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A COMPARISON OF INFORMATION
IN TV ADVERTISEMENTS

IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND SOUTH KOREA

By
Jae Yung Cho

A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan state University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF.ARTS

Department of Advertising

1988

, ,
, u/

ABSTRACT

A COMPARISON OF INFORMATION
IN TV ADVERTISEMENTS
IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.AND SOUTH KOREA

By

Jae Yung Cho

The purpose of this study was to analyze and compare
the number of information cues in TV advertisements in the
United States of America and South Korea. It was
hypothesized that: (1) the average number of information
cues would be higher in the TV advertisements produced in
South Korea than in those produced in the United States;
(2) the average number of information cues would be higher
in (a) the introductory stage of the product life-cycle of
the advertised product category than in the growth stage
and (b) the growth stage of the product life-cycle of the
advertised product category than in the maturity stage;
and (3)the average number of information cues would differ
across product categories, such that there would be more
information cues in durable product advertisements than in
nondurable product advertisements.

The sample consisted of 331 U.S. and 282 Korean
advertisements. A coding instrument was developed in the
English and Korean languages. It contained 36 information
cues and the four stages of the product life-cycle. U.S.

and Korean coders were trained to extract the data from

advertisements, working only in their respective native
languages.

The data were evaluated by using t-tests and Chi-
square methods. It was found that Korean advertisements
contained more information cues than did U.S.
advertisements. Korean advertisements in the growth stage
of the product life-cycle contained more information cues
than those in the maturity stage, and for U.S.
advertisements the introductory stage than the growth.
The number of information cues did not differ
significantly according to the nature of product in U.S.
advertisements, but in the Korean case, advertisements for
nondurable products contained more information cues than

those for durable products.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to express my appreciation to the
Department of Advertising, Michigan State University,
East Lansing, for providing the facilities for coder
training and data collection.

A sincere thank-you is extended to each of my
master's committee members for their support and
contributions in this process: Dr. Gordon B. Miracle,
chairperson and my mentor, who directed the research and
provided the most precise appraisal of the effort, and Dr.
Sevgin Eroglu, who emphasized the prerequisites for
quality research.

Affection and gratitude are expressed to a multitude
of friends and family who have fed me, loved me, and
encouraged me through the lean graduate student years
toward this goal. A special thanks goes to Kyu Yeol
Chang, a doctoral candidate , who was a key contributor to
the research. Special thanks go to my father, Jung Bin
Cho, and my mother, Eul Soon Son, for their emotional and
financial support: to my sister, Jae Soon; and to my
brothers, Sang Pyo and Sang Hee, for being my friends
when I needed them most.

I would like to dedicate this thesis to the Lord,

who will be with me forever.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page
I. INTRODUCTION 0.00.00....OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 1
1. Purpose of the Study ..................... 1
2. Statement of the Problem ................. 2
3. Scope of the Study ....................... 3
II. LITERATURE REVIEW .. ..... . ......... .. ....... 6

1. Domestic Studies of

Information Content in Advertisements ... 6

(1) Studies in the United States .......... 6

(2) Studies in South Korea . ......... ...... 9

2. Cross-Cultural Studies of
Information Content in Advertisements ... 10
3. Problems of the Cross-Cultural Studies ..... 13

4. Theoretical Background of the Study ...... 15

(1) Information and Product Life-Cycle ... 15

(2) Information and Nature of the Product . 16

5. Hypotheses ............................... 17

V

III. “mommy ......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO...O

IV.

1. Cross-Cultural Research Methods ...........

2. Content Analysis for

Cross-Cultural Studies ..... . ......

(1) Overview of Content Analysis ....
(2) Measurement of Information

Content in TV Advertisements ..

(3) Conceptual and Linguistic Equivalence

Problems in Content Analysis ..
(4) The Sample of Advertisements ....

(5) Coding Procedures ...............

1) Coder Training and Pretesting

2) Coding of Advertisements ...

(6) Reliability and Validity ........

(7) Statistical Tests ...............

ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF THE DATA ...

1. The Difference in Average Number of
Information Cues between
U.S. and South Korean Advertisements
2. The Difference in Average Number of

vi

19

19

20

20

21

24

27

28

31

32

33

35

37

37

Information Cues by

Product Life-Cycle Stage ... .............

3. The Difference in Average Number of

Information Cues between Durable and

Nondurable Product Advertisements .......

4. summary ......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO ...... O. ......
V. CONCI’USIONS ......OOOOOOIOOOOOOO. ....... O .....
1. Limitations of the Study ..................
2. Implications ..............................

3.

Directions for Future Research ............

APPENDICES ....OOOOOOOOOOO. ....... ......OOOOOOOOO

1. Listing of U.S. Advertisements
in the Sample . ......... ..... .........
2. Listing of Korean Advertisements
in the Sample ............ ........ ....
Definitions of the Information Cues .......
Translation of the Definitions
in Korean ......... ..... ....... ..........
Back-Translation of
the Definitions of Information Cues .....
Definitions of
the Product Life-Cycle Stages ...........
Translation of the Product

vii

4O

45

50

52

52

53

54

57

57

64

69

77

80

85

Life-Cycle Stages
G. Back-Translation of
Life-Cycle Stages
H. 1. Coding Sheet for

2. Coding Sheet for

in Korean . ....... .....

the Product

U.S. Advertisements

Korean Advertisements

I. 1. Summary of the Reports

from U.S. Coders

about Their Coding ....

2. Summary of the Reports

from Korean Coders about Their Coding

BIBLIOGRAPHY ......OOOOOOOO. ........ .....OOOOOOOO

viii

86

87

88

97

99

100

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Product Categories .. ..... . ............ ..... 29
2. Frequencies of Advertisements

in Designated Product Categories ......... 30
3. Intercoder Reliability .......... ........... 34
4. Differences in Average Number of

Information Cues across Countries ........ 38
5. Levels of Information Cues

in U.S. and South Korean Advertisements .. 39
6. Frequencies of Advertisements in

Designated Product Life-Cycle Stages ..... 42
7. Means of Information Cues

in Designated Product Life-Cycle Stages .. 43
8. Differences in Average Number of Information Cues

across Product Life-Cycle Stages ......... 44
9. Differences in Average Number of Information Cues

across Durable and

Nondurable Product Advertisements ......... 47
10. Means of Information Cues

in Designated Product Categories ......... 48
11. Levels of Information Cues in Durable and

Nondurable Product Advertisements . ....... 49

ix

I.INTRODUCTION

1. Purpose of the Study
Culture is particularly important in advertising
since communication is so closely tied to cultural norms.

A consumer exposed to a specific culture is influenced by

that culture’s way of thinking and feeling. Value
systems, attitudes, and even perception processes are
culturally influenced (Hallowell 1972). Consequently,

promotional communications are developed to coincide with
a particular society’s cultural norms. The pattern of
advertising communication can be different across
different countries.

One aspect of advertising communication, information
content, has been studied by a number of researchers.
Few cross-cultural studies have been done, however, and
their methods were not adequate to ascertain and compare
the differences in content between or more countries (for
example, Dowlinq 1980).

The purpose of this study is objectively to
investigate and compare information cues in TV
advertisements in two different countries, the United

States of America and South Korea.

