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dissertation entitled

Select Characteristics of Luthern
Pasters and Their Motivational
Orientations for Continuing Professional Education
presented by

Arthur Dennis Bacon

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ofthe requirements for

PhoD. degree in Education

 

Major professor

Dam August 12, 1988

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SELECT CHARACTERISTICS OF LUTHERAN PASTORS
AND THEIR MOTIVATIONAL ORIENTATIONS

FOR CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

BY

Arthur Dennis Bacon

A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Teacher Education

1988

7 R
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54¢)

SQ
ifl

ABSTRACT

SELECT CHARACTERISTICS OF LUTHERAN PASTORS
AND THEIR MOTIVATIONAL ORIENTATIONS FOR
CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
BY

Arthur Dennis Bacon

Three questions were researched: (1) What are the
reasons for Missouri Synod pastors attending continuing
professional education experiences? (2) What continuing
professional education courses have Missouri Synod
pastors participated in during the past three years?
and (3) What relationships do nine selected variables
have on the reasons for participation in continuing
professional education? A random sample (n=564) of
pastors was surveyed using three instruments: The
Clergy Participation Reason Scale - Section 1 and
Section 2 and The Respondent Information Form. There
were 410 usable responses.

Three results were reported. First, the reasons for
participation, in descending order, were: professional
improvement and development, professional service,
professionalism, collegial learning and interaction,
professional commitment and reflection, and personal
benefits and security. Second, a list of courses in
which Missouri Synod parish pastors have participated

as reported. Third, there were fifteen significant

relationships at the .05 level: chronological age to
personal benefits and job security; years of service to
collegial learning and interaction and to personal
benefits and job security; parish size to professional
commitment and reflection and to personal benefits and
job security; salary to professional commitment and
reflection; number of co—workers to professional service
and to professional commitment and reflection; year of
seminary graduation to collegial learning and
interaction and to professionalism; geographic location
to professional service; continuing education funds to
professional improvement and development; years in
ministry to professionalism; year of graduation to
collegial learning and interaction; and continuing
education funds to professional service.
Recommendations were made about continuing

professional education programs for Lutheran pastors.

This dissertation is dedicated to
my three children and my wife,
without whose love, sacrifice, and patience
this dissertation would not be complete:
Susan E. Bacon, Esquire, Matthew Micah Bacon,
Rebekah Sue Bacon, and Benjamin Jon Kim Bacon.

ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to acknowledge the following
individuals without whose patience and guidance this
dissertation could not have been completed: the
typist, Susan E. Bacon; the Committee, Doctor Peggy
Riethmiller, Doctor Norman Bell, Doctor Richard
Gardner, and Doctor James Snoddy; and consultants,
Doctor Peter Becker and Doctor Donald Gnewuch.

iii

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
CHAPTER 1. THE PROBLEM
Background of Study
Concerns Prompting this Study
The Research Question
Definitions
Overview of the Inquiry
Limitations of the Inquiry
Potential Contributions of the Inquiry
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Theoretical Foundations of Participation
Early Explanatory Models
Dispositional Paradigms
Composite Models of Participation
The Recruitment Paradigm
The Interdisciplinary,
Sequential—Specificity,

Time—Allocation, Life-Span
Model

iv

PAGE

xii

10
11
13
15
15
16
20
24
25

28

The Chain—of—Response Model

The Psychosocial Interaction

Model

Implications of Participation Theory

Research on Participation

Motivation for
by the General

Motivation for
by Professions

Motivation for
by Clergy

Participation
Population

Participation

Participation

CHAPTER 3. THE RESEARCH PROCEDURE

Planning

Sampling

The Population and The Sample

The Sample Size

The Sample Selection

Computer Database

Sample Characteristics

Instrumentation

The Clergy Participation Reason

Scale - Section 1

The Clergy Participation Reason

Scale — Section 2

The Respondent Information Form

PAGE

31

37

41

42

42

52

62

75

75

76

76

76

77

77

78

81

81

82

83

Implementation
The Pilot Test
The Survey Packet
The Responses
Analysis

Participation in Continuing
Theological Education

Orientations for Participation
Variables of Participation

Course Participation in
Continuing Theological Education

Relationships of Orientations

to Variables in Continuing

Theological Education
CHAPTER 4. THE FINDINGS

Participation in Continuing
Theological Education

Orientations for Participation
Item Report
Cluster Report

Variables of Participation
Continuing Education Funds
Congregational Size
Length of Service

Chronological Age

vi

PAGE

84

84

84

85

86

86

87
87

87

88

89

89

90
90
91
92
93
94
96

98

 

Seminary

Number of Professional Workers
Year of Seminary Graduation
Zip Code

Salary

Composite Respondent

Course Participation in Continuing
Theological Education

Course Frequencies
Composite Listings
Relationships of Orientations to
Variables in Continuing Theological
Education
Crosstabulation Relationships
Years Served
Congregational Size
Salary
Continuing Education Funds
Parish Workers
Seminary Graduation
Zip Code
Seminary Attended

Chronological Age

Pearson Correlation Coefficients

vii

PAGE

100

101

103

104

106

108

110

110

115

116

117

117

119

120

121

122

123

124

125

125

128

 

CHAPTER 5. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Interpretation
Reasons for Participation
Orientations for Participation
Characteristics of Respondents
Composite Respondent
Professional Worker
Continuing Education Funds
Salary
Years of Service
Congregational Size
Age
Seminary Graduation
Seminary
Zip Code
Courses
Relationships and Correlations
Relationships
Correlations
Limitations
Implications
The Continuing Educator

The Church

viii

PAGE

131

131

131

132

133

133

134

135

136

137

137

138

138

139

140

141

143

143

145

150

152

152

153

The Pastor
Further Questions
Reflections
Endnotes
Appendices

Appendix A

w

Appendix
Appendix

Appendix

['11 U 0

Appendix

References

ix

PAGE

154

155

156

158

161

164

166

167

170

171

Table

Table

Table

Table

.Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table

Table

Table
Table
Table
Table

Table

10.

11.

12.
13.
14.
15.

16.

LIST OF TABLES

Table of Seminary Graduation

Table of Year of Seminary
Graduation

Table

Table
Means

Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table

Table

of

of

of
of
of
of
of
of

of

Workers

Table
Table
Table
Table

Table

of
of
of
of

of

Item Means in Rank Order

Rank Ordered Orientation

Continuing Education Funds
Congregational Size
Length of Service
Chronological Age

Seminary

Comparison of Seminary

Number of Professional

Year of Seminary Graduation
Zip Code Comparisons

Salary

Composite Respondents

Rank Ordered Multiple

Course Frequencies

PAGE

78

80

90

92

93

94

96

98

100

101

102

103

106

107

108

111

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

17.

18.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

Table of Rank Ordered Orientations

by Number of Courses

Table of Crosstabulations of
Years Served

Table of Years Served to
Professionalism

Table of Crosstabulations of
Congregational Size

Table of Crosstabulations of
Salary

Table of Salary to Professional
Commitment and Reflection

Table of Crosstabulations of
Continuing Education Funds

Table of Crosstabulations of
Parish Workers

Table of Crosstabulations
of Seminary Graduation

Table of Crosstabulations
of Zip Code

Table of Crosstabulations of
Seminary Attended

Table of Crosstabulations of Age

Table of Age to Personal Benefits
and Job Security

Table of Pearson Correlation
Coefficients

xi

PAGE

116

118

118

119

120

121

122

123

124

125

125

126

127

128

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

Ul

m

LIST OF FIGURES

The Recruitment Paradigm

The Interdisciplinary, Sequential-
Specificity, Time—Allocation,
Life—Span Model

The Chain—of—Response Model

The Psychosocial Interaction Model

Frequency of Sample by Zip Code

Frequency of Respondents by
Zip Code

PAGE

26

29

34

38

79

105

CHAPTER 1. THE PROBLEM

Chapter One is an introduction to the research
problem of clergy participation in continuing
professional education. The chapter consists of seven
sections: background of the study, concerns prompting
this study, the research questions, definitions,
overview of the inquiry, limitations of the inquiry, and
potential contributions of the inquiry.

Background of the Study

During the past two decades humanity has witnessed
accelerated change in all areas of society. For the
first time in the history of civilization, the time span
of cultural and technological change has been telescoped
into less than the lifespan of the individual. The
result is an outdating of what was once considered an
individual's lifelong knowledge and skills. In response
to these changes, the public and private sectors of
society have initiated continuing education programs,
usually short—term, skill-oriented, and non—academic in
nature (Darkenwald and Merriam, 1982, pp. 3—6).

As the need for continuing education has grown,
researchers have undertaken studies relating to this

expanding field. Inquiry about adults as learners has

2

been conducted by K. Patricia Cross (1979, pp. 75-141;
1981). Jerold W. Apps has written about the philosophy
of adult education (1973) and the improvement of
continuing education (1985). Malcolm Knowles has
explored the nature of pedagogy and andragogy (1980).
Much of the literature describes the new horizons of
continuing education for adults.

The increase in knowledge about continuing education
as it relates to the general population of the United
States has been paralleled by an increase of knowledge
about professionals and their programs. Cyril Houle
(1980) has written about continuing professional
education as a field of study. The purpose of
continuing professional education programs, according to
Houle (1980, p. 7), is to provide professionals current
knowledge or new understandings in their particular
field in order to enhance or create new skill levels.
Certain professions require mandatory continuing
professional education for their members, while others
encourage voluntary participation in order to remain
current with the changes that are occurring in their
professional field.

Continuing professional education researchers have
studied a variety of topics in the quest to add to this
emerging field's body of knowledge. One such topic is
motivation for participation in continuing professional

education events. By identifying what motivates

3

voluntary participation, it is anticipated that programs
could be designed which take these reasons into

account. Such enhanced programs would increase the
value to participants and the number participating.
Comprehensive discussions of the literature on
motivation are found in Cross (1981), Darkenwald and
Merriam (1982), and Scalan and Darkenwald (1984).

A subset of continuing professional education is
continuing theological education for clergymen. Pastors
have experienced the same general changes that have
occurred in American society. Where once a seminary
degree was thought by some to provide the necessary
tools for a lifelong ministry, the increased knowledge
and technological change has brought into question the
validity of considering that degree as terminal.
Continuing professional education has become a necessity
for pastors in parish settings both for personal growth
and increased knowledge and skills (Carter, 1986,

p. 24). An example of such a need is to understand and
apply new skills in adult education to the parish adult
Bible class. It should be noted, however, that certain
theological truths are considered by The Lutheran
Church-Missouri Synod (Missouri Synod) to be changeless
because they are grounded on the Bible. These eternal
truths cause much of the content of a pastor's training
to remain the same.

The question of motivation arises for the general

4

population, the professions, and the clergy. The
question, "What motivates individuals to participate in
continuing education?", is applicable to continuing
adult education as well as continuing professional
education for clergy.

Concerns Prompting This Study

This inquiry into clergy motivation for continuing
professional education is prompted by a number of
concerns. First, research on motivation for
participation in continuing education has been widely
explored with the general adult population. The results
of these studies are often transferred to professionals
as if there is little or no difference in comparison to
the general population. This gap in research is
particularly evident in the area of clergy continuing
professional education.

Second, the Missouri Synod clergy are a more
homogeneous population than the general adult
population, professional population, or clergy of other
denominations. Ministers of the Missouri Synod are
normally trained at one of two seminaries, both
presently having high academic standards and curricular
goals for their graduates. Graduates for the most part
serve in middle class American congregations that are
predominately Caucasian and located in suburban or rural
settings. These characteristics, as well as others,

make Missouri Synod pastors unique as a population for

5

studying the motivations for participation in continuing
professional education.

Third, studies of clergy motivation generally are
not cognizant of the Missouri Synod conservative
theological orientation and its possible impact on
motivation. Such studies do not recognize the higher
level of education attained by Missouri Synod pastors in
comparison to the general clergy population. This
concern raises the issue that since Missouri Synod
clergy are generally well—educated, perhaps the
predictive value of the years of education, long held as
a primary predictor for continuing education
participation (Cross, 1981, p. 54), may be of limited
value relative to the Missouri Synod clergy population.

Fourth, the Missouri Synod is in a transition
stage. Historically, the Synod has depended on a
"terminal degree" as indicative of the education
required for lifelong ministry. The notion that no
further education beyond this degree is needed or
required has recently been challenged. Continuing
professional education for Missouri Synod clergy has
been proposed by a Synodical commission established at
the beginning of this decade. The laity of the Synod
questions the need for extensive theological skills
among its pastors in contrast to practical pastoral
skills. An example of this is the skills of sermon

preparation through the use of original languages (i.e.

6

Greek and Hebrew) contrasted with the skills of sermon
delivery (i.e. communication skills and visual helps).

A study of the motivation for participation may
assist the Missouri Synod in future decision-making
about continuing education for the purpose of enhancing
the skills needed to minister to the changing parish
environment. An understanding of the motives for
participation assists in the planning of continuing
education events that focus on the learner's needs,
promotes practical skills for application to parish
settings, and identifies effective parish administration
techniques for the pastor.

Fifth, continuing professional education has
developed a body of knowledge about professionals'
motivation for participation. Most studies focus on the
health and legal professions while few studies exist
about ministers. No such studies currently exist for
the ordained clergy of the Missouri Synod. This lack of
research allows for an inquiry which identifies the
motivational orientations for participation and the
continuing education interests of Missouri Synod
clergy. The results can be compared to both the
professional and general population for similarities and
differences.

Finally, the local Missouri Synod parish has been in
the process of change. Where the clergyman was once the

congregation's most educated person, laity now have

7

educational credentials equal to or greater than that of
their pastor. The laity, in order to enhance their job
skills, are participating in continuing education in
their workplace and during their leisure time. Thus,
they are aware of the need and importance for pastors to
also participate in continuing professional education.
Since time and cost have been identified as determiners
of participation in continuing education, the members of
local parishes could utilize this research to inform
them of the need to financially support and provide time
for their pastor to participate in continuing education.
The Research Questions

Three research questions form the basis for this
study. First, what are the reasons for Missouri Synod
pastors attending continuing professional education
experiences? Second, what continuing professional
education courses have Missouri Synod pastors
participated in during the past three years? Third,
what relationships do nine selected variables have on
the reasons for participation in continuing professional
education?

In order to study the first question, a framework of
motivational orientations for participation was
utilized, consisting of professional improvement and
development; professional service; collegial learning

and interaction; professional commitment and reflection;

8

personal benefits and job security; and

professionalism. In order to study the second question,
each respondent was asked to categorize the courses he
has taken in the past three years under one of the six
motivational orientations.

In order to study the third question, relationships
to the six motivational orientations were sought for the
nine variables: the pastor's chronological age; the
seminary attended by the pastor1 (refer to the
Endnotes found after Chapter Five); the year of seminary
graduation; the size of the parish; the years of
professional service in the ministry; the salary of the
pastor; parish funds provided for the pastor's
continuing professional education; the number of
professional church workers serving a congregation; and
the geographical region.

Definitions

Technical terms used in this inquiry are identified
in this fourth section.

Continuing professional education consists of formal
non—academic educational experiences. This includes
seminars, workshops, institutes, and conferences. The
intended outcomes of these events are to increase or
create new knowledge, skills, or competencies for
personal or professional benefit.

Continuing theological education consists of formal

non—academic credit educational experiences. The

9

intended outcomes of these events or episodes are to
increase or create new theological knowledge, skills, or
competencies for the personal or professional benefit of
the ordained clergy.

Participation is the act of taking part in an
educational experience. This may include discussion,
reflection, listening, and application of knowledge. No
value is placed on the level of involvement connected
with the continuing education experience.

The terms minister of religion—ordained, clergyman,
pastor, and minister are synonymous in this study. The
terms define a person who has completed the prescribed
course of study at one of the two Missouri Synod
seminaries and is certified for ordination or has been
certified by the Missouri Synod as an ordained clergyman
but did not graduate from an Missouri Synod seminary.
The person is listed on the national roster of the
Missouri Synod in the section titled "Ministers of
Religion—Ordained.”

Both motivation, as measured by reasons for
participation, and reasons for participation are
synonymous terms in this study. The terms define a
reason or related groups of reasons contributing to an
individual's decision to engage, take part in, or share
in a continuing professional education episode.

Motivational orientation is defined as the value

which gives meaning or direction to the learning

10

experience undertaken by the adult learner in a
continuing education experience.

The Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod (Missouri Synod)
is an American denomination of approximately 2.6 million
pe0p1e and 5,896 parishes whose origin is Germanic and
theology is conservative Lutheran.2

The terms parish, congregation, and church are used
interchangeably in this study. They identify a group of
people in a given locale who voluntarily belong to a
religious organization that varies in size and is
affiliated with the Missouri Synod.

Overview of the Inquiry

A study is made of selected characteristics of
Missouri Synod clergy and their motivational orientation
for participation in continuing professional education.
The population is all parish pastors of the Missouri
Synod serving in the continental United States. The
sample population is over five hundred clergy. Three
instruments are used to survey the sample: The Clergy
Participant Reason Scale — Section 1 and Section 2,
which identify six motivational orientations and collect
data on courses taken by respondents within the past
three years, and The Respondent Information Form which
gathers selected characteristics about each respondent.
The motivational orientations are the dependent
variables and the respondent characteristics are the

independent variables.

11

After a pretest was administered, the surveys were
mailed to the sample population (n=564). The responses
were statistically analyzed in order to identify
possible correlations at an 0.05 level of significance.
A list of courses attended by respondents during the
past three years was formulated. The findings are
reported in the fourth chapter.

Limitations of the Inquiry

There are six limitations to the inquiry. First,
the selected characteristics of the Missouri Synod
ministers are not inclusive. Other characteristics that
might have impacted the study are social background,
personality, attitudes toward education, values,
lifestyle, duration of ministry at current parish, time
available for continuing education, marital status,
number and chronological age of dependents, parish
perceptions about continuing education, location of the
parish, and Peer group involvement in continuing
education. These additional variables are not included
in the study.

Second, the results of this research are
generalizable only to the Missouri Synod because of the
uniqueness of this population. Since this inquiry is
not a cross—sectional study of other professions,
generalizations to others can only be done by inference.

A third limitation of this study is that it is

time—bound. The respondent pastors are not viewed over

12

a length of time in the ministry. It is likely that
with each stage of life the reasons for participation in
continuing professional education change (Carter,

1986). Research also shows that as the number of years
away from the seminary experience increase, the desire
for continuing education diminishes (Rossman, 1974).

A fourth limitation is the respondent‘s perceptions
regarding the quality and benefit Of the programs.

These two perceptions are not surveyed because the
assumption is made that participation was based on
qualitative and beneficial motives. Those motives could
be classified into one of the six orientation clusters.
There is no absolute certainty, however, that such is
the case.

Fifth, the definition used for continuing
professional education in this inquiry does not include
the diverse options normally associated with the field.
The field of continuing education generally includes
experiences such as self—directed learning,
institutional learning, electronic instruction, and
electronic communication. The focus of this research is
limited to formal non—academic credit experiences such
as seminars, workshops, institutes, and conferences.

A final limitation is that only motivations for
participation are surveyed. Another relevant question
considered in the current literature, namely, what are

the barriers to participation in continuing professional

 

13

education (Cross, 1979, 1981; Darkenwald & Merriam,
1982; Rubenson, 1977), is not included in this study.
Potential Contributions of the Inquiry

The potential of the inquiry is to provide
informative data to the Missouri Synod decision—makers
involved in determining the needs for continuing
professional education. An analysis of those needs
expressed as reasons could result in strategies being
developed to enhance participation. The survey could
also be used as a basis for future decisions about
continuing professional education, for increasing
ministerial competency, and for improving effectiveness
in the parish ministry.

The study may also be of assistance to parish
pastors and the laity. Those characteristics such as
salary and continuing education funding influenced by
the parish are identified. The data might be used by
the church as a guide to improve opportunities for the
pastor to participate in continuing education. The
parish pastor, also, could identify personal and
professional factors which predict his involvement in
continuing professional education.

A comparison is made with other continuing education
and continuing professional education research on the
motivational orientations for participation in
continuing education. This comparison examines the

similarities and differences in order to allow for the

14

possibility of collaboration among clergy and other
professions in offering continuing professional
education experiences. To date a comparison across
professional fields with clergy is lacking.

In summary, the research study is a description of
the motivational orientations for participation in
continuing professional education by pastors3, the
courses they are currently experiencing, and selected

demographic characteristics.

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

The review of literature on motivation for
participation is divided into two parts: theoretical
foundations of participation and the research on
participation. The first part is an examination of
early explanatory models, dispositional paradigms, and
composite models of participation. This section is a
historical survey of the literature which deals with
motivations for participation.

The second part is an examination of participation
research conducted about the general, professional, and
clergy populations. This section is a review the
literature in order to establish the grounding of the
motivations for participation in continuing education.

Theoretical Foundations of Participation

Adults have engaged in continuing education
activities throughout the centuries (Knowles, 1977).
The tendency on the part of adults to participate was a
complex phenomenon which has been studied over the past
two and a half decades. The purpose of these studies
was to explain why adults participate in continuing
education. These explanations for human behavior are

the topic of this section.

