacher Train-
ing Schools was established in the Ministry of Education
for the purpose of tackling the problem of supply of
teachers. Because of the reluctance of the vocational and
technical education offices to relinquish control over the
supply of their teachers, only the schools for general
education teachers--namely, normal schools, education
institutes, and higher teacher training schools—-were sub-
ordinated to the new general directorate (see Figure 3).

In 1958, the "Turkish National Commission on Edu—
cation" was assigned to study all aspects of the Turkish
education system. The commission fulfilled the assignment
in approximately one year and submitted its report to the
Ministry of Education, but it was not published until
June, 1960, immediately after the Revolution. In the
report, the situation of the secondary school system was
described as follows:

We observed that institutes of secondary educa-

tion needed more attention and hasty reform than
all others in the system of education. Most of

52

FIGURE 3.--Dasic Sources of Teachers in Turkey.

 

 

General Directorate
for
Religious Education

 

(*)

 

 

 

 

 

General Directorate
for Teacher
Training Schools

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Undersecretary for
General Education

 

 

 

 

l

[MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

 

 

 

(‘l

 

 

 

I

Undersecretary for
Vocational and Technical
Education

 

 

 

 

 

 

General Directorate
for Vocational
and Technical
Higher Education

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

General Directorate
for Girls
Technical Education

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

General Directorate
for Boys
Technical Education

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ISLAMIC INSTITUTE
(4-year post-secondary religious education for men)

 

NORMAL SCHOOL
(4-year second-cycle secondary education to train
elementary school teachers)

 

EDUCATION INSTITUTE
(3—year post-secondary education to train teachers
of core subjects for secondary schools)

 

HIGHER TEACHER TRAINING SCHOOL
(4—year university program to train teachers of
core subjects for second-cycle secondary schools)

 

UNIVERSITY
(4-, 5-, or 6-year higher education programs)

GIRLS TECHNICAL HIGHER TEACHER TRAINING SCHOOL
(4-year post—secondary education to train teachers
for girls technical secondary schools)

 

BOYS TECHNICAL HIGHER TEACHER TRAINING SCHOOL
(4-year post-secondary educatiOn to train teachers
for boys technical secondary schools)

COMMERCE AND TOURISM HIGHER TEACHER TRAINING SCHOOL
IA-year post-secondary education to train teachers
for commerce and tourism secondary schools).

GIRLS VOCATIONAL TEACHER TRAINING SCHOOL

(2-year program after glrIs technical hIgh-school
to train teachers for girls vocational extension
education)

CENTER FOR ITINERANT COURSE TEACHERS

(l-year program after girls technical high-school
to train teachers for extension education in
rural areas)

 

BOYS TECHNICAL TEACHER TRAINING SCHOOL

(Z—year program after boys technical high-school
to train teachers for boys technical extension
education)

 

('l Not a teacher training institution but its graduates are qualified to teach.

53

those schools have inadequate buildings and facili-
ties. In particular, quality and number of
administrators and teachers of those schools are
below the desired level. Because of the difficulty
of finding qualified teachers, unqualified persons
were assigned to teach and the institutions were
very far from fulfilling their expected substantial
functions. Subsequently, many students were caused
to fail and a great proportion of the youth of the
country has been deprived of education.

In the secondary school system, supply of vocational
and technical subject teachers was not a serious problem,
but supply of core subject teachers was. Therefore, second-
ary schools for general education were more affected by
the shortage of teachers of core subjects than vocational
and technical ones, as shown in Figure 4.

To train core subject teachers for secondary schools,

there were two types of institutions, as follows:

Higher teacher training schools.--Higher teacher

 

training schools are essentially boarding centers for
students who are selected to be trained as teachers for
the second cycle of secondary schools. Students attend
the universities, which have no school of education. They
are trained under prOgrams designed for professions or
vocations other than teaching. Only lycée graduates are
admitted to universities on the basis of competitive

examinations and predecided quotas for colleges. Those

 

_.. —__ m—

56Milli Egitim Bakanligi, Tfirkiye Egitim Milli
Komisyonu Raporu (Istanbul: Milli EEitim Basimevi, 1960),
p. 48.

 

(Turkish Ministry of Education, The Report of the
Turkish National Commission on Education.)

 

 

54

FIGURE 4.—-Student/Teacher Ratios in Secondary Schools. (*)

 

4o 1

(0
N
O
O
-C
(J
(I)
(J
'H
N
0.,
"I
’0
LI
0)
C
Q}
U

pe
to
o

25 .l

f s t u d e n t s

O

N u m b e r

 

 

5 :

d-
‘C
0
y
.l

1930
1935
1940
1945
1950
1955
1960
1965 h

(*) Sources: State Planning Organization and State
Statistical Institute.

55

who are lucky enough to pass the entrance examination,
especially for colleges of scientific subjects, do not
usually choose teaching as a profession. In fact, because
of socioeconomic and industrial changes, the teaching
profession has been losing its attractiveness. In addi-
tion, training programs of colleges were incompatible with
the requirements of the teaching profession. To be
trained under the same program with other students was
encouraging the teacher candidates to leave the profession
for better paying jobs. Retention of trained teachers in

the profession was another serious problem.

Education Institutes.--The Education Institutes

 

were established in the late twenties as boarding schools
to train core subject teachers for the first cycle of
secondary schools. The school was a two-year higher educa-
tion institution subordinated to the Ministry of Education.
In 1946, the branches of general science, mathematics,
Turkish, and social subjects were unified into one branch.
After two years of practice, the newly unified branch was
re-divided into two branches, humanities and science.
Before the beginning of the planned period (1963) the
training period for all branches except humanities,
science, and pedagogy had been raised to three years.

In the face of the serious teacher shortage,

graduates from education institutes were permitted and

56

assigned to teach at the second cycle of secondary schools
as well as at the first cycle.

The General Directorate for Teaching Training
Schools was responsible for training core subject teachers
for ten types of secondary schools subordinated to seven
different general directorates of the Ministry of Education.
Some of the trained teachers, however, were transferring
to other ministries' schools, and some to private schools
as well.

In an effort to solve the problem of supply, the
general directorate tried to raise the production of the
above mentioned two types of teacher training schools. To
raise the production of education institutes was not a
difficult problem, since they were under the control of
the general directorate. But with regard to the higher
teacher training schools, to raise production was hard to
achieve because the general directorate had no voice in
the universities. What was possibly the best measure
under the circumstances was put into practice in 1959.

The results are indicated in Table 1.

Methods adopted in 1959 for increasing production
in higher teacher training schools were as follows: Normal
school students, who passed to the final grade with high
scores, were recruited and put into a newly established
school called "The Preparation Class." It was equivalent

to the final grade of the lycée and was subordinated to

57

TABLE 1--Development in Secondary School Teacher Training

Institutions.(*)

 

EDUCATION INSTITUTES HIGHER TEACHER TR. SCH.

School No. of No. of No. of_ No. of No. of No. of
Schools Students Graduates

 

 

.Years Schools Students Graduates

 

1949-50 3 622 393 l 40 24
1950-51 3 514 206 1 7 --
1951-52 3 404 188 1 l9 4
1952-53 3 534 218 l 21 --
1953-54 3 565 229 l 40 3
1954-55 3 '771 265 2 62 7
1955-56 3 931 334 2 74 4
1956-57 3 1,224 434 2 75 5
1957-58 3 1,319 610 2 83 7
1958-59 4 1,251 445 2 94 14
1959-60 5 1,747 765 2 295 24
1960-61 5 2,049 716 2 347 7
1961-62 7 2,478 .1,063 2 460 32
1962-63 9 3,042 1,140 2 531 68
1963-64 10 4,141 1,665 2 725 102
1964-65 10 4,729 1,905 3 833 146
1965-66 10 5,773 2,539 3 1,077 154
1966-67 10 5,827 2,878 3 1,268 156
1967-68 10 4,865 2,879 3 1,642 202
1968-69 10 4,785 951 3 1,904 281
1969-70 12 5,704 1,729 3 1,843 273
1970-71 13 6,722 2,288 3 1,572 424
1971-72 16 7,879 1,628 3 1,484 359
1972-73 16 8,717 - 3 1,441 -

 

(*) Source: MOE, General Directorate for Teacher Training Schools.

58

the higher teacher training school. After one year of
education, the students took the lycée graduation examina-
tion, and then, having the lycée diploma, tooktjmzuniversity
examination. Most of them passed the examination and

became students of the higher teacher training school.

Thereafter this practice became a regular process.

In the Planned Period

After the country entered the planned period in
1963, education was given a high priority. The Ministry
of Education had begun to face the issue before 1960.
After the revolution, the problem was handled by the
ministry at two levels, macro and micro.

At the macro level, a commission was established
to review the aforementioned "Report of the Turkish
National Commission on Education" and to prepare another
report on the basis of the new policies and the concept of
state planning. The commission accomplished the task and

published its Report of the Commission in Charge of Pre-

 

paring a National Education Plan in 1960. It was a general

 

guidance report including new policies for the entire edu-
cation system of the country.

At the micro level, each of the general directorates
studied its own problems. Then the General Directorate of
Teacher Training Schools worked on the problem of the

supply of elementary school teachers and secondary school

59

core subject teachers. After approximately nine months

of intensive work, The Report of the Teacher Training

 

Committee and the Ten Year Plan was prepared and published.

 

This researcher was responsible for the quantitative aspect
of the plan. In an effort to insure feasibility, all
possible details and timed implementation programs,

school by school, were included in the plan. The overall
target of the plan was to close the gap between demand and
supply and to achieve a satisfactory rate of production of
teachers over ten years.

Indeed, under the new policy, secondary education
would in the long range be developed as education for the
mass rather than for the few (the elite) as is implied
in the graph in Figure 5. Over the ten years included in
Figure 5, the average yearly rate of growth in pOpulation
was three percent. Increase in elementary school students
rose at a steady rate which was 2.5 times higher than the
increase in population. The rate of elementary scholariza-
tion was increasing from 68 percent toward accomplishing
the goal of 100 percent. Scholarization of secondary age-
group students was 15 percent in 1960, but at this level
the rate of increase was not steady. The average yearly
rate of increase wastxnupercent in the first four years
and exploded thereafter to a rate of more than 21 percent,

seven times the ratecflfincrease in population.

6O

 

 

 

FIGURE 5.--Indices of Increases in the Number of Students
in Elementary and Secondary Schools and in the
Population. (*)

m

U)

m

b

m 250 4;

m ,e

m éy

$0

0 4"

m “7

°‘ 200 ‘- 5,?

H a

(A9

m 6&5 évfig

C: Q X

"'4 é/é) §CvOO

U) ,(pd

:5 150 -- 65¢“

g}

m

m '0“

lat1

m POP“

m

1..

o 100

c

---l

94

o

4.)

c

m

o

u

o

m 0 : : t : 1; : : : :4 :4

o at es en v m m h m ox c>
KO KO KO KO \O KO K0 K0 KO KO 5
ox m ox ox 0‘ 0 O o Ch 03 (D
H H .H H H H H H H H H

(*) Sources:

State Planning Organization and State
Statistical Institute.

61

Finding a solution to the supply of secondary
school teachers was strongly recommended in the five-year
national develOpment plans and yearly implementation pro-
grams issued by the State Planning Organization after
1962. In the first plan, the existing situation in the
early sixties was described as follows:

The fact that the organization of education
could not be adjusted to new developments caused
imbalances in educational methods. The most
important of these arises from the inadequate
supply of teachers, and has led to a steady deteri-
oration of student teacher ratios. In many branches
there are serious gaps as regards both the numbers,
quality and vocational branches of teachers. Other
problems are the lack of administrative personnel
in education and of closer COOperation between edu-
cational institutions and the various ministries.

Implementation between 1963-1970 remained inade-
quate. The problem of supply worsened instead of improving.
To try to mitigate the situation, the maximum load of
teachers was increased by six hours. Thus a teacher could
teach as many as 30 hours in a week. The situation after
the mid-sixties was described in the second plan as
follows:

The insufficient number of teachers is limiting

the progress and quality of education. At every
level the student-teacher ratio is getting more and
more out of proportion. In secondary schools there
_are 45 students for every teacher graduated from a
teacher college and in high schools there are 38

‘students for every university graduated teacher.
The scarcity of teachers is partly compensated for

 

57State Planning Organization, Republic of Turkey,
First Five Year Development Plan 1963—1967 (Ankara: 1963),
p. 402.

 

62

by non-professional people but this harms the
quality of education. Methods which will provide
the greatest benefit from teachers have not been
developed and the teachers within Turkey are not
evenly distributed. . . .

In secondary schools an important bottleneck
has arisen in quality and quantity. Even at this
level, productivity has decreased. . . . In high
schools the quality and productivity of education
declines mainly because of inadequacies in build-
ings and teachers.58

Targets for increasing the capacity of education
institutes were given in the second plan as shown in
Table 2. These figures proved to be too high to be
realized in the given time. Perhaps the planners had
simply counted the overall number of teachers needed to
close the gap between demand and supply within the five
years. However, in spite of the urgent need and the defi-
nite requirements of the plans for more teachers, the

number of students in education institutes decreased in the

TABLE 2--P1anned Development of Education Institutes
(1968-1972).59

 

 

First Total Number

Years Registrations Graduates of Students
1968-1969 4,600 1,750 10,100
1969-1970 7,000 3,800 15,200
1970-1971 8,800 5,850 19,100
1971-1972 10,600 7,400 23,100
1972-1973 13,000 8,950 28,150

 

58State Planning Organization, Republic of Turkey,
Second Five Year Development Plan 1968-1972 (Ankara: 1969),
p. 178.

 

591bid., p. 191.

63

1967-1968 school year (see Table l on page 57). In the same
year, the humanities and science branches of education
institutes were again subdivided into Turkish, Social
Studies, Science, and Mathematics, as they had been before
1946, and the training period for them also was extended
from two to three years. These changes in the training pro-
gram adversely affected the supply and utilization of
teachers.‘

Although the number of education institutes and
their students began to increase in the 1969-1970 school
year as shown in Table 1, the rate still remained insuffi—
cient to answer the need.

After the 1971 announcement known as "The Ultimatum

of March Twelfth,"60

education was again one of the high
priority issues. A broad study of needed reforms in educa-
tion took place in the Ministry of Education for the

second time within eleven years.

Thus, implementation in the planned period also has

remained inadequate in terms of supply of secondary school

 

60On March 12, 1971, the military leadership of Tur-
key issued a memorandum to the President indicating alarm and
concern over the state of law and order and urging the gov-
ernment to take immediate steps to correct the situation and
to move forward with needed social reforms. The clear
implication was that if satisfactory steps were not taken,
the military would be compelled to assume control of the
government. The Prime Minister and his cabinet thereupon
resigned and since that date Turkey has been governed by a
sequence of civilian coalition governments and cabinets
whose main motives have been to restore civil order and to
push ahead with reforms.

64

core subject teachers. Table 3 presents the outcomes of
implementation as compared with the estimation in the MOE's
Ten Year Plan for supply of teachers.

The targets of the Ten Year Plan were exceeded by
3.5 percent in terms of training elementary school teachers
and missed by a short-fall of 53 percent in terms of train-
ing secondary school core subject teachers. The actual
,situation of supply in 1971-1972, after the period covered
by the Ten Year Plan, was a small surplus of elementary
school teachers and a shortage of approximately 20,000

general secondary school teachers.

TABLE 3.--Estimation and Realization of Production of
Teachers in 1961-1971.

 

 

 

 

Normal Education Higher Teacher
School Institute Training School
Graduates Graduates Graduates
Realization6l 110,338 19,037 1,768
Estimation62 106,625 36,842 7,744
Difference +3,713 -17,805 -5,976
61

_ Milli Egitim Bakanligi, Ogretmen Okullari Genel
Mfidfirlfigfi, 1971-1972 Yilligi.

62Milli Egitim Bakanligi, Ogretmen Yetistirme
Komitesi Raporu ve On Yillik Plan, op. cit.

(Ministry of Education, Report of the Teacher Train-
ing Committee and Ten Year Plan.)

 

 

 

 

 

65

Making Use of Information in
Administrative Decisions

 

 

Before the Planned Period

 

Prior to 1960, data were mainly collected only
for immediate uses in routine operations, i.e., usually
simply to record the numbers of students, teachers, and
schools in the concerned year. It was not customary to
analyze data, evaluate implementations, or employ data in
making decisions until the adOption of the concept of
planning in 1960.

In the late fifties a central bureau was estab-
lished in the Ministry of Education to collect statistical
data and one person was assigned to organize the bureau.
However, after six months, apparently finding no need for
such a bureau, the MOE then abolished it.

In fact, the State Statistical Institute, as one
of its legal responsibilities, was collecting and publishing
statistical data related to fields of social activity
throughout the country, including education. The data
were tabulated for general purpose and were usually pub-
lished some years after they were collected. Therefore
the possibility of timely use of data by concerned educators

was very limited.

In the Planned Period

 

When the problems were studied in the Ministry of

Education after the Revolution, the need for statistical

66

data was recognized. Statistics and Planning branches were
set up in the general directorates. However, there were

no standards for evaluation or tabulation of data. Each

of the offices had its own methods, which were empirical
rather than scientific. Although extensive data were col-
lected from institutions, a great proportion of them were
neither used properly, nor were they retrievable once they
were filed.

In the early years of the planned period the need
became apparent for a central office to establish effective
cooperation between the MOE and the State Planning Organiza-
tion and to coordinate planning operations among the
Ministry's offices. A central "Budget and Planning Office"
was established in 1964. Soon after, another office
similar to the "Budget and Planning Office" was estab-
lished under the Undersecretary for Vocational and Technical
Education, and this tended to generate a competitive
dualism within the MOE. This, along with reluctance of
other offices to accept it, adversely affected the early
development of organization and function of the "Budget
and Planning Office." However, the responsibilities and
personnel of this office have expanded nevertheless, and
its service has come to be valued as the years have passed.

In 1968, under a contract between Michigan State
University and the Ministry of Education, the National

Educational Research and Planning (NERP) Project was

67

initiated. The objective of the project was to give

necessary assistance to the Ministry of Education through

the Budget and Planning Office.63

The project provided 22 scholarships at Ph.D. and
Master's levels. Two full-time advisors, and short-term
consultants as well, came from the USA. The need for an
effective data processing system was recognized at the
outset, as stated in the project's "Second Semi-Annual
Report" prepared by the two advisors:

An efficient, high-speed storage and retrieval sys-
tem is the key to a data bank. Speedy access to
data is an essential feature of the system. Tragi-
cally, the Government of Turkey expends vast amounts
of money every year to collect data on its education
system; data which are grossly underutilized. The
Ministry of Education alone distributes over 370
forms; each Turkish school must complete, on the
average, from 10 to 15 forms per year. The volume
of information returned is so great that some of the
general directorates can do nothing with much of it.
In other cases, the staff can barely keep pace with
the inflow because these data are laboriously trans-
ferred, in written form, to one or another filing
system in the Ministry. In almost no case is there
a capability to go to those files and extract one

or more categories of information for all schools

in Turkey within less than six months time, if by
then. Turkey has a great deal of data that it can
not use productively. 6An electronic system can
remedy this situation.

 

63Kemalettin Akalin, Prospectus of Utilizing Foreign
Resources in the Educational Reform, Ankara, 1971, p. 11.
(Mimeographed.)

64NERP, Second Semi-Annual Report, PAKD, Ankara,
December, 1968, p. 10. (Mimeographed.)

 

 

68

In spite of the early identification of the problem
and of the need for an effective data processing system,
still satisfactory progress toward solving the problem was
not achieved.65

In 1970, the former "Budget and Planning Office"
was redesignated the "Planning, Research and Coordination
Office" (PAKD) with the intention that all planning and
research activities of the Ministry would be consolidated
under the direction of this office. Then the effort to
establish the intended central data processing system became
an urgent issue. To help realize the establishment of the
data processing system, a "Data Bank Agreement Project"
with the computer center of Hacettepe University (SISAG)
was initiated in January, 1971. However, this project

failed after the first step. The situation was summarized

in NERP's Seventh Semi-Annual Report as follows:

 

A working agreement was reached with SISAG in
January and a Data Bank Work Group was established
in the PAKD. After an initial two-month trial
period, however, it appeared that cooperation
between PAKD and SISAG might prove difficult to
maintain. The MOE did not yet have a clear enough
picture of its own needs to be able to communicate
effectively these needs to SISAG. SISAG proposed
to assume greater responsibility for the project,
but the MOE was reluctant to place too much power
in the hands of a contracting organization. As a

 

65NERP, Eighth Semi—Annual Report, PAKD, Ankara,
December, 1968, l. 15. (Mimeographed.)

 

69

result, SISAG's direct participation has been post-

poned until the PAKD develops a better picture of

its needs and can draw up adequate Specifications

for SISAG to follow.66

As of the middle of 1973, PAKD had not resumed

cooperation with SISAG. The establishment of an effective
data processing system depends largely on the understanding
and handling of the problem within the PAKD and the Ministry
of Education.

Evidences of Existence of the
Teacher Supply Problem

 

 

Though the fact is self—evident that there is a
shortage of teachers throughout the country, nevertheless
one needs to set forth specific evidence of its existence.
Conceivably the shortage at some schools may be due to
underutilization of teachers at other schools. If this
were the case, the problem would become a problem in
utilization rather than a problem of supply. Or perhaps
both shortage of supply and underutilization may be impor-
tant factors.

Evidences of the Shortage
of Teachers

 

 

Direct data for actual demand and supply of teachers
in the country are unavailable, but an aggregate calculation

is possible through using presently available statistical

 

66NERP, Seventh Semi-Annual Report, PAKD, Ankara,
June, 1971, p. 6. (Mimeographed.)

 

70

data. The curriculum of secondary schools is fixed
throughout the country. The number of class sections at
secondary schools by level and the number of supplied
teachers by field facilitate aggregate calculation of the
average ratio of class hours per teacher. If adequate
ratios can be realized through an effective policy of
utilization, there would not be an actual shortage in the
quantity of teachers. Table 4 includes findings for 14
courses in three different years. Calculation for the
table was done as follows:

The numbercxfclass sections by level in a particular
year was multiplied by weekly class hours of each course
as fixed in the curriculum. The products for each level
were summed up for each field. The sum, as the produced
weekly class hours for the field in the particular year,
was divided by the number of existing qualified teachers
in the field. The quotients are the calculated aggregate
average weekly class hours per teacher for each field for
the year.

Ranges of aggregate average weekly class hours
per teacher for the 14 different courses are 11.6-56.7,
6.0-50.4, and 11.2-105.1 in the 1962-1963, 1965-1966, and
1969-1970 school years, respectively. The first impression
of these findings is that there is a large difference in
the rate of supply among the 14 fields and the maximum

limits of the ratios can hardly be realized even if a

71

TABLE 4--Produced Weekly Class Hours in General Secondary

Public Schools and Aggregate Calculations for

Average Weekly Class Hours per Teacher.

(*)

 

 

 

 

 

 

1962-1963 1965-1966 1969-1970

Courses Class Hours/ Class Hours/ Class Hours/

Hears Teacher Hour Teacher Hours Teacher
aces
Turkish 8,618 23.8 9,795 27.1 20,953 35.3
Philosophy 2,981 20.4 3,636 24.6 6,625 33.0
History. 3,793 12.4 4,387 11.4 8,921 16.8
Geography 3,419 11.6 3,646 6.0 8,023 11.2
Mathematics 9,072 56.7 10,345 42.4 21,929, 41.5
Biology ’ 3,825 15.3 4,226 14.9 9,235 25.0
Physics 4,882 41.4 5,769 49.3 12,175 63.0
Chemistry 4,475 38.9 5,258 44.9 11,142 105.1
MIDDLE SCHOOL
Social Sub. 56,584 30.1 83,429 23.5 145,645 26.5
Science 66,518 32.0 96,205 31.8 168,378 26.8
TOGETHER (**)
Drawing 17,586 43.0 24,354 50.4 44,859 71.8
Phys. Ed. 7,665 22.3 10,171 25.5 19,194 46.0
Music 7,665 33.8 10,171 41.7 19,194 66.2
Foreign L. 26,171 25.5 34,098 25.5 64,974 35.2

 

(*) Data were obtained from:

MOE, General Directorate for Secondary Education.

(**)Inc1udes lycees and middle schools.

72

perfect policy of utilization were possible. Even more
convincing evidence comes from applying a proper criterion
for the upper limit of a realizable ratio.

In Turkish practice there is no means but human
power for teaching. The traditional design of the system
requires this and the gap between demand and supply of
qualified teachers is filled by lay and unqualified teach-
ers. There are no actual data for the total aggregate
average loads of teachers. Calculations in a previous
study by this researcher estimated this figure to be 19.2
hours per teacher.67

Another available criterion is the formally estab-
lished load of teachers. Minimum and maximum limits of
compulsory load for an individual teacher are 18-24 hours
and 15-21 hours in the first and second cycle of secondary
schools, respectively. It is possible these limits may
be realized by individual teachers at larger schools but
not as an aggregate average, because many schools are not
large enough for Optimum utilization of teachers. In
spite of this fact, accepting the established load of
teachers as an optimistic criterion, an evaluation was
made as follows:

Calculated ratios in Table 4 were compared with

the established loads of teachers. The 14 courses included

 

67Kemalettin Akalin, A Simulation Model for Turkish
Lycée Teachers, Michigan State University, East Lansing,
July, 1971, p. 9. (Mimeographed.)

 

 

73

in the table fell in three regions: over, in, and below
the range of established loads. The frequency distributions
of this operation for each year are seen in Table 5.

One may conclude that an extensive problem of
inadequate supply of teachers of secondary school core
subjects does in fact exist in the country. No recent
mitigation may be observed. Instead, the problem has grown
as the years passed. The actual situation is probably
worse than portrayed in Table 5 because the base criterion
is probably too high to be realized as the aggregate
average throughout the country.

Effects of the Sources of Teachers
on the Existence of the Problem

 

 

There are two main sources which train teachers,
and one might wish to compare the effects of these sources
on the existence of the problem. For this purpose, the
relationships between the two sources of teachers and the
existence of the shortage of teachers were roughly com-
pared, as follows (see Table 6):

Table 6 simply tallies frequencies from Table 4.
Thus, for example, in Table 4, opposite the subject
"physics," there are three entries for each of three
previous school years. The ratios of weekly class hours
per teacher for physics are listed in Table 4 as 41.4,
49.3, and 63.0, respectively, for the three years. Since

each of these ratios is above the formally established

TABLE 5--Frequency Distribution of Courses in Terms of
Established Load of Teachers.

