MSU RETURNING MATERIALS: P1ace in book drop to LJBRARJES remove this checkout from n. your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. a W ”I ‘3, 5273 < sur« 2 1 ‘1? V) v DEM s 3083: A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ATTITUDES TOWARD PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND BACKGROUND VARIABLES OF FOREIGN STUDENTS AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY By Ali Saad Alghamdi A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Health Education, Counseling Psychology, and Human Performance 1987 ABSTRACT A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ATTITUDES TONARD PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND BACKGROUND VARIABLES OF FOREIGN STUDENTS AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY By Ali Saad Alghamdi The concern of this research was to investigate foreign students’ attitudes toward physical activity and the relationship between those attitudes and selected background variables of the foreign students. The Kenyon Inventory to measure the Attitude Toward Physical Activity (ATPA) was used as the survey instrument. The questionnaire was distributed to 400 foreign students, based on a stratified random sample drawn by a special computer program run through the Registrar’s Office at Michigan State University. Only 184 of the 203 returned responses were usable. The statistical methods used to analyze the data were descriptive statistics, multivariate analysis of variance, and analysis of variance. The study findings showed that: l. Foreign students had a positive attitude toward the social experience dimension of physical activity, and they had a neutral overall attitude toward the other five dimensions of physical activity (health and fitness, pursuit of vertigo, aesthetic experience, catharsis, and ascetic experience). 2. Males ranked the six dimensions of attitudes toward physi- cal activity from most to least positive as follows: (a) social experience, (b) aesthetic experience, (c) catharsis, (d) health and fitness, (e) pursuit of vertigo, and (f) ascetic experience. Females ranked the dimensions almost identically to males, except they gave a higher rank to health and fitness than to catharsis. 3. Foreign students with present participation in physical activity had significantly more positive attitudes than did students with no participation. 4. Foreign students who had been in the United States longer had significantly more positive attitudes than did students who had been in the United States for a shorter time. 5. In terms of' age, academic achievement, marital status, place of residence, educational level, previous participation in physical activity, foreign students did not differ significantly in their attitudes toward physical activities. Recommendations for program implementation and for further research were provided. Copyright by ALI SAAD ALGHAMDI l988 To my wonderful parents, without whom I would never have come this far; to my wife, Adala Atyyah, for her support, kindness, and understanding; and to our little princess, Lama, I dedicate this humble work. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work would not have been completed without the help of many people who contributed their time and effort in providing me with the necessary information to complete this work. I am sincerely grateful to Dr. Herbert Olson, chairperson of the Master’s Guidance Committee, for his advice, encouragement, and patience during the past years and during the course of this study. I gratefully extend my appreciation to the members of the research committee: Dr. Harris F. Beeman and Dr. Larry Sierra, whose valuable notices, generous help, and important suggestions provided a solid base for the study procedures. Special thanks to Dr. Annelies Knoppers, whose professional experience and insights contributed to the initial establishment of this research. I wish to express my appreciation to Dr. Martha Ewing for her assistance in the initiation of this study and valuable recommendations and notices. I am deeply thankful to Dr. Lou Anna Kimsey Simon, Associate Provost, for her understanding and assistance in establishing a special computer program for the purposes of this study through the main computer at Michigan State University. I appreciate the precision of Rex Kerr and Lee Rowe in data processing in the Registration Office. vi I am grateful to all of the foreign students at Michigan State University who responded to the research questionnaire and contributed to the success of the study. Last but not least, special thanks to my wife, Adala Atyyah, for her assistance in rewriting and organizing the raw data. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ........................ LIST OF FIGURES ........................ Chapter I. INTRODUCTION ..................... Introduction to the Study .............. Statement of the Problem .............. Purpose of the Study ................ Importance of the Study ............... Delimitation and Limitations of the Study ...... Research Questions ................. Research Hypotheses ................. Definition of Terms ................. Organization of the Study .............. 11. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ............. Understanding the Concept of Attitude ........ Attitude Measurement ................ Attitude Toward Physical Activities ......... Summary ....................... III. PROCEDURES AND METHODOLOGY .............. Target Population .................. The Sample and Sampling Procedures ......... Research Instrument ................. Validity and Reliability of the Kenyon Inventory . ATPA Scoring Procedures .............. Data-Collection Procedures ............. Data-Analysis Methods ................ Summary ....................... viii —l muwmmmaw—a IV. RESULTS OF THE DATA ANALYSIS ............. Characteristics of Respondents ........... Foreign Students’ Overall Attitudes Toward Physical Activity ................. Rank Order of Male and Female Foreign Students’ Attitudes Toward the Six Dimensions of Physical Activity ................. Results of Hypothesis Tests ............. Summary ....................... V. SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . Summary ....................... Study Population and Sample ............ Characteristics of Respondents .......... Methodology .................... Major Findings ................... Gender ...................... Age ........................ Academic Achievement ............... Marital Status .................. Place of Residence ................ Educational Level ................. Previous Participation in Physical Activities . . . Present Participation in Physical Activities . . . Length of Stay in the United States ........ Conclusions ..................... Recommendations ................... For Program Implementation ............ For Further Research ............... APPENDICES A. CORRESPONDENCE .................... B. SURVEY INSTRUMENTS .................. REFERENCES .......................... ix Table h-h-h-h-h-h-h Noam-awn .10 .11 .12 .13 .14 .15 .16 .17 LIST OF TABLES Hoyt Reliabilities on Kenyon’s ATPA .......... Distribution of Respondents by Gender ......... Distribution of Respondents by Age ........... Distribution of Respondents by Academic Achievement Distribution of Respondents by Marital Status ..... Distribution of Respondents by Place of Residence Distribution of Respondents by Level of Education Distribution of Respondents by Previous Participation in High School Physical Activities Programs ..... Distribution of Respondents by Current Participation in Physical Activities Programs ........... Distribution of Respondents by Length of Stay in the United States .................... Attitudes of Foreign Students Toward Physical Activity . Comparison of Rank Orders of Students’ Attitudes Toward the Six Dimensions of Physical Activity . . . . MANOVA and ANOVA Results for Gender Effects ...... Male and Female Students’ Means on the Six Attitudinal Dimensions and the Overall Measure of Attitude . . . . One-Hay ANOVA Results for Age Effects ......... One-Way ANOVA Results for Academic-Achievement Effects ....................... One-Way ANOVA Results for Marital-Status Effects . . . . One-Way ANOVA Results for Place-of-Residence Effects . . 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 59 60 Page 4.18 One-Way ANOVA Results for Level-of-Education Effects . . 60 4.19 One-Way ANOVA Results for Previous-Participation Effects ....................... 61 4.20 One-Way ANOVA Results for Present-Participation Effects ....................... 61 4.21 One-Way ANOVA Results for Length-of—Stay Effects . . . . 62 5.1 Males’ and Females’ Rankings of the Six Dimensions of Physical Activity ................. 69 xi Figure 2.1 2.2 3.1 LIST OF FIGURES Attitude Conceptions ...... 00000000000 Structure of Model for the Characterization of Physical Activity ....... Eight Strata of the Study Sample xii Page 14 24 37 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION W During the past decades, major changes have taken place in society, and social psychologists have been interested in knowing people’s attitudes toward those changes. In the past several decades, researchers have investigated major issues they considered phenomena. As time has progressed and research has become more sophisticated, researchers have begun to focus on narrower topics. Physical education has received a great deal of attention from researchers who have intensively studied its various aspects, such as attitudes toward physical education classes and recreational programs. In fact, interest arose not only because research became more sophisticated, but also because the importance of those subjects increased through the years. As Dumazedier (l968) stated: Rising living standards, shorter working time and extension of schooling led, and will continue to lead, to more serious problems of leisure on a mass scale. In order to respond to the existing needs, sports as a leisure activity must perform three functions: the competitive function (performance), the recreational function (play). and the reposing function (relaxation). (p. 11) Furthermore, Chai (1977) predicted that “the future of leisure will comand a bigger role in most areas in society, that a more humanistic world will develop by the year 2000, and the growth in all aspects of technology will continue” (p. 523). Dumazedier (1968) touched on the same point when he argued that growing mechanization in most countries has taken the physical effort out of performing many kinds of occupations and daily activities. Thus, he believed that participation in sports as recreational activities would be of two types: “activity of adjustment and activity of compensation” (p. 9). He also claimed that the peculiar nature of leisure is not accounted for by physical education. To have a positive effect in terms of compensation and adjustment, physical education should emphasize relaxation and eliminate fatigue. Anxiety and tension in today’s complex civilization have made such activity increasingly necessary. Thus, among other things, physical education, should prepare people for a lifelong commitment to recreational activities and increase their awareness of ways to satisfy this need. With regard to the aforementioned task as it relates to a school’s physical education program, Wohl and Pudelkiewicz (1972) asserted: Roles in sports as well as all other roles, before they can be performed, have to some extent to first be acquired and learned. Such knowledge and skill is most frequently acquired in school, by participating in physical education exercises. . . . The school youth has opportunities to participate in sports games, outside school, in games arranged out of their own initiative with neighboring groups of youngsters. . . . Cooperation between school youth belonging to the same age groups and the way they make use of their time outside of school often requires at least to some extent the approval of the parents, requires their understanding for the activity of young people, which may find expression in support of such initiatives or at least in a tolerant attitude toward it. . . . But as far as the opinion related to sports is concerned, it is a generally known fact that it differs in the various countries and also in the various strata of the population. (p. 72) In this context, sport is an important part of physical activities, but not all physical activities are sports. Many variables influence people’s involvement in physical activities, and these variables differ from one individual to another. Perceptions of the outcomes of physical activities also differ from one person to another. Demographic variables, as well as cultural differences, influence such perceptions. Sports and recreational education have certain contents in comon. The differences between sport and recreation can be seen also in the way health is treated. In sport, health is an objective, it is a condition for being permitted to take part in training or not. In the case of physical recreation health is a subjective category. The care of health is in our hands. . . . But sports is also a great chance for physical recreation. It refers most of all to the layer of culture which determines the specific climate of interhuman contacts that are observed in sport stadiums. . . . Physical recreation wanting to satisfy the new cultural needs of the society, must quickly react to all the changes that are actually taking place. . . . Today its content refers mostly to activities involving movement, not only leisure pursuits, but also in the form of play, dominated by games and sports. (Zuchora, 1978, p. 61) Statement of the Prgblem Foreign students at Michigan State University represent more than 105 nations, with different languages, cultures, customs, beliefs, and religions. Because of these differences, it is natural that foreign students vary in their attitudes toward many aspects of life. Living and studying in the United States is a unique and exciting experience for them. On one hand, these students endeavor to make a good impression about their nations and to reflect the positive aspects of their nations’ cultures and customs. On the other hand, because of their exposure to the American people and society, they have been impressed by the American customs and fast- paced lifestyle. A major aspect of American life is participation in sports and leisure-time activities. Americans of all ages and social classes highly value and are involved in such activities. When foreign students arrive in the United States, they begin to formulate perceptions about many issues, including sports in general and physical activity in particular. Although Michigan State University has a huge campus and a wealth of facilities, the percentage of foreign students who participate in various physical activities is very low. Some foreign students, for a variety of reasons, have a low regard for physical activity and have negative feelings about participating in any form of such activity. Hence, a primary purpose of this study was to investigate foreign students’ attitudes toward physical activity. e h t The main purpose of this study was to investigate (a) foreign students’ attitudes toward physical activity, (b) the rank order of male and female foreign students’ attitudes toward the six dimensions of physical activity measured by the Kenyon Attitude Scale, and (c) the relationship between those attitudes and selected background variables of the foreign students. The participating students had been integrated into the American culture for different periods of time, and their attitudes may have been affected, negatively or positively, by this integration, their gender, age, academic achievement, marital status, place of residence, educational level, previous participation in physical activities, present participation in physical activities, length of stay in the United States, and/or other variables. MAW To the investigator’s knowledge, this is the first attempt to investigate Michigan State University foreign students’ attitudes toward physical activity and the relationship between their attitudes and selected background variables. The following objectives and purposes were determined to be desirable: 1. To provide empirical data for future researchers and program planners. 2. To evaluate attitudinal differences toward physical activity on the basis of the foreign students’ background variables (independent variables): gender, age, academic achievement, marital status, place of residence, educational level, previous participation in physical activities, present participation in physical activities, and length of stay in the United States. 3. To help physical education professionals convince society members that students’ participation in physical activities does not adversely affect their academic achievement. 