15

16

Early Explanatory Models

The first major effort to explain the relationship
between situational, social and psychological
antecedents of participation (Scanlan, 1986) was the
theory of patterned participation (Knox & Videbeck,
1963). Knox and Videbeck viewed participation in
continuing education as part of the general social
participation characteristic of all adults. Each part
or "domain", according to Knox and Videbeck, was a
cluster of participatory acts and social relationships
found in a life role. These participatory acts were
patterned when they formed a meaningful, systematically
recurrent whole. Variations to participation could then
be attributed to one's internal orientation toward
participation and the reality of one's lifespace.
Lifespace included an individual's role and status, the
availability of continuing education opportunities, and
the personal and environmental restraints on
participation.

Knox and Videbeck deduced from their theory that
participation motives were responsive to changes in an
adult's life circumstances. Changes could, in their
estimation, affect participation in a single or multiple
educational episode(s) simultaneously. Scanlan (1986,
pp. 3-4) reported "a test of their [Knox and Videbeck]
theory with 1,500 adults provided general support for

the hypothesized relationship between variations in

17

status . . . and activity in both the adult education
and voluntary association participatory domains." A
national survey of 1,519 adult learners (Aslanian &
Brickell, 1980) confirmed the hypothesized relationship
between changes in life circumstances and participation
in adult education. Aslanian and Brickell concluded
(1980, p. 111): "Adults learn in order to cope with
some changes in their lives. Regardless of their
demographic characteristics, almost all the adult
learners interviewed pointed to their own changing
circumstances as their reasons for learning.”

An effort to analyze motivation based on
Havighurst's (1953), Maslow's (1954), and Erickson's
(1950) conceptualizations of humans was undertaken by
Boyd (1965). He believed motivation was composed of
regions and phases. Regions were defined as situational
lifespan dimensions and included physiological,
psychological, and social cultural. Interactions
occurred within and among these regions as well as in
four phases: source, arousal, expression, and
reward—punishment. Source was defined as drive, arousal
as an action that results in adaptive behavior,
expression as the adaptive behavior, and
reward-punishment as the individual's perception
regarding the result of the adaptive behavior. Boyd's
framework was an attempt to analyze the problem of why

some adult education students succeed while others

 

18

fail. A systematic analysis of motivation was Boyd's
answer (1965, p. 24): "Some teachers, both by word and
performance, make it amply clear it is not just any one
of these types of motivation, but all in various
combinations that are needed."

Two years later an investigation of Boyd's
supposition that participant behaviors were caused by an
interaction of variables with an individual's lifespace
occurred. Harry Miller (1967) was one of the few adult
educators at that time to relate participation in adult
education to socioeconomic status (Cross, 1981, p.
112). Miller's model was based on the hierarchy of
needs developed by Abraham Maslow (1954) and the
force—field analysis of Lewin (1947). He attempted to
explain why large differences existed in rates of
participation between social classes. He theorized that
the likelihood and nature of participation was a result
of an adult's personal needs and social structure. He
went on to state that when both an adult's needs and
social structures pressured him toward an educational
objective, the likelihood of participation in the
educational activity should be high. When personal
needs drive a person toward an objective but were not
complemented by his social forces, participation was
likely to be erratic or nonexistent. When personal
needs lacked strong positive reinforcement but social

forces encouraged participation, the adult educational

19

activity would be initially intense, but the level of
intensity would quickly drop off. When personal needs
conflict with social forces, the likelihood of
disequilibrium and tension were present.

Cross, who extensively reviewed the literature on
motivation for participation in continuing education,
(1981, p. 115), reported: "I was unable to locate
recent theoretical work or research building on Miller's
force-field analysis. It appears, however, to be useful
theory in the sense that it suggests further research as
well as some possible action strategies."

In 1975 Dhanidina and Griffith (1975) offered a
rationalistic economic model as an explanation for adult
participation in education activities. They
investigated occupationally related adult education
using participants in General Educational Development
(GED) programs as their population. They concluded
participation represented an investment in one's human
capital. They believed an adult's reason for
participation can be reduced to one of cost over
benefit. The costs associated with continuing education
were direct outlays for tuition, materials,
transportation, and time invested in learning. The
potential benefits of learning capabilities, both
present and future, were associated with the acquisition
of marketable new knowledge or skills. Thus, those who

perceived the potential benefit to be worth the incurred

20

costs were the most likely to participate in continuing
education.

Darkenwald (1980) found the Dhanidina and Griffith
framework logically appealing, especially as an
explanation of variations in job—related continuing
education. His conclusions were inconclusive, however,
after a test of these relationships. Further research
by Smorynski and Parochka (1979) found tentative support
for the inclusion of the economic variables as part of a
broader decision—making process affecting participation.

To summarize this first section, early attempts to
explain the reasons for participation in continuing
education were often focused on specific variables and
based on the current research of the day. They lacked a
comprehensive view of the motivation for participation
in continuing education. The early participatory
research on motivation resulted in a recognition that
further studies were needed in order to identify the
interaction and relationships of multiple variables.

Dispositional Paradigms

The reason adults participate in continuing
education has been assumed to be the result of an
individual's psychological orientation toward such
activities (Adolph & Whaley, 1967). Seamen and
Schroeder (1970) were the first to incorporate attitudes
as a part of an adult education participatory model.

Using an attitudinal framework composed of cognitive,

 

21

affective, and behavioral components, they suggested the
inner relationship of attitudes affect participation.
Individual behavior toward an object such as
participation was, they felt, attributable to the
relationship of the attitudinal components and the
immediate situation. In their view, attitudes were the
variables that aroused situational clues. These clues
were linked to personal characteristics, and were
determinants of behavior.

At first it appeared a test of the Seaman and
Schroeder model demonstrated a significant positive
relationship between attitudes and the extent of
participation; however, when age and educational level
were factored out of the research, the relationship was
questioned. They observed that the respondents had a
high positive attitude toward continuing education but
scored low on actual participation rates. They
concluded (Seaman & Schroeder, 1970, p. 105): "there
are factors, presumably situational in nature, other
than those explicitly considered in this study, that do
affect the influence which attitudes have on the extent
of educative behavior. . . ." This supported the
assumption that both situational and attitudinal
variables were preventing respondents from participating
more often in educative behavior.

Grotelueschen and Caulley (1977) assumed that an

individual's attitude toward continuing education

22

represented only one dispositional component of
behavior. Attempting to construct a model explaining
the determinants of intention to participate in
continuing professional education, they applied the
conceptual framework of Fishbein (1963, 1967).
According to Fishbein (Scanlan, 1986, p. 5), "attitudes
are instrumental in predisposing a set of intentions
toward behavior associated with an object.“ An
individual's behavior toward participation ultimately
represented the overt intention(s) of the individual.

Along with the Fishbein framework, Grotelueschen and
Caulley used an expectancy—value function to assess the
quality of various reasons toward participation in
continuing education. They identified three constructs
that were antecedents to participation: (1) the
attitude of the individual toward participation; (2) the
perception which others have of his behavior; and (3)
the individual's personal expectations of himself.

The combination of Fishbein's framework and their
own expectancy—value construct resulted in Grotelueschen
and Caulley developing a multivariate equation for
predicting intention to participate and their
quantifying of perceived participatory behavior. They
developed the formula of "B~I=W1(A) + W2(SSN) + W3(SPN)"
(Scanlan, 1986, p. 5). They explained that an
engagement by an individual in recurrent learning (B)

was determined by his intention to participate (I). The

23

behavioral intentions to participate were the sum of
attitudes toward participation, the perception of
others, and the perception of self. Thus, the more
positive one's attitude toward participation, and the
greater the perception of social and personal support,
the stronger the inclination to participate. If there
was a gap between an individual's intention and his
actual behavior, the gap was to be explained by the
presence of other factors or circumstances.

Grotelueschen and Caulley quantified attitudes
toward participation as being dependent upon what
professionals believed relative to the outcomes of
participating, and the value professionals placed upon
those outcomes. A professional's intention to
participate resulted from interactions among attitudes,
perceptions and values of expectations by significant
others, and personal beliefs about whether one should
participate. These were linked with one's own
motivation to comply with those beliefs.

Critics of this model (Ray, 1979, Southern, 1980)
cite the lack of research by Grotelueschen and Caulley
into other factors influencing participation. They
faulted the model for its failure to explain the
relationship to reasons for participation and the
presence of sociodemographic variables that influence

participation. Grotelueschen attempted to answer this

24

criticism (1985) when he included a measure for these
other variables in his research.

To summarize the second section, the focus of the
dispositional model was on the attitudes of the
individual toward continuing education participation.
Attitudes were divided into three parts: cognitive,
affective, and behavioral. Attitudes were based on an
individual's perceptions and his social environment.
The dispositional model was useful to identify the
psychological orientations that affected participation.
Thus far, two historical areas of participation have
been reviewed: early explanatory models and the
dispositional models. One area remains, namely, the
composite models of participation.

Composite Models of Participation

Recent efforts used complex formulations to explain
the reasons for participation in continuing education.
Composite model research incorporated a more wholistic
view than previous research. Dispositional,
situational, and environmental variables were posited as
determinates of participation. These categories of
variables interacted and provided a clearer picture of
participation than if researched in isolation from each
other, according to the proponents of composite models.

The most notable of the composite or multivariate
models of participation were those developed by Rubenson

(1977), Smith (1980), Cross (1981), and Darkenwald and

25

Merriam (1982). Each model is reviewed in the section
below.
The Recruitment Paradigm

The recruitment paradigm was proposed by Swedish
educator Kjell Rubenson (1977). He integrated previous
expectancy—valence models into the cognitive
motivational theory. The reasons for participation, he
believed, were dependent upon multiple personal and
environmental variables as they exist in an adult's
life, as shown in Figure l.

The individual participant's lifespace was
influenced by three factors. The first was his previous
experience and congential properties. Congential
properties were defined as the individual's personal
attributes. The second factor was environment. The
control over one's situation or the lack thereof, the
individual's norms and values, the source of group norms
and values, and the availability of continuing education
were part of the environment. Finally, current needs
were defined as the developmental tasks one confronts
during a person's life cycle.

The reasons for participation, at this point, were
not yet clear according to the recruitment paradigm.

The initial personal and environmental variables were
not enough to explain participation. The individual's
participatory behavior was further determined by an

intermediate level of three variables. The first

26

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intermediate variable was active preparedness for the
continuing education event. The second was the
individual's perception and interpretation of the entire
environment. The third variable was the experience of
individual needs. The three intermediate variables
interacted in order to determine the perceived value and
the probability of being able to participate in a given
activity, i.e. expectancy. Thus, Rubenson posited that
the interactions of the variables yielded the magnitude
of the force that motivated a person to participate in a
learning event.

The recruitment paradigm was particularly relevant
to an analysis of reasons for participation because of
its emphasis on what was perceived by the individual in
contrast to what the individual actually had done. This
perspective assumed the actual is less important than
the perceived. It lessened the impact of experiences,
actual environmental structures, and actual individual
needs in favor of the perceptions and interpretations by
the potential learner. Thus, Rubenson proposed from a
cognitivist perspective that motives for participation
should be conceptualized as perceived motives.

To summarize, the recruitment paradigm integrated
the concepts of the previous expectancy—valence models
with the larger context of cognitive motivational
theory. A question remained about the meaningfulness of

the perceived motives. If the personal and

28

environmental variables were perceived, then was it
possible to derive a total view of what was perceived?
Also, the recruitment paradigm lacked the certainty of
discovering unconscious perceptions that influenced
participation.

The Interdisciplinary, Sequential-Specificity,
Time—Allocation. Life—Span Model

A theoretical framework that attempted to be
inclusive was advanced by Smith (1980). The
interdisciplinary, sequential—specificity,
time—allocation, life-span model was based on all
relevant social, psychological, and situational
variables, without regard to the established
disciplinary boundaries as shown in Figure 2.

The first class of variables was the individual's
external environment. It was defined as the
individual's social background, personality, and
attitudinal characteristics that originated, developed,
and changed with each person. Smith considered the
individual's environment to include climate, topography,
population density, and educational availability. This
environment was evaluated as favorable or unfavorable
depending on its impact on adult participation in
education.

The second class of variables was social background

and social role factors. According to Smith there were

253

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five kinds of demographic characteristics in this
class: physical and physiological features, ascribed
social positions and roles, experience and activity
history, and resources, possessions, and access to
resources.

The third class of variables was personality and
intellectual capacity factors. Personality referred to
the characteristics of a person's psyche. These
personality factors tended to endure over time and
circumstances. Intellectual capacities were the
individual's cognitive potential as measured by
intelligence test scores. Cunningham (1973), in this
regard, has reported completion rates were related to
intelligence test scores in the research she conducted
with adult basic education participants.

The fourth class of variables Smith identified was
attitudinal dispositions. These variables were
comprised of values, attitudes, expectations, and
intentions. They range from situationally general to
more situationally specific. Attitudinal dispositions
were considered by Smith to be less enduring and less
trans-situational internal psychological
characteristics. He stressed the dynamic interaction
between this class of variables and the personality
traits and intellectual capacity in order to establish a

composite picture of an individual's motivation.

31

The fifth class of predictor variables was retained
information. This class was defined as the individual's
continuing, enduring and usually growing amount of
information. Smith defined a person's stored
information as his images, beliefs, knowledge, and plans.

The final class of variables was situational
variables. Smith (1980, p. 62) considered these
variables "the most proximal cognitive and affective
determinants of human voluntary behavior." They were
both conscious and unconscious sensory stimuli to the
environment in which the individual was participating.
The individual's discretionary behavior and
discretionary energy were aspects of this class of
variables.

In summary, the comprehensive view taken by this
model allowed for the integration of separate,
disparate, and discipline—bound theoretical
explanations. Its value was that it provided a
wholistic view of factors that might account for an
individual's participation in continuing education. A
weakness of the model was its complexity, particularly
when it might be operationalized as a research project.
The Chain—of—Resnonse Model

A third composite model of participation was
developed by Cross (1981). She based her Chain—
of—Response Model on the important commonalities she

found in previous theoretical models that explained

32

adult participation in learning episodes. The eight
commonalities she discovered were grounded in the
research conducted by Miller (1967), Rubenson (1977),
Boshier (1973), and Tough (1979).

The common elements Cross identified were (1981, pp.
123-124):

1. All three (Miller, Rubenson, and Tough) are
interactionists, operating from the conviction that
participation can be understood through an analysis
of the interaction between an individual and his or
her environment. 2. All use some form of
force-field analysis, drawing heavily from the work
of Kurt Lewin and the concept that the strength of
the motivation to participate in adult education is
the result of the individual's perception of
positive and negative forces in the situation.

3. All might be termed "cognitivists" in the sense
that they believe that the individual has some
control over his destiny. They [Miller, Rubenson,
and Tough] reject both the Freudian notion that
human beings are the captives of subconscious forces
and the Skinnerian contention that people are pawns
in stimulus—response chains. 4. Rubenson and
Boshier are quite explicit about the hypothesis that
certain personality types will be difficult to
attract to education because of their low
self-esteem. The hypothesis that pe0ple with low
self—esteem do not do well in achievement—oriented
situations (which education is thought to be) has
been a kingpin of psychological theories of
motivation for some years. The hypothesis is also
implicit in Miller's social class analysis, where he
considers lack of achievement motivation a deterrent
to the participation of the lower—lower
socioeconomic classes. 5. All make some use of
reference group theory, with Miller and Rubenson
explicitly recommending that undereducated adults be
recruited not through market strategies but by
working through membership groups. 6. All make
some use of the concepts of incongruence and
dissonance. Boshier refers to his work as a
"congruence" model; Miller's analysis is based on
the compatibility of the values of the various
social classes with the values of the educational
system. For Rubenson the concepts of expectancy and
valence assume congruence between participation and

 

33

anticipated outcomes. 7. There is strong use of

Maslow's needs hierarchy in these works. All accept

Maslow's basic premise that higher—order needs for

achievement and self—actualization cannot be

fulfilled until lower—order needs for security and
safety have been met. [For recent questioning of
the validity of the Maslow hierarchy, see Korman,

Greenhaus, and Badin (1977).] 8. Rubenson has

developed the role played by "expectancy" more

thoroughly than the other two theorists. But all
assume that the individual's expectation of reward
is an important variable in the motivation for adult
learning.

As a result of her analysis, Cross maintained an
adult's participation in a learning activity was a
complex chain of responses, and each response was
grounded in the individual's evaluation of his or her
environmental position, as shown in Figure 3.

The source of participatory reasons, according to
Cross, were internal to the individual. She suggested
two interrelated internal concepts: self—perception or
self—evaluation (A) and attitude toward education (B).
These internal psychological variables were affected by
social, environmental, and/or experiential factors.
These factors were typically conceived as antecedents to
one's self—concept and dispositional orientation toward
outside objects. Illustrative of such antecedents were
the possible effect of previous participation on one's
self—concept and one's attitude toward continuing
education (as indicated by the return loop from
participation to A and B).

The internal variables, as shown in the model,

interacted with and influenced the value and the

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expectation an individual associated with a continuing
education event. Both the value and the expectation
were also influenced by the individual's life
transitions and associated developmental tasks at
different phases of his life cycle (as indicated by D).
Thus, the motivational force for participation in a
particular learning event was caused by internal
psychological and external social and environmental
variables.

Assuming these variables motivated an individual to
participate, the learner responded to the opportunities
or barriers associated with attaining a particular
educational objective (as indicated by E). Future
participation, according to Cross, was predicted by a
combination of factors. These factors caused the
individual's perceived differences to participation
initially, as well as provided the information available
for decision—making (as indicated by F).

The Chain-of—Response model incorporated common
elements of past research. It was based on the
cognitivist orientation toward participatory behavior.
This orientation assumed that the behavior components in
participation were most clearly understood and described
by the individuals actually making the choice to
participate or not to participate. The ordering of the
model's variables, from internal psychological forces to

external social and environmental factors, implied an

36

importance placed on the role of the individual in
determining his or her participation. Cross suggested
that how a person perceived, interpreted, and responded
to those internal elements were critical determinants of
participation. Her view underscored the need to study
the perceptions of an individual‘s decision—making as an
act in itself.

A unique aspect of the Chain-of—Response model was
the inclusion of the concept of barriers to
participation. Cross used the existing national survey
data bases (Carp, Peterson & Roelfs, 1974; Johnstone &
Rivera, 1965) to theorize there were three major
categories of barriers: situational barriers that arise
from an individual's situation in life at a point in
time, institutional barriers that exclude or discourage
participation, and dispositional barriers that relate to
learner attitudes and self-perceptions.

Cross summarized the value of her Chain—of—Response
model when she wrote (1981, p. 131): "The purpose of a
theoretical model as broad as the COR (Chain of
Response) model is not so much to explain and predict
adult participation at this stage in the development of
knowledge, as it is to organize thinking and research."
Her model awaits extensive testing prior to being
elevated as a theory for adult participation in

continuing education.

37

The Psychosocial Interaction Model

The fourth and most recent theoretical design that
explained adult participation was the Psychosocial
Interaction Model (Darkenwald & Merriam, 1982). This
model, like those of Cross, Smith, and Rubenson, was
grounded in past research. It attempted to explain
participation in continuing education for the purpose of
developing a more concrete framework. As depicted in
Figure 4, participation was determined by a continuum of
responses that were both internal and external.

Unique to the Psychosocial Interaction Model was its
emphasis on the socioeconomic status determinants. The
individual's socioeconomic status was considered the
primary variable on the model's continuum. The
potential impact of this variable was influenced by the
"learning press" of the individual's environment, i.e.
"the extent to which one's environment requires or
encourages further learning" (Scanlan, 1986, p. 10).

The relationship between the two variables was grounded
in commonalities such as social participation,
occupational complexity, and lifestyle.

The intermediate level variables, perceived value of
adult education and readiness to participate, focused on
individual and psychological forces influencing
continuing education participation. Darkenwald and
Merriam believed particular learning pressures fostered

specific attitudes and perceptions toward the value and

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usefulness of adult learning. They implied the positive
perceptions of value and usefulness toward continuing
education events were a result of a positive environment
that enCouraged continuing education. The greater the
perceived value of continued learning, the more
favorable was the individual's disposition for or
readiness to participate.

Participation stimuli, specifically the perceived
frequency and intensity, influenced the likelihood of
involvement in continuing education. The stimuli were
defined by Darkenwald and Merriam as either discrete
external trigger events or generalized internal drives
or desires. An example of a trigger event was a change
in one's job. An example of an internal drive was a
desire for self—improvement. In Figure 4 an arrow
connects participation stimuli and learning press. The
arrow portrays a hypothesized relationship exists
between the positive learning environment and the
perception of the magnitude of participation stimuli.

The final element on the Psychosocial Interaction
Model's continuum was barriers. The designers of the
model believed barriers to participation were
determinants of participation and limited learner
engagement in continuing education. Darkenwald and
Merriam believed four categories of barriers existed:
situational, institutional, psychosocial, and

informational. Their definition of the situation and

40

institutional barriers paralleled those of Cross.

The psychosocial barriers placed the learner in the
broader context of socially determined and externally
conceived beliefs, values, attitudes, and perceptions.
Darkenwald and Merriam stressed that the potential
learner’s negative attitude toward the usefulness,
appropriateness, and desire for participating in
continuing education were affected by socioeconomic
status factors.

The basis for the inclusion of the informational
barriers was their belief that there was a direct
relationship between levels of awareness of continuing
education opportunities and the socioeconomic status of
the referent population. Darkenwald and Merriam argued
that informational barriers should be a separate
category of participation.