2. Statement of the Problem

The objective of all advertisement is to influence
thinking and buying (Greyser 1972). One reason consumers
attend to advertisements is to gain useful information
(Aaker and Myers 1982). Numerous researchers have
analyzed the information content in advertisements
(Marquez 1977: Resnik and Stern 1977; Stern, Resnik and
Grubb 1977: Laczniak 1979: Reid and Rotfeld 1981; Stern,
Krugman, and Resnik 1981; Aaker and Norris, 1982: Tom,
Calvert, Goolkatsian, and Zumsteg 1984). In these studies
information was defined as permitting "a typical consumer
to make a more intelligent buying decision after seeing
the advertisement than before seeing it" (Resnik and Stern
1977). Indeed, for determining the information value of
advertisements, most researchers have used Resnik and
Stern's 14 information cues. Their definition implies
that an information cue in an advertisement is one which
appeals to consumers’ cognition rather than affect.

A few investigations of information content in
advertisements have been conducted from a cross-cultural
perspecive (Dowlinq 1980; Sepstrup 1985; Madden Caballero,
and Matsukubo 1986; Hong, Muderrisoglu, and Zinkhan 1987).
Most of these researchers also used Resnik and Stern's 14
cues to evaluate and compare the informativeness of

advertisements in two or more countries.

These studies have some problems, however, a major
one being that the 14 cues were simply used as a coding
scheme without considering its adequacy for analyzing
different countries' advertisements.

Therefore, in this thesis several issues are
addressed. (1) Develop a methodology to measure and
analyze the information content of TV advertisements
across countries. (2) Assess whether the information
content in TV advertisements in the United States and
South Korea are significantly different. (3) If they are

different, examine the nature of the differences.

3. Scope of the Study

Advertisements are a major force in providing
consumer information (Stern, Resnik, and Grubb, 1977).
Many social critics and advertising practitioners differ
in their views of what the information in advertisements
means.

Underlying the long-standing debate is the question
of whether advertisements are informative or persuasive.
One problem is semantics, for the terms persuasion and
information have never been clearly differentiated
(Marquez 1977). One effort to do so states that persuasion
is the same as manipulation, while information is "the

physical, chemical, engineering, and similar technical

attributes of the product being advertised" (Nicosia
1974). Another variation characterizes persuasion as
nonobjective and information as objective. These
definitions leave the impression that persuasion in
advertisements is empty and says nothing about the
product, while information is specific, definite, and
tangible.

It has been argued, however, that advertisement
information cannot be viewed with complete objectivity
because consumer processing of messages is a function of a
number of behavioral and psychosocial constructs that
result in subjective perceptions. These prevent the clean
separation of persuasive and information elements.

Greyser (1972) believes the matter of whether
advertisements' role is that of information /education or
persuasion/advocacy is a false dichotomy. He argues that
advertisements are both information and persuasion.
Advertisement is a form of commercial communciation and
pursues its goal by information, which is to influence
thinking and buying. From his standpoint, information in
advertisements is "information with a persuasive purpose."
Similarly, Hunt (1976) concludes that the "information-
persuasion" dichotomy is manifestly illogical, a phony
dichotomy because advertisements that most observers would
surely categorize as very informative are often very

persuasive. In a slightly different context, Eldridge

(1974) sees advertisements as being made up of two
components,.the product story or the "what-to-say" and the
advertisement technique or the "how-to-say-it." The first
component seems to be information, and the second
persuasion.

Persuasion is beyond the scope of the present
study; here, information in advertisments means only the
physical and "what-to-say" component. The main purpose of
this research is to analyze objectively the information
content of TV advertisements in two different countries by
using a strict cross-cultural methodology for content
analysis. The focus is on a source-oriented cross-
cultural perspective, rather than a consumer's

perspective.

II. LITERATURE REVIEW

1. Domestic Studies of Information Content

in Advertisements

(1) Studies in the United States

Resnik and Stern (1977) suggested 14 information
cues as the evaluative criteria of informativeness and
analyzed 378 TV advertisements with those cues. An
advertisement needed only to contain one of the 14 cues to
be considered ”informative." They found differences in
information content depending on the time placement of the
advertisement and the nature of the product.
Noninformative advertisements mainly were broadcast during
the weekday afternoons and weekend mornings.
Advertisements for food, personal care, and laundry and
household products tended to be informative in less than
50 percent of the recorded instances.

In an extension of this study, Stern, Resnik, and
Grubb (1977) used the cues and found that the
informativeness of advertisements varied significantly by
broadcast times, classifications of products, and stage in
product and brand life-cycles. In terms of time placement
and product categories, results similar to Resnik and

Stern (1977) were shown. As for life-cycles, products

and/or brands in the development stage were likely to be
advertised in an informational manner, while those in the
mature stage were not.

Resnik and Stern’s 14 information cues were applied
again to another sample of 1,500 advertisements from 100
consumer magazines (Stern, Krugman, and Resnik 1981). The
informativeness in magazine advertisements was also shown
to differ according to product categories. Consistent*
with earlier studies, the advertisements for durable or
expensive products tended to provide more information.

Another information content analysis of TV
advertisements, by Tom, Calvert, Goolkatsian, and Zumsteg
(1984), used Resnik and Stern's cues and supported Resnik
and Stern’s findings.

Utilizing a different technique, Marquez (1977)
analyzed the content of 600 newspaper and magazine
advertisements to determine whether they were informative
or persuasive. Using dictionary definitions of
information persuasion, the study concluded that whether
the content of advertisements was basic persuasion or
basic information depended on the type of product being
advertised. Products which are inexpensive and non-
technical in nature and operation, such as wine or
tobacco, tended to be advertised with basic persuasion.
Those which require advocacy of a point of view

(institutions), mechanical operations (cars, trucks, and

automotive parts), terms of purchase (books and book
clubs), or information on the product itself (catalogs and
periodicals) were likely to be advertised with basic
information. Therefore, the content of advertisements was
a function of the type of product.

In a separate follow-up study, Laczniak (1979)
argued that the Marquez definitional approach was too
subjective to assess information content accurately. He
analyzed 380 advertisements in consumer magazines based on
Resnik and Stern's information cues. His research also
indicated that advertisements for institutions or
household tools and applicances were more informative than
for food or cosmetics and toiletries.

With a slightly different perspective on
informativeness in advertisements, Aaker and Norris (1982)
attempted to determine what characteristics are associated
with an informative advertisement. Based on factor
analysis, they developed 20 criteria, using a consumer
rather than a source perspective. The most frequently
mentioned characteristics were "newness of object, product
type, hard versus soft sell, product class versus brand,
and problem posed."

Stewart and Furse (1986) examined the influence of
TV advertisement execution on representative sets of
consumers viewing TV advertisements within a fairly

typical exposure setting. Among the executional variables

they discovered, information variables, which consisted of
26 criteria, were identified. The single most important
advertisement executional factor related to persuasiveness
was the presence of a brand-differentiating message.