4w To help identify groups of respondents with different or similar attitudes toward participation in physical activities and thereby encourage them to participate more in physical activities provided through intramural programs. 5. To provide empirical findings that might encourage individu- als to participate in physical activities. The study was delimited to foreign students studying at Michigan State University who were enrolled for Winter Term 1987. A limitation on the study findings is that they are applicable only to foreign students at Michigan State University due to the uniqueness of the university’s intramural programs, facilities, and campus environment. The findings may be cautiously generalized to foreign students at other universities with similar characteristics. Willem; The following research questions were posed to guide the collection of data in this study: 1. What is the attitude of foreign students toward physical activity? 2. What is the rank order of male and female foreign students’ attitudes toward the six dimensions of physical activity measured by the Kenyon Attitude Scale? 3. Do differences exist in attitudes toward physical activity, based on the overall attitude measure, among foreign students grouped according to their gender, age, academic achievement, marital status, place of“ residence, educational level, previous participation in physical activities, present participation in physical activities, and length of stay in the United States? R s r h To fulfill the purposes of this study, the researcher formulated the following hypotheses to answer the third research question: hypothesis 1: Male students have more positive attitudes toward ‘ physical activities than do female students. hypgthesjs z: Younger students have more positive attitudes toward physical activities than do older students. Hypothesit g: Students with high grade point averages have more positive attitudes toward physical activities than do students with low grade point averages. flypgthe§i§ 4: Single students have more positive attitudes toward physical activities than do married students. hypgthgsis 5: On-campus residents have more positive attitudes toward physical activities than do off-campus residents. Hxngthg§i§_§: Undergraduate students have more positive atti- tudes toward physical activities than do graduate students. hypothesis, Z: Students who have previously participated in physical activities have more positive attitudes toward physical activities than do those who have not participated in such activities. Hypothesis 8: Students who are currently participating in physical activities have more positive attitudes toward physical activities than do those who are not participating in such activities. hypothesis; 2: Students who have been in the United States a longer period of time have more positive attitudes toward physi- cal activities than do those who have not been in the United States as long. nginition of Tehmt The following terms are defined in the context in which they are used in this paper. Attitude. Ferguson (1939) defined attitude as The acceptance value of a belief. . . . It is possible for different people to have different acceptance values of the belief ranging from complete acceptance through neutrality to complete rejection. It is this series of acceptance values that constitutes the attitude continuum. (p. 665) m' h' v . The total cumulative grade point average acquired for the total number of credits earned. Michigan State University uses a four—point grading scale, with 4.0 - A. Eereigh etude t. Every student from a country other than the United States, whose name was listed in the International Students Office at Michigan State University, and who was enrolled for Winter Term 1987. K n on tti de 1 . A scale developed for use with college men and women, which measures the following six dimensions: physical activity perceived as (a) social experience, (b) health and fitness, (c) the pursuit of vertigo, (d) an aesthetic experience, (e) catharsis, and (f) an ascetic experience. i ati h i iv . Voluntary involvement in the intramural programs that are offered at Michigan State Univer- sity. Ehyeiee1_emgjyjt1e§, lOrganized (structured), non-utilitarian (in an occupational or maintenance sense), gross human movement, usually manifested in active games, sports, calisthenics, and dance" (Kenyon, 1968a, p. 97). W The study comprises five chapters. The introduction, statement of the problem, purpose and importance of the study, delimitation and limitations, research questions, hypotheses, and definitions of terms were presented in Chapter I. A review of related literature is contained in Chapter II. Methods of sampling, data-collection procedures, and data-analysis techniques are explained in Chapter III. Chapter IV contains the results of the data analysis. Chapter V includes a summary of the study, findings, discussion, and recommendations for practice and for further research. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE A review of related literature dealing with the issue of attitudes toward physical activity is presented in this chapter. In carrying out this study, the researcher surveyed related writings obtained through an ERIC computer search, D1§§§EL§LIQD..ADSLL§£L§ Internetional, Peyehelegjeal Abstheets, Ihmh_£ggeetieh__1heeg, and books on the topic. To provide a logical basis for the research questions and hypotheses, the concept of attitude and attitude measurement are elaborated in the first and second sections of this chapter, respectively. The third section concerns attempts since 1932 to construct scales to measure attitudes toward physical activity, with emphasis on literature related to the Kenyon Attitude Toward Physical Activity Inventory. The final section is a discussion of the findings of studies similar to the present investigation in which the Kenyon inventory or other instruments were used to investigate attitudes toward physical activity. n i A i Allport (1967) supplied an impetus to the study and understanding of the concept of attitude when he wrote: 10 11 The concept of attitude is probably the most distinctive and indispensable concept in contemporary American Social Psychology. No other term appears more frequently in experimental and theoretical literature. Its popularity is not difficult to explain. It has come into favor, first of all, because it is not the property of any one psychological school of ‘thought and, therefore, serves admirably the purpose of eclectic writers. . . . As might be expected of so abstract and serviceable a term, it has come to signify many things to many writers with the inevitable result that its meaning is somewhat indefinite and its scientific status called into question. (9. 3) A survey of “the current literature pertaining to attitudes revealed that although more is now known about the concept of attitude, writers and researchers still do not agree on a definition of the term. Shaw and Wright (1967) indicated that “professional use and definition of ‘the ‘term attitude range} widely from the operationally bound to the metatheoretical" (p. l). Doob (1967) concurred with this statement when he wrote, ”The problem of what an attitude is and how it functions, nevertheless, persists and, as many writers on attitudes likewise point out in their introductory paragraph, little explicit agreement is apparent in the published literature" (p. 42). Zaichkowsky (1975) argued that theoreticians in the field of social psychology came up with the following three components of attitude: affect, cognition, and behavior. Each of these is affected by the knowledge, feelings, and beliefs of the concerned individual. Similarly, Sherif and Contril (1945) wrote: Since attitude develops as a consequence of experience and since attitude involves a cognitive component, the extent or range of stimuli to which an individual will relate an attitude will vary according to the nature of 'the source of the attitude and according to the relationship the individual makes between an attitude and the stimulus situations he confronts. (p. 304) 12 In a broad conception, Thurstone (1928) defined attitude as "the sum total of a man’s inclinations and feelings, prejudice or bias, preconceived notions, ideas, fears, threats, and convictions about any specified topic” (p. 531). Thus, attitude is symbolized by opinion; and rejection or acceptance of the verbalized opinion does not represent an infallible guide to the related behavior, although "this discrepancy between the index and ’truth’ is universal" (Thurstone, 1928, p. 532). From a different perspective, Edwards and Kenney (1946) defined attitude as "the degree of positive or negative effects associated with some psychological object" (p. 73). Similarly, Kenyon (1968) defined attitude as "latent or nonobservable, complex, but relatively stable behavior disposition reflecting both direction and intensity of feeling toward a particular object whether it be concrete or abstract" (p. 567). Whereas Kenyon said that attitude is relatively stable, Thurstone (1928) believed that an individual’s attitude changes as the situation changes. He further asserted that experience, learning, and natural events combine in the formation of the individual’s beliefs, as they ultimately affect his attitude. More specifically, Likert (1932) stated that "if an attitude be defined as a tendency toward a particular response in a particular situation, it is clear that the number of definable attitudes existing in a given person at a given time will depend upon the range of stimuli to which he is subjected" (p. 7). He defined attitudes as “dispositions 13 toward overt action, and they are verbal substitutes for overt action” (Likert, 1932, p. 9). According to the arguments of Likert and Thurstone, attitude is represented by behavior and symbolized by opinion. It is also assumed that any change in attitude would result in changes in the representing behavior and symbolizing opinion in the same direction and intensity as the attitude change. Having such a consistent formula would help researchers predict a person’s behavior in one situation and its related attitude by recognizing a similar behavior in a similar situation. In this respect, Likert (1932) stated: The "generality" or ”specificity” theory would define personality as a composite of many independent habits, while those who emphasize the relative unity of character point to significant general factors which make for effective prediction from behavior in one situation to behavior in a different situation. (p. 7) Studying attitude in isolation from other interacting variables is difficult because of the many independent habits of personality. Rosenberg and Hovland (1960) classified the variables that interact and affect the state of attitude into three categories: (a) measurable independent variables, (b) intervening variables, and (c) measurable dependent variables. Figure 2.1 illustrates the schematic relationship between attitude and these variables, as described by Rosenberg and Hovland. In this illustration, the intervening variables are the attitude components, as Zaichkowsky (1975) called them. The ”measurable independent variables“ and the "measurable dependent variables“ simply include some of the social variables, 14 environmental variables, and natural events confronting every individual in daily life. Measurable Measurable Independent Dependent Variables Variables Stimuli individuals efisympathetic nervous Affect I response, verbal 1 statement of effect situations ——7 perceptual responses, social issues -) Attitude Cognition 1 verbal statements of I belief social groups overt action other attitude Behavior | verbal statements objects 1 concerning behavior Figure 2.l.--Attitude conceptions. From M. J. Rosenberg and C. I. Hovland, 1960, Attitude; Organizatjeh, and ghehge, New Haven: Yale University Press, p. 3. Thus, knowing people’s inclinations, feelings (likes and dislikes), biases, ideas, and convictions about certain objects is the main purpose of studying their attitudes. Such knowledge is assumed to help accurately predict people’s behaviors toward an object. Such knowledge makes planning more effective in relation to people’s interests and desires, especially for physical educators who need to know more about their community’s and individuals’ attitudes toward the physical education field. 15 MW When an individual’s attitude is measured, his/her expressed opinion toward the issue in question is examined. Such measurement is concerned with the whole range of the measurement continuum, from complete acceptance to complete rejection. Thurstone (1928) stated: The measurement of attitudes expressed by a man’s opinion does not necessarily mean the prediction of what he will do. If his expressed Opinions and his action are inconsistent, that does not concern us now, because we are not setting out to predict overt conduct. . . . Even if they are intentionally distorting their attitudes, we are measuring at least the attitude which they are trying to make people believe that they have. (p. 533) The attitude of the social group to which an individual belongs can affect his/her attitude. Gordon (1952) studied the relationship between an individual’s opinions and his/her definition of the situation and what influences one’s expression of opinion in a social situation. He found that the significant factor that influences one’s behavior in the group is his/her subjective feeling and imagery with regard to the group’s attitudes. Thus the individual’s behavior is influenced not only by his/her own attitudes, but also by the attitudes he/she perceives to be emanating from the social group of which he/she is a member. Likert (1932) based his attitude measurement scale on the infinite number of possible combinations of attitudes any person might have toward a given issue. The responses, which represent the person’s attitude, move within a certain range. The individual’s response to any issue would be at a certain point within that range. What is really measured is the direction and intensity of this 16 response from the neutral point (or from the mean) on the measurement scale. To have subjects take sides on a particular issue, items are presented in the form of a statement that ”permits judgment of value" rather than "judgment of fact” (Likert, 1932, p. 12). For each statement in the instrument, the respondent is given five choices ranging from strongly agree or strongly approve (representing extreme acceptance) through a neutral position to strongly disagree or strongly disapprove (representing extreme rejection). "The one end is always assigned to the negative end of the sigma scale, and the five end to the positive end of the sigma scale" (Likert, 1932, p. 26). Ferguson (1939) noted that this scoring method is the simplest and least laborious, and Likert reported that it produced almost identical results to the 1-7 point and 1-3 point scales. Likert’s scoring method has also been empirically proven to be more reliable than the equal-appearing-intervals method used by Thurstone (1928), in which a group of .judges must be used to put the statement responses in piles and then calculate the scale values. In addition to the increased difficulty of using such a method, Likert argued that involving judges in the equal-appearing-intervals may increase the error rate. To calculate reliability coefficients or internal consistency, both Likert and Thurstone used the odd-even split-halfs method applying the Spearman-Brown formula. Likert (1932) used the criterion of the scale’s internal consistency to determine '(a) 17 whether the numerical values were properly assigned, and (b) whether each statement differentiated the extremes in the manner expected" (p. 35). In regard to the validity of attitude measurement, Likert (1932) pointed out that: We are dealing only with verbal behavior and claim nothing more . than the importance of the verbal reactions. Ultimately it is to be hoped that the relationship between the verbal behavior expressed on an attitude scale and other more overt forms of behavior expressed may be examined and determined, but at present we are concerned with verbal behavior only. (p. 32) On the other hand, Ferguson (1939) suggested using the internal consistency of the questionnaire items for validation purposes. He stated that ”the actual behavior is not an adequate criterion upon which to base the validity of an attitude scale'I (p. 669). That is because, in many instances, the discrepancy between the expressed attitude and the actual behavior makes predictive power in social science research much less than it is in physical science research. Wang (1932) recommended the following 16 guiding points as external criteria for the construction and/or selection of attitude statements: 1. An attitude must be debatable. 2. All statements should belong to the same attitude variable. 