In conclusion, the Psychosocial Interaction Model as
developed by Darkenwald and Merriam was based on prior
assumptions about participatory and nonparticipatory
human behavior. The emphasis they placed on status
configuration variables was rooted in the theoretical
formulations of Knox and Videbeck (1963). The value of
the model was its elaboration of the complexity of
researching the motives for participation in continuing

education events.

41

Implications of Participation Theory

Three areas of research on the theories of
motivation for participation were reviewed: the early
explanatory models, the dispositional model, and the
four composite models.

As a result of this previous research on
participation, two general assumptions emerge: (1) both
individual and environmental variables interact to
determine participation; and (2) both variables may
interact so as to enhance or inhibit the likelihood of
participation.

Several more specific assumptions about
participation emerged from the constructs reviewed: 1.
Participation in continuing education probably
constitutes a multidimensional construct. 2. Elements
of this construct include psychological, social, and
environmental variables. 3. The participation in
continuing education episodes may be less important than
how the individual perceives and interprets that
participation. 4. There may be unknown psychosocial
and environmental variables that influence
participation. 5. Reasons for participation may differ
according to the personal characteristics and life
circumstances of the individual. 6. The elements
constituting the decision to participate in continuing
education are probably best understood and articulated

by those making the decision to engage in continuing

42

education. The research on participation, as presented
in the next section, is an operationalization of the
various theoretical formulations previously discussed.
Research on Participation

The research on participation is divided into three
sections: motivation for participation by the general
population; motivation for participation by professions;
and motivation for participation by clergy.
Motivation for Participation by the General Population

The survey method was used to research motives for
participation and to identify independent
sociodemographic variables. The depth interview was
used by Houle to formulate an answer to the question
"why learners were active in continuing learning" (1961,
p. 13). A typology of three learner participation
orientations for continuing education resulted from
Houle's research: goal—oriented, activity-oriented, and
learning-oriented. The typology was expanded by other
researchers to include from five to nine orientations.
Having observed how Houle's typology was expanded by
other researchers, Cross wrote (1981, p. 84):

1. Almost every learner has more than one
reason for engaging in learning. 2. Adult learners
are more frequently motivated by their pragmatic
desire to use or apply the knowledge or skill. 3.
Learning patterns for adults may begin with: a.
Awareness that they want to do something or are
tasked by others to do something that requires new
learning. b. Puzzlement or curiosity about
controversial issues or important issues to the

learner. 4. Most participants enjoy learning which
plays an important role in continuing learning.

 

43

Houle's typology was researched by Burgess, who
collected data from 1,046 adults engaged in 54 different
learning activities. Respondents indicated on a
five—point scale how influential each of seventy reasons
was in determining their participation.4 Seven
clusters of reasons were indicated (Burgess, 1971, p.
18—25):

1. The desire to know. 2. The desire to

reach a personal goal. 3. The desire to reach a

social goal. 4. The desire to reach a religious

goal. 5. The desire to take part in social
activity. 6. The desire to escape. 7. The desire
to comply with formal requirements.

Burgess then calculated the orientation of each of
the 1,046 respondents. He found (1971, p. 134) that 325
respondents had a single dominant orientation (to know,
66; personal goal, 54; social goal, 54; religious goal,
42; social activity, 3; escape, 33; and formal
requirements, 38); that another 592 had two or more
dominant orientations; and that the orientations of 129
could not be classified.

Using the seven orientations of Burgess, a national
survey was conducted for the Commission on
Non—Traditional Study by Carp, Peterson, and Roelfs
(1974). They found, on the basis of their research,
that two additional orientations emerged: desire for
personal fulfillment, and desire for cultural

knowledge. The population they investigated was 104

million persons between the ages of 18 and 60 years who

44

were living in the United States in private households
and who were not full—time students in 1972.

The research methodology used by Carp, Peterson, and
Roelfs contained weaknesses. First, there was a clear
tendency for people to agree to broad, socially
desirable reasons for learning. In fact the broader and
more varied the orientation item, the more chance it had
of being selected as important by the respondents. This
chance selection was a weakness of the survey. Two
other weaknesses (Scanlan, 1986, p. 30) were items that
appeared socially biased and dichotomous responses that
allowed limited statistical analysis. A final observed
weakness was that what people learned was equated with
why people learned. For that reason practical
how—to-do-it courses showed higher interest because of
their potential for immediate situational application.

The Carp, Peterson, and Roelfs research was,
however, supported by the conclusions of a previous
survey by Johnstone and Rivera who stated (1965, p. 3):
"It was quite clear from the results of our study that
the major emphasis in adult learning is on the practical
rather than the academic; on the applied rather than the
theoretical; and on skills rather than on knowledge or
information." The conclusion that adult participation
was influenced by practical needs has long been held as
a primary determinant of participation.

Participation surveys also utilized motivational

45

scales that were statistically analyzed. These studies
began with psychometrically constructed instruments.
The responses were analyzed by factor analysis, cluster
analysis, or other techniques aimed at reducing item
responses to meaningful clusters or orientations. The
Houle study (1961) served as the theoretical grounding
for this type of survey. Such studies typically used a
variation of the Educational Participation Scale
(Boshier, 1971) or the Reasons for Educational
Participation Scale (Burgess, 1971). After grouping
similar item responses together, five to eight factors
or orientations were identified.

A factor analysis of the Education Participation
Scale (Morstain & Smart, 1974) illustrated the
conclusions derived from this research method. They
identified six orientations (Morstain & Smart, 1974, pp.
35—36):

Factor I. Social Relationships: To fulfill a
need for personal associations and friendships; to
make new friends; or to meet members of the opposite
sex. Factor II. External Expectations: To comply
with instructions from someone else, to carry out
the expectations of someone with formal authority or
to carry out the recommendation of some authority.
Factor III. Social Welfare: To improve ability to
serve mankind, to prepare for service to the
community, or to improve ability to participate in
community work. Factor IV. Professional
Advancement; To give higher job status, to secure
professional advancement, or to keep up with
competition. Factor V. Escape/Stimulation: To get
relief from boredom, to get a break in the routine

of home or work, or to provide a contrast to the
rest of life. Factor VI. Cognitive Interest:

46

To learn just for the sake of learning, to seek

knowledge for its own sake, or to satisfy an

inquiring mind.
The analysis of motivational scales supported the belief
that individuals participated in continuing education
for multiple reasons. These reasons also changed from
time to time for an individual and even when the same
instrument was used.

A projective instrument to study the reasons for
nonparticipation was administered to a sample of 278
employees of 17 profit—making organizations (Dao,

1975). By means of personal interviews and a literature
review, the investigator compiled a list of 550 reasons
for nonparticipation in educative activities. These
were analytically reduced to 88 deterrent statements and
sorted by a panel of 24 expert judges. Applying latent
partition analysis to the sorted statements, Dao derived
nine clusters of reasons for nonparticipation. The five
most significant reasons in each of the nine clusters
were subsequently included in a survey which used a
Likert-type scale. Respondents were asked to identify
the frequency with which they perceived each reason
influencing other people's decision(s) not to
participate in educational activities. Dao's study used
the dispositional paradigm to examine nonparticipation.

Three subsequent studies (Darkenwald & Valentine,
1985; Scanlan & Darkenwald, 1984; Shipp & McKenzie,

1980) supported the idea that participation was more

47

complex than previously assumed and varied according to
the characteristics of the group studied. Common to all
three studies was the use of sophisticated factor
analytic methods to derive related groupings of
variables associated with participation. In addition to
providing a guarded picture of the multiple reasons for
nonparticipation, the researchers' methods attempted to
minimize the impact of social response bias, and to
provide a clearer picture of what deterred adults from
participation in education activities. Shipp and
McKenzie administered a 31—item deterrent scale to a
stratified random sample of 678 nonparticipants in
church—sponsored adult education programs. Using scale
analysis, the researchers identified seven deterrent
factors. Scanlan and Darkenwald employed a similar
approach to identify factors deterring a sample of
health professionals from participation in continuing
education. Analysis of a 40—item Deterrents to
Participation Scale led them to posit six major
deterrent factors. Cognizant of the limited
generalizability of the Scanlan and Darkenwald study,
Darkenwald and Valentine developed a generic form of the
Deterrents to Participation Scale, and administered it
to a large heterogeneous sample of the general adult
public. Correlation of the Deterrents to Participation
Scale-Generic with sociodemographic variables supported

the validity of the previously identified factors.

48

Cross summarized the findings of participation
surveys (Cross, 1981, pp. 91—92):

1. The reasons people give for learning
correspond to their life situation: i.e. people
with jobs want better jobs and are interested in
further education to get them. Interest in
job—related goals for continuing education begins to
decline at age 50 and drops off sharply after age
60. 2. Typically one—third of the potential
learners cite "personal satisfaction" as one of
their reasons for learning. 3. A low of 10% to a
high of 39% of the potential learners who respond to
such surveys identify "to seek knowledge for its own
sake as their primary motivation." The majority of
adult learners do not regard traditional,
discipline—based subjects as satisfactory for
participation in continuing education. 4. Various
studies have found 8% to 28% of the learners
interested in obtaining degrees or certificates for
their participation. Younger learners with college
background are most likely to be degree—oriented.
Most studies, however, show about two-thirds of the
respondents on surveys want some kind of recognition
for their learning. 5. Over one—third of the
respondents on surveys admit "escape“ is one reason
for pursuing education, but rarely offer it was the
primary motivation for participation. Respondents
who cite "escape" as a motive see continuing
education as an opportunity for meeting new friends,
are likely to be interested in hobbies/recreational
subjects, and are people who lack other social
outlets. 6. "The desire to learn to be a better
citizen" is not a strong reason for learning. About
a quarter of the respondents name it as one reason
among others. This observation varies with the
social situation; i.e. a surge in demand for energy
courses in the last decade has waned in the present
decade.

The Cross and Zusman (1977) review of over thirty
surveys on participation in continuing education stated
(Cross, 1981, p. 93): "These general conclusions about
which groups of people are motivated by which reasons
seem to hold across studies and over the years for which

we have data - not much more than a decade or so."

49

Cross identified the weaknesses of the time—bound
association survey as being the lack of and the
reliability of information beyond a single point in
time. The findings of surveys taken in the early
1970's, prior to recognition by our society of the
critical need for lifelong learning, differed with
surveys being done in the 1980's.

The first area was a review of the participation
surveys using general population samples. They were
descriptive surveys, generally time—bound, and showed a
wide range of reasons for participation in continuing
education.

A second area of concern was the literature on
respondent demographic variables as they affect
participation. "Who participates in continuing
education?” has been the focus of this type of research
literature. Johnstone and Rivera (1965) identified in a
national survey social strata as a determinant of
participation. Cross (1981, p. 54) believed "of all the
variables that have been related to educational interest
and participation, amount of formal schooling has more
influence than any other." Her conclusion was supported
by other researchers (Boaz, 1978; Carp, Peterson &
Roelfs, 1974; National Center for Educational
Statistics, 1980; Okes, 1976).

Formal education attainment was the social role

variable consistently referred to in the literature as

50

the single most powerful predictor of adult education
participation (Anderson & Darkenwald, 1979; Wainiewicz,
1976). By controlling for formal educational
attainment, the independent effects of not only age but
other ascribed and achieved social position variables
has usually been reduced to nonsignificance.

Tough (1971) reported there was little or no
significant difference in the levels of involvement in
learning projects of respondents in his non-random and
methodologically loose research study. A more
controlled extension of Tough's work, however, revealed
systematic differences based on formal educational
attainment (Penland, 1977).

Seaman and Schroeder (1970) investigated 98 randomly
selected employees of the Florida Power Corporation and
concluded (1970, p. 99): "A positive correlation was
found between the level of education of the participants
and the extent of their educative behavior at the .05
level of significance." Their conclusion supported the
generalization that the greater an individual's
education level, the greater the level of participation
in continuing education.

Chronological age was identified in the continuing
education literature as another predictor of
participation (Anderson & Darkenwald, 1979). Age, like
educational attainment, seemed to operate independently

of related variables such as income and occupation.

51

Cross stated in this regard (1981, p. 56):

Younger people tend to be pursuing credentials and

laying the groundwork for later career

specialization; those in the age range of 25 to 45

are concentrating largely on occupational and

professional training for career advancement; and
those 50 and older are beginning to prepare for use
of leisure time.
Cookson (1986, p. 134) suggested that "so consistent has
the finding of an inverse relationship between age and
AEP [adult education participation] been reported that
it is almost considered a truism."

Family income as a predictor of participation seemed
to be influenced by other variables (Anderson 8
Darkenwald, 1979); however, the lack of income appeared
to be a result of low educational attainment.

Geographic access and participation in continuing
education was studied (Bashaw, 1965; Bishop & Van Dyk,
1977; Boaz, 1978). Their findings revealed regional
differences between the West, where participation was
higher, and the Northeast and Midwest. Much of the
difference can be accounted for by greater accessibility
to free continuing education programs in the West.

Other factors affecting geographic access include
appropriateness of programs, educational attainment of
the general population, and a higher societal
participation rate. Geographical access also involved

the issue of population density (Boaz, 1978). Boaz

concluded that people living in suburban areas were more

52

likely to participate in educational activities compared
to those living in areas of sparse population or in
dense central cities.

In summary, surveys of the general population's
reasons for participation in continuing education have
resulted in the identification of three to nine clusters
or orientations. While helpful for making
generalizations about the general population, the
clusters were, on the whole, limited in their usefulness
in identifying the unique participatory reasons of
professionals. Research studies of the general
population's demographical variables proved useful in
predicting participation. While useful for predicting
participation by the general population, they are
inadequate as a predictor for participation by
professionals.

Motivation for Participatipn by Professions

Specific professions' motives for participation were
the basis for research studies. This section reviews
those surveys and the importance of the sociodemographic
characteristics of professionals as variables of
participation.

Carp, Peterson, and Roelfs (1974), as mentioned
earlier, sampled the general population and classified
the respondents by occupation as well as other
categories. The classification by occupation allowed
for the examination of data regarding "professional

workers"

53

or "administrators in large businesses." The
interviewers did not ask the question whether continued
learning was for the reason of professional employment;
rather the professionals were questioned about the
continuing education in which they had participated.

On this basis it was found that professionals were
more likely to participate in continuing education than
all other respondents. Professionals were more involved
in vocational and general education and less involved in
hobbies/recreation than the general population. The
general population participated to a somewhat greater
extent in home and family learning and in religious
activities than did the professionals. Professionals
were less likely to desire new jobs but more likely to
participate for advancement in their current jobs. A
problem with applying this study to continuing
professional education was its initial goal to sample
the general population, and not specifically identify
professionals' motivation for participation.

In his book on continuing professional education,
Cyril O. Houle voiced the concern (1980, p. 147): "Most
studies have dealt with samples of the general
population, and personal and social factors associated
with the extent of participation are too gross to be
useful in explaining the differential participation of

members of professions."

54

Berg (1973) substantiated Houle's observation, in
terms of prior formal education. Berg found the
education variable was of little significance as a
predictor for participation in continuing professional
education because the professional's previous education
was, for the most part, greater than that of the general
population.

Arden Grotelueschen (1985, chap. 3), like Cyril
Houle, commented in an article that much research had
taken place in the area of participation in continuing
education, but its focus was on the general adult
population. "It is important to make a distinction
between continuing education in general," he wrote, "and
continuing professional education in particular"
(Grotelueschen, 1985, p. 35). His thesis was that
continuing professional education was unique and
distinct from continuing education due to three
factors: the referent population, the nature of
participation, and the educational benefits derived from
participation. Research about motivation for
participation in continuing professional education,
Grotelueschen concluded, required a recognition of the
uniqueness of that population.

A specific profession, nursing, was previously
studied to determine reasons for participation in
continuing professional education. One investigation

(Price, 1967) was based on the premise that the desire

55

to continue learning arose from a sense of personal
inadequacy in a difficult situation. Questionnaires
were mailed to 1,000 nurses asking for a self-report on
the continuing education needs they had experienced, and
for anecdotes to illustrate situations in which such
needs were paramount. The following categories of needs
were expressed by the respondents: direct care of a
specific patient, 56.6%; attitudes and interpersonal
relations, 43.7%; management/leadership, 33.6%; use of
equipment or procedures, 18.9%; communications, 13.1%;
personnel functions, 12.5%; and medications, 11.4%. The
respondents revealed their need to solve specific
patient care problems, the necessity of practical and
theoretical knowledge, and the capacity to relate to
fellow professionals and clients as reasons for
participation. The three orientations identified were
similar to previously identified orientations (Burgess,
1971; Morstain & Smart, 1974).

A second study was an investigation of the personal
traits of staff nurses in non—profit New York City
general hospitals (Berg, 1973). The participants
included 45 nurses who experienced an off—duty course,
conference, workshop, or institute during the preceding
year; the 57 who had not done so were designated the
nonparticipants. Berg found a number of factors that
differentiated the two groups: the participants were

less likely to be married, less likely to concentrate on

56

surgical practice, and more likely to be encouraged to
study by friends and relatives than were nonparticipants.
The primary factor, however, was the habit of learning
previously ingrained in the participants. This study
did not differentiate sociodemographic factors such as
age, income, institutional financial support, and level
of prior education. If these variables had also been
investigated by the study, then other significant
research conclusions might have been reported.

The third study of the nursing population correlated
an individual nurse's value system to continuing
education participation (Bevis, 1975). Bevis studied
106 nurses with one year of nursing experience. The
researcher scored each respondent as to the degree of
continuing professional education activity engaged in
during that year. Another instrument was then
administered to determine the value each nurse placed
upon three systems: the nursing profession, the
institution, and patient care. Those respondents who
valued care of the patient were more likely to
participate in continuing professional education. The
strongest motive for initially pursuing the vocation of
nursing, patient care, was also a strong motive for
participation in continuing education. A weakness of
the study was that the population surveyed had only one
year of nursing experience. The results may have been

different if additional variables had been included.

57

The fourth nursing study used the Burgess
orientations (1971) to survey hospital staff nurses
(Sovie, 1972). Eight orientations were reported:
learning, personal goal, occupational goal, professional
goal, societal goal, need fulfillment, personal
socialibility, and professional socialibility.

The economic model of Dhanidina and Griffith (1975)
was utilized by Smorynski and Parochka (1979) to assess
factors influencing the continuing education activity of
another sample of health professionals in northern
Illinois. The researchers constructed a questionnaire
that included: (1) an assessment of the quality
features and essential utility of continuing
professional education offerings to the individual; (2)
consideration of program convenience factors; (3)
evaluation of the compatibility of the program with
one's work situation; and (4) a cost and benefit
analysis of program worth. They found that the cost of
attending programs was a significant factor. A weakness
of the research was it did not identify other variables
such as chronological age, size of the respondent's
institution, and length of service at the institution.
These variables may have also influenced the sample's
continuing education participation.

The research on the nurses and health care workers
has been helpful in establishing the unique reasons why

professionals participate in continuing education. The

58

studies, however, were not able to be compared to other
professions or within professions because of the use of
different instrumentation. The next step was the
development of an instrument(s) which could be used to
compare professions.

Grotelueschen based his research of professionals'
reasons for participation on Houle's (1961) typology of
adult learning orientations. Houle, as previously
reported, described three learning orientation
categories: activity—oriented, learning—oriented, and
goal—oriented. The Houle typology was the basis of the
Continuing Learning Orientation Index (Sheffield, 1964),
the Reasons for Participation Instrument (Burgess, 1971;
Grabowski, 1972), and the Education Participation Scale
(Boshier, 1971; Boshier 8 Collins, 1982; Morstain 8
Smart, 1974). While these instruments provided valuable
information, they were of limited applicability to
unique professional populations.

An instrument developed for professionals was the
Participation Reason Scale (Grotelueschen, Harnisch 8
Kenny, 1979; Kenny 8 Harnisch, 1982). The Participation
Reason Scale was administered to random professional
population samples on a local, state, regional, and
national level. These samples included veterinarians
(Harnisch, 1980), judges (Catlin, 1982; Catlin 8
Anderson, 1982) and public health administrators

(Macrina, 1982). The findings were reported at national

59

professional meetings (Catlin 8 Anderson, 1982;
Grotelueschen, Harnisch 8 Kenny, 1979; Grotelueschen,
Harnisch, Kenny 8 Cervero, 1980, 1981); reported in
dissertations and unpublished reports (Catlin, 1982;
Grotelueschen 8 Harnisch, 1978-1981; Grotelueschen,
Harnisch 8 Kenny, 1979; Harnisch, 1980; Macrina, 1982);
and published in professional journals (Catlin, 1982;
Cervero, 1981; Kenny 8 Harnisch, 1982).

Using the thirty question Participation Reason
Scale, Grotelueschen clustered motives for professional
participation into six orientations (Grotelueschen,
1985, p. 40-41): "(a) professional improvement and
development, (b) professional service, (c) collegial
learning and interaction, (d) professional commitment
and reflection, (e) personal benefits and job security,
and (f) professionalism."