 

 

 

 

 

 

1962-63 1965-66 l969~70
OVER THE RANGE (Under-supply)
Number of courses: 9 10 12
Percentage : 64.3 71. 85.7
IN THE RANGE (Optimal supply)
Number of courses: 3
Percentage 21.3 7 7.1
BELOW THE RANGE (Over-supply)
Number of courses: 2
Percentage : 14.3 21. 7.1
TOTAL
Number of courses: 14 14 14
Percentage : 100.0 100. 100.0

 

Implications of the above table may be summarized, as

follows:

a. Most of the courses were under-supplied, with the

prOportions increasing as the years passed.

b. The prOportion of optimally supplied courses was

small, and decreased as the years passed.

c. There were a few continuously over-supplied courses.

75

TABLE 6--Frequency Distribution of Fields in Terms of
Supply Rate

 

Origins and
Fields of Frequency of Frequency of Frequency of
Teachers Under-Supply Optimum Sup. Over-Supply

 

 

 

UNIVERSITY:

 

Physics
Chemistry
Mathematics
Turkish
Philosophy

wawuw
I
I

Biology
History ~ -
Geography - -

 

TOTAL 15 3 6

PERCENTAGE 62m5 12.5 25.0

 

EDUCATION INSTITUTE:

 

 

Drawing 3 - -
Music 3 - -
Science Group 3 - -
Social Group 2 1 -
Physical Ed. 2 l -
Foreign Lang. 3 - -
TOTAL 16 2 O

PERCENTAGE 88.8 11.2 0

 

76

range (15-21 hours at second cycle secondary schools), the
subject of physics may be said to have been undersupplied
with teachers in each of the three years. Hence in Table
6, the "Frequency of Under-Supply" for physics is entered
as "3." And since physics teachers are supposed to be
supplied by universities (i.e., by higher teacher training
school students who study at universities), the tally of
"3" for physics is listed among tallies for the university
as a source of supply. The other tallies in Table 6 were
derived in the same way. The eight "lycee" subjects from
Table 4 were all considered for Table 6 to be in the
"university domain," while the six "middle school" and
"together" subjects in Table 4 were all listed in Table 6
under the "education institute domain."
Courses Taught by Teachers
Trained in Universities

In this domain there are consistently undersupplied
fields, such as physics, chemistry, and mathematics; and
geography is a consistently over-supplied field. The fre-
quency of optimally supplied courses is very small in
this domain.
Courses Taught by Teachers
Trained in Education
Institutes

Under-supply has existed in all courses with varying
frequencies, but no oversupply was observed. Four courses

in six are consistently undersupplied courses.

77

In short, neither source of supply-~neither the
universities nor the education institutes--appears to

have been doing an adequate job of meeting the demand.

Summary

In the Turkish school system, academic, vocational,
and technical schools at secondary and higher educational
levels are separated from each other. Because of this
practice, higher education of the individual is legally
determined by the particular secondary school from which
the individual is graduated. There are two groups of
higher educational institutions--universities and higher
schools. The former are autonomous and the latter either
have academic autonomy or are entirely controlled by the
Ministry of Education.

Supply of teachers of secondary school core
subjects has been a chronic problem in Turkey since the
fifties. In spite of planned activities and requested
measures in the national plans, no mitigation of the prob-
lem has been observed. Among the fields taught in secondary
schools, mathematics, physics, chemistry, Turkish, drawing,
music, science group, and foreign languages are consistently
under-supplied in the planned period, while geography is
consistently over-supplied.

There are two groups of institutions to train

general secondary school teachers--universities and

78

education institutes. As suppliers of teachers, there is
little or no difference between these two institutions--
both have been inadequate sources.

Scientifically processed data for administration
and planning were scarcely employed in the Turkish education
system prior to 1960. However, in the planned period, the
need for processed data was recognized. The responsi-
bility for providing such data now belongs to the Planning,
Research and Coordination Office (PAKD). Although there
has been a struggle since the late sixties to establish a
modern and scientific data processing and storing system,
a practical solution to this problem has not been achieved
yet.

The next chapter presents an analysis of the causes
of Turkey's teacher shortage. This analysis employs a
"systems approach," and provides a more scientific basis for
understanding the nature of the problem. In addition, it
points to sorts of data needed in order to study the problem
in detail. It is hoped that the following analysis will
prove useful in both these ways: better scientific under-
standing of the problem and better uses of data to study
the problem. Moreover, it is hOped that the following
"systems approach" may serve as a general example, showing
how many other problems in Turkish education may be simi-

larly tackled.

CHAPTER IV

IDENTIFICATION OF THE SYSTEM
AND THE PROBLEM

Merely to know the existence of a problem is not
enough to cope effectively with it. An operational approach
to solvingtflmaproblem requires one to scientifically
identify the system and the problem along with their
natures and environments. The aim of this chapter is to
make these identifications with respect to the Turkish
secondary school core subject teacher supply system. The
chapter closes with discussion and conclusions concerning

these identifications.

Identification of the System

 

In general, a system is a group of components which
interact with one another to achieve a desired objective.
Therefore a system can be defined in terms of its components,
objectives, and interactions among components. An education
system may consist of a small group of students, a class,

a school, a group of schools, and so on up to the whole
society. For any particular study, boundaries have to be
chosen. In this study,tfluaboundary of the system will be
defined in terms of the problem of secondary school core
subject teacher supply. However, the entire system of

79

80

education of the society is illustrated in a simple form
so that one can see the situation of the particular problem

within the whole education system.

Education System of Turkey

 

Figure 6 is a simplified illustration of the
Turkish public education system within the society at large
as the universe. The system consists of educational
administration including the Ministry of Education, all
types and levels of schools subordinated to or controlled
by the Ministry of Education, higher educational institu-
tions which are independent of the Ministry of Education,
and universities. According to Item 50 of the Constitu-
tion, providing education for the people is one of the
first responsibilities of the State. This responsibility
is accomplished by the Ministry of Education on behalf of
the State. Private schools are permitted at kindergarten,
primary, and secondary levels, provided that they follow
the patterns and standards established for the public
schools. Private schools are controlled by the Ministry
of Education.

In Figure 6, the box for the Ministry of Education
includes educational administrative units in the provinces
and districts. The administration of schools is included
in the box for schools which is represented by the letter S

and includes all kinds and levels of schools controlled

81.

FIGURE 6.--General Illustration for Turkish Education System Within the Society.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

__--_- -__"'_1 .....
A. 3
1 + I.
01
_ MINISTRY
11 L—+* or —°—> S 03 DAL. Is
EDUCATION W 02
f F ., °s
:— ...... 4 ..... 2.-———.2223::"°°S
SCHOOLS
A
3 A‘
I2 I3- 14

SYMBOLS FOR THE SYSTEM:

A1: Manpower and information input to the MOE.

A2: Manpower and information input to the university.

A3: Manpower and information input to the schools controlled by the MOE.
.A‘: Manpower and information input to the autonomous higher schools.

As: Manpower stock of the society.

D 1 Implementation decisions and policies of the MOE for education (includes money).
F1: Information relationships between the MOE and the university.

F2: Information relationships between the MOE and autonomous higher schools.
01: Flow of public school graduates to the university.

02: Flow of public school graduates to the autonomous higher schools.

03: Flow of outputs of public schools to the society's manpower stock.

0‘: Flow of outputs of the university to the society's manpower stock.

05: Flow of outputs of the autonomous higher schools to the society's manpower stock.
8 x All kinds and levels of schools controlled by the MOE.

INPUTS TO THE SYSTEM FROM ITS ENVIRONMENT:
11: Money.

12: Law and legislative requirements (includes targets of development plans and
policies of the government).

3: Demand of the society for education (includes public pressures).
‘: Professional requirements and pressures.
Is: Feedback from the society at large.

16: Informal group pressures.

7: International affairs and effects.

8' Students enrolled in schools for the first time.

H

82

by the Ministry of Education. For simplicity, a few
schools which are under the control of other ministries
are not separately represented in the figure. In terms
of this study's purpose, to identify the problem of
teacher supply, the existence of these other ministry
schools do not significantly affect the situation.

Other components of the system are universities
and higher education institutions that are autonomous and
independent of each other. Dotted lines between these
schools and the Ministry of Education refer to informational
connections.

Inputs from the society to the system are repre-
sented by eight arrows. Explanations of the arrows are
provided below the figure. One of the eight arrows, 18,
represents student input to anycnjmn:schools within the
system. The flows of students among schools are repre-
sented by the arrows O1 and 02. The capital sigma in the
circle represents the pool of manpower at any given point
in time. Varying fractions of manpower that are used by
the components of the system are represented by arrows
Al, A2, A3, and A4. Arrow A refers to the remaining

5

manpower in the society.

The Organization for Core
Subject Teacher Supply

 

 

All entities which are directly related to the

particular problem under consideration here must be included

83

in an analysis of the system of secondary school core
subject teacher supply. The components of this system are:
the General Directorate for Teacher Training Schools
(control subsystem), teacher training schools, and the
admission and training policy of the university, which is,
as a whole, not in the teacher supply system but affects

it through the admission and training policy for higher
teacher training schools.

In order to see the position of the General Direc-
torate for Teacher Training Schools within the Ministry of
Education, a simple organizational chart of the ministry
is represented in Figure 7.

As shown in the figure, various general directorates
are subordinated to the Undersecretaries for General Educa-
tion and for Vocational and Technical Education. These
general directorates make implementing decisions for the
several types of secondary schools. The duty of training
elementary and secondary school core subject teachers
belongs to the General Directorate for Teacher Training
Schools. This implies that decisions which affect the need
for teachers and decisions aimed at answering the need are
made by separate officers which are legally independent of
each other.

Schools which are to train core subject teachers
are represented by the box labeled "Teacher Training Schools"

and are of two types: education institutes and higher

84

FIGURE 7.--Organization Chart: The Position of Organization for Training
Core Subjects Teachers Within the MOE. (Rectangle B encloses

the defined

[Board of Education

teacher supply system for core subjects.)

. #_“
L.

 

[MINISTRY OF EDUCATION]

T

___‘

National Council
of Education

__‘-

 

 

 

Undersecretary for

General Education

___‘

 

 

 

 

 

’ Undersecretary for
Vocational and
Technical Educatio

 

 

[

General T
Directorates

A

I l .L A I

‘ I I I I v I I
General
Directorates

L A L l A l V

 

D1

Tra

Teacher

 
  

 

  

 

‘33

ining Universities]

 

 

r"'-"r+-- '-

 

 

 

P u b l i c S c h o o l S y s t e m

 

EXPLANATIONS:

 

A : Admission and
: Core subjects
: Decisions for

B
D
D : Decisions for
D : Decisions for
0

training policy of the universities.
teacher supply system.

general education.

training teachers of core subjects.

vocational and technical education.

Product of teacher training schools for core subjects.

(Trained teachers)

T : General Directorate for Teacher Training Schools.
(The control component of the teacher supply system.)

85

teacher training schools. The former are entirely under
the control of the General Directorate for Teacher Training
Schools, whereas the latter are also subject to control by
the university through its admission and training policies.
In order to provide a more complete analysis of
this system, a logical block diagram is given in Figure 8.

Secondary School Core Subject
Teacher Supply System

 

 

The secondary school core subject teacher supply
system is included in the dotted rectangle in Figure 8.
Although the two organizations--the Ministry of Education
and the university--are essentially out of the defined
system, they affect the system through their decisions,
policies and implementations related to the need for
training of teachers.

The offices of the Ministry of Education other than
the General Directorate for Teacher Training Schools affect
the system in two ways, as follows:

1. Implementation decisions which include opening
new schools, establishing curriculum, etc. These decisions

are represented by B in Figure 8. The effects of these

1
decisions are included in the "need generator function"
and the resultant of this function is represented in the
figure by N, the need for core subject teachers.

2. Connection with the control component, the

General Directorate for Teacher Training Schools. The

86

FIGURE 8.--Block Diagram for Need and Supply of Teachers of Secondary School Core Subjects.

(Enclosed in the dashed-line rectangle is fhe system for supply of lonehers of
secondary school core subjects.)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
    

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

H
[—————J 1. 1
X] UNIVERSITY 1
F
<4V—\ r"*
B
1 A
N 2
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I 88. E
' I: E‘s 1" (:3
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Inn.< I g g {I h 8 ,
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Z ; I U
m 2' “I Ll Ea I I; L‘
'1“ I) 2 ’1: [.3
‘4 C F) I‘ I.)
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I IL‘ “I! | D.
'1: 'v I
' (7 .‘I
I
I
I
I

L_-_-__.._..-_

J

 

 

 

 

Swims:

A :Admission policy of the university.

1
A2:Traininq policy of the university.
81:1mplementation decision of the MOE {or secondary education.
Bzzhdministrative and informational connections oetween offices of the HOP and the control

component of the system.
D :Control decision of lhc control component for training teachers.
E :Feedback (Information).
F :Need generator function.
M :Demand of the society for secondary education.
N :Number of needed teachers of secondary school core subjects.
01:Number of teachers trained in higher teacher training schools.
OzzNumber of teachers trained in education institutes.
01:Number of teachers in the stock of private and other mInistrics' schools.
OzzNumber of teachers who have left the profession in the previous year.
R :Algebraic difference between numbers of needed and supplied teachers.
8 :Number of teachers employed by the public secondary school system. (Supplied teachers)

T :Number of teachers hired by the public secondary school system {rem outside of the
profession.

y...

T2:Number of secondary school teachers eligible to leach in teacher training schools.
x1

X2:Number of students who apply in education institutes.

gngnnsrsns FOR:

:Number of students who apply to higher teacher training schools.

a :student admission policy of the university.

dlzcontrol decision for students to higher teacher training Schumlq,

d :control decision for interactions in teacher training schools. (Includes funds, policies,
training programs, regulations, etc.)

d3zcontrol decision for students to eduCation Institutes.

d4zcontrol decision for hiring teachers from secondary schools Io teacher training schools.
p :percent of flow of higher teacher training school griduates to private and other ministries'
schools.

pzzpcrccnt of flow of higher icachcr trJInInq school graduates out of the profession.
pzzpcrccnt of flow of educaIIon Inslltutc graduates lo prIyaIe and olhcl ministries’ schools.
p4zpercent of [low of cducaIIon inulitule dradualrs out of the oroInwnIon.

psrpercent of flow of higher Icachcr training Hrhnul quaduiios to puolnc schools. pail-(plip2)

4p‘)

p6zpcrcent of flow of cdncalion Infilllule uraduatcn to puhllr wrhoois. p! l—(p 1
I

3
p72percent of flow of thnchvrn lo prIvaIv and olhvr MIHIGIrIvu' uchoolu.

pflzpercent of flow of toachern ouI of tho profwanon.

87

connection arrow, B2, is the input to the control component
and includes information in addition to what the component,
as the part of the Ministry of Education, receives from
the environments of the ministry (see Figure 6). As
Figure 8 implies, the feedback information, which is a
necessary component of a closed system, is transmitted to
the control component by means of the offices of the Minis-
try of Eflucation. Therefore, the expected function of
the feedback in the secondary school core subject teacher
supply system depends fundamentally on the effectiveness
of the information transmission through arrow B2.
The university affects the secondary school core
subject teacher supply system in two ways also, as follows:
1. Admission policy which is presented by Al in
Figure 8. Candidates selected for higher teacher training
schools through the policy parameter of the control com-

ponent, d take the university entrance examination

1’
which is represented by a.

2. Training policy which is represented by A2 in
Figure 8. Those who pass the university entrance examina-
tion are admitted as higher teacher training school
students and trained at the university.

Obviously, the production of higher teacher

training schools, 0 in Figure 8, is controlled by the

1

university, which is autonomous and independent of the

system under consideration. Therefore, in respect to

88

secondary school core subject teacher supply system, the
number of higher teacher training school graduates, 01,

is an uncontrolled variable.

Control Component

 

The control component of the system is the General
Directorate for Teacher Training Schools. The control is
practiced through implementation decisions that include
regulations, priority decisions, administrative authority,
established quota for students, etc. These implementation
decisions are represented in the block diagram by D, i.e.,
the output of the control component. A part of D, namely
d2, goes directly to the schools (the production component)
as an input to them which includes established curriculum,
regulations, administrative orders, funds, etc. Other
parts of D are shown in the block diagram as parameters,
as follows:

d - decision parameter for selection of students
for higher teacher training schools. Stu-
dents are selected through either competitive
examination or the school records.

d : decision parameter for selection of students
for education institutes. Students are
selected by means of competitive examinations.
d : decision parameter for assigning teachers

from secondary schools to the faculties of
teacher training schools.

The Production Component

 

The production component is composed of higher

teacher training schools and education institutes. All

89

inputs to the production component, including regulations
and curriculum, are controlled either by the control
component or by the university. Therefore, the products
of this component, i.e., trained teachers, are controlled
outputs. These outputs are represented by O and O2 in

l
the block diagram.

Production of the System

 

Production of the system is trained teachers. In

Figure 8, O and 0 represent numbers of teachers graduated

l 2

from higher teacher training schools and education insti-
tutes,respectively. In the real world, all of the teachers
graduated from the schools do not go to teach at public
schools. A fraction of them may go to teach at other
ministries' or private schools. Another fraction may go
into jobs other than teaching. Some may not work at all.
This situation is discussed at more length below in the
section on the pool of teachers. First, however, the fol-

lowing mathematical expressions may be given for the

outputs of teacher training schools:

01 = f(xl, A2,ea,D, T2, t) (l)

0w = 9(X2, D. T2, t) (2)

01: number of teachers graduated from higher
teacher training schools,

02: number of teachers graduated from education

institutes;

a: parameter for admission policy of the uni-
versity,

90

A : training policy of the university,

D: implementation decisions made by the control
component. (These decisions, which are
related to each input, are represented by
d's.)

T2: number of secondary school teachers eligible
to teach in teacher training schools,

x : number of students who apply to higher

1 teacher training schools,
x2: number of students who apply to education
institutes, and
t: time.

Supply of Secondary School Core
Subject Teachers, S

 

 

At any point in time there is an existing pool of
teachers. The magnitude of this pool is equivalent to the
supply of teachers at that particular time. The pool is
subject to change in the domain of time because of the
continuous flow of trained teachersixux>and out of the
pool (part-time teachers are not included in the pool).
Variables forming the pool of secondary school core subject
teachers are classified in four groups as follows:

1. Teachers Trained in Higher
Teacher Training Schools

All teachers graduated from higher teacher training
schools do not go to teach in public schools. Some of
them may go to teach in private and other ministries'

schools and some go out of the profession. Therefore,

teachers who

and feed the

where,

TH

TH:

91

graduate from higher teacher training schools

pool can mathematically be written as follows:

1 p5 (3)

quantity of teachers who go to teach in
public schools after graduation from higher
teacher training schools,

quantity of teachers, graduated from higher
teacher training schools as in Figure 8,

percent of flow to public schools as in
Figure 8.

2. Teachers Trained in
Education Institutes

As in the case of higher teacher training school

graduates, a mathetmatical expression for the teachers who

go to teach public schools after graduation from education

institutes is as follows:

where

TE:

(4)

quantity of teachers who go to teach public
schools after graduation from education
institutes,

quantity of teachers graduated from education
institutes as in Figure 8,

percent of flow to public schools as in
Figure 8.

92

3. Teachers Assigned From
Outside, Tl

Some graduates from the university or other higher
schools may also apply to teach at public secondary schools.
Some of them may have teaching certificates from the uni-
versity. They may try to enter the teaching profession
for various reasons, such as lack of opportunity for
employment in their field, a preference for teaching, a
desire to be located near their family, etc. The present
over-supply of geography and history teachers is a result
of teaching assignments which were given to applicants
graduated from universities simply to provide some form of
employment for them. In addition, those who have left but
later return to the pool of public school teachers are
counted in this group. Such entrants into the teachers'
pool are represented by T1 in the block diagram. T1' the
number of teachers assigned from outside, is thus a con—
trolled variable controlled by the Ministry of Education.
4. Teachers Who Leave the
Pool of Teachers

A portion of the pool of public secondary school
teachers also tends to leave the profession for reasons
that may be classified in three categories, as follows:

(a) Teachers may be assigned to teach at teacher
training schools. This is represented in Figure 8 by

*
T2 d4.

93

(b) Like teacher training school graduates, some
pool teachers may leave public secondary schools to teach
at private or other ministries' schools. The parameter
for this flow is represented by p7 in the block diagram.

(c) A proportion of teachers in the pool leave
the profession for a variety of reasons such as marriage,
retirement, death, resignation, finding another job, etc.
The parameter for the loss to the profession is represented
by p8 in the block diagram.

Male teachers who are drafted and discharged by

the army can be counted in p8 and T respectively.

1!
The available pool of teachers, i.e., the quantity
of teachers supplied to public secondary schools at a

particular time, is represented by the arrow S in Figure 8

and its mathematical expression is as follows:
S = h(Oll 02! T1! T2! p51 p61 p7! p8! t) (5)

where

S = quantity of supplied core subject teachers to
public secondary schools,

01: quantity of teachers graduated from higher
teacher training schools,

02: quantity of teachers graduated from education
institutes,

p5: parameter for the proportion of the flow of
teachers to the pool of public secondary
school teachers after graduation from higher
teacher training schools,

94

p6: parameter for the proportion of the flow of
teachers to the pool of public secondary
school teachers after graduation from educa-
tion institutes,

p7: parameter for the proportion of teachers who
leave the pool for teaching in private or in
other ministries' schools,

p8: parameter for the proportion of teachers who
leave the profession for any other reason,

t: time.

Need for Core Subject
Teachers, N

 

 

Need for secondary school core subject teachers is
essentially a function of demand of the society for second—
ary education and the implementation decisions of the
general directorates of the Ministry of Education. These
decisions include all items necessary to Operate schools,
including the opening of new schools. However, utiliza-
tion of teachers, established curriculum, school buildings,
and the rate of failure of students at schools are impor-
tant variables to define the number of needed teachers.

All of these variables are included in the "need generator
function" in Figure 8. This function may mathematically

be stated, as follows:
N = n(Bl, M, r, l, c, b, t) (6)
where

N: number of needed general secondary school
teachers,

95
l: implementation decisions of general directorates
for secondary schools,
M: demand of the society for secondary education
(this demand is partly answered through the

decisions for opening new schools),

b: size of classes (defined by the curriculum and
the space of classrooms),

c: established curriculum for secondary schools,

p...

utilization rate of teachers,

r: percentage of failure of secondary school stu-
dents (the greater the percentage of failure,
the larger the number of needed teachers),

t: time.

The Effect of Need and Supply
of Teachers, R

 

 

R is the algebraic difference between numbers of

supplied and needed teachers, as follows:

where
R: algebraic difference between the actual numbers
of supplied and needed general secondary school
teachers in Figure 8,

S: actual number of supplied teachers as in equa-
tion (5), and

N: actual number of needed teachers as in equa-
tion (6).

The interpretation of the algebraic value of R,

which may be considered as an error signal, is as follows:

96

—, shortage of teachers
R = O, optimum supply of teachers (8)
+, surplus of teachers
In Turkey, the value of R has been persistently large and
negative for a number of years. The aim of the present

analysis is to try to identify the exact nature of this

crucial problem.

Feedback, E

 

Feedback is a necessary component of a closed
system. As seen in Figure 8, it is the channel of informa-
tion from schools to the offices of the Ministry of
Education. Each school sends information related to demand
and supply of teachers to the office to which it is
subordinated. The concept of feedback implies that output
information is transmitted back to the input so that pro-
duction is modified. It required adequate channels of
communication, i.e., any information from sender to the
receiver is transmitted by the channel of feedback without
being subject to any change.

Information related to demand and supply of
teachers is regularly sent to the Ministry of Education by
each school in predetermined forms and at specified times.
Since schools are vitally affected by the problem of a
shortage of teachers, one expects school administrators to
send correct data, allowing for the possibility of chance

error, to their superior offices in the Ministry of

97

Education. Then any insufficiency between R and the

control component may be ascribed to inadequate transmission
of feedback information between the General Directorate for
Teacher Training Schools (control component) and other

offices of the Ministry of Education.

Summary

In the Turkish secondary school system, numbers of
both needed and trained teachers are controlled variables.
Because of the organization of the education system and of
the central Ministry of Education, the control action
related to the need and supply of teachers is carried out
by various organizations that are independent of each
other. For example: the production of education institutes
is controlled by the General Directorate for Teacher Train-
ing Schools (control component of the teacher supply
system); the production of higher teacher training schools
is controlled by the university; and the creation of need
for secondary school core subject teachers is controlled
by at least five general directorates of the Ministry of
Education. In other words,'on the one hand the need for
teachers is created by offices which legally do not assume
responsibility for training teachers, and on the other
hand teachers are trained by the control component and
the university which do not assume legal responsibility
for satisfying the society's aspiration for secondary

education.

98

This practice implies that in terms of need and
supply of general secondary school teachers, the system
works as an uncontrolled system although it should work as
a closed, i.e., a controlled, system.

Nevertheless, the system may be made to work as a
closed system, provided that effective communications are
realized which extend the feedback between the control
component of the secondary school teacher supply system

and the above mentioned organizations.

Identification of the Problem

 

The inadequate supply of teachers for secondary
school core subjects appears on the face of it to be a
serious problem in the Turkish education system. The
fact is, however, that is is really the effect of some
other problems, rather than itself being the actual problem.
An Operational approach to solve the teacher shortage
problem requires defining the location and the nature of
the more basic causal problems responsible for the existence
of the teacher shortage problem.

Theoretically speaking, the teacher shortage
problem might be solved through practicing adequate con-
trols over either the creation of need for teachers or
the training of needed teachers, or both. In a democratic
society, however, the need for teachers, i.e., demand of

the society for education, is hardly controllable.

99

Nevertheless, as was explained in Chapter III, control of
the creation of need for teachers had been practiced in
Turkey until the early fifties through putting restrictions
on opening new schools. Since then, this practice has
been loosened by public pressure. Therefore, to try now
to practice strict controls in order to keep needed and
supplied teachers quantitatively in balance is out of the
question in the Turkish society.

As to the number of supplied teachers, it has
without any question remained a strictly controlled vari-
able in the Turkish school system. One may therefore
conclude that the existence of the problem of inadequate
teacher supply is basically the effect of inadequate con-
trol over the teacher supply process, rather than over
the creation of need. That is to say, the causal problems
Should be sought where the control action for teacher

supply takes place.

Problem Area

 

To define the location of the causal problems under
COIlsideration, entities related to teacher supply are

IE‘Iiewed in terms of control action, as follows:

P00 1 of Teachers
In Figure 8, the letter S represents the quantity
0f the pool (stock) of teachers employed by the public

mfiiool system.at a particular time. The quantity of the

100

pool is subject to change because of the continuous flow
of teachers into and out of the pool in the domain of time.
All variables and parameters to define this change take
place betweentflmaproduction component (teacher training
schools) and the pool of teachers in Figure 8. Among all
these variables and parameters, 01 and 02 (the productions
of teacher training schools) and the quantity of teachers
assigned to teacher training schools (through the control
parameter d4) are controlled by the control component.
Obviously, the pool of teachers is fed fundamentally by

01 and 02 which are the controlled products of the teacher
supply system. Therefore, causal problems responsible

for inadequate supply of teachers should be sought in the

process of production.

