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This is to certify that the dissertation entitled A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR AND SCHOOL CLIMATE OF SELECTED ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE DEPENDENTS SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND presented by Robert James Calzini has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph D degree in Education Major Professor ‘ / MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0- 12771 Date July 7. 1983 ‘ MSU RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to LJBRARJES remove this checkout from .3— your record. FINES will ~ — be charged if book is returned after the date stamped beiow. W l/ ’ S/ ”79* 5/ fife 9:192 '3 "1996‘ 5273 (“firmzrtllggb .32 9 /Q/~a479‘ A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR AND SCHOOL CLIMATE OF SELECTED ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE DEPENDENTS SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND BY Robert James Calzini A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Adult and Continuing Education 1983 ABSTRACT A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR AND SCHOOL CLIMATE OF SELECTED ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE DEPENDENTS SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND By Robert James Calzini Purpose of the Study Principals exhibit different leadership behaviors in schools in which they are administrators. Teachers within each school formulate opinions concerning the organizational climate of the schools in which they teach. It was the pur- pose of this study to investigate the various leadership behaviors of principals within selected elementary schools of the Department of Defense Dependents Schools in England, to investigate the organizational climate of the elementary school as perceived by the teaching staff, and to determine the relationship, if any, between leadership behavior and school climate in the schools studied. Methodology for the Study Teachers in schools with a student population of 170 or more completed the Leader Behavior Description Question- naire-Form XII and the Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire. The Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coef- ficient was used to determine relationships between the sub- scales of each individual questionnaire and relationships between the two questionnaires. Demographic information was also examined. The Review of Selected Related Literature examined theories and research in educational administration and fac- tors contributing to teacher motivation. (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Conclusions of the Study The school organizational climates, as perceived by the teaching staff, tended to fall into two categories: open and closed. No conclusions can be reached in respect to how the ten faculties viewed a female versus male principal. This was due to the fact that only one of the ten schools surveyed had a female principal. The size of the school did not seem to be a factor in the frequency of leadership behavior as perceived by the teachers in the schools participating in the study. There was a relationship between the teachers' percep- tions of their school climates and their principals' leadership behaviors, but the relationship was low. There was a significant relationship in the twelve sub- scales of the LBDQ-XII. The eight subscales of the OCDQ showed no consistent relationship. The age of the principal did not seem to have an effect on the teachers' perceptions of leadership behavior nor the school climate. (8) One perception of the teachers participating in this study was that strong leadership was rarely exhibited by their principals. TO MY FAMILY Janice, Clinton, and Derek ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am indebted to many ”significant others“ who have influenced and encouraged me throughout my doctoral study. To these special pe0ple I offer humble thanks and gratitude for each person's unique contributions. To my wife, Janice, for her unlimited love, faith, encouragement, and support. To my sons, Clinton and Derek, for the patience, understanding, and sacrifice during the past three years. To my advisor and dissertation chairperson, Dr. Howard Hickey, whose warmth and commitment to quality education have inspired me to strive toward new goals. His patience, unselfishness, wonderful sense of humor, and professional zeal have been major factors in completing this doctoral program. To Kay Hickey, for sharing her house and her love with my family. To my doctoral committee members, Dr. Ben Bohnhorst, Dr. Richard Featherstone, and Dr. Richard Gardner for their excellent advice, teaching, and support. Their humanistic approach to teaching will be mirrored in my future in public education. iv To my colleagues in DODDS who assisted me in the col- lection of my data. To Dr. Gloria Kielbaso for her editing and helpful suggestions. To Jean Terrell whose typing, editing, and knowledge saved me many hours of labor. And finally, to my mother who died on November 1, 1981. Her pride and love for me will never be forgotten. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ....................................... LIST OF FIGURES ...................................... CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ............................. Questions ................................ Consequences ............................. Background of the Study .................. Definition of Terms ...................... Delimitations 0f the Study ............... Assumptions .............................. Procedures ............................... Organization of the Study ................ CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF SELECTED RELATED LITERATURE Theory and Research in Educational Administration ........................... Summary .................................. Research Studies on Teacher Motivation Correlation Studies Between Leadership Behavior and Organizational Climate ...... Summary .................................. CHAPTER 3. PROCEDURES FOR DATA COLLECTION ........... Introduction ............................. Population ............................... \OOGDCDCDOWU‘IU'I -.—§ w—O CHAPTER 4. CHAPTER 5. REFERENCES APPENDIX A APPENDIX B The Instrument ............................ The Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire (OCDQ) ................... The Leader Behavior Description Ques— tionnaire - Form XII ................... Procedures ................................ Variables ................................. Descriptive Statistics .................... Inferential Statistics .................... Summary ................................... FINDINGS .................................. Section 1 ................................. Section 2 ................................. Summary ................................... SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND REFLECTIONS ............................... Summary ................................... Conclusions ............................... 49 49 53 55 57 59 6O 6O 62 62 63 68 78 81 81 82 84 86 91 94 99 «b .p -b .b n #45 GUT-POOR) LIST OF TABLES Estimates of Internal Consistency and of Equiva- lence for the Eight OCDQ Subtests .............. Factors Identified in Two Studies Using the LBDQ-Form XII .................................. Percentage of Respondents to Questionnaires by Individual School .............................. Sex of Respondents ............................. Age of Respondents ............................. Experience in DODDS ................. ' ..... ' ...... Total Teaching Experience ...................... School Size and Climate ........................ Summary of LBDQ-XII Scores for All Schools ..... Subscale Correlation Matrix ................... . viii 54 56 64 66 66 67 67 7O 72 76 N > >- 3: :> > n: (n # d: A) LIST OF FIGURES Lewin's Triangle ............................... Continuum of Leader Behavior ................... Graphic Representation of Nomothetic and Idio- graphic Models ................................. The School as a Social System .................. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs .................... Comparison of Satisfier and Dissatisfier Factors ........................................ Comparison of Maslow's and Herzberg's Motivators LBDQ-XII Profile by School: Schools A and B LBDQ-XII Profile by School: Schools C and D LBDQ-XII Profile by School: Schools E and F LBDQ-XII Profile by School: Schools G and H LBDQ-XII Profile by School: Schools I and J ix 21 23 25 26 3O 37 38 94 95 96 97 98 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION There are as many leadership behavior styles as there are leaders. School administrators bring their own individ- ual values, skills, attitudes, perceptions, and opinions to formulate their own unique ways of dealing with administra- tive tasks and personnel. It is possible, however, to cate- gorize certain characteristics of leadership behavior into various typologies or styles so that comparisons and differ- ences among them can be examined. According to White and Lippitt1, leadership behavior may be classified as autocratic, democratic, or laissez- faire. Autocratic leaders are those who determine all goals and policies. Autocratic leaders criticize and praise according to personality and engage in participation when demonstrating but otherwise do not stimulate group activity. They tend to isolate themselves and develop reSentments among the teachers. Democratic leadership behavior involves group members in decision-making policies that affect their welfare. Democratic leaders criticize and praise objectively accord- ing to fact rather than personality. Teachers tend to view this kind of principal as a fellow worker and as a resource person.2 Laissez-faire leaders allow complete freedom for group and individual decision and action. They withdraw from the group and make no attempt to praise or control. Teachers may assume some leadership roles and responsibilities. The behavioral approach rejects the autocratic- democratic-laissez-faire typology and suggests three others that are based on the Getzels-Guba model of the organization as a social system.3 These styles are the nomothetic, idio- graphic, and transactional. Nomothetic leaders emphasize institutional require- ments, rules, regulations, and procedures. Effectiveness is seen in terms of the individual's behavior toward accom- plishing the school's objectives.4 The idiographic or personal style of leadership empha- sizes the needs and personality of each individual member of the group. Idiographic leaders are concerned with promoting good relations and satisfaction with employees' needs.5 "The transactional style is characterized by behavior which stresses goal accomplishment, but which also makes 6 The transac- provision for individual need fulfillment.” tional leader uses both the nomothetic and idiographic styles of leadership, dependent upon the personality of the staff member and the situation. Hersey, Gates, and Blanchard address situational lead- ership in "Life Cycle Theory of Leadership." These three educators state that there is no one best style to which all situations and people can be applied universally. The type of leadership style is dependent on the maturity of the fol- lowers. Maturity is defined as ”the capacity to set high but attainable goals, willingness and ability to take responsibility, and education and/or experience of an indi- vidual or group."8 The authors state that as maturity increases along a continuum, a different leadership style should be used. The four leadership styles are noted as S1, 52, S3, and 54, which correspond to the maturity levels of the followers M1 through M4. Each style deals with the emphasis the leader should give to the task and that of the relationship between the leader and the follower. According to the authors, S1 indicates that the leader should concen- 9 The leader trate on both the task and the relationship. needs to spend time directing the worker on what, where, when, and how to do a specific task. This process is referred to as "high task.