Three assumptions undergirded The Participation
Reason Scale for professionals. First, participation
was a purposeful activity that should yield outcomes
relevant to professional practice. Second,
participation was for fundamentally professional
reasons. The Participation Reason Scale limited the
orientations to the practice domain of professionals and
did not include the psychological domain. The final
assumption was that The Participation Reason Scale
incorporated both the traditional and less traditional

clusters of reasons for professional participation. An

60

example of the traditional clusters included was
"professional development and improvement;" an example
of the less traditional clusters included was ”personal
benefits and job security.“

The Participation Reason Scale was designed to be
administered in conjunction with a Respondent
Information Form. The latter form collected demographic
data of two types: data which were common to all
professions, and data specific to a given profession.
The findings that resulted from this combination of
survey instruments were as follows (Grotelueschen, 1985,
p. 40): different individual reasons for participation;
differences among reasons across professional
boundaries; and the existence of relationships between
demographic characteristics and reasons for
participation. Motivation for participation, therefore,
does not vary significantly between professions, the
career stage of the professional, and the demographic
characteristics of the participants of continuing
professional education. Grotelueschen commented on the
lack of differences between professions when he wrote
(1985, p. 41):

Studies conducted among veterinarians, judges,

physicians, business professionals, nurses,

dentists, social workers, pharmacists, and health
educators suggest that, across professional lines,
professional improvement and development items
represent the most important cluster of reasons for

participation, followed, in order of relative
magnitude, by professional service, collegial

61

learning and interaction, professional commitment

and reflection, and personal benefits and job

security.

Ministers are conspicuously absent from the list of
professionals researched by this method. A void exists
in the body of knowledge relative to professional
ministry and motivation to participate in continuing
ministerial education.

In conclusion, research on professionals' motivation
for participation in continuing professional education
was accomplished in a variety of ways. The Carp,
Peterson, and Roelfs survey (1974) was applied to
continuing professional education but with questionable
results. The four research examples of the nursing
profession (Berg, 1973; Bevis, 1975; Price, 1967; Sovie,
1972) demonstrated the uniqueness of professional
populations in comparison to the general population.
Finally, use of a Participation Reason Scale, an
instrument grounded in the body of knowledge of
continuing professional education, along with a
Respondent Information Form, has proven effective and
results comparable across professions. The
Participation Reason Scale provided answers to the
question "What are the reasons for participation in
continuing professional education?" while the Respondent
Information Form provided answers to the question "Who
is participating in continuing professional education

events?" The literature on continuing professional

62

education, however, provided no adequate body of
knowledge regarding the unique profession of ministers.
Motivation for Participation by Clergy

The motives for clergy participation in continuing
professional education were researched. This section
reviews previous clergy surveys in the area of
continuing theological education.

Gamble (1984), for example, surveyed the continuing
education participation of ordained ministers. He sent
5,400 questionnaires to ministers in 12 protestant
denominations living throughout the United States and
Canada and received 1,984 usable responses. The typical
respondent was a 45—year—old Caucasian male seminary
graduate, ordained 16 years previous, at his present
position for five years as a full-time pastor, received
a salary of $20,790 in addition to housing and insurance
benefits. Three factors were identified as influencing
participation by Protestant clergy: (1) a perception
that the subject matter would contribute to increased
competence for ministry; (2) the existence of supportive
relationships within the parish and regional structure;
and (3) the presence of self-assessed continuing
education and self—formulated goals. The study,
however, dealt mainly with learning at home.

Gamble was an early leader in the field of
continuing theological education. He served for more

than two decades as the Executive Secretary of The

63

Society for the Advancement of Continuing Education for
Ministers. According to Gamble (1965, p. 17—18):
continuing theological education involves not a
withdrawal into the occupation of student but
discovery of resources for learning while engaged in
a ministerial vocation. It is education for
ministry and goes on in the midst of engagement in
that ministry. Whatever educational program he [the
pastor] chooses, the program is his.
This was the beginning of the viewpoint that motivation
for participation in continuing theological education
was to be linked to professional goals and ministerial
competence. The value of continuing education was,
according to this view, the learned skill that could be
applied to increase one's effectiveness in ministry.
In 1974 Charles William Steward recognized the need
for continuing theological education as a basis for a
minister's changing life tasks. The thesis of his book
(Steward, 1974, p. 136) was "the minister's continuing
education should be related to his changing career
needs; i.e. the minister should plan his education to
enhance, support, and increase his personal resources so
that he may be productive throughout his entire work
life.” Steward gave the impression to his readers that
continuing theological education was self—directed
learning which occurred inside or outside the parish
context. He postulated that the motivation for

continuing theological education was age-related. He

stated (Steward, 1974, p. 144):

64

We should note first that one's motives for ministry

change as one gets older. Gordon Allport made us

aware of how a motive to serve — perhaps egocentric
and not too worthy - can become an organizing center
and in adulthood become cleansed of some of the
childish and adolescent origins. Thus, during the
early years, a person may decide to serve the church
because of a desire to serve God and to reform the
institution. During the middle years, many
individuals find their motives becoming more
humanistic and more group oriented. . . . Today's
minister will come to continuing education classes
and conferences wanting to work through issues
surrounding why he does what he does and how he can
maintain his enthusiasm and desire to stay at his
work.

Steward's conception of motivation for continuing

theological education was grounded in a psychological

search for meaning in one's life and profession.

In 1974 Mark Rouch, a United Methodist Church
minister, linked competence in ministry to continuing
theological education. Continuing education was the
instrument through which competence was achieved. Rouch
defined continuing theological education as (1974,

p. 16) "an individual's personally designed learning
program which begins when basic formal education ends
and continues throughout a career and beyond. An
unfolding process, it links together personal study and
reflection and participation in organized group

events." He considered short—term organized courses and
seminars as one component of a minister's continuing
education. Rouch contrasted continuing education with

lifelong learning. Continuing education was an act,

episode, or experience of the pastor, Rouch believed,

65

while lifelong learning was a way of life, an attitude,
or dimension. The aim of the continuing education
episode was to produce growing competence. Without that
aim, Rouch felt there was nothing to be gained.

Various stages of a minister's professional career
were outlined by Rouch. He then identified continuing
education tasks for each lifespan stage (1974, pp.
104-138). The minister's first career stage was labeled
the establishment stage. It was subdivided into the
trial and advancement periods. During the trial period,
ministers tried the job on for size. The continuing
education tasks of this stage included a need to be
involved in a colleague group with others and skill
training. The advancement period involved pastors
moving rapidly toward personal career goals. The
continuing education tasks included career assessment,
human relations training, and theological studies.

The second stage was the minister's mid-career stage
which began around age forty with the realization that
the pastor was no longer a young adult and that
opportunities for advancement were not limitless. The
tendency in this stage was to maintain or conserve
previous accomplishments. The continuing education
tasks were to examine, refine, and sometimes rediscover
self—identity; to establish new career goals or examine

and refine those already held; and to acquire skills and

 

66

knowledge appropriate to the new goals and self—
understanding.

The final stage in a minister's professional career,
according to Rouch, was pre—retirement. This stage,
which usually occurred about five to seven years before
retirement, involved contemplated retirement and a
decline in life powers. The continuing education task
was to develop a skill or be introduced to a body of
knowledge that would be useful in retirement.

Continuing theological education thought was
dominated by the ideas of Gamble, Steward, and Rouch.
All three linked competency in ministry to continuing
theological education. Other variables have also been
studied.

The relationship of continuing education and stress
was the topic of a national survey by Mills 8 Hesser
(1976). They surveyed a sample of 4,984 clergymen in 21
predominately white protestant denominations. Their
findings indicated that ministers most frequently
participated in seminars dealing with theological,
biblical, and ethical material (25%) or professional
skill development (27%). Approximately one—third of the
clergy recorded no organized continuing professional
education activity, while more than half (52%) indicated
a high need for learning episodes relating the Christian
faith in a rapidly changing society. Chief obstacles to

participation were reported as time pressure (68%) and

67

inadequate financial support (47%). Status/role
inconsistency, relative financial deprivation, and
career stress appeared to influence ministers toward
greater participation in continuing theological
education, with high stress having been the most
powerful influence.

Bonn (1974) surveyed 4,635 clergy and identified
four factors which influenced participation: (1) time
and money provided by congregations; (2) denomination;
(3) other clergy and support factors, i.e. family,
number of children; and (4) the attitudinal
dimensions. Further findings were that 66% of the
clergy respondents participated in at least one
continuing education program during 1972 and 1973.

Hollister (1968) studied the relationships of a
minister's use of time, participation in leisure
activities, and continuing education among clergy in
urban congregations of Santa Clara County, California.
He found that congregation size was not significantly
related to work week, private study, or leisure. The
need for relaxation was the main reason for
participating in leisure activities which included
continuing professional education. Ministers serving
larger congregations had higher salaries and social
status, participated more often in continuing education
and other programs, and were more likely to hold

membership in national organizations.

68

The value orientations and participation in
continuing professional education by clergymen was
investigated by Klever (1966). Four continuing
professional education models were used in the survey:
periodical reading-instructional, instructional-hobby,
cultural, and mass media. Only the cultural model of
participation was significantly related to value
orientations. Klever found that educational
participation was significantly related to one's value
orientations, but not to the religious traditions of the
sample: 55 ministers, 55 priests, and 55 rabbis in the
greater Chicago, Illinois area.

Parker Rossman sent questionnaires to ministers
inquiring about their perceived needs for continuing
professional education (1974). The population was Yale
Divinity School graduates and the sample was the classes
of 1943, 1948, 1953, and 1958. Nearly all respondents
were pursuing some sort of continuing education——largely
formal seminary credit courses, urban church institutes,
mission or overseas study tours, and in clinical fields
such as sociology and psychology. About one-third of
the 1948 and 1953 graduates, but less than one-fourth of
the 1958 class, reported involvement in continuing
informal education related to biblical or theological
topics. Uncertainty characterized most respondents when
asked about their future plans for continuing

theological education. Time and money were given as the

69

reasons for their uncertainty. Respondents showed the
strongest future interest in practical courses aimed at
improving their organizational and program work.
Rossman also found that interest in continuing
professional education declined in proportion to length
of time away from seminary graduation.

Other dissertations about continuing professional
education for clergy were written about a variety of
topics. These tepics include: organizational
structures of continuing education (Belsheim, 1982;
Belue, 1974; Emler, 1973; MCash, 1966; Newell, 1974;
Norris, 1979); perceived needs of pastors for continuing
education (Burnett, 1974; Carter, 1984; Fortier, 1972;
Jones, 1981; Morris, 1977; Shimel, 1968; Traylor, 1981;
Wagener, 1975); program, program attendance, and quality
of programs (Courtenay, 1976; Hulick, 1953; Serig, 1977;
Shell, 1981; Trost, 1962; Walsworth, 1979; Wright,
1985); and clergy/lay cooperation in continuing
education (Cuny, 1982).

William M. Moremen, a United Church of Christ
clergyman, wrote from a unique perspective. He believed
spirituality could be developed through continuing
education (Moremen, 1984). He felt the mainstay of the
minister's professional development was continuing
study. Continued study was an expansion of one's
seminary education, as well as allowing inquiry into

other disciplines. The reason for continuing education

70

was, according to Moremen (1984, p. 31), "stimulation of
our minds, the exploration of ideas, the search for
truth,” and an upgrading of ministerial skills. A
pre—condition to continuing theological education was
meditation. He cited seven forms of meditation: theme,
objective of nature, imaginative study of scripture,
pondering a text, resting in God, awareness of what is,
and formal and informal meditation.

Moremen grounded his thoughts in Christian
mysticism. He used the theological mysticism framework
of Evelyn Underhill (1916, 1920) who identified each
person as engaged in a five—step spiritual journey. The
first step was awakening, defined as the realization
that a much larger consciousness existed outside of
one's self. The second step was defined as clearing the
way, which involved an individual identifying his or her
attachments, fears, and habits. Seeing was the third
step, which illuminated one so as to have a more open
view of what was real. The fourth step occurred during
the dark night of the soul, which was characterized as
an unfamiliarity about self and the world, resulting in
a sense of nothingness. The final step was unitive
life, defined as the sense of unity within one's self,
with one's work, with the world, and with God. Moremen
assumed that professional growth consisted of a variety

of methods within the steps. The purpose of continuing

 

71

theological education, according to Moremen was
expanding one's personhood and not simply expanding
one's ministerial skills.

Moremen's approach was unique to continuing
education because it was grounded in the theological
tradition of mysticism. Continuing theological
education was considered a part of one's spiritual
journey toward God. Learning within the context of
reflection was critical to developing one's ministry.
This grounding was outside the scientific method and
defied empirical analysis. Moremen's approach was
common within the field of Christian spiritual formation
(Leech, 1980; May, 1982; Tilden, 1980).

Stephen Carter, a Missouri Synod clergyman and
former director of continuing education at Concordia
Theological Seminary in Fort Wayne, Indiana, recently
wrote a book (Carter, 1986) that operationalized the
insights of Mark Rouch and previous research conducted
in the area of competent ministry and continuing
education. In order to help pastors achieve the goal of
ministerial competency, Carter developed, as his
doctoral dissertation for the Doctor of Ministry degree,
a continuing theological education assessment process.
The Learning Plan Workshop (Carter, 1984, 1986) has been
used extensively by Missouri Synod pastors. The
strengths and weaknesses of individual parish pastors

were self—assessed and a personal direction given as to

72

how to enhance competency in ministry through the
development of a learning plan. A basis for the
minister's plan, Carter believed, (1986, p. 24) was not
"simply participating in continuing education because it
makes us feel better or relieves some of our tension and
guilt or increases our portfolio of growth activities
which fails to focus on our main purposes of targeting
effective ministry in the parish." The assessment
process developed by Carter encouraged purposeful or
intentional continuing education episodes for increasing
the pastor's professional competence in ministry.

Five reasons for continuing theological education
participation were cited by Carter (1986, pp. 27—34):
building on Word and Sacrament ministry, growing as a
Christian person, developing personal gifts and skills,
equipping God's people for ministry, and implementing
the church's mission to the world. The first reason
involved the minister's personal nourishing by the
Gospel in contrast to merely using the Bible as a
professional tool. The second reason included rest,
refreshment, renewal, and re-direction in one's personal
life in order to be motivated for ministry. The third
reason targeted ministry skills which require growth or
conservation. The fourth reason involved assisting the
parish laity in developing their own ministry in the
church and in their own daily lives. The final reason

for participation emphasized the mission of spreading

73

the Gospel to the world through more effective and
competent ministers. The reasons, in summary, for
attending continuing education episodes were focused on
enhanced, competent ministry.

In summary, clergy participation has been viewed
from the perspective of why clergy should be motivated
to participate in continuing professional education
(Hollister, 1968; Klever, 1966; Mills 8 Hesser, 1976).
Others (Bonn, 1974; Gamble, 1984; Rossman, 1974)
identified participation factors through a survey method
which was not comparable with other professions.

Those who have written books on the subject (Carter,
1986; Rouch, 1974; Steward, 1974) have not attempted to
account for findings of an empirical nature in either
the general population or professional population.
Houle commented in this regard (1980, p. 130): "Most
investigations are descriptive, not analytical; few of
them test hypotheses or permit comparison.

Moreover, the identified goals of continuing education
are usually limited to the acquisition of knowledge or
skill in subject matter related to the profession."

In conclusion, a review of the literature about
reasons for participation was both historical and
deductive. The early explanatory models were attempts
to explain participation based on a limited number of
variables. The disposition paradigms viewed

participation in a psychological frame of reference.

74

The four composite participation models attempted to
account for multiple variables. The deductive review of
the literature was limited to the general, professional,
and clergy populations. The surveys of the general
population were made to identify reasons for
participation and for demographic characteristics, as
were surveys of the professions. Surveys of the clergy
population were not able to be compared to other
professional populations.

In order to interact with the broader field of
continuing professional education, there needs to be a
descriptive survey researching the motivations and
variables for clergy participation and that allows for
cross-professional comparisons to be made. Furthermore,
no study presently exists which investigates the motives
for continuing professional education among the clergy
of the Missouri Synod nor analyzes what is continuing
professional education episodes have been attended by

Missouri Synod clergy.

CHAPTER 3. THE RESEARCH PROCEDURE

The survey procedure used to research the motivation
of Missouri Synod clergy for participation was divided
into five stages: planning, sampling, instrumentation,
implementation, and analysis.

Planning

The planning stage involved the development of a
data gathering process in order to research the three
questions: (1) the Missouri Synod pastors' reasons for
participation in continuing theological education; (2)
the actual continuing theological education episodes
attended by pastors during the years 1985, 1986, and
1987; and (3) selected demographic characteristics about
the sample.

The planning stage also included two other steps.
The first was the outlining of a budget of potential
costs connected with the survey procedure. The second
was an analysis of the tasks required to accomplish the
time-bound association survey along with a plan to
acquire the resources necessary for the
operationalization of the procedure. This phase
provided guidance for completing the four remaining

stages.

75

76

Sampling

The sampling stage was a five—part process: the
population and sample, the sample size, the sample
selection, computer database, and sample characteristics.

The Popplegion and The Sample

The first step was the identification of the
population and sample. The roster of Missouri Synod
ministers printed in The Lutheran Annual (Anonymous,
1987, pp. 160—294) was used. Only pastors classified on
the roster as “PARISH", "P-ASSOC", or "P—ASST" and
residing inside the continental United States were
included for consideration in the sample. The
population numbered 5,640 pastors and each was given a
research control number.5

The Sample Size

The second step was to determine the sample size.
Since it was the researcher's desire to have the highest
level of precision, the recommendation of Ary, Jacobs,
and Razavieh (1985, p. 147) was followed:

The best answer to the question of size is to use as

large a sample as possible. A larger sample is much

more likely to be representative of the population.

Furthermore, with a large sample the data are likely

to be more accurate and precise; which is to say,

the larger the sample, the smaller the standard

error.

The sample size was determined as ten per cent of the

population.

77

The Semple Selection

The third step of the sampling stage was the sample
selection. A systematic sampling method was used, based
on the alphabetical listing of the population as found
on the roster and known to be in random order.

The procedure was initiated by multiplying .10 (10%
of the population) times the population (5,640 ministers
of religion—ordained). The product of the mathematical
calculation was the sample size (n=564). The individual
numbers zero through nine were written on separate
sheets of paper. The researcher then selected one sheet
to determine the number that would begin the sample
selection. The number three was selected. Every
control number ending with the numeral three was part of
the sample.

m r D a

The fourth step of the sampling phase was the
development of a computer database in preparation for
the operationalization of the research procedure. The
names of the sample were entered onto a computer
database. Each entry had eleven categories: last name,
first name, and middle name, street address, city,
state, zip code, Missouri Synod district, seminary of
graduation, year of graduation, advanced degrees, and
research control number. All information listed on the
database was from the roster except the control number.

The computerized database was useful in analyzing three

78

of the sample's characteristics: seminary of
graduation, zip code, and year of seminary graduation.
Sample Charaeteristics

The final step of the sampling stage was the
analysis of three specific sample characteristics. The
first characteristic was the year of graduation from the
seminary which is reported on Table 1. It shows the
sample number and the percentage of the sample that

graduated from a particular seminary.

 

 

Table 1

Table of Seminary of Graduation

____xSeminar Ramps]; P_er_c_er_11:__of
Tetal

Fort Wayne/ 222 39.36%

Springfield

Saint Louis 293 51.95%

Other 49 8.69%

 

Over half of the sample graduated from the seminary at
Saint Louis and nearly forty percent graduated from the
seminary at Springfield. The seminary characteristic
referenced as "Other" in the above table included
graduates of both the Colloquy program and other
seminaries.

The second characteristic of the sample was the
geographic region in which the sample resided. On the

basis of the zip code,6 each member of the sample

 

79

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macs aPN B_mwo m>_1 Paco_smz
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Nm~.~N.
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NNH

80

resided in one of the ten regional zip code areas of the
United States as shown in Figure 5.

The purpose of Figure 5 was to indicate the number
and percent of the sample living in a given regional zip
code area. Both the raw number and the percent were
indicated within each region. The sample was
concentrated primarily in the upper Midwest region of
the United States in regional zip code centers four,
five and six.

The third analyzed characteristic of the sample was
the year that the individual graduated from the
seminary. Three members of the sample had no year of
seminary graduation indicated on the roster. The

frequencies of the year of seminary graduation are

reported on Table 2 below.

Table 2

Table of Year of Seminary Graduation

Year Number Year Number Year Number
1934 l 1955 8 1971 15
1937 l 1956 9 1972 17
1939 1 1957 15 1973 19
1940 1 1958 13 1974 7
1941 2 1959 13 1975 13
1943 1 1960 6 1976 12
1945 4 1961 13 1977 14
1946 4 1962 10 1978 17
1947 7 1963 11 1979 16
1948 6 1964 13 1980 17
1949 7 1965 9 1981 24
1950 6 1966 14 1982 29
1951 6 1967 17 1983 24
1952 10 1968 15 1984 30
1953 5 1969 17 1985 23
1954 5 1970 13 1986 21

 

 

81

The sample's median year of graduation from the seminary
was 1973.
Instrumentation

The third stage of the research procedure involved
the survey instrumentation used in gathering information
relative to the research questions. This stage was
divided into three sections: The Clergy Participation
Reason Scale — Section 1, The Clergy Participation
Reason Scale — Section 2, and The Respondent Information
Form.