Process of Production

AS seen in Figure 8, the process of production takes
place between D, decision of the control component, and O1
and 02. Since responsibility for the control of the
process belongs to the control component, one should
discover whether the inadequate production is due to ineffec-
tive decision or to some uncontrollable constraint causing
the control action to be ineffective. If such exist, they

should be inherent in (a) inputs, (b) interactions, or

(c) time related to the process of training teachers.

101

Inputs.--Figure 8 implies that all inputs to
teacher training schools are controlled by either the
university or the control component. The control exercised
by the university is uncontrollable by the control compo-
nent and therefore should be counted as a functional
constraint on the control exercised by the control component.

The two inputs, A and d are related to interactions and

2 2’
will be discussed under that topic. However, money input,

which is included in d is reviewed here among other

2’

inputs as follows:

Money: Money input to teacher training schools is
not separately presented in Figure 8. It is included in
d2 because of the following reasons:

1. Money is allocated from the national budget
via the Ministry of Education rather than directly to

teacher training schools (see I in Figure 6).

l
2. Money and any physical asset appropriated to
a particular type of teacher training school by the budget
law can be transferred to another type of teacher training
school by the control component, namely, the General
Directorate for Teacher Training Schools. Therefore,
without any change in the amount of money, the amount of
appropriated money to a particular type of teacher training

school may be changed through decisions made by the control

component. Such decisions, which can be called "priority

102

decisions," are included in d2 and, in turn, in D in
Figure 8. ,

3. There is a legal way to transfer money from
other items of the budget for the Ministry of Education to
the item for teacher training. Such a transfer can be
practiced after a joint decision by related offices of
the MOE. Therefore, even the amount of money input to
teacher training schools can be changed through priority
decisions, which are included in B2 in Figure 8.

Consequently, money input to teacher training
schools is not only a matter of resource but also a
matter of decisions which are made by the control component
and/or by the Ministry of Education at large. Therefore,
taking the real world into consideration, the means for
money input to teacher training schools can be represented
by B2, D, and d2, respectively.

All in all, money is well known for its scarcity
throughout the world, including Turkey. Nevertheless, in
terms of training teachers, the country has not experienced
a serious money problem, at least after 1960. Instead,
training needed teachers has been encouraged by legisla-
tors and planners who have a voice in appropriation of
money from the national budget. In addition, as was
explained above, there is a way to appropriate more money
to a particular training school than is defined in the

budget law.

103

Figure 9 reveals the fact that increases or
decreases of the quantity of students in higher teacher
training schools and education institutes are not strictly
tied to the amount of money appropriated from the national
budget. In fact, decrease of money happens after the
_decrease of the number of students. In 1968 and 1969,
for example, in spite of increases in the amount of money
appropriation for cash expenditures, the quantity of
education institute and higher teacher training school
students decreased. Since there already were enough
equipment and student stations to train more teachers,
decrease in the quantity of education institute students
cannot be attributable to the scarcity of money. Conse-
quently, resources of money should not be counted as a

functional constraint on the quantity of trained teachers.

Students: As was explained before, lycée graduates
who can pass the university entrance examination, especially
for colleges of scientific subjects, do not usually choose
teaching as a profession because of the scarcity of student
stations in colleges and because of better payment in other
professions. To find students for higher teacher training
schools, a fraction of normal school students passed to
the final grade are selected to train under the lycée
final grade program in the preparation class. Because of

contracts with the Ministry of Education, the preparation

104

FIGURE 9--Increases in Funds and Quantity of Students
of Education Institutes. (*)

 

 

 

0 u v v 1 r I .' w r ‘y
1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972

 

(*) Source: MOE, General Directorate for Teacher

Training Schools.

105

class graduates take the university entrance examination
as candidates for higher teacher training schools.

Less than one-fifth of the potential candidates
are selected for the preparation class. Even if all
students who pass to the final grade in normal schools
were prepared under the lycée final grade program, a sig-
nificant raise in the number of higher teacher training
school students in needed fields would hardly be realized
because of the competition for' preestablished (mustas of
students for colleges. The competition among applicants
to the university is extrmely high, such that, in recent
years, only one-eighth of them have been admitted.68 For
scientific subject colleges, the fraction is doubtless
even less than that.

In summary, inadequacy in the quantity of higher
teacher training school students in needed fields is due
to control actions practiced by the control component of
the system and of the university (dl and Al, respectively,
in Figure 8), rather than a scarcity in the source of
potential students (X1 in Figure 8). One may conclude,
therefore, that the admission policy of the university
does constrain the control action of the control component.

As to the student input to education institutes,
it is strictly controlled by the control component. As an

average over the last five years, only six percent of the

¥

8Source: PAKD.

106

applicants were admitted to education institutes by means
of competitive examination.69 Each year, the number of
new students is decided by the control component on the
basis of policy for training teachers (d3 in Figure 8).
Therefore, the source of potential students to education

institutes (X2 in Figure 8) is not scarce and, in turn,

does not constrain control.

Teachers of teachers: Teachers are assigned to

 

teacher training schools by the control component from
secondary schools. Every teacher assigned to teacher train-
ing schools is a loss to the supply for public secondary
schools. Therefore the decision to assign teachers to
teacher training schools is a priority decision (see d4 in
Figure 8). A governing rule of economics is that alloca-
tion for production should be given higher priority than
allocation for consumption, if there is no other choice

and more production is required. There should not be a
functional constraint on decisions for hiring needed

teachers to teacher training schools.

Interactions.--Interactions in the process of

 

training teachers take place in the teacher training schools,
which make up the production component of the system.

Interactions are regulated by the training policy of the

69

Schools.

Source: General Directorate for Teacher Training

107

university and by the control component (by means of A2

and d2, respectively, in Figure 8). A2 includes training
programs and methods of the disciplines in which higher
teacher training schoool students are trained. As to d2,
it includes: money, school regulations, all administra-
tive decisions and orders, professional training programs
for both higher teacher training schools and education
institutes, and the entire training program for education
institutes. Therefore, interactions in higher teacher
training schools are controlled partly by the university
and partly by the control component. Interactions in educa-
tion institutes, however, are entirely controlled solely
by the control component.

Consequently, control action of the control compo-
nent for interactions in higher teacher training schools

is constrained by the university, but for education insti—

tutes it is unconstrained.

Time.--Time is naturally an uncontrollable variable
and the flux of time cannot be manipulated. Usage of time,
however, is controllable, and because of that the size of
a particular job and/or the magnitude of a specified
production within a given period of time can be varied by
manipulating related controllable variables and conditions
Of interactions. That is to say, there should be a best

Combination of inputs and conditions of interactions for

108

an optimum rate of a specified output within a given period
of time.

In many cases, however, delay time (the period of
time required to yield a specified production) is inde-
pendent of the magnitude of inputs and outputs.
Institutional education is an example. For each type and
level of schools, regardless of the quantity of students
and teachers, there is a definite period of time (delay
time) to accomplish the training program, designed for
that school.

In a plan to yield more production than the school
currently produces, the time delay should be taken into
consideration as a functional constraint. Obviously,
to construct new school buildings and to train new teachers
in order to increase the rate of output also will require
additional periods of time before an increase in output
will be achieved.

If a future need for more output of a particular
school is unpredictable, then necessary measures for
satisfying that need can be put into effect only after
the existence of the need has become manifest. In such
a case, the delay time for additional output is a func-
tional constraint on the measures and should be accounted
for in making decisions to satisfy the need. If the need
can be predicted and estimated to some degree sufficiently

LDrior to its emergence, one can put necessary measures into

109

effect in advance to satisfy the need on time. In this
case, regardless of whether the necessary measures are

put into effect on time or not, one should not consider
the delay time as a constraint. That is to say, whether
utilized or not, if there exists a possibility of yielding
more production to be needed in the future, the delay time
required for the production should not be counted as a
constraint on answering the need.

Now, taking the above explanations into considera-
tion, one can conclude that time has not been a functional
constraint on control actions for training more teachers
of secondary school core subjects, for the following
reasons:

The problem of a shortage of teachers has existed
since the early fifties. Especially after 1960, the trend
of the need and required measures to satisfy the need have
been put forth through the ten-year plan and the develop-
ment plans. There has been enough time if not to solve,
then at least to mitigate the problem.

In summary, training teachers in higher teacher
training schools has been constrained by the admission and
training policy of the university. Therefore a part of
the causal problem stands with the university. Neverthe-
less, one cannot see any functional constraint on the
control action of the control component for the process

of training teachers in education institutes. Therefore,

110

decisions of the control component (D in Figure 8) seem
to be chiefly responsible for the inadequate quantity of
teachers for core subjects trained in education institutes.

After this conclusion and in order to discover
the causal problems responsible for ineffectiveness of the
control decisions, one should make an investigation into
the entire process of making decisions to control teacher
training. Such an investigation requires a review of all
the entities which may affect the control decisions. These
mentioned entities may enter the process at any point in
Figure 8 from the control component through to the
extreme left of the figure, i.e., within the Ministry of
Education at large.

Decisions which control teacher training (D in
Figure 8) are the outputs of the control component. This
output is the product of the input B2 which is subject to
interactions within the control component in the time
domain. Therefore, causal problems responsible for the
ineffectiveness of the control decision D may be due to
the input, or to interactions, or to time under considera-
tion.

The time domain in the Turkish instance includes
more than a score of years throughout which control deci-
sions have been ineffective. Since control decisions are
sgenerally made on a yearly basis, the decisions are not

(Zonstrained by time. In other words, throughout more than

111

twenty years, one has had opportunities to make effective
decisions if inputs and interactions are sufficient to do
so. That is to say, the ineffectiveness of the control
decisions should be due to input and/or interactions rather
than to time.

Input B2 is a complex of variables which can be
classified in three categories, two of which are as follows:

(a) All inputs including funds, related to train-
ing teachers of elementary schools and secondary school
core subjects received from the society by the control
component via the Ministry of Education (see Figure 6).

(b) All other information bearing on the scope of
responsibility of the control component which reaches the
control component indirectly.

The first two inputs above do not include pressure
aimed at limiting the quantity of trained teachers for
secondary school core subjects. On the contrary, they
represent pressures to train more teachers. The demand
for more teachers has been encouraged and requested con-
sistently by both the environment and the superior offices
of the MOE. Funds are scarce inputs but, as was explained
before, the problem has been inadequate decisions on
how to use them, rather than inadequate resources. One may
conclude that inputs included in the above first two items
are not responsible for ineffectiveness of decisions which

regulate teacher training.

112

As to the third category, it includes information
received by the control component from other offices of
the Ministry of Education excluding the superiors who are
overall policymakers. This third sort of information may

be classified in two sub-categories, as follows:

Feedback information: As was explained before,

 

feedback is a necessary component for a closed system.
The system supplying teachers of secondary school core
subjects is a closed system, for which, therefore, feed-
back is vitally important.

Theoretically, the concept of feedback implies a
sufficient. channel <1f information within the system. In
the real world, however, the feedback (E in Figure 8) is
established via a multiplicity of channels between schools
and various offices in the Ministry of Education at
large, rather than directly with the control component.
The reasons for this is that each school sends information
related to need and supply of teachers to its particular
superior general directorate, not to the General Director-
ate for Teacher Training Schools. This practice in the
real world may create a problem if the information received
from subordinated schools is not sufficiently transmitted
by the general directorate to the control component. Then
the system for supply of teachers of secondary school core

subjects fails to function as a closed system, and decisions

113

for controlling teacher training are made in uncertainty.
This practice can be counted as one of the causal problems

under investigation here.

Activity information: This includes any decision

 

made by general directorates which indirectly entails
creating additional needs for teachers of core subjects,
such as decisions to open new schools or to extend exist-
ing schools (represented by B1 in Figure 8). In the real
world, each general directorate makes its own decision--
which may create additional needs for teachers--without
consulting with the General Directorate for Teacher
Training Schools. If the control component is not informed
in time about decisions, its control decisions are made
under uncertain conditions. Such conditions may, again,
cause the control decisions to be ineffective. In short,
there is a possibility that input B2 can be a location of

causal problems responsible for the ineffectiveness of

control decisions.

Interactions in the control component.—-As for

 

the interactions which produce the control decisions through
using the inputs labeled B2, they are arranged and con—
ducted by the control component. It appears evident that
these interactions over the past twenty years have not

been sufficient, perhaps because of the following reasons:

114

First of all, if B2 should not include sufficient
information to make effective control decisions, it would
be the task of the control component to ask for more
information needed to make effective decisions. There
can be no excuse for trying to accomplish the responsi-
bility of supplying teachers for the entire school system
of the society wihtout having had sufficient information
for more than a score of years.

But it appears that the control component was not
deprived of information needed to make effective decisions.
The aforementioned Ten Year Plan, which was prepared by
the control component, and the five year development plans,
which had the force of law, included necessary basic
information along with requests to train needed teachers.
One might even suppose that these plans may have been
ignored in the making of control decisions to train teachers
of core subjects.

Consequently, another location of the causal
problems responsible for ineffective decisions may be in
the control component and the interactions which occur

there, between it and the B2 inputs it receives.

Basic Characteristics of
the Problem

 

 

The preceeding analysis reveals possible locations
of causal problems responsible for the existence of the

current teacher shortage problem in the Turkish secondary

115

school system. The problem is generated at points where
measures might be designated for solving the problem.

The analysis may begin to suggest why the problem has been
growing without mitigation for more than twenty years. A
systems approach elucidates relationships which otherwise
might never be understood and locates specific points of
causation which might otherwise remain hidden behind the
glaringly apparent surface problem. After defining its
locations, one needs to specify further the characteristics
of the problem in order to facilitate an operational
approach to tackling the problem.

We have seen that there are two basic inadequacies
in the teacher training system: (a) structural inadequacies
which allow uncontrolled components to operate within what
should be a closed system, and (b) inadequacies in decision
making for teacher training. Since these decisions are
outputs which combine input 82 and interactions in the
control component, the inadequacy of decisions may be due
either to the input or to the interactions, or to a combina-
tion of both.

If the inadequacy is due to input B2, one may
attribute it to inadequate administrative organization
of the MOE at large. As was explained before, 82 includes
feedback and activity information which may not be ade-
quately transmitted to the control component, thus causing

its decisions to be inadequate.

116

If the inadequacy is due to interactions in the
control component, one may count it as inadequate man-
agement in the control component. Here the term management
is used, rather than administration, because the task
of the control component can better be defined by the
term management which implies: ". . . the decision making,
planning, and implementing that must underlie effective
utilization of manpower, money, materials, facilities,
information, knowledge, and time which constitute the pro-
ductive resources. . . ."70

Probably the causal problems should be counted as
both inadequate administrative organization of the MOE and
ineffective management in the control component. The
control component should find a way of getting needed
information if it assumes the responsibility for answering
Turkey's need for teachers, and indeed the Ten Year Plan
and the five year development plans included such informa-
tion. At the same time superior offices and other offices
in the MOE should find an effective way of communicating
feedback and activity information to the control component.

Consequently, an operational approach to solve
the teacher shortage problem would seem to include solu-

tion of problems related to (a) administrative organization

70James L. Pierce, "The Planning and Control Con-
Cept," in Administrative Control and Executive Action, ed.
by B. C. Lemke and J. D. Edwards (Columbus: Charles E.
Merrill Books, Inc., 1961), p. 8.

117

of the MOE, (b) management in the offices of the control
component, and (c) the structure of the teacher supply

system.

Summary

Shortage of teachers of core subjects in the
Turkish secondary school system is an effect resulting from
certain causal problems. The quantity of the supplied
teachers is drastically less than the quantity of needed
teachers. The quantity of needed teachers is increasing
constantly and is the inevitable result of Turkey's grow-
ing population and the rising aspirations of its society.
The teacher shortage problem is therefore fundamentally a
teacher supply problem. There is no free market of
teachers, and the Constitution assigns the task of supply-
ing needed teachers to the Ministry of Education in Turkey.
In the final analysis the teacher shortage problem is
fundamentally a teacher training problem--that is, a
production problem.

In order to meet a defined need, there are two
fundamental problems to be solved in the process of pro-
duction--resources, and the utilization of resources.
Analysis of Turkey's teacher shortage problem reveals
that limitations on resources to train needed teachers
(namely, students, funds, teachers of teachers, and time)

have not created unsolvable problems, but the utilization

118

of the resources (decision making, planning, and imple—
menting) has been inadequate throughout the last twenty
years.

Inadequacies in utilization of resources may be
traced to three "locations" in the teacher supply system:
inadequate coordination and control between MOE policies
and the policies of the university regarding teacher
training, inadequate organization of the Ministry of
Education for supplying inputs to the control component,
and inadequate management in the control component of the
teacher supply system. These three may be counted as
causal problems. It appears, however, that the problem is
generated at points where measures to cope with it can and

should be designated.

Discussions and Conclusions

 

The preceding analysis implies that an operational
approach to solve many problems in the Turkish education
system necessitates c0ping first with certain basic admin-
istrative problems in the Ministry of Education. Analysis
of these administrative problems and their effects on the
education system are beyond the scope of this study.
Nevertheless, a brief characterization of administration
in the Ministry of Education may help the reader to under’

stand the paradoxical dilemma of the inadequate teacher

supply.

119

Ministry of Education
and Problems

 

 

TheorEtically, every organization strives to ful-
fill its objectives, but the Ministry of Education evidently
fails in many ways to fulfill its objectives. Blame is
usually placed on the inadequacy in organization. Indi-
vidual authorities thus tend to feel free from personal
responsibility for the failures. Nevertheless, in spite
of many studies and recommendations, no basic reorganiza-
tion of educational adminsitration has been put into effect
overtimepast twenty years. The central Ministry Of Educa-
tion suffers from the characteristics of the innovation-
resisting organization, as stated in the following
quotation:

An organization is itself an innovation, but
most organizations of the past have been designed
to be innovation-resisting. . . . To ensure reli-
able repetition Of prescribed Operations, the
organization requires strong defenses against inno-
vation. Efforts to innovate must be relegated to
the categories of error, irresponsibility and
insubordination, and appropriate corrective action
taken to bring the would be innovators "back in
line." Any change is likely to run counter to cer-
tain vested interests, and to violate certain
territorial rights. Sentiments of vested interest
and territorial rights are sanctified as delega-
tions of legitimate authority in traditional
organizations, thus guaranteeing quick and effective
counteraction against disturbance. In theory, the
innovation-resisting organization is not resistant
to innovations issuing from the top Of its authority
structure.

 

71Herbert A. Shephard, "Innovation-Resisting and
Innovation-Producing Organizations," as quotedeINewton
Margulies and Anthony P. Raia, Organizational DevelOpment
Values, Processes and Technology (New York: Mc—Graw Hill
Book Company, 1972), p. 50.

 

 

120

In addition, the Ministry of Education operations
are often characterized by their extremely personalized
character of administration, such that the personality of
the individual Often is not differentiated from the posi—
tion within the organization. Institutional authority
is erroneously equated withtflmapower of the individual.

The absence of job descriptions and objective criteria for
selection of individuals to administrative positions
encourages and facilitates staffing the organization on the
basis of personal preferences Of the authorities. Under
these circumstances, administrative activities tend to be
governed by highly personalized concepts. Different admin—
istrators may or may not be seriously careful about
organizational Objectives. They may have highly indi—
vidualized perceptions Of their roles.

Arising perhaps mostly from an element Of uncer-
tainty, a particular emotional climate is usually associated
with such personalized administration. Accordingly, rela-
tionships among individuals and groups are often disrupted
by unpredictable complications of misunderstanding,
unnecessary competition, jealousy, under—handed tricks,
etc. Instead of fostering scientific thinking, creativity,
initiative, and the taking of responsibility, the climate
encourages sheer Obedience as the secure way of work

performance. This situation is mentioned also by

121

Dr. Ziya Bursalioglu, in his article devoted to the question

of reorganization of educational administration.72

In addition, the more recent book by Edwin J. Cohn73
sheds light on educational and administrative problems of
concern here. These observations may help one to under-
stand why the administration Of the MOE seems to be so
overly occupied with daily routine, at the price Of ignoring
planned activities, scientific studies, and follow-up
implementations. In general, personalized administration
cannot tolerate rigorous, Objective programs which are
oriented toward the long range unless higher authorities
insist on it and follow up by controlling the organization.
Moreover, unscientific attacks on existing problems only
serve tO generate new additional problems through more
inadequate or improper decisions. All in all, the Ministry
of Education stands in a state Of inertia, while by con-

trast educational problems are spreading in a state of

restless expansion, arising from unmet demands of the

 

changing society. The result is extensive and chronic prob-
lems. This is the dilemma to be overcome.
72Ziya Bursalioglu, "The Need for Reorganization

in Turkish Educational System," in The Turkish Administrator,
a Cultural Survey, ed. by Jerry R. Happer and Richard I.

 

 

Lewin (Ankara: Public Administration Division, USAID, 1968),
pp. 265-84.
73

Edwin J. Cohn, Turkish Economic, Social and
Political Change--The Development of a More Prosperous Open
Society (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1970).

 

 

122

In brief, the assumption of this researcher is that
an Operational approach to secure an effective solution of
the problems currently confronting the society's educational
development will necessitate coping first with the person-
alized character of administration. The following two
examples may serve to justify this assumption. They indi-
cate how administrative shortcomings apply to teacher
production problems (1) in higher teacher training schools,

and (2) in education institutes.

Higher Teacher Training Schools

As was explained before, higher teacher training
schools are subject to the general policy for admission and
training of the university, but the university does not
assume responsibility for the supply of teachers. There—
fore the quantity and quality of teachers trained in these
SChcxals are out of the control Of the control component,
WhiCfli is responsible for the supply of teachers.

The results of this dualism may be summarized, as
f0110ws:

(a) Because Of limited quotas for faculties Of
scierltific disciplines, lycée graduates who pass the uni—
verSCLtyentrance examinations do not usually choose teaching
as a profession.

(b) Candidates for teaching who nevertheless

trairl at the university under the same programs as do

123

candidates for other professions, especially in scientific
fields, often leave the teaching profession for better
paying jobs.

As an approach for solution of the problem, as was
explained before, normal school students have been trained
under the lycée program in the preparation class since the
1959-1960 school year. Since 1959, greater numbers of
students have been able to go into teacher training through
the higher teacher training schools by means of the change
in policy and practice already mentioned above. Since
that date normal school graduates also have been admitted,
first to one-year "preparation" classes, and then they
have been allowed also to follow the same training pro-
grams as the regular lycée graduates.

This approach may have been successful in the
short run but it could not continue to succeed in the
long run. Because of increasing requirements of competency,
to put the needed number of students under needed programs
became each year more difficult than before. Moreover,
the problem of retraining trained teachers in the profes-
sion continues to exist. For example, the number of
chemistry teachers in lycées was 115 in 1962-63 and 140
in 1971-72, whereas the respective numbers of teachers
needed were approximately 220 and 700.

Clearly the approaches taken are incompatible with

the characteristics of the problem. From a systems point

124

of View, the problem has until now been dealt with as a
regional constraint (i.e., a scarcity of the student
resource), although in fact it is a functional constraint
(i.e., a function of the organizational structure of the
system). In other words, while the legal responsibility
for the supply Of teachers belongs to the MOE, at the same
time the supply is subject to the admission and training
policy of the autonomous university which does not assume
responsibility for the supply of teachers. An Operational
approach to solving the problem should include a change of
structure in the system so that at least the following

two conditions are realized:

a. Student stations in higher teacher training
schools should be controlled by the component
which is responsible for the supply of teachers.

b. There should not be a large number of teachers
in needed fields who leave the profession for
other jobs.

There may be several ways to realize the above-

mentioned two conditions. One may expect, however, that
the basic problem with respect tO higher teacher training

schools will remain unsolved as long as the structure Of

the system remains as it is.

Education Institutes
Education institutes are wholly controlled by the
MOE. Nevertheless, an inadequate supply of teachers from

education institutes has been a growing problem since the

125

fifties. The persistence of the problem might lead one to
suspect the presence of an unassailable functional con-
straint, preventing the administration from effectively
coping with the problem. Our analysis above concluded,
however, that the problem is due to inadequate resource
utilization. That is to say, the functional constraint
itself resides in tflmn: self-same administration which is
responsible for solving the problem.

Figure 10 indicates that the quantity of trained
teachers has lagged far behind the targets of the plans.
Indeed, the need for thousands Of new teachers is self-
evident in the schools. The slope Of the curve for
trained teachers (for realization) has declined since
1967-68. The estimated number of teachers needed for the
four years following 1967-68 was 18,800 in the Five Year
Plan and 17,548 in the Ten Year Plan. The number of
teachers trained in the same period, however, was 6,596.
In the preceding four years, 10,251 had been trained
(see Table 1, page 57). In 1967-68 the number of education
institute students was reduced by about one thousand, even
though all resources necessary to admit more students were
then available and a shortage of teachers was then creating
a bottleneck in the secondary school system. Moreover, the
second Five Year Development Plan had called for an enroll-

ment of 10,100 in education institutes for the 1968-69

126

FIGURE 10--Estimated Need for Education Institute
Graduated Teachers and Realization.(*)

 

 

 

 

40,000‘
t;-
’0
N
Q,
35,000. a
a?
.5,
OJ
A
4‘ ""
30,000« 0 ‘~
25,000-1
20,0001
15.000‘
10,000.
5,000#
o.N é» . . . . . e e . a
‘5’ ‘5’ §$$§$$$$$$
r-I N m V In \D 1‘ GO ON O H N

(*) Sources:

a. Tables 1 and 2,

b. Milli Egitim Bakanligi, Ogretmen Yetistirme
Komitesi Raporu ve On Yillik Plan, (National
Ministry of Education, Report of Teacher
Preparation Committee and the Ten Yer Plan),
Istanbul, 1961.

127

school year. The actual decrease in the number of education
institute students in 1967-68 is nevertheless understandable.

This decrease in the quantity of trained teachers
after 1967-68 seems to have resulted from two measures
which were put into effect in the 1967-68 school year:

1. In 1966-67 it was decided to divide each of the
two main branches of training (humanities and sciences) into
four branches (humanities into "Turkish" and "social sub-
jects," and sciences into "mathematics" and "sciences").

2. In addition, the training period for these
branches was raised in 1967-68 from two to three years.
These two measures, which were ostensibly aimed at improving
the quality of training, had adverse effects, not only on
the quantity but also on the possible utilization Of
trained teachers, as follows:

(a) To divide two training branches into four
means that four teachers instead of two should be
assigned to each school. But in the real world
the number of small secondary schools in Turkey
with fewer than 200 students has until now always
been more than one-third Of the whole number of
schools. Hence the capacity of schools to utilize
teachers in the additional fields was seriously
affected adversely by the above mentioned measure.
In effect, the needed number of qualified teachers

was indirectly expanded drastically.