3. A statement must not be susceptible to more than one interpretation. 4. Avoid 'double-barreled' statements. 5. Statements should be short. 6. Each statement should be complete in denoting a definite attitude toward a specific issue. 7. Each statement should contain only one complete thought. 8. Avoid grouping two or more complete sentences as one attitude statement. 9. Statements should be clear-cut and direct. 18 10. Use with care and moderation such words as ”only," "mere," "just” (in the sense of only, merely, etc.). 11. Avoid colorless expressions or statements lacking effect. 12. Whenever possible, write in the form of a simple instead of compound or complex sentences. 13. Use a complex rather than a compound sentence. 14. It is usually better to use active voice rather than passive voice. 15. In general, use the term of the issue as the subject of the sentence. 16. Avoid high standing words, uncommon words or expressions, technical terms not ordinarily understood, etc. (pp. 367- 373) Furthermore, 'approximately half of the items should be worded negatively . . . to counteract any suggestive effect which an all- positive list might have on the subjects responding to the items" (Wear, 1951, p. 117). Attjtgde Toward Physicel Activitiee Kenyon (1968) defined physical activity as "organized (structured), nonutilitarian (in an occupational or maintenance sense) gross human movement, usually manifested in active games, sports, calisthenics, and dance” (p. 97). .Although physical activities, sports, and games are means used in physical education, they are not the only ones. Sports and games are important parts of physical activity, but they are not the only ingredients; physical activity itself is the most important vehicle to physical education. In 1932, Alden developed one of 'the earliest attitude checklists. She secured data on the trend for college women to have unfavorable attitudes toward required physical education programs. Alden distributed a list of 25 unfavorable influences concerning physical education to students and asked them to rate the top five in 19 order of importance. The five factors students rated as being the most unfavorable were: (a) inconvenience of dressing and undressing, (b) not enough time for dressing, (c) failure of secondary schools to develop physical skills beyond the novice stage, (d) time allotted for each activity was too short to develop skill, and (e) they were required to participate in activities in which they were not interested. Plummer (1952) attempted to determine factors that affect students’ attitudes in order to develop an objective instrument to measure college women’s attitudes toward physical education. She found that attitude-measurement instruments were uncommon and that it was exceedingly difficult to measure attitudes. However, Plummer did compile a list of 15 factors that were deemed important,in developing student attitudes toward physical education. From these 15 factors she constructed 40 questions. The most discriminating factors were (a) competition of other activities and interests, (b) finances, (c) personal response to the group, (d) physical appearance, and (e) physical education background. Wear (1951) developed an attitude scale using statements related to physical education to evaluate the attitudes of college men toward physical education. Specialists he consulted agreed that outcomes of physical education should have to do with (a) physical well-being, (b) muscular strength and coordination, (c) total physical and muscular' endurance, (d) acquisition of' neuromuscular skills, (e) resources for recreation, (f) mental health, (9) social relationships, and (h) safety aspects. Wear designed the instrument 20 in the form of an inventory of 120 statements. The reliability of the inventory' was shown to be statistically satisfactory. The validity of the inventory was established through (a) the use of certain criteria in the wording of statements, (b) a comprehensive sampling of important outcomes, and (c) the demonstration of substantial relationships between scores on the inventory and certain other data regarding attitudes toward physical activity. Wear reduced the inventory to a list of 40 items, which became known as the Short Form of the Wear Inventory. The Short Form still represented all major outcomes of physical education and was shown to be statistically reliable. Campbell (1968) applied Wear’s Inventory to a sample of 199 college males and concluded that it was a valid means of measuring attitudes toward physical education. He reported that no significant differences in attitudes toward physical education existed among respondents from different sizes of schools and areas of academic interest, or with various preferences of physical activity. Keogh (1962) used the Wear Inventory to compare the attitudes of male and female college students toward general benefits or values of physical education. He administered Form A of the Inventory to 133 male and 130 female students (N - 263). Results showed that males and females did not differ in their stated attitudes toward physical education. Keogh also found that the subjects endorsed the social, physical, and emotional values of physical education but differed in 21 their attitudes regarding the relative value of a physical education program in the school curriculum. Also using the Wear Inventory, Brumback and Cross (1965) found that the more years of physical education students had in high school, the more favorable their attitude toward physical education tended to be. As might be expected, athletes were found to have better attitudes toward physical education than nonathletes. Swan (1968) employed the Wear Inventory to measure the effect of ethnic background on attitudes and achievement in physical education. The subjects of the study were 50 Mexican-American and 50 Anglo- American girls in the eleventh grade. Swan concluded that there was no significant difference in attitudes between the Mexican-American and Anglo-American girls. Miller (1974) administered the Wear Inventory to 1,223 students enrolled in physical education activity classes at Middle Tennessee State University. Her purpose was to determine whether attitudes toward physical education would change after one semester of physical education activity. Test Form A was administered as a pretest, and Form B was administered as a post-test. Miller found that there was no significant change in attitudes toward physical education among males or females from the beginning to the end of the semester. Organ (1976) administered the Wear Inventory to 206 students at Howard University to determine their attitudes toward required physical education in the liberal arts program. The findings showed that students who participated in the study had favorable attitudes toward physical education. 22 Neale, Sonstroem, and Metz (1970) conducted a study using the Physical Activity Attitude Inventory developed by Sonstroem. The Attitude Inventory was designed to assess two aspects of a person’s self-perceived relationship to physical activity: (a) an estimation of his/capability in vigorous physical activities and (b) his/her attraction to land 'liking for vigorous physical activities. The Inventory consisted of 76 items and yielded a subscore for each aspect--Estimation (47 items) and Attraction (29 items). The Inventory had a Kuder-Richardson reliability coefficient of .90. In 1973, Sonstroem attempted to improve the validity of the previously constructed Physical Activity Attitude Inventory. He renamed the instrument then Physical Estimation and Attraction Scales (PEAS). Scores for estimation, attraction, and seven other factors were obtained, and a measure of validity was provided. Internal reliability coefficients ranged from .70 to .90. Sfignificant correlation coefficients were obtained between scales composed of estimation items and measures of height, athletic experience, self- acceptance, and physical fitness (Sonstroem, 1974). In 1968, Kenyon developed his own instrument, the Attitudes Toward Physical Activity (ATPA) Inventory, to measure attitudes toward physical activity. His work was based on his assumption that all physical activity as one domain can be reduced to six subdomains characterizing physical activity from the standpoint of its perceived instrumental value for individuals. Kenyon formulated his first structural model, which consisted of six subdomains (physical health, 23 mind-body dichotomy, cooperation-competition, mental health, social intercourse, and patriotism) and then prepared statements to represent each of the subdomains. He presented the statements to a randomly selected sample of 756 adults and 100 college students, who were asked to read each statement and classify it under one of the six subdomains. Upon analyzing the results of this first attempt, Kenyon formulated a second model consisting of six subdomains (social experience, health and fitness, pursuit of vertigo, aesthetic experience, recreational experience, and competitive experience). He formulated 73 attitude statements, which were evaluated by judges, revised, and incorporated into an inventory. He then presented the inventory to 176 college men and women. After analyzing the results of the second attempt and the revised conceptual basis for the six subdomains, Kenyon constructed the final model for the characterization of physical activity, which consisted of the following six subdomains: physical activity (a) as social experience, (b) for health and fitness, (c) as the pursuit of vertigo, (d) as an aesthetic experience, (e) as catharsis, and (f) as an ascetic experience. (See Figure 2.2.) In a pilot study Kenyon found that the semantic differential scales of the ATPA were faster and yielded higher reliability coefficients than did his Likert-type ATPA scales. In this pilot study Kenyon decided to add a seventh subdomain, physical activity as chance, “in view of its prevalence in the literature dealing with the classification of games and sports" (Kenyon, 1968). Subdomain 1 Physical activity as a social experience 24 Subdomain 2 Physical activity for health and fitness l Subdomain 3 Physical activity as the pursuit of vertigo DOMAIN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY Subdomain 4 Physical activity as an aesthetic experience Subdomain 5 Physical activity as catharsis Subdomain 6 Physical activity as an ascetic experience Figure 2.2.--Structure of model for the characterization of physical activity. From G. S. Kenyon, 1968, A conceptual model for characterizing physical activity, B§§§§£&h_QU§£; terly, 32, pp. 96-105. In his study, Kenyon (1968) used a semantic differential scale to measure attitudes toward physical activity among nearly 4,000 secondary school students in four countries (Canada, England, Australia, and the United States). Results showed that the relative positions of each of the seven domains were consistent across the four countries studied. The most positive attitudes toward physical activity were those involving physical activity as a social experience, as an aesthetic experience, and as catharsis. Less positive attitudes were expressed toward physical activity as pursuit of vertigo, as an ascetic experience, and as chance. 25 One purpose of Kenyon’s study was to determine whether males and females differed in their attitudes toward physical activity and in the nature and degree of their involvement in physical activity. The findings indicated that females possessed a more positive attitude toward physical activity when it was perceived as a social experience, as health and fitness, as an aesthetic experience, and as catharsis, whereas males possessed a more positive attitude than females toward physical activity perceived as the pursuit of vertigo and as an ascetic experience. In another study, Mullins (1969) found that male students had more positive attitudes toward physical activity than did females. Mullins studied the function of race, gender, and socioeconomic level in the expressed attitude toward physical activity of 190 college students, using the ATPA Scale. Results of the study indicated that (a) race was the most significant factor, accounting for variance in the ATPA as social and as aesthetic experience in male, female, and male-female data and as pursuit of vertigo in male and male- female analysis; (b) black students displayed more favorable attitudes than whites; (c) males reacted more positively than females; (d) the most positive attitudes were recorded for attitude as a social experience; and (e) the most negative reaction was in pursuit of vertigo. Cunningham (1970) administered Kenyon’s scale to 2,667 male and female students at North Texas State University. The findings showed that (a) female students perceived physical activity as a source of health and fitness, whereas male students perceived it primarily as 26 providing a vertigo experience; and (b) contrary to Mullins’s findings, female students possessed a slightly more positive attitude toward physical activity than did male students. Using Kenyon’s scale to investigate the attitudes toward physical activity of a sample of 136 male and female athletes, Alderman (1970) concluded 'that the male and female athletes who participated in the study had similar attitudes. Athletes’ strongest attitude was toward physical activity as an aesthetic experience. Physical activity as an ascetic experience had the least meaning for the group of athletes tested. Loy (1975) examined attitudes toward play as a function of selected social identities and level of participation in sports. The findings indicated that attitudes toward sports and physical activity were a function of age and level of educational attainment. Attitudes toward sports and physical activity tended to be related to level of involvement in sports. The relationship between age and participation in physical activity was studied by Campbell (1969) with a sample of 75 males representing four age groups. The research findings indicated that subjects in the various age groups differed significantly in their participation in physical activities. In another study, younger subjects participated more in physical activities than did older subjects. However, participation in such activities was found to have a significantly lower negative correlation with age for married 27 than for single subjects. In general, single subjects participated more in physical activities than did married subjects. Williamson (1954) found that students’ marital status was significantly related to their participation in campus activities. Single male students tended to participate more than did married students. A total of 69% of single men were participants, as compared with 57% of married men, and this difference was significant at the .01 probability level. In discussing these results, Unkel (1981) argued that single people tend to have more money, time, and freedom than those who are married. Witt and Goodale (1981) included knowledge, money, time, and motivational and attitudinal constraints as barriers to recreational enjoyment presented to their subjects. They reported that skill and physical fitness decreased with age. Balley (1955) studied the ‘responses of 3,000 men to a questionnaire including 67 recreational activities. He classified the respondents into four age groups. Results showed that participation in physical recreation activities was low for all groups, and a decline in all types of recreational activities was noticed as age progressed. Important reasons for not participating in such activities were "lack of time,” "health limits,” I'lack of companion,” and 'lack of facilities." Some researchers have found that living on campus was significantly and positively related to participation in a variety of activities, one of which is physical activity. Palm (1980) and Ryan (1970) found that resident students developed more and different behaviors and skills than did commuting students. Kapp (1979) also 28 found that living on campus, whether in residence halls or sorority or fraternity houses, was correlated with participation in college activities. Resident students have been found to be much more involved in all types of activities and tend to stay in college longer than those who conInute (Orasgow, 1958), whereas living off campus is a reason for little or no participation in college activities. In 1974, Chickering differentiated between resident and commuter students when he stated the following findings: Students who lived at home with their parents participated in various kinds of cultural and extracurricular activities less frequently than dormitory residents, and their relationships with faculty' members and fellow college students were more limited. Students who lived at home were less satisfied with their college and less frequently planned to return. (pp. 57-58) Hendry (1975) investigated the relationship between participation in physical activity and attitude toward physical activity. He also examined the relationship between movement behavior and personality characteristics, attitude toward physical activity, gender, previous school involvement in sports, and academic performance using a sample of 230 university students. The study results showed that (a) active students were, on the average, more stable and extroverted and had more favorable attitudes toward physical activity, and (b) active involvement in movement behavior was positively related to previous school involvement in sports. In another study, Hendry (1976) studied the factors that influenced student teachers’ physical activity. His sample included 226 subjects. Hendry administered tests concerning subjects’ 29 involvement in college sports, previous involvement in school sports, and social data. The study findings indicated that (a) 62% of the male and 52% of the female students participated in college physical activities, (b) the type and extent of' previous sports involvement in school were closely associated to sports involvement in college, and (c) active students held more favorable attitudes toward physical activity than did nonparticipants. Michael (1972) administered the Kenyon ATPA Scale to male alumni of' Oregon State University to determine whether their attitudes toward physical activity' were related to selected factors. The researcher divided the subjects into various groups based on these factors and statistically compared the attitude scores of each group. The findings indicated that a statistically significant difference existed between groups on the following factors: (a) participation in physical education beyond the requirements, (b) grades in physical education, (c) number of physical activities participated in, (d) general attitude toward physical education, and (e) graduation year. Also using the Kenyon scale, Coults (1973) explored the relationship between certain social values and the attitudinal and behavioral dimensions of physical activity and sport. Subjects of his study were 1,895 students enrolled in general physical education at the State University of New York at Binghamton. The findings showed a positive and statistically significant correlation between attitude and participation in each of the six dimensions of physical activity. 