In summary, information content varied by nature of
product, time placement of advertisements, and the life-
cycle stage of the product. Advertisements for durable
goods tended to be more informative than those for non-
durable goods. Generally, advertisements aired in the
evening contained more informations than those broadcast
in the morning or afternoon. And advertisements for the
introductory stage products were more informative than

those for the mature stage products.
(2) Studies in South Korea

Few studies have been reported in South Korea. Kong
(1983) conducted a content analysis of advertisements in
women's magazines. Two kinds of scales were used to
determine informativeness or persuasiveness. One was
modified from Marquez's categories (1977) and the other
from Resnik and Stern's cues. The study indicated that
the advertisements in women's magazines tended to be more
persuasive than informative. Furthermore, the level of
informativeness differed according to the nature of the

product advertised.

10

In a study of the relationship between information
and sex-role stereotypic content in TV advertisements, Cho
(1986) suggested that the Resnik and Stern cues are not
adequate because they dealt only with quantity of
information without considering its quality. Cho modified
Swagler's five-point scale (1975) based on the advertising
regulation of South Korea and used it to analyze 120 TV
advertisements. Assessment of the quality of information
contained in an advertisement was based on how much
misleading or factual content was provided. Informative
advertisements constituted only 5 percent of the total
sample. Also, advertisements for durable goods tended to
be more informative than those for nondurable goods.

In summary, although there has been little research
on information content of advertisements in South Korea,
the results are very similar to studies done in the
United States on nature of the product. Informativeness
of advertisements was related to whether the product was
a durable or nondurable good. However, the relationships
of informativeness to life-cycle stage and to time

placement of TV advertisements were not studied.

2. Cross-Cultural Studies of Information Content in

Advertisements

Dowling (1980) assessed the information content of

11

Australian TV advertisements and compared the findings
with those of Resnik and Stern (1977) and Stern, Resnik,
and Grubb (1977). To analyze Australian advertisements,
Resnik and Stern's 14 information cues were used. The
comparison indicated differences in overall
informativeness and in the association of informativeness
to time placement and to type of product. Overall,
Australian advertisements were more informative than those
of the United States. In contrast, Australian
advertisements shown in the evening were less informative
than those aired in the morning. Advertisements for food,
institutional, and personal care products were informative
in 60 percent of the cases for Australia and 46 percent
for U.S., but the relative levels of informativeness for
the categories were in the same direction.

The research by Renforth and Raveed (1983) focused
on information content in TV advertisements of Ecuador,
Australia, and the United States. Differences were found
according to broadcast time and type of products. In the
United .States, evening. advertisements were far more
informative than those broadcast during the morning or
afternoon, while in Ecuador and Australia the patterns
were reversed. There was no significant association
between information content and the types of products
advertised. Overall, advertisements in Ecuador were more

informative. The reason may be that providing information

12

is especially important in a developing country, where
people may not always be aware of the possibilities which
new products offer.

The study by Sepstrup (1985) of TV advertisements
attempted to concentrate on the informative dimensions and
to exclude cultural, ideological, and other long-run
effects. The information content of TV advertisements on
the European transnational satellite network "Sky Channel"
and the West German channel ZDF was analyzed by 24
information cues. In contrast to previous research (Resnik
and Stern 1977; Stern, Resnik, and Grubb 1977; Stern,
Krugman, and Resnik 1981; Tom, Calvert, Goolkatsian, and
Zumsteg 1984: Marquez 1977; Laczniak 1979), it was
noteworthy that advertisements for cleaning and washing
and for personal care carried more information than did
advertisements for durables for home and garden. It might
be inferred that TV advertisements had limited value
since information relevant to most purchasing decisions
was not communicated to a degree that would seem to be of
practical significance.

Information content in U.S. and Japanese magazine
advertisements was analyzed by Madden, Caballero, and
Matsukubo (1986). As another partial replication of the
Stern, Krugman, and Resnik study (1981), they ananlyzed
six categories of magazines in both countries by the 14

cues. The results indicated that Japanese advertisements

13

were generally more informative than their U.S.
counterparts, and those for durable products were more
informative than for nondurable products in both
countries.

Hong, Muderrisoglu, and Zinkhan (1987) also did a
comparative content analysis of Japanese and U.S. magazine
advertisements. They focused on degree of emotional
appeal, informativeness, and comparativeness. For
informativeness, they used Resnik and Stern's cues but
excluded two, "taste" and "nutrition," because they were
not related to the products studied. The unexpected
result was that Japanese advertisements were more
informative than U.S. advertisements according to the
average number of information cues. However, as expected,
advertisements in Japan were more emotionally oriented
than in the United States.

Generally, as did the domestic studies, the cross-
cultural research showed that differences in information
content varied by nature of product and time placement.
However, in Sepstrup's study (1985), advertisements for
nondurable products were more informative than those for

durable goods.
3. Problems of the Cross-Cultural Studies

Methodological problems arise in most of the cross-

14

cultural studies of information content in advertisements.

First, with the exception of Sepstrup (1985), all
studies used only Resnik and Stern’s 14 information cues
without any modification. These cues might not be
adequate cross-culturally, however. For example,
information in TV advertisements may be conveyed in
various ways, such as voice-over, music, or letters.
Furthermore, information in TV advertisements can be
implicit or explicit. In previous research, it was not
explained how these points were handled.

Second, even though two or more bilingual coders
were employed to evaluate the informativeness of
advertisements in two or more countries, the process by
which the coding instrument was translated from one
language to another was never reported.

Third, it was not explained how the coding procedure
was carried out. Moreover, no mention was made of any
attempt to discern whether there were problems of
equivalence. The issue of functional, conceptual, and
linguistic equivalence arises in cross-cultural content
analysis (Berry 1980). Functional equivalence exists when
two or more behaviors are related to functionally similar
problems. Frijda and Jahoda (1966) state: "Obviously if
similar activities have different functions in different
societies, their parameters cannot be used for comparative

purposes." Conceptual equivalence relates to the meaning

15

of concepts. Linguistic equivalence deals with equality
of the operationalization of the conceptual equivalence.
Linguistic equivalence usually can be established only
after the data have been collected and analyzed.

Finally, the informativeness of advertisements can
differ according to the life-cycle of the products
advertised. The farther along the product is in the life-
cycle, the less basic information consumers seek and
marketers provide in advertisements (Greyser 1972). For
example, products in the development stages are more
likely to be advertised informationally, while mature
product advertisements are more likely not to contain
information (Stern, Resnik, and Grubb 1977). Therefore,
it might be meaningful to compare the informativeness of
advertisements in different countries in terms of the

stages of product life-cycle.
4. Theoretical Background of the Study
(1) Information and Product Life-Cycle

Because of different product-market conditions, some
advertising campaigns have much more information than
others. A particularly relevant consideration is the
product’s life-cycle, that is, the stages through from

beginning to end (Kotler 1980). There are four major

16

stages: introduction, growth, maturity, and sales decline
(see Appendix E). The introductory stage and to a large
extent the rapid growth stage tend to be far more
information-intensive than the last two stages. In the
early phases there is usually considerable information to
communicate to a largely unaware target audience.
Generally speaking, as the product matures there is less
need for basic information because there are fewer and
fewer people who donot know the basic facts about the
product that marketers provide in advertisements (Greyser
1972). Indeed, some empirical research (Stern, Resnik,
and Grubb 1977: Renforth and Ravee 1983) has shown that
advertisements in the introduction stage tend to be more
informative, while the opposite is true for mature

products.