128

(b) To extend a period of training from two to
three years obviously requires fifty percent more
resources, such as funds, school facilities,
teachers of teachers, and time. A three—year
program produces fifty percent fewer teachers to
be trained through using the same available
resources. This is another reason for the decline
of the slope for trained teachers after 1967-68.
In other words, using the same available resources,
the new subdivided three-year training program reduced the
quantity of trained teachers by up to one-third in compari-
son with the previous two—year program.

The adoption of the above measures is a good
example of how important decisions may be made without a
sound understanding of systems implications. The drastic
impact of these measures on the Turkish system can be
tabulated in terms of fields and training periods as
follows: In 1946-47, there were five separate branches of
training in the education institutes--Turkish, social
subjects (history and geography), mathematics, physical
sciences (physics and chemistry), and biology. Since that
date these branches have been subject to varying combina-
tions and subdividings. The effects of these combinings
amd re-combinings, in terms Of resource utilization, may
be calculated in man-years. For instance, if training is

divided into five fields as above and the training period

129

is two years, then five teachers have to be trained in two
years, and the result is 10 man—years, i.e., the product
of five and two. If these five subjects are combined into
two branches and the training period is again two years,
the product is four man-years. Using this procedure,
changes in the Turkish system relating to the combinations
of the above five fields and to the training periods
involved may be summarized since 1946-47 as shown in

Table 7.

Notice that in two years, between 1966—67 and
1968-59, the man-year requirements for training a teacher
in each required branch jumped from 4 to 12. Meanwhile,
the actual shortage Of teachers was a serious bOttleneck

in the education system.

TABLE 7.--Various Combinations Of Training Branches in
Education Institutes.

 

 

NO. of Years Of Man-Years

School Year Training Required (Branches

Branches Training times years)
1946—47 5 2 10
1949—50 1 2 2
1966-67 2 2 4
1967-68 4 2 8
1968—69* 4 3 12

 

*Continuing to the present.

130

Of course, measures aimed at improving the quality
of teachers should not be opposed, provided that necessary
protections against their negative effects on the supply
may also be designated and put into effect. There is a
need for finding scientific ways Of maintaining balance
between the quantity and the quality of teachers on the
basis of the country's need. One should not sacrifice
either quantity or quality to the extent that the system

as a whole ceases to function effectively.

Summary

Analysis of the problem indicates that the teacher
shortage in the Turkish secondary school system is the
result Of inadequate resource utilization rather than
resource scarcity. The causal problem is fundamentally an
administrative problem. An Operational approach requires
first of all that the administrative problems be solved.
Subsequent measures for solvingtflmaproblem should facilitate
fulfillment of the following requirements:

(a) An effective control in terms of systems
concepts over the teacher training process.

(b) A realistic plan, including assessment of the
quantity of needed teachers in each field, requirements of
the profession, and curriculum to train teachers on the
basis of the society's needs and of the characteristics Of

the schools.

131

(c) Appropriate conditions to retain trained

teachers in the profession.

CHAPTER V

MATHEMATICAL MODEL FOR TURKISH

SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM

The main purpose Of this chapter is to present a
mathematical model to identify the state of the system at
a particular time in terms of demand and supply of second-
ary school teachers. Obviously, to develop a descriptive
model would be in vain unless its outcomes are utilized in
planning for solution oftfimaproblem under concern. That
means to say, the descriptive model presented here is
developed to show what kinds of analyses need to be made
in order to provide accurate information to be used in
planning for solution Of the problem. With accurate data
in hand adequately analyzed, the planner would then require
a corresponding simulation model to search for best solu—
tions.

Developing a simulation model for planning was not
covered by the objectives in this study. However, in order
simply to demonstrate what needs to be included in a
complete set of systems procedures applicable to solution

of an educational problem, an abridged version of a

132

133

previously prepared simulation model is presented at the
outset of this chapter.

Therefore, this chapter consists of two parts.
Included in the first part is the above mentioned abbrevi-
ated illustrative simulation model with its outcomes. It
is presented simply to show that simulation can lead to
optimum solutions. The descriptive model is the chief
contribution of this chapter, as required by the second
objective of this study. It is presented in the second
part. Results of a pilot application of the descriptive
model to the province of Eskisehir are reported in the

next chapter.

PART 1

SIMULATION’MODEL FOR TURKISH
LYCEE TEACHERS

The Origin of the Model

 

The aggregate simulation model presented in this
part was originally prepared by the present researcher at
Michigan State University in July, 1971. Available data
were inadequate to establish needed parameters and variables
for running the model through the MSU computer, so parameters
and initial variables were either obtained from what data
were available or were established on the basis of educated

assumption and guesses.

134

Therefore, at least some of the simulated values
might, most probably, not be precisely accurate approxima-
tions of the future behavior of the system. Nevertheless,
the relative relationships which are discovered among the
variables do appear generally to reflect interrelationships
in the real world.

The model was develOped to experiment with alterna-
tives for planning the supply of Turkish lycée mathematics,
physics, cheimistry, and biology teachers. Two basic
alternatives were chosen: "present system" and "desired
system."

To these alternatives, two further alternatives in
each case were included--thus making a total Of four

alternatives in all, as follows:

1. Present system
a. Supply of teachers with regular training,
and

b. Supply of teachers with regular and
inservice training.

2. Desired system

a. Supply of teachers with regular training,
and

b. Supply of teachers with regular and
inservice training.

In terms of the best alternative, i.e., desired system with
inservice training, the problem would be solved in twenty
years. The logical block diagram for the model is intro—

duced in Figure 11.

"GU" unblock Diagram for tho Lycoo and It. Teachers in Turkey.

(student Flow, Touche: demand and supply, and Coat)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Produced
'class hours
I Demmd
/ for teacher Certlfled
F

humanities
tea as
—-—-— °

S’ Supply cl
humanllles teacher!

 

    
  

Investmerlt cost

 

 

 

 

 

  

+ z Shortage
ll ‘ r—9
96
* E
{I I!
" 2 -g
V ‘ ° 0
Current cos! ‘ ' 3.8.
¢ * £9

Teachers' salary

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Id . ,
X
R E1 . z - Z a Z - ’ z -
O 0 4 + 4
x x In t Tn 173 F n), z z 1.", =
n 2 9 e - ~ - -
drop d drop rap
1:
IL

 

 

EITHER E1:1,E2=O 0R E1=0,E2=1

136

Explanations for Parameters

 

and Abbreviations in Figure 11

 

A8,BB: Parameters for student distribution from grade 1
to grade 2 literature and science divisions
respectively in lycée.

C1: Unit cost per student in lycée.

C2: Average salary of lycée teachers.

C3: Unit cost per teacher in-service training.

C4: Unit cost per student in teacher training school.
CS: Unit building and equipment cost per lycée student.
C6: Unit cost of training humanities teacher.

C7: Unit cost of building and equipment per student in
teacher training school.

D1: Amortization rate of school building and equipment.

D2: Amortization rate of expenditures on training
teachers.

E1,E2: Regulators for inputs to teacher training schools
in present and desired systems.

1: Function to calculate student input to lycée.

F
F : Function to calculate supplied humanities and
science teachers.

F3,F4: Functions to calculate student inputs to teacher
training schools in desired and present systems
respectively.

F :‘Function to calculate teachers as input to in-
‘service training.

H: Realized average teaching load of teachers.
INLl: Student input to lycée.
ININTl: Input to in-service teacher training.

INT1,INT2: Correspond to the first and second year programs
for in-service teacher training respectively.

K1,R2,K3,K4,K5: Parameters for converting number of students into
number of produced class hours by grades and by
subjects.

Ll: First grade of lycée.

L2A,L3A: Second and third grades of lycée under the
literature programs.

LZS,L3S: Second and third grades of lycée under the
science programs.

R1,R2: Percentages of leave of the profession for any
reason.

TT1,TT2,TT3,TT4: Correspond to the grades of teacher training
schools.

X1: Number of potential students eligible to attend
to lycée.

x2,x3: Numbers of students who apply to desired and
present teacher training schools respectively.

x4: Teachers who apply to in-service training.

137

The model is presented here avoiding details and
as three submodels, such as: (1) student, (2) teacher, and
(3) cost. Throughout this part, indices are used without
any change in identity, as follows:

n = l, 2, 3, . . ., 20 (corresponding to the
number of years)

k = l, 2, 3, 4, 5 (corresponding to the number
of grades with area)

i = l, 2, 3, . . ., 16 (corresponding to the
number of subject matters)

Objective (or Criterion) Function

 

U = U(xl, x2, . . ., Xr) (9)

where U denotes the supply of teachers meeting demand and

being subject to the constraints.

Student Submodel

 

Assumption 1: Increase in the number of lycée
students will take place in such a pattern that
about one-half of the age group will be in school
after twenty years.

 

Assumption 2: The rate of student flow in lycée
is directly related to the percentage of supply
of qualified teachers. (However, the rate Of
student flow is not over 90 percent even if the
supply of teachers is one hundred percent.)

 

Constraint 1: In the Turkish school system, a

one hundred percent student flow can hardly be
achieved. Dropouts and the large pool of repeating
students constitute a heavy constraint on the
enterprise.

 

138

1 i R i L (10)

where
R1: student flow ratio,
1 : minimum student flow ratio, and

L : maximum student flow ratio.

Student Input to Lycée

 

(11)

where

I : number of newly enrolled students to the
first grade, and

A: the ratio in increase.
.l9-T/100 if 0 i T i 13
.06 if T > 13

Student Flow (Intermediate
Inputs and Outputs

 

 

*
yk = B xk (12)
n n
*
Dk = c xk (13)
n
Fk = Yk + Dk (14)
n n n
* .—
Ik = B xk 1 if k > 1 (15)
n n-l

139

k_l. _
In — In If k — l (16)
k_k k k

Xn — Xn-l Fn-l + Inn (17)

where
Y: number of students passed the grade,
B: ratio for the pass,
X: number of students enrolled in the grade,
D: number of dropouts,
C: ratio for droptouts,
F: number of students flowed out of the grade, and
I: number of students enrolled in the grade.
: _. ‘k ‘k 'k
C Rl(l Rl c) b c
= 'k _
B b R1 0
where

R1: percentage Of supply of teachers as explained
in Constraint 1,

b and c: parameters for differences in flow rates
among grades.

Teacher Submodel

 

The teacher submodel consists Of two sections:

demand and supply.

Demand

140

Aggregate estimation for demanded teacher is

calculated by dividing produced class hours by the average

load of teachers.

where

Assumption 3: In the "present system," calculated
average teaching load (19.2 hours per week) remains
as it is. In the "desired system," however, the
policy of utilization of teachers will be improved
such that the load will be increased by 0.15 hours
each year (3.0 hours after 20 years).

 

Constraint 2: Smallness of school size and narrow-
ness of teachers' fields are constraints on
improving utilization of teachers.

 

1 £ R 3 L (18)

R : hours of average teaching load,

2
12: minimum hours of teaching load, and
L2: maximum hours of teaching load.

Produced Class Hours

where

(19)

H: number of produced weekly class hours,
X: number of students,
L: average number of students in classes, and

W: number of weekly class hours of the course in
the curriculum.

141

Demand for Teachers

where

P. = H. /R2 (20)

P: number of demanded teachers,

H: number Of produced weekly class hours as in
equation (19), and

2: teaching load of teachers as in Constraint 2.

Supply_of Teachers

 

where

Assumption 4: At most, 50 teachers from each field
will be put under inservice training each year if
the shortage of teachers in that field is over 100.

 

Assumption 5: The number of new enrolled students

In the first grade of teacher training schools

will be:

(a) in the "present sytem"--25 more students than
the number of graduated students from the field
in the previous year;

(b) in the "desired system"--the base for calcula-
tion for student input is the demand for
teachers for the field concerned.

 

Constraint 3: Training lycée teachers through
inservice training is limited by the need for
junior high-school teachers and by training
facilities. (See Assumption 4.)

 

Constraint 4: Both available student stations and
teachersT teachers in teacher training schools are
constraints on new enrollment in the first grade.

 

1 i R g L (21)

1 ° minimum number of new enrollment,
R - number of new enrolled students, and

L ° maximum number of new enrollment.

142

Student Input to Teacher
Training Schools

I. = G. + D (22)

where
I: number of new enrolled students,
G: number of graduated students, and

D: an additive parameter to utilize Assumption 5.

Supply of Teachers

t
= _ *
Zi,n Gi,n-l + (1 r1) Zi,n-1 + Gi,n-1
(23)
s
._ *
+ (1 r2) Zi,n-1
I
z = 2 z. (24)
n i=1 1,n

where
number of trained teachers,

G : number of teachers trained in teacher train-
ing schools,

Zt: number of the stock of lycée teachers trained
in teacher training schools,

r1: ratio of those who leave the profession (for
teachers trained in teacher training schools),

r2: ratio of those who leave the profession (for
teachers trained through inservice training
programs),

GS: number of teachers trained through inservice

training programs,

143

S ’ I
Z : number<1fthe stock of lycee teachers trained
through inservice training programs,

Z3 = O in "present system."

Supply of Humanities Teachers

Because it is not a serious problem, the supply
of humanities teachers is not included in planning through
the simulation model. However, in calculation for the cost,
humanities teachers should be counted. Therefore, though
not differentiated by field, humanities teachers are
included in the calculation for cost by utilizing the

following equation:

ph = p - p5 (25)
n n n

where
h

P : number Of supplied humanities teachers,
P: number of the entire stock of teachers, and

PS: number of supplied science teachers.
Shortage of Teachers
V. = P. - Z. (26)

where
V: number of the shortage of teachers,
P: number of demanded teachers, and
Z: number Of-supplied teachers.

Notice: Objective (or criterion) function requires V = 0.

144

Cost

Assumption 6: A11 expenses for teacher training
are counted as investment to the lycée.

 

Assumption 7: Purchasing power of Turkish money
will remain as it is now.

 

Assumption 8: There is no constraint on provision
of needed funds.

 

In this section, L denotes Turkish lira, equivalent

to 1/14 dollar.

 

Cost of Training Teachers
: t - t * t‘k 5*
Ll (Sn Sn-l) q1 + Sn q2 + Sn q3
(27)
h h
+ _ *
(Pn Pn-l) q4
where
Ll: investment in training teachers,
St: number of students enrolled in teacher
training schools,
SS: number of teachers under inservice training,
Ph: number of humanities teachers,

ql: unit cost of building and equipment of
teacher training schools per student,

q2: current cost per teacher training school

student,

q3: current cost per teacher under inservice
training program (in the a "present system,"
9=0), and

q4: unit cost of training per humanities teacher.

145

Cost of the Lycée

 

LG = C1n + C2 + c3 (28)

where
L2: cost of lycée,
Cl: cost of teaching,
C2: cost of school operation, and

C3: cost of school plant and equipment.
Actual Current Cost of Lycée

L = C1 + C2 + A1 + A2 (29)
n n n n n

where
L: actual current cost of lycée
Cl: cost of teaching as in equation (28),
C2: cost of school operation as in equation (28),

A1: prorated cost of school plants and durable
goods, and

A2: prorated cost of training teachers.

Unit Cost Per Lycée Student
and Graduate

LSn = Ln/S

(30)

where

146

LS: unit cost per student,
LG: unit cost per graduate,
S: number of students, and

G: number of graduates.

Findings and Conclusions

 

The preceding model is an abridged version of the
author's original model. This new version was abbreviated
by either ignoring certain original alternative equations
and adopting particular ones or by combining a few equa-
tions which were in the original model into one equation.
Nevertheless, the presented model is expected to serve in
demonstrating how a simulation model may be utilized.
Evaluation of findings in an application of the model
shows not only the possible future behavior of the system
under given circumstances, but also the kinds Of data
needed in utilization of such models.

In this section, illustrative findings of the
original study through computer simulation are presented
in three subjections, corresponding to the preceding three

submodels, as follows below.

Students

Student input (new enrollment) to the lycée is
treated as an exogenous variable in the model. Since
initial values are constant and the values for student

inputs are originated by the same equation, changing values

147

of numbers of new enrolled students in each of the alterna-
tive systems are necessarily the same for the same year.
Therefore, any difference in exogenous variables related

to students in the varying systems should be attributed

to the differences included in the design of the system.

The differences included in designing for alterna-
tive systems are only the rate of teacher supply. Then,
Assumption 2, "the better the teacher supply, the better
the student performance," is utilized in simulation. The
better performance of students is counted as a higher
passing rate (larger flow) Of students. These were
included in the computer program in this way: The actual
differences in the passing rates among various grades were
presented as parameters. The general base for calculation
was established as the percent Of supplied science teachers
in terms of need. However, if the percent Of supplied
teachers was less than 70%, it would be counted as 70%,
and more than 90% would be counted as 90%.

As a result of utilization Of Assumption 2 and a
varying rate of teacher supply, calculated values for the
variables of total enrollment, dropouts and graduates in
the best alternative system differed from others after the
13th iteration. This means, even in the best possible
system, the supply of science teachers could exceed 70
percent of need after 13 years under the assumed circum-

stances.

148

The outcomes in the 20th iteration (i.e., at the

end of the assumed planned period) in the two systems are

presented in Table 8.

Consequently, if falling pupil-teacher ratios is

74

an indicator of a better performance of students, the

simulation model performed here helps to discover the long-

range outcomes of a better teacher supply. A more precise

approximation requires real data which were unavailable

at the time this demonstration was performed.

Demand and Supply of Teachers

 

Demand and supply of science teachers are treated

as endogenous variables in both present and desired systems.

TABLE 8.--Yearly Outcomes of the Lycée in Desired and
Presented Systems in the 20th Iteration,
Analogous to the 20th Year in a Planned Period.

 

 

Desired Present Difference
Variables System System
(a) (b) (a-b)

Number Of tOtal 1,499,207 1,580,118 -80,911

students
Number of graduated

students 406,896 272,349 +134,547
Number of dropouts 56,849 165,137 -108,288

 

 

74

Hugh Philp, "The Evaluation of Quality in Educa-

tion," in Qualitative Aspects of Educational Planning, ed.

by C. E. Beeby (Belgium: UNESCO,

1969), p. 288.

149

Demand for teachers is defined by the number of students,
average class sizes, and average teacher load. Because

of Assumption 3 average teacher loads differ slightly from
one another in present and desired systems. In the "present
system," the supply Of teachers is defined in this way:

The number of new students enrolled in a program is 25

more than the number of students graduated from the same

program. In the "desired system,’ however, the number of
new students is defined by the shortage of teachers. TO
eliminate a sharp increase in the number of students, a
smoothing parameter was utilized in calculation.

The results of iterated calculations are presented
by graphs in Figure 12. There are two situations to be
noticed in Figure 12: (a) the gap between demand and
supply is increasing as years pass in the "present system,"
and (b) the demand curve for the "desired system" is
smoother than for the "present system." In other words,
demanded number of teachers in the "desired system" is
less than for the "present system." The difference between
numbers is 3,800. In other words, improvement in the rate
of teacher utilization and of teacher supply saves approxi-
mately one-fifth of the number of teachers needed otherwise.

Constraint 2 is taken into account in improvement

of the teacher utilization and supply in the "desired

system."

 

150

FIGURE 12--Estimated Need and Supply of Mathematics and Science
Teachers in Present and Desired Systems.

 

Thousands
21 I
2 . °

0 e?
19 9'"

r 9.;
'0
.18 . Go
17. i (7'
\‘Q .0... I,
16 ' 3.0 '..o" I
O
«”
Years

 

 

1 23 4 56 7 89101112131215161718'1920

151

922.:

Varying costs in the two systems are treated as
endogenous variables. That is, what is needed is assumed
to be available because Assumption 8 eliminates financial
constraint in concerned systems.

Iterated calculations reveal that salary and
training of teachers require more money in the "desired
system" than in the "present system." As to investment in
school facilities for lycées and current expenditures on
the operation of schools, the "present system" is more
costly than the "desired system."

The entire cumulative expenditure throughout 20
iterations is .008 more in the "desired system" than the
"present system" simply because more money is invested in
teacher training to close the gap between demand and
supply. Thus, the entire yearly actual cost of the system,
including teacher training, is less in the "desired system"
than the "present system" after the eighteenth iteration.
Cost per student is slightly higher but cost per graduate
is significantly less (4 percent and 34 percent, respec-
tively, in the twentieth iteration) in the "desired system"
than in the "present system." This is an important finding
in terms of the economical aspect Of improvement of an

educational system.

152

Summary

Simulation models are utilized whenever the future
behavior of the system under given circumstances is under
consideration. For a realistic approximation of the future
behavior of the system, accurate actual data is necessary.
However, as performed in this part, the trend of the
future behavior of the system can be detected even in the
absence of real data. This is an important contribution
to planning for a socioeconomic system.

The overall conclusion derived from the presenta-
tion in this part is that, regardless of the numerical
comparison, an educational system is expected to be more
productive and economical if an optimum teacher supply is
realized. Obviously, this conclusion is true only if a
better teacher supply facilitates a better student per-
formance and/or a better teacher utilization stated as
assumptions 2 and 3 are true in some degree.

One may derive another conclusion from the preceding
presentation. Accurate real information needed in simula-
tion of the model facilitates a rather realistic approxi-
mation. That is the core of the theme Of this present
study. The model in the preceeding part was developed as
a tool so that information needed in planning for the
supply of secondary school teachers could be identified,

and then be collected and processed.

153
PART 2
MATHEMATICAL MODEL FOR IDENTIFICATION OF

THE TURKISH SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM

Introduction

 

This part is devoted to a mathematical model for
identifying the Turkish secondary school system in terms
of need and supply of teachers at a particular time. The
model is exclusively for the Turkish system rather than a
general one. The primary aim of building the model was to
set forth the situation of need and supply of teachers.
However, cost of secondary education is included in the
model because financial feasibility is always an essential
condition to be considered in trying to solve the teacher
supply problem.

The model is expected to facilitate computer-based
data processing from the level of an individual school up
to the level of the whole system. Any desired combination
of schools, or districts, or provinces, etc., in between
the individual school and the entire national system is
possible through the use of the coding system in the com-

puter program.

Notations
In order to facilitate notations, varying combina-
tions of capital letters are used for variables. Calcula-

tions are specified with the school year, subject matter,

154

grade level, and the type of school whenever needed.
Indices that are used for these purposes consistently
throughout the model without any change in identity are
as follows:

i: l, 2, 3, . . ., I (corresponding to each
subject matter in curriculum), 0 < I < 33.

j: 1, 2, 3, . . ., J (corresponding to each grade
level), 0 < J < 8.

k: l, 2, 3, . . ., K (corresponding to each type
of secondary school such as lycée, middle
school, etc.), 0 < K < 11.

n: corresponds to time, in school years.

The model was built to utilize data collected from
schools. Therefore, any information related to a particular
school in the scope of this model can be Obtained through
uses of the model. However, in terms Of utilization of
teachers as well as need and supply of teachers, a munici—
pality with one or more secondary schools, rather than an
individual school, was adopted as the basic unit because
a teacher at a secondary school is, by law, compelled to
teach in his field at another school in the same munici-
pality whenever needed.

Because notations in equations are not extended
beyond the school level, calculations for a municipality
or for any desired unit other than a school can be done
through uses of codes in the computer prOgram.

As was mentioned in Chapter I, the model was

applied for the province of Eskisehir to demonstrate its

155

utility. To facilitate following the application

together with related equations, table and column numbers
of printouts in Appendix B are shown in parentheses right
after the headline for each equation. In addition, without
violating the logical order for calculations, equations

are presented in three sections corresponding to the

three types of tables in Appendix B.

Section 1 includes equations to calculate raw data
to be used in subsequent equations. Section 2 is devoted
to equations to calculate functional relationships of
variables in terms of need and supply of teachers.

Section 3 includes equations related to the cost Of

secondary education.

Section 1

 

Calculated results of equations in this section

are presented in Table 1 in Appendix B.

Number Of Students
(At the Top of Table l)

 

The Turkish secondary school system has two kinds

of students, daytime and boarding. Boarding students are
provided free accommodations, clothes, books, etc., in
addition to educational services. In the Turkish system,

students are assigned to classes which follow fixed programs
designed for each grade for a particular school throughout

the country. Therefore, students are not identified by

156

subject matter but by grade and the type of school. Sex
of students is not needed in this study. However, it may

be identified through coding.

STk(n)=.

J [SDj k(n) + SBj'k(n)] (31)

l I

”MCI

where
ST: number of all students,
SD: number of daytime students, and
SB: number of boarding students.

Number of Class Sections
(At the Top of Table l)

 

'Number of class sections is one of the two variables
to calculate produced class hours. Because Of the fixed
curriculum, the program for a class section is latent in
the level of grade and the type of school. Therefore, the
index for subject matter is not included in identification

of class sections.

CSk(n) =

”MC-I

1 CSj,k(n) (32)

j

where CS: number of class sections.

Number of Teachers
(Table 1, Columns 1 and 2)

 

In the Turkish system, school administrators are

counted as teachers. However, compulsory teaching hours

for administrators are fewer than for teachers.

157

Identi-

fication of sex of teachers is left to coding and not

included in the equations.

Teachers are identified by

fields and by types of schools, not by grade levels.

Ti,k(n) = TTi,k(n) + TAi,k(n) (33)
where
T: number of all teachers,
TT: number of teachers without administrative
status, and
TA: number of teachers with administrative status.

Produced Class Hours
(Table l)

 

Produced class hours imply the need for assignment
of teachers. Since a fixed curriculum is followed, pro-
duced class hours is the sum of the products of the number
of class sections times the number of weekly class hours

in a particular field summed over grade level in a particu-

lar school, as follows:

J
_ *
HPi,k(n) jél csj k(n) Hwi'j’k(n) (34)
where
HP: number of weekly produced class hours by
existing schools,
CS: number of class sections as in equation (32),
and
HW: number of weekly class hours in curriculum.

 

 

ll 11lIIIIII(
I

Illa!!! III I.’ lllllr f ’l

158

Supply of Teachers
(Table l)

 

In the Turkish system, there is no means by which
to provide substitute teachers. However, the shortage of
teachers is partly compensated through assigning semi-
qualified, unqualified, or lay teachers to classes. If
none of these are available, the class is left teacherless.
In other words, the class time passes without a teacher.
The following equation was prepared to facilitate calcu-
lation for the situation of the supply of teachers with
respect to produced class hours. Since teachers are not

identified by grade levels, j is omitted in the equation.

HPi k(n) = HQi,k(n) + HSi’k(n) + HUi,k(n)

I

(35)
+ HVi'k(n)

where

HP: number of weekly produced class hours as in
equation (34),

HQ: number of class hours taught by qualified
teachers,

HS: number of class hours taught by semi-qualified
teachers,

HU: number of class hours taught by unqualified
teachers, and

HV: number of teacherless class hours.

159

Section 2

 

Equations in this section were prepared for calcu-
lations of functional relationships among variables in
terms of the need and supply of teachers. If there be any,
the possibility of better utilization Of teachers can be
detected through utilization of related equations. Because,
by law, a teacher is compelled to teach in his field at
another school in the municipality, equations in this
section were prepared for such a municipality.