30 Some researchers have found a positive relationship between previous success in physical activity and subjects’ attitudes toward physical activity. Fisher (1975) examined whether subjects’ attitudes toward physical activity were a function of previous success. He administered the Kenyon scale to 60 male high school students between the ages of 15 and 17. Results showed that (a) athletes had more positive attitudes toward physical activity than nonathletes (because athletes had had more opportunities to experience success), and (b) unsuccessful experiences in sports may promote less favorable attitudes toward physical activity. In another study, Driscoll (1975) administered the Kenyon scale to 60 high school students to determine whether attitude toward physical activity was a function of previous success in physical activity. He found that attitude toward physical activity' was directly related to previous success in physical activity. In a similar study, Simpson (1969) examined the attitudes toward physical activity of 73 athletes participating in college varsity football, basketball, tennis, track, and golf. Results from this study showed that (a) varsity athletes tended to exhibit positive attitudes toward physical activity, (b) physical activity perceived as an ascetic experience and such activity viewed as catharsis were expressed equally as the strongest positive values, (c) pursuit of vertigo was not generally expressed as a perceived value, and (d) all athletes tended to respond negatively to physical activity perceived as an aesthetic experience. 31 Parents, siblings, and friends can affect a person’s attitude toward physical activity, according to Heckers (1978). He studied 1,400 students’ attitudes toward physical education and physical activity. Heckers found that students’ behavior in physical activity was related to their ideas about such activities and the activities of their parents and siblings. Partt (1971) employed Kenyon’s scale with high school girls to determine the influence of social class on an individual’s purposes for seeking physical activity, on participation in selected movement forms, and on preference for selected movement forms. The outcome of the research showed no significant difference between the middle class and lower class in expressed purposes for seeking physical activity. However, a significant difference was found between the two classes in regard to participation in and preferences for certain movement forms. In 1970, Mequi used Kenyon’s ATPA Scale in investigating why selected male college students had either extremely negative or positive attitudes toward physical activity. He found that students who demonstrated extremely positive attitudes generally (a) came from families who were active in and encouraged participation in sports, (b) had best friends who were interested in and participated in sports, (c) tended to be successful in their sports and physical education experience, and (d) maintained a continuing participation in physical activities from the elementary to the college level. The students who held extremely negative attitudes toward physical 32 activity had failed to maintain participation in sports beyond the junior high school level. To explore the relationship between academic attainment and attitude toward physical activity, Hendry (1975) examined the sports activity and academic performance of 230 university students. He found that active students were, on the average, more stable, more extraverted, and more likely to have been active in sports at school than nonparticipating students. The two groups were equally successful academically. In a similar manner, Dotson and Stanley (1972) conducted a study to compare the attitudes of male university students toward physical activity with the size of the previous school attended and previous achievement in athletic and nonathletic activities. They concluded that (a) no significant relationship existed between attitude toward physical activity and achievement in nonathletic activities, (b) no significant difference in attitude could be explained by the size of the school attended, and (c) achievement in athletics was most highly related to the perceived attitude toward physical activity. In a 1970 study, Spady found that participation in athletics and service clubs was positively related to perceptions of peer status. As well, Rehberg (1969) reported that participation in varsity sports had a positive effect on the scholastic performance of high school boys and increased their educational experience. In a study he conducted using a large national sample of students attending junior' colleges, Baird (1971) discovered that participation in college activities had a positive effect on 33 educational aspirations. Twining (1957) made a similar observation. He noted that participating students received higher grades during their senior year than did nonparticipating students. Regarding the effects of ethnicity on attitudes toward physical activity, Mazaroff (1975) examined the differences in attitudes toward physical activity of 265 Navajos and 251 non-Navajos in the southwestern United States. The researcher used three inventories in conducting the study. The findings indicated that (a) there were differences in attitude due to ethnicity, (b) Navajos and non-Navajos differed in frequency of participation in some of the domains of physical activity, (c) Navajos and non-Navajos were most favorable to health and fitness, catharsis, aesthetics, and social experiences; and (d) younger Navajos appeared to be more favorable toward physical activity than older ones. In a study similar to Mazaroff’s, Hayes (1977) explored the attitudes toward physical activity of 100 Mexican-American and Caucasian-American high school males using Kenyon’s ATPA Scale. The findings supported the researcher’s hypothesis that there was no significant difference between Mexican-American and Caucasian- American males in terms of their attitudes toward physical activity. 53mm This chapter contained a review of literature related to this study. The concept of attitude was discussed in the first section. Attitude measurement was examined next, followed by coverage of attempts to construct and develop scales to measure attitudes toward 34 physical activity. The findings of studies in which the Kenyon inventory or other instruments were used to investigate attitudes toward physical activity were also discussed. The procedures and methodology used in the present study are described in Chapter III. CHAPTER III PROCEDURES AND METHODOLOGY The main purpose of this study was to investigate (a) foreign students’ attitudes toward physical activity, (b) the rank order of male and female students’ attitudes toward the six dimensions of physical activity measured by the Kenyon Attitude Scale, and (c) the relationship between those attitudes and selected background variables of the foreign students. This chapter is devoted to discussing the methods and procedures used in conducting the study. The chapter is divided into five sections: (a) target population, (b) the sample and sampling procedures, (c) research instruments, (d) data-collection procedures, and (e) data-analysis methods. larget Pgeuletien This study was conducted at Michigan State University to determine the attitudes toward physical activity of foreign students enrolled at the university. The target population comprised all foreign students enrolled at Michigan State University Winter Term 1987. According to the Office of International Students and Scholars, the foreign-student population for Winter Term 1987 was 2,012 students from 105 countries (official count as of January 13, 1987). (See Appendix B.) The researcher considered the entire 35 36 population of foreign students as the target population for this investigation, from which he drew the study sample. WW Choosing the sample of a certain population is a difficult task (Borg 8 Gall, 1983). However, Borg and Gall identified two main criteria as very important considerations in selecting a sample. These two criteria are the selected sample’s representation of the population and adequate sample size. For the purposes of this study, the stratified random sample technique was used to ensure that the aforementioned two criteria were met. A stratified random sample, as defined by Schaeffer (1979), is ”one obtained by separating the population elements into nonoverlapping groups, called strata, and then selecting a random sample from each stratum" (p. 59). The target population ‘was divided into the following eight strata: l. Undergraduate males off-campus (n - 50) Undergraduate males on-campus (h - 50) Undergraduate females off-campus (h - 50) Undergraduate females on-campus (n - 50) Graduate males off-campus (h - 50) Graduate males on-campus (h - 50) Graduate females off-campus (n - 50) acumen-hum Graduate females on-campus (n - 50) 37 Using the stratified random sample technique, the study sample was drawn with 50 students from each of these eight strata, for a sample of 400 students. (See Figure 3.1.) MSU Foreign Students 1 I Undergraduate Graluate Male Female Male Female Campus Campus Campus l Campus ' Off On Off On Off On Off On Figure 3.1.--Eight strata of the study sample. The researcher’s academic advisor sent a letter to Dr. David Horner, Director of the Office for International Students and Scholars, asking him to help the researcher obtain a list of names and addresses of foreign students. The academic advisor also sent a letter to Dr. Henry Bredeck, chairman of the University Committee for Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS), to obtain approval to conduct the study. 'The UCRIHS granted approval to conduct the research. However, because of university regulations regarding the confidentiality of information concerning foreign students, it was 38 impossible to obtain any information about those students, even though the aforementioned actions had been taken. The only way to obtain this information was through the Registrar’s Office at Michigan State University. The researcher’s academic advisor sent a letter to Dr. Lou Anna Simon, the associate provost. for' general academic administration, explaining the situation. After meeting with the researcher, Dr. Simon permitted a special computer program to be run, which was specially designed to meet the study' purposes, at the researcher’s own expense. 'The researcher was prohibited from knowing the names and addresses of sample members. He was not even permitted to help in labeling the mailings, due to the confidentiality of the information. The researcher provided Dr. Simon’s office with 400 copies of the questionnaire, accompanied by a cover letter and an addressed return envelope, in stamped envelopes. He also provided a complete description of the population, the eight sample strata, and the desired sample size for each stratum. Dr. Simon’s office sent the necessary information to data-processing specialists, who wrote and ran the program to prepare the name and address labels for mailing the questionnaires. Six weeks later, on March 3, 1987, Dr. Simon’s office received the labels and sent out all of the envelopes. After three days, the researcher received about 15 envelopes that had been returned by the post office due to incomplete addresses or insufficient postage for foreign countries like Japan, Korea, and Egypt. Because only about 15 envelopes had been returned, the 39 researcher did not consider that a major problem in terms of obtaining an adequate sample size. MW: After intensive review of the related research and consultation with specialists in sport psychology and sport sociology, the researcher found that the best attitude scale for the purposes of this study was the Kenyon Attitude Toward Physical Activity (ATPA) Inventory. The instrument used in this study contained two parts. The first part comprised nine questions concerning demographic information and participation in physical activity as follows: 1. Gender. Two categories were included: male and female. 2. Age. This variable consisted of nine categories: under 18 years, 19-21, 22-24, 25-27, 28-30, 31-33, 34-36, 37-39, and 40 and above. 3. Academic achievement. This variable contained seven categories: 1.999 or less, 2.00-2.449, 2.50-2.749, 2.75- 2.999, 3.00-3.449, 3.50-3.749, and 3.75-4.00. 4. Marital status. This variable consisted of two categories: single and married. 5. Place of residence. This variable contained two categories: on-campus and off-campus. 6. Level of education. This variable consisted of three categories: baccalaureate program, master’s program, and doctoral program. 7. Previous participation in physical activities. This vari- able contained two categories: no and yes. 8. Current participation in physical activities. This variable consisted of two categories: no and yes. 9. Length of stay in the United States. This variable con- tained nine categories: 6 months or less, 7-12, 13-18, 19- 24, 25-30, 31-36, 37-42, 43-48, and 49 months and above. 40 The second part of the instrument was the Kenyon ATPA, Forms DM (men) and DW (women). According to Baumgartner and Jackson (1982), ”research showed that males and females responded differently on the six scales. Therefore, when the ATPA scales were constructed, different inventories were developed for men and women” (p. 373). The scale for men consists of 59 items; the women’s scale has 54 items. Although some attitude scales reviewed for this study were designed to measure attitudes toward physical education alone, there is no way to differentiate between attitudes resulting from experiences a person has had with physical activities outside of physical education classes and those that may be a result of experiences in organized classes. Furthermore, Kenyon’s inventory allows an analysis of six different dimensions of physical activity, a feature that is not characteristic of the other scales. This enabled the researcher to determine the areas in which differences or similarities existed between the groups being tested. The ATPA was designed to measure attitudes toward six dimensions of physical activity. A six-dimensional model of physical activity was used to construct the scales. That model, which was thought to represent the perceived instrumental value of physical activity, included physical activity as (a) social experience, (b) health and fitness, (c) pursuit of vertigo, (d) aesthetic experience, (e) catharsis, and (f) ascetic experience. (See Chapter II.) Baumgartner and Jackson (1982) described the six dimensions as follows: 41 imensi 1° 1 l r Physical educators maintain that physical activity' meets certain social needs. Individuals who score high on this dimension would value physical activities 'whose primary purpose is to provide a medium for social intercourse, i.e., to meet new people and to perpe- trate existing relationships" (p. ). The questions involved in this dimension are: men--Items 7, 17, 20, 26, 30, 34, 44, 48, 52, and 56; women--Items ll, 17, 20, 25, 29, 33, 39, and 49. imension : Ph i al ivi r 1 h n 'tn . The importance of physical activity for maintaining health and fitness is generally recognized. Individuals who score high on this dimension would value physical activity for its "contribution to the improvement of one’s health and fitness” (p. ). The questions involved in this dimension are: men--Items 8, 13, 18, 21, 25, 36, 38, 41, and 55; women--Items 4, 6, 10,-15, 18, 23, 27, 32, 36, and 40. Dimension 3: Physicel aetivjty e; the puregit gt vehtjgg. The pursuit of vertigo is the pursuit of excitement, or "those physical experiences providing, at some risk to the participant, an element of thrill through the medium of speed, acceleration, sudden change of direction, or exposure to dangerous situations, with the participant usually remaining in control" (p. ). The questions that address this dimension are: men--Items 2, 6, 9, 16, 22, 28, 42, 46, 53, and 58; women--Items 1, 7, 13, 22, 28, 38, 42, 50, and 53. 