(2) Information and Nature of the Product

Irrespective of life-cycle stage, some products, by
their very nature, are bought primarily for reasons
unrelated to high information content. Perfume is an
example, purchased mainly for self-image and other
emotional reasons. In other prouduct categories, such as
automobiles, an advertisement’s task in the marketing
process is to convey information.

The more a person knows, the lower is the propensity

17

to search, all things being equal (Katona 1964). Research
findings supported the obvious conclusion that search is
much less probable when a product has been bought
repeatedly over time or when the consumer has had other
means of gathering considerable previous information.
Similarly, the greater the number of brands of the generic
product that have been purchased and used, the lower is
the likelihood of search (Woodruff 1972). Thus, as a
general rule, both the presence and the extent of search
vary inversely with the length and breadth of experience
(Green, Halbert, and Minas 1964). This might mean that
some products, by their very nature, can be bought without

much information.
5. Hypotheses

Based on the literature review, several hypotheses
concerning the information content of TV advertisements in

the United States and South Korea were tested.

Hypothesis 1. The average number of information
cues will be higher in Korean than in U.S. TV
advertisements.

Hypothesis 2. The average number of information
cues will be higher in a product's life-cycle (a) in the

introductory stage than in the growth stage and (b) in the

growth stage than
Hypothesis

cues will differ

18

in the maturity stage.
3. The average number of information

across product categories, such that in

both Korean and U.S. advertisements there will be more

information cues

durable products.

for durable products than for non—

19

III. METHODOLOGY

1. Cross-Cultural Research Methods

Culture can be defined as the distinctive way of
thinking, perceiving, feeling, believing, and behaving of
a given human society, which is passed on from one
generation to another (Root 1987). Individuals are
enculturated as they grow up in their society. The
knowledge, values, beliefs, customs, and mores that make
up the culture are interrelated to form a more or less
integrated whole. Thus, a culture consists of learned
behavior traits that are shared by members of a social
group and distinguish that group from other groups with
different cultures.

Cross-cultural method is often identified with
comparative study (Berry 1980). Comparison in its
broadest sense is the process of discovering similarities
and differences among phenomena (Warwick and Osherson
1975). It has been argued that the comparative method is
the core of the scientific method: without comparison,
differences, similarities, covariation, and cause cannot
be observed or inferred (Berry 1980). Warwick and Osherson
view comparison as an essential effort in social
scientific analysis. From their perspective, comparative

method involves observations in more than one social

20

system, or in the same social system at more than one
point in time. Frey (1970), in contrast, draws a
distinction between cross-cultural and cross-national.
The former essentially deals with research in social units
that share patterns of behavior and orientaion regardless
of national identity, while the latter refers to
researching social units at a specific political level
regardless of the similarity in their cultures. Here,
the term cross-cultural refers primarily to comparing
units of analysis in each of the two cultures, the United
States and South Korea, regardless of the nationality

dimension.
2. Content Analysis for Cross-Cultural Studies
(1) Overview of Content Analysis

Content analysis, in its broadest sense, refers to
the systematic scrutiny of any set of material (oral,
written, pictorial representations, body language, and so
forth) that might yield important generalizations about
human behavior (Brislin 1980). More specifically, in the
communication area, study of content variables is
approached apart from the study of the communicator or the
audience (Kassarjian 1977). The signs and symbols are the

units of analysis rather than the intent of the

21

communicator or the actions of the interpreter.

Although disagreements can be found in the
literature concerning the exact scope of content analysis,
there are four basic characteristics on which there is a
wide agreement (Kassarjian 1977: Brislin 1980). The first
is objectivity, requiring the categories of analysis to be
defined so precisely that different analysts may apply
them to the same body of content and secure the same
results. In other words, objectivity means that content
analysis must proceed according to explicit rules, so that
a wide range of content will be examined, not simply that
which is likely to support the researcher's hypothesis.
The second is systematization, meaning that the inclusion
and exclusion of communications content or analysis
categories is done according to consistently applied
rules. The third characteristic is quantification of
judgments, which distinguishes content analysis from
ordinary critical reading. The fourth is generality,

meaning that findings must have theoretical relevance.

(2) Measurement of Information Content in TV

Advertisements

Interest in measuring the information content of
advertisements has been relatively low among researchers.

One plausible reason is that advertisement information

22

cannot be measured with complete objectivity since the
extent and type of consumer information processing are a
function of a number of behavioral and psychosocial
constructs that result in subjective perceptions.
Theoretically, two approaches have been used to measure
information content in advertisements. The first
assesses changes in consumer behavior resulting from
advertisement segments (Gardner 1976). The second is
content analysis of the advertising message, which is the
approach appropriate for this study.

The measure of information content is based upon the
degree of uncertainty possessed before the transmission of
the message (Shannon and Weaver 1949). More specifically,
analysis of the information content of advertisement
seeks to isolate quantifiable information that may
potentially assist the typical consumer in making an
intelligent choice (Stern, Krugman, and Resnik 1981).
Such an analysis was first systematically undertaken
for TV advertisement (Resnik and Stern 1977). The study
established a classification system for advertisement
information based on 14 criteria, or "cues," which might
be potentially useful to the consumer. Despite an
exceedingly liberal definition which required that a TV
advertisement contain only one of the information cues to
be considered informative, only 49 percent of the sampled

TV advertisement met the requirement. As noted earlier,

23

almost all cross-cultural studies have used Resnik and
Stern's 14 cues for determining informativeness of
advertisements.

However, this set of cues is not exhaustive enough
to analyze and compare the informativeness in
advertisements of different countries, and it does not
consider the information conveyed in various ways by TV
advertisements, such as voice-over, music, or letters.
For this reason, a new coding instrument consisting of 36
information cues was developed for this study using the
Sepstrup (1985) and Stewart and Furse (1986) studies.
Appendix__fi presents this instrument. As mentioned
earlier, Stewart and Furse (1986) were concerned about
using ad hoc measures of effectiveness and tried an
alternative. They generated an initial list of TV
advertisement executional variables from a literature
review and informal discussions with advertising
professionals. By checking reliabilites of individual
variables, they identified 141, including 26 information
items. A total of 1,059 TV advertisements were analyzed
using the 141 variables, and the effectiveness of TV
advertisements was tested in terms of consumers' recall of
the advertisements, product characteristics,
persuasiveness, and brand differentiation. Similarly, as
was reviewed briefly, Sepstrup (1985) selected 24

information cues and did content analysis. Since the

24

coding instrument developed by Cho (1986) included the
misleading components in advertisements, it was not
appropriate for this study. As was mentioned earlier,
only phsical and "what-to-say" components (Eldridge 1974)
in advertisements were considered information.
since TV’nessages are conveyed by both visual and

auditory stimuli, all information content, regardless of
stimuli, was considered during the coding procedure for
this study. More specifically, visual information, such
as product presentaion and letters, and auditory
information, such as narration and music, were all coded
as one information cue. This might be a way to solve one
problem of previous cross-cultural studies. Earlier
studies did not distinguish between visual and auditory

CUBS .