Findings through utilization of equations in this
section for the province of Eskisehir is included in
Table 2 in Appendix B.

Ratios
(Table 2, at the Top)

Student/teacher, teacher/class section, and
student/class section serve to establish bases for estima-
tion of needed teachers. For this reason, the above

mentioned ratios were included in this section, as follows:

‘2‘ ii
RS(n) = ST (n) / T. (n) (36)
k=1 k k=l i=1 l'k
ii If
RT(n) = 'T. (n) / CS (n) (37)
k=l i=1 l'k k=1 k
K K
RC(n) = E STk(n) / Z CSk(n) (38)

k=1 k 1

160

where
RS: student/teacher ratio,
RT: teacher/class section ratio,
RC: student/class section ratio,
ST: total number of students as in equation (31),
T: number of teachers as in equation (33), and

CS: number of class sections as in equation (32).

TeachingfiLoad

 

Teaching load is one of the important variables
which directly affects the number of needed teachers. It
may usually be expressed as an average value.

Theoretically, one would expect teaching load to
fall within the legally established limits. It is empir-
ically known however that, in practice, this is not true
in Turkey. Inefficient utilization of teachers, smallness
of schools, narrowness of the licensed field of teachers,
and in some cases teachers also having administrative
status, all work to lower teaching load below the estab-
lished prescribed limit. Therefore, the teaching load is

assessed according to the following two categories:

Established Teaching Load
Established teaching load is formally prescribed

by law as given in Table 9 on the following page.

161

TABLE 9--Established Teaching Load of Secondary School
Teachers in Class Hours.

 

thhnmtTamiunglxmflsEEIWaflflyCHassltmms
ina££(afieadmus (9335*Phflwmfllmibehwfl

(1) (2) (3) (4) (6) (6)

 

 

(knenfl.amd\kcathxmfl
EHuafldonlhaduns

 

 

First Cycle : 18 6 24 6 30 15
Second Cycle: 15 6 21 9 30 12
Workshop Teachers: 20 20 40 4 44 --
Administrators : 6 -- 6 12 18 12

 

 

Explanations for the Above Columns:
(1) Compulsory in return for the base salary.

(2) Optional if the teacher has more than 25 years of
experience, compulsory otherwise.

(3) Total of columns (1) and (2).
(4) Optional for every teacher.
(5) Total of columns (3) and (4).

(6) Maximum class hours that may be taught by a teacher who
is not certified in the subject. These hours are Optional
and are permissible only if there is no vacant class in
the teacher's own field and provided that the sum of
columns (5) and (6) should not exceed 30 class hours a
week.

NOTE: Teachers are paid hourly honoraria for the loads

included in columns (2), (4), and (6).

162

Observed Teaching Load

The precise rate Of utilization Of secondary school
teachers in Turkey is unknown. It is empirically known,
however, that secondary school teachers in Turkey are
underutilized. A previous study (using the simulation
model presented in Part 1) by this researcher revealed
that the realized (observed) average load of secondary
school core subject teachers was 19.2 class hours in the
1968-1969 school year, notwithstanding the fact of the
chronic and severe shortage of teachers. Observed teaching
load can be obtained for each municipality through actual
data from schools. Conforming with the established teaching
load, the equations for Observed teaching load were prepared
in two categories, i.e., with and without administrative

status.

Observed average teaching load Of administrators

 

(Table 2, columns 4-9).--

K K

LATi(n) = kél HAl,k(n) / kgl TA ’k(n) (39)
K K

LAQi(n) = kZl[HAi’k(n) - HAUi'k(n)] / kZlTAi’k(n) (40)
K K

LABi(n) = : [HAi'k(n) - HAHi,k(n)] / Z TAi’k(n) (41)

where

columns

LTTi(n)

LTQi(n)

LTSi(n)

where

163

LAT: number of class hours as average teaching
load in qualified and unqualified fields
of school administrators,

LAQ: number of class hours as average teaching
load in qualified fields of school admin-
istrators,

LAB: number of class hours as average teaching
load in return for base salary of school
administrators,

HA: number of total class hours taught by school
administrators.

HAU: number of total class hours taught by school
administrators in unqualified fields,

HAH: number of total class hours taught by school
administrators as honorarium, and

TA: number of teachers with administrative status
as in equation (33).

Observed average teaching load of teachers (Table 2,

 

12-17).—-
K K

= kElHTi,k(n) / k:lTTi’km) (42)
K K

= k:l[HTi’k(n) - HTUi’k(n)] / kZlTTi'km) (43)
K K

= E [HTi’k(n) - HTHi’k(n)] / Z TTi,k(n) (44)

k 1 k 1

LTT: numbercmfclass hours as average teaching load
in qualified and unqualified fields of
teachers,

164
LTQ: number of class hours as average teaching
load in qualified fields of teachers,

LTS: number of class hours as average teaching
load in return for base salary of teachers,

HT: number of total class hours taught by
teachers,

HTU: numbercflftotal class hours taught by
teachers in unqualified fields,

HTH: number of total class hours taught by
teachers as honorarium, and

TT: number of teachers without administrative
status as in equation (33).

Need for Teachers

 

Need for teachers is in general the quotient of
produced class hours divided by the average teaching load.
Produced class hours is constant for a particular school
in a particular year as long as the curriculum and the
number of class sections remain unchanged. As to teaching
load, the situation is different. The number of assigned
teachers, which is not as stable as the number of class
sections and the curriculum, defines teaching load. In
other words, the numberwxfproduced class hours is inde-
pendent of teaching load but the number of needed teachers
depends on realized teaching load. Therefore, the number
of needed teachers is inversely related to the size of
realizable teaching load. The higher the degree of utiliza-

tion of teachers, the smaller the number Of needed teachers.

165

Consequently, calculation for the number of needed teachers
is done in terms of observed and possible best rates of
utilization, as follows:

Need for Teachers in Terms of

Observed and Best Rates

of Utilization
(Table 2, Columns 18 and 19)

K
TDOi(n) = kElmpi’km) - HAQi’k(n)] / LTQi(n) + c (45)
K
TDBi(n) = kZlmpi’km) - HAQi’k(n)] / LTBi(n) + C (46)
where

TDO: number of needed teachers in terms of
observed rate of utilization,

TDB: number of needed teachers in terms of best
rate of utilization,

HP: number of produced class hours as in
equation (34),

HAQ: number Of class hours taught by school
administrators qualified to teach,

LTQ: average observed hours of teaching load as
in equation (43),

LTB: hours of teaching load in terms of best
utilization of teachers, and

C: constant to round the fraction.

Teachers Expected to Leave the
Profession in the Near Future

 

 

To make an appropriate estimation for teachers

needed in the future, one should know all possible

166

information related to the loss of teachers in the future.
One can get actual information on two kinds of loss of
teachers expected to happen in the near future. One Of
them is retirement. By law, a teacher has the right to
get a pension after 25 years of service. Therefore, to know
the number of teachers who may leave the profession for
pension in any year in the near future helps to take
necessary measures in advance. The other is a temporary
loss. Every male teacher should be drafted by the army

by the age of 31. Although this loss is compensated by
discharged teachers, there is a possibility of the number
of discharged teachers to be smaller than the number of
drafted teachers because of the time difference. In addi—
tion, the discharged teacher may not ask for a teaching
job at public schools. Therefore, the number of above
described teachers are counted by means of the following
equation:

Expected Loss of Teachers in

the Near Future
(Table 2, Columns 22 and 23)

K
TLi(n) = E [T25i’k(n) + TMi’k(n)] (47)
where

TL: number of teachers expected to leave teaching
in the near future,

167

T25: number of teachers with more than 25 years
of experience, and

TM: number of teachers who are not yet drafted

by the

army.

Shortage or Surplus of Teachers

 

DEFINITION:

where
D: number
S: number
Because need

of observed and best

-, surplus

D - S = 0, best supply

+, shortage

of needed teachers and
of supplied teachers.
for teachers was calculated in terms

utilization rates of teachers,

shortage or surplus of teachers is also calculated in the

same way, as follows:

Shortage or Surplus of Teachers

in Terms of Observed

Rates of Utilizations

(Table 2, Columns 20

SOi(n)

SSi(n)

where

TDOi(n) -

TDBi(n) -

and Best

and 21)

"MN

TTi k(n) (48)

k 1 ’

TTi,k(n) (49)

”MN

k 1

SO: number of shortage or surplus of teachers
in terms of observed rate of teacher
utilization,

168
SS: number of shortage or surplus of teachers in

terms of best rate of teacher utilization,

TDO: number of needed teachers in terms of
observed rate of teacher utilization as in
equation (45),

TDB: number of needed teachers in terms of best
rate of teacher utilization as in equation

(46), and

TT: number of supplied teachers.

Section 3

 

This section is devoted to the cost of secondary
education. Obviously, financial feasibility is a necessity
for implementation in education. For this reason, cost of
secondary education is included in the model, which is
expected to be used to facilitate decision making on plan-
ning and implementation for secondary education. This
section is prepared in five categories, as follows:

1. Cash expenditures,

2. Prorated cost,

3. Current cost,

4. Unit cost per student, and

5. Unit cost per class hour.

All values to be assigned to variables representing
cost in subsequent pages are in Turkish liras.

Cash Expenditures
(Table 3, Columns A, B, C, D)

 

Cash expenditure is the money paid for services

and for consumer goods. All possible cash expenditures

169

from the budget in the Turkish secondary school system are
included in four categories, as follows:

Salary for Professional Services

(Table 3, Column A)

Included in this part are teachers, school admin-
istrators, lay teachers, and school service personnel such
as doctors, psychologists, counselors, etc.

K I
SPS(n) = Z .2 [BSPi’k(n) + SHTi’k(n) + SLTi’k(n)
k=1 i=1
(50)

+ SESi,k(n)]

where
SPS: salary of professional manpower,
BSP: base salary of professional manpower,
SHT: honorarium,
SLT: salary of lay teachers, and
SES: salary for extra services such as workshop,

administration, etc., and other payments
such as children allowance, etc.

Salary for Nonprofessional
Services and Miscellaneous
Personnel Benefits
(Table 3, Column B)

In this part, salary for nonprofessional personnel,
such as clerks, employees, etc., and occasional personnel
benefits of professional and nonprofessional manpower,

such as medical treatment, etc., are included.

170

SNS(n)

II
II MN

[BSNk(n) + SEPk(n) + SPPk(n)] (51)

k 1

where

SNS: salary of nonprofessional manpower and all
occasional payments to all manpower,

BSN: base salary of nonprofessional manpower,

SEP: extra payments to nonprofessional personnel,
such as overtime, children allowance, etc.,
and

SPP: all occasional payments, such as medical

treatment, travel expenses, etc.

Cash Expenditures for School
Operation
(Table 3, Column C)
In this part, cash expenditures for all kinds of
needs for operation of schools except manpower are included.

Through the uses of the items in the budget law, the

(equation for general purposes is prepared, as follows:

K
CDS(n) = Z [cok(n) + CTk(n) + CVk(n) + CRk(n)
k=1
(52)

+ CMk(n) + CLk(n) + CEk(n) + CPk(n)]

where

CDS: cash expenditures for school operation exclud-
ing manpower (if there are boarding students
in the school, X in equation (53) should be
used as a multiplier for the equation),

CO: cost of utility, such as electricity, etc.,

171

CT: cost of transportation and communication,
CV: cost of vehicle,
CR: cost of renting,
CM: cost of material,
CL: cost of library,
CE: miscellaneous cost, and
CP: cost of minor repairs.
Cash Expenditures for Boarding
Facilities
(Table 3, Column D)

The above equation can be used for a school without
boarding students. If the school has boarding students,
however, there is no direct way to separate certain kinds
of costs common to both educational services and boarding
facilities, such as electricity, water, heating, etc.
However, one can make an approximate separation by estab-
lishing a base in terms of experiences, or uses of practiced
ways in preparation of the budget, or of any appropriate
representative cases. In any case, a means is needed to
separate the costs for educational services and for board-
ing facilities. The following equation is prepared to
facilitate separation of educational costs from the whole
cost, including the boarding facilities. As the multiplier
of the operation cost, the equation is correct whether or
not the school has boarding students. Therefore, it is

used as a regular multiplier in calculation for the

172

operation cost without a need for the check statement in
the cOmputer program. The equation for the multiplier is
as follows:

K K
X(n) = 1/ [1 + [ 2 58 (n)) / 2 ST (n)] * c (53)

_ k _ k

k—l k—l

where

x: parameter for separating boarding expenses
from the melded school Operation cost,

SB: number of boarding students,

ST: number<xfall students as in equation (31),
and

C: constant representing the proportion Of
board expenses.

Notice that if the school has no boarding student,
SB = 0, then X = 1. Then, being an identity element for
the multiplication, (X) does not change the product. Hence,
cash expenditure for boarding facilities can be calculated

by means'of the following equation:

CBO(n) = kgl [CFk(n) + CCk(n) + CAk(n] + (l - x) * CD8 (54)
where
CBO: cash expenditure on boarding facilities,
CF: cost of food,
CC: cost of clothes,

CA: allowance to students,

173
X: a parameter as in equation (53), and
CDS: cash expenditure for school operation as in

equation (52).

Prorated Cost

 

Included in prorated cost are investments in
buildings, durable goods, and training professional manpower.
Since it is a public asset virtually unlimited in expected
productive life, building sites were not included in the
prorated cost for school plants.

Obviously, to calculate prorated cost, investment
costs should be known. However, in the Turkish system,
one can hardly obtain real data on investment in education.
Nevertheless, possible ways for approximated calculation
for investment under given circumstances are employed here.

New school buildings are built by the Ministry of
Public Works. School administrators and even the Ministry
of Education are not regularly informed as to the cost Of
building. In fact, in the Turkish system, records are
seldom kept concerning school construction costs. There-
fore, to include the cost of building in a data-gathering
questionnaire would not be helpful under present circum—
stances. Consequently, use of the unit cost schedule
established by the State Planning Organization to calculate
construction costs was assumed to be a more dependable and

feasible procedure than requesting information from school

174

administrators. The list of cost schedules is given in
Table 10.

As for the durable goods, they have not been
allocated precisely on the basis of unit costs. Since
the amount of money in the budget is usually less than the
actual need, the allocation to schools is in turn less
than the requirement of the established unit cost. The
real data on the cost of durable goods can be collected
directly from schools.

To update the estimated investment cost, which is
calculated on the basis of the purchasing power of the
currency when the unit cost was established or when the
item was purchased, a multiplier is included in the equa-
tion as the money adjustment rate.

Calculations and explanations for the three kinds

of investment costs are as follows below.

Investment Cost of Buildings
In the budget laws, repair and restoration expenses
of buildings are not counted as investment unless they

75 Regular repair or

exceed two million Turkish liras.
restoration cost of school buildings does not exceed such
an amount of money. Therefore, repair and restoration

costs were not included in investment except for annexing

new buildings to create additional capacity.

 

75Republic of Turkey, National Budget Law of 1971
Fiscal Year, p. 469.

 

 

175

TABLE 10--Cost Schedule Per Student by Educational Level

Established by State Planning Organization. i.)

(At 1965 prices)

 

 

 

menmhxal
Butkflng Equument
mezthxud :Uwesbmxm. ImmeMment Wardraufl. (28h
I to<hx£me to<hxate' Resunatnxl Enxmdumre
Esaflflis t Cmguflty Capxfity InmaMIsmt (Perluwm)
(1) (1) (3) (4)

Saxmmny'Sflnoha
(General) 8 2,000 300 50 1,000
HRfiiSdhxfls
(General) 2 2,500 500 70 1,250
Technical Schools: 4,500 4,750 300 2,000
Tbmfluanrahung
Schools : 7,500 1,500 150 3,500
Prhmuy“n§mmer
Training Schools : 6,000 1,250 125 2,000
Higher Education

a. Technical : 7,500 7,500 400 8,000

b. Medicine : 6,000 5,000 400 5,000

(3. Agriculture : 6,000 5,500 400 5,000

d.(Nher : 4,000 1,500 300 3,500

 

(”)

State Planning Organization, Prime Ministry, Republic of
Turkey, Second Five Year DevelOpment Plan, 1968 - 1972,

Ankara,

1969, p.

198.

176

The accepted operational rationale for calcula—
tion of estimated cumulative cost Of construction was as
follows:

The desired and suggested class size of the Turkish
secondary school system is forty students. Established
unit cost of construction was counted as one classroom for
forty students, although Observed class sizes were not like
this. Then the number of classrooms became the basis for
the construction cost. Since it is sometimes a misleading
matter, number of classrooms was not requested from schools.
It was calculated through requesting the number of class
sections and the shifting status of the school.

As to the boarding houses, the investment is calcu-
lated through multiplying the number of boarding students
and the established unit cost.

Equations for approximated calculations for school

buildings and boarding houses are prepared as follows:

K
ISB(n) = [ 2 csk(n) / Zk(n) * USIk(n-a)] * Q * R (55)
k=1
K
IBB(n) = [ Z SBk(n) * UBIk(n - a)] * R (56)
k=1
where

ISB: estimated investment of Turkish liras in
school buildings,

CS: number of class sections,

177

Z: shifting status of the school,
USI: unit cost of construction of school buildings,
n-a: the year in which unit cost was established,

Q: class size considered in establishing unit
cost of construction,

R: adjustment rate of currency,

IBB: estimated investment of Turkish liras in
boarding houses,

SB: number of boarding students, and

UBI: unit cost of construction of boarding houses.

Investment Cost Of Durable Goods

Calculations for durable goods is expected to be
done on the basis of collected data. Therefore, one
expects the recorded value of durable goods is the actual
price of the purchase. Accepted lifetime for durable goods
is in general ten years. Then, assuming the purchase of
durable goods is equally scattered over ten years, one may
consider the value of all durable goods is recorded in the
purchasing power of the money in the middle of the previous
ten years, i.e., five years prior to the collection of
data. The adjustment rate of currency is defined in terms
of the currency five years before the data collection.
Equations for investment costs of durable goods are as

follows:

ISE(n) =
k

"haw

1 SEk(n) * R (57)

178

K
IBE(n) = 2 BE (n) * R (58)
_ k
k—l
where
.ISE: actual value of school equipment,

SE: recorded value of school equipment,
R: adjustment rate of currency,

IBE: actual value of boarding school equipment,
and

BE: recorded value Of boarding school equipment.

Investment Cost of Professional
Manpower

Professional manpower for education is trained in
public schools. In addition, a great majority of the man-
power is trained as boarding students. This implies that
training of educational manpower is an investment Of public
funds similar to any investment for production. Therefore,
expenditures on training manpower are counted as invest-
ment. However, the cost of general education (i.e., the
higher education of secondary school teachers and other
professional personnel such as administrators, counselors,
psychologists, doctors, etc.) is not included in the
investment cost here.

As for the cost Of training professional personnel,
the unit cost for the school as in Table 10 and the time
period of the school are the bases of calculation for

investment. Twenty-five years is considered as the

179

amortization period of investment because a teacher or
other professional personnel acquires the right for pen-
sion after completion of 25 years of service. Therefore,
professional personnel with more than 25 years of service
should not be included in the calculation for prorated cost.
Then the equation for investment cost Of training profes-

sional personnel is as follows:

IPP(n)

H
A
“My:
IIMH

1[Ppi,k(n) - PP25i’k(n)]*UPIi’k(n)]*R (59)

where

IPP: investment in training professional personnel,
' in Turkish liras,

PP: number of professional personnel including
teachers, administrators, and school service
personnel,

PP25: number of professional personnel with more
than 25 years of experience,

UPI: unit cost Of training professional personnel,
and
R: adjustment rate Of currency.

Calculation for Prorated Cost

 

Prorated cost is the accepted yearly depreciation
(or amortization) rate Of value Of investment. The legal
way in bookkeeping is to include prorated cost in the
cost of production or service requiring capital. Therefore,
in calculation for cost of secondary education, to include

prorated cost, not investment cost, is necessary. However,

180

one may use investment cost to facilitate estimation in
making plans for the future. In this study, prorated
costs were included in calculation for the cost of second-
ary schools through utilization of the following equations:
Prorated Cost of School
Facilities
(Table 3, Column E)

Prorated cost of school buildings and durable

goods used for education (not for boarding) are included

in calculation for prorated cost Of school facilities.

PSF(n) = ISE(n) * AB + ISE(n) * AB (60)

where

PSF: prorated cost of school facilities in
Turkish liras,

ISB: estimated investment in school buildings as
in equation (55),

AB: depreciation (amortization) rate of buildings

ISE: actual value of school equipment as in
equation (57), and

AE: depreciation (amortization) rate of durable

goods.

Prorated Cost of Professional
Manpower
(Table 3, Column F)
Estimated expenditure of higher education for

professional manpower is included in calculation for pro-

rated cost of professional manpower.

181

PPP(n) = IPP(n) * AP (61)

where
PPP: prorated cost of professional manpower,

IPP: estimated expenditure on training profes-
sional manpower as in equation (59), and

AP: estimated amortization rate of investment

in training professional manpower.

Prorated Cost of Boarding
Facilities
(Table 3, Column G)
Estimated cost of construction of boarding houses
and actual value of durable goods used for boarding stu-

dents are included in calculation for prorated cost of

boarding facilities.

PBF(n) = IBB(n) * AB + IBB(n) * AB (62)
where
PBF: prorated cost Of investment in boarding
facilities,
IBB: estimated investment in construction Of

boarding houses as in equation (56),
AB: amortization rate Of buildings,

IBE: actual value of boarding equipment as in
equation (58), and

AE: amortization rate of durable goods.

Current Cost

 

Current cost includes cost of consumption that is

composed of cash expenditures and prorated costs. Equations

182

were prepared to facilitate calculation for current costs
of secondary education, as follows:

Current Cost Of Educational

Services

(Table 3, Column H)

Current cost Of educational services is composed
of salary of professional and nonprofessional manpower and
all other payments to school personnel, cash expenditures
for school Operation, and prorated costs of investments in
school buildings, school durable goods, and training pro-

fessional manpower.

CCE(n) = SPS(n) + SNS(n) + CDS(n) + PSF(n) + PPP(n) (63)

where
CCE: current cost of educational services,

SPS: salary of professional manpower as in
equation (50),

SNS: salary of nonprofessional manpower and all
occasional payments to all manpower as in
equation (51),

CD8: cash expenditures for school Operation as
in equation (52),

PSF: prorated cost of school facilities as in
equation (60), and

PPP: prorated cost of training professional
manpower as in equation (61).

183

Current Cost of Boarding
Facilities
(Table 3, Column I)
Included in current cost of boarding facilities
are prorated cost of boarding houses and durable goods for

boarding services, and cash expenditures spent on boarding

facilities.

CCE(n) = CBO(n) + PBF(n) (64)
where
CCB: current cost of boarding services,
CBO: cash expenditures on boarding facilities as
in equation (54), and
PBF: prorated cost of investment in boarding
facilities as in equation (62).
Unit Cost

 

Unit cost is one of the essential Criteria for com-
parisons, evaluations, and cost analysis of the educational
enterprise. Included in this section are unit costs per

student and per class hour.

Unit Cost Per Student
Unit cost per student was calculated in terms of
educational and boarding services separately. Equations

for unit cost per student are as follows:

184

Unit cost of educational services per student

 

(Table 3, column J).—-

K
UES(n) = CCE(n) / E STk(n) (65)
k=1

where

UES: unit cost of educational services per stu-
dent,

ST: number of all students as in equation (31),
and

CCE: current cost of educational services as in
equation (63).

Unit cost of boarding services per student (Table 3,

 

column K).--

K
UBS(n) = CCE(n) / 2 SBk(n) (66)
k=1
where

UBS: unit cost of boarding services per student,

CCB: current cost Of boarding services as in
equation (64), and

SB: number of boarding students.

Unit Cost Per Class Hour

One may calculate unit cost per class hour in terms
of either the proportions of constituent costs (such as
teaching activities, school Operation, and prorated cost)

or the fields or the group of fields, or both. In this

185

study, equations were prepared to calculate average cost
for one hour of courses in terms of cash expenditures on
professional manpower, school operation, and prorated
cost, and on average.cost of teaching manpower per hour of

selected groups of courses.

Average cost for one hour of courses (Table 3,

 

columns L, M, N).--

K I
UCT(n) = SPS(n) / l 1 X HPi k(n)] * W(n) (67)
k=1 i=1 '
. K I
UCO(n) = [CDS(n) + SNS(n)] / [ Z Z HP. k(n)] * W(n) (68)
k=1 i=1 1'
K I
UCP(n) = PSF(n) / [ 2 2 HP. k(n)] * W(n) (69)
k=1 i=1 1'
where

UCT: average cost of teaching activities per hour,
UCO: average cost of school operation per hour,
UCP: average prorated cost per hour,

HP: weekly produced class hours as in equation
(34).

SPS: salary of professional manpower as in
equation (50),

W: number of weeks in the school year,

CDS: cash expenditure for school operation as in
equation (52),

SNS: salary of nonprofessional manpower and all
occasional payments to all manpower as in
equation (51), and

186

PSF: prorated cost of educational services as
in equation (60).

Average cost of teaching manpower per hour Of

 

selected group of courses (Table 3, columns 0, P, Q, R).--

 

Since selected courses are grouped, the index i
for fields is not apprOpriate and a new notation to replace

i" is needed here. For this reason, p" is used to refer
to groups Of courses and "m" to refer to fields in the
groups. The equation to calculate average cost of teaching

manpower per hour of a selected group of courses is as

follows:
K M K M J
UCH (n) = X X BST (n)/[ 2 X 2 [HP . (n)]*W(n)
p k=1 m=1 p'm'k k=1 m=1 j=l P'm'J'k
(70)

m = l, 2, ..., M O < M < 7

p = 1, 2, ..., P O < P < 5
where

UCM: average unit cost of teaching manpower per

hour,
BST: yearly salary of teachers,

HP: weekly produced class hours as in equation
(34).

W: number of weeks in the school year
m: corresponds tO fields in groups,

p: corresponds to each of the groups,

187

p = l: humanities (Turkish and the social subjects
in the first cycle and Turkish literature,
history, and geography in the second cycle),

p = 2: mathematics and sciences (mathematics and
general science in the first cycle and
mathematics,physics,chemistry, and biology
in the second cycle),

p = 3: foreign languages (English, French, and
German in both cycles), and

p = 4: courses of skill (music, physical education,
drawing, and handicraft in both cycles).
Summary

In the Turkish education system, the procedure for
recording, collecting and processing data is not adequate
to answer today's needs. To improve present procedure
and to convert it into a modern and computerized information
system is not an easy job, even when the authorities intend
to do so. Nevertheless, it is not feasible any longer to
defer adopting scientific approaches to the solution of
educational problems, waiting until a modernized information
system has been realized. Instead, we should start now
utilizing scientific techniques and struggling for solutions
with whatever information is obtainable under present cir-
cumstances. This very struggle is expected to help achieve
improvements, not only for education itself, but also for
the development of needed information system in education.