“ Also, S1 calls for “high rela- tionship," which indicates that the leader should give con- siderable attention to the relationship between him/herself and the worker. Attention, feedback, and assistance should help the M1 (low motivated worker) accomplish the task more successfully. S2 style involves "high task" and "low relationship." In this case, the leader needs to spend less time on the relationship and more time with the task. S3 indicates "low task" and "low relationship." Nith S4 leadership style, the worker is seen as independent but needing posi- tive reinforcement; thus, a "low task" and "high relation- ship" style is suggested. Review of the literature indicates that there is a positive correlation between how well the employee's physi- cal and psychological needs are met and the employee's sat- isfaction with the quality of work life. The organizational climate of a school will reflect job satisfaction as per- ceived by the teaching staff. In Toward a Psychology of Being, Maslow discusses a theory of human motivation according to need, both physiological and psychological.10 Maslow's physiological, safety, love, esteem, and self- actualization needs parallel what Frederick Herzberg refers to as factors which cause low and high satisfaction.11 Herzberg's "hygiene" factors of security, status, working conditions, supervision, and money compare with the lower needs in Maslow's hierarchy. According to Herzberg, employees are motivated by achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, and advancement. The higher needs in Maslow's hierarchy of love and belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization compare well with Herzberg's motivators which cause high satisfaction.12 Job satisfaction and employee motivation affect the organizational climate of the school. This researcher has examined uiwhat extent, if any, leadership behavior affects the organizational climate of the elementary schools in the Department of Defense Dependents Schools - England. Statement of the Problem Principals exhibit different leadership behaviors in the schools in which they are administrators. Teachers within each school formulate opinions concerning the morale or climate of the school in which they teach. It was the purpose of this study to investigate the various leadership behaviors of principals within selected elementary schools of the Department of Defense Dependents Schools (DODDS) in England, to investigate the organizational climate of the elementary schools as perceived by the professional staff, and to determine the relationship, if any, between leader- ship behavior and school climate in the schools studied. Questions This study sought to answer the following questions: (1) How do elementary school teachers in selected DODDS- England perceive their school climate as measured by the Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire (0000)? (2) How do elementary school teachers in selected DODDS- England perceive their principal's leadership behavior as measured by the Leader Behavior Description Ques- tionnaire Form XII (LBDQ-XII)?' (3) Does a relationship exist and, if so, to what extent between the leadership behavior as reported by the LBDQ-XII and the teachers' perceptions of the school climate as reported by the OCDQ? (6) Consequences The results of this study will: Provide information to the Department of Defense Depen- dents Schools in England concerning school climate as perceived by the professional staff of its schools. Provide information concerning the leadership behavior of DODDS administrators within the geographical area of England. Examine the relationship, if any, between leadership behavior and school climate. Provide impetus for a series of workshops for adminis- trators to examine various leadership styles and their own individual leadership behavior. Provide information leading to an understanding of the importance of further educational research for solving problems concerning school administration. Provide information leading to the improvement of the organizational climate within each elementary school within DODDS-England. Background of the Study Since World War II, the United States has maintained a military presence in various countries throughout the free world. :Elementary and secondary schools have been estab- lished to teach the school-aged dependents of the military and civilian personnel assigned to the aforementioned coun- tries. At present, DODDS operates two hundred seventy-seven schools in twenty-two countries throughout the world. It is the mission or purpose of these schools to ”provide educa- tional opportunities comparable to those offered in the bet- ”13 The enrollment ter school systems in the United States. in DODDS is approximately 130,000 students, with a staff of approximately 11,000 employees. There are five geographical regions within DODDS, each with its own regional director. The countries of Belgium, Bermuda, Canada (Newfoundland), Cuba, England, Iceland, Netherlands, Norway, Scotland, and British West Indies (Antigua) comprise the Atlantic Region. The Azores, Bahrain, Greece, Italy, Spain, and Turkey are in the Medi- terranean Region. Japan, Korea, Okinawa (Japan), and the Philippines are located in the Pacific Region. The other two regions are Germany and the Panama Region. The Director of DODDS has her headquarters in Washington, D.C. In an attempt to ascertain the effectiveness of how well the school system meets the stated mission, DODDS employs North Central Accrediting Association to assist the schools in an evaluation of each of its elementary, middle, junior high, and senior high schools. However, no effort has been conducted to examine leadership styles or behavior, the school climate, and to what extent a relationship exists between the two in this setting. Additionally, there are several factors that may have an effect on the morale or school climate that are unique to DODDS. Firstly, teachers are civilians in a military 8 setting, and there are differences in dealing with a mili- tary community as compared with communities in a town or city setting. It should be recognized that DODDS schools are located outside the United States, and some teachers have additional adjustments to language and culture. Com- munications and supplies are affected by worldwide bureauc- racies, and distances between support facilities may affect the school's climate. The transfer system for teachers has changed recently. It is more difficult for teachers to transfer to other countries or to other schools within the same country or geographic location. Some teachers look to other teachers as their main support group while dependent wives of military personnel have families and other support groups. These unique factors and interest in leadership have led the researcher to conduct this investigation. Definition of Terms Organizational climate is the pattern of social interaction that characterizes an organization14 and is operation- ally defined as the teachers' perceptions of the schools' organizational climates as indicated by the OCDQ. Perception is a continuous process of integration of present and past sensory impressions15 as indicated by the teachers who responded to the questionnaires used in this study. Leadership behavior is defined as that ability and readiness to inspire, guide, direct, or manage others16 and is operationally defined as the teachers' perceptions of their principals' behaviors as indicated by the LBDQ-XII. Strong leadership behavior is defined here as frequency of response to a particular leadership trait of their principal by teachers on the LBDQ-XII. A leadership trait identified as strong does not necessarily indi- cate a good or desirable quality. DODDS is the Department of Defense Dependents Schools. Delimitations of the Study Both questionnaires (OCDQ and LBDQ-XII) were sent or handed directly to elementary school teachers in selected schools in DODDS-England. The results were limited to how accurately these teachers reflected their perceptions of the organizational climate of their school and their perceptions of the leadership behavior of their principal. The study was further limited to those teachers who chose to complete and return both questionnaires, for the results may not reflect perceptions of those teachers who chose not to take part in the study. The LBDQ-XII was not designed to produce a grand mean of the twelve subscales. Therefore, it is difficult to associate statistically the school climate with an overall leadership score. Rather, it was necessary to compare the lO twelve subscales of the LBDQ-XII with the eight subscales of the OCDQ. Assumptions It was assumed that teachers responded honestly and accu- rately their perceptions of their principal's leadership behavior and their perceptions of their school's organiza- tional climate. It was also assumed that seventy percent or more of the teachers sent the questionnaires would complete them and send them to the researcher. Procedures The target population for this research was all elemen- tary school teachers in the Department of Defense Dependents Schools located in England with a student population of 170 or more. Both the Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire and the Leadership Behavior Description Questionnaire were distributed to each teacher identified in the population. A cover letter requesting completion of the questionnaires was enclosed with the questionnaires. A self-addressed, stamped envelope was also enclosed. Approval from the Director of DODDS-A and from the President of the Overseas Education Asso- ciation 'was solicited before the study began. Approval from both the school principal and the worker organization repre- sentative was requested before questionnaires were distributed. 11 Follow-up telephone calls were made to school principals and teachers, and additional questionnaires were sent to the teachers. Organization of the Study The study is organized as follows: Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter 1 01-wa Introduction of the Study Review of Selected Related Literature Procedures for Data Collection Findings Summary of Findings, Conclusions, Recommendations, and Reflections 12 Endnotes 1Ralph K. White and Ronald D. Lippitt, Autocracy and Democracy: An Experimental Inquiry (New York: Harper and Row, 1960). 2Francis Griffith, Administrative Theory in Education: Text and Readings (Michigan: Rendéll Publishing Company, 1979), p. 139. 31bid. 4Robert F. Moser, "The Leadership Patterns of School Superintendents and School Principals," Administrator's Notebook 6 (September 1957). 5Jacob W. Getzels, "Administration as a Social Proc- ess," Administrative Theory in Education, ed. Andrew W. Halpin (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1970), p. 157. 6Moser, p. 2. 7Griffith, pp. 144-153. 81bid., p. 145. 91bid., p. 148. 1OAbraham Maslow, Toward a Psychology of Being (Princeton, N.J.: D. Van Nostrand Co. Inc., 1962), p. 150. 11Frederick Herzberg and Bernard Mausner, The Motivation to Work (New York: John Wiley 81 Sons, Inc., 1965), pp. 44-49. 12ibid. 13Overseas Employment Opportunities for Educators, Department of Defense Dependents schools, Virginia, 1980. . 14Carter V. Good, Dictionary of Education (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1973), p. 480. 15 Ibid., p. 413. 161bid., p. 332. CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF SELECTED RELATED LITERATURE In this section, the researcher has reviewed and syn- thesized the available, current literature concerning the following: -—Theory and research in educational administration. ——Research studies on teacher motivation. ——Correlation studies between leadership behavior and organizational climate. Theory and Research in Educational Administration Frederick W. Taylor, in one of the earliest systematic views of administration, said that excellence in management rested in "knowing exactly what you want men to do, and then 1 seeing that they do it in the best and cheapest way." In this theory of scientific management, however, Taylor recog- nized the importance of the worker satisfaction as well as the importance of maximizing worker output. He stated that "no system or scheme of management should be considered which does not in the long run give satisfaction to both 2 employer and employee." His major points from his Principles of Scientific Man- agement are summarized in the following: 13 14 1. Time-study principle. All productive effort should be measured by accurate time study and a standard time established for all work done in the shop. 2. Piece-rate principle. Wages should be pro- portional to output and their rates based on the standards determined by time study. As a corol- lary, a worker should be'given the highest grade of work of which he is capable. 3. Separation-0f-planning-from-performance prin- ciple. Management should take over from the work- ers the responsibility for planning the work and making the performance physically possible. Plan- ning should be based on time studies and other data related to production, which are scientifi- cally determined and systematically classified; it should be facilitated by standardization of tools, implements, and methods. 4. Scientific-method-of-work principle. Manage- ment should take over from the workers the respon- sibility for their methods of work, determine scientifically the best methods, and train workers accordingly. 5. Managerial-control principle. Managers should be trained and taught to apply scientific principles of management and control (such as man- agement by exception and comparison with valid standards). 6. Functional-management principle. The strict application of military principles should be reconsidered and the industrial organization should be so designed that it best serves the pur- pose of improving the coordinagion of activities among the various specialists. Taylor's major contribution was the idea that adminis- tration can be studied systematically.4 He was extremely influential in the establishment of the principles of scien- tific management in several large companies. However,'%n MHZ the movement came under investigation by the Social Com- mittee of the House of Representatives, and Congress attached a rider to the military appropriations bill specifically 15 prohibiting the use of any of the funds for time and motion studies."5 As Taylor focused on the operations at the bottom of the administrative hierarchy, the Frenchman Henri Fayol concen- trated on the managerial level at the top of the hierarchy.6 Fayol presented his theory of administration in General and Industrial Management.7 The major points of his system were five "elements," as he referred to them. They are noted in the following paragraph from his General and Industrial Man- agement (emphasis added): To Manage is to forecast and plan, to organize, to command, to co-ordinate, and to control. To foresee and provide means examining the future and drawing up the plan of action. To organize means building up the dual structure, material and human, of the undertaking. To command means maintaining activities among the personnel. To co-ordinate means binding together, unifying and harmonizing all activities and effort. To control means seeing that everything occurs in conformity with estab- lished rule and expressed command.8 From Fayol's theory of administration came a set of prin- ciples or, as Fayol called them, "precepts." These precepts were derived from his industrial experiences. Fayol believed that the manager who has command should: 1. Have a thorough knowledge of his personnel. 2. Eliminate the incompetent. 3. Be well versed in the agreements binding the business and its employees. 4. Set a good example. 5. Conduct periodic audits of the organization and use summarized charts to further this. 6. Bring together his chief assistants by means of conferences, at which unity of direction and focusing of effort are provided for. 7. Not become engrossed in detail. 