42 Ii n 'on 4° ' ._ ._ v ._ .. ht -.:-r ‘1- Many people believe that forms of physical activity have a certain beauty or artistry. People who score high on this dimension perceive the aesthetic nature of physical activity. The questions that address this dimension are: men--Items 3, ll, 14, 19, 32, 35, 39, 45, 47, and 50; women--Items 3, 8, l4, 19, 30, 35, 41, 45, and 48. ' nsi n 5: h i v . Many believe that physical activity can provide a release from the frustrations of daily living. The validity of this dimension has not been fully established. The questions involved in this dimension are: men-- Items 5, 12, 15, 23, 27, 33, 43, 54, and 59; women--Items 12,16, 21, 31, 37, 44, 51, and 54. 'n ° i 'vi a ceti Individuals who score high on this scale value the type of dedication involved in championship-level performance. Such activity demands long, strenuous, often painful training and competition, forcing a deferment of many of the gratifications of general physical activity. The questions involved in this dimension are: men--Items 1, 4, 10, 24, 31, 37, 40, 49, 51, and 57; women--Items 2, 5, 9, 24, 34, 43, 46, and 52. alidit n i i the Kenyon Inventehy Kenyon (1968) established the validity of his inventory with selected strong and weak preference groups, which scored high and low, respectively, on all areas of the inventory except catharsis. 43 He stated that the validity for the catharsis area is dubious. To determine reliability, Kenyon used the test-retest method between groups of undergraduate students. Scale stability was reflected by the Hoyt reliabilities, as shown in Table 3.1. Table 3.1.--Hoyt reliabilities on Kenyon’s ATPA. Number of Items Test-Retest Scale on the Scale 1 Social experience Men 10 .72 Women 8 .72 Health and fitness Men 10 .79 Women 11 .83 Pursuit of vertigo Men 10 .89 Women 9 .87 Aesthetic experience Men 10 .82 Women 9 .87 Catharsis Men 9 .77 Women 9 .79 Ascetic experience Men 10 .81 Women 8 .78 Source: G. S. Kenyon, 1968, Six scales for assessing attitude toward physical activity, Beeeeteh_ggertetly, 32, 566-574. 44 ATPA Scoring Procegghee An attitude toward physical activity score was computed for each participant, using Form OM for men and Form DW for women. For each positive statement on the scale, the scoring for responses was as follows: Strongly disagree Very strongly disagree Very strongly agree - 7 points Strongly agree - 6 Agree - 5 Undecided - 4 Disagree - 3 -; For each negative statement on the scale, points were assigned to responses as follows: Strongly agree Very strongly agree Very strongly disagree - 7 points Strongly disagree - 6 Disagree - 5 Undecided . 4 Agree - 3 - 2 - 1 Scores were summed for each subdomain, and an average score was obtained for each participant. Subdomains were used to determine the differences in attitudes between males and females, whereas the overall mean was used to determine the differences between other groups. As a measure of students’ attitudes toward physical activity, the response means were interpreted as follows: .0- 2. 49 - Strong negative attitude 3. 49 - Negative attitude 49 - Neutral attitude .0 .0 4. .0- 5. 49 - Positive attitude .0 7. 00 - Strong positive attitude 45 - 1 i n d On March 3, 1987, the researcher was informed that Dr. Simon’s office had received the name and address labels from ‘the data- processing unit in the Registrar’s Office. The researcher took the envelopes containing the questionnaires and cover letters to Dr. Simon’s office, where personnel labeled the envelopes and sent them out according to plan. Because final examinations for Winter Term began on March 9, the number of responses to the first mailing was very low. Three weeks later, the researcher took follow-up letters to Dr. Simon’s office, and these letters were addressed and mailed according to the procedures followed earlier. Responses were received from 184 of the 400 foreign students to whom questionnaires had been mailed, a response rate of about 47%. When no additional responses were received, the researcher began scoring the responses. Qata-Analyeje hethede The choice of statistical methods for analyzing data depends on the types of data involved. Descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) were used to answer Research Questions 1 and 2. Because the study involved six dimensions (scales) of attitude toward physical activity (multiple outcome), multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to test for differences in attitudes toward physical activity between male and female foreign students. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test for statistically significant. differences on the total measure of attitude toward 46 physical activity among foreign students grouped according to their gender, age, academic achievement, marital status, place of residence, educational level, previous participation in physical activities, present participation in physical activities, and length of stay in the United States. 55mm The procedures and methods followed in conducting the study were discussed and explained in this chapter. The target population, the sample, and sampling procedures were discussed. ‘The research instrument, data-collection procedures, and data-analysis methods were explained. Chapter IV contains the results of the data analysis. CHAPTER IV RESULTS OF THE DATA ANALYSIS The main purpose of this study was to investigate (a) foreign students’ attitudes toward physical activity, (b) the rank order of male and female students’ attitudes toward the six dimensions of physical activity measured by the Kenyon Attitude Scale, and (c) the relationship between those attitudes and selected background variables of the foreign students. More specifically, the study was designed to answer the following research questions: 1. What is the attitude of foreign students toward physical activity? 2. What is the rank order of male and female foreign students’ attitudes toward the six dimensions of physical activity measured by the Kenyon Attitude Scale? 3. Do differences exist in attitudes toward physical activity, based on the overall attitude measure, among foreign students grouped according to their gender, age, academic achievement, marital status, place of residence, educational level, previous participation in physical activities, present participation in physical activities, and length of stay in the United States? In this chapter, the results of the data analysis are reported in four sections. The first sections contains the personal 47 48 characteristics of the respondents. In the second section, the foreign students’ overall attitudes toward physical activity are discussed. Section three contains the rank orders of male and female foreign students’ attitudes toward the six dimensions of physical activity. The fourth section is concerned with the differences in attitudes toward physical activity among foreign students grouped according to their background variables (nine hypotheses). Characteristics ef Beepgndehte The first part of the questionnaire contained nine questions designed to obtain demographic information about the respondents. As shown in Table 4.1, of the 184 students who responded to the questionnaire, 109 (59.2%) were male and 75 (40.8%) were female. Table 4.1.--Distribution of respondents by gender. Gender Frequency Percent Male 109 59.2 Female 75 40.8 Total 184 100.0 Table 4.2 shows the distribution of respondents by age. The table reveals that 3 (1.6%) of the respondents were 18 years or less, 21 (11.4%) were between 19 and 21 years, 42 (22.8%) were between 22 and 24, 42 (22.8%) were between 25 and 27, 31 (16.8%) were between 28 and 30, 25 (13.6%) were between 31 and 33, 10 (5.4%) were between 34 49 and 36, 7 (3.8%) were between 37 and 39, and 3 (1.6%) were 40 years or above. Table 4.2.--Distribution of respondents by age. Age (in Years) Frequency Percent 18 or less 3 1.6 19-21 21 11.4 22-24 42 22.8 25-27 42 22.8 28-30 31 16.8 31-33 25 13.6 34-36 10 5.4 37-39 7 3.8 40 and above 3 1.6 Total 184 100.0 With regard to academic achievement, 7 (3.8%) respondents achieved a grade point average between 2.0 and 2.449, 8 (4.3%) achieved between 2.5 and 2.749, 28 (15.2%) had between 2.75 and 2.999, 67 (36.4%) had between 3.0 and 3.449, 49 (26.6%) achieved between 3.5 and 3.749, and 25 (13.6%) achieved between 3.75 and 4.00. (See Table 4.3.) Table 4.4 shows the marital status of the respondents. One hundred four (56.5%) of the respondents were single, and 80 (43.5%) were married. 50 Table 4.3.--Distribution of respondents by academic achievement. Academic Achievement (Grade Point Average) Frequency Percent 2.00-2 449 7 3.8 2.50-2 749 8 4.3 2.75-2 999 28 15.2 3.00-3 449 67 36.4 3.50-3.749 49 26.6 3.75-4.00 25 13.6 Total 184 100.0 Table 4.4.--Distribution of respondents by marital status. Marital Status Frequency Percent Single 104 56.5 Married 80 43.5 Total 184 100.0 The respondents’ place of residence is shown in Table 4.5. Ninety-nine (53.8%) of the students lived on campus, and 85 (46.2%) lived off campus. Table 4.5.--Distribution of respondents by place of residence. Place of Residence Frequency Percent On campus 99 53.8 Off campus 85 46.2 Total 184 100.0 51 Table 4.6 shows the distribution of respondents by levels of education. The table reveals that 112 (60.9%) of the study participants were undergraduates, and 72 (39.1%) were graduate students. Table 4.6.--Distribution of respondents by level of education. Level of Education Frequency Percent Undergraduate 72 39.1 Graduate 112 60.9 Total 184 100.0 Regarding previous participation in high school physical activities programs, most of the students (127 or 69%) had participated; 57 (31%) had not participated in such programs. (See Table 4.7.) Table 4.7.--Distribution of respondents by previous participation in high school physical activities programs. Previous Participation Frequency Percent No 57 31.0 Yes 127 69.0 Total 184 100.0 52 Table 4.8 shows the distribution of respondents according to their present participation in physical activities programs at Michigan State University. One hundred (54.3%) students did not participate, whereas 84 (45.7%) did participate. Table 4.8.--Distribution of respondents by current participation in physical activities programs. Current Participation Frequency Percent No 100 54.3 Yes 84 45.7 Total 184 100.0 The distribution of respondents by length of stay in the United States is shown in Table 4.9. This table shows that 14 (7.6%) students had been in the United States 6 months or less, 15 (8.2%) had been here 7 to 12 months, 15 (8.2%) had been here 13 to 18 months, 18 (9.8%) had been in the United States 19 to 24 months, 15 (8.2%) had been here 25 to 30 months, 41 (22.3%) had been here 31 to 36 months, 29 (15.8%) had been here 37 to 42 months, 14 (7.6%) had been here 43 to 48 months, and 23 (12.5%) students had been in the United States 49 or more months. 53 Table 4.9.--Distribution of respondents by length of stay in the United States. Length of Stay (in Months) Frequency Percent 6 or less 14 7.6 - 7-12 15 8.2 13-18 15 8.2 19-24 18 9.8 25-30 15 8.2 31-36 41 22.3 37-42 29 15.8 43-48 14 7.6 49 or more 23 12.5 Total 184 100.0 Foreign Studente’ Overall Attitudee [ewerg Ph sica A ivit Re ar uestio : What is the attitude of foreign students toward physical activity? Mean scores were used to measure foreign students’ overall attitude toward physical activity, as well as their attitude toward each dimension of physical activity. As shown in Table 4.10, students had a neutral overall attitude toward physical activity and five of its dimensions (health and fitness, pursuit of vertigo, aesthetic experience, catharsis, and ascetic experience). Students had a positive attitude toward the social experience dimension of physical activity. 54 Table 4.10.--Attitudes of foreign students toward physical activity (N - 184). Dimension Mean 5.0. Social experience 4.51 0.61 Health and fitness 4.34 0.57 Pursuit of vertigo 4.10 0.87 Aesthetic experience 4.47 0.69 Catharsis 4.35 0.71 Ascetic experience 4.04 0.81 Overall (total) 4.30 0.71 Key: 1.00-2.49 - Strong negative attitude /, 2.50-3.49 - Negative attitude .x’ 3.50-4.49 - Neutral attitude 4.50-5.49 - Positive attitude 5.50-7.00 - Strong positive attitude Rank Or er f Mal nd male r n ud n ’ A Toward th i imensions 1 vi Research Question 2: What is the rank order of male and female foreign students’ attitudes toward the six dimensions of physical activity measured by the Kenyon Attitude Scale? Means and standard deviations were used to show the order in which male and female students ranked the six dimensions of physical activity, from most to least positive. A comparison of the rank orders of respondents’ attitudes toward physical activity is shown in Table 4.11. Male students ranked the six dimensions of attitudes toward physical activity from most positive to least positive as follows: (1) social experience, (2) aesthetic experience, (3) catharsis, (4) health and fitness, (5) pursuit of vertigo, and (6) ascetic experience. Female students ranked the dimensions almost 55 identically to males, except they gave a higher rank to health and fitness than to catharsis. Table 4.11.--Comparison of rank orders of students’ attitudes toward the six dimensions of physical activity. Males Females Dimension Mean S.D. Dimension Mean S.D. Social experience 4.63 0.56 Social experience 4.33 0.69 Aesthetic experience 4.59 0.57 Aesthetic experience 4.30 0.86 Catharsis 4.56 0.65 Health and fitness 4.09 0.52 Health and fitness 4.52 0.60 Catharsis 4.04 0.79 Pursuit of vertigo 4.36 0.89 Pursuit of vertigo 3.73 0.85 Ascetic experience 4.35 0.88 Ascetic experience 3.59 0.70 Key: l.00-2.49 - Strong negative attitude 2.50-3.49 - Negative attitude 3.50-4.49 - Neutral attitude 4.50-5.49 - Positive attitude 5.50-7.00 - Strong positive attitude R s lts f th i Res arch uest o : Do differences exist in attitudes toward physical activity, based on the overall attitude measure, among foreign students grouped according to their gender, age, academic achievement, marital status, place of residence, educational level, previous participation in physical activities, present participation in physical activities, and length of stay in the United States? Nine hypotheses were constructed to answer this research question. The results of the hypothesis testing are discussed in the following pages. 56 hypethesjs |: Male students have more positive attitudes toward physical activities than do female students. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to test whether the means of the six dimensions and the overall measure of attitudes toward physical activities differed according to the gender of the respondent. The MANOVA and ANOVA results are shown in Table 4.12. Table 4.12.--MANOVA and ANOVA results for gender effects. Analysis E-Value p-Value MANOVA 7.69 .000** ANOVA 10.73 .001** Social experience 10.73 .001** Health and fitness 25.32 .000** Pursuit of vertigo 22.97 .000** Aesthetic experience 7.40 .007* As catharsis 24.55 .000** As ascetic experience 39.32 .000** Overall (total) 42.01 .000** **Significant at the .001 level. *Significant at the .01 level. The MANOVA and ANOVA results indicated that there were differences in the means on the six attitudinal dimensions and the overall attitude measure between male and female students. Table 4.13.) (See 57 Table 4.13.