(3) Conceptual and Linguistic Equivalence Problems

in Content Analysis

As indicated earlier, problems of conceptual and
linguistic equivalence arise in cross-cultural content
analysis (Berry, 1980). As a way to solve the problem,
the coding instruments or coding sheets are translated
from source to target language and are back-translated
from the target to the source language. In this

procedure, two bilinguals are employed, one translating

25

from the source to the target language, the second
translating back from the target to the source. If the
two versions in the original language are identical, it is
suggested that the target version from the middle of the
process is equivalent to the source language forms. If
the two source language forms are not identical, the
researcher can confer with the two bilinguals, clearing up
errors (Brislin 1970).

Translation for cross-cultural research is difficult
but essential in formulating coding instruments. Werner
and Campbell (1970) have suggested back-translation
techniques for cross-cultural research: (1) use simple
sentences: (2) repeat nouns rather than pronouns: (3)
avoid metaphor and colloquialisms: (4) avoid English
passive tense: and (5) avoid hypothetical phrasings or
subjunctive mood.

Based on Werner and Campbell’s techniques, the
codinginstrument for this study, consisting of 36
information cues, was first translated into Korean by Kyu
Yeol Chang (AEEQDQiK_Q). a native Korean and doctoral
student in Mass Media at Michigan State University, and
then back-translated into English by Dr. Dong Hoon Sunoo
(Appendix_p), a native Korean and U.S. resident for about
20 years who has near-native English language competence:
moreover he understands advertising and the use of

information in advertisement. In the back-translation

26

procedure, there appeared to be functional, conceptual or
linguistic equivalence problems that could not be overcome
by adjusting the data coding instrument and by training
the coders to understand the exact meaning of the
definitions of information cues..

The life-cycle stages (Kotler 1980) of the
advertised products that are used hereare introduction,
growth, maturity, and decline. Definitions of each are
presented in Appepgig_fi. The definitions were translated
into Korean by the researcher (Appendix E) and back-
translated into English by Jeong Sun Lee, a graduate
student in the Department of Linguistics, Michigan State
University (Appepgix_§), and a native Korean who has lived
in U.S. for about 13 years and has a high level of
competence in English. In this procedure, there appeared
to be no functional, conceptual or linguistic equivalence
problems, but the low intercoder reliability (reported
later) suggests that perhaps some problems of equivalence
went unrecognized. Moreover, although each product
stage was rated by coders according to their estimates of
the length of time the product had been on the market and
the number of competing items, it appears in retrospect
that coders had more difficulty in doing so accurately

than had been anticipated.

27

(4) The Sample of Advertisements

The sample of materials to be analyzed will
determine the extent to which the researcher can make
conclusions about the results of the analysis (Brislin
1980). For example, if only TV advertisements in a
country are sampled, conclusions cannot be drawn about
information content in all types of advertisements.

TV advertisements in the United States and South
Korea were sampled for this study. Those broadcast on CBS
(Columbian Broadcasting System) in the United States and
MBC (Munwha Broadcasting Corporation) in South Korea, from
May 24 through 31, 6:00 p.m. to 12:00 p.m., were selected.
Excluded were all political, advocacy, local, cooperative,
generic demand, public announcement, and government
advertisements. Including only product and service
advertisements, the totals were 331 for U.S. and 282 for
South Korea. The name list of the sampled TV
advertisements is presented in Appendix .

There are two reasons for choosing only
advertisements from the major national TV networks.
First, the sample should be representative and
proportionate (Holsti 1968). Since the national networks
account for the bulk of advertising expenditure in the
medium (Swagler 1975), the major networks were thought to

be most representative of the advertisements of both

28

cultures. Second, analysis of network advertisements
should render the results of the study more generalizble
and comparable.

The advertisements was videotaped and previewed to
ascertain the audio and video quality. The sampled
advertisements are tabulated in Ipp1e_1_apg_; according to
the nature of advertised products. Service category was

not considered for this study.

(5) Coding Procedures

In content analysis, the usually massive set of
original material is transformed, according to a careful
set of rules, into a limited number of well-defined
categories. Ideally, this results in an economical
reduction of the data to manageable proportions, and it
allows the researcher to draw conclusions about the
study’s hypotheses. Without good categories and good
coding rules, it is impossible to make any sense out of
the original content, and it is impossible to link the
original data and the researcher’s hypotheses. A helpful,
operational way of viewing category formulation and coding
is to remember that a number of different analysts must be
able to place the same parts of the content into the same
categories. The rules must be made explicit if more than

one person is to do the analysis, and there has to be more

TABLE 1

Product Categories

 

 

Product United States Korea Total
Food 61, 21.6% 63, 19.0% 124, 20.2%
Beverage 19, 6.7 28, 8.5 47, 7.7
Health Food 12, 4.3 7, 2.1 19, 3.1
Alcohols 5, 1.8 15, 4.5 20, 3.3
Tobacco 0 1, .3 1, .2
OTC Drug 52, 18.4 33, 10.0 85, 13.9
Car 3, 1.1 23, 6.9 26, 4.2
Car-Related 1, .4 9, 2.7 10, 1.6
Cosmetics 18, 6.4 8, 2.4 26, 4.2
Personal Care 13, 4.6 29, 8.8 42, 6.9
Detergents 6, 2.1 19, 5.7 25, 4.1
Insecticide 0 2, .6 2, .3
Household Goods 3, 1.1 16, 4.8 19, 3.1
Clothes 23, 8.2 2, .6 25, 4.1
Shoes 5, 1.8 l, .3 6, 1.0
Textile 2, .7 0 2, .3
Furniture 5, 1.8 0 5, .8
Ceramics 3, 1.1 0 3, .5
Electronics 16, 5.7 7, 2.1 23, 3.8
Camera 3, 1.1 5, 1.5 8, 1.3
Computer 0 1, .3 1, .2
Clock 5, 1.8 l, .3 6, 1.0
Comm.Equip. 3, 1.1 0 3, .5
Toys/Games 3, 1.1 0 3, .5
Sporting Goods 4, 1.4 0 4, .7
Pet-Related 0 5, 1.5 5, .8
Entertainment 0 2, .6 2, .3
Publication 2, .7 0 2, .3
Record/Tapes 0 0 0
Stationery 1, .4 0 1, .2
Music Instr. 3, 1.1 0 3, .5
Bldg. Mtrl. 1, .4 3, .9 4, .7
Hotel/Motel 0 0 0
Restaurant 0 9, 2.7 9, 1.5
Movies/Theater 0 0 0

Dept. Store 3, 1.1 0 3, .5
Super Mkt. 0 0 0

Other Retailer 0 3, .9 3, .5
Finance Serv. 3, 1.1 14, .6 17, 2.8
Trnasportation 1, .4 5, 1.5 6, 1.0
Telecomm.Serv. 0 10, 3.0 10, 1.6

29

 

 

 

 

 

Other Services 1, .4 2, .6 3, .5
Institution 0 0 0
Medical Center 0 0 0
Else 2, .7 8, 2.4 10, 1.6
Total 282,100.0 331,100.0 613,100.0
TABLE 2
Frequencies of Advertisements
in Designated Product Categories
Product United States Korea Total
Durable 84, 25.38% 59, 20.92% 143, 23.33%
Non-
durable 188, 56.80 219, 77.66 407, 66.39
Service 59, 17.82 4, 1.42 63, 10.28
Total 331,100.0 282,100.0 613,100.0

 

3O

31

than one analyst if the reliability of the procedure is to

be determined (Brislin 1980).