8. Aim at making unity, energy, initiat ve, and loyalty prevail among the personnel. 16 Max Weber was a German historian and sociologist and was most influential in bringing bureaucracy into focus. He looked upon bureaucracy as the most effective and efficient kind of administrative organization. In his Theory of 10 Social and Economic Organization, Weber described three types of authority. His analysis of authority was a scien- tific effort to arrive at concepts that could be applicable, regardless of time and place in a society. The three types of authority with which Weber dealt are: traditional, legal-rational, and charismatic. He identified all three in some degree in every society.11 The first "domination" or authority with which Weber deals is the traditional. Nisbet, H1 The Sociological Tradition, quotes from The Sociology of George Simmel: A system of imperative co-ordination will be called traditional if legitimacy is claimed for it and believed in on the basis of the sanctity of the order and the attendant power as they have been handed down from the past, have always existed.12 In other words, the legitimacy of authority and power is accepted because it is based on "ancient and revered roots" of the past, and neither the authority nor its roots can be examined or questioned by "any one man's reason."13 According to Weber, the validity of its claim to legitimacy rests "on an established belief in the sanctity of immemor- ial traditions and the legitimacy of the status of those exercising authority under them.”14 17 Charismatic authority is that power an individual possesses that causes others to listen and believe what he or she says or does is correct. It is ”a unique force of command that overrides in popular estimation all that is "15 Charismatic bequeathed by either tradition or law. authority or power is short-lived. The message may continue to have impact, but the individual who brought about the message or change no longer exists. Weber refers to this message becoming traditionalized or rationalized as "routin- ization" of charisma. The validity of charismatic author- ity's claim to legitimacy rests ”on devotion to the specific and exceptional sanctity, heroism or exemplary character of an individual person, and the normative patterns or orders revealed or ordained by him."16 The validity of the legal-rational authority to legiti- macy is based on "rational grounds——resting on a belief in the 'legality' of patterns of normative rules and the right of these elevated to authority under such rules to issue commands."17 Rational authority does not indicate equality but is based upon rules rather than people. Things run smoothly, orderly, and rationally when a system of rules "is applied judicially and administratively in accordance with ascertainable principles [which are] valid for all members of the corporate group."18 Rational authority is bureau- cratic, functional, and hierarchical. The fundamental cate- gories of legal-rational authority are as follows: 18 1. A continuous organization of official func- tions bound by rules. 2. A specified sphere of competence a. a sphere of obligation to perform func- tions . . . as part of a systematic division of labor. b. provision of the incumbent with the neces- sary authority to carry out these func- tions. c. the necessary means of compulsion are clearly defined and their use is subject to definite conditions . 3. The organization of offices follows the principle of hierarchy . . 4. The rules which regulate the conduct of an office may be technical rules or norms . . . . 5. . . . the members of the administrative staff should be completely separated from ownership of the means of production . . . 6. . . . there is also a complete absence of appropriation of his official position by the incumbent . . . . 7. Administrative acts, decisions, and rules are formulated and recorded in writing . . . 19 The aforementioned approaches to administration by Taylor, Fayol, and Weber were managerial in nature. Getzels, Lipham, and Campbell note the affect that these managerial theories have had on administration: 1. With respect to the study of administration, it [the managerial approach] has encouraged the fragmentation of the administrative function into the smallest component units of activity, that is, the separate tasks. 2. With respect to training in administration, it encouraged instruction in principles and prescrip- tions of standard tasks that need to be done and standard techniques for doing them. 3. And perhaps fundamentally, with respect to the administrative process itself, it tended to focus on the organizational requirements and institu- tional elements of administration to the neglect of the interpersonal and human elements.20 The Human Relations school of thought grew as a reac- tion to what is referred to as the Classical school of 19 Weber, Fayol, and Taylor. Heretofore, workers were consid- ered as a quantity to be manipulated in order to produce a 21 product. In the early 19005, Mary Parker Follett stated that "the central problem of any enterprise, be it local or national government, business organization or school system, is the building and maintaining of dynamic yet harmonious 22 human relations." In regards to administration, Follett said: It seems to me that the first test of business administration, of industrial organizations, should be whether you have a business with all its parts so co-ordinated, so moving together in their closely knit and adjusting activities, so linking, interlocking, interrelating, that they make a work- ing unit——that is, not a congeries of separate pieces, but what I galled a functional whole or integrative unity.2 Elton Mayo and his associates, F. T. Roethlisberger and William J. Dickson, provided systematic empirical data in support of Follett's convictions. Through a series of now famous experiments at the Hawthorne plant at the Western Electric Company, Roethlisberger and Dickson con- cluded: Although the results from these experiments on illumination fell short of the expectations of the company in the sense that they failed to answer the specific question of the relation between illumination and efficiency, nevertheless they provided a great stimulus for more research in the field of human relations.24 Kurt Lewin, Ronald Lippitt, and Ralph K. White greatly influenced the human relations movement in administration by their experiment with eleven-year old children at the Iowa Child Welfare Station at the University of Iowa in 20 1938. In this experiment, groups of five children met after school with an adult leader. The groups participated in activities such as carpentry, soap carving, and painting. All factors except the type of leadership were kept con- stant. Trained observers noted the reactions of the chil- dren to autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire leadership.25 As these concepts were discussed in Chapter 1, the following chart (Figure 2.1) will review those char- acteristics associated with each leadership style. Wilbur A. Youch, in Improving Human Relations in School Administration concluded that school administrators should be aware that: 1. Democracy is primarily concerned with human relations; therefore a most important consid- eration is the principal's dealings with teachers individually and collectively. 2. Simple problems of human relations almost always have wider frames of reference. 3. The single-school faculty is the most natural and efficient unit of democratic action. 4. The principal is in the most advantageous position to offer leadership to the faculty in its attempts to provide itself with demo- cratic experiences. 5. The faculty is a complex social group which requires expert handling to achieve its own best desires. 6. The primary responsibility of the principal is that of facilitation of the interactions of the faculty group so that they may result in maximum benefit to the teachers. 7. All individuals affected by any decision should have a share in determining its charac- ter and form.27 It would be unusual for any leader to exhibit the same characteristics or behaviors in all situations. The "Con- tinuum of Leader Behavior" indicates various behaviors 21 AUTOCRATIC 1. Leader has control 2. Situations for use are when: a. People are dependent b. Decisions are already made c. Positional or expert leverage is primary d. An emergency situation exists 3. Advantages: a. Roles are clearly defined b. Leader is given total control to accomplish goals 4. Disadvantage: All responsibility and decision—making rest in one individual DEMOCRATIC 1. Participation by group members 2. Situations for use are when: a. Autonomy within jobs b. Group cooperation and participation is essential c. Creativity is encouraged d. People are independent 3. Advantages: a. Ease of management b. Managerial decisions are improved in quality c. Economy in time and money d. Group cohesiveness 4. Disadvantage: Control of behavior depends upon group itself to be D motivated LAISSEZ—FAIRE 1. Maximum personal freedom; minimum leader participation 2. Situations for use are when: 3. Skilled or professional people are hired to perform a job b. Little or no direction is needed 3. Advantage: Maximum personal freedom allowed with minimum interference 4. Disadvantage: Requires skilled, competent people Figure 2.1. Lewin's Triangle.26 22 leaders are likely to exhibit from autocratic (leader- centered) to democratic (group-centered) (Figure 2.2). Fiedler's Contingency Theory of Leadership Effective- ness, which stresses that "a leader's effectiveness is determined by how well his or her leadership style fits the needs of a specific situation gives credence to thought that leadership is on a continuum."29 Fiedler describes a situation in terms of its "favorableness.” Three factors determine how favorable a situation is——the quality of leader- member relations in the group, the amount of structure imposed on tasks and assignments within the organization, and the amount of formal power that goes with the leader's position. As these three factors increase, so does favorability.3o Although Fiedler states that there is no direct corre- lation between situational favorability and the effective- ness of the leader, he suggests that "human relations oriented leaders are most effective in moderately favorable situations, while task-oriented leaders are at their best in 31 According to very favorable or unfavorable situations." Professor Frew, "Fiedler's basic theory suggests that simple routine mechanical tasks are best accomplished by task- oriented leaders, while more complex or people-service jobs are more efficiently accomplished by a pe0ple-oriented, democratic leader."32 Hersey, Gates, and Blanchard, in their "Life Cycle Theory of Leadership," discuss the appr0priate leadership style dependent on the maturity of the employees. Further explanation of their theory may be found in Chapter 1. 23 2255mm 509.3 ”.0 Enaczcoo .m.m 83mm mEomo 0cm 80303 05th 3 moEomu $203 820% new mm: 9:3 965 .302 965 mtzmcoo 20.596 965 c2308 mm Eocmot 6259503 .8 9.8 .coEomu 3.5.3 3 mmocaoccm :03: mm 0cm :5an .80305 333:3 603.020 833% .8208 955 $30 mucmmoi 3:035 358:. 30:30:94 :m:om: Sumo... n m m e m N F EOmemn. QDOmO Aoocoacmolaaocwv 0_._.._._KOI.FD< awn—(m; Anocoucmoicmumod 0..P<¢00._.D< 24 According to Douglas McGregor, who formulated Theory X and Theory Y, each person holds one of two Opposing theories of human behavior.33 Theory X holds that people are basically lazy, need to be prodded to action, and are motivated only by material or other rewards and punishments. Theory Y holds that people enjoy accomplishment, are self-motivated (except when thwarted), and have a desire to make a real contribution to their organization.34 McGregor believed that each view of how people are motivated to work is a self-fulfilling prophecy. If you believe peo- ple are lazy and irresponsible, they will be. If you believe workers try to accomplish the best of which they are capable, they will do so. Getzels and Guba believed that one cannot understand behavior outside the context of a social system. Behavior of an individual is a function of the role one plays and his/her personality within that social system. Role is defined as a pattern of expectations which applies to a par- ticular social position which normally persists independent of the personality occupying that position. Personality is that dynamic organization within the individual that gov- erns the way one acts in society.35 The social system consists of two major aspects: nomo- thetic and idiographic. Nomothetic are those aspects of the social system that are allied with the institution,its rules, policies, roles, and expectations. Idiographic refers to the individual,his/her personality,and needs. A graphic repre- sentation of the basic model appears in Figure 2.3.36 25 6.0022 2593022 new otocuoEoZ we coZmucmmoLamm 2:929 .m.m mango om U.Im<¢OO.D_ coEmoamE lllllllllllllllllllllll mnooz 3.23083 E2239: octagon $02030 mcozmuomaxm llllllllllll 0.0m lllllllllllll c2525.: 0....wIPOEOZ Ecumxm .Eoom 26 Some leaders, the theory suggests, may be more involved in the institutional aspect more than with the individual. This is referred to as the nomothetic style of leadership. Other leaders may be more concerned with the individual, his/her needs and disposition. This situation or style is noted as idiographic. A balance between the two is called transactional. 1. The nomothetic style is characterized by behavior which stresses goal accomplishment, rules and regulations, and centralized authority at the expense of the individual. Effectiveness is rated in terms of behavior toward accomplish- ing the school's objectives. 2. The idiographic style is characterized by behavior which stresses the individuality of peo- ple, minimum rules and regulations, decentralized authority, and highly individualistic relation- ships with subordinates. The primary objective is to keep subordinates happy and contented. 