--Ma1e and female students’ means on the six attitudinal dimensions and the overall measure of attitude. Males Females Dimension Mean 5.0. Mean S.D. Social experience 4.63 0.56 4.33 0.69 Health and fitness 4.52 0.60 4.09 0.52 Pursuit of vertigo 4.36 0.89 3.73 0.85 Aesthetic experience 4.59 0.57 4.30 0.86 As catharsis 4.56 0.65 4.04 0.79 As an ascetic experience 4.35 0.88 3.59 0.70 Overall 4.50 0.54 4.02 0.43 Male students had more positive attitudes than female students on the following measures: social experience (male - 4.63, female - 4.33), health and fitness (male - 4.52, female - 4.09), pursuit of vertigo (male - 4.36, female . 3.73), aesthetic experience (male = 4.59, female - 4.30), as catharsis (male . 4.56, female - 4.04), as an ascetic experience (male - 4.35, female - 3.59), and overall attitude (male - 4.50, female - 4.02). hypothesis 2: Younger students have more positive attitudes toward physical activities than do older students. To obtain a reasonable sample size for each group, the age categories were collapsed into three groups: 24 years or less, 25-33 years, and 34 years or more. One-way ANOVA was used to test whether means on the overall measure of attitudes toward physical activities differed according to the age of respondents. The results are shown in Table 4.14. No significant difference was found among students in 58 the three age groups regarding their attitudes toward physical activities. Table 4.14.--0ne-way ANOVA results for age effects. Age h Mean 5.0. E p 24 or less 66 4.34 0.59 25-33 98 4.27 0.54 .38 .68 34 or more 20 4.33 0.49 Hypothesis 3: Students with high grade point averages have more positive attitudes toward physical activities than do students with low grade point averages. To obtain a reasonable sample size for each group, the categories for academic achievement were reduced to three groups: less than 3.0 GPA, 3.0-3.449 GPA, and 3.5 GPA or above. One-way ANOVA was used to test whether the overall means of attitudes toward physical activities differed according to the academic achievement of the respondents. The results are shown in Table 4.15. No significant difference was found among students with different grade point averages regarding their attitudes toward physical activity. Hypothesis 4: Single students have more positive attitudes toward physical activities than do married students. One-way ANOVA was used to test whether the overall means of attitudes toward physical activities differed according to the respondents’ marital status. The results are shown in Table 4.16. No significant difference was found between single and married students regarding their attitudes toward physical activities. 59 Table 4.15.--0ne-way ANOVA results for academic-achievement effects. Grade Point Average h Mean 5.0. E p Less than 3.0 43 4.33 0.54 3.0-3.449 67 4.40 0.54 2.36 .10 3.5 or above 74 4.20 0.55 Table 4.16.--One-way ANOVA results for marital-status effects. Marital Status h Mean S.D. E p Single 104 4.35 0.59 Married so 4.25 0.50 1-50 -22 Hypothesis 5: On-campus residents have more positive attitudes toward physical activities than do off-campus residents. One-way ANOVA was used to test whether the overall means of attitudes toward physical activities differed according to the respondents’ place of residence. The results are shown in Table 4.17. No significant difference was found between on-campus and off- campus students regarding their attitudes toward physical activity. Hypgthesis E: Undergraduate students have more positive atti- tudes toward physical activities than do graduate students. One-way ANOVA was used to test whether the overall means of attitudes toward physical activities differed significantly according to the respondents’ level of education. The results are shown in Table 4.18. No significant difference was found between 6O undergraduate and graduate students regarding their attitudes toward physical activity. Table 4.17.--One-way ANOVA results for place-of-residence effects. Place of Residence 9 Mean 5.0. E p On campus 99 4.32 0.59 23 63 Off campus 85 4.28 0.51 ° ‘ Table 4.18.--One-way ANOVA results for level-of-education effects. Level of Education h Mean S.D. E p Undergraduate 72 4.33 0.59 Graduate 112 4.29 0.53 -32 ~57 Hypothesis 2: Students who have previously participated in physical activities have more positive attitudes toward physical activities than do those who have not participated in such activities. One-way ANOVA was used to test whether the overall means of attitudes toward physical activities differed significantly according to the respondents’ previous participation in such activities. The results are shown in Table 4.19. No significant difference was found between students with and those without previous participation in physical activities regarding their attitudes toward such activities. 61 Table 4.19.--0ne-way ANOVA results for previous-participation effects. Previous Participation h Mean 5.0. E p Did not participate 57 4.25 0.58 81 37 Participated 127 4.33 0.54 ' ° Hypothesjs 8: Students who are currently participating in physical activities have more positive attitudes toward physical activities than do those who are not participating in such activities. One-way ANOVA was used to test whether the overall means of attitudes toward physical activities differed significantly according to the respondents’ present participation in physical activities. The results are shown in Table 4.20. Students with present participation in physical activities (mean - 4.45) had significantly more positive attitudes toward physical activities than did students with no participation in physical activities (mean - 4.18). Table 4.20.--One-way ANOVA results for present-participation effects. Present Participation h Mean 5.0. E p Did not participate 100 4.18 0.55 Participated 84 4.45 0.52 12.27 ~°°‘* *Significant at the .001 level. 62 Hyppthesjs 2: Students who have been in the United States a longer period of time have more positive attitudes toward physical activities than do those who have not been in the United States as long. To obtain a reasonable sample size for each group, the categories for length of stay were reduced to three groups: 18 months or less, 19 to 36 months, and 37 months or more. One-way ANOVA was used to test whether the overall means of attitudes toward physical activities differed according to respondents’ length of stay in the United States. The results are shown in Table 4.21. Students who had been in the United States 37 months or more (mean - 4.41) had significantly more positive attitudes toward physical activities than did students who had been in the United States 18 months or less or 19 to 36 months (means - 4.08 and 4.34, respectively). Table 4.21.--One-way ANOVA results for length-of-stay effects. Length of Stay h Mean S.D. E p 18 months or less 44 4.08 0.52 19-36 months 74 4.34 0.51 5.14 .007* 37 months or more 66 4.41 0.58 *Significant at the .01 level. Sumarx The results of the data analyses were discussed in this chapter. First, demographic characteristics of the respondents were presented. Then the research questions posed in the study were answered. The 63 results of the hypotheses tests for the third research question were also presented in tabular and narrative form. The study findings and conclusions based on those findings are contained in Chapter V. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.0mm The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between attitudes toward physical activity and selected background variables of foreign students at Michigan State University. More specifically, the study was designed to answer the following research questions: 1. What is the attitude of foreign students toward physical activity? 2. What is the rank order of male and female foreign students’ attitudes toward the six dimensions of physical activity measured by the Kenyon Attitude Scale? 3. Do differences exist in attitudes toward physical activity, based on the overall attitude measure, among foreign students grouped according to their gender, age, academic achievement, marital status, place of’ residence, educational level, previous participation in physical activities, present participation in physical activities, and length of stay in the United States? Study Popgletiph and Sample The target population from which the sample was drawn comprised all 2,012 foreign students who were enrolled at Michigan State 64 65 University Winter Term 1987. Stratified random sampling was used to obtain a representative sample of foreign students. The target population was divided into the following eight strata. The number of students drawn from each stratum is shown in parentheses. l. Undergraduate males off-campus (h - 50) Undergraduate males on-campus (h - 50) Undergraduate females off-campus (h = 50) Undergraduate females on-campus (h - 50) Graduate males off-campus (h - 50) Graduate males on-campus (h - 50) NGU‘I-FIWN Graduate females off-campus (h - 50) 8. Graduate females on-campus (h - 50) According to the eight strata, the potential sample size for this study was 400 foreign students. Of that number, 184 responded to the survey, a 47% response rate. Cheracteristies pf Respondents 0f the 184 students who responded to the survey, 59.2% were male and 40.8% were female. In terms of age, 1.6% were 18 years or younger, 11.4% were 19 to 21 years old, 22.8% were 22 to 24, 22.8% were 25 to 27, 16.8% were 28 to 30, 13.6% were 31 to 33, 5.4%»were 34 to 36, 3.8% were 37 to 39, and 1.6% were 40 years or above. With respect to academic achievement, 3.8% had a grade point average between 2.00 and 2.449, 4.3% between 2.50 and 2.749, 15.2% between 2.75 and 2.999, 36.4% between 3.00 and 3.449, 26.6% between 66 3.50 and 3.749, and 13.6% between 3.75 and 4.00. Regarding their marital status, 56.5% of the respondents were single and 43.5% were married. Concerning place of residence, 53.8% of the participants lived on campus and 46.2% lived off campus. Respondents’ levels of education were as follows: 60.9% were graduate students and 39.1% were undergraduate students. Sixty-nine percent of the participants had participated in high school physical activity programs and 31% had not participated. In terms of present participation in physical activity, 54.3% of the respondents were participating, but 45.7% were not participating. Concerning their length of stay in the United States, 7.6% of the respondents had been in the United States for 6 months or less, 8.2% for 7 to 12 months, 8.2% for 13 to 18 months, 9.8% for 19 to 24 months, 8.2% for 25 to 30 months, 22.3% for 31 to 36 months, 15.8% for 37 to 42 months, 7.6% for 43 to 48 months, and 12.5% for 49 months or more. Hethogelmx A two-part research questionnaire, the Kenyon Attitude Toward Physical Activity Inventory (ATPA), was used to determine the foreign students’ attitudes toward six dimensions of physical activity: physical activity (a) as a social experience, (0) 'for health and fitness, (c) as pursuit of vertigo, (d) as an aesthetic experience, (e) as catharsis, and (f) as an ascetic experience. ’6'. -AA -7 67 Frequency distribution and percentage were used to report the respondents’ personal characteristics. Descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) were used to answer Research Questions 1 and 2. For* the third question, multivariate analysis of' variance (MANOVA) was used to test for significant differences in attitudes toward physical activity between male and female foreign students. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test for statistically significant differences on the total measure of attitude toward physical activity among foreign students grouped according to their gender, age, academic achievement, marital status, place of residence, educational level, previous participation in physical activities, present participation in physical activities, and length of stay in the United States. Mejor Findings The major findings for each of the research questions are discussed in the following paragraphs. Research Question 1: What is the attitude of foreign students toward physical activity? The foreign students had a neutral overall attitude toward physical activity and five of its six dimensions (physical activity for health and fitness, physical activity as the pursuit of vertigo, physical activity as an aesthetic experience, physical activity as catharsis, and physical activity as an ascetic experience). On the social experience dimension, they showed a positive attitude. Mequi (1970) found that students who demonstrated an extremely positive attitude toward physical activity generally (a) came from 68 families who were active in and encouraged participation in sports, (b) had best friends who were interested in and participated in sports, (c) tended to be successful in the sports and physical education experience, and (d) maintained a continuing participation in physical activities from the elementary to the college level. In looking at the foreign students’ responses to questions similar to (c) and (d) above, and by adding the effect of parents, siblings, and friends (”1 a person’s attitude toward physical activity (Heckers, 1978), one can understand why foreign students might not have higher overall positive attitudes toward physical activity. Mazaroff (1975) supported the results concerning this question in another way. His study findings indicated that there were differences in attitude due to ethnicity, which was a great factor in this study. In contrast to Mazaroff’s findings, Hayes (1977) reported no differences in attitude due to ethnicity. Reseerch Question 2: What is the rank order of male and female foreign students’ attitudes toward the six dimensions of physical activity measured by the Kenyon Attitude Scale? Male and female foreign students ranked the six dimensions of physical activity from most positive to least positive as shown in Table 5.1. Female students ranked the dimensions almost identically to males, except they gave a higher rank to health and fitness than to catharsis. 69 Table 5.1.--Males’ and females’ rankings of the six dimensions of physical activity. Males Females Social experience Social experience Aesthetic experience Aesthetic experience Catharsis Health and fitness Health and fitness Catharsis Pursuit of vertigo Pursuit of vertigo Ascetic experience Ascetic experience Beseereh Question 3: Do differences exist in attitudes toward physical activity, based on the overall attitude measure, among foreign students grouped according to their gender, age, academic achievement, marital status, place of residence, educational level, previous participation in physical activities, present participation in physical activities, and length of stay in the United States? Gender Males had a significantly more positive attitude toward physical activity than did females on all the six dimensions of physical activity: (a) physical activity as social experience, (b) physical activity for health and fitness, (c) physical activity as the pursuit of vertigo, (d) physical activity as an aesthetic experience, (e) physical activity as catharsis, and (f) physical activity as an ascetic experience. Similar results were found by Mullins (1969). However, Kenyon (1968), Cunningham (1970), and Alderman (1970) found that both males and females had similar attitudes toward physical activity. 