Two main things were taken into consideration in
developing the descriptive model presented in Part 2 of

this chapter. First, all variables which were perceived

188

to be needed in dealing with the problem under concern were
included in the model, regardless of whether or not related
data were obtainable. Second, where data were unobtainable,
equations (which would be unnecessary otherwise) were
included in the model in order to calculate estimated
values for those variables for which data were either irre-
trievable or not regularly recorded.

The model was applied to the province of Eskisehir.
An English version of the questionnaires which were mailed
to secondary school directors and teachers is included in
Appendix A. Collected data was evaluated and tabulated by
computer. Three kinds of tables related to each of 21
municipalities in the province and to the province as a
whole are included in Appendix B. Notes in parentheses
immediately under headlines above for the descriptive
model refer to the title number of the table and to the
column(s) in that table in Appendix B, as related to the
equation(s) below the headlines.

The model, which was applied in this case to a
single province, may also be utilized for an individual
school, or for any of the other 66 provincescxfthe country
as well. The expected use of the model is to provide as
accurately as possible information related to the need and
supply of secondary school teachers, so that (a) needed

parameters for a simulation model for planning or for

189

other studies may be obtained, and so that (b) current
actual situations can be discovered promptly and kept up
to date. Results obtained from an initial pilot applica—

tion of the model are presented in the next chapter.

CHAPTER VI

EVALUATION OF FINDINGS IN THE

APPLICATION OF THE MODEL

Introduction

 

As was mentioned in Chapter I, the model presented
in Part 2 of Chapter V was applied to the province of
Eskisehir which has all kinds of variables included in the
model. Because the province was selected on a nonrandom
basis, findings in utilization of the model for Eskisehir
should not be generalized for Turkey.

Findings were interpreted with the assumption
that data input to computer has no error except chance
error. Since the essential aim is to demonstrate the
utilization of the model, any undesired or unexpected
error due to the original sources or to the process of
transferring data from questionnaires to punch cards are
not a matter of concern in this study. However, if the
model is to be used to evaluate the state of the system,
it will be essential to assure dependability of data

input to computer.

190

191

Geographic and Demographic Circumstances
of the Province

 

 

Eskisehir is one of the inner provinces immediately
west of Ankara. According to the census of 1970 the popu-
lation of the province was 463,458, which is 1.3 percent
of the entire population of the country. As to the popu-
lation of secondary school students, the number was 26,679,
i.e., 1.9 percent of the entire student population of the
country in the 1971-1972 school year. This implies that
the school attendance rate at the secondary level is some-
what higher in this province than the average for the
country.

Taking administrative divisions and demographic
characteristics into consideration, municipalities with
secondary school in the province can be classified in three
groups: city, town, and village. In terms of these three
groups, figures related to the pOpulation and students may
be tabulated as shown in Table 11. Implications of this
table are that (a) a sizable portion of the population
resides in rural areas, and (b) the opportunity for second-
ary education for children in the rural areas appears to be

drastically less than for the urban children.

192

TABLE ll.--Groups of Municipalities With Their Demographic
Characteristics in the Province of Eskisehir.

 

 

 

 

City Town Village Total
NufifiiIcigalities l 7 13 21
21.2.??? ”(£33 21.233? ($3.38?
Number of students* €3582? (1553) 16?:? (13050?

 

*Figures in parentheses refer to percentages.

The findings in the printouts (see Appendix B)76
will be discussed and evaluated in terms of need and supply
of secondary school core subject teachers. The word
"demand" in the printout tables was used interchangeably

with the word "need."

Procedures for Collecting and
Processing Data

 

 

Data collection was carried out in a manner
similar to that by which the Ministry of Education regularly

collects its data. Forms for requested data were mailed

 

76Only the tables for the largest municipality,
Eskisehir, and one small municipality, Bozan, plus the
aggregate tables for the province as a whole are presented
in Appendix B, simply to illustrate the form in which the
data were rendered in the printouts. Complete data are
on file in the Planning, Research, and Coordination Office
of the Turkish National Ministry of Education.

193

to all of Eskisehir's 42 secondary schools, to be filled
out by teachers and school directors so as to represent
the circumstances on May 2, 1972. Completed forms from
all schools except one were received in six weeks. After
coding the itemsin the forms, the data were transformed
to punch cards and processed through an IBM 360 digital
computer at the Middle East Technical University in
Ankara. ‘English and Turkish versions of the forms and
their directions are included in Appendix A. A few items
included in the forms were neither needed nor used in
this study. However, they were included in the forms
assuming that, if needed, further studies related to the
scope of this study might be facilitated.

Using collected data through utilizing the mathe-
matical mOdel presented in the preceding chapter, three
kinds of tables were obtained from the computer for each
individual school and for the municipalities as well.

Corresponding to the number of municipalities with
secondary schools, the tables were numbered from 1 to 21
and number 22 was given to the tables for aggregate calcu-
lations for the province as a whole. For example, the
numbers 1-5, 2-5, and 3-5 at the tOp of tables refer to
the three kinds of tables for the same municipality,
"GUNDUZLER," which was numbered 5. Explanations for
headings and columns of the three kinds Of tables were

added to the beginning of Appendix B.

 

1 ‘.ll 1"

 

1 . 1"..- II! I In I

194

The three kinds of tableszflmreach municipality
were arranged as follows:

Table 1 includes data on produced class hours and
how they are supplied. Numbers of all students, boarding
students, and class sections in the province were printed
over the tables.

Table 2 includes data on need and supply of
teachers and related information. Ratios of student/
teacher, teacher/class section, and student/class section
were printed over the tables.

Table 3 was devoted to the cost analysis.

Tabulations and calculations for each kind of table

were carried out as follows.

Table l

Produced class hours and teachers assigned to
these class hours were included in Table 1. Since subject
matter and fields of teachers do not entirely correspond,
the table could not be arranged so as to use the same
code numbers for fields of teachers in the rows and subject
matter in the columns. For example, physics courses were
included in column 25, whereas there are three types of
teachers certified to teach physics: (1) mathematics—
physics, (2) physics, and (3) physics-chemistry, which
were included in rows 22, 24, and 25, respectively. Thus,

if the number of class hours of a particular course and

195

the type of teachers assigned to teach that course is the
concern, the column devoted to that course in Table 1
should be examined. If utilization of a particular type
of teacher, i.e., teaching assignment of the teacher in
his certified and/or uncertified fields, is the concern,
the row devoted to that particular type Of teacher in

Table 1 should be examined.

Table 2

Need, supply and utilization of teachers were
included in Table 2 by using data from the corresponding
Table ls.

As was mentioned before, since fields of teachers
and subject matter in the curriculum do not correspond, a
few courses and fields of teachers were grouped to facili-
tate calculations for Table 2. For example, there are
physics-mathematics and physics-chemistry teachers in
addition to the teachers qualified to teach any single one
of these courses. Therefore, to include these three courses
(physics, mathematics and chemistry) and their certified
teachers into one broad subject, such as science, facili-
tates calculations. This kind of arrangement was done for
Table 2.

When this study was carried out, compulsory teach-
ing hours of teachers were three hours more than as

presented in Table 9 on page 161. For this reason, one

196

expects that calculations for needed numbers of teachers
in this study may differ somewhat from calculations under
present circumstances.

In the calculation for needed numbers of teachers,
equations (45) and (46) on page 165 were used. For the
purpose of explanation, those equations may be simplified

in one equation, as follows:

X/Y + A = Needed number of teachers

where
X: corresponds to the number of course hours to
be taught by teachers without administrative
duty,

Y: corresponds to the teaching load in number of
course hours. For the best utilization of
teachers, numbers assigned to Y were 23 in
the second cycle and 26 in the first cycle.

A: A constant to properly round the calculated
number of needed teachers. In this study,

A = .65. This means that one teacher is
counted for over 7 hours in the second cycle
_ and 8 hours in the first cycle.

In the calculation for needed teachers, the follow-
ing assumption was taken into consideration:

The circumstances in terms of the number Of admin-
istrators and of their teaching loads will not significantly
change during the school year.

Thus, numbers of needed teachers and of shortage

of teachers were calculated through counting only those

teachers without administrative duty. This calculation was

197

preferred because the assumption reflects, more or less,
the real world and there is not a stable ratio between
number of teachers with and without administrative duty.
The preferred way of calculation seemed to be more prac-
tical and reliable in terms of establishing a basis to
estimate needed teachers. Then one may add the number of
administrators to the estimated number of teachers if

needed.

Table 3

Cost analysis of secondary education is presented
in Table 3. All kinds of expenditures, except for prorated
costs of school plants and trained professional manpower,
were calculated on the basis Of collected data from schools.
The mentioned prorated costs were calculated on the basis
of the unit.cost presented in Table 10 on page 175. Thus
variations of unit costs among schools are the results of
varying rates of teacher supply, stock of durable goods,

and financial provisions, and average class sizes as well.

Evaluation of Findings

 

One may evaluate and use the findings from the
application of the model for varying purposes. As was
mentioned before, the ultimate purpose of this study was
to demonstrate a scientific method and tool in order to
facilitate effective approaches in coping with the nation-

wide chronic problem of core subject teacher supply in

198

the Turkish secondary school system. An adequately
scientific tool should be able to provide realistically
approximate answers to at least the following five
questions:
1. What are the present circumstances (the
existing state of the system) from which
to start approaching the solution of the

problem?

2. What may be the trends of the problem
throughout the future period of concern?

3. What criteria may be used to facilitate
realistic nationwide aggregate approxi-
mations of the need for teachers in the
future?

4. What may be the financial aspect of and,
if they exist, the economical benefits
from each of several alternative solu-
tions of the problem?

5. What may be the means and/or tools to
follow up and evaluate the results of
implementation in terms of the goals
throughout the period of concern?

An answer to the first question is expected to
be obtained through application of the model presented
in Part 2 in Chapter V. This answer also facilitates
obtaining an answer to the fifth question by comparing
the findings with estimated goals in the concerned year.
Answers to the second, third, and fourth questions may be

obtained by means of scientific and realistic evaluations of

the answers to the first question throughout the domain Of

199

years. Answers to questions three and four require one
also to employ a mathematical model similar to the one
presented in Part 1 in Chapter V. It may be repeated that
(a) this study was devoted only to the quantitative aspects
of the problem, (b) the models presented in this study
are open to modifications or changes whenever they may be
needed, and (c) the method presented in this study should
not be counted as the only feasible approach to solve the
problem.

Findings in the present application of the model
for the province of Eskisehir are briefly reviewed in
order to search for a province-wide answer to the first
question. This answer contains, as it should, information
on the state of the system on May 2, 1972, in terms Of
(a) need and supply of teachers and (b) the cost of second-

ary education.

Need and Supply Of Teachers

 

Need and supply of teachers are defined by (a) pro-
duced class hours, (b) available teachers, and (c) the
rate of teacher utilization. The first two variables are
defined by long-range decisions by the central Ministry
of Education and are not subject to manipulation during the
implementation. The third variable, however, is manipulated
by means of administrative decisions at two levels. First,

the central Ministry Of Education is responsible for

200

assigning available teachers to schools. Second, the local
administration is responsible for assigning classes to
teachers under existing conditions. Therefore, the imme-
diate benefit from the application of the model may be
obtained by examining the rate of teacher utilization,
which affects the rate of teacher supply, which in turn
eventually affects the number of needed teachers.

Table Zs are used for this purpose, as follows:

In Table 23, the estimated numbers of needed
teachers for each field in terms of observed and Optimal
rates of teacher utilization are included in Columns 18
and 19, respectively. Then, the differences between the
numbers of needed and supplied teachers are included in
Columns 20 and 21. (Number of supplied teachers is the
sum of the numbers in Columns 10 and 11.) In other words,
shortage of teachers in terms of observed and optimal
rate of utilization are included in Columns 20 and 21,
respectively. As was explained in connection with equation
(47) in Chapter V, the meaning of the results in the cal-
culation for the shortage of teachers would be "satisfactory"
for zero, "shortage" for plus numbers, and "surplus" for
minus numbers.

In order to illustrate how to use the tables and
how to interpret the findings, the circumstances related

to science teachers will be discussed here. First,

201

however, the following fact in the real world should be
taken into consideration:

On the one hand, the first cycle teachers are not
formally certified to teach at the second cycle. On the
other hand, they are permitted to teach at the second
cycle because of the chronic shortage of second cycle
teachers. In rare instances, the opposite practice may
also be observed. In calculation for Columns 18 and 19 in
Table 23, formal certification of teachers rather than the
above mentioned practice was counted. This may affect
the calculated number of needed teachers in terms of
observed rate of teacher utilization. However, in spite
of this inconvenience, which may be eliminated through
using Table ls, this calculation was preferred because
(a) to teach at the other cycle does not change the certi-
fication status of teachers and (b) the actual character-
istics of the stock of teachers should be known. To include
both the theoretical and practical situations in one line
would create a Space problem in the printouts.

Now the findings in terms of need and supply of
science teachers in the province Of Eskisehir may be
evaluated as follows:

Review of Columns 20 and 21, and Rows 2 and 18 in
Table 25 indicate that schools of eight municipalities

among 21 have problems of either supply or utilization of

202

science teachers. This situation may be tabulated as shown
in Table 12.

Code numbers of municipalities in this table are
the numbers shown with the table numbers on the printouts.

Subtotal 1 in Table 12 for the first four munici-
palities implies that the needed additional numbers of
science teachers are 11 at the first cycle and 41 at the
second cycle, in terms of the observed rate of teacher
utilization. At the same time, there is an excess of 14
teachers for the first cycle, while 37 additional teachers
are needed for the second cycle, in terms of optimal
rate of teacher utilization.

Since these four municipalities have second cycle
level schools, 14 of the first cycle teachers are likely
or may be available to teach also at the second cycle.
Indeed, looking at Table ls for the same municipalities,
Rows 4, 5, and 6 (first cycle science teachers) and
Columns 23, 25, and 26 (second cycle science courses)
indicates that first cycle science teachers do teach science
courses at the second cycle. Hence, assuming the 14 first
cycle teachers are fully utilized at the second cycle, and
subtracting 14 from 41 and 37, the results will be 27 and
23, respectively. After this calculation, one may conclude
that the calculated shortage Of teachers is 11 at the first
cycle and 27 at the second cycle in terms of Observed rate

of teacher utilization. In terms Of Optimal rate of teacher

203

TABLE 12.--Teacher Supply and Utilization Problems Occurring in Eight
Municipalities in the Province of Eskisehir.

 

Shortage of Teachers in

 

 

M . . . . , . .

unlelpalltles Observed Utilization
Code Name First Second
NO.* Cycle CYCle

Shortage of Teachers in

Optimal Utilization

 

First Second
Cycle Cycle

 

A. Municipalities With First and Second Cycle Schools.

 

 

 

 

l Eskisehir 8 31 —12 28
11 Mahmudiye l 3 -l 3
l2 Mihaliccik 1 4 0 3
l9 Sivrihisar l 3 —l 3

Subtotal 1 ll 41 -14 37
B. Municipalities With Onlprirst Cycle Schools.

2 Inonu O -— -1 --

6 Muttalip 0 -- —1 --

8 Kayi 2 —- -l --
13 Beylikahir 1 -- O --

Subtotal 2 3 0 -3 --
Grand Total 14 41 -17 37

 

*Code numbers of municipalities are the
the table numbers on the printouts.

numbers shown with

204

utilization, however, the numbers of shortage of teachers
are zero for the first cycle and 23 for the second cycle.
One may summarize that the numbers of needed science
teachers at both first and second cycles are 38 in terms
of observed and 23 in terms of Optimal rate Of teacher
utilization in the four municipalities. The difference
between the two numbers is 15. That is, at the observed
rate of teacher utilization, there is a loss of teaching
manpower equivalent to 15 teachers in the field of sciences.

As to the four municipalities with only first
cycle schools, Subtotal 2 in Table 2 implies that the
schools are under-supplied by 3 teachers in terms of
observed rate and over—supplied by 3 teachers in terms Of
optimal rate of teacher utilization. Thus, the loss of
teaching manpower is equivalent to 6 teachers in the
observed rate of teacher utilization. Together with the
first four schools, the loss of teaching manpower is
equivalent to 21 teachers in the field of sciences in the
province.

Obviously, the cells constituted by Columns 20 and
21, Rows 2 and 18 in Table 2-22 in Appendix B include the
same figures as in the corresponding cells in the Grand
Totals in Table 12 above. Therefore, Table 2-22, which
was prepared for the province as a whole, seems to be
sufficient to examine the situation in terms of the need

and supply and the utilization of teachers for an aggregate

205

conclusion. However, one notices a difference relating

to the loss of teaching manpower in observed rate of
teacher utilization as between the aggregate and disaggre-
gate conclusions, as follows:

In the disaggregate conclusion, municipalities
with and without second cycle secondary schools were
counted separately and the calculated loss of teaching
manpower was equivalent to 21 teachers in both cycles.

The similar conclusion derived from the aggregate tabula-
tion is that the figure for the loss is 18. This is because
the number for excess first cycle science teachers is 17
in the aggregate tabulation, which does not include a
separate calculation for the first and second cycles, as
was done in the disaggregate calculation. Subtracting
this number 17 from 14 plus 41 and from 37 the results

are 38 and 20. Hence the difference between these two
numbers; i.e., the calculated loss of teaching manpower

in the observed rate of teacher utilization is found to be
18 in the aggregate calculation, instead of 21 as in the
disaggregate calculation. In any case, the calculated
base figures to represent the state of the system are the
same in both aggregate and disaggregate calculations.

All in all, terms of approximating the actual
state of the system, nothing is lost in using the aggregate
tabulation to examine the need, supply, and utilization of

teachers in the province.

206

Implications of Table 13

 

Table 13 examines the state of the system in terms
of need, supply, and utilization of secondary school core
subject teachers in the province at the given time.

Table 2 in the printouts and Table 13, below, were
arranged to facilitate examining the situation of teacher
supply and utilization in terms of the school levels for
which core subject teachers are in practice formally cate-
gorized into three groups. These groups were separated
from one another by code numbers 4, 12, and 20 in Table 2
and by partial totals numbered from 1 to 3 in Table 13.

As explained before, because certified fields
of teachers and courses actually taught at schools do not
entirely correspond to each other, some of the courses and
fields of teachers listed in Table 7 are presented in broad
fields in Table 2, in order to avoid Space problems and an
unncessary and impractical tabulation in the printouts.
Table 13 includes data from Table 2-22 in Appendix B.

In Table 13, the numbers of supplied teachers
excluding administrators are included in Column (4).
Needed numbers of teachers in terms of observed and Optimal
rates of teacher utilization are included in Columns (5)
and (6), respectively. Numbers in Columns (7) and (8) are
the differences between numbers in Columns (5) and (4),
and (6) and (4), respectively. In Columns (5) and (6) a

minus number means an over—supply of teachers (surplus)

207

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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208

and a plus number means an additional need for teachers
(shortage). Column (9) includes numbers of teachers with
seniority, i.e., with 25 or more years of experience, who
are expected to leave the profession in the near future.

New, without becoming involved in disaggregate
evaluation, one may draw certain implications from Table
13 in terms of need and supply of teachers as follows:

1. The first group of fields: Fields in the

 

first group are exclusively for the first cycle level of
general secondary schools. However, teachers for this
group may be allowed to teach in their field at the second
cycle.

The shortages of teachers in humanities seems to
be 32 and 6 in terms of observed and optimal rates of
teacher utilization, respectively. It means at first
glance that under-utilized teaching manpower in humanities
is equivalent to 26 teachers (the difference between 32
and 6).

Looking at Column 13 and Table 2—22 one sees that
the overall average teaching load is 26.6 hours a week,
i.e., .6 hours more than the established criterion in
calculation for this group of fields. But since the
average load in the humanities field is 20.3 hours (see
Column 15 in Table 2-22), the calculation implies an
under-utilization of teachers in humanities. The difference

between 26.6 and 20.3 (i.e., 6.3 hours of teaching load)

209

may include, however, courses in teachers' field taught

at the second cycle of schools. Insofar as this is so,

the difference should not be counted as an under-utilization
of teachers. There are 13 teachers with seniority in
humanities.

In the same manner, the field of Science 1-
Mathematics 1 seems to be over-supplied by 17 teachers in
terms of optimal utilization and under-supplied by 14
teachers in terms of the observed rate of teacher utiliza-
tion. Again, teachers in these fields may (as in fact
they are) be utilized at the second cycle of schools.

Four teachers have seniority in this field.

The actual situation in utilization of teachers in
the above two fields may be further discerned through
using Table l of the printouts and this will be done
later. As for the field of religion, the calculated
overall average teaching load is 22.8 hours. The load is
18.3 hours in the teachers' field. .As seen in Table 13,
the course is exclusive to the first cycle and additional
numbers of needed teachers is 5 in terms of observed and
l in terms of Optimal rates of teacher utilization. Hence,
there exists loss of teaching manpower equivalent to 4
teachers in this field.

2. The second group of fields: The second group

 

of fields exists at both first and second cycle levels of

schools. Teachers for this group are allowed to teach at

210

both cycles of schools. Examining the figures in the same
manner as above, one can conclude that observed and optimal
rates of teacher utilization are very close to each other
in the fields in the second group. Table 13 as well as
Column 15 in Table 2-22 in Appendix B implies that:

(a) Except in the case of French and German,
teachers for the fields in the second group
are under-supplied in varying degrees.

(b) There exists some under—utilization of teachers
in the fields of English, French and Home
Economics.

(c) The rate of teacher utilization is equal to the
established criteria in Handicraft-Drawing and
higher than the expected rate of teacher utiliza-
tion in the fields of German, physical education,
and Music.

Looking at the total for the fields in both cycles
the total supplied number of teachers is approximately
two-thirds of needed teachers in the second group. The
shortage of teachers is about half of the need in the
fields of physical eduation, Handicraft-Drawing, and
Music. The total number of teachers with seniority is 8
in this group.

It may be noticed that in more than half of the
municipalities no teacher is counted for more than half
of the fields in.the second group, and beCause of that the
number of weekly course hours in the fields is too small

to count a teacher on the basis Of the established criteria.

3. The third group of fields: Fields in this

 

group are exclusive to the second cycle level Of secondary

211

schools. Geography, history, and biology teachers are
over-supplied and, in turn, under-utilized. A large
shortage (more than 50 percent of need) Occurs in the
fields of Turkish Literature and Science 2-Mathematics 2.
One may observe an under-utilization of teachers at varying
rates in every field except Turkish Literature. In terms
of totals, the number of supplied teachers in the third
group is 109, whereas the number of needed teachers is 174
in terms of observed and 155 in terms of optimal rates of
teacher utilization, respectively. In other words, the
number of supplied teachers is about 63 percent and

70 percent of calculated numbers of teachers in terms of
observed and optimal rates Of teacher utilization,
respectively. The total number of teachers with seniority
in the third group is 4.

In terms of grand totals, one may Observe that the
number of supplied teachers excluding administrators is
526 in the province of Eskisehir, whereas the calculated
number of needed teachers is 712 and 629 in terms of
observed and Optimal rates of teacher utilization, respec-
tively.

An imbalanced supply of teachers in terms of
relative ratios among numbers of produced class hours in
the various fields seems to be another aspect of the prob-

lem. One may notice that the number of needed teachers

212

is unnecessarily high because of ineffective rates of
teacher utilization.

There seems to be another problem that may be men—
tioned here. The number of school administrators is 134
(see Column 3 in Table 13) for 41 schools in the province.
This number is 87 for 17 schools in the municipality of
Eskisehir. (See Row 21, and Columns 2 and 3 in Table 2—1
in Appendix B.) In other words, there are 87 administra-
tors for 17 schools (an average of 5 administrators per
school) in the largest municipality, and 47 administrators
for 24 schools (2 administrators per school) in the remain-
ing 20 municipalities. This means that about 20 percent
of available teachers are employed in school administration
with their small loads of teaching; there may be a need
for reconsideration of present practices of assigning
teachers to school administration duties.

In summary, the dimensions of the problems men-
tioned in Chapters III and IV may be observed in practice
by these means, as demonstrated by the above application
to the province of Eskisehir. As indicated at several
points above, these particular data for Eskisehir may not
be altogether reliable, precise or representative. But
the above demonstration indicates that the method is
feasible.

After the discussions of aggregates above, a few

examples may be given of ways of examining improper supply

213

and ineffective utilization of teachers revealed by disag—
gregate tables, as follows:

1. Examples of improper supply of teachers: Supply

 

of teachers to schools, and in turn to municipalities, is
the responsibility of the National Ministry of Education.
To keep wife and husband together in one residential area
may be a legitimate excuse for improper supply Of teachers.
There are cases in Eskisehir, however, where such an
excuse may not be claimed. For example:

(a) There are 3 science and mathematics teachers
for 57 hours of courses in Inonu.

(b) There are 2 male teachers for 35 hours of
science and mathematics courses of which 16
hours are taught by lay teachers in Kayi.

(c) There are 3 male teachers for 20 hours of
humanities in Kadikuyusu.

(d) There are 2 female teachers for 8 hours of
home economics courses in Saricachaya.

(e) There are 3 male and 1 female humanities
teachers for 77 hours in Seyitgazi.

In short, in spite of the fact that there were
needs for certain teachers in other municipalities and/or
in other provinces, more teachers than were needed were
assigned to certain of the municipalities in the province.

2. Examples of Ineffective Utilization of Teachers:

 

Utilization of teachers is the responsibility of local
administrators. However, the National Ministry of Educa-
tion has the right to control the utilization Of teachers,

and for this reason thousands of tabulated reports are

214

mailed to the Ministry. Nevertheless there are examples
of teachers who are not utilized at the possible and
expected rates.

The reliable way to detect the rate of teacher
utilization is to compare the figures in Columns 13 and 15
in Table 2 of the printouts. Column 15 includes average
hours of teaching load per teacher in their certified
field. Column 13 includes overall average hours of
teaching load per teacher, including loads in and out of
their certified field. Differences between the figures
in these two columns means that teachers teach courses
other than their certified field. However, existence of
such a difference does not always mean misutilization or
under-utilization of teachers, because in many cases
teachers may have more than enough time to teach in their
field and then may teach other courses out of the certified
field. The actual situation may be detected by using
Table 1 together with the corresponding Table 2 of the
printouts. For example:

(a) Eskisehir city is the largest municipality
in the province and has 17 secondary schools.
Therefore this city by all means provides a possi-
bility for optimal teacher utilization.

Comparing figures in Column 15 with correspond-
ing figures in Column 13 in Table 2-1 in Appendix B,

one sees that there are teachers in all fields

215

except German who teach courses out of their field.