3. The transactional style is characterized by behavior which stresses goal accomplishment, but which also makes provision for individual need fulfillment. The transactional leader balances nomothetic and idiographic and thus judiciously utilizes each style as the occasion demands.37 The school as an organization has certain roles, rules, policies, and expectations of the teachers. As an institu- tion, it expects the teachers to exhibit certain kinds of behavior that is in keeping with the school's function and that will contribute to the goals of the organization. The relationship between the individual (with his/her personal- ity, needs, expectations, and desires) and the organization is more complex than the basic model suggests (Figure 2.4). In the school setting, the school administrator may benefit 27 . Azwwooocm .308 N no COZmLuflEEuxx: .330 van 2330 ES: Eoumxm _m_oom m mm Bocom or: .¢.N 9:9”. )0 ,oo 0.,5 r by row 3 O O 9% 6%. 14% t 1« 1+, \ $490 110’ 3.52.5.3 Alli 8.3.33 III 5.590 Aroan, $9.56 a .513 0 ” a \ 4.45" :. 92$ 1\\ 3.2 11111.. E22022 #111 23532. 1 .0. >173. \\ ” 0 0 ‘V/ 3—m>n ll. «203237: I =<§JU III-I35 a<flvo / a a 0 \ 50:9» ox— . wzo.—(—Uu~xu Bil-II ado- ..IIIIII 2032:»:— ....... .2 . . / Ia...) Illilllll 331 11.1111 8‘; 28 from the knowledge of how members of his/her staff perceive the goals of the institution in respect to the satisfaction of the teachers' needs and motivations. Summary In this section was noted the systematic views of administration of Taylor, Fayol, and Weber. The approaches of these men were managerial in nature. Getzels, Lipham, and Campbell noted the negative aspects of the managerial approach, emphasizing the neglect the approach had on the interpersonal and human elements. As a reaction to the impersonal managerial approach, the human relations movement in administration developed. Elton Mayo and associates conducted experiments with workers at the Western Electric Company, Hawthorne plant. It was concluded that illumination had little to do with produc- tion, but the attention and recognition the workers received during the experiment did influence production. Kurt Lewin's work with autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire approaches noted the benefits and negative aspects of each. McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y noted two opposing theories of human behavior, emphasizing motivation as a key factor in both theories. 29 Research Studies on Teacher Motivation Abraham Maslow structured his theory on motivation based on a hierarchy of human needs, ranging from the physi- ological needs for air, food, and water to the psychological needs of doing all one is capable of doing. According to Maslow, lower needs must be fairly well satisfied before one can address a higher need. The potency of each need is greatest at one time; therefore, the individual becomes motivated to satisfy the need.39 The five needs, according to Maslow, are: (1) physio- logical or physical needs, (2) safety or security needs, (3) love and belonging or social needs, (4) esteem needs, .and (5) self-actualization needs. These needs are usually noted in a triangle as indicated in Figure 2.5. Maslow describes the physiological needs as essential for existence. People are motivated to satisfy needs for hunger, thirst, sex, and shelter. These needs are separate from each other and must be satisfied before other needs are recognized. Undoubtedly these physiological needs are the most prepotent of all needs. What this means specifically is that in the human being who is missing everything in life in an extreme fashion, it is most likely that the major motivation would be the physiological needs rather than any others. A person who is lacking food, safety, love and esteem would most probably hunger for food more strongly than for anything else.40 When the physiological needs are satisfied, man's behavior is then turned toward the satisfaction of safety needs. 3O Self- Actualization Esteem Needs Love and Belongingness Safety Needs Physiological Needs Figure 2.5. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. 31 Safety needs, such as security, stability, protection, freedom from fear, need for order, structure, law, and others, assume considerable importance in our society. In the educational setting, safety needs may be expressed as needs for tenure, pensions, and regular salary increment.41 Once safety needs are satisfied, one is motivated to fill the need for belonging and love. In the field of education, this includes "joining associations, acceptance by col- "42 If these leagues, and giving and receiving friendship. needs are not satisfied, one tends to act in ways that are "detrimental to the achievement of the organization goals."43 There are two kinds of esteem needs: (1) the desire to be competent and confident to face the world, for strength, achievement, and mastery, and (2) the desire for prestige among one's colleagues, fame, status, dignity, attention, 44 When the aforementioned recognition, and appreciation. needs are satisfied, one has feelings of self-confidence, self-worth, and feeling of usefulness. When esteem needs are not met, the individual has feelings of negative self- concept, inferiority, and weakness.45 Self-actualization is the highest point one can attain. One is self-actualized when the individual has reached his or her full potential. All needs must not be satisfied 100% in order for an individual to be motivated toward the next higher need. Maslow states that the "aver- age citizen is satisfied perhaps 85% in his physiological 32 needs, 70% in his safety needs, 50% in his love needs, 40% in his self-actualization needs.”46 As applied to educa- tion, Maslow's hierarchy of needs are noted as follows: Security, the lowest order need, is associated with money, benefits, tenure, and role consolida- tion. Social need is associated with acceptance, belonging, friendship, school membership, formal work group, and informal work group relationships. Self-esteem is associated with self-respect, respect by others as a person and as a profes- sional, competence, confidence and recognition. Autonomy is associated with control, influence participation, and authority. Self-actualization is associated with personal and professional suc- cess, achievement, peak satisfaction, giving all and working at top potential.47 A more complete analysis of teachers' needs as applied to Maslow's theory comes from Dr. Timothy G. Quinn, Assis- tant Superintendent of Schools in Napoleon, Michigan. He suggests that administrators would do well to pay attention to the needs of the staff and to provide educational leaders with the following suggestions: Physiological Needs: 1. Provide adequate pay, medical insurance, life insurance, optical and dental insurance. Provide temperature controlled teaching sta- tions. Provide clean working conditions. Provide adequate conference, planning and lunch time. Provide adequate sick leave. . Provide opportunity for physical fitness of staff through use of athletic facilities. OU'I 4:1» N I O O 0 Safety Needs: A 0 Provide building security. 2. Provide administrative support of teachers in discipline situations. - 3. Provide safe and adequate parking facilities for vehicles. 4:. 10. 11. 12. 33 Provide sound fiscal management of district to assure job security. Prevent physical and psychological threat of abuse to all staff members from within or outside staff. Provide enforced job descriptions so that all. staff members know exactly what is expected of them. Provide a clear and easily understood con- tract. Provide fair and honest evaluation which accurately records work performance. Provide an atmosphere where teachers feel comfortable discussing problems and concerns with their supervisor. Establish and exercise sound organizational skills in operation of school program. Give continual feedback so that staff members always know where they stand. Provide a support system for staff members. Love and Belongingness: N—A 00 Provide faculty group activities. Involve faculty in decision making and imple- mentation. Involve faculty in problem identification and goal setting on individual, departmental and school wide basis. Let individual staff members know that you care about them personally. Provide the opportunity for staff to meet in constructive involvement. Be constructive rather than destructive in approach to problem solving. Work continuously to develop a sense of unity and responsibility. Provide opportunity for teachers to share goals with each other. Display an interest in teachers as people with needs. 1 Provide proper discipline and guidance for individual staff members. Self-Esteem: 1. 2. 3. Establish yourself as administrator as sig- nificant other in lives of your teachers. Provide assistance in the individual goal setting process. Encourage establishment of goals that are need fulfilling and growth facilitating. 34 Provide positive feedback whenever possible. Provide public recognition whenever possible. Provide awards for outstanding performance. Provide written acknowledgement of job well done. Facilitate achievement of goals in any way possible. Implement pay incentives for outstanding per- formance. NO CD \lmmb Self-Actualization: 1. Promote and support individually designed professional growth programs. 2. Allow as much autonomy in job performance decisions as organization can possibly allow. 3. Promote creativity and independence to as great an extent as possible within your organization.4 In an article from The Practitioner entitled ”Providing Leadership for Teacher Motivation," the staff writers noted that the principal of the school was identified as the most important factor for teacher motivation: The most prominent—-and common——component of successful schools is a motivated teaching staff. Other factors such as community location, school size, income and occupation of parents, and per pupil expenditure tend to vary from one outstand- ing school to another. A motivated faculty, one that "makes things happen," is the one constant for all good schools. Without this critical fac- tor the school tends to become ordinary and rou- tine. And, as with other school attributes, the principal is the key to a motivated and dedicated staff.43 It is of paramount importance that the principal become aware of teacher needs as Maslow describes them. Being aware of the hierarchy of needs and "developing the skills to determine the need level at which one's self or another individual is functioning allows one to set personal goals 35 or to assist others in setting goals that will facilitate need gratification."50 Hersey conducted a study in which he examined the relationship between the "cyclical nature of feelings about the job" and the frequency of accidents. It was found that a significant number of accidents occurred during periods when the workers' moods were low. Here is evidence not only that people can identify their swings of mood and report on them systematically but that these swings can be linked to an important measure of effectiveness at work, that is, occurrence of accidents.51 In The Motivation to Work, Herzberg notes those factors about a job which bring about satisfaction. These factors he calls "satisfiers." He also identifies those aspects of the job that are "not associated with the job itself but with conditions that surround the doing of the job." These he calls "hygiene factors."52 Those factors which contribute to job satisfaction are: feelings of achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, advancement, and growth. These "satisfiers" 53 Those factors that con- are those which motivate workers. tribute to job dissatisfaction (hygiene factors) are noted as: company policy and administration, supervision, rela- tionship with supervisor, work conditions, salary, and 54 Figure 2.6 notes those factors that contribute to others. low and high job satisfaction. It is significant to note that the absence of dissatis- fiers does not bring about satisfaction on the job. 36 However, dissatisfiers do bring about unhappiness. Only the presence of satisfiers or motivators can bring about job satisfaction.56 Moreover, Willing, in "Effective Adminis— trative Support for Teachers," states that "the effective administrator must look beyond hygiene factors toward ways in which he or she can provide motivating conditions that will encourage teachers to give superior performances."57 Kaiser, in ”Motivation Deprivation: No Reason to Stay,” compares the motivators of both Maslow and Herzberg (Figure 2.7). He notes that the first three levels of Maslow's hierarchy of needs parallel Herzberg's hygiene factors. These first three represent those factors offered to teachers by school boards. Kaiser states that ”as school boards provide increased hygiene, teachers can be expected to increase their performance to that of a day's work for a day's pay, but cannot be expected to be satisfied or moti- vated to do anything more than that."59 Some motivation may come from the third level, but motivating factors of the fourth and fifth levels bring about more job satisfaction. Kaiser states that the follow- ing factors motivate teachers by fulfilling fourth- and fifth-level needs:60 (1) a chance for advancement (2) a sense of achievement (3) recognition for a job well done (4) responsibility for an enriched, interesting job. 3 LOW SATISFACTION Percentage Frequency 7 HIGH SATISFACTION Percentage frequency 50% 4o 30 20 10 0 1o 20 30 4o 50% I I I I Achievement 7 J I I Recognifion I I [ Work Itself I I I r Responsibilit I I I AdvanEement r’ _______1 I I Grgwth Company FLolic and Administration I I Supervision I Relationship with Supervisor I Work Cond tions __I SalIary I Relationship WIth Peea— All factors Con- All Factors Con- , tributing to Job tributing to Job Personal Life::_I Dissatisfaction Satisfaction I Relationship with subordinates: I [Hyaiene (69%) 19H I 51% N4 t t 81 Starlet: I I <31“ 1'5 1% I j 80% 60 ‘10 20 O 20 ‘10 60 80% Sectrity E Ratio and Percent Figure 2.6. Comparison of Satisfier and Dissatisfier Factors. The chart indicates those areas of work frequently identified as causing high satisfac- tion (right side) and those areas of work frequently identified as causing low satis- Ihose factors not contributing to high satisfaction (motivators) Herzberg calls Hygiene Factors. faction (left side). 