70 Ag: No significant difference was found among students in the three age groups regarding their attitudes toward physical activities. In contrast, Campbell (1969) and Loy (1975) found that attitude toward physical activities was a function of age. Aeademic Aehievemeht No significant difference was found among students with different grade points averages regarding their attitudes toward physical activities. Dotson and Stanley (1972) had a similar result in their study. Marital States No significant difference was found between single and married students concerning their attitudes toward physical activities. Contrary results were found by Williamson (1954) and Unkel (1981), whose studies indicated that single students tended to participate more than did married students because single students had more time and freedom than those who were married. Place of Hesidehee No significant difference was found between on-campus and off- campus residents regarding their: attitudes toward physical activities. This result was refuted by Palm (1980) and Ryan (1970). They reported that on-campus students developed more and different behaviors and skills than did off-campus students. Also, Kapp 71 (1979) and Drasgow (1958) concluded that living off campus was a reason for little or no participation in activities. du n 1 No significant difference was found between undergraduate and graduate students concerning their attitudes toward physical activities. Contrary to this finding, Loy (1975) reported that attitude toward physical activities was a function of level of educational attainment. Previous Participation ih Physical Activities No significant difference was found between students with and those without previous participation 'hi physical activities, regarding their attitudes toward such activities. In contrast, Hendry (1976) found that students with previous participation held more favorable attitudes toward physical activities than those who had not participated in such activities. WW Ehysieel Aetiyities The findings indicated that students who were presently participating in physical activities had significantly more positive attitudes toward such activities than did students who were not participating in physical activities. Similar findings emerged in studies by Hendry (1975, 1976), Coults (1973), and Simpson (1969). Coults (1973) found a positive and statistically significant 72 correlation between present participation and attitude toward each of the six dimensions of physical activity. LEW The findings revealed that students who had been in the United States a longer period of time had significantly more positive attitudes toward physical activities than did students who had been here a shorter time. The researcher found no literature concerning the relationship of length of stay in the United States to attitudes toward physical activities. Hence, the researcher surmised that students who had been in the United States a longer time had had more exposure to the American society and culture, in which physical activities are highly valued. Conclusions According to the research questions and hypotheses tested in this study, and based on the main empirical findings, the researcher drew the following conclusions: 1. Foreign students at Michigan State University had a posi- tive attitude toward the social experience dimension of physical activity, and they had a neutral overall attitude toward the other five dimensions of physical activity (health and fitness, pursuit of vertigo, aesthetic experience, catharsis, and ascetic experience). 2. Males ranked the six dimensions of attitudes toward physi- cal activity from most to least positive as follows: (a) social experience, (b) aesthetic experience, (c) catharsis, (d) health and fitness, (e) pursuit of vertigo, and (f) ascetic experience. 73 Females ranked the dimensions almost identically to males, except they gave a higher rank to health and fitness than to catharsis. 3. Males had a more positive attitude toward physical activity than did females on the following measures: social experience, health and fitness, pursuit of vertigo, aesthetic experience, catharsis, ascetic experience, and the overall attitude. 4. No significant difference was found between younger and older foreign students in their measured attitudes toward physical activity. 5. No significant difference was found among foreign students with different grade point averages regarding their measured attitudes toward physical activity. 6. No significant difference was found between single and mar- ried students regarding their measured attitudes toward physical activity. 7. No significant difference was found between on-campus and off-campus foreign students regarding their measured attitudes toward physical activity. 8. No significant difference was found between undergraduate and graduate foreign students regarding their measured attitudes toward physical activity. 9. No significant difference was found between foreign stu- dents with and those without previous participation in physical activities regarding their measured attitudes toward such activities. 74 10. Foreign students with present participation in physical activities had significantly more positive attitudes toward physical activity than did students with no participation in such activities. 11. Foreign students who had been in the United States longer had significantly more positive attitudes toward physical activity than did students who had been in the United States a shorter time. Winn; Fe; Ehpgrem Implementetiph Within the limitations of this study and on the basis of the findings and conclusions, the researcher offers the following recom- mendations and/or suggestions for program implementation: 1. Foreign students had a neutral overall attitude toward physical activity. Therefore, an orientation tour for new students is recommended to acquaint them with physical facilities and intra- mural programs of the university. 2. Both male and female foreign students rated the social experience dimension of physical activity as first in importance. Hence, program planners may consider this finding and present more physical activities in the form of social gatherings. 3. Female foreign students had less positive attitudes toward physical activity than did male students. This difference may be due in part to the females’ background (culture, religion, and/or lack of previous or present participation). Therefore, special attention should be given to providing various activities at diverse times to stimulate female students’ attention. 75 4. The American society highly values sports, but the case seems to be different for foreign students. Thus, it might be useful if faculty members, administrators, the International Student Association, and students’ own regional associations (Asian Student Association, African Student Association, and so on) encouraged them to participate in sports. 5. Foreign students who have lived in the United States for a longer time might be encouraged to stimulate their peers to partici- pate in physical activities. F r F r r R earch As a result of this investigation, the following recommendations are made for further research: 1. A similar study should be conducted, using a larger sample and encompassing more than one university in the United States. 2. A longitudinal study should be conducted, starting upon foreign students’ arrival in the United States, to discover whether attitudes toward physical activity change based on students’ geographical areas and their majors. 3. A study should be undertaken, comparing foreign and Ameri- can students’ attitudes toward physical activity. 4. A more extensive social analysis approach should be used to investigate differences in attitudes toward physical activity, adding important variables like ethnicity, socioeconomic level, and religion. APPENDICES APPENDIX A CORRESPONDENCE 76 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE (”EDUCATION 0 SCHOOL OFI'IIAIJ'I'I EDUCATION. ”LANSING 0 IIOIIGAN 0 0024-1025 COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY 480]“!me 0 WWW January 27, 1987 Dr. David Horner Office for International Students and Scholars ' 109 International Center CAMPUS Dear Dr. Hornet, Mr. Ali Saad Alghamdi is an advisee of mine and is working on a research project that entails the use of a population of foreign students to answer questions concerning their attitudes toward physical activities. We have informed the committee, UCRIHS and have received their approval for the project. Mr. Alghamdi is requesting the use of your list of foreign students on campus for his study group. He will only use this list in order to obtain the type of information that he needs for his study. I sincerely hope that you can accommodate his study needs. If you have any further questions, please feel free to call me. Sincerely yours, MIA/fig?” Herbert W. Olson Administrative Coordinator HWO/nlb mus-wwwmm 77 SilLHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY a mum at FJNKAWDN . scum». no "harm aluminum. um IANMM. - IILIIIUAN . ixxzi um «minim-um. nvumwov AND HUMAN Hsmunnct . "\Nm FIFmHOUSF. January 20, 1987 Dr. Henry Bredeck 238 Administration Building CAMPUS Dear Dr. Bredeck: Mr. Ali Saad Alghamdi requested that as his advisor that I write a letter concerning a project that he is designing which will entail awe of human subjects as a population to be studied. He is using a questionnaire tech- nique and it is designed to obtain information concerning the attitudes of a group of foreign students toward physical activity here on campus. There is nothing detrimental that would affect these human subjects and the answers will be kept anonymous. The questionnaires will be destroyed after obtaining the date. Mr. Ali Saad Alghamdi will have a questionnaire for you and the committee to peruse. Thank you for your assistance in this matter. Sincerely yours, as Herbert W. Olson Administrative Coordinator HWO/nlb USU in as w Adios/Equal Wendy Insomn- 78 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY OMCIOFWCEPIESI'DENTFOIIESEAICH EAS‘TMNSING'IIOIIGANOdmd-IO“ ANDDEANOFTHIGIADUATESCHOOI. January 22, 1987 Mr. Ali Saad Alghamdi Health Education. Counseling Psychology 8 Human Performance Dear Mr. Alghamdi: Subject: PrOposal Entitled, "A Study of the Relationship Between the Attitude Towards Physical Activities and Background Variables of Foreign Students at Michigan State University" I am pleased to advise that I concur with your evaluation that this project is exempt from full UCRIHS review, and approval is herewith granted for conduct of the project. You are reminded that UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year. If you plan to continue this project beyond one year, please make provisions for obtaining appropriate UCRIHS approval prior to January 22, 1988. Any changes in procedures involving human subjects must be reviewed by the UCRIHS prior to initiation of the change. UCRIFS must also be notified promptly of any problems (unexpected side effects, complaints, etc.) involving human subjects during the course of the work. Thank you for bringing this project to my attention. If I can be of any future help. please do not hesitate to let me know. Sincerely, Henry E. Bredeck, Ph.D. Chairman, UCRIHS HEB/jms cc: Dr. Herbert H. Olson ISLVi-MMWWWMuM 79 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY couxc: o: tot‘canos . scuoom or HEALTH totcmox. us: Lewis . memo.“ . «tau-Ion corsssus'c PSYCHOLOGY asp "was momma . yams ntumm st February 16, 1987 Mr. Lee Rowe 224 Administration Building Office of the Registrar CAMPUS Dear Mr. Rowe: This letter is to verify the use of account #21-2964 by Mr. Ali Alghamdi. He will be using this account under the supervision of myself and the School of Health Education, Counseling Psychology and Human Performance. If you have any further questions, please feel free to contact me. Sincerely, f/zgl/L. 2? v' J . a/{- [/t—{‘)-' Herbert W. Olson Administrative Coordinator HVO/nlb NSL'II - Alla-am: Adm- fqul Opp-clam" Issue-Im- TO: FROM: DATE: RE: 80 HERO Rex Kerr Data Processing Registration Office Ali S. Alghamdi P.O. Box 23162 Lansing, MI 48909 887-2366 January 30, 1987 Sample Population for Physical Education Study As we discussed on the phone yesterday, I am conducting a study of the relationship between the attitude toward physical activities and background variables of foreign students at Michigan State University. In order to complete my study, I need a sampling of foreign students. I intend to mail the questionnaire, so mailing labels would be ideal. I have enclosed a figure that describes my sample. I would like to sample 40 students in each of the eight categories listed on the figure. It is important that the names are separated by sex as this is one of the variables I will be testing. My local address and phone number are listed above, and I would appreciate your sending the 320 labels to me. My account number is . I very much appreciate your help in this matter, and look forward to hearing from you soon. If you have any questions, please do not hesitate to contact me. 81 RE: ATPA Scales In response to your recent request, enclosed you will find information regarding both Linkert and Semantic Differential Scales. This includes references for further reading as well as scoring information. The study, Values Held for Physical Activity by Selected Urban Secondary School Students in Canada, Australia, England and the United States, is available from: ERIC Document Reproduction Service P.O. Box 190 Arlington, Virginia 22210 It is necessary to quote the accession number ED 019709 when ordering. Prices are: Microfiche $ .65 (sixty-five cents) Hard Capy $13.16 (thirteen dollars and sixteen cents) You have my permission to use the materials with one proviso. In return for providing assistance, we have a policy of asking users upon completion of the study to supply us with a report of the findings and a capy of the data used. The data should be on magnetic tape along with the code book or technical information necessary for their use. Since we are building an information and data bank based upon attitude scales, we gratefully anticipate your contribution. The attached bibliography contains materials up to 1981. Consult SIRLS (An Information Retrieval System for Sociology of Leisure and Sport) at the University of Waterloo for full text of items listed, plus information on reports appearing since 1981. Sincerely, Gerald S. Kenyon Vice-President, Academic MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY usr umsw; . seems»: . mums International Studies and Programs on“ a bonnet-coal Studma‘snd Scholars 82 m rm 15m 1531720 w 1.1.. 650 277 am MCI 10! Come! Io! kuemationsl Pregame Algeria Argentina Australia Bangladesh Barbados Belgium Bolivia Botswana Brazil Br. Uest Indies Burkina Faso Burma Burundi Cameroon Canada Chile China (PRC) Colombia Cyprus Denmark Dominican Rep. Ecuador Esypt El Salvador Ethiopia Fiji Finland France Germany (Uest) Ghana Greece Guateaala Guinea Guyana Haiti "INTER TERH 1987 POREICN STUDENTS BI COUNTRY (Official count as of January 13, 1987) .7 : Honduras 2 lorwsy 4 Hong Kong 54 Pakistan 4 : Iceland 1 Panama ,6 India 90 Peru 1 Indonesia 36 Philippines 5 Iran 33 poland 3 Iraq 15 Portugal 2 Ireland 3 Saudi Arabia 23 Israel 3 Senegal 3 Italy 5 Singapore 3 Ivory Coast 3 Somalia 2 Jamaica 2 South Africa 1 Japan 83 Spain 2 Jordan 32 Sri Lanka 73 Kenya 13 Sudan 5 Korea (South) 278 Surinam 17} Kuwait 1} Sweden 13 Lebanon 17 Switzerland 17 Liberia 2 Syria 1 Libya 1 Taiwan 9 Hacau 3 Tanzania 5 Malawi 3 Thailand 37 Halaysia 72 Trinidad 8 Tobago 3 _ Hall 3 Tunisia . 24 Hezico 15 Turkey 2 Horocco 4 Uganda 1 floss-bique 1 United Arab Emir. 11 laaibia 1 United Kingdom 13 lapel 2 Uruguay 8 letharlands 4 Venezuela 20 Iatherlands Antil. 1 Teaen 5 lea lealand 2 Tugoslavia 1 licaragua 3 zaire 3 liger 2 zaabia 3 ‘ ligeria 36 Tisbabwe TOTALS: Students 2012 Countries 105 “is-“Wild”..- N O N ‘OUAONL AMONG“ 4U N muumm N .a Viv-5U“ #UI-AUN J 83 Dear Colleague: I am a graduate student at Michigan State University, in the Department of Health Education, Counseling Psychology and Human Performance. As such, I am conducting a study of the relationship between the attitude toward physical activities and background variables of foreign students at Michigan State University. The attached questionnaire is designed to collect general background information about you and your attitude towani physical activities. I realize that your time is very valuable. Your contribution and response to this study is needed to complete my degree and would be very much appreciated. Would you please read the questionnaire carefully and respond to each item of the questionnaire objectively and precisely? Also, please send your completed questionnaire in the self-addressed, stamped envelope enclosed as expeditiously as possible. ‘Your participation is completely voluntary and there is no penalty for not participating. All replies will be kept in the utmost of confidentiality. Please do not write your name on the questionnaire. Thank you very much for your time and effort. Sincerely, Ali Saad Alghamdi P.O. Box 23162 Lansing, MI 48909 (517) 887-2366 APPENDIX B SURVEY INSTRUMENTS Female Questionnaire (F) Male Questionnaire (M) 84 QUESTIONNAIRE (P) PART ONE ck d Please answer each question by placing an (X) on the appropriate line. 1. Your Gender: 1. Male 2. Female 2. Your Age: 1. 18 years or less 6. 31 - 33 _____ 2. 19 - 21 _____ 7. 34 - 36 _____ 3. 22 - 24 ______8. 37 - 39 4. 25 - 27 9. 40 and over So 28 - 30 3. Academic achievement - your cumulative G.P.A. including Fall 1986. l. 999 or less 2a 2.00 - 2e449 3. 2.50 - 2.749 4. 2.75 - 2.999 5a 3.00 - 3e449 Go 3050 - 3e749 7. 3.75 - 4.00 4. Your marital status: 1. Single 2. Married 5. Your place of residence: 1. On-campus _____ 2. Off-campus 6. Your level of education at MSU: 1. Baccalaureate program 2. Master's program 3. Doctoral program 85 7. Did you participate in your high school physical activities program? 1. Yes 2. No 8. How often do you participate in physical activities at M08000? 1. Do not participate 2. Participate once a week 3. Participate two to three times per week 4. Participate four to five times per week 5. Participate six or more times per week 9. How long have you been in the United States? 1. Six months or less 2. 7 - 12 months 3. l3 - 18 months 4. 19 - 24 months 5. 25 - 30 months 6. 31 - 36 months 7. 37 - 42 months 8. 43 - 48 months 9. 