Through reviewing Table 1-1 in Appendix B, a few

examples among many may be given as follows:

--On the one hand, humanities teachers (Columns 1,
2 and 3) teach various kinds of courses out of
their field, even history and geography, in
spite of the fact that there are more teachers
than needed in these other fields. At the same
time a number of courses in humanities (Columns 4
and 5 and Row 35) are taught by lay teachers.

—-Turkish Literature teachers teach Handicraft-
Drawing and Music (Row 16, and Columns 15 and 17)
in spite of the fact that a number of Turkish
Literature courses are taught by other teachers
and lay teachers as well (Column 18).

--In spite of dire need for them, 2 Physics teachers
teach only 32 hours (Row 24); Chemistry teachers
(Row 23) teach English, Geography and Physics
(Columns 11, 22, and 25); Mathematics-Physics
teachers (Row 22) teach Science, Agriculture
Commerce, and Chemistry (Columns 8, 9, and 26);
and so on.

One might conjecture that teachers tend to teach

courses out of their field to satisfy their hobby or per-
sonal interests. It is empirically known, however, that

most teachers prefer to teach courses out Of their field

216

at his/her own school, rather than to travel across town

to another school to teach in his/her field. Although it
is against regulations, school administrators acquiesce

and collaborate with teachers in this practice, which
causes an already existing teacher shortage problem to grow
worse.

(b) Misutilization of teachers may be observed
also in other municipalities. A few examples are
as follows:

--Two science teachers in Alpu teach 36 hours of
science and mathematics while the additional
4 hours are taught by lay teachers.

--There are two science and mathematics teachers
for 35 hours in Kayi. Sixteen hours of the
35 hour courses are nevertheless taught by lay
teachers.

--There is one science teacher teaching no science
while 18 hours of science courses are taught by
lay teachers in Han.

-—In Mahmudiye, one religion teacher teaches
English and, meanwhile, English teachers teach
8 hours of Turkish.

--In Mihaliccik, one mathematics-2 teacher teaches
mathematics 10 hours at the second and 12 hours

at the first cycle, and 8 hours physical education,

217

while 49 hours of mathematics-2 are taught by
lay teachers.

--In Beylikahir, 20 hours of humanities are taught
by lay teachers and humanities teachers teach

51 hours out of their field.

Summary

Findings from this application of the model for
need and supply of core subject teachers of secondary
schools in Eskisehir may be summarized as follows:

The numbers of needed secondary school core subject
teachers in the province of Eskisehir at large are 712 and
629, in terms of observed and established Optimal rate Of
teacher utilization, respectively, whereas the number of
supplied teachers is 526. Hence the proportion of supply
is about 74 percent and 84 percent of calculated needs in
terms of observed and optimal rates of teacher utilization.
One should notice that no need for a teacher was counted
if the number of weekly course hours was less than 9 at
the first cycle and 8 at the second cycle levels of schools.

As Table 13 reveals, the shortage of teachers is
around 50 percent in about one-third of the fields taught
at secondary schools. Imbalanced supply and ineffective
utilization of teachers, as well as assignments of large
numbers of school administrators, result in a teacher

shortage problem which is more intense than it needs to be.

218

Twenty—nine teachers, i.e., 5.5 percent of the
supplied core subject teachers in the province, have more

than 25 years of experience in public service.

Cost Analysis

 

Cost analysis is needed for an effective educa-
tional enterprise for at least two reasons: first, so as
to be able to take necessary measures in effecting the
inevitable compromises between demands for education and
the available financial resources of the society; and
second, so as to be able to examine relationships between
the cost of varying combinations of interactions and the
quality of their outputs under varying conditions. This
latter effort may also help to provide useful quantitative
criteria for measuring the quality of educational outputs.
The greatest benefit from utilizing a cost analysis lies
perhaps in the search for a way in which the best possible
educational opportunities may be provided by means of
available or potential financial resources.

The funds paid from the 1971 and 1972 national
budget in the province of Eskisehir for general education
at the secondary level may be itemized, as follows (see

Table 3-22 in Appendix B):

 

1. Cash Expenditures 34,960,074.88
A. Salary of professional manpower 24,623,286.08
B. Salary of nonprofessional manpower 4,837,720.80
C. School operation 2,415,100.00

D. Student boarding expenses and
facilities 3,083,968.00

219

 

 

2. Prorated Costs 3,889,734.43
E. Facilities for education 2,849,729.02
F. Training of professional manpower 701,528.88
G. Facilities for boarding 338,476.53
3. Current Cost 38,849,809.32
H. For education 35,427,364.78
I. For boarding facilities 3,422,444.54

Average proportions of varying expenditures in the
province at large may be stated as follows:

1. In terms of total expenditures including provisions
for boarding students

a. Professional salaries to
i. cash expenditures 70.43%
ii. current operating costs 63.38%
b. Professional and nonprofessional salaries to
i. cash expenditures 84.27%
ii. current operating costs 75.83

2. In terms of expenditures for teaching only, i.e.,
excluding provisions for boarding students

a. Professional salaries to
i. cash expenditures 77.25%
ii. current operating costs 69.50%

b. Professional and nonprofessional salaries to

i. cash expenditures 92.42%
ii. current operating costs 83.16%

c. Prorated cost of training teachers to
current operating costs 1.98%

d. Prorated cost of school facilities to
current operating costs 8.04%

All in all, salaries comprise a very high proportion
of costs in the enterprise of secondary education. Adding
the proportion of prorated cost of training teachers to the

proportions in items 2.b-i and 2.b-ii above, the proportion

220

of salaries to cash expenditures and current operating

costs rise to 94.40 percent and 85.14 percent, respec-
tively. Effective measures for economical uses of resources
for secondary education should therefore focus first and
foremost on effective preparation and utilization of man-
power in the system.

The second highest proportion is for the prorated
costs of physical facilities (item 2.3, above). In the
Turkish system, these facilities are seldom used during
vacations, including summertime vacations. One may there-
fore justifiably recommend that physical facilities be
used more productively in order to get maximum benefit from
the costly investments that already have been made in them.

Various unit costs are included in Table 14, follow-
ing, in three categories:

1. Unit costs per student per year: The average

 

unit cost per student per year was calculated in terms of
daytime and boarding students. Unit costs in Column 3,
under the headline of "Daytime," includes all expenses
needed for educational activities excluding boarding facili-
ties. Unit costs in Column 4, under the headline of
"Boarding," includes only the expenses for boarding facili-
ties. There are three municipalities with boarding students
in the province.

2. Average costs per course hour: These average

 

costs per hour were calculated in terms of (a) salaries Of

221

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222

professional manpower, including honoraria and payments to
lay teachers, (b) school operations, including salaries of
office personnel and other employees, and (c) prorated
costs.

3. Average costs per hour of particular groups

 

of courses: Calculation for the costs of particular groups

 

of courses could be made so that they would include

expenses for laboratories and equipment which are exclusive
to the particular group of courses. In this study, however,
these types of expenses were included in the column for
"School Operations." Therefore the cost of particular
groups of courses in Table 14 includes the cost of manpower
involved in the teaching activities. Hence, deviations

in the cost in varying municipalities basically due to the
rate of supply and utilization of teachers. Courses
included in the groups are as follows:

Humanities: Turkish and social subjects in the

 

first cycle, and Turkish Literature, Geography, History,
History of Arts, and Philosophy in the second cycle.

Science: Mathematics, General Science, Agriculture,
and Commerce in the first cycle, Mathematics, Physics,
Chemistry, and Biology in the second cycle.

Foreign Language: English, French, and German in

 

both first and second cycles.

Skill Courses: Physical Education, Handicraft-

 

Drawing, Home Economics, and Music in both first and second

cycles.

 

223

Deviations among costs for varying municipalities
in the same column may be basically due to (a) the rate of
supply and utilization of teachers, (b) the size of classes,
(c) the supply of office personnel and employees, and
(d) regional and/or individual donations to schools.

The last two columns in Table 14 reveal that unit
costs per course hour of foreign language and skill
courses is 10.00 T.L. in many municipalities. This is
because there is no certified teacher for those courses in
the municipalities and, by law, others teaching these
courses are paid 10.00 T.L. per course hour.

In any case, the average cost for the province at
large in each column (Code No. 22) may be used as a
roughly estimated criterion for purposes of comparison among

municipalities.

Conclusion

 

Today there is a tendency to evaluate economic
aspects of educational enterprises in ways similar to
economic evaluation of production types of enterprises.
This tendency may help to improve education provided that
differences between human beings and physical matters
involved in other types of production are taken into
consideration.

In brief, in order to improve the system, ways of
using cost analyses in educational enterprises may be cate-

gorized into two basic groups as follows:

224

First, educational cost analyses may help to
improve education in the short range by examining the
economic aspects of problems which are already known to
exist. For example:

The proportion of failed students in general second-
ary schools was 36.71 percent in the 1971-1972 school year.
Of 1,135,818 students, 417,014 were failed in that year.

If the unit cost per student in Eskisehir could be general-
ized for Turkey, the financial loss from the national
budget might be estimated at 553 million T.L., i.e.,
approximately one-tenth of the whole budget for the Minis-
try of Education in that year. Counting the economic

loss to families as roughly twice as much as the loss from
the national budget allocation, one might claim that the
economic loss to the society caused by educational failures
in only the general secondary school system was 1.659
billion T.L. in that particular year.

For a long time, Turkish educators, students, and
their families have been well aware of at least two dimen-
sions of the chronic problem of failing students, i.e.,
the social and individual dimensions of the problem. But
students and their families, as well as educators who may
have been accustomed to live with such a problem, may
find through the economic dimension of cost analysis another
point of View from which to look at.t1m2problenn When they

appreciate the economic losses involved, living with the

225

problem may not be so easy. It may make them more intol-
erably uneasy than ever before, with the effect that a
high priority may then be given to solving of the problem.
Second, cost analysis may help to improve education
in the long range by providing means for choosing the best
alternative for optimal use of resources in the educa-
tional enterprise. For example: (a) class size, i.e.,
the number of students in one class, heavily affects the
unit cost per student. One may find the optimum class size
which creates maximally productive environment in terms of
quality of teaching. Similarly, an economically optimum
school size may be determined. Such studies may help
both to lead and to support administrations in making
desirable changes in policy, in the structure of school
buildings, or in programs for training teachers, in order
to make education more economically efficient and produc-
tive than in the present practice. (b) One of the signifi-
cant socio—demographic characteristics of Turkey is that
the greatest portion of the population resides in small
residential areas spread out over the country. Obviously,
this residential characteristic of the society is a heavy
functional constraint on the effort to answer the educa-
tional demands of the people because policy requires
opening a school for each of the small residential areas.
This practice causes not only slowing down the provision

of the opportunity forsecondaryeducation to people in

226

small residential areas, but also creates problems causing
the provided service to be ineffective. A few of the
important problems observable in today's practice are as
follows:

--Secondary education remains a privilege for
those people who are lucky to be living in
larger residential units.

--To construct and to furnish small school buildings
is costly and, in many cases, the buildings and
the equipment are not fully utilized.

--Small schools create special problems of supply
and utilization of teachers and, in turn, lower

the quality of the service.

--Teachers are reluctant to work in socially
deprived areas.

These are some of the important problems that the
Ministry of Education has faced for years and that should
be overcome. A study covering cost analysis may reveal
alternative long-range policies that may realize more
economically productive results. For example, to establish
a school bus system or a broad boarding school system that
may partially be supported by families on the basis of
their economic capacity might make the system more effective
than today's practice. Use of systems analysis and cost
analyses could help determine whether or not such would

be the case.

CHAPTER VII

SUMMARY OF THE STUDY

This chapter presents an overall summary of the

preceding six chapters in order to provide a general

overview of the problem under concern and of the approach

described here to analyze it.

Introduction of the Problem

 

The supply of teachers for general education at
secondary schools has been a chronic problem for more than
a decade in Turkey. The shortage of teachers which was
something less than 3,000 in the 1960-1961 school year,
grew to more than 18,000 by the 1970-1971 school year, in
spite of the imperative requirements of the five-year plans
for solving the problem over the last decade. His first-
hand observations led this writer to believe that the
present administrative system's methods of analysis and
decision making may be unable to cope with the problem in
the context of the dynamic changes in the society. It
was assumed that a systems approach (which may be expected
to facilitate new and general methods of thinking and

exploring) may help provide a solution of this problem and

227

 

I. ll'i. [I
Al. III!!! I‘

228

of likely other problems, by means of an applied methodology

as presented in this study.

Objectives

 

Since effective administrative decisions require
sufficient and scientifically analyzed data, the objectives
of this study include identification of the types of data
needed.for solution of the problem under concern. The
main objectives were stated in Chapter I as follows:

1. To utilize a systems approach in analyzing
the education system under consideration in order to
identify the relevant variables involved in causing an
inadequate supply of secondary school core subject teachers,
and to explore the interrelationships among these variables.

2. To develop a mathematical model for approxi—
mating the state of the system related to need and supply
of secondary school core subject teachers at a given par-
ticular point in time.

The scope of this study included identification of
those quantitative elements and the decision processes in
the Turkish secondary school system which relate to need

and supply of secondary school core subject teachers.

Procedure of the Study

 

A logical block diagram (see Figure 8) of the
structure of the system under consideration was developed

to set forth through a systems approach the possible

229

location of key decision points in the operation of the
system. In addition, sets of possible relationships were
developed among variables of the system and stated in the
form of mathematical functions so as to generate a model.
To demonstrate how the mathematical model (pre-
sented in Chapter V) might illuminate circumstances in a
real situation, the province of Eskisehir was selected for
study. One should not, however, generalize the findings
from Eskisehir because the province was selected on a
nonrandom basis in order to facilitate collection of data
with minimum effort and expense as well as to be able to
include examples of all kinds of secondary schools in the

country.

Review of Literature

 

A review of literature was carried out to present
the scope and characteristics of the techniques selected
as an operational approach for solution of the problem
under concern, as well as to justify the competency of
such an approach. What may be drawn from the review of

literature in Chapter II may be summed up as follows:

The Concept of a Systems
Approach

The systems concept as an explicit set of inter-

 

related elements was first introduced prior to the Second

World War by Ludwig Von Bertalanffy. Today, the terms

230

systems analysis, operations research, management science,
and applied economic analysis are used interchangeably
with one another. A systems approach is essentially a
point of view rather than a particular technique. It
allows scientists to use various scientific methods and
knowledge in more fruitful conjunctions with considera-
tions of systems concepts, as may be proper to the problem
under concern. Identifying the interrelationships of
components which constitute the system is imperative in a
systems approach, and this may require a team of scientists

and specialists from various fields.

Models as a Tool of a Systems

Approach

One of the advantages of a systems approach lies

 

in developing approximate representations of the real

world by means of modeling. Models which may be used as
instruments of discovery may be classified in three types:
iconic, analogue, and symbolic. In this study, the first
two types were used in Chapter IV and the last type was used
in Chapter V along with sets of mathematical statements.
Mathematical models may be descriptive, explanatory, or
predictive. The latter type of model is called a "simula—
tion model." Through simulation, systems procedures
facilitate experimental investigation of the future behavior
of a system under given conditions, which otherwise might

be very difficult or costly, or impossible to study. This

231

helps decision makers to choose the best or most desirable
one among several alternatives without wasting scarce
resources.

Change in the Concept of
Administration

 

 

Because use of systems approaches facilitated
modeling and simulation of the real world, and because
the appearance of high-speed electronic digital computers
facilitated investigation of large and complex socio-economic
systems, traditional concepts of administration have been
changing since the Second World War. Although the terms
are still used in many cases interchangeably, today
"administration" tends more strictly to refer to determina-
tion of policy and aims of an organization, and "management"
indicates guiding and operating the organization.

Under the new concepts, the idea of "organization"
should be designated or redesignated in terms of most
efficient accomplishment of objectives, rather than holding
to the patterns of a given or inherited model. Effective
performance of an organization requires a functional con-
trol unit, which should be adaptive, so as to improve
performance in order to accomplish the aims of the organiza-
tion under changing circumstances. Such a concept of
organization requires managerial and/or administrative
decisions to become means for converting relevant informa-

tion into appropriate action, rather than as a means for

232

defining operations by levels into hierarchical orders.
From this point of View, the availability of adequate
information is a prime need for making effective decisions
in modern organizations. Taking the need for control into
consideration, feedback (information about the output of
an organization, which is to be compared with the desired
performance of the organization) should be counted a
necessary part of essential information.

The Systems ApproaCh
and Education

 

 

Education systems in societies struggling for
modernization should no longer stand aloof from these new
concepts of administration. Systems procedures may be
utilized effectively in approaching solutions of many
fundamental education problems. Basic advantages in using
a systems approach may be as follows:

(a) Demand for accurate data inspires an organiza--
tion to improve and/or establish a computerized data
processing system which, in turn, requires and facilitates
improvement and innovation in the organization and its
administration..

(b) Logical and mathematical precision is substi-
tuted for guessing and intuition.

(c) While descriptive researches in education try
to answer the question "what it was," systems procedures

can provide currently up-dated answers to the questions

233

of "what it is now" and "what it might be in the future
under present and/or varying circumstances." These are
vitally important questions to be answered in decision
making and planning.

(d) Through simulation, systems procedures facili-
tate experimental investigation of the future behavior of

a system under given conditions.

The Background of the Problem

 

The teacher shortage problem represents a clearly
undesirable set of circumstances in the education system
and in the society at large. Among other varying factors,
the structure of the education system itself may be
responsible for a large portion of the difficulty of the

problem.

The Turkish School System

 

In the Turkish education system, differentiation
of individuals in terms of the knowledge and skill they
receive is achieved in secondary education through dif-
ferent types of schools at the same level, instead of
through different or flexible curricula in the same
school. This practice to a large extent prevents the
student from exercising his own choice in determining
the type of education he is to receive. In addition, his

opportunities for higher education are legally proscribed

234

by the particular secondary school which the individual
enters at the age of fifteen.

Higher education includes two different groups of
institutions: unversities and other higher schools.
Originally higher schools were established to produce
needed middle level technical and vocational manpower who
were not trained by the university. Lycée graduates are
eligible to apply not only to the university but also to
other higher institutions while graduates of vocational
and technical schools at the lycée can apply only to a
particular type of higher school prescribed by their.
secondary education. Because of predecided quotas for new
enrollments, attendance to any of the higher institutions

is highly restricted by use of entrance examinations.

Teacher Training Institutions

 

As illustrated in Figure 3 on page 52, there are
eleven varying sources of teachers in the country. How-
ever, nine of them are teacher training institutions.

To train secondary school core subject teachers, there

are two types of schools: education institutes and higher
teacher training schools. The former is a three—year
higher institution under the control of the Ministry of
Education. They were originally established as two-year
schools to train core subject teachers:fl1rthe first cycle

level of secondary schools. However, teachers trained at

235

these schools teach at the second cycle level of secondary
schools also. Lycée and normal school graduates can apply
to these schools. The latter is essentially a boarding
center for students who are selected to be trained as
teachers for the second cycle level of secondary schools.
Students attend the universities. Graduates are certified
to teach at the second cycle level of secondary schools.
Only lycée graduates are eligible to apply to this school.
Those who are lucky enough to pass the entrance examina-
tion, especially for colleges of scientific subjects, do
not usually choose teaching as a profession. The reason
for this is that, because of socioeconomic and industrial
changes, the teaching profession has been losing its

attractiveness.

The Growth of the Problem

 

Beginning in the fifties, the secondary school
core subject teacher shortage problem has grown drastically
(see Figure 2 on page 50 and Figure 4 on page 54). After
the country entered upon the first five-year planned period
in 1963, education was given a high priority. However, in
spite of the targets of the first and second five-year
development plans prepared by the State Planning Organiza-
tion, and of the Ten-Year Plan prepared by the Ministry of
Education, the number of trained teachers has remained

insufficient. As a matter of fact, the shortage of

236

secondary school core subject teachers, which was less than
3,000 in the 1960-1961 school year, grew to more than

18,000 in the 1970-1971 school year.

Need for Accurate Information

 

In the Turkish education system, it had not been
customary to analyze data, evaluate implementations, or
employ data in the process of decision making until
acquisition of the concept of planning in 1960. Since
then, the need for statistical data has been recognized
and a great deal of data has been collected each year.
However, the uses of data have not improved much beyond
mere empirical tabulations, and collected data are grossly
underutilized. There seems to be an urgent need for a
scientific data processing system and for recognizing the
necessity of utilization of accurate and scientifically
analyzed data for effective decisions in the education
system.

Identification of the System
and the Problem

 

 

An operational approach to solving the problem
requires one scientifically to identify the system and the
problem along with their natures and environments.

In the Turkish system, numbers of needed and
trained teachers are controlled variables. However, because

of the structure of the system, the control action is

237

carried out by various sub-organizations independently
from each other. For example, the need for secondary
school core subject teachers is manipualted by at least
five separate general directorates which assume no
responsibility for training teachers. Teachers are trained
under directions from the General Directorate for Teacher
Training Schools and also by the universities, but the
latter do not assume any formal responsibility for the
inadequate supply of teachers at schools. (See Figure 7
on page 84 and Figure 8 on page 86.)

The above stated practices imply that because of
inadequate organization the system is not working as a

closed system.

Identification of the Problem

 

The system under consideration in this present
study is the teacher training system which consists of
(a) all received variables and parameters related to train
teachers (inputs), (b) trained teachers (outputs), and
(c) teacher training schools and the General Directorate
for Teacher Training Schools, whichanxaresponsible for the
applied technology (interactions) to convert inputs into
outputs. This system is illustrated within the dotted
lines in Figure 8. Obviously, the system is affected by
the Ministry of Education at large and by the university.

Nevertheless, as the legal organization responsible for

238

training needed teachers by whatever means, the MOE's
General Directorate for Teacher Training Schools was pre-
sented as the control component of the system.

The inadequate teacher supply problem in the
secondary school system is indeed a reflection of inade-
quate production processes in the teacher training system.
Hence, defining the location and characteristics of the
causal problem requires examination of inputs and of
exercised production technology (interactions) of the
teacher training system. The conclusion after such an
examination was that the causal problem is essentially a
resource utilization (production technology) problem
rather than a resource scarcity (input) problem. Impli-
cation of the analyses may be summed up in terms of the
two types of teacher training institutions as follows:

A. Higher teacher training schools: As seen in

 

Figure 8, the university affects the production of higher
teacher training schools in two ways: (a) through admission
policy and (b) through its training programs. Being
autonomous and assuming no reSponsibility for meeting the
need for teachers, admission and training policies of the
university bear ontjmaproduction as functional constraints.
In this connection, the first condition towards a solution
of the problem as it relates to higher teacher training
schools seems to lie in a redesignation of the organiza-

tion of the teacher training system so that production

239

processes can be effectively controlled by the organization
responsible for meeting the need.

B. Education institutes: Although education

 

institutes are controlled by the General Directorate for
Teacher Training Schools, their production has remained
inadequate for years, especially throughout the planned
period. Since no unsolvable problem was detected in
inputs, inadequate production would appear to be a result
of inadequate decisions. This logical conclusion leads
one to search for the causes which result in ineffective
decisions. Because the decision-making process is counted
as the means to convert information into action, review

of sources of information may facilitate defining the
location and the characteristics of the problem as follows:

(a) Information from the environment: Information

 

from the environment should include data to facilitate
realistic assessments of needs and of inputs required to
meet the need. At least the five-year development plans
prepared by the State Planning Organization and the Ten-
Year Plan prepared by the General Directorate for Teacher
Training Schools not only provide relevant information but
also include encouraging and mandating authorization to
train more secondary school core subject teachers. There-
fore, in order to make appropriate decisions, decision
makers have not suffered from the lack of relevant informa-

tion from the environment.

240

(b) Information from the organization: Since the

 

General Directorate for Teacher Training Schools also gets
fairly precise information on the outputs of its subordi-
nated schools, lack of information from the organization,
i.e., feedback information, does not itself constrain the
making of efficient decisions towards solving the problem.

(c) Information as acquisitions of administrators:

 

Also to be included under the heading of information used
in the process of decision making are administrators'
knowledge, experience, understandings, tendencies, abilities
to utilize relevant data in making decisions, etc.
Apparently administrators fail in making appropriate uses
of the available information mentioned in the above items
(a) and (b). This conclusion may serve to locate the
causal problem. In other words, the problem is generated
at the point where measures to cope with the problem could
and should be designated.

The persistent growth, rather than mitigation, of
the problem indicates perhaps a too typical characteristic
of administration, namely, the use of authority along lines
of personal preferences rather than to accomplish objec-
tives of the organization. This characteristic may also
be one of the fundamental causes for the inert state of
an administration.

Consequently, the defined causal problem indicates

that solution of the teacher supply problem in Turkey, as

241

well as many other problems in the Turkish education
system, requires first of all c0ping with the administra-
tive problem in the Ministry of Education.

In particular, subsequent measures for solving
the teacher supply problem should aim at fulfillment of
the following requirements:

--An effective control over the teacher training
process.

--A realistic plan, including assessments of needed
teachers, requirements of the profession, and
curriculum to train teachers on the basis of the
society's needs.

--Appropriate conditions to retain trained teachers

in the profession.

Mathematical Model for Turkish
Secondary School System

 

 

Developing a descriptive model so as to identify
the state of the system at a particular time will be in
vain unless its outcomes are utilized in decision making
at large. In particular, approaches for solution of the
problem under consideration may be facilitated by means of
employing a proper simulation model which in turn may be
utilized by a digital computer.

Need for Data to be Used in
Simulation Models

 

 

Simulation models approximate the future behavior
of the system under given circumstances. Use of accurate

data in simulation may be expected to provide a rather

242

realistic approximation of the future behavior of the
system. However, the simulation technique may also help
to detect the trend of the future behavior of the system
even in the absence of real data. To show how the system
may acquire and utilize accurate data for realistic
approximation to solve the problem is the central theme
of this study. The model in Part 2 of Chapter V was
developed in order to provide information needed for
realistic planning.

Mathematical Model for Identi-

fication of the Turkish
Secondary School System

 

 

 

One should start with examining the state of the
system at a given point in time in order to make an
effective plan for the future of the system. Defining the
state of the system in the time domain facilitates examina-
tion of the trend of the system in the future. Then the
next steps are to gather the needed information, to
manipulate parameters so as to find an "optimum" or a
"best" solution to the problem, and then to designate
and/or redesignate the system so as to fulfill the desired
objectives defined for the future.

The model presented in Part 2 of Chapter V was
developed as a tool to accomplish the above mentioned task.
An experimental application of the model was carried out

in the province of Eskisehir. One logical next step after

243

such an application is that, through lOOping in the computer
program, the model could be applied for any of the other

66 provinces in Turkey in order to (a) promptly discover

the current actual situation and (b) provide needed parame-
ters for a simulation model so as to make realistic plans
for solution of the problem.