1) Coder Training and Pretesting

Six American and six Koreans were employed to
evaluate the sampled advertisements. All were students at
Michigan State University. The six American coders were
graduate students in the Department of Advertising. Of
the Korean coders, three were graduate students and two
were undergraduates, all in the Department of Advertising,
and the sixth was a graduate student in the Department of
Telecommunication. To determine reliability, 90 U.S. and
90 Korean TV advertisements were pair-coded. Each pair of
coders coded 30 advertisements. In other words, three
pairs of Americans and three pairs of Koreans coded the
product life-cycle stage and the informativeness of each
country's 90 advertisements. The rest of the TV
advertisements were coded by single coders, each doing an
equal number.

U.S. and Korean coders were trained separately in
four sessions of about 150 minutes each, or a total of
about ten hours. U.S. coders were trained in English and
Korean coders in Korean. At the first training session,
information about general guidelines, research background

and purpose, and coding procedures was presented. The

 

 

 

32

coders were trained to code auditory information first,
without seeing the advertisements, then to code visual
information without hearing the sound, and finally both
together to make sure the auditory and visual cues were
correctly coded. They were also trained to code life-
cycle stage of the advertised product. Two separate
coding instruments in English and Korean were developed
(see Appepgix__fi). The codebook, which presents the
definitions of the 36 information cues and product life-
cycle stages, was reviewed and discussed with the coders.
In the remaining three sessions, 15 TV
advertisements of each country were done by each coder.
The trainer answered questions and discussed with the

coders the definitions of the information cues.
2) Coding of Advertisements

From the total of 331 U.S. and 282 South Korean
advertisements, 90 of each country were used for
reliability checks. The rest, 241 for the United States
and 192 for South Korea, were distributed among individual
coders. The six coders of each country coded equal
numbers of advertisement either at home or in the class-
room, whichever was most convenient. They reported any

problems they had while coding. A summary of their
reports is presented in Appepg1x_1,

33

(6) Reliability and Validity

Since the researcher's subjectivity must be
minimized to obtain a systematic, objective description of
the communications content, the issue of reliability
becomes paramount (Kassarjian 1977). Reliability assures
that the data obtained are independent of the measuring
event, instrument, or person (Kaplan and Goldsen 1949).

One concern is category reliability. This is
measuredby the analyst’s ability to formulate categories
and present to competent judges definitions of the
categories so they will agree on which items of a certain
population belong in a category and which do not. For
this study, category characteristics were discussed
during the first day of coder training, and a full
understanding was achieved during discussions in
subsequent sessions.

A second concern is intercoder reliability, or the
percentage of agreement among several coders processing
the same materials. Here, the ratio of agreement to the
total number of coding decisions was used to determine the
reliability among coders, based on the coding results of

90 advertisements, 30 of which were coded by three pairs

of coders. The intercoder reliabilities for each
country’s advertisements are presented in Taple . For

information cues of Korean advertisements, the intercoder

TABLE 3

Intercoder Reliability

 

 

Items United States Korea
Brand .95 .94
Product .86 .69
Company Name .86 .89
Price , .97 .96
Variety of Product .84 .88
Value .93 .97
Quality .76 .9
Economy/Savings .92 .98
Dependability .9 1.00
Sensory Information .76 .67
Components .79 .84
Availability .9 .98
Packaging .89 .7
Guarantees .97 .98
Safety .97 1.00
Nutrition .96 .89
Ind. Research .96 1.00
Company Research .97 1.00
Unidentified Research .96 1.00
New Uses .97 .99
Results of Using .86 .64
Satisfaction .72 .72
Superiority .72 .93
Convenience in Use .74 .96
Special Offer .91 1.00
New Product .86 .87
Use Occasion .77 .77
Image of Users .76 .87
Comapny Image .9 .9
Age/Size of Company .99 1.00
Variety of Business .99 1.00
Location .96 .99
Policies Public 1.00 .99
Policies Government 1.00 1.00
Policies Employees 1.00 1.00
Other (explain) 1.00 .86

W .71 .49

 

34

35

reliabilities for 'Product,’ ’Sensory Information,’ and
'Results of Using' were lower than .7, which might be
average, while the lowest intercoder reliability of U.S.
advertisements was .72. Overall, the reliabilities of
information cues were relatively high, but for product
life-cycle the reliability was very different across
countries. For U.S. advertisements, the intercoder
reliability for product life-cycle was .71, which might be
average, whileit was .49 for Korean advertisements, which

might be very low.

(7) Statistical Tests

Since 90 advertisements of each country were coded
twice by two coders for reliability checking, one of the
two codings was randomly selected to be used in the
analysis.

Hypotheses were tested by using SPSS PC + . A t-
test was used to test Hypothesis 1, the difference between
the average number of information cues in U.S. and
Korean TV advertisements. The relationship between the
number of information cues and countries was tested by
Chi-square. Since four cells had less than five in
frequency, the information cues were grouped into five
categories: lowest, low, average, above average, and

highest. The levels have a range from‘ minimum to 5

36

(lowest), 6 to 7 (low), 8 (average), 9 to 10 (above
average), and 11 to maximum (highest) information cues
(W) -

Two t-tests were used to test Hypothesis 2, the
difference between the average number of information cues
in the introductory stage of the product life-cycle as
compared to the growth stage and the difference between
the average number of information cues in the growth stage
as compared to maturity. This analysis was conducted
separately for each country.

A t-test was used to test Hypothesis 3, the
difference between the average number of information cues
in advertisements for durable as opposed to nondurable
products. This analysis was conducted separately for each
country. The relationship between the number of
information cues and product categories was tested by Chi-
square. Since 7 cells had less than five in frequency,
the information cues were also grouped into five
categories: lowest, low, average, above average, and
highest. Consistent with Hypothesis 1, the levels have a
range from minimum to 5 (lowest), 6 to 7 (low), 8
(average), 9 to 10 (above average), and 11 to maximum

(highest) information cues.

37

IV. ANALXSIS AND DISCUSSION OF THE DATA

1. The Difference in Average Number of Information Cues

between U.S. and South Korean Advertisements

The result of t-test was consistent with Hypothesis
1: The average number of information cues was higher in
the Korean than in the U.S. TV advertisements. The
result of this test was t = 5.552 (d.f.= 611), p < .000
(see Table 4).

Chi-square was used to assess if - there is a
relationship between culture of origin of the
advertisements in U.S. and Korea and the level of
information cues. The resultant Chi-square value, X2 =
40.33289 (d.f.= 4), p < .0000, indicated that this
relationship did exist Igplp__§. Korean advertisements
contained the highest percentage (33.3) of information
cues at the ”low" level, whereas U.S. advertisements
contained the highest percentage (29.0) of information
cues at the "lowest" level. Of the Korean advertisements,
80.8 percent were distributed in the range of low to above

average (from 6 to 10 information cues), whereas 62.5

percent of U.S. advertisements were in that range.