The Clergy Participation Reason Scale — Section 1

The Clergy Participation Reason Scale — Section 1
(see Appendix A) was a modification of the 30-statement
Participation Reason Scale developed by Arden
Grotelueschen (1985, p. 39). This instrument was
previously modified for administration to veterinarians
(Harnisch, 1980), judges (Catlin & Anderson, 1982),
public health administrators (Macrina, 1982) and
physicians (Grotelueschen, 1985). Former usages confirm
the instrument's factor scales exhibited satisfactory
levels of reliability. The coefficients ranged from a
low of .78 to a high of .92 (Grotelueschen, 1985, p. 38).
The scale has undergone content and face validation with
content validation being a part of the instrument's
development process. Item generation was based on an
analysis of the literature on participation and survey of

representatives of selected professional groups. A sample

82

of continuing educators rated the prototype of the
instrument for appropriateness as a measure of the
professionals' reasons for participation. Consistently
high ratings provided additional evidence of the
instrument's validity.

The respondent's task in completing the scale was to
rate their reasons for attending continuing theological
education activities. Responses could range from number
one, which represented "not important", to number seven,
which represented "extremely important". The 30 item
instrument identified six orientations (see Appendix D)
for participation and they were: (1) professional
improvement and development, (2) professional service, (3)
collegial learning and interaction, (4) professional
commitment and reflection, (5) personal benefits and job
security, and (6) professionalism.

The first instrument used with the sample was The
Clergy Participation Reason Scale - Section 1. The
purpose of the Scale was to identify the respondents'
reasons for attending continuing theological education
episodes.

The Clergy Participation Reason Scale — Section 2

The second instrument was the Clergy Participation
Reason Scale — Section 2 (see Appendix A). The purpose of
this Scale was to gather information from the sample about
the continuing theological education courses they had

attended. Each respondent was requested to categorize

83

courses they had attended in the years 1985, 1986, and
1987 under one of six categories. The six categories
corresponded to the six orientations found in The Clergy
Participation Reason Scale - Section 1.

The first goal for gathering data about current
courses being attended was to provide information about
the second research question. A second goal was to
provide a definition of how the sample interpreted the six
orientations for participation in continuing theological
education.

The Respondent Information Form

The third instrument, The Respondent Information Form
(see Appendix B), was designed for use with the Clergy
Participation Reason Scale - Section 1. Descriptive data
of a sociodemographic nature was requested of each
respondent. The data gathered were chronological age,
seminary from which the respondent was a graduate, parish
served, years of professional service, salary less housing
and other fringe benefits, congregational funds provided
for continuing education, number of professional workers
at the parish, zip code, and seminary. The
characteristics were selected based on previous research
(Anderson & Darkenwald, 1979; Carter, 1986; Cross, 1981;
Grotelueschen, 1985; Hollister, 1968; Rossman, 1974;
Rouch, 1974) and on personal observation. The nine

characteristics would then be compared to the six

84

orientations for participation in order to answer the
third research question.
Implementation

The implementation phase was divided into three
operational stages: the pilot test, the survey packet,
and the responses.

The Pilot Test

The pilot group selected for testing the three
instruments was ten metropolitan Chicago pastors. The
purpose of the pilot test was to ensure the clarity of
response items and to further substantiate the reliability
of the instruments. The instruments were administered to
the ten pastors and three recommendations resulted. The
first recommendation was to refer to ministers of
religion—ordained simply as ministers. The second
recommendation was to use "non—credit continuing education
courses” and "continuing education events” to refer to
continuing theological education workshops, seminars, and
conferences. They questioned the request for the
respondent's salary because of its confidential nature.
Based on previous research (Cross, 1981), however, the
request for salary remained as part of the form. The
pilot group's recommendations were incorporated into the
survey instruments as appropriate.

The Survey Packet
The second operational stage consisted of collating

the survey packet for mailing to the sample. The contents

85

of the packet were: The Clergy Participation Reason Scale
— Section 1 and 2, The Respondent Information Form, a
letter of introduction (see Appendix C), and a stamped
return envelope.

The letter of introduction was printed on the
letterhead of Concordia College, River Forest,
Illinois.7 The letter's contents described the purpose
of the survey, assured the sample of confidentiality,
requested the pastor's cooperation, indicated a time limit
for return of the survey instruments, assured the
respondent that his participation in the survey was
important, and expressed appreciation for his response.

The survey packets were mailed to the sample (n=564).
One week after the packets were sent, a post card was sent
reminding them of the upcoming deadline. One week after
the deadline the entire packet was mailed a second time to
those who had not yet responded to the survey. A third
mailing was sent to those who had not responded six weeks
after the initial survey, again requesting their
cooperation in returning the survey.

The Responses

The final operational stage involved the returned
survey packets. The control number on each returned
packet was deleted from the database. Responses were then
reviewed for accuracy and completeness. Completed

responses were entered into a statistical program for

86

later analysis, and incomplete responses were removed from
further consideration.

In summary, the planning, sampling, and
instrumentation stages of the research procedure led to
the implementation stage. The goals of the implementation
phase were to test the instrumentation with a pilot group
of pastors, mail the survey packets to the sample, and
receive responses from the sample. The goals of the
implementation stage were achieved when the packets were
sent and responses were received.

Analysis

The final stage of the research procedure is an
explanation of the analysis of the data gathered in the
survey packet. The analysis stage is divided into three
sections that relate to the three research questions. The
first section describes the analysis of participation in
continuing theological education. The second section
describes the analysis of the course participation in
continuing theological education. The final section
describes the analysis of the relationships of
orientations to variables in continuing theological
education. The statistical program used for analysis was
the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSSX)
(Anonymous, 1986).

Participation in Continuing Theological Education

The analysis of participation in continuing

theological education is divided into two parts:

87

orientations for participation and variables of
participation.
Orientations for Participation

The first part, orientations for participation, is an
item analysis of The Clergy Participation Reason Scale -
Section 1 and a rank-ordered list of the six clusters of
reasons why pastors attend continuing professional
education events. The reports provide information
concerning the first research question: What are the
reasons for Missouri Synod pastors attending continuing
professional education experiences? Descriptive
statistics are used to report the findings.
Variables of Participation

The second part, variables of participation, reports
the results of the respondent's demographic
characteristics. Descriptive statistics are used to show
measures of central tendency for the nine
characteristics: number of parish workers, continuing
education funds, years of professional service,
congregational size, chronological age, year of seminary
graduation, seminary of graduation, and zip code.
Course Participation in Continuing Theological Education

The sample was requested to classify the continuing
education courses they had taken in the past three years
under one of six orientations for participation. The
second analysis section outlines how the results are

reported.

88

The first report is a list of the courses respondents
attended more then once along with the number of
respondents who indicated they had attended that course.
A second report is the total number of courses reported by
the respondents.

Relationships of Orientations to Variables in
Continuing Theological Education

The third analysis section is a report of the
relationships that may exist between the six orientations
for participation in continuing theological education and
the nine characteristics of the respondents. Two
statistical methods are used in order to establish
relationships: crosstabulation and Pearson correlation
coefficient. The results of using these statistics are
reported on tables.

In conclusion, the research procedure has five
stages: planning, sampling, instrumentation,
implementation, and analysis. The planning stage was an
outline of the procedures to be following in order the
carry out the research. The sampling stage dealt with the
size, selection, and three characteristics of the sample.
The instrumentation stage was a description of the three
research instruments. The implementation stage was a
description of the operationalization of the survey
process. The final stage, analysis, was a summary of how

the finding are reported in Chapter Four.

CHAPTER 4. THE FINDINGS

The findings of the study are reported in this
chapter. The first section, participation in continuing
theological education, is a report of the findings
relative to the first research question: "What are the
reasons for Missouri Synod pastors attending continuing
professional education experiences?" The second
section, course participation in continuing theological
education, is a report of the findings relative to the
second research question: "What continuing professional
education courses have Missouri Synod pastors
participated in during the past three years?" The final
section, relationships of orientations to variables in
continuing theological education, is a report of the
findings relative to the third research question: "What
relationships do nine selected variables have on the
reasons for participation in continuing professional
education?"

Participation in Continuing Theological Education

The initial section includes two parts:
orientations for participation and variables of
participation. The first part is a report based on The
Clergy Participation Reason Scale - Section 1. The
second part is a report based on The Respondent

Information Form.

89

9O

Orientations for Participation

Orientations for participation is divided into two
areas: item report and cluster report. The item report
is a summary of the individual items on The Clergy
Participation Reason Scale - Section 1. The cluster
report is a summary of the six orientation clusters
embedded in The Clergy Participation Reason Scale —
Section 1.

Item Report

The item report is a list of the thirty items on The
Clergy Participation Reason Scale - Section 1 (Appendix
A) by rank ordered means. The purpose of the section is

to report the importance of each item.

 

 

Table 3

Table of Item Means in Rank Order

 

 

Rank Item Number Mean
1 3 5.954
2 14 5.902
3 1 5.783
4 21 5.776
5 16 5.741
6 19 5.593
7 27 5.471
8 9 5.468
9 13 5.451
10 29 5.339
11 18 5.259
12 17 4.763
13 5 4.751
14 12 4.724
15 23 4.459
16 2 4.376
17 4 4.332

18 25 4.261

 

91

} Table 3 (cont.)

 

 

Rank Item Number Mean
19 30 4.034
20 8 4.010
21 10 3.956
22 20 3.912
23 7 3.846
24 15 3.537
25 26 3.502
26 6 3.280
27 24 3.268
28 22 2.810
29 28 2.605
30 11 2.144

 

 

 

The first column of the table is the rank order of
each item, the second column corresponds to the number
of the item as found on the Scale, and the third column
is the descriptive statistic, the mean. There were 410
usable responses for each of the thirty items. Each
respondent was to choose on a scale of one to seven the
importance connected to their reasons for attending
continuing theological education programs with one being
"least important" and seven being "most important." The
maximum mean was 5.954, the minimum mean was 2.144, and
the range was 3.81.

Cluster Report

The Cluster Report is a survey of findings about the
six orientations for participation in continuing
professional education embedded in The Clergy

Participation Reason Scale — Section 1.

92

 

 

Table 4

Table of Rank Ordered Orientation Means

 

 

Repk Mean Orientation

1 2.7195 Professional improvement and
development

2 2.6171 Professional service

3 2.2244 Professionalism

4 2.1341 Collegial learning and interaction

5 1.8000 Professional commitment and
reflection

6 1.6146 Personal benefits and job security

‘

 

The first column of Table 4 is the rank of the
orientation, the second column is the descriptive
statistic, the mean, and the final column is the
orientation. The orientation means range from a maximum
of 2.7195 to a minimum of 1.6146 with a variance of
1.1049.
Variables of Participation

The second part, variables of participation, is a
report about each of the nine selected sociodemographic
characteristics the respondents listed on The Respondent
Information Form. The characteristics are shown on
barcharts and tables as summaries in order to show
central tendencies. The ten areas of this second part
are: continuing education funds, congregational size,
length of service, chronological age, seminary, number of

professional workers, year of seminary graduation, zip

 

 

93

code, salary, and the composite respondent.
Continuing Edpeatien Funds
The first area is the characteristic continuing

education funds which is reported on Table 5 below.

 

 

Table 5

T l f n in i E 3 ion F n

Fund Dollere Fr u n Pebeept
0-200- 207 50
201-400 85 21
401-600 64 16
601-800 14 3
801 + _A9. 19
Total 410 100

Fund Dollars

 

$0 - $200 207
$201 - $400" I

$401 — $600 a

$601 - $800‘ I ‘4

$801+ 3 m

FREQUENCY

 

 

The table was divided into two parts: the barchart and

the table. The barchart graphically depicted the number

94

of respondents in each category. The value table was a
report of the frequencies for each category along with
the percentage of the respondents.

Pastors who received $0 to $200 for their continuing
professional education were 50% of the respondents, the
largest group. The pastors who received $201 to $400
were 21% of the respondents. The pastors who received
$401 to $600 were 16% of the respondents. The pastors
who received $601 to $800 were 3% of the pastors and were
the smallest group. The pastors who received $801 or
more were 10% of the respondents.

W
The second area is the characteristic congregational

size which is reported on Table 6 below.

 

 

Table 6
T l f n r i n l iz
Number pf Persens Fregpeney Pereent
0-200 77 19
210—400 125 30
401-600 81 20
601-800 39 10
801—1000 25 6
1001 + _§_3_ L5 F

Total 410 100

 

 

95

Number of Persons

 

 

0 - 200 771

 

201 - 400 ' ‘”i]

401 - 600 8;]

601 - 800 m
n

 

 

801 1000

 

1001 + ~ 53]

FREQUENCY

 

The table was divided into two parts: the barchart and
the value table. The barchart was a graphic depiction
of the number of respondents in each category. The
value table was a report of the frequencies for each
category along with the percentage of the respondents.
Pastors who serve in congregations with 0 to 200
parishioners were 19% of the respondents. Pastors who
serve in congregations with 201 to 400 parishioners were
30% of the respondents which is the largest group.
Pastors who serve in congregations with 401 to 600
parishioners were 20% of the respondents. Pastors who

serve in congregations with 601 to 800 respondents were

 

96

10% of the respondents. Pastors who serve in
congregations with 801 to 1,000 parishioners were 6% of
the respondents. Pastors who serve in congregations
with 1,001 and over were 15% of the respondents.
Length pf Service

The third area is the characteristic length of

service which is reported on Table 7 below.

 

 

1.81M
Table pf Length bf Serviee
Yeers bf Serviee Fregpeney Pereent

0—5 88 21
6-10 71 17
11—15 63 15
16-20 51 ‘ 12
21—25 36 9
26—30 45 11
31-35 26 6
36-40 19 5
41 + 11 .3

Total 410 100

 

 

97

Years of Service

0 - 5 3i]
6 - 10 7f]

11 -15 F]

16 - 20 5i]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

21 - 25 3{]

26 - 3o ‘5]

31 - 3s 251

36 - 4o IIIIIEI

41 + Ill
.......... I.........I.........I.........I.........I
0 20 40 60 80 100

FREQUENCY

v

 

The table was divided into two parts: the barchart and
the value table. The barchart graphically depicted the
number of respondents in each category. The value table
was a report of the frequencies for each category along
with the percentage of the respondents.

Pastors who have served 0 to 5 years were 21% of the
respondents which was the largest group. The second

largest group, 17%, were pastors who have served 6 to 10

 

98

years. Pastors who have served 11 to 15 years were 15%
of the respondents. Pastors who have served 16 to 20
years were 12% of the respondents. Pastors who have
served 21 to 25 years were 9% of the respondents.
Pastors who have served 26 to 30 years were 11% of the
respondents. Pastors who have served 31 to 35 years
were 6% of the respondents. Pastors who have served 36
to 40 years were 5% of the respondents. The smallest
group, 3%, were pastors who had served 41 years or more.
Chronological Age

The fourth area is the characteristic chronological

age which is reported on Table 8 below.

K

 

 

Table 8
Table pf Chrenolegieal Age
ghrenelegieel Age Frequeney P r n

20-30 24 6
31-35 68 17
36—40 68 17
41-45 62 15
46-50 50 12
51—55 63 15
56-60 34 8
60 + £1 19

Total 410 100

 

 

99

Chronological Age

 

2“

20 - 30

 

 

31 - 35 “j
36 - 40 , $1
41 - 45 631]
- 46 - 50 ~ E

51 - 55 4 63:]
56 - 60 31“]

61 + ' fijZJ

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The table was divided into two parts: the barchart and
the value table. The barchart graphically depicted the
number of respondents in each age category. The value
table was a report of the frequencies for age category
along with the percentage of the respondents.

Pastors who were ages 20 to 30 were 6% of the
respondents. The two largest groups of pastors, ages
31-35 and ages 36—40, were of equal size; each was
composed of 17% of the respondents. Pastors who were
ages 41-45 were 15% of the respondents. Pastors who
were ages 46—50 were 12% of the respondents. Pastors

who were ages 51 to 55 were 15% of the respondents.

 

100

Pastors who were ages 56-60 were 8% of the respondents.
Pastors who were ages 60 and over were 10% of the
respondents.
Serum

The fifth area is the characteristic seminary which

is reported on Table 9 below.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 9
Tabl f minar
S_e___a_xminr W Pr n
Springfield/
Fort Wayne 168 41
Saint Louis 227 55
Other _15 _g
Total 410 100
Seminary
Springfield/ ' 168'
Fort Wayne —
Saint Louis ' zzil
Other 15
I ......... x ......... I ......... 1 ......... 1 ......... I
0 30 160 240 320 400
FREQUENCY

 

The table was divided into two parts: the barchart and
the value table. The barchart graphically depicted the
number of respondents in the three seminary categories:
Springfield/Fort Wayne, Saint Louis, and Other. The

value table was a report of the frequencies for each

 

101

category along with the percentage of the respondents.

Pastors who graduated from Concordia Seminary in
Saint Louis were the largest group, 55% of the
respondents. The second largest group of pastors were
graduates of Concordia Theological Seminary in Fort
Wayne, 41% of the respondents. The final group labeled
"Other" was 4% of the respondents.

A comparison of the sample (n=564) with the

respondents (n=410) is reported on Table 10 below.

 

 

Table 10

Table of Comparison of Seminary

Seminary Sample Respondents
Springfield/

Fort Wayne 40% 41%
Saint Louis 52% 55%
Other 8% 4%

 

The sample differs from the respondents in terms of the
seminary from graduation. First, 1% more respondents
are from the Springfield/Fort Wayne seminary. Second,
3% more respondents are from the Saint Louis seminary.
Finally, the category "Other" showed 4% less respondents
compared to the sample.
Number pf Prefessional Wbrkere

The sixth area is the characteristic number of

professional workers which is reported on Table 11 below.

 

102

 

 

Table 11

T l f N m r of Pr fe i nal W rk rs

Number pf
Prefessienel Werkers Fregpeney Pereent
0-2 301 73
3—5 38 9
6—9 20 5
10 + _51 12
Total 410 100

Number of Professional

 

 

 

 

Workers - —é.
o .. 2 - 301_j
. 30
3 - 5 .::::l
20
6 - 9 ::1
10+ El
1 ......... 1 ......... 1 ......... x ......... 1 ......... I
0 an 160 240 320 400
FREQUENCY

 

The table was divided into two parts: the barchart and
the value table. The barchart graphically depicted the
number of respondents in each category. The value table
was a report of the frequencies for each category along
with the percentage of the respondents.

Pastors who worked with 0-2 parish workers were the
largest group with 73% of the respondents. Pastors who

had 3-5 parish workers were 9% of the respondents.

 

103

Pastors who had 6-9 parish workers were 5% of the
respondents. Pastors who had 10 or more parish workers
were 12% of the respondents.
Year of Seminary graduatien

The seventh area is the characteristic year of

seminary graduation which is reported on Table 12 below.

 

 

Ta 1 12
T 1 f Y ar f min r r i n

Year of Seminary

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

____t_Gradua io_n 11591151191 mm;
1930 — 1939 3 1
1940 — 1949 20 5
1950 — 1959 64 16
1960 - 1969 93 23
1970 - 1979 117 29
1930 - 1986 113 25
Total 410 100
Year of Graduation-
1930 - 1939 ' :13
1940 - 1949 ', 2°]
1950 - 1959 ; 64]
1960 - 1969 ' 9i!
1970 - 1979 1'7!
1980 - 1986 I 1‘2]
I. ......... I ......... I ......... I ......... I
0 40 80 120 160

 

 

104

The table was divided into two parts: the barchart and
the value table. The barchart graphically depicted the
number of respondents by six year of seminary graduation
categories. The value table was a report of the
frequencies for each category along with the percentage
of the respondents.

Pastors who graduated between the years 1930 to 1939
were 1% of the respondents. Pastors who graduated
between the years 1940 to 1949 were 5% of the
respondents. Pastors who graduated between the years
1950 to 1959 were 16% of the respondents. Pastors who
graduated between the years 1960 to 1969 were 23% of the
respondents. Pastors who graduated between the years
1970 to 1979 were the largest group with 29% of the
respondents. Pastors who graduated between the years
1980 to 1986 were 28% of the respondents.

Zi ode

The eighth area is the characteristic zip code which
is reported on Figure 6.

The map of the United States shows the nine regional
zip code centers. Within each zip code center is the
number of respondents and the percentage of the total
respondents. The three largest regional areas are zip
code centers 4, 5, and 6.

A comparison of the sample to the respondents is

reported on Table 13 below.

105

xmm.¢
om

nmm.~
NH ......

 

meow QPN xn mucwucoamma we xocmscmtm

Anmmzv stepuor_o mu_tto nmoa 6:6
mean a_N num_o 6>_1 .6=o_naz
sot; emuamu<

wo~.~m.
mm.

&¢~.¢N.
mm

o ot:m_m

“mumDOm

 

106

 

 

Table 13

Table bf Zip Code Comparisons

Zi n r Sample R n n
0 3.37% 2.92%
l 5.32% 4.88%
2 3.20% 4.15%
3 4.97% 5.36%
4 13.83% 13.42%
5 22.51% 24.14%
6 21.28% 21.70%
7 9.93% 9.52%
8 5.67% 4.88%
9 9,933 9,03%

Total 100% 100%

 

The comparison showed that respondents and sample compare
favorably with each other in terms of percentage of
response. The range of variation between the sample and
respondents was as small as .95% for region 2 and as
great at 1.63% for region 5.
Salery

The ninth area is the characteristic salary which is

reported on Table 14 below.