Evaluation of Findings in the
Application of the Model

 

 

The model presented in Part 2 of Chapter V was
applied to the province of Eskisehir, which allowed
inclusion of all kinds of variables in the model. Using
collected data and utilizing the mathematical model, three
kinds of tables were obtained from the computer for each
school and for each municipality as well. Included in
Table l are produced class hours and teachers assigned to
these class hours by fields. Calculated need, supply, and
utilization of teachers were included in Table 2. Cost

analyses of secondary education were presented in Table 3.

Evaluation of Findings

 

Findings in the present application of the model
contain information on the state of the system in the
province of Eskisehir on May 2, 1972. Conclusions drawn
from the findings may be summed up as follows:

(a) There exists an improper supply of secondary
school core subject teachers.

(b) Available teachers are utilized ineffectively.

244

(c) The most crucial aspect of the problem is the
significant scarcity of science, Turkish
literature, English, physical education,
handicraft-drawing, and music teachers.

(c) Existence of a number of small schools

. requires a particular reconsideration in terms
of supply and utilization of teachers.

Because the province was selected for application
on a nonrandom basis, one should not generalize the findings
in Eskisehir. However, province-wide characteristics of
the problem revealed by the application of the model seem
to be quite similar to the general characteristics men-
tioned in Chapters III and IV in defining of the problem
in the country at large.

Findings from the cost analyses for the secondary
education seem to promise a way of facilitating the estab-
lishment of criteria for evaluating the quality of education
as well as for assessment of the financial aspects of plan-

ning for the future. Such an analysis is not yet utilized

in education in Turkey.

Concluding Statement

 

It is hoped that the study presented above may serve:

(a) To encourage widespread applications of systems
approaches to analyzing the problems of edu-
cational development and planning in Turkey.

(b) To encourage the development of urgently needed
improved systems and facilities for processing
essential data in the Ministry of Education.

(c) To encourage the Ministry of Education to
identify and reorganize those parts of its

245

structure which contribute to the problems
of education.

(d) In particular, to demonstrate how the crucial
and chronic problem of teacher supply may be
more effectively solved through research and
planning.

APPENDIX A

246

247

TIL
\flLH scrum BAKANLIGI
Plinlama-Amnma vc Koordinasyon Dairesi Baeknnlnit

ZAMANLIDIR

 

k
58"! : 530/1795 An an

865le : Bilgi Isleme 9.5.1972
Kam : Istatistik Formlari

Eskisehir Valiligine

Ceaitli amaqlarla 31k 51k istatistik bilgiler tOplan-
maSi Bakanligimiz icin oldugu kadar okullarimiz icin de
bfiyfik bir kfllfet haline gelmis bulunuyor. Bazan istenen
bilgilerin okullarda tutulmakta olan kayitlardan gikaril-
maSinin 90k 909 ve hatta imkan31z oldugu da bilinmektedir.
Bu duruma bir cozfim yolu bulmak ve egitim istatistiklerini
bir elden ve belli zamanlarda, bilimsel metodlarla toplamak
ve kullanilmaya haZir bulundurmak amaCi ile gerekli galle-
malar yapilmaktadir.

Bu calismalarin bir kismi olarak, orta dereceli resmi
Okullarin figretmen ihtiyac1n1 ve egitim maliyetini elektro-
nik makinelerle hesaplayacak bir metod denemesi yapilmakta-
d1r.Bakan1igimiz Planlama, Arastirma ve Koordinasyon
Dairesi Baskanliginca yapilmakta olan on caliemalar igin
Eskieehir Ili seqilmietir.

Kisa zamanda sonuc alinabilmesi icin, bu yaZinin bir
Ornegi ve ekteki bilgi toplama formlarindan yeteri kadari
iliniz dahilindeki bfitfln orta dereceli, resmi okullara
gonderilmistir. Ayrica, okul yoneticilerine yardim etmek
amaCi ile gorevlendirilmie olan Bakanligimizdan fig eleman
15.5.1972 Pazartesi gflnfi sabahindan 17.5.1972 Carsamba
aksamina Radar Eskisehir Milli Egitim Mfidflrlfigfinde buluna-
caktir. Bu sflre icinde doldurulacak formlar, Eskisehir
icinde bulunan okul m0dfirlfiklerince, sbz konusu elemanlara
verilmek fizere, Milli Egitim Mfidfirlfigflne‘ganderilecek: Es-
kieehir merkezi disinda bulunan okul mfidfirlfikleri ise
doldurulan formlari dogruca (Milli Egitim Bakanligi,
Planlama, Arastirma ve Koordinasyon Dairesi Baekanligi-
Beeevler-Ankara) adresine postaya vereceklerdir.

Formlarin doldurulmaSinda herhangi bir tereddflde d030-
1firse iliniz Milli Egitim MfidflrlfigUne veya Bakanligimizda
23 11 60/63 numaraya telefon edilebilir.

"Pl" formu ficretli ve kadrolu batfin ogretmenler,
ybneticiler ve varsa diger egitim personeli tarafindan dol-
durularak okul mfidfirlfigfine verilecektir. "02" ve "01"
formlari okul mfldflrlfiklerince iki nflsha olarak dolduru-
lacak, bir nflshaSi ihtiyag duyuldugu zaman kullanilmak
02ere saklanacaktir.

248

”P1" formunun dogrudan dogruya personelin kendisi
tarafindan doldurulma51 gerekmektedir. Herhangi bir sebeple
bu mflmkfin olmadigi takdirde, formlar okul mfidflr10klerince,
okuldaki kayitlara dayanilarak doldurulacak ve formun sonun-
da bu husus, sebebi ile birlikte belirtilecektir.

Bu deneme calismasindan alinacak sonuclar, ogretmen
ve ydneticilerin gosterecegi ilginin derecesine bagli ola-
caktir.

Formlarin en geq 17 Mayis 1972 Careamba akeamina kadar
iliniz Milli Egitim Mfidnrlugflnde bulunacak olan Bakanligimiz
elemanlarina veya postaya verilmesinin teminini bnemle
rica ederim.

Milli Egitim Bakani a.

ij)

Bedi ERDEM
Planlama-Araetirma ve Koordinasyon
Dairesi Baekan V.

EK:
Pl Formu ( )
P2 Formu ( )
01 Formu ( )

ZAMANLIDIR

 

KA/pk

249

 

T.C.
' Planlama-Araetirma ve Koordinasyon BILGI TOPLAMA FORMU:P1
Dairesi Baekanligi (Ogretmen ve anetici)

Sayin Meslektae,

Bu bilgi formu, Milli Egitim Bakanliginca Tfirkiye capinda yapi-
lacak yeni bir bilgi toplama ve degerlendirme sisteminin kurulma31
ile ilgili olarak haZirlanmistir.

Deneme amaCiyla yapilan ve orta dereceli okullari kapsayan bu
6n qalisma icin Eskisehir lli secilmis bulunuyor. Bu nedenle, daha
sonra yapilacak calismalarin basarili olma51 sizin bu formu doldu-
rurken gbatereceginiz ilgi ve titizlige bagli olacaktir.

Gostereceginiz ilgi ve yardim icin tesekkUr ederiz.

DIKKAT : 1- Bu form, 2 Mayis 1972 gflnkfi durumunuza gore doldurula-

2.

 

Fllllj

 

cak ve en kisa zamanda okul m0dflrfine verilecektir.

Asagidaki maddeleri (duruma gore) ya noktali boeluklari
doldurmak, ya da soldaki karelere istenen bilgiyi yazmak
veya X isareti koymak suretiyle cevaplandirinizi

l. Okulun Bulundugu Yer :

a. 11 : ...............................

b. Ilge : ... ..... . ...... .. ....... .....
c. Bucak : ....... ................. ....
d. K6y veya Kasaba : ......... .........
2. Okulun Adi : .... ........... ...........

3. Adiniz ve Soyadiniz : .................

4. Bakanlikca verilmis olan sicil.numaraniz (acretle
ders okutanlar bu maddeye cevap vermeyecektir)

Cinsiyetiniz :

5.
1 [j Kadin

[:1 Erkek

6. Erkek iseniz askerlik durumunuz

2 [j Yaptim.
3 [:1 Yapmadim.

4 D Askerlikten muaf tutuldumf

250

CD 7. Dogum yiliniz (son iki rakami ya21niz.)

8. Evli misiniz?

D Evet

1 D Hayir
9. Evli iseniz esiniz calisiyor mu?

D Evet
2 D Hayir

10. Esiniz calisiyorsa isi nedir?
3 D Ogretmen
4 [:3109retmen1ikten baaka bir devlet hizmeti
5 D Kendi adina calisiyor veya dzel sektor hizmeti

[:3 11. Cocugunuz varsa sayisi

12. Ocretli figretmen iseniz:
(Kadrolu ogretmenler bu maddeyi cevaplandirmayacak,
13.-maddeye geqecek)
1 [:3 Ilkokul ogretmeniyim.

2 [:3 Orta dereceli okullara ogretmen yetietiren bir
okuldan mezunum, fakat asli kadroda degilim:

(Okulun .adl: 00.......0.........OOIOOOOOO'OOOOO)
3 [:1 Ogretmen yetietirmiyen bir yflksek okul mezunuyum.

(Okulun adi : ...........

......................)

13. Kadrolu ogretmen iseniz:
Aylik kadronuz.

Derece Kademe

1' .

 

 

251

13. (Devam)

1 [j Stajiyer’bgretmenim, idar‘i gbrevim £013.
2 D Stajiyer ogretmenim, idar‘i gorevim 335,
3 D Asl‘i ogretmenim, idar‘i gorevim y_o_k_.
4 C3 Asl‘i ogretmenim, idar‘i gOrevim 1’35

Emeklilige eaas olan hizmet yiliniz
(6 ay veya fazlaSi bir yil sayilacak)

Ogreniminiz bakimindan kanunen okutmaya mecbur
oldugunuz derslerin adlari :

En son mezun oldugunuz ve ogretmenlik yapmaniza
esas olan ogretim kurumun adi :

0............OOOOOOOOOOOOOO......OOOOOOOOOOOOOO

D Ogretim sflresi (ders yili olarak)

Ogretmenlik yapmaniza imkan veren belgenin cinsi:
1 D Diploma ‘
2 D Yeterlik veya kurs belgesi
3 D Yukardakilerden biri degil

(Adlnl yaZLnlz: O0.00............IOOOOOOOOOOOO.)

14. En iyi bildiginiz yabanCi dil (varsa) :
7'"!

--...‘a. Adi :
b. Bilme dereceniz:

1C] Biraz konueabilirim.

2D Rahatca konusurum.

3[:] Okudugumu sbzlflk kullanarak anlarim.

4D Okudugumu sozlfik kullanmadan anlarim.

 

CD 15. Kendi okulunu'zda veya baeka okullarda haftada
kag saat ficretli dersiniz var?

252

4

16. Asagidaki cetvele brans igi veya diei olarak
kendi okulunuzda veya baska okullarda okutmakta
oldugunuz derslerin adlarini yerlerine yaziniz
ve karsilarinda birinci veya ikinci devredeki
haftalik ders saatlerini gésteriniz ve bu saat-
1erin qapraz toplamlarini alarak kontrol ediniz.
(Baska bir okulda dersiniz varsa, okulun adini
noktali yere yaZiniz)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

hr"; Dersin-Adi DexIrre De$11:e T0915!“
Iqurotlouoyinis 4

FT I J Ll

Fl l l 1

* ____(ENDI OKULUNUZDA

fl 1 l TIJ

Fl i 11 11

F1 1 l IE mm mm

Adi:...............
[___l l ljJ—J 00000000000000.
TOPLAM

Not

 

 

 

 

 

Bu formda kalayca veya acikca anlaeilmayan soru veya ifade-
ler varsa numaralarini ve bolumlerini IUtfen asagiya yaZiniz.

00000000000000.00000 00.000000000000000 00000000,000000000.0

Bu form tarafimdan dogru Tasdik olunur.
olarak doldurulmustur.

/ /1972 / /1972

(Imza) Okul MUdfirfi

T.C.

253

MILLI EGITIM BAKANLIGI

Planlama-Arastirma ve Koordinasyon
Dairesi Baekanligi

Aeagidaki tabloyu 2 Mayis 1972
doldurunuz.

P1 formunu dolduran egitim,

bu tabloda gosterilmiyecektir.

gfinflndeki duruma gore

ogretim ve yonetim gorevlileri

BILGI TOPLAMA FORMU : p2
(Memur ve hizmetli)

OKUL MUDURLUGUNCE DOLDURULACAKTIR.

gt

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Za-

Sir;

voyu‘ ‘A’1131 verilon

01011 agronim goouk

kayit lo: 08rov1. durumu Adi, Soyadi Der. Rad. cayili
/5/1972

Okulu Mfidflrfi

254

. T.C.
Planlama-Arastirma ve Koordinasyon BILGI TOPLAMA FORMU:01
Dairesi Baskanligi

 

OKUL MUDURLUGONCE DOLDURULACAKTIR.

 

DIKKAT : a. Bu form, 2 Mayis 1972 gflnkfi duruma gdre dolduru-
lacaktir.

 

b. Aeagidaki maddeleri (duruma gore) ya noktali booluk-
lari doldurmak ya da soldaki karelere x ieareti
koymak suretiyle cevaplandiriniz.

1. Okulun bulundugu yer :
a) 11 : ..........................
b) Ilqe : ....................... .
c) Bucak : ... ........ ............
9) Roy veya kasaba : .............

2. Okulun adi : ... ....... ...........

3. Ogretim sekli :

[:1 Normal

2 D Cift ogretim

3 C] 09m ogretim

4. Ogrenci durumu

[:3 Karma
[:1 Yalniz kiz

3 [:1 Yalniz erkek

H

NH

5. Ogrenci bzelligi :

D Tamamen gflndfiz 10

MD".

A[:] Tamamen yatili

3 [:1 Yatili - gflnd021u

 

yfll 1.1! .

.255

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2
6. Aeagidaki tabloyu doldurunuz.
NOT: 1) Birinci devresi fig Sinifli olan ve haZirlik
Sinifi bulunmiyan okullarda ilk kolon boa
birakilacaktir.
2) Lise Siniflarinda once EDEBIYAT, sonra FEN
bolfimleri yaZilacaktir.
I. DEVRE II. DEVRE
Biniflar ' Top. ' Jib?-
§ubo Styx-i
«——en
K .
Oflndflslfl i.
E
- I x ) #4
Paraois
Yatili
E
Parali K
Ystili E
K
Bur-In
E
Yarin K
Yatili
' E
K
Taplam
8
Genel Taplam

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2556

7. Aeagidaki tabloda secmeli veya yardimCi dersler-
1e, varsa resmen acilmis olan kurslari da
katmak suretiyle, her konudaki ders veya atolye
saatlerinin nekadarinin naSil kapatildigini
gbsteriniz.

DIKKAT : ”Ucretli bgretmenler" kolonuna aSil ogretmenlerin
flcretle okuttugu dersler degil, sadece ficretle tayin
edilmis bulunan ogretmenlerin okuttuklari ders saatleri
yaZilacaktir.

 

DERSLERIN man. KAPATILDIGI

 

Okulun Bzgft Uoretli ‘ I“

A011 0 u an

DERSLERIN ADI Ogretmeniylo Bgretmeniyle fibetmenlo Okuld 1
Bo, Ibr-

Brang Bran; Bran; Bung Bran; Bran; 8090!! anti
191 dig: 191 digi 191 dig: cant toplama

 

I)! ViRlBI-E R

 

Tflrkqo

Sooyal Bilgilor
Motemutik

Fen Bilgileri
Tiourot-Tariu
Din Bilgiai
Inglizoo
Franoizou
Almanac
Baden Egitini
Rouim-Iq
Ev-Ig

Mfizik
Edebiyax
Folsofo Ourubu
Turin

Benet Tarihi
Coératya
Matomatik
Biyoloji
Fisik

Kimya

 

 

 

 

 

I. D E V'R E

 

 

 

 

 

O R T A K

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

II. D E V B E

 

 

Mallet Dorslori

 

 

T O P L A I

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

.Not : Milli savunma dersi yazilmiyacak.

257

8. Aeagidaki tablolari, fizerlerindeki agiklamaya

gore doldurunuz.

(Kuruelari yazmayiniz)

a. Asagidaki tabloda istenen 1970 ve 1971 akcali yillarina ait
bilgileri, Sayietaya veya Bakanliga gdnderilmek fizere haZirlan-
m1$ olan listelerden veya demirbas esya defterinden faydalanarak
doldurunuz.

 

nlutnnis

quaint

1970 don
1911 o
dovir

1971 do
kavztitn 1971 do
dflglqeglor Illnll

1972 :0
don-«111a~

 

:Ystili agrono

'1ht1

1
yacinda kullanilanlar

 

bigot bfltfln intiyuqlnr
iqin kuIIsnilnnlnr

 

'9131’I.A I

 

 

 

 

 

b. Aeagidaki tabloyu 1971 akcali yili odenek defterinden faydalanarak
doldurunuz (Demirbae eeya igin yapilan harcama yukardaki tabloda
yer almis blacagindan, burada gésterilmiyecektir.)

GENEL CIDERLER

‘ YATILI Oansuci oInEaant

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

cider 9.9161 . Lira Cider gogidi Lire.
I. Kitaplik’ Yiyeook ‘
an Euro Oiyin-kugu
' n
n. Ullgtiruu
t» anit iglotno Toplaa
B , .
z: Kirg Bfltqo digi nucleus:
“3 Nelson .4}: Bar 909“ yolluk’
o
z “9113 outri- é: Begun-810.4 odavi
0 0
. Dign- :3 Odd].
n the
" 0 ‘ ..
.Toplu- Tapla-

 

Butqo dig: outlanan

 

 

 

 

258

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
Planning, Research, and Coordination Office

URGENT Ankara: May 9, 1972

Number: 530/1795
Section: Data Processing
Subject: Statistics forms

To the Governor of Eskisehir

Frequent collection of data for varying purposes has
become a troublesome work for our schools and for the
Ministry of Education as well. It is recognized that
'sometimes it is difficult if not impossible to provide
requested data from school records. A study has been
conducted in order to solve this problem scientifically
through improving the method of educational data collection.

As a part of this effort, an experimental study has
been initiated in the Planning, Research, and Coordination
Office of our Ministry to study ways of computerizing the
processing of data on the need for teachers and on cost of
public secondary education. The province of Eskisehir was
selected for this pilot study.

In order to get results in a short time, copies of this
letter and of the encldsed data collection forms were mailed
to all of the secondary schools in your province. In addition,
three persons from the Ministry of Education will be ready
in the Office of the Educational Director assigned to help
schoolddirectors on May 15, 16, and 17, 1972. Forms to be
filled out within this time should be handed to these three
persons by the schools in Eskisehir city, and the schools
which are in other cities, towns, or villages should mail
their forms to the Ministry of Education, Planning, Research,
and Coordination Office, Besevler - Ankara.

259

In case of doubt, one may call to the Office of the
Educational Director of your province or to the following
number in the Ministry of Education: 23 ll 60 / 63.

Form "P1" will be filled out by professional personnel

in schools, and then will be handed to the school director.
[Forms "P2" and "01" will be filled out by school directors,
in two copies, one of which will be filed in order to be
used later if needed.

Form "P1" will be filled out by the professional
personnel individually. If this is impossible for any reason,
the form will be filled out by the school director on the
basis of official records, and this fact should be noted at
the bottom of the form with an explanation of the reason.

Results of the pilot study will depend on the degree
of consideration given by teachers and administrators.

Please make sure of that the forms should either be
handed to the Ministry's people assigned to the Office of
Educational Director of your province or should be mailed
to the Ministry by the evening of May 17, 1972, at the
latest.

On behalf of the

Ministry of Education
Enclosed: Form Pl( )

Form P2( )
Form 01( )

Bedi ERDEM
Acting Head of Planning, Research
and Coordination Office

URGENT

260

Planning, Research, and
Coordination Office DATA COLLECTION FORM: Pl
(Professional personnel)

Dear Colleague,

This data collection form was prepared by the Ministry of Education in
order to establish a new data collection and evaluation system throughout Turkey.

The province of Eskisehir was selected for a pilot study covering secondary
education. For this reason, the success of further studies will depend on your
degree of care in filling out this form.

Thank you for your c00peration and consideration.

NOTICE: 1. This form will be filled out so as to represent the circumstances
exactly on May 2, 1972.
2. Please answer the items below by either filling in the dotted lines,
or putting an x in the cells to the left, or writing in the
requested data.

1. Location of the school:
a. Province: ...............................
b. District: ...............................
c. Sub-District: ...........................
d. Village or town: ........................
2. Name of the school: ........................
3. Your name: .................................
[:[:[:[]E:I4. Your identification number (lay teachers will not answer this item).
5. Your sex:
Female
Male
If you are male, what is your military service'draft status?
Served
Not drafted yet
Exempted from duty
Your birthday (last two digits)
Are you married?

DDCJPCJD

B

Yes
No
If married, is your husband/wife working?

DC]

‘0
e

Yes
No
If working, what is the occupation of your husband/wife?

DC]

H
O
0

Teaching
Public service other than teaching

DOC]

Her/his own business or service, or private sector
Number of children, if any

9

261.

12. If you are not a regular staff member:

D
D

80000

..-
h

8
"GOOD

0"

f"!
l

ODD D

\

(Those teachers who are regular staff members should not answer
this item but should skip to item 13.)

I am an elementary school teacher.

I graduated from a higher teacher training institution but am
working as a temporary teacher.

(Name of the school you graduated from: ........................)
I graduated from a higher institution which was not a teacher
training school.

(Name of the school you graduated from: ........................)
If you are a regular staff member:

Your base salary:

De ree Ste
..JL... .___2

I am a probationer without administrative status.

I am a probationer with administrative status.

I am a regular staff member without administrative status.
I am a regular staff member with administrative status.
Your seniority in number of years to be counted toward your
pension (6 or more months will be counted as one year.)
Field(s) in which you are certified to teach:

Name of your last school from which you were graduated as a
teacher:

Length of training program (number of years of the school's
program)

Kind of official document by which you are certified:
Diploma

>Certification

Neither of the above

The foreign language which you know best, if any:

a. Name: .....................

b. Degree of mastery:

I can speak a little bit.

I speak fluently.

I understand what I read through using dictionary.

I understand what I read without dictionary.

How many total hours are you teaching in a week for which you
are paid in the form of and honororium either in your regular
school or in other schools.

262

16. Please fill out the table below with all courses you teach
either in your own school or in other schoolts). (If you teach
in any other school, please write the name of the school on

the dotted line.)

0:: not on: any sign
In the cells below

 

Name of the course

Cycle l Cycle ll 1

Total

 

 

[_Llllll
LIIIIAI]
Llllll]
[JIIIIW

 

IN YOUR 0'" SCHOOL

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

[lllllj

"IIIIQ'
0 00000000000

 

FIIllll

IN OTHER SCHOO L

 

 

 

 

TOTAL

 

 

 

 

Note: If there were any expressions that you found to be unclear or
difficult to understand, please cite them below by refering to

numbers of items and

I certify that this form
was filled out accurately.

May ... 1972

(Signature)

sections.

It is certified.
May ... 1972

School Director

263

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
Planning, Regearch, and DATA COLLECTION FORM : P2
Coordination office (Nonprofessional Personnel)

Please fill out the table below so as to represent the circumstances
exactly on May 2, 1972.
Those who filled out Form Pl will not be included in this table.

TO BE FILLED OUT BY THE SCHOOL DIRECTOR.

 

 

.mufl' 8330 3"” "mm 0'
cation 0: Educational dependent
serial no. my status Name Deg,” Step chlldten

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

nay ... 1972

Director Of the school: 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

264

Planning, Research, and

Coordination Office DATA COLLECTION POEM: 01

NOTICE:

1.

2.

3.

TO BE FILLED OUT BY THE SCHOOL DIRECTOR

a. This form will be filled out so as to represent the
circumstances exactly on May 2, 1972.

b. Please answer the items below through either filling out
the dotted lines or putting an x in the cells to the left.

Location of the school:

a) Province: ................................
b) District: .......................3........
c) Sub-District: ............................

d)v1113980rt°m. 0000000000000000000000000
"an. at th. .ChOOI' 0000000000000000000000000

Shift status:

B One shift
C] Double shift
0 Triple shift

4.

Composition of student body:

0 Coeducat ion
[3 Girls only

C] Boys only

5.

Status of students:

D Day students only

D Boarding students only

D Both day and boarding students

265

6. Please fill out the table below.

NOTE: 1) Do not fill out the first column if the first cycle of the school

is composed of three grades and there is no preparation class.

2) For lycee, data for LITERATURE sections should be entered firstI

to the left of data for SCIENCE sections at each grade level.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

FIRST CYCLE SECOND CYCLE
Class. Levels Total Total
Numberoi
Class Sections
F
Day-time
Students
N
F
Free Boarding
Students
M
F
Paid Boarding
Students
N
Scholarship F '
Students
I
F
Halt Boarding
Students
I
F
Total
I .
Grand Total

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

266 -..

7. In the table below, please show the status of teacher supply
for all courses, including selective courses, formally
established extra courses, or workshops which may exist in

your school.

NOTICE: In the column for “Lay Teachers," please enter data only for

those teachers who are not members of the regular staff.

STATUS OF SUPPLY

13 Total of
_, Names of Teachers of Teacher from Lay Teacher- Course
‘53 the Courses the School Other Schools Teachers less Hours
0 Class in the

Certli. Uncert. Certli. Uncert. Certii. Uncert. H00" School
Turkish
Social Sublects
Mathematics

Sciences

FIRST CYCLE

erce, Agriculture
Religious
Engflsh
French
German

PhyslcaI Ed.

COMMON

Drawing, Handicrait

Home Econ
Music
Literature
Philosophy
History

Arts History
Geography

Mathematics

SECOND CYCLE

Biology
Physics
Chemistry

Vocational

TOTAL

 

Note: National Defense course will not be included.

8. Please fill out the table below on the basis of the explanations

provided with each.

267

(Do not include kurus)

durable goods for the 1970 and 1971 fiscal years.

a. The table below will be filled out using the official records for

 

VALUE OF DURABLE GOODS

Carried
over to 1971
from 1972

Written off
in 1971

Purchased
in 1971

Carried
over to
1972

 

Used only for boarding students

 

Used (or all othter needs

 

TOTAL

 

 

 

 

 

GENERAL EXPENDITURES

the 1971 fiscal year excluding durable goods and salaries.

b. The table below will be filled out using the official records for

EXPENDITURES FOR BOARDING STUDENTS

 

 

FROI NATIONAL BUDGET

 

 

 

 

 

Klnds of expenditures Lira Kinds or expenditures Lira
Library Food
Utility Clothing
Transportation and Communication
Total
Provided (Tam sonic?
Rent other than the budget
Supplies Transportation

 

iiinor Repairs

 

 

 

Social security benefits

 

Personal
Expendlt.

 

 

 

it Iscelianeous Bonus
Vehicle Operation
Total Total

 

Provided‘irom sources'
other than the budget

 

 

 

 

APPENDIX B

268

269

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