TABLE 4

Differences in Average Number of
Information Cues across Countries

 

 

Dimension N K 8.0. t p <
United States 331 7.0181 2.388 5.552 .000
Korea 282 8.0000 1.9127

 

38

TABLE 5

Levels of Information Cues
in U.S. and South Korean Advertisements

 

 

 

Level United States Korea Total
Highest 28, 8.5% 29, 10.3% 57, 9.3%
Above Average 58, 17.5 75, 26.6 133, 21.7
Average 55, 16.6 59, 20.9 114, 18.6
Low 94, 28.4 94, 33.3 188, 30.7
Lowest 96, 29.0 25, 8.9 121, 19.7
Total 331,100.0 282,100.0 613,100.0

 

x2 = 40.33239; d.f.= 4; p < .0000.

HomeThenmhardfhmbmmfinnomscfeadlnageane

Hmhst :Iltomnmmm
Ahxe : 9to10
Amman: : 8

nw' 3 6to'7
innet :rmnmunuas.

39

40

2. The Difference in Average Number of Information Cues

by Product Life-Cycle Stage

Four t-tests were conducted for Hypothesis 2. Two
of them were used to compare the average number of
information cues of two different life-cycle stages of
the advertised product in U.S. advertisements,
introductory and growth stage, and growth and maturity
stage. The other two were used for Korean advertisements
to compare the same variables.

The results of the two t-tests for U.S.
advertisements were t = 1.969 (d.f.= 106), p < .052 and t
- .917 (d.f.= 274), p < .360 (Iaplg_§). The first result
was very close to significant difference, and almost
supported the hypothesis that the average number of
information cues would be higher in the introductory than
in the growth stage. However, the second result failed to
support the hypothesis that the average number of
information cues would be higher in the growth stage than
in maturity. For Korean advertisements, the results of
the two t-tests were t = .136 (d.f.= 100), p < .893 and t
a 2.234 (d.f.= 236), p < .026. The result of the first t-
test failed to support the hypothesis that the average
number of information cues would be higher in the
introductory than in the growth stage. However, the result

of the second t-test indicated that the average number of

41

information cues in the growth stage was higher than in
the maturity stage.

Further analysis showed that the average number of
information cues in each different life-cycle stage of
the advertised product was significantly different across
countries, except for the introductory stage (Table 7).
For that stage, the mean for U.S. advertisements was 8.02
and for Korean advertisements 8.32, which was not
significantly different (t = .535: d.f.= 72: p < .595).
However, for other stages, the significant differences
appeared as follows: growth, t = 3.588 (d.f.= 134: p <
.001): maturity, t = 4.314 (d.f.= 376: p < .000): and
decline, t = 2.592 (d.f.= 23: p < .016). This might
confirm the result of Hypothesis 1. Overall, the Korean
advertisements have more information cues than U.S.
advertisements regardless of life-cycle stage of the
advertised products. For U.S. advertisements, the average
number of information cues in each different life-cycle
increased as the products mature (Greyser 1972).

According to the above results, the hypothesized
relationship between the information cue and life-cycle
stage of the advertised product was supported in cases of
growth and maturity for Korean advertisements, and

introduction and growth for U.S. advertisements.

 

 

TABLE 6

Frequencies of Advertisements

in Designated Product Life-Cycle Stages

 

 

 

 

PLC United States Korea Total

Introduction 49, 14.8% 25, 8.8% 74, 12.1%

Growth 59, 17.8 77, 27.3 136, 22.2

Maturity 217, 65.6 161, 57.1 378, 61.7

Decline 6, 1.8 19, 6.7 25, 4.1

Total 331,100.0 282,100.0 613,100.0
x2 - 21.446: d.f.= 3; p < .0012.

42

TABLE 7

Means of Information Cues
in Designated Product Life-Cycle Stages

 

 

 

PLC United States Korea Total
1.Introduction 8.0204 8.3200 8.1216
2.Growth 7.1186 8.3766 7.8309
3.Maturity 6.8018 7.7888 7.2222
4.Decline 5.6667 7.8421 7.3200

1. t = .535; d.f.= 72; p < .595
2. t = 3.588; d.f.= 134: p < .001
3. t = 4.314: d.f.= 376: p < .000
4. t = 2.592; d.f.= 23; p < .016

43

TABLE 8

Differences in Average Number of
Information Cues across Product Life-Cycle Stages

 

 

Dimension N i 8.0. t p <
United States
Introduction 49 8.0204 2.4108 1.969 .052
Growth 59 7.1186 2.3348
Growth 59 7.1186 2.3348 .917 .360
Maturity 217 6.8018 2.3595
KOrea
Introduction 25 8.3200 1.9942 .136 .893
Growth 77 8.3766 1.7550
Growth 77 8.3766 1.7550 2.234 .026
Maturity 161 7.7888 1.9634

 

44

45

3. The Difference in Average Number of Information Cues

between Durable and Nondurable Product Advertisements

The relationship of information cue for durable and
nondurable product advertisements was investigated by t-
test. The result for U.S. advertisements, t = .495
(d.f.= 276), p < .621, indicated that the average number
of information cues did not differ between the two. The
result is shown in Table 2. For Korean advertisements,
the result of t-test was t a 5.518 (d.f.= 270), p < .000,
which supports the hypothesis that the average number of
information cues differed across durable and nondurable
product advertisements in South Korea. The latter had
more information cues than the former.

Tap1e_19 shows the differences in the average number
of information cues in advertisements for durable and
nondurable products across countries. For nondurable
products in the United States and Korea the figure was
significantly different (t = 6.907: d.f.= 405: p < .000),
while it was not for durable products (t = .568: d.f.=
141: p < .571). Thus, compared to the United States,
nondurable product advertisements in Korea have more
information cues. This might influence the result of
Hypothesis 1. One reason Korean advertisements have more
information cues might be because nondurable product

advertisements in Korea have more information cues than in

46

Examination of the frequency distribution (TapTe_TT)
shows the amount of information cues across durable and
nondurable product categories. As the result of t-test,
the Chi-square analysis, x2 = 3.70428 ( d.f.= 4), p <
.4475, of U.S. advertisements indicated that the amount of
information cues was not related to durable and nondurable
product category. However, the Chi-square result, X2 =
34.20196: d.f.= 4:, p < .0000, for Korean advertisements
supported that the amount of information cues is related
to product category. Of the nondurable product
advertisements in Korea, 33.5 percent were rated "above
average," which is in the range of 9 to 10 information
cues: only 3.7 percent were rated as being the "lowest"
(least informative). For durable products, 40.5 percent
of advertisements were in the "low" level of information

content: 20.2 percent were rated as being the "lowest"

level.