49 and more PART II duc Please read each statement and circle the answer that best expresses how you think or feel about the statement. There are no right or wrong answers because the best answer is your personal opinion. Many different and opposing points of view are presented. You may find yourself agreeing strongly with some of the statements and disagreeing just as strongly with others. Influences 1. Express your agreement or disagreement by circling the appropriate symbol at the right of each statement. The choices will be as follows: VSA - Very Strongly Agree D . Disagree SA - Strongly Agree SD = Strongly Disagree A 8 Agree VSD a Very Strongly Disagree U - Undecided 86 For example, the person answering the following question very strongly agreed with the statement. Freedom is an important issue SA A U D SD VSD in our life. ‘Do not spend too much time on any one statement; try to respond then go on to the next one. Respond to all statements. SLELQESDLS I would prefer quiet VSA SA A U D SD VSD activities like swimming or golf rather than such activities as water skiing or sailboat racing. I would gladly put up with the VSA SA A U D SD VSD necessary hard training for the chance to try out for my country Women's Olympic Team. The most important value of VSA SA A U D SD VSD physical activity is the beauty found in skilled movement. Physical education programs VSA SA A U D SD VSD should stress vigorous exercise since it contributes most to physical fitness. The years of strenuous daily VSA SA A U D SD VSD training necessary to prepare for today's international competition is asking a lot of today's young women. The need for much higher VSA SA A U D SD VSD levels of physical fitness has been established beyond all doubt. Among the best physical VSA SA A U D SD VSD activities are those which represent a personal challenge, such as skiing, mountain climbing, or heavy- weather sailing. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 87 Among the most desirable forms of physical activity are those which present the beauty of human movement such as water ballet. I would get by far the most satisfaction from games requiring long and careful preparation and involving stiff competition against a strong opposition. Of all physical activities, those whose purpose is primarily to develop physical fitness would not be my first choice. The best way to become more socially desirable is to participate in group physical activities. Almost the only satisfactory way to relieve severe emotional strain is through some form of physical activity. Frequent participation in dangerous sports and physical activities is all right for other people but ordinarily they are not for me. Physical education programs should place much more emphasis on the beauty found in human motion. If given a choice, I sometimes would choose strenuous rather than light physical activity. There are better ways of relieving the pressures of today's living than having to engage in or watch physical activity. I like to engage in socially oriented physical activities. VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SD SD SD SD SD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 88 A part of our daily lives must be committed to vigorous exercise. I am not particularly inter- ested 1J1 those physical activities whose sole purpose is to depict human motion as something beautiful. Colleges should sponsor many more physical activities of a social nature. For a healthy mind in a healthy body the only place to begin is through participation 1J1 sports and physical activities every day. The least desirable physical activities are those providing a sense of danger and risk of injury, such as skiing on steep slopes, mountain climbing, or parachute jumping. Being physically fit is not the most important goal in my life. A sport is sometimes spoiled if allowed to become too highly organized and keenly competitive. I enjoy sports mostly because they give me a chance to meet new people. Practically the only way to relieve frustrations and pent- up emotions is through some form of physical activity. The time spent doing daily calisthenics could probably be used more profitably in other ways. VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SD SD SD SD SD SD SD SD SD SD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 89 Given a choice, I would prefer motorboat racing or running rapids in a canoe rather than one of the quieter forms of boating. Of all the kinds of physical activities, I don't particu- larly care for those requiring a lot of socializing. One of the things I like most in sports is the great variety of ways human movement can be shown to be beautiful. Most intellectual activities are often just as refreshing as physical activities. Strength and physical stamina are the most important prerequisites to a full life. Physical activities that are purely for social purposes, like folk dances, are sometimes a waste of time. The self-denial and sacrifice needed for success in today's international competition may soon become too much to ask of a 13- or l4-year old. I am given unlimited pleasure when I see the form and beauty of human motion. I believe calisthenics are among the less desirable forms of physical activity. Watching athletes becoming completely absorbed in their sport nearly always provides me with a welcome escape from the many demands of present- day life. VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SD SD SD SD SD SD SD SD SD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 90 If I had to choose between “still-water" canoeing and “rapids" canoeing, “still- water'' canoeing would usually be my choice. There are better ways of getting to know people than through games and sports. People should spend 20 to 30 minutes a day doing vigorous calisthenics. There is sometimes an over- emphasis on those physical activities that attempt to portray human movement as an art form. Physical activities having an element of daring or requiring one to take chances are desirable. Since competition is a fundamental characteristic of American society, highly competitive athletics and games should be encouraged for all. A happy life does not require regular participation in physical activity. The best form of physical activity is when the body is used as an instrument of expression. Sports are fun to watch and to engage in, only if they are not taken too seriously, nor demand too much time and energy. Calisthenics taken regularly are among the best forms of exercise. VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SD SD SD SD SD SD SD SD SD SD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD 48. 49. SO. 51. 52. 53. 54. 91 I could spend many hours watching the graceful and well-coordinated movements of the figure skater or modern dancer. The best thing about games and sports is that they give people more confidence in social situations. Among the best forms of physical activity are those providing thrills such as sailing in heavy weather or canoeing on river rapids. Regular physical activity is the major prerequisite to a satisfying life. In this country there is sometimes too much emphasis on striving to be successful in sports. I would enjoy engaging in those games and sports that require a defiance of danger. Most people could live happy lives without depending on frequent watching or participating in physical games and exercise. VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SD SD SD SD SD SD SD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD Pie an rt 2. CI" 92 QUESTIONNAIRE (H) PART ONE Please answer each question by placing an (X) on the appropriate line. 1. Your Gender: 1. 2. LII-“CAIN“ e Male Female 18 years or less 6. 31 - 33 19 - 21 _____ 7. 34 - 36 22 - 24 ._____ 8. 37 - 39 25 - 27 _____ 9. 40 and over 28 - 30 3. Academic achievement - your cumulative G.P.A. including Fall 1986. ‘. '.' \IQMhWNI-l O 4. Your marital 1. 2. 999 or less 2.00 - 2.449 2.50 - 2.749 - 2.999 3.00 - 3.449 3.50 - 3.749 3.75 - 4.00 status: Single Married 5. Your place of residence: 2. l. On-campus Off-campus 6. Your level of education at MSU: 1. Baccalaureate program 2. Master's program 3. Doctoral program 93 7. Did you participate in your high school physical activities program? 1. Yes 2. No 8. How often do you participate in physical activities at M.S.U.? 1. Do not participate 2. Participate once a week 3. Participate two to three times per week 4. Participate four to five times per week 5. Participate six or more times per week 9. How long have you been in the United States? 1. Six months or less 2. 7 - 12 months _____ 3. 13 - 18 months _____ 4. l9 - 24 months _____ 5. 25 - 30 months _____ 6. 31 - 36 months 7. 37 - 42 months _____ 8. 43 - 48 months 9. 49 and more ram 11 Wise Please read each statement and circle the answer that best expresses how you think or feel about the statement. There are no right or wrong answers because the best answer is your personal opinion. Many different and opposing points of view are presented. YOu may find yourself agreeing strongly with some of the statements and disagreeing just as strongly with others. n u s 1. Express your agreement or disagreement by circling the appropriate symbol at the right of each statement. The choices will be as follows: VSA - Very Strongly Agree D a Disagree SA 8 Strongly Agree SD = Strongly Disagree A 8 Agree VSD = Very Strongly Disagree U 8 Undecided 2. 94 For example, the person answering the following question very strongly agreed with the statement. Freedom is an important issue SA A U D SD VSD in our life. Do not spend too much time on any one statement; try to respond then go on to the next one. Respond to all statements. W I would gladly put in the VSA SA A U D SD VSD necessary years of daily hard training for the chance to try out for my country's Olympic Team. I would prefer quiet VSA SA A U D SD VSD activities like swimming or tossing a ball around rather than such activities as automobile or speedboat racing. Among desirable forms of VSA SA A U D SD VSD physical activity are those that show the beauty and form of human movement, such as water ballet. I prefer those sports which VSA SA A U D SD VSD require very hard training and involve intense competition, such as interscholastic and intercollegiate athletics. A happy life does not require VSA SA A U D SD VSD regular participation in physical activity. The risk of injury would be VSA SA A U D SD VSD well worth it when you consider the thrills that come from engaging in such activities as mountain climbing and bobsledding. It is important that everyone VSA SA A U D SD VSD belong to at least one group that plays games together. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 95 Of all physical activities, those whose purpose is primarily to develop physical fitness would not be my first choice. Among the best physical activities are those which represent a personal challenge, such as skiing, mountain climbing, or heavy- weather sailing. I would get by far the most satisfaction from games requiring long and careful preparation and involving stiff competition against a strong opposition. The degree of beauty and grace of movement found in sports is sometimes less than claimed. Almost the only satisfactory way to relieve severe emotional strain is through some form of physical activity. I would usually choose strenuous physical activity over light physical activity, if given the choice. Physical education programs should place a little more emphasis on the beauty found in human motion. There are better ways of relieving the pressures of today's living than having to engage in or watch physical activity. Frequent participation in dangerous sports and physical activities is all right for other people but ordinarily they are not for me. VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SD SD SD SD SD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 96 I like to engage in socially oriented physical activities. A large part of our daily lives must be committed to vigorous exercise. I am not in the least interested in those physical activities whose sole purpose is to depict human motion as something beautiful. Colleges should sponsor many more physical activities of a social nature. Being strong and highly fit is not the most important thing in my life. The least desirable physical activities are those providing a sense of danger and risk of injury, such as skiing on steep slopes, mountain climbing, or parachute jumping. For a healthy mind in a healthy body the only place to begin is through participation in sports and physical activities every day. A sport is sometimes spoiled if allowed to become too highly organized and keenly competitive. The time spent doing daily calisthenics could probably be used more profitably in other ways. I enjoy sports mostly because they give me a chance to meet new people. VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SD SD SD SD SD SD SD SD SD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 97 Practically the only way to relieve frustrations and pent- up emotions is through some form of physical activity. Given a choice, I would prefer motorboat racing or running rapids in a canoe rather than one of the quieter forms of boating. Strength and physical stamina are the most important prerequisites to a full life. Of all the kinds of physical activities, I dislike the most those requiring a lot of socializing. The most enjoyable forms of physical activity are games and sports engaged in on the spur of the moment, rather than those requiring long periods of training. One of the things I like most in sports is the great variety of ways human movement can be shown to be beautiful. Most intellectual activities are often just as refreshing as physical activities. Physical activities that are purely for social purposes, like college dances, are sometimes a waste of time. I am given great pleasure when I see the form and beauty of human motion. I believe calisthenics are among the less desirable forms of physical activity. VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SD SD SD SD SD SD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. The self-denial and sacrifice needed for success in today's international competition may soon become too much to ask of a 13- or l4-year-old. People should spend 20 to 30 minutes a day doing vigorous calisthenics. Too much attention is paid to those physical activities that try to portray human movement as an art form. Sports are fun to watch and to engage in, only if they are not taken too seriously, nor demand too much time and energy. Of all physical activities, my first choice would be those whose purpose is primarily to develop and maintain physical fitness. If I had to choose between still water canoeing and rapids canoeing, still water canoeing would be the better alternative. Watching athletes becoming completely absorbed in their sport nearly always provides me with a welcome escape from the many demands of present- day life. Participating in games and sports can sometimes spoil good friendships. The idea that every human movement is beautiful is absurd. Physical activities having a strong element of daring or requiring one to take chances are highly desirable. VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SD SD SD SD SD SD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 99 I could easily spend an hour watching the graceful and well-coordinated movements of a figure skater or modern dancer. There are better ways of getting to know people than through games and sports. The fun is sometimes taken out of sports and games when they become too highly organized, overly competitive, and too demanding of the participant. Among the best forms of physical activity are those which use the body as an instrument of expression. Since competition is fundamental to American society, sports and athletics need to be much more demanding and competitive than at present. The best thing about games and sports is that they give people more confidence in social situations. One of the best forms of physical activity is that which provides a thrilling sense of danger, such as sailing in heavy weather or canoeing on river rapids. Regular physical activity is the major prerequisite to a satisfying life. Vigorous daily exercises are absolutely necessary to maintain one's general health. One of the most desirable forms of physical activity is folk dancing. VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA VSA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SD SD SD SD SD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD VSD 57. 58. 59. 100 In this country there is sometimes too much emphasis on striving to be successful in sports. I would enjoy engaging in those games and sports requiring, to a large extent, the defiance of danger. Most people could live happy lives without depending on frequent watching or participating in physical games and exercise. VSA SA A U D SD VSD VSA SA A U D SD VSD VSA SA A U D SD VSD REFERENCES REFERENCES Alden, M. A. (1932). 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