 

107

 

 

Ta 1 14

Table of Salary
Salery

0-10,000
10,001-20,000
20,001—25,000
25,001-30,000
30,001-35,000
35,001 +

Total

Salary

$0-$l0,000

$10,001-$20,000
$20,001-$25,000
525,001-530,000

530,001-535,000

$35,001 +

 

E£§Ql§fl§1 2§£Q§£§
22 5
70 17
158 39
90 22
33 8
.31 _2
393 100
m
7n

 

 

tail

 

 

 

FREQUENCY

 

 

 

108

The table was divided into two parts: the barchart and
the value table. The barchart graphically depicted the
number of respondents in each salary category. The value
table was a report of the frequencies for each category
along with the percentage of the respondents.

Pastors who had a salary from $0 to $10,000 were 5%
of the respondents. Pastors who had a salary from
$10,001 to $20,000 were 17% of the respondents. Pastors
who had a salary from $20,001 to $25,000 were 39% of the
respondents and were the largest group. Pastors who had
a salary from $25,001 to $30,000 were 22% of the
respondents. Pastors who had a salary from $30,001 to
$35,000 were 8% of the respondents. Pastors who had a
salary of $35,001 or more were 9% of the respondents.

C m i R n n
A summary of the respondents' characteristics using

descriptive statistics is reported on Table 15.

 

 

T 1 1

m i n
ghareeterieties a i i
Parish Workers Median = l worker
Continuing Education Funds Mean = $330.23
Salary Mean = $20,863.74

Years of Professional
Service Mean

16.454 years

Congregational Size Mean

604 people

 

 

109

Table 15 (cont.)

Charaeteristies Statietiea
Chronological Age Mean = 45 years
Year of Seminary
Graduation Medium = 1973
Seminary (in percentage) Springfield
/Fort Wayne = 41%
Saint Louis = 55%
Other = 4%
Zip Codes Median = 56000

 

The typical respondent was a co-worker with one other
professional worker in the parish. He has $330 in
congregational funds available to him for the purpose of
continuing theological education. He earned $20,863.74
in salary per year excluding allowances (such as
housing, car, library, etc.). He has been in the
ministry for over 16 years, serving a parish of over 600
people. He was 45 years old and graduated from the
seminary in 1973. Most likely he graduated from
Concordia Seminary in Saint Louis, Missouri and lived
somewhere in the upper heartland of the United States.
In summary, the first part, participation in
continuing theological education, was a report of
findings of The Clergy Participation Reason Scale -
Section 1 and The Respondent Information Form. The
first section dealt with the 30 survey items on the

Scale and the six orientations for participation in

 

110

continuing theological education. This report provided
responses to the question, "What are the reasons for
Missouri Synod pastors attending continuing professional
education experiences?" The second part dealt with the
nine sociodemographic characteristics of the
respondent. This report was the result of research on
the question, "What relationships do nine selected
variables have on the reasons for participation in
continuing professional education?"
Course Participation in
Continuing Theological Education

The second section is a report of the findings based
on The Respondent Information Form. The respondents
were requested to classify the continuing theological
education courses they had taken during the years 1985,
1986, 1987, according to one of the six reasons for
participation in continuing education. The purpose of
this section was to provide information about the second
research question: "What continuing professional
education courses have Missouri Synod pastors
participated in during the past three years?" The
section has two parts: course frequencies and composite
listings.

Course Freguencies

The courses which respondents list more than one

time by five categories of orientation are found in

Table 16.

 

 

 

111

 

 

Iab1e_1§

Table pf Rank Ordered Maltiple Coarse Fregueneiea
qugfigfi EIQQQQDQX

PROFESSIONAL IMPROVEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT

Preaching for Pastors 44
Church Growth Seminars 40
Evangelism 17
District Pastoral Conferences 16
Parish Leadership Seminar 16
Crossways 13
Creative Church Management 13
Pastoral Counseling 12
Circuit Pastoral Conferences 11
Luther on Confessions Symposia 10

“Peace in the Parish" Workshop
Great Commission Convocation
Prepare/Enrich

Learning Plan Workshop
Stewardship Workshop

New Testament exegesis workshop
Stephen Ministry Workshop
Ministry to Inactives Seminar
Seminar on Cancer and its patients
Witness Workshop

Confirmation Workshop

Death and Dying Workshop
Ministry to Aging

Computer Literacy and Skills
Divine Drama

Dialog Evangelism

Church Growth Seminar (Winn Arn)
Church Planting (Missouri Synod)
Organization and Management of Ministry
Pre-Lenten Retreat

Growth in Ministry Days

Computers in the Church

Master's Plan

Trip to the Holy Land

Sunday School Workshop

How to be a More Effective Church
Leader

Time Management

Agri-Crisis Seminar
Peer-Listening Workshop

Marriage Counseling

Hospice Training

Parish Administration in the Larger

wwwwww wwwbhhbAbAAbmmmmmmmmmmwmm

 

 

112

Table 16 (cont.)

QQEL§§§ ELEQEEQQX
PROFESSIONAL IMPROVEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT (cont.)

Parish
Stress Management Workshop
Change Workshop
Walther Centennial Law/Gospel Seminar
Workshop for Pastors and Wives
The Church and the Family
Calling and Caring Workshop
Pastor/Elder Training Workshop
Parish Administration
Elder Training Programs
Pastor Educator Conference
Local Clergy Association
Growing and Leading a Multiple Staff
Ministry
Pastor as Professional Leader
Heart to Heart
Suicide Prevention Workshop
Adult Education
Eschatology/End Times Theology
Ministry to Chemically Addicted
and their Family
Counseling to the Family Problems
Counseling in Sexual Dysfunction
Bio—Ethics Seminar
Clinical Pastoral Education (CPE)
"Breaking the 2000 Barrier”
Small Church Seminar
LEAD, PET, TET, YET
Pastor/Parish Effectiveness Profile
Serendipity
Circuit Forums
AIDS Seminar
Grief Workshop
Worship Planning
COping with Anger Seminar
Exegetical Conference
Contemporary Issues in Theology
Alcoholism Seminar

TOTAL

\)
mlNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN NNNNNN NNNNNNNwwwww

PR FE I NAL ERVI E

Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Additions

Seminar 16
Church Growth Seminars 16
Evangelism 9

 

 

113

Table 16 (cont.)

Cgu_r_$_e_s Plenum):
PROFESSIONAL SERVIOE (cont.)

Pastoral Counseling
AIDS Seminar
Creative Preaching
Crossways
Farm Crisis Workshop
Stephen Ministry Leadership Training
Enrich Marriage/Pre-Marriage Counseling
"Peace in the Parish" Workshop
Creative Church Management Seminar
Grieving Seminar
Circuit Pastors Conference
Growing through Grief
Counseling the Cancer Patient
Witness Workshop
Counseling/Referral Seminar
Pre—Lenten Retreat
Death and Dying Workshop
Direct Mail Seminar
Marriage and Family Workshop
Church Music
Conflict Management
Suicide Prevention Seminar
Family Wellness (LSS)
Preaching Workshop
Sunday School/VBS Workshop
Leadership Training
Stopping Back Door Losses
Fifth Step Listener - Alcoholic
Anonymous
Counseling the Depressed
Gerontology
Peer Listening
Basic Counseling Skills
Circuit Counselors' Training/
Conference
Assimilating New Members
Youth Events Seminar
Workshop on Domestic Violence
Growth in Ministry Days

TOTAL

A
O'NNNNN NNNNN NNNNNNNNNwwwwwwwn¢Ammmmmmoom

QOLLEOIAL LEARNINO AND INTERAOTION

District Pastoral Conferences 37
Circuit Pastoral Conferences 34

 

 

114

Table 16 (cont.)
QQQLSQS Ereguengx

QOLLEOIAL LEARNING AND INTERAOTION (cont.)

Preaching Workshop 11
Confessional Symposium
Exegetical Workshop
Circuit Learning Plan Workshop
Local Ministerial Associations
Campus Worker Conference
District Convention
Informal Fellowship with other clergy
Evangelism Workshop
Ministerial Association
Ministry to Dying Conference
Local Study Group
Pre—Lenten Conferences
Synodical Convention
Circuit Counselors Conferences
Church Discipline
Trip to Holy Land
Walther Centennial Law/Gospel Seminar
Lutheran Association of Larger
Churches Conference
Computer word processing
Mission Conference
TOTAL

N
wlNNN NNNNNNNNwwwwwwwmw

PR FE I NAL MMITMENT AND REFLE TI N

Concordia Academy

Circuit Pastoral Conferences

District Conference

Spirituality

Pre-Lenten Retreats for Pastors
Learning Plan Workshop

Clinical Pastoral Education (CPE)
Preaching for Pastors

Growth in Ministry Days

The Ministry and the Minister's Family
Circuit Counselors' Conference

SMART retirement seminar

Witness Workshop

Income Tax Seminar 1
Marriage Encounter Weekend

District Pastoral Conference

Concordia Plans Workshop

Computer Literacy Program

NNNQMNNNNNQIAWQAWQN

 

 

115

Table 16 (cont.)

QOQISGS Fregueney

PROFESSIONAL OOMMITMENT AND REFLEQTION (cont.)

Financial Planning 2
Psychological ”Types" and Ministry 2
Stress Management _2
TOTAL 12 '

PR FE IONALI M

District Pastoral Conference
Circuit Pastoral Conference
Preaching Workshop
Learning Plan Workshop
Creative Church Management
Time Management
Confessions Symposium
Computers
Free Conference on Holy Communion
Prepare/Enrich Marriage Seminar
Pastoral Counseling
Pastor/Principal Retreats

TOTAL

H
whosamrouamcuoabcnaxq

 

 

The report of frequencies was a rank order listing
of the continuing theological education courses. Each
course that was classified in a given orientation more
than one time by the respondents was listed on the table
in the first column. The second column was the number
of respondents who listed that course.

m i Li in s
The total courses listed by respondents in

rank-order by orientation is found on Table 17.

116

 

 

Ta 1 17

T l f Rank-Order Ori n i n N m r f r e
Orientations Fr u n

Professional Improvement

and Development 550

Professional Service 246

Collegial Learning and Interaction 201

Professional Commitment and Reflection 77

Professionalism 71

Personal Benefits and Job Security ._§2
Total 1,197

 

The total number of courses listed by respondents was
1,197 and the range was 498. The orientation with the
greatest number of courses listed was Professional
'Improvement and Development with over twice as many
courses listed than any other orientation.

In summary, the second part of the findings was a
report of the courses and orientations. The purpose was
to provide information about the second research
question: "What continuing professional education
courses have Missouri Synod pastors participated in
during the past three years?”

Relationships of Orientations to Variables
in Continuing Theological Education

The third part of the findings is based on The

Clergy Participation Reason Scale - Section 1 and The

 

117

Respondent Information Form. The purpose of this
section is to report the relationships and correlations
that exist between the six orientations for
participation in continuing theological education and
the nine demographic characteristics of the
respondents. The third part is divided into two
sections: crosstabulation relationships and Pearson
correlation coefficients.
W

The first part, crosstabulation relationships, is a
report of the significant relationships that exist
between the orientations and characteristics. The
tables used to report the information contain the
following data: Chi-square outcomes, degrees of
freedom, significance, uncertainty coefficient, and
frequencies. Where a significant relationship exists at
the .05 level, a specific crosstabulation is shown.
This part is divided into nine sections: years served,
congregational size, salary, continuing education funds,
parish workers, seminary graduation, zip code, seminary
attended, and chronological age.
Years Served

The first section is a summary of the
crosstabulations of the years a pastor has been ordained
compared to the orientations for participation. The
results of the crosstabulation are reported on Table of

Crosstabulations of Years Served, Table 18, shown below:

118

 

 

nble 10
Table of Crosstabuleuene of teen Served

Degrees of ' Uncertainty
Orientation: Chi ere freedo- Significance Coe I 2 telens m
Professional Improve-eat .
and Dov-lov-one 5.1331. 0 0.1400 0.0066) ‘10
'"hflioul “"1“ 4.1010: 0 0.0231 0.0007 ‘10
Collegial Learning
“4 Interaction mum a 0.349: . 0.0001 “0
Professional. Come-eat ' I
and Reflection 1.02705 0 0.3311 0.0001 “0
Iereonel Ienettu , ' .
M JO. SW21" 3.9.410 I 0.640! 0.02010 ‘13
trot-Intounlitl , 11.1136) 0 0.0009 0.02101 ‘10

 

'7 I

There was a significant relationship between the
number of years in the ministry and the orientation
of professionalism, as indicated by .0069
significance and a Chi—square statistic of 21.11363.
The specific crosstabulation for years served
compared to the orientation of professionalism is

shown below in Table 19, Table of Years Served to

 

 

Professionalism.

Table 19

T 1e of Y ar rv o Profe i nali m

Response Row

Oategeries Y ar rv Tetal
0-7 8-15 16-25 26—36 37+

Least 10 5 6 2 3 26

8.3 4.9 6.9 2.6 12.0 6.3

Some 84 66 55 54 7 266
70.0 64.7 63.2 71.1 28.0 64.9

Most 26 31 26 20 15 188
21.7 30.4 29.9 26.3 60.0 28.8

Column 120 102 87 76 25 410

Total 29.3 24.9 21.2 18.5 6.1 100

 

 

 

119

The columns of the table were divided into five
categories: 0-7 years served, 8-15 years served,
16-25 years served, 26—36 years served, and 37 years
or more years served. The rows which summarize the
responses were divided into three categories: 0—2
indicated least importance, 3-5 indicated some
importance, and 6-7 indicated most importance.
Sengregatienal Size

The second section is a summary of the
crosstabulations of the congregational size a pastor
is serving compared to the six orientations for
participation in continuing professional education.
The results of the crosstabulation are reported on
Table of Crosstabulations of Congregational Size,

Table 20, shown below:

 

Table 20

Table of Crosstabulations of Conarecatignal Size

Degrees of Uncertainty

Orientations Chi Square Freedom Significance Coefficient Freguengy
Professional Improvement -

and Development 3.9132 6 0.6606 0.00546 6l0
Professional Service 2.11553 - g 0.323; 9.00331 610

0

Collegial Learning

and Interaction 6.63273 6 0.6163 0.0069l ‘10
Professional Commitment . .

and Reflection 6.0663! 6 , 0.2341 0.0009l 410
Personal Benefits . .

and Job Security 6.66l27 6 0.3339 0.00752 610

Professionalism 4.2569: 6 0.661! 0.00071 410

 

 

 

120

There were no significant relationships when the size of
the congregation was compared to the six orientations
for participation in continuing education.
Salary

The third section is a summary of the
crosstabulations of the respondents' salary compared to
the six orientations for participation. The results of
the crosstabulation are reported on the Table of

Crosstabulations of Salary, Table 21, shown below:

 

 

Table Zl

Table of Crosstabulations of Salary

 

Degrees of Uncertainty

Orientations Chi Square Preedoe Significance Coefficient 553323251
Professional Improvement .

and Develop-eat 7.30373 6 0.2766 0.01031 610
Professional Service 9.06667 6 0.1713 0.01336 610
Collegial Learning

and Inter-cues 1.23100 6 0.9750 0.01525 610
Professional Cos-itnent

and Reflsction 16.62065 6 0.0236 0.0l525 610
Personal Benefits ' .

and Job Security 1.03307 6 0.03663 0.00110 610
Professionalism 3.61630 6 0.726l 0.00635 630

 

 

There was one significant relationship between the
salary the pastor received and the orientation of
professional commitment and reflection, as indicated by
the significance of .0234 and a Chi-square of 14.62065.
The specific crosstabulation table for the salary
the pastor received and the orientation is reported on
Table 22, Table of Salary to Professional Commitment and

Reflection.

121

 

 

 

Tabl 22
Table of Salary ta Professienal demmitment and Reflection
Response Row
Categbries Dellars Tetal
0-14999 15000—19999 20999—29299 SQQOQ+
l 23 41 40 24 128
30.7 27.2 28.4 55.8 31.2
2 43 90 86 17 236
57.3 59.6 61.0 39.5 57.6
3 9 20 15 2 46
12.0 13.2 10.6 4.7 11.2
Column 75 151 141 43 410
Total 18.3 36.8 34.4 10.5 100.0

 

The crosstabulation in Table 22 is divided into rows and
columns. The columns have four categories of salary: $0
to $14,999; $15,000 to $19,999; $20,000 to $29,000; and
$30,000 and above. The orientation rows were divided
into three categories: 0—2 indicated least importance,
3-5 indicated some importance, and 6—7 indicated most
importance.
Cpntinding Edueation Funds

The fourth section is a summary of the
crosstabulations of the continuing education funds
provided to the pastor compared to the six orientations
for participation. The results of the crosstabulation
are reported on the Table of Crosstabulations of

Continuing Education Funds, Table 23, shown below:

 

122

 

Table 2
gable of Crosstaselations of Contingdng toucatigg Pundg

Degrees of

uncertainty
Orientations Chi re Preedom

Biggificance Coefficient Eggggeggz

Professional improvement

‘04 DOVOIOPlent 3.22333 6 0.0337 0.03631 ‘10
Prof-"10061 Service 7.52225 6 0.1107 0. 01130 ‘30
Collegial Learning ' '

and Interaction 3.16373 6 0.2666 0.00732 610
Professional commitment

and Reflection 2.62333 6 0.6366 0.00333 630
Personal Benefits ’

and Job Security 1.30313 6 0.6336 0.00161 6l0
Professionalism 6.31023 6 0.177l 0.01002 610

 

 

There were no significant relationships found in this
comparison.
Parish Werkers

The fifth section is a summary of the
crosstabulations of the number of parish workers at
the respondents' parish compared to the six
orientations for participation. The results of the
crosstabulation are reported on the Table of
Crosstabulations of Parish Workers, Table 24, shown

below:

 

 

\ 32...:

.IL

123

 

Table 26

Table of Crosstabulations of Parish lorkers -

Degrees of Uncertainty

Orientations Chi gguare freedom. Significance Coefficient fregueggx
Professional Improvenent

and Developeent 2.00120 6 0.3316 0.00706 610
Professional Service 6.76010 6 ‘ 0.3130 0.01107 610
Collegial Learning . .

and 1nteraction 1.72622 6 0.7033 0.00202 _ ‘10
Professional Con-itnent . I i

and Reflection 6.33301 6 0.3306 0.00706 610
Personal Benefits ‘

and Job Security 1.00676 6 0.0366 0.00179“ ‘10
Professionalism 3.02300 6 ' 0.2123 0.01073 610

 

 

 

There were no significant relationships found in this

comparison.
geminarx graduation

The sixth section is a summary of the
crosstabulations of the year of seminary graduation
compared to the six orientations for participation.
The results of the crosstabulation are reported on

The Table of Crosstabulations of Seminary Graduation,

Table 25, shown below:

 

 

124

 

 

 

22:22
Table of Crosstabulatiggg of Seminagy Graduation
Degrees of Uncertainty

Orientations Chi uare Freedom Significance Coefficient Fr uen
Professional Improvement .~

and Developeent 7.32376 0 ' 0.6013 0.00030 610
PIO‘OO‘iOHCI $02V1¢0 11.66676 0 0.1777 0.01230 610
Collegial Learning

and interaction 3.63016 0 0.3020 0.00337 610
Professional Cousitment

and Reflection 5.76101 0 0.6702 0.0055: 610
Personal Benefits , '

and Job Security 3.33233 0 0.2360 0.00360 610
Professionalism 10.01173 0 0.2126 0.01066 610

 

 

There were no significant relationships found in this
comparison.
Zi o

The seventh section is a summary of the
crosstabulations of the geographical region the
pastor resides in compared to the six orientations
for participation. The results of the
crosstabulation are reported on the Table of

Crosstabulations of Zip Code, Table 26, shown below:

 

Table 26 D
Table of Crosstabulations of fig Code . L
. Degrees of Uncertainty

Orientations Chi §guare Preedom Siggificence Coefficient 55:32:25!
Professional Improvement

and Development 6.36206 0 0.3606 — 0.00066 610
Professional Service 13.72055 0 0.0091 0.01363 61°
Collegial Learning

and Interestien 7.00630 0 0.6660 0.00000 610
Professional Commitment

and Reflection 11.36331 0 0.1030 0.01136 610
Personal Ienefits . "' -

and Job Security . 0.13321 0 0.6101 0.00020 610

pgog...iou.1;.. 7.67066 0 ' 0.6060 0.00015 610

 

 

125

There were no significant relationships found in this
comparison.
Seminary Attended

The eighth section is a summary of the
crosstabulations of the seminary the pastors attended
compared to the six orientations for participation.
The results of the crosstabulation are reported on
the Table of Crosstabulations of Seminary Attended,

Table 27, shown below:

 

222l2_21
Table of Crosstabulations of Seminary Attended

Uncertainty

Degrees of
25.2%.... [ignigigance gggffioieng r en

Or enta ions

236 Sguare

 

 

Professional Improve-eat
and Development

Professional Service

Collegial Learning
and Interaction

Professional Causitnent
and Reflection

Personal Benefits
and Job Security

Professionalism

2.61727
2.56903

5.65620

1.22220

2.26017
3.35562

6
6

6

0.6230
0.6703

0.2636
0.0766

0.6000
0.5002

0.00672
0.00661

0.00362
0.00102

0.00667
0.00600

610
610

 

There were no

comparison.