TABLE 9

Differences in Average Number of Information Cues
across Durable and Nondurable Product Advertisements

 

 

Dimension N i S.D. t p <
united States
Durable 59 2.3729 1.2717 .495 .621
Nondurable 219 2.4658 1.2824
Korea
Durable 84 2.4167 1.1108 5.518 .000
Nondurable 188 3.2234 1.1153

 

47

TABLE 10

Means of Information Cues
in Designated Product Categories

 

 

 

Product United States Korea Total
1.Durable 6.9153 7.1190 7.0350
2.Nondurable 6.9772 8.4309 7.6486

1. t = .568: d.f.= 141: p < .571
2. t = 6.907: d.f.= 405; p < .000

48

TABLE 11

Levels of Information Cues

in Durable and Nondurable Product Advertisements

 

 

 

 

 

Level Durable Nondurable Total
United Statee
Highest 4 17 21
Above Average 8 39 47
Average 14 35 49
Low 13 66 79
Lowest 20 62 82
Total 59 219 278
x2 = 3.70428: d.f.= 4; p < .4475
32:29
Highest 5 24 29
Above Average 9 63 72
Average 19 39 58
Low 34 55 89
Lowest 17 7 24
Total 84 188 272
X2 = 34.20196: d.f.= 4: p < .0000

 

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50

4. Summary

The average number of information cues provided by
Korean TV advertisements was higher than that of U.S. TV
advertisements. Except for the introduction stage, the
average numbers of information cues in the growth,
maturity, and decline stages of the advertised products in
Korea are greater than those in the United States.
Nondurable product advertisements in Korea have more
information cues than those in the United States. This
result was expected from the studies of Madden, Caballero,
and Matsukubo (1986) and Hong, Muderrisoglu, and Zinkhan
(1987). In their research it appeared that Japanese
magazine advertisements had more information cues than
U.S. advertisements. Since Japan and Korea might have
similar cultures, it was inferred that Korean TV
advertisements would have more information cues than
American ones.

In terms of the relationship between the information
content and the life-cycle stage of the advertised
product, the results of this study were consistent with
those of previous research. According to Greyser (1972),
the farther along the product moves in the life-cycle,
fewer and fewer people donot know the basic facts about
the product that marketers provide in advertisements.

Empirical work by Stern, Resnik, and Grubb (1977) and

51

Renforth and Raveed (1983) showed that advertisements for
products in the introduction stage tend to have more
information cues, while the opposite is true for products
in the maturity stage. In this study, Korean
advertisements for products in the growth stage seemed to
have more information cues than those for the mature
products, and U.S. advertisements for introductory

products than those for the growth products. This might

influence the result of Hypothesis 1, as mentioned
earlier.
The relationship between information cues and the

nature of the advertised product appears different in the
United States and South Korea. There was no significant
difference for U.S. advertisements but a fairly
significant difference for Korean advertisements. The
latter result is consistent with that of Sepstrup (1985):
Nondurable product advertisements had more information
cues than did durable product advertisements. However, in
the studies by Stern, Krugman, and Resnik (1981), Laczniak
(1979), Hong (1983), Cho (1986), and Madden, Caballero,
and Matsukubo (1986), durable product advertisements had
more information cues than did nondurable product

advertisements.

52

‘V. CONCLUSIONS
1. Limitations of the Study

One limitation was the coders' competency in
understanding the definitions of the coding instrument.
Overall, the reliabilities (TapTe_;) of this study were
relatively high, except for product life-cycle in Korean
advertisements (.49). The reason might be that coders
did not understand well enough the definitions of and
criteria for determining each stage: all but one coder had
no experience as advertising professionals. The other
possible reason is that the definitions were not clear
enough to judge the life-cycle stages of the advertised
products. However, the researcher could find no way
operationally to define product life-cycle stages beyond
the present definitions. Therefore, the need for
further reliability and validity checks for product life-
cycle stages is a recognized limitation of this study.

Another limitation might be that the choice of
coding instrument, consisting of 36 information cues,
could have been influenced somewhat by researcher bias.
Since no known coding instrument appropriate for
analyzing physical information cues in advertisements has
been developed to study Korean advertisements, the

researcher based the coding instrument for this study on

53

Sepstrup (1985) and Stewart and Furse (1986).

2. Implications

The results of this study have three implications
for international marketing theory and practice. First,
some insight is provided into the international
transferability of marketing programs. This study
examines one aspect of promotion strategy, the information
of TV advertisements in U. S. and South Korea. Results
indicate that TV advertisements in South Korea contain
substantially more information cues than those in U.S.
The reason might be that the average numbers of
information cues in the growth, maturity, and decline
stages of the advertised products in Korea are greater
than those in the United States and that the average
number of information cues in nondurable product
advertisements in Korea are greater than those in the
United States. A possible explanation is that the level
of involvement of consumers watching TV may be higher in
Korea than in the United States. Consumers who need
certain products may be more likely to watch TV closely
since they can gain information about the products they
need. Therefore, advertisers in Korea might be more
likely to provide information to consumers than is the

case in the United States. International marketing

54

managers may wish to consider this factor in designing or
adopting promotional programs for their countries.

Second, this study implies that Korean TV
advertisements for products in the growth stage may have
essentially a large amount of information cues in order to
compete with other products of the same category in the
markets.

Third, this study shows that the information cues of
Korean TV advertisements are related to the nature of the
advertised products: advertisements for nondurable
products have more information cues than do those for
durable products. This might provide some insight into

promotion strategy.
3. Directions for Future Research

It would seem useful to replicate this study with
different samples of coders and advertisements would test
the generalizability of the results.

It is possible that there are other related
information components that were not targeted in this
research. Further studies of this type might establish
other information components appropriate for cross-
cultural content analysis of advertisements. The
differences in information cues due to visual and auditory

information also could be studied.

55

And the fruitful line of inquiry might be to
ascertain if information cues in advertisements might be
associated with time segments. The relationship between
information cues and the viewing time may differ across
countries. Viewing segments such as morning, prime time,
latenight, news, sports, or children's programming could
be incorporated into future research efforts to determine
any information cues differences in advertisements
associated with viewing time.

Another area for work is to determine if the
definitions of product life-cycle stages are appropriate
for analysis of TV advertisement. The results of the
relationship between information cues and life-cycle
stage of the advertised product were only partly
consistent with those of previous studies, but the
interdependence of these dimensions certainly cannot be
ignored. If the inconsistency arises from the fact that
the operational definitions of life-cycle stages were not
clear enough to judge each stage, more attempts need to be
made to refine definitions.

Future research also should be undertaken to study
the importance of information‘ from the standpoint of the
consumer indifferent cultures. The findings of this study
indicate that information requirements of consumers might
be different, but the inference depends on the assumption

that current advertiser practice reflects consumer needs

for information.

56

APPENDICES

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

57

APPENDIX.A

1. Listing of U.S. Advertisements in the Sample

Ponderosa

Homemade Brand Icecream (A)

Northwest Air Line
Ex-Lax (A)

A-l Sauce
Hartford Insurance
FTD Florist (A)

Nutri-Grain Nuggests

Hartz Blockade Insecticide

23.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

Remington Microscreen Shaver32.

Riopan-Plus 2 Antacid
Subaru (A)

Suddenly Salad
Polishade Minwax
Bayer

AT&T (A)

Firestone Mastercare (A)
UPS

BMW

Polaroid Spectra
Dodge Shadow

Anacin

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

Dove
Promise Margarine (A)
Tyson Chicken Recipe
Discover Credit Card
Salad Bar Pasta
McDonald Three Salads
AT&T (B)
Whirlpool Refrigerator
AMEX Travelers’Checks (A)
Kentucky Fried Chicken
Stainmaster Carpet
Glass Plus Cleaner
Hellmann Mayonnaise
Burger King
Burger King Chipmonks
Promise Margarine (B)
Seiko
Playtex Bra (A)
Seagram’s Cooler (A)
Honda
McDonald Salad

Cherry Coke

58

45. Homemade Brand Icecream (B) 71. Angel Soft Tissue
46. Delta Airlines 72. Pepsi Taste Test
47. Carnation Instant