38 Motivatoss 1 " " '- ". .- "" Responsibility Self-Actuallzstlon l Advancement l - + _ _ _ _ ,_ .. _ L. Recognition /| 53° 'L Achievement I 9“ a, $- Belonglngness, Social. Love Safety and Security Physiological Figure 2.7. Comparison of Maslow's and Herzberg's Motivators. Source: Jeffrey 8. Kaiser, "Motivation Deprivation: No Reason to Stay." 39 Whose responsibility is it for positive teacher morale? In an article by Washington and Watson, this responsibility was placed squarely on the shoulders of the school adminis- trator. The school principal plays a key role in nurtur- ing and maintaining positive teacher morale. High morale is a valid indicator that the staff is sat- isfied with the operation and accomplishments of the school. Teachers whose basic needs are satis- fied tend to constantly strive for fulfillment of higher goals, and their efforts and attitudes ultimately will overflow to the student body, resulting in more productive students. All too often principals do not realize that high teacher morale does not just happen in the course of daily events. It must be cultivated, developed, and nurtured by creative, receptive principals. It requires time, effort, and plan- ning. According to Washington and Watson, principals can directly influence the morale of the teachers on their staffs by: 1. Praising and giving credit when it is warranted. ' Supporting the teacher in conflicts with students and parents. Giving special attention to the teacher's physical comforts and other related matters. Assuming responsibility for his or her administration actions. Demonstrating that (s)he is knowledgeable about current school methods, materials, strategies, and practices. 6. Encouraging the teacher's professional growth. 2 U! -> DJ M o o o o The work of Abraham Maslow and Frederick Herzberg on what motivates people toward high productivity and positive self worth has been widely published. Of significance to the Department of Defense Dependents Schools is the wide use of administrative practices developed as a result of 4O Maslow's theory and Herzberg's research. The automobile industry in Japan as well as several industries in the U.S. have adopted a humanizing approach to management that addresses employees' needs and factors which cause the employee to be highly motivated to work. Correlation Studies Between Leadership Behavior and Organizational Climate Andrew W. Halpin states that: As any teaCher or school executive moves from one school to another, he/she is inexorably struck by the differences he/she encounters in Organiza- tional Climate. He/she voices his/her reaction with remarks as, "You don't have to be in a school very long before you feel the atmosphere of a place."6 In April 1972, Fred C. Feidler presented a paper at the American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting in Chicago entitled, "A Study of Principal Leader Behavior and Contrasting Organizational Environments." The study exam- ined the relationship between the leader behavior of twenty- three elementary school principals as measured by the LBDQ- XII and contrasting school typologies described by the Profile of a school instrument. Four leader behaviors . . . tolerance of freedom, consideration, integration, and tolerance of uncer- tainty . . . were found to be significantly higher for schools having participative group organiza- tional processes than for schools described as hav- ing more authoritative processes.64 Feidler also stated that there is a definite "implication that the positive quality or regard for teachers exhibited 41 by the principal is a determining factor in the organiza— tional environment of the school."65 In a study made by Anderson and Brown, it was found that the leader behavior and confidence in leadership were strongly related. Anderson and Brown used factor scores derived from the LBDQ-XII. It was also noted that "while teacher satisfaction showed a similar strong relationship with principal leader behavior, teachers' ratings of school effectiveness bore no relationship to the principal's leader behavior."66 Although there is some evidence showing a relationship between leader behavior and organizational climate, there is also conflicting evidence that suggests that the correla- tions between the two are small. A study by Schmidt examined the relationship between the LBDQ-XII and Halpin and Croft's Organ- izational Climate Description Questionnaire (OCDQ). Strikingly, the correlations between these two instruments were rather small. Very few correla- tions rose above .50 with the highest being .73 between the Production Emphasis scales on the two instruments.57 In a study conducted in 1972 comparing the results of the OCDQ and leader behavior characteristics by means of the Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation-Behavior, it was shown that there was not a significant relationship between principal behavior and organizational climate.68 There is indeed contradictory evidence on the relation- ship of leader behavior and the organizational climate of 42 schools. However, if schools make a determined effort to improve the organizational climate, many approaches may be successful. It appears from the literature, then, that there are many ideas on what a healthy school climate is and how to achieve it as there are ideas on what, in individuals, constitutes a healthy personality and how to achieve it. Yet the actual experiences of school leaders suggest that this lack of agree- ment and lack of any hard data concerning the effectiveness of school climate improvement efforts may not be insurmountable problems. What seems to be true in practice is that almost any approach to climate improvement undertaken with energy and optimism helps enormously to improve school morale, communication, and relationships with staff, stu- dents, and community.59 Summary A review of selected literature indicates that the relationship between leadership behavior and the organiza- tional climate of schools is not clear nor is it consistent. H0wever, it does appear that 221 attempt to address and improve school morale, communications, and relationships will have a positive effect on staff, administration, and community. 43 Endnotes 1Frederick W. Taylor, Shop Management (New York: Harper and Row, 1911), p. 11. 2 Ibid. 3Raymond Villers, Dynamic Management in Industry (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1960), p. 29. 4Jacob W. Getzels, James M. Lipham, and Roald F. Campbell, Educational Administration as a Social Process (New York: Harper and Row, 1968), p. 25. Slbid. 61bid. 7Henri Fayol, General and Industrial Management, trans. Constance Storrs (London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, 1949). 8 1010., pp. 5-6. 91b1d., pp. 97-98. 10Max Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organi- zations, ed. Talcott Parsons (New York: The Free Press, 11Robert J. Calzini, "Weber's Types of Authority," paper presented to Michigan State University, 1981. 12Robert Nisbet, The Sociological Tradition, 1966. 13Ibid. 14Weber, p. 328. 15Nisbet. 16 Weber, p. 328. 171bid. 44 18Nisbet. 19weper, pp. 330-332. 20Getzels, Lipham, and Campbell, p. 30. 21Francis Griffiths, Administrative Theory in Education: Text and Readings. 22Getzels, Lipham and Campbell, p. 31. 23Henry C. Metcalf and L. Urwick, Dynamic Administra- tion: The Collected Papers of Mary PaFRet Follett (New York: Harper and Row, 1940), p. 14. 24F. J. Roethlisberger and William J. Dickson, Management and the Worker (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Uni- versity Press, 1939), p. 17. 25Ralph K. White and Ronald D. Lippitt, Autocracy and Democracy: An Experimental Inquiry (New York: Harper and Row, 19607. 26US Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education, Leadership Theories by Bobbie A. Sferra and Susan C. Paddock (Washington, D.C., 1980), p. 16. 27Wilbur A. Youch, Improving Human Relations in School Administration (New YorR: Harper and Row, 19497, pp. 11-16. 28$ferra and Paddock, p. 25. 29Eric Clearinghouse on Educational Management (Eugene, Ore.: University of Oregon, No. 1, January 1978). 30Ibid. 311010. 32 David R. Frew, "Leadership and Followership," Personnel Journal (February 1977). 45 33Stuart C. Smith, JoAnn Mozzarella, and Philip K. Piele, School Leadership Handbook for Survival (Eugene, Ore.: University of Oregon, Eric Clearinghouse on Educa- tional Management, 1981), p. 61. 3 4151a. 35Jacob W. Getzels and Egon G. Guba, "Administration as a Social Process," Administrative Theory in Education, ed. Andrew W. Halpin (Chicago:. University of Chicago, Midwest Administrative Center, 1958). 361010. 37Ibid., p. 254. 38Jacob W. Getzels and Herbert A. Thelen, "The Class- room Group as a Unique Social System," in Nelson 8. Henry, ed., The Dynamics of Instructional Groups: Sociopsychologi- cal Aspects of Teaching and Learning, N.S.S.E. (Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education, 1960), p. 80. 39A. H. Maslow, Toward a Psychology of Being (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1968). 4°151d.. p. 37. 41Grace 8. Chisolm, Roosevelt Washington, and Mary Thibodeaux, Job Motivation and the Need Fulfillment Defi- ciencies of Educators (Denton, Tx.: North Texas State University, 1980). 421bid., p. 4. 43Ibid. 44Maslow, p. 45. 45Chisolm, Washington, and Thibodeaux, p. 3. 461514., p. 5. 47 Ibid. 46 48Douglas Heath, Faculty Burnout, Morale and Vocational Adaptation (Boston, Mass.: National Association fdr Inde- pendent Schools, 1981), pp. 6-7. 49The Practitioner, A Newsletter for the On-Line Admin- istrator (Reston, Vir.: National Association of Secondary SChool Principals, Vol. 5, No. 2, November 1978), p. 2. 501bid., p. 5. 511bid., p. 6. 52 Frederick Herzberg, Bernard Mausner, and Barbara Block Snyderman, The Motivation to Work (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1966), p. 13. 531616. 54Ibid., p. 113. 55Frederick Herzberg, "One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees?" Harvard Business Review (January- February 1968), p. 57. 56Delight C. Willing, “Effective Administrative Support for Able Teachers," New Directions for Continuing Education, .v01. 4, 1979, p. 52. 57Ibid., p. 56. 58Jeffrey S. Kaiser, "Motivation Deprivation: No Reason to Stay," The Clearing House 55, no. 1 (1981): 35-38. 591bid., p. 36. 601bid., p.37. 61 Roosevelt Washington, Jr., and Hoyt F. Watson, "Positive Teacher Morale-—The Principal's Responsibility," NASSP Bulletin, Vol. 60399, April 1976, p. 4. 62 Ibid., D. 5. 47 63Lynn R. Wallich, ”School Climate: An Organizational Development View," Wisconsin, Stoughton Area School District April 1980, p. 4. 64Fred c. Feidler, "A Study of Principal Leader Behav- ior and Contrasting Organizational Environments," paper pre- sented at the American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting, Chicago, Illinois, April 1972. 651bid., p. 41. 66T. B. Greenfield, "Research on Behavior of Educa- tional Leaders: Critique of a Tradition," Alberta Journal of Educational Research XIV (March 1968): 66. 67Ipid. 68Thomas W. Wiggins, "A Comparative Investigation of Principal Behavior and School Climate," The Journal of Educational Research 66 (November 1972): 103. 69Smith, Mozzarella, and Piele, p. 186. (3) CHAPTER 3 PROCEDURES FOR DATA COLLECTION Introduction The purpose of this descriptive study was: To determine how elementary school teachers in selected DODDS-England schools perceived their school climate as measured by the Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire. To determine how elementary school teachers in selected DODDS-England schools perceived their principal's lead- ership behavior as measured by the Leadership Behavior Description Questionnaire - Form XII. To determine if a relationship existed and to what extent, if any, between the leadership behavior as reported by the LBDQ-XII and the teachers' perceptions of the school climate as reported by the OCDQ. Population The population selected for this study included all of the elementary school teachers in the Department of Defense Dependents Schoolsin England in schools with a student popu- lation of 170 or more. There were 167 teachers in ten elementary schools in DODDS-England who participated in the 48 49 study. The schools selected had at least one teacher per grade level, and the principal was not assigned regular teaching responsibilities. The three other elementary schools in DODDS-England——Croughton, Harrogate, and Chelveston Schools——were not included in the study because they did not meet the student population as well as the other criteria listed. The Instruments The organizational climate of schools as perceived by the teachers of those schools was measured by the.OCDQ. The leadership behavior of the principals of the schools as per- ceived by the teachers was measured by the LBDQ-XII. The Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire (OCDQ) ’ The OCDQ was developed by Andres W. Halpin and an B. Croft in 1962 under an HEW contract.1 The authors studied seventy-one schools chosen from six different regions in the United States. A total of 1,151 participants made contribu- tions to the original study, the result of which was the sixty-four-item questionnaire (OCDQ-Form IV) used in this research. The participants were asked to respond to the questionnaire by indicating to what extent each item occurs in his/her school. They were asked to choose from the fol- lowing descriptions: rarely occurs, sometimes occurs, often occurs, and very frequently ocCurs. Rarely occurs was given 50 a numerical value of 1, sometimes occurs a value of 2, often occurs a value of 3, and very frequently occurs a value of 4. The OCDQ-Form IV is composed of eight subtests, four which measure teachers' behaviors and four which measure principals' behaviors. These are as follows: Teachers' Behavior 1. DISENGAGEMENT refers to the teachers' ten- dency to be "Not with it." This dimension describes a group which is ”going through the motions," a group that is "not in gear" with respect to the task at hand. It corresponds to the more general concept of anomie as first described by Durkheim. In short, this subtest focuses upon the teachers' behavior in a task- oriented situation. 2. HINDRANCE refers to the teachers' feeling that the principal burdens them with routine duties, committee demands, and other requirements which the teachers construe as unnecessary busy- work. The teachers perceive that the principal is hindering rather than facilitating their work. 3. ESPRIT refers to "morale." The teachers feel that their social needs are being satisfied, and that they are, at the same time, enjoying a sense of accomplishment in their job. 4. INTIMACY refers to the teachers' enjoyment of friendly social relations with each other. This dimension describes a social-needs satisfaction which is not necessarily associated with task- accomplishment.‘ Principal's Behavior 5. ALOOFNESS refers to behavior by the principal which is characterized as formal and impersonal. He "goes by the book" and prefers to be guided by rules and policies rather than to deal with the teachers in an informal, face-to-face situation. His behavior, in brief, is universalistic rather than particularistic; nomothetic rather than idio- syncratic. To maintain this style, he keeps him- self-—at least, "emotionally"——at a distance from his staff. 51 6. PRODUCTION EMPHASIS refers to behavior by the principal which is characterized by close supervi- sion of the staff. He is highly directive, and plays the role of a "straw boss." His communica- tion tends to go in only one direction, and he is not sensitive to feedback from the staff. 7. THRUST refers to behavior by the principal which is characterized by his evident effort in trying to "move the organization." "Thrust" behavior is marked not by close supervision, but by the principal's attempt to motivate the teachers through the example which he personally sets. Apparently, because he does not ask the teachers to give of themselves any more than he willingly gives of himself, his behavior, though starkly task- oriented, is nonetheless viewed favorably by teachers. 8. CONSIDERATION refers to behavior by the prin- cipal which is characterized by an inclination to treat the teachers "humanly," to try to do a little something extra for them in human terms.2 In their research, Halpin and Croft identified six school profiles, ranging from an ”open Climate" to a "closed climate." The climate descriptor of a school is determined by a series of scores. These scores are then subtracted from a prototype profile for each climate, and a discrepancy score is producted. Each climate is examined, and the score which has the least discrepancy between what is and what is perfect in the prototype profile determines the climate of the school. The six profiles or climates are as follows: 1. Open Climate - high esprit, group works well together, not burdened by busy work, leader facili- tates task accomplishments. Group friendly to each other but not intimate. Considerable job satisfac- tion and pride in organization. Leader viewed as genuine, works hard himself, and is considerate of others. Personal flexibility and integrity, not aloof, low emphasis on production but work gets done. 52 2. Autonomous Climate - almost complete freedom given to group to provide their own structures. High esprit and intimacy, work well together, and achieve goals. Not hindered by leader but leader remains aloof, little production emphasis, and only moderately considerate. Leader provides thrust and is flexible but mainly allows the group to run the show. 3. Controlled Climate - marked by a press for achievement at the expense of social needs satis- faction. Group works hard, engaged in tasks, and follows the prescribed routine. They have much to do and do not have much social involvement with others. Social isolation is common. The leader is dominating and directive, somewhat aloof and dog- matic. Overall esprit is not bad as all members have a sense of pride in getting things done. 4. Familiar Climate - conspicuously friendly man- ner of group and leader. Social needs satisfaction is extremely high with little being done toward goal achievement. Everyone is viewed as a big happy family with being nice as the only criteria of success. The leader is concerned with making things easy for everybody. 5. Paternal Climate - group does not work well together, leader does most of work himself. Group does not enjoy friendly relationships with each other and really does not care. The leader is the opposite of aloof, being involved with everything and taking on all responsibilities. He works hard but does not motivate the group to do likewise. The feeling is that "Daddy Knows Best." It appears his consideration for others is a form of over- solicitousness to serve his own social needs rather than the group's. 6. Closed Climate - group members obtain little satisfaction in respect to task achievement or social needs. The group does not work well together yet they are fairly friendly towards each other. The leader is detached from the group and directs what is to happen. He is viewed as low in consideration and emphasizes production by expect- ing others to work hard without giving them the freedom to accomplish the task.3 The OCDQ is composed of eight subtests, four that reflect teachers'behaviors and four that reflect the 53 principals' behaviors. Table 3.1 indicates estimates of internal consistency and of equivalence for the eight OCDQ subtests, The Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire Form XII The Ohio State Leadership Studies which began in 1945 examined leadership traits by "measuring performance or behavior rather than human traits."4 Halpin and Winer fac- tor analyzed previous forms of the questionnaire and con- structed a thirty-item form composed of two dimensions: Consideration and Initiating Structure. The LBDQ-XII was produced by Stogdill, who had been an early worker in the Ohio studies. He claimed that, "It has not seemed reasonable to believe that two factors are suffi- cient to account for all the observable variance in leader 5 behavior." According to Greenfield,6 although use of the Halpin and Winer LBDQ is frequent in education, it is being replaced by the LBDQ-XII through Stogdill's own extensive use of it and its increasing application in education. Stogdill earlier observed the high intercorrela- tions between the sub-scale scores of the LBDQ-XII and performed factor analyses of leader behavior data obtained in different types of organizations. The results indicated that the LBDQ is indeed reducible to a smaller number of factors, but that the factors emerging depend upon the organization in which the instrument is used. Conflicting evi- dence is reported on this score by Brown and Punch. This conflict may in part be due to the different approach taken by these investigators. Whereas Stogdill factored the LBDQ-XII data from each organization separately and obtained different fac- tors from each organization (even apparently 54 .woew_w>_:co 68 $quwa w>3w>ewmeoo .neaoniewBB mew wmweho .woew_w>_:cw no oquwa a .xoewuflweoo _wee3e_ eo wqumew om. mm. mm. eonewnBeoo .m mm. mm. om. “mace... fl mm. 2. mm. 2885. 83262.. .o mm. mm. mm. mmweeooz .m mm. o... 8. 83:5 .e 2. 5. we. Edam .w 34. em. mo. woewenEI lo. we. mm. mm. uewEwmwmewma .F Cm: u 2v AZ. n 2V Cm: u ZV wwSEeom n:ooeom eowm ezoemiewEewwam eoZEom _weo_uwuom e. wuewneOQmwm of >5 ecuowmiwweeh nweweEazieo>m new nouootoo xtznwzwm co» nweonnzinnO Co woeoom «o aeo_o_tooo owwquzmm 3:we:EEoo ewwsuwm eo_~w_w:oo :wIit.Qm .3833 GOOD 39w or: eon woew_w>_:om no new xoewueweoo _weeoue_ no 8quwa .—.m w_nw._. 55 similar organizations), Brown and Punch factored the data from all schools and then determined how leader behavior in each school varied in terms of factors identified. Because of the instability of factors based upon small N's, the latter approach seems to be psychometrically more sound.7 The twelve dimensions of the LBDQ-Form XII are listed in Table 3.2. Factor 1 mentioned in the table is composed basically of Initiating Structure, Production Emphasis, and Role Assumption and is referred to as "System Orientation." Factor II is composed basically of Consideration, Tolerance of Freedom, and Tolerance of Uncertainty and is referred to as "Person Orientation." It should be noted that some questions were stated in such a way that reverse scoring was used in calculating the various climates. In other words, question 91, "Gets confused when too many demands are made on him/her," was scored in reverse in order to conform with standard format. Procedures Both the OCDQ and the LBDQ-XII were distributed to each of the 212 elementary school teachers in the ten selected DODDS-England schools. A cover letter requesting completion of the questionnaires was enclosed with the questionnaires. A self-addressed, stamped envelope was also enclosed. In all but two schools, the researcher talked directly with members of the faculty and distributed the questionnaires. Approval from DODDS-A and from the Overseas Education Asso- ciation area director were solicited before the study began. .nwutEo ewwn w>we cm. H ewe“ eoszm mme_nwoi_w 56 :8 C cocoa Com: Esoem mm mo om ow eontw> .30.. .x. mmm 56 51v N5». 3.96me mm. om. mm. eonEotO .2596 mm. :1. me. No. eozwemwue. em. 5. we. No. 38894 deposed mm... cm. 3. m_wweQEw 530.605 2. mm. mm. eoneoEweoo mm. 3. E. 5:95.83. 23“. 5. mm. Eonwoem Co 08923. mm. am. 23035 meZwEe. mu. No. mm. mmwewameme mm. mm. EEwtwoeD eo woeweflok mm. mm. MK. 5. eonEoeoowm newEwO om. wmu. eotwuewmweaom __ ecuowu F eouown. __ Snow“. _ eouowu .:x Eeouioomu of meD $.an 0); e. nor—Sewn. meouowu .Nd o_ow._. 57 Whenever possible, personal contact was made with the teachers and their cooperation requested. Variables The independent variables which may have influenced the perception of leader behavior and the organizational climate were: (1) Sex of the Teacher a. Female b. Male (2) Sex of the Principal a. Female b. Male (3) Teacher's Years of Teaching Experience a. 5 or less years b. 6 to 10 years c. 11 to 15 years d. 16 or more years (4) Principal's Years of Administrative Experience a. 5 or less years b. 6 to 10 years c. 11 to 15 years d. 16 or more years (5) Teacher's Number of Years in DODDS a. 5 or less years b. 6 to 10 years 58 c. 11 to 15 years d. 16 or more years (6) Principal's Number of Years in DODDS a. 5 or less years b. 6 to 10 years c. 11 to 15 years d. 16 or more years (7) Teacher's Age a. 21 to 30 years b. 31 to 40 years c. 41 to 50 years d. 51 to 60 years e.' Over 60 years (8) Principal's Age a. 21 to 30 years b. 31 to 40 years c. 41 to 50 years d. 51 to 60 years e. Over 60 years (9) Size of School a. 250 or less b. 251 to 500 c. 501 to 750 d. Over 750 The dependent variables for the teachers were: (1) The teachers' raw composite scores of their school's organizational climate on the OCDQ: (2) 59 a. Disengagement e. Aloofness b. Hindrance f. Production Emphasis c. Esprit 9. Thrust d. Intimacy h. Consideration Teachers' mean composite score of their school's organizational climate on the OCDQ. Teachers' mean composite scores of their principal's leadership behavior on the LBDQ-XII: a. Representation 9. Role Assumption b. Demand Reconciliation h. Consideration c. Tolerance of Uncertainty 1. Production Emphasis d. Persuasiveness j. Predictive Accuracy e. Initiating Structure k. Integration f. Tolerance of Freedom 1. Superior Orientation Descriptive Statistics The mean and the standard deviation of the teachers' perceptions of their principal's leader behavior across the selected variables were calculated. The mean and the standard deviation of the teachers' perceptions of their organizational climate were calcu- lated. The raw scores of the teachers' perceptions of their school organization climate in each subtest were calcu- lated. 6O Inferential Statistics The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient was calculated to determine what relationship, if any, existed between the teachers' perceptions of their organization climate and their perceptions of the ieadership behavior of their principal. Summary The schools selected for this study had a student popu- lation of 170 or more, had a nonteaching principal, and had at least one teacher per grade level. The teachers of the ten schools meeting the aforementioned criteria were given two questionnaires: the LBDQ-XII and the OCDQ. The Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) reflects the teachers' perceptions of their principal's leadership behavior. The Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire (OCDQ) measures the teachers' perceptions of their school's morale. In all except two cases, the researcher personally visited the schools and requested assistance from the teachers in completing the two question- naires. Demographic information was also requested. 61 Endnotes 1Andrew W. Halpin and Don B. Croft, The Organizational Climate of Schools (Chicago: Midwest Administration Center, University of Chicago, 1963). 2161d., pp. 150—151. 3ipid., pp. 85-86. 4T. B. Greenfield, "Research on Behavior of Educational Leaders: Critique of a Tradition," Alberta Journal of Edu- cational Research XIV (March 1968). 5161d. 6Ibid., p. 60. 