Qhrenelegieel Age

significant relationships found in this

 

The final section is a summary of the
crosstabulations of the chronological age of the
respondents compared to the six orientations for

participation. The results of the crosstabulation

11216

are reported on the Table of Crosstabulations of Age,

Table 28, shown below:

 

 

Table 20

Table of Crggstabulations of 5!!

 

. . Degrees of Uncertainty ‘
Orientations Chi Sousre Preedom Significance Coefficient Pr uen
Professional Improvement

‘04 DCVOIOPIOflt 6.52621 6 0.6050 0.007007 610
Professional service 5.22151 6 0.5157 0.00676 610
Collegial Learning

and Interaction 3.33360 6 0.7652 0.00356 ‘10
Professional Commdteent ' - ‘ I

and Reflection 3.20010 6 0.7713 ; 0.00363 610
Personal benefits _ . ' . ’

and Job Security 12.30312 6 0.0666 0.01300 610 '
"Ohuwmufl 1.00075 6 o. 3363 0. 00207 610

 

There was one significant relationship between the
age and the orientation personal benefits and job
security, as indicated by the significance of .0446
and a Chi-square of 12.90312.

The specific crosstabulation table for the
chronological age of the pastors and the orientation
is reported on Table 29, Table of Age to Personal

Benefits and Job Security.

 

 

. I. l . .II ..

127

 

 

Table 29

Table gf Age tg Persgnal Benefits and £99 Seegrity

Response Row

Categories Age Tgtel
20-35 36—40 41-50 50+

Least 6 5 8 7 26

6.5 7.4 7.1 5.1 6.3

Some 62 46 70 88 266
67.4 67.6 62.5 63.8 64.9

Most 24 17 34 43 118
26.1 25.0 30.4 31.2 28.8

Column 92 68 112 138 410

Total 22.4 16.6 27.3 33.7 100

 

The crosstabulation in Table 30 is divided into rows
and columns. The columns have four categories of
age: age 20-35, age 36-40, age 41—50, 51 and over.
The orientation row has three categories: 0-2
indicated least importance, 3—5 indicated some
importance, and 6—7 indicated most importance.

In summary, the first part, crosstabulation
relationships, compared the characteristics to the
orientations. Three significant relationships were
found: the years of service of the respondent
compared to professionalism, the salary of the
respondent compared to professional commitment and
reflection, and the chronological age of the

respondent to personal benefits and job commitment.

 

128

Pearson Cgrreletign Qgeffieients

The second part, Pearson correlation
coefficients, is a report on the one—tailed test of
significance comparing the nine characteristics to
the six orientations for participation. The results
of the statistical test are reported on the Table of

Pearson Correlation Coefficients, Table 30.

 

 

Table 30

Table of Pearson Correlation Coefficients

Characteristics Orientations
Personal
Professional Professional Benefits
Improvement Professional Collegial Learning Commitment and Job
___2z:-__Ind 00'“ at ______8¢"t¢0 .__L__¢___.M M"- tion 5% 0:59:15! 21211011201118
Age -0.0633 0.0210 0.0331 -0.0036 -0.ll30 0.0323
0.133 0.330 0.232 0.623 0.011 0.166
Tears of Service -0.0272 o0.0066 0.0366 -0.0030 -0.0733 0.0323
0.231 0.663 0.020 0.670 0.036 0.010
Congregational Sise 0.0236 0.0301 -0.0662 0.1333 -0.1020 -0.0307
0.317 0.136 0.176 0.003 0.013 0.110
0.100 0.323 0.670 0.013 0.267 0.117
Seminary of Graduation ~0.0366 00.0662 0.077 0.0303 0.0151 0.0620
0.230 0.037 ‘ 0.030 0.213 0.300 0.136
Parish lorhers 0.0737 0.0333 -0.0332 .g,oggg 6.0067 0.0312
0.060 0.027 0.233 0.033 0.666 0.266
Seminary Year 0.0231 0.0273 00.352 -0.0300 0.0067 0.0312
0.270 0.207 0.021 0.366 0.103 0.003
21p Codes 0.0620 0.0362 -0.0623 0.0363 0.0677 0.0363
0.130 0.020 0.103 0.232 0.006 0.136
Continuing fdeeatioa Ponds 0.1073 0.0013 -0.0236 -0.0303 0.0102 0.0602
0.016 0.032 0.303 0.210 0.306 0.207

 

There were 15 significant relationships
identified as a result of the Pearson correlation
test. The first correlation was the age of the

respondent to personal benefits and job security.

 

129

The second correlation was the years served as a
pastor to collegial learning and interaction. The
third correlation was the years served as a pastor to
professionalism. The fourth correlation was the
years served to personal benefits and job security.
The fifth correlation was the size of the
congregation to personal benefits and job security.
The sixth correlation was the salary of the pastor to
professional commitment and reflection. The seventh
correlation was the number of parish workers to
professional commitment and reflection. The eighth
correlation was the number of parish workers to
professional service. The ninth correlation was year
of seminary graduation to collegial learning and
interaction. The tenth correlation was the year of
seminary graduation and professionalism. The
eleventh correlation was the geographical region to
professional service. The twelfth correlation was
the continuing education funds to professional
improvement and development. The thirteenth
correlation was the continuing education funds to
professional service. The fourteenth correlation was
year of seminary graduation to collegial learning and
interaction. The final correlation was the size of
the congregation to personal benefits and job

security.

130

In summary, Chapter Four was divided into three
parts. The first section, participation in
continuing theological education, was a report on the
means of the thirty items on The Clergy Participation
Reason Scale — Section 1, the means of the six
orientations for participation embedded in the same
Scale, and the nine demographic variables of The
Respondent Information Form. The second section was
a report of the courses listed by respondents on The
Clergy Participation Reason Scale - Section 2. The
third section was a report of the crosstabulations
and Pearson Correlation Coefficient test in order to
determine relationships between the characteristics
and the orientations. The basis for each section was
one of the three research questions: (1) What are
the reasons for Missouri Synod pastors attending
continuing professional education experiences? (2)
What continuing professional education courses have
Missouri Synod pastors participated in during the
past three years? (3) What relationships do nine
selected variables have on the reasons for
participation in continuing professional education?

Chapter Five is a discussion of the research

questions and the findings reported in Chapter Four.

CHAPTER 5. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

The fifth chapter is organized into four sections.
The first section is the interpretation of the findings
of the study. The second section is the limitations of
the study. The third section is the implications of the
study. The final section is a personal reflection about
the research study.

Interpretation

This section is divided into three parts. The first
part is an analysis of the results relative to the first
research question. The second part is an analysis of
the results relative to the second research question.
The third part is an analysis relative to the third
research question. The goals of this section are to
identify the possible reasons for the findings, to apply
the finding to the practice of continuing education, and
to build upon previous research in the field of
continuing professional education.

Reasons for Participation

Reasons for participation include an interpretation

of the orientations for participation and an

interpretation of respondent characteristics.

131

132

Orientations for Participation

The Table of Rank—Ordered Orientation Means (Table
4) is a report of the importance of each orientation for
the Missouri Synod clergy respondents. The most
important reason for participation was professional
improvement and development, followed, in order of
importance by, professional service, professionalism,
collegial learning and interaction, professional
commitment and reflection, and personal benefit and job
security.

The primary reason respondents participate in
continuing education was for professional improvement
and development. In a society where individualism and
self—aggrandizement are seemingly important determinants
of participation, it should be noted that personal
benefit and job security was the least important reason
for participation among pastors. Perhaps the
ministerial profession among the Missouri Synod
continues to function out of a sense of altruism.

There does not appear to be a difference between the
professional population and the clergy regarding the
reasons for participation. Collaboration on continuing
education events is recommended as a result of similar
findings for reasons of participation by the professions

and the clergy.

133

Characteristics of Respondents

The second area, characteristics of respondents, is
divided into ten categories: the composite respondent,
professional worker, continuing education funds, salary,
years of service, congregational size, age, seminary of
graduation, seminary, and zip code.

Composite Respondent

The first category is the composite respondent. The
typical Missouri Synod pastor who responded is
characterized as having one professional parish worker
at the same site; receiving $330.23 in continuing
education funds per year from his congregation; earning
a salary of $20,863.74 in addition to his housing, car,
and insurance benefits; having been in the parish
ministry for about 16 years; serving as pastor to 604
people; is 45 years of age; graduating from a seminary
in 1973; living in the upper Midwest of the United
States; and probably graduating from Concordia Seminary
in Saint Louis, Missouri.

By way of comparison, Gamble (1984) surveyed 5,400
ministers in twelve denominations living throughout the
United States. He received 1,984 usable responses. The
typical respondent was characterized as a 45—year—old
Caucasian male seminary graduate, ordained 16 years
previous, at his present position for five years as a

full—time pastor, received a salary of $20,790 in

134

addition to housing and insurance benefits. In
comparison with Gamble (1984) the two surveys show
similar results.

Professional Worker

The second category is professional worker (a
summary of the results is found on Table 11). The
typical Missouri Synod pastor who responded to the
survey had one other professional church worker in his
parish. The Missouri Synod is unique compared to other
denominations in that it has other types of professional
church workers: ministers of religion—commissioned
(Christian educators, Ministers of Church Music, and
Directors of Christian Education), deaconesses, and lay
teachers. Pastors who were the only professional in a
parish comprise 33% of the respondents.

Because in one out of three cases the pastor is the
only professional worker in the parish, planning the
continuing education episodes at convenient times for
the pastor may be a difficulty. A recommendation to
solve this problem is to inform pastors of future
continuing theological education events as far in
advance as possible in order to assist them in planning
their absence from the congregation. Advance materials
advertising the events should provide a point of contact
where the pastor—participant can be reached in case of
an emergency. The continuing education practitioner

should be prepared for cancellations resulting from

135

emergency situations. The events planned for pastors
should include time for rest, relaxation, and collegial
interaction. The continuing educator should consider
program design from the perspective of helping pastors
who have no parish workers to implement the skills and
competencies acquired in the continuing education event.

Because two of every three parish pastors minister
together with one or more professional workers, programs
might be offered that also include these parish
workers. A continuing theological education event which
focuses on staff interrelationships (i.e. conflict
resolution seminars) is an example of such a program.
Programs that enhance personnel management in the parish
is another example.

Continuing Education Funds

The third category is continuing education funds.
While the typical amount a congregation makes available
to the pastor for continuing professional education is
$330.23 per year, the Table of Continuing Education
Funds (Table 5) shows that 33% of the respondents have
no funds available. The average sum of $330.23 is a
very minimal amount for continuing theological
education. Overall, however, respondents' churches
budgeted funds for this purpose in a range from $0 to
$6,000.

The cost of a continuing education event may become

a determinant of participation. For those pastors whose

136

churches have no funds earmarked for continuing
education, it is likely that the pastor's personal
salary is the main source of funding. Dependence solely
on this source probably means the pastor is more
selective regarding which events he will attend.
Funding is also a dilemma for the continuing educator:
if the program fees are too high, then the attendance is
correspondingly low; and yet the cost of continuing
education programs is increasing. It is recommended
that the Missouri Synod should repeatedly inform member
congregations of the need to support their parish
pastor's continuing education. It is also proposed that
the Missouri Synod provide funds in the form of
scholarships and grants to underwrite the costs of
continuing education programs for parish pastors.

§§l§£¥

The fourth category is salary. The typical salaryfor
respondents is $20,863.74. The range of salary, $3,600
to $80,000, was shown by the Table of Salary (Table
14). The influence of congregational funds budgeted for
the pastor's continuing professional education and the
salary of the pastor seem to influence participation.
Both the pastor's salary and congregational funds seem
to be interrelated variables. It is proposed that
grants-in—aid be awarded to those parish pastors who
receive smaller salaries and have access to minimal

congregational continuing education funds.

137

Years of Service

The fifth category is the years of service as a
pastor. The typical number of years served as a
minister of religion-ordained is 16. The range of
service is one Year to 53 years as shown by the Table of
Length of Service (Table 7).

Using Rossman's (1974) speculation and the survey
data, it is recommended that the continuing educator
design programs that take into account the pastor's
professional career stages. A second recommendation is
for a continuing educator to include multiple program
options during the same continuing education event in
order to meet the age—related learning needs of the
parish pastor. Another proposal is to use the
educational tasks that are identified by Carter's (1984)
needs assessment instrument to design programs.

Congregational size

The sixth category is the congregational size. The
Table of Congregational Size (Table 6) is based on a
range of the smallest congregation of 50 parishioners to
the largest of 2,800 parishioners. The typical
congregation has 604 members. The need to relax from
the stress of ministry, particularly in smaller
churches, should be considered by continuing educators.
Using the parish size as the basis for programs,
continuing education church seminars could be designed,

it is proposed, to deal with the problems and issues

138

unique to varying sized churches. A second proposal is
the use of lay leadership to help set continuing
education goals for the pastor. A third proposal is
that both pastors and laity in similar sized
congregations could form continuing education groups for
the purpose of sharing ideas and solutions to problems
and issues.

Age

The seventh category is age. The typical respondent
was 45-years-old. The range of the respondents' ages
were 27 to 77 years as shown by the Table of
Chronological Age (Table 8). The indication is that as
chronological age increased, the participation in
continuing education decreased; and as chronological age
increases, the reason for participation was influenced
by personal motives. Using Rouch's (1974) stages of
ministry, a continuing educator should design programs
based on pastoral stages. For example, the first stage
of ministry is establishment, and a need of this stage
is collegial interaction. It is recommended that
continuing education episodes offer small group and
relationship building activities that are appropriate
for younger pastors.

Seminary Graduation

The eighth category is year of seminary graduation.
The Table of Year of Seminary Graduation (Table 12)

shows that 1934 is the earliest year of graduation among

139

the respondents and 1986 is the most recent. The mean
is 1973. Rossman (1974) reports in his study that as
the length of time away from seminary graduation
increased the interest in continuing professional
education declined.

The continuing educator can likely expect pastors
who attend the event to be recent seminary graduates. A
suggestion to increase attendance among earlier seminary
graduates would be to do a needs assessment survey and
to use the specific results to design programs. Another
suggestion is the use of Rouch's (1974) developmental
stages of ministry to plan events for the graduates of
earlier years. A third suggestion is to develop a
continuing education event that establishes advisor
relationships between experienced and inexperienced
pastors.

Seminary

The ninth category is the seminary from which the
respondents graduated. The majority of respondents
graduated from the Saint Louis seminary (55%) as shown
by the Table of Seminary (Table 9).

The seminary "culture"8

(Deal and Kennedy, 1982)
may be an important factor for the continuing educator
to consider in program development. Among the elements
of the "culture" are the values, heroes, rites and

rituals, and network of the seminary as well as the

curriculum content, course standards, and seminary

140

professors. The continuing educator, it is advised,
should be aware of the need for language skills in Greek
and Hebrew when planning a program (those who graduated
from Concordia Theological Seminary tend not to have the
Hebrew language skill). It is recommended that the most
popular courses at the two seminaries be identified so
that continuing education programs can utilize the
professors of those classes as instructors.

Zip Code

The final category is zip code. The figure
Frequency of Respondents by Zip Code (Figure 6) shows
that 59.26% of the respondents are in zip codes 40 to
69. The majority of respondents live in the upper
Midwest.

Two practical suggestions are a result of the
geographical locations of parish pastors. First, the
sites for conferences, workshops, and seminars should be
chosen based on the greatest concentrations of parish
pastors. When the sites for programs are considered,
the continuing educator should take into consideration
the weather of the geographical region. There are
certain seasons of the year when the scheduling of a
conference is risky; for example, during the winter in
Minnesota.

In summary, the first research question, "What are
the reasons for Missouri Synod pastors attending

continuing professional education experiences?" can be

 

141

answered as follows: Pastors attend continuing
education events in order to increase and enhance their
practical skills and competencies.

Courses

The second part of the interpretation section is
courses. Respondents categorized courses which they had
taken in the past three years under the six orientations
for participation in continuing profession education.
Several observations relative to the respondents' list
are noted.

The first observation is that pastors are attending
the same continuing education events but for different
reasons. For example, the District Pastoral Conference,
which is normally held twice a year, is attended not for
professional improvement and development or professional
service, but for collegial learning and interaction,
professional commitment, personal benefits and job
security, and professionalism. This observation is
important when a continuing education practitioner is
planning the District program. A recommendation for use
of this information should be translated into a
provision of time during the meeting for pastors to
interact with each other formally and informally.

The second observation pertaining to the list is its
usefulness to a continuing education practitioner. It
is suggested that courses which have the highest

frequency should be scheduled by the seminary continuing

142

education director. Another suggestion is that
frequently attended courses should be offered more than
one time.

The third observation is the possible assistance the
list of courses can be in interpreting the meanings for
the six orientations for participation. It is
recommended that continuing educators analyze the list
for commonality of meanings.

The fourth observation is that courses listed might
be categorized either by orientations or as a list of
generalized needs. It is proposed that a list should be
developed that identifies courses with similar content.
One area is counseling where courses for counseling the
sick, the married, the engaged, the dying and the
grieving, are listed. It is proposed that the
classification of courses into categories should focus
on the practical aspects of parish ministry.

The sixth observation is that courses in the area of
historical, systematic, and biblical theology are absent
from the list. It could be argued that the Missouri
Synod seminaries are not providing the practical skills
which pastors need for the parish ministry; but are
preparing pastors more thoroughly in academic areas
required for a life—long ministry. Another perspective
is that theological education is a building process.

The initial blocks in that process are the historical,

systematic, and biblical courses taught at the

143

seminary. Those courses are foundational for the
pastor. Regardless, it is suggested that continuing
educators investigate the practical ministry skills that
draw pastors to continuing education events.

In summary, several observations were noted about
the list of courses. The second part, courses, was
designed to provide information about the research
question, "What continuing professional education
courses have Missouri Synod pastors participated in
during the past three years?"

W

The third part of the section is divided into two
categories: relationships and correlations. The first
category is an explanation of the crosstabulations, and
the second category is an explanation of the
coefficients.

Relationships

The first category is based on the crosstabulations
between the orientations for participation and
respondents' characteristics. The significant
crosstabulations are: the salary of a pastor to
professional commitment and reflection; years of service
to professionalism; and, the chronological age of a
pastor to personal benefit and job security.

The first relationship, salary of a pastor to
professional commitment and reflection is reported in

the Table of Salary to Professional Commitment and

144

Reflection (Table 22). The direction of the
relationship was the greater the salary the more likely
the pastor's participation in continuing education
episodes.

The second relationship, years of service as a
minister of religion-ordained to professionalism, is
reported in the Table of Years Served to Professionalism
(Table 19). The direction of the relationship is the
fewer the years of service the more probable the
attendance at continuing education episodes. From
observation this seems a probable conclusion because
younger pastors attempt to minister with the skills and
competencies acquired at seminaries. Some people feel
the curriculum of the seminary, however, is oriented
toward academic subjects rather then the practical
skills such as counseling, administration, and education
needed in parish ministry. Therefore, the fewer years
served by a pastor, the greater the need for acquiring
additional practical skills.

The final crosstabulation relationship,
chronological age of a pastor to personal benefit and
job security, is reported on the Table of Age to
Personal Benefits and Job Security (Table 29). The
direction of the relationship was as a pastor's age
increased, he was more likely to attend continuing
professional education events in order to experience

personal benefit and enhance his job security. From

145

observation it seems that the need to prepare for
retirement or to be stimulated in your profession is a
likely influence on participation.
Correlations

The second category is based on the Pearson
Correlation Coefficient test for the significant
correlations between characteristics and orientations
(see Table 30). The fifteen significant correlations,
are: parish workers to professional service; parish
workers to professional commitment and reflection;
continuing education funds to professional improvement
and development; continuing education funds to
professional service; salary to professional commitment
and reflection; years of professional service to
collegial learning and interaction; years of
professional service to personal benefits and job
security; congregational size to professional commitment
and reflection; congregational size to personal benefits
and job security; chronological age to personal benefits
and job security; chronological age to professionalism;
year of seminary graduation to collegial learning and
interaction; year of seminary graduation to
professionalism; and geographical location to
professional service.

The correlation of professional parish workers at a
pastor's congregation to the pastor's professional

service orientation is a positive one. It is likely

146

that as the number of professional parish workers
increases, the pastor will attend continuing education
events in order to enhance his skills in the area of
professional service. The additional workers in the
parish allow the pastor time to attend continuing
education events.

The correlation of professional parish workers at a
pastor's congregation to the pastor's professional
commitment and reflection orientation is a positive
one. It is likely that as the number of professional
parish workers at a pastor's congregation increases, the
pastor will attend continuing education episodes in
order to reflect on his ministry.

The correlation of continuing education funds to the
pastor's professional improvement and development
orientation is a positive one. It is likely that as the
congregation increases funding, the pastor will attend a
continuing education event to improve and develop his
professional skills.

The correlation of continuing education funds to the
pastor's professional service orientation is a positive
one. It is likely that as a congregation increases the
continuing education funds available to the pastor, that
he will attend continuing education events in order to
enhance his service to the parish.

The correlation of salary to the pastor's

professional commitment and reflection orientation is a

147

negative one. It is likely that as the salary increases
the pastor will not be attending continuing education
events in order to renew his professional commitment to
and reflection on ministry. It is also likely that the
lower the salary of the pastor the more often he attends
continuing education events for the purpose of renewing
his professional commitment to and reflection on
ministry.

The correlation of years of professional service to
the pastor's collegial learning and interaction
orientation is a positive one. It is likely that as the
years of professional service increase, the pastor will
be attending continuing education events in order to
experience collegial learning and interaction.

The correlation of years of parish service to the
pastor's personal benefits and job security orientation
is a negative one. It is likely that as the years of
parish service increase, the pastor's involvement in
continuing education for the reason of personal benefits
and job security will diminish. The reverse may also be
true, namely, that as the pastor begins his ministry
then the reason for attending continuing education
events will probably be for personal benefits and job
security.

The correlation of the years of parish service to
the pastor's professionalism orientation is a positive

one. It is likely that as the number of years in the

148

parish ministry increases, that the reason for attending
continuing education activities will be for
professionalism - the pastor believes continuing
education is part of being a professional.

The correlation of congregational size to the
pastor's professional commitment and reflection
orientation is a negative one. It is likely that as the
size of the congregation decreases that the pastor will
attend continuing education activities in order to
explore his professional commitment more deeply and to
reflect on his commitment to the ministry as a
profession. The reverse is true, that as the size of
the parish increases the pastor will not be attending
continuing education activities in order to explore his
professional commitment or to reflect on that
commitment. Perhaps influencing this correlation is the
limited amount of time a pastor in a larger congregation
has available for this activity or that he may see a
clearer perceived purpose for his ministry.

The correlation of congregational size to the
pastor's personal benefits and job security orientation
is a negative one. It is likely that as the
congregational size increases the pastor will not be
attending continuing education events seeking personal
benefits and job security. The reverse is true, that as
the size of the congregation decreases then the pastor

will be attending continuing education events in order

149

to seek personal benefits and job security.

The correlation of chronological age to the pastor's
personal benefits and job security orientation is a
negative one. It is likely that as a pastor's age
increases he will not be attending continuing education
events in order to derive personal benefits and job
security. The reverse is true, namely, that the younger
pastor will be attending the continuing education
activity in order to derive personal benefit and job
security. The younger pastor is seeking skills and
competencies that benefit his personal life.

The correlation of year of seminary graduation to
the pastor's collegial learning and interaction
orientation is a positive one. It is likely that the
year in which a pastor graduated from the seminary
influences the collegial learning and interaction he
experiences at continuing education events where former
classmates are able to seek each other out and interact
with each other. Another possible interpretation is
that seminary graduates from certain years are more open
to collegial learning and interaction then others.

The correlation of geographical location to the
pastor's professional service orientation is a positive
one. It is likely that pastors residing in certain
geographical locations are influenced to attend
continuing education events in order to enhance their

service to the congregation.

150

The correlation of year of seminary graduation to
the pastor's professionalism orientation is a positive
one. It is likely that the year the pastor graduated
from the seminary will influence his participation in
continuing education events.

Limitations

The research into the reasons for participation by
Missouri Synod clergy in continuing professional
education has five limitations.

First, the relationships which emerged from the
study are not casual relationships. The study was based
on the question of whether or not the six orientation
are related at a .05 level of significance when compared
to the nine respondent characteristics. The question
researched is not for the purpose of establishing cause
and effect relationships, but rather to describe the
existing relationships. This limits the interpretations
that can be made.

The second limitation is that the characteristics
are not isolated influences on the reasons for
participation in continuing education. A multivariate
examination of the data, or the use of a paradigm such
as Smith's ISSTAL (1980), may provide more information
about the interaction of multiple variables and
orientations for participation.

The research method is based on the dispositional

paradigm. A third limitation of the study is the use of

151

psychological orientations for participation in
continuing education. There are other dimensions to be
investigated: the sociological, cognitive, and
attitudinal. Other research frameworks may have been
helpful in identifying the reasons for participation in
continuing professional education. The Psychosocial
Interaction Model (Darkenwald and Merrian, 1982) could
have been used to explain both internal and external
determinants of participation. Cross's Chain of
Response model (1981) could have been used to examine
internal psychological variables in relation to the
social, environmental, and/or experiential influences.
The dispositional paradigm is focused on only the
psychological reasons for participation.

From the responses received it is observed that the
vocabulary of the continuing education field is
unfamiliar to many Missouri Synod clergy. Some
respondents had difficulty distinguishing between credit
and noncredit continuing education courses; between
courses, workshops, conferences, and seminars; and
between the terms professional and ministry. This lack
of understanding is the fourth limitation of the study.

A fifth limitation of the study is the "halo
effect." Perhaps as a result of being sent a survey, the
respondents perceived they were special and their
responses were skewed. The "halo effect" may exist and

absolute denial of its existence cannot be given.

152

The limitations to the study posed no insurmountable
barriers and are in addition to those previously
mentioned in Chapter One. Because of the limitations,
caution must be taken when generalizing the findings of
the study.

Implications

The third section is the implications of the study.
The section is divided in four parts: the continuing
educator, the church, the pastor, and further questions.

The antinuing Edugatgr

There are a number of implications for the
continuing educator that are a result of the study. The
first implication is the use that a person could make in
focusing programs around the orientations for
participation. The program content could be designed to
insure that the practical needs of the participant are
considered. The orientations may be helpful in
determining the level of participation that might be
predicted for various categories of programs.

The second implication is the use of the list of
courses for developing a comprehensive program of
continuing theological education. The courses which are
most popular at present could be implemented into the
existing seminary continuing education program.

The third implication for the continuing educator in
the field of continuing theological education is the

geographic concentration of the clergy. The site for

 

;.1.15d

.'._l :.I2.I.0'
. F 7mm

’ "3017

 

153

programs could be determined by where the concentrations
of pastors are.

A fourth implication is the relationships between
the characteristics and the reasons for participation.
For example, the continuing educator will need to
consider the cost and the program schedule, as well as
the program content.

The Church

As a result of the study there are a number of
implications relative to the church. The first
implication for the church is the need to provide
continuing theological education that enhances the
professional skills and competencies of the pastor in
his current situation.

The second implication is the need for an analysis
of the theological training pastors receive at the
seminaries. If the result of such training is to equip
pastors with academic skills, then the church should be
aware of its need to continue providing continuing
education episodes that focus on the practical skills of
ministry. These skills would include counseling and
administration.

The third implication is the issue of funding
continuing theological education. The current dilemma
for the provider of continuing theological education is
the raise in costs while at the same time attempting to

serve pastors who are unable to afford the costs. The

154

source for funding continuing theological education
should include both the participant and the church.

The fourth implication involves the local
congregation. The congregations of the Missouri Synod
need not only to fund continuing education for their
pastor, but also to collaboratively plan with their
pastor which courses will provide benefits for both.
The local congregation needs to provide input to the
Missouri Synod relative to the courses offered for a
pastor's continuing education compared to their ministry
needs.

The fifth implication is the possible collaboration
that might take place between other professions. The
reasons for participation in continuing education are
the same. The challenge is to design programs that
involve skills needed across the professions.

The Pastor

The first implication for the pastor is his
awareness of why he is participating in a continuing
education event. The need to have a goal in mind when
attending an activity should assist in increasing the
learning which takes place.

The second implication is the pastor's use of the
demographic characteristics in order to identify
possible variables which might predict the achievement

of his learning goals. An awareness of those variables

 

 

155

should assist in determining the personal adjustments
needed for success in continuing programs.
Further Questions

The results of the study suggest the need for
further research. There is a need to understand the
interaction between the many variables that occur in the
life of Missouri Synod pastors and their impact on
participation. There is a need to understand the
changes that occur across the lifespan of pastors and
the effect on their perceived reasons for continuing
education. There is a need to explore the differences
which may exist between the theologically conservative
Missouri Synod and other denominations in order to
establish if the reasons for participation in continuing
professional education change. The list of courses is
time—bound and requires revision from time to time in
order to be of continuing use to the continuing
educator. An analysis of the course list and a system
of classification by type of course is another topic for
further study.

A study of differences by region for participation
in continuing education needs further research. An
analysis of the current seminary curriculum and its
relationship to continuing theological education should
also be accomplished. A study of congregations and
their perceived reasons for continuing education

requires research in order to clarify its impact on a

156

pastor. The role and influence of mentors and
denominational structures on participation are other
topics for research.

Reflections

The final section of Chapter Five is reflection.
The goal of this section is to provide insights about
the field of continuing education in the church and
insights about the learning process of a research study.

The first insight about continuing theological
education is that it is an emerging field for the
Missouri Synod. Pastors are increasingly being asked by
their parish, their Synod, and their profession to
participate in continuing education events. The demand
for continuing education has two directions: mandatory
continuing professional education and voluntary
participation in continuing theological programs.

The second insight is that continuing education
programs within the Missouri Synod are being influenced
primarily by two groups: institutional providers and
continuing educators. Neither group uses an empirical
base to design programs. If this continues, it is
likely that learner-directed and needs—based programs
will be minimal.

The third insight is the issue of funding. There
are so many variables which need to be considered:
congregational support, pastor's salary, Synod funds,

grants and scholarships, to name a few. This issue is

 

157

presently being discussed without the benefit of
empirical data on which to base decisions.

The fourth insight is that a framework for clergy
participation in continuing education has yet to be
established as a theory. Such a framework may serve
both as a description of participation and as a
predictor of participation.

The fifth insight is a personal one. I learned a
great deal about myself and the continuing education
field as I completed this study. I recognized the
necessity of methodically conducting research rather
than merely working for an end product. The next
personal insight is that there is no "one best answer"
for participation in continuing education. There are
numerous rival explanations for participation, models
that explain different variables, and conflicts over
theory and practice. Seemingly the research process is
a life—long one.

The most valuable insight of this research is the
patterns of thought which I developed. I began to think
about the research process in minute detail, only to
experience a disequilibrium of thought. It is only
after numerous revisions and modifications that a
thought or idea was communicated. I found myself to be
a reflective learner who needs to ponder a topic or
situation in order to internally assimilate the

information.

 

 

ENDNOTES

1The Missouri Synod operates two theological
seminaries: Concordia Seminary in Saint Louis,
Missouri and Concordia Theological Seminary in Fort
Wayne, Indiana (formerly located in Springfield,
Illinois).

2A brief history of the Missouri Synod has been
written by E. Clifford Nelson (1980). The
Statistical Yearbook: 1986 (Anonymous, 1986) provides
detailed data about the membership of the Missouri
Synod.

3The term professional as it is associated with
pastors has been a point of conflict in the past. A
body of literature exists on the nature of a
profession and the ministry as a profession (Glasse,
1928; Holmes, 1971; Hughes, 1964, February 26).

The researcher has observed a reluctance on the
part of Missouri Synod clergy to accept the term
professional without a descriptor attached to it.
Such descriptors include servant and church worker.
The theologically conversative Missouri Synod views
the ministry as a "divine office" set apart by God
and only an ordained male is called to it. The
researcher has chosen not to enter this discussion.

4The list of 70 reasons was a refinement of an
original collection of 5,773 reasons compiled by
Burgess.

5The 1987 roster found in The Lutheran Annpel
was corrected to August 1, 1986. The preface to the
roster states (Anonymous, 1987, p. 160):

Individuals on this listing were on the official
member roster of the Synod as of the above date,
i.e. held membership in Synod in conformity with
Articles V and VI of the Constitution of The
Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod.

158

 

 

159

Individuals whose status might be restricted or
suspended are not so indicated. Consequently,
any congregation or other calling entity must
ascertain from the appropriate district president
whether a person whose name is on the roster is
currently eligible for a call, or for service in
the church other than in the position currently
held.

Articles V and VI of the Constitution of the Missouri
Synod read as follows (Anonymous, 1986, pp. lO—ll):

Article V Membership. Membership in the Synod is
held and may be acquired by congregations,
ministers of the Gospel, . . . Article VI
Conditions of Membership. Conditions for
acquiring and holding membership in the Synod
are: 1. Acceptance of the confessional basis of
Article II. 2. Renunciation of unionism and
syncretism of every description, such as: 3.
Serving congregations of mixed confession, as
such, by ministers of the church; b. Taking part
in the services and sacramental rites of
heterodox congregations or of congregations of
mixed confession; c. Participating in heterodox
tract and missionary activities. 3. Regular call
of pastors and teachers and regular election of
lay delegates by congregations, as also the
blamelessness of the life of such. 4. Exclusive
use of doctrinally pure agenda, hymnbooks, and
catechisms in church and school. . . . 6.
Pastors, teachers, or candidates for the ministry
or that of a teacher in a parochial school not
coming from recognized orthodox church bodies
must submit to a colloquium before being received.

Those ministers of religion-ordained not
considered part of the population were classified as
holders of special offices in the Missouri Synod and
included (Anonyomous, 1987, p. 160):

ADMN-D, Administration—District; ADMN—S,
Administration-Synod; AUX—S, Auxillary—Synodical;
CAMPUS, Campus Pastor; CHAP—I, Chaplain—
Institutional and Service Center Pastor; CHAP—M,
Military Chaplain; CRA, Church Related Agencies
(recognized by the Synod); DEAF, Pastor to Deaf;
FORGN, Foreign Missionary; PAL, Pastor at Large;
LSO, Listed Service Organization; MAL, Missionary
at Large; PROF-O, Serving a Lutheran College
(recognized by Synod); PROF-S, Serving a
Synodical School; TCHR-S, Serving a Lutheran High
School; and WP, Worker Priest.

 

160

6The zip code is a five—digit geographic code
that identifies nine regions of the United States.
The first number of the zip code indicates a
Sectional Center.

7Concordia College in River Forest, Illinois is
one of ten collegiate institutions operated by the
Missouri Synod. It is the largest of the
institutions having 930 undergraduates enrolled in
the academic year 1987—1988.

8The use of the term "culture" is in the sense
used by Deal and Kennedy (1982) to indicate the
institution's values, heroes, rites and rituals and
network. The author believes that there are
parallels between the seminary organizations and
business organizations. A topic of further study may
well be that perceived comparison or a research of
the seminary culture grounded in the Deal and Kennedy
definition of "culture".

 

 

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

Clergy Participation Reason Scale
Section 1

DIRECTIONS: There are many reasons for clergy
participation in continuing professional education
activities. The following items are designed so that
you can indicate the relative importance of the
general reasons you have for participating in
continuing educational activities. For each item,
circle the appropriate number to the right of each
statement which best represents the degree of
importance you attach to each reason with 1 being
"not important" and 7 being "very important“. CIRCLE
ONLY ONE NUMERAL FOR EACH STATEMENT.

REASON IMPORTANCE
NOT ...... VERY
1. To further match my knowledge 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

or skills with the demands of
my parish ministry activities

2. To mutually exchange thoughts 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
with my pastoral colleagues

3. To help me be more productive l 2 3 4 5 6 7
in my role as pastor

4. To enable me to better meet lay l 2 3 4 5 6 7
expectations of my ministry

5. To maintain my current abilities l 2 3 4 5 6 7

6. To increase the likelihood of l 2 3 4 5 6 7
benefits for family and friends

7. To relate my ideas to those of l 2 3 4 5 6 7
my professional peers

8. To maintain my identity with my 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
profession

9. To accommodate more effectively 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

to the needs of my parishioners

10. To review my commitment to my 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
ministry

161

 

 

162

REASON

11. To increase the likelihood of
personal financial gain

12. To learn from the interaction
with other clergy

13. To help me develop leadership
capabilities for my ministry

14. To increase my proficiency to
minister in the parish

15. To consider changing the
emphasis of my present clergy
responsibilities

16. To develop new professional
knowledge and skills

1?. To sharpen my perspective of my
professional role or ministry

18. To help me keep abreast of new
developments in ministry

19. To help me increase the
likelihood that parishioners
are better served

20. To assess the direction in which
my profession is going

21. To help me be more competent
in my ministry

22. To increase the likelihood of
my professional advancement

23. To be challenged by the thinking
of my ministry colleagues

24. To enhance the image of my
profession

25. To improve my individual service
to the public as a clergyman

26. To consider the limitations of

my role as a minister

IMPORTANCE
NOT ...... VERY

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

 

163

REASON IMPORTANCE
NOT......VERY
27. To develop proficiencies l 2 3 4 5 6 7

necessary to maintain quality
performance in ministry

28. To enhance my individual security 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
in my present call/position

29. To maintain the quality of my 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
ministry service

30. To reflect on the value of my 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
clergy responsibilities

Section 2

DIRECTIONS: In this section you will find
clusters of reasons given by other professionals for
attending continuing education events. List the
non—credit continuing education courses ypu may have
experienced during the past three years under the
appropriate cluster.

PROFESSIONAL IMPROVEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT
PROFESSIONAL SERVICE

COLLEGIAL LEARNING AND INTERACTION
PROFESSIONAL COMMITMENT AND REFLECTION
PERSONAL BENEFITS AND JOB SECURITY

PROFESSIONALISM

 

 

 

164

APPENDIX B

Respondent Information Form

DIRECTIONS: Clearly mark only one response in

each of the numbered categories.

1. CHRONOLOGICAL AGE — list on the line below

years old

2. SEMINARY WHICH AWARDED YOUR DEGREE TO YOU
(for example, M.Div., M.A.R., B.D. Diploma)
(check only one)

____ Fort Wayne/Springfield
Saint Louis

Other (please specify)

 

3. LENGTH OF SERVICE AS ORDAINED PASTOR - list in

number of years

years in the ministry

 

4. CONGREGATIONAL SIZE YOU ARE PRESENTLY SERVING
(list sum of all baptized and communicate

members)

church members

 

 

165

ACTUAL SALARY PAID AS MINISTER OF RELIGION —
ORDAINED (in dollars per year) (exclude housing
allowance, car allowance, or other fringe

benefits)

dollars per year

 

CONGREGATIONAL FUNDS SET ASIDE FOR USE BY THE
PASTOR FOR CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
(seminars, workshops, conferences, institutes,
etc.) (in dollars per year)

dollars per year

 

NUMBER OF FULLTIME PROFESSIONAL CHURCH WORKERS
(Pastor, teacher, director of christian
education, deaconesses, etc.) SERVING IN THE

SAME CONGREGATION AS YOU

professional church workers

 

166

APPENDIX C

Letter of Introduction

November, 1987

Dear Pastor:

The enclosed survey is concerned with the
characteristics of parish pastors who participate in
non—credit workshops, conferences, institutes, and
seminars. This study is part of a research
dissertation on continuing professional education for
clergy.

The results of this study will provide
preliminary information to be used for developing
better selection procedures and for improving the
continuing professional education at Concordia
College, River Foest, Illinois.

Your responses are particularly important
because of your experiences as a parish pastor. They
will contribute significantly toward identifying why
parish pastors participate in continuing professional
education. The enclosed instrument has been tested
with a sampling of parish pastors, and revised in
order to make it possible to obtain all the necessary
data while requiring a minimum of your time. The
average time required for pastors completing the
instrument is twenty minutes.

It will be appreciated if you complete the
enclosed form prior to December 15, 1987 and return
it in the stamped, addressed envelop enclosed. Other
phases of this research cannot be carried out until
the surveys have been returned. Your responses will
be held in the strictest confidence.

I want to thank you ahead of time for your
cooperation and participation in filling out this
survey.

Sincerely,

Rev. Arthur D. Bacon
Director, The Center
for Continuing Education

167

APPENDIX D

Orientations for Participation
in Continuing Professional Education
Scale A: Professional Improvement and Development

1. To further match my knowledge or skills with
the demands of my parish ministry activities

5. To maintain my current abilities

16. To develop new professional knowledge and
skills

21. To help me be more competent in my ministry

27. To develop proficiencies necessary to
maintain quality performance in ministry

Scale B: Professional Service

4. To enable me to better meet lay expectations
of my ministry

9. To accommodate more effectively to the needs
of my parishioners

14. To increase my proficiency to minister in
the parish

19. To help me increase the likelihood that
parishioners are better served

29. To maintain the quality of my ministry
service

 

 

168

Scale C: Collegial Learning and Interaction

2. To mutually exchange thoughts with my
pastoral colleagues

7. To relate my ideas to those of my
professional peers

12. To learn from the interaction with other
clergy

17. To sharpen my perspective of my professional
role or ministry

23. To be challenged by the thinking of my
ministry colleagues

Scale D: Professional Commitment and Reflection
10. To review my commitment to my ministry

15. To consider changing the emphasis of my
present clergy responsibilities

24. To enhance the image of my profession

26. To consider the limitations of my role as a
minister

30. To reflect on the value of my clergy
responsibilities

Scale E: Personal Benefits and Job Security

3. To help me be more productive in my role as
pastor

6. To increase the likelihood of benefits for
family and friends

11. To increase the likelihood of personal
financial gain

22. To increase the likelihood of my
professional advancement

28. To enhance my individual security in my
present call/position

169

Scale F: Professionalism
8. To maintain my identity with my profession

13. To help me develop leadership capabilities
for my ministry

18. To help me keep abreast of new developments
in ministry

20. To assess the direction in which my
profession is going

25. To improve my individual service to the
public as a clergyman

170

APPENDIX E

Reminder Postcard

Dear Respondent,

If you have not already responded to the survey
sent to you a week ago on reasons for participation
in continuing professional education, please do so as
soon as possible. Thank you for your cooperation,
and I look forward to receiving your completed survey.

Sincerely,

Rev. A. D. Bacon

L I ST OF REFERENCES

 

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