71bid., p. 762. CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS Introduction The purpose of this chapter is to present in descrip- tive form response data from selected elementary school teachers in the Department of Defense Dependents Schools (DODDS) located in England concerning their perceptions of their school organizational climate and their principal's leadership behavior. All of the ten Department of Defense elementary schools in England with a student population of 170 or more partici- pated in this study. The teachers were asked to complete two questionnaires: the Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire (OCDQ) and the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire——Form XII (LBDQ-XII). The study had three major questions. The first was to determine the teachers' perceptions of the organizational climate in their school as measured by the OCDQ. The second question was to determine the teachers' perceptions of their principal's leadership behavior as measured by the LBDQ-XII. The third question was to see to what extent, if any, a relationship existed between the teachers' perceptions of 62 63 their school climate and their perception of their princi- pal's leadership behavior. Chapter 4 is divided into two sections. The first pertains to a description of the sample who responded to the survey in terms of demographics and personal character- istics. The second section of this chapter focuses on the three research questions. Tables 4.1 through 4.5 present the number of responses, or frequencies, and percentages. Percentages may not always total 100% due to rounding off of numbers. There were 212 sets of questionnaires distributed of which 167 were completed and returned, yielding a response of 78.88 percent. Considering the length of the surveys, the researcher is quite satisfied that the response is a sufficiently high rate from which to make generalizations. Section 1 As a part of the survey process, there were five per- sonal and/or demographic items which focused specifically upon the setting and the type of individual completing the survey. Table 4.1 contains a summary of the representation for each of the ten schools surveyed. A review of this table reveals that the number of respondents from each school was quite varied, from a low of fifty-eight percent to a high of 100 percent. An analysis of the responses by each school can be found in Appendion. 64 Table 4.1. Percentage of Respondents to Questionnaires by Individual School. School Respondents Total Staff P23522336 A 22 22 100 B 38 44 86 C 13 19 68 D 30 52 58 E 7 11 54 F 15 15 100 G 7 10 70 H 11 15 73 l 12 12 100 ‘ J 12 12 100 TOTAL 167 _ 212 79 65 Table 4.2 provides a breakdown of the sex of the respondents. It was found that the vast majority of respon- dents were female (78.4%). This was not surprising, consid- ering that this research dealt with elementary school teachers who traditionally have been female. A breakdown of the ages of the respondents is contained in Table 4.3. It was found that the single largest age category was 31-49 years, which accounted for 63.5% of the sample. The second most frequently selected age grouping was age 50 or more, which accounted for 25.1% of the sample. It is noted that only 10.2% of the sample was aged between 21-30 years old. Thus, it appears that this sample of teachers tended to be older individuals. Table 4.4 provides a summary of the amount of experi- ence which individuals have had in DODDS. The table reveals that the sample was almost equally divided among the three experience categories provided. The final demographic question is related to the total number of years which the individual has taught. Table 4.5 provides a summary of this breakdown. In reviewing Table 4.5, it was found that the majority (55.1%) of the respon- dents had been teaching for at least sixteen years, with only 5.4% of the teachers having less than five years of experience. When considering the responses in Table 4.4 to those of Table 4.5, it appears that respondents typically had some experience in teaching prior to working in the Department of Defense Dependents Schools. Table 4.2. Sex of Respondents. 66 Sex Frequency Percentage Female 131 78.4 Male 33 19.8 No Response 3 1.8 TOTAL 167 100.0% Table 4.3. Age of Respondents. Age in Years Frequency Percentage 21 to 30 17 102 31 —49 106 63.5 50 or older 42 25.1 No Response 2 1.2 TOTAL 167 100.0% 67 Table 4.4. Experience in DODDS. Experience in Years Frequency Percentage Less than 5 years 55 32.9 6-15 years 51 30.5 16 or more years 58 34.7 No Response 3 1.8 TOTAL 167 100.0% Table 4.5. Total Teaching Experience. Experience in Years Frequency Percentage Less than 5 years 9 5.4 6-15 years 64 38.3 16 or more years 92 55.1 No Response 2 1.2 TOTAL 167 100.0% 68 Section 2 The first research question of interest focused upon how elementary school teachers in DODDS-England perceived their school climate as measured by the Organizational Cli- mate Description Questionnaire (OCDQ). To obtain the ahswer to this question, the researcher administered the OCDQ-to teachers in ten DODDS schools. The results for each teacher were compiled, and a school-by-school profile was estab- lished. The OCDQ classifies schools into one of six types of climates. These six climates were described as follows: A. Open Climate——high esprit, group works well together, not burdened by busy work, leader facilitates task accomplishments. Group friendly to each other but not intimate. Considerable job satisfaction and pride in organization. Leader viewed as genuine, works hard himself and is con- siderate of others. Personal flexibility and integrity, not aloof, low emphasis on production but work gets done. 8. Autonomous Climate——almost complete freedom given to group to provide their own structure. High esprit and intimacy, work well together, and achieve goals. Not hindered by leader but leader remains aloof, little production emphasis, and only moderately considerate. Leader provides thrust and is flexible but mainly allows the group to run the show. C. Controlled Climate——marked by a press for achievement at the expense of social needs satis- faction. Group works hard, engaged in tasks, and follows the prescribed routine. They have much to do and do not have much social involvement with others. Social isolation is common. The leader is dominating and directive, somewhat aloof and dogmatic. Overall esprit is not bad as all mem- bers have a sense of pride in getting things done. D. Familiar Climate——conspicuously friendly man- ner of group and leader. Social needs satisfac- tion is extremely high with little being done toward goal achievement. Everyone is viewed as a 69 big happy family with being nice as the only cri- teria of success. The leader is concerned with making things easy for everybody. E. Paternal Climate——group does not work well together, leader does most of the work himself. Group does not enjoy friendly relationships with each other and really does not care. The leader is the Opposite of aloof, being involved with everything and taking on all responsibilities. He works hard but does not motivate the group to do likewise. The feeling is that "Daddy Knows Best." It appears his consideration for others is a form of over-solicitousness to serve his own social needs rather than the groups'. F. Closed Climate-—group members obtain little satisfaction in respect to task achievement or social needs. The group does not work well together yet they are fairly friendly towards each other. The leader is detached from the group and directs what is to happen. He is viewed as low in consideration and emphasizes pro- duction by expecting others to work hard without1 givhu; them the freedom to accomplish the task. In reviewing the data, it was found that the largest number of schools had an open climate as perceived by the teaching staff. This was the case for four of the ten schools in the sample. The next most common type of climate was closed, which included three of the ten schools. Con- trolled, familiar, and paternal climates were each found in one of the schools. There were no schools in the autono- mous climate category. To further consider this question, the researcher charted the size of the school (in terms of numbers of teachers who responded to the surveys) with the type of cli- mate obtained. Table 4.6 contains a summary of this analy- sis. A review of this table reveals that there were no distinct patterns emerging relative to size. Thus, it 7O Table 4.6. School Size and Climate. School N#e:::;r:f Climate A 22 Open 3 38 Open C 13 Open D 30 Controlled E 7 Paternal F 15 Closed G 7 Familiar H 11 Closed I 12 Open J 12 Closed 71 appears that size is not a determining factor in terms of the climate established in this study. The second research question was: VHow do elementary school teachers in DODDS-England perceive their principals' leadership behavior as measured by the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire——Form XII?" To investigate this question, the researcher prepared a series of profiles for each school (see Appendix). In responding to the LBDQ-XII, the teachers were asked to evaluate how often particular behavior traits were exhibited by his/her principal. The teachers were asked to choose from Always, which was given a value of 1; Often, given a value of 2; Occasionally, given a value of 3, Seldom, given a value of 4; and Never, which was given a value of 5. The numbers in the following profiles represent arithmetic means of the teachers' responses for the given school. The lower the indiCated number, the more often the principal exhibited a particular leadership behavioral trait as perceived by the teachers in that school. The scores ranged from 3.74 (which indicated that the particular leadership behavior seldom occurred) to 1.37 (which indi- cated that the behavior in question occurred often as per- ceived by the teaching staff). Table 4.7 is provided as a summary of the scores so that all schools can be viewed at once. The numbers above each scale represent the number of items in that scale. In viewing the scores in Table 4.7, it is noted that 72 eozwuewto .2595 u Ow eotweonfieoo u 200 wwweozmwamemi u Ema eofiwemwue. .1. ._.Z. eo_uQE:mm<.w_om .1. 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B. db .l. db db db db db db db db db «l db db db -r db db db db db 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 98 cozmucmto cotmaam cozmcmmus >0m3oo< 950.095 93.395 cozozooca Cocmumfixmcoo cozanmm< 20¢ Eoommcu $0 85320... 932: um co 8.22:5 mmmcmmezmcma 35330:: co 8:920... cozflzocouom ocwEmO cozficomocamm L D’PDP DD L DIDl «qua qq - 41 D PDDDK DP D D’PDD q .fiud .4 4 «1.. D DPDD DPL u .q‘. «44 DDDD D D LLer DID .Jqq u q u.+ qqfi DDDD D D D DD DPDP .4qfi # q q fid 14¢. DDDD D P D DIP b ¢..‘ . d 4 1q 4 . D DD D D L DD LDDD . a. 4 u q u. «1.4 LP? DD D D DD DDDD q¢q ‘4 u u dfi dq-d DDDr DTDD P P DLDD DDP 1.d. «dud a q uqu4 .qq DPD PD DDD DDDD .«u .4 .4: dqdfi DPDD DD DrD DD 4... «J .ul quq DkDrL DL D DDDD DPDD qqdd 41 a 41:: .uW. 5 4 4| School A. D D D n n D D D D D D D D D u q d d J 1 fiJ 1 * d 4 d d P D D D D D D D D D D D L D P d fiq d dJ 4 u q q d 1 q q A D D D D D D er D _ - 1 d GJ d 1 d D D D D rD D D D D u 4 fl d d q q d d 1 D D D D D D L D D D d d d # 4 fi - d d d PE D D lD D DlD S u 114 A q u G D D D D DL D D d d 1d u 4 d 4 Dr D D D’L D D D D D D p q 4 d- a d 1 a u d u D D D D DD D D D D D D D d u 4 d a q u - 44 d fl - d d {PD D D D D D T D D \Dl D P DlD d «J JJ q a q u q u q u D D D F D D D D L r P D D D D b PD D d4 4 a q a q u q d d fi 14 q q d u 1 D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D P DIP d 44 d d d u d d d d 11 4 q d u q d 1 0. 0. 0. O. O. 5 4 3 2 1 School J. 8. Schools l and J. LBDQ-XII Profile by School: Figur’e A.5. APPENDIX B COVER LETTER AND QUESTIONNAIRES 99 Dear Fellow Teachers. As an elementary school teacher in England, I am interested in the various factors that contribute to the climate or morale of our school sys- tem. Additionally, I am interested in the different leadership behaviors or styles of school principals. As a part of my doctoral dissertation, I hope to examine the relationship, if any, between school climate and leader- ship behavior as perceived by elementary school teachers in DODDS-England. The two questionnaires (enclosed) have been professionally developed and the validity of both has been established. They should take a total of fifteen to twenty minutes to complete. In order for the results to repre- sent the elementary teachers in DODDS-England, I need your help. Please take time to complete the enclosed questionnaires and return them to me in the self-addressed envelope provided. The number on each questionnaire is for my records only. Be assured that your anonymity will be honored, as only group data will be reported. If you are interested in a summary of the results, please circle the num- ber in the upper right-hand corner of the questionnaire and a capy will be sent to you. ' ' Needless-to-say, this research is very important to me and may have important implications for you. Sincerely, Robert J. Calzini Fifth Grade Teacher Al conbury Enclosure IO. lOO ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE DESCRIPTION QUESTIONNAIRE* INSTRUCTIONS: REMEMBER: YOU: Enclosed in this folder are some questions about your school. Please answer them by marking one of the set of lines provided for each answer. 00 not dwell too long on any one item, but answer it as you think the situation exists in your school. There are a total of 64 items that should not take more than a few minutes to answer. Answer each question as you think the situation exists in your school. As an individual you cannot be identified with this instrument. Very Frequently Often Sometimes Rarely Occurs Occurs Occurs Occurs Teachers' closest friends are other faculty members at this school The mannerisms of teachers at this school are annoying. Teachers spend time after school with students who have individual problems. Instructions fbr the operation of teaching aids are available. Teachers invite other faculty members to visit them at home. There is a minority group of teachers who always oppose the majority. Extra books are available for classroom use. Sufficient time is given to prepare administrative reports. Teachers know the family back- ground of other faculty menbers. Teachers exert group pressure on nonconforming faculty menbers. *Reprinted by permission of the publisher, from Andrew N. Halpin, Theory and Research in Administration (New York: The MacMillian Company, l966l, pp. l48-l50. ll. l2. l3. 14. IS. l6. I7. 18. I9. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. In faculty meetings, there is the feeling of "let's get things done." Administrative paper work is burdensome at this school. Teachers talk about their personal life to other faculty members. Teachers seek special favors from the principal. School supplies are readily avail- able for use in classwork. Student progress reports require too much work. Teachers have fun socializing together during school time. Teachers interrupt other faculty members who are talking in staff meetings. Most of the teachers here accept the faults of their colleagues. Teachers have too many committee requirements. There is considerable laughter when teachers gather informally. Teachers ask nonsensical questions in faculty meetings. Custodial service is available when needed. Routine duties interfere with the job of teaching. Teachers prepare administrative reports by themselves. Teachers ramble when they talk in faculty meetings. Teachers at this school show much school spirit. The principal goes out of his/her way to help teachers. The principal helps teachers solve personal problems. Teachers at this school stay by themselves. 101 Frequently Very Occurs Sometimes Occurs Often Occurs Rarely Occurs 102 Very Frequently Often Sometimes Rarely Occurs Occurs Occurs Occurs 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 4]. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. SI. 52. The teachers accomplish their work with great vim, vigor, and pleasure. The principal sets an example by working hard himself/herself. The principal does personal favors for teachers. Teachers eat lunch by themselves in their own classrooms. The morale of the teachers is high. The principal uses constructive criticism. The principal stays after school to help teachers finish their work. Teachers socialize together in small select groups. The principal makes all class- scheduling decisions. Teachers are contacted by the principal each day. The principal is well prepared when he/she speaks at school functions. The principal helps staff members settle minor differences. The principal schedules the work for the teachers. Teachers leave the grounds during the school day. Teachers help select which courses will be taught. The principal corrects teachers' mistakes. The principal talks a great deal. The principal explains his/her reasons for criticism to teachers. The principal tries to get better salaries fbr teachers. Extra duty for teachers is posted conspicuously. The rules set by the principal are never questioned. The principal looks out for the personal welfare of teachers. — * fl _ * * — — ———- — -_ ow _ —— _ — _ * _ — — _ 103 Very Frequently Often Sometimes Rarely Occurs Occurs Occurs Occurs 53. School secretarial services is available for teachers' use. 54. The principal runs the faculty meeting like a business conference. 55. The principal is in the building before teachers arrive. 56. Teachers work together preparing administrative reports. 57. Faculty meetings are organized according to a tight agenda. 58. Faculty meetings are mainly principal-report meetings. 59. The principal tells teachers of new ideas he/she has run across. 60. Teachers talk about leaving the school system. 6l. The principal checks the subject- matter ability of teachers. 62. The principal is easy to understand. 63. Teachers are informed of the results of a supervisor's visit. 64. The principal insures that teachers work to their full capacity. ********** The following variables will be considered in the formulation of the data. Again, be assured that your anonymity will be protected. Directions: Circle the appropriate answer. l. Sex 3. Number of Years in DODDS a) Female a) 5 or less years b) Male 6) 6 to l5 years c) l6 or more years 2. Your Age a) 2l to 30 years 4. Total Years of Teaching Experience b) 3l to 49 years a) 5 or less years c) 50 or more years b) 6 to l5 years c) l6 or more years 104 LEADER BEHAVIOR DESCRIPTION QUESTIONNAIRE—Form XII Originated by staff members of The Ohio State Leadership Studies and revised by the Bureau of Business Research Purpose oft/1e Questionnaire On the following pages is a list of items that may be used to describe the behavior of your supervisor. Each item describes a specific kind of behavior. but does not ask you to judge whether the behavior is desirable or undesirable. Although some items may appear similar. they express differences that are important in the description of leadership. Each item should be considered as a separate description. This is not a test of ability or consistency in making answers. its only purpose is to make it possible for you to describe. as accurately as you can. the behavior of your supervisor. Note: The term. “group. " as employed in the following items. refers to a department. division. or other unit of organization that is supervised by the person being described. The term ”members." refers to all the people in the unit of organization that is supervised by the person being described. Published by College of Administrative Science The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio Copyright 1962, The Ohio State University O U"! DIRECTIONS: a. READ each item carefully. b. THINK about how frequently the leader engages in the behavior described by the item. c. DECIDE whether he/she (A) always, (B) often, (C) occasionally, (D) seldom or (E) never acts as described by the item. d. DRAW A CIRCLE around one of the five letters (A B C D E) following the item to show the answer you have selected. A = Always B = Often C = Occasionally D = Seldom E = Never e. MARK your answers as shown in the examples below. Example: Often acts as described ...................................... A C D E Example: Never acts as described ...................................... A B C D ® Example: Occasionally acts as described ................................ A B © D E l. Acts as the spokesperson of the group .............................. A B C D E 2. Waits patiently for the results of a decision ......................... A B C D E 3. Makes pep talks to stimulate the group ............................. A B C D E 4. Lets group members know what is expected of them ................. A B C D E 5. Allows the members complete freedom in their work ................. A B C D E 6. Is hesitant about taking initiative in the group ....................... A B C D E 7. Is friendly and approachable ....................................... A B C D E 8. Encourages overtime work ........................................ A B C D E 9. Makes accurate decisions ......................................... A B C - D E 10. Gets along well with the people above him/her ...................... A B C D E ii. Publicizes the activities ofIthe group ................................ A B C D E 12. Becomes anxious when he/she cannot find out what is coming next .. .. A B C D E 16. I7. 18. I9. 20. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 106 A = Always B = Often C = Occasionally D = Seldom E = Never . His/her arguments are convincing .................................. . Encourages the use of uniform procedures .......................... . Permits the members to use their own judgment in solving problems . . Fails to take necessary action ...................................... Does little things to make it pleasant to be a member of the group ..... Stresses being ahead of competing groups ........................... Keeps the group working together as a team ........................ Keeps the group in good standing with higher authority .............. . Speaks as the representative of the group ........................... Accepts defeat in stride ........................................... Argues persuasively for his/her point of view .4 ....................... Tries out his/her ideas in the group ................................. Encourages'initiative in the group members ......................... Lets other persons take away his/her leadership in the group .......... Puts suggestions made by the group into operation ................... Needles members for greater effort ................................. Seems able to predict what is coming next .......................... Is working hard for a promotion ................................... Speaks for the group when visitors are present ...................... Accepts delays without becoming upset ............................. Is a very persuasive talker ........................................ Makes his/her attitudes clear to the group ........................... Lets the members do their work the way they think best ............. Lets some members take advantage of him/her ...................... A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A or: common on can: earn won one: on we: re OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOGO UUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUU mmmm mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm m 37. 38. 39. 40. 4|. 42. 43. 45. 46. 47. 49. 50. SI. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 107 A = Always B = Often C = Occasionally D = Seldom E = Never Treats all group members as his/her equals .......................... Keeps the work moving at a rapid pace ............................. Settles conflicts when they occur in the group ....................... His/her superiors act favorably on most of his/her suggestions ......... Represents the group at outside meetings ........................... Becomes anxious when waiting for new developments ................ Is very skillful in an argument ..................................... . Decides what shall be done and how it shall be done ................. Assigns a task. then lets the members handle it ...................... Is the leader of the group in name only ............................. Gives advance notice of changes ................................... . Pushes for increased production ................................... Things usually turn out as he/she predicts ........................... Enjoys the privileges of his/her position ............................. Handles complex problems efficiently .............................. Is able to tolerate postponement and uncertainty ..................... Is not a very convincing talker ..................................... Assigns group members to particular tasks .......................... Turns the members loose on a job, and lets them go to it ............. Backs down when he/she ought to stand firm ........................ Keeps to himself/herself ........................................... Asks the members to work harder .................................. Is accurate in predicting the trend of events ......................... . Gets his/her superiors to act for the welfare of the group members ..... A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A menopause: OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U [11 mmmmmm 108 A = Always B = Often C = Occasionally D = Seldom E = Never 6!. Gets swamped by details .......................................... A 62. Can wait just so long, then blows up ............................... A 63. Speaks from a strong inner conviction .............................. A 64. Makes sure that his/her part in the group is understood by the group members ............................................ A 65. Is reluctant to allow the members any freedom of action .............. A 66. Lets some members have authority that he/she should keep ........... A 67. Looks out for the personal welfare of group members ................ A 68. Permits the members to take it easy in their work .................... A 69. Secs to it that the work of the group is coordinated .................. A 70. His/her word carries weight with superiors ....... - ................... A 71. Gets things all tangled up ......................................... A 72. Remains calm when uncertain about coming events .................. A 73. Is an inspiring talker .............................................. A 74. Schedules the work to be done .................................... A 75. Allows the group a high degree of initiative ......................... A 76. Takes full charge when emergencies arise ........................... A 77. Is willing to make changes ........................................ A 78. Drives hard when there is a job to be done .......................... A 79. Helps group members settle their differences ........................ A 80. Gets what he/she asks for from his/her superiors ..................... A 81. Can reduce a madhouse to system and order ........................ A 82. Is able to delay action until the proper time occurs ................... A 83. Persuades others that his/her ideas are to their advantage ............. A wwwwwww or: up couscous nonnnnnnnon'nonnnnnnn 0 U UUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUU I11 mmmmmm I'l'lITII'fl ['11 (TI I'UITIITI mm mm ['11 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 100. 109 A = Always B = Often C = Occasionally D = Seldom E = Never . Maintains definite standards of performance ......................... Trusts members to exercise good judgment .......................... Overcomes attempts made to challenge his/her leadership ............. Refuses to explain his/her actions .................................. Urges the group to beat its previous record ......................... Anticipates problems and plans for them ............................ . ls working his/her way to the top .................................. Gets confused when too many demands are made of him/her .......... Worries about the outcome of any new procedure ................... Can inspire enthusiasm for a project ................................ Asks that group members follow standard rules and regulations ....... Permits the group to set its own pace ............................... Is easily recognized as the leader of the group ....................... Acts without consulting the group .................................. Keeps the group working up to capacity ............................ . Maintains a closely knit group ..................................... ‘Maintains cordial relations with superiors ........................... A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A 000 000000000 OF) 000 U DO U U 0 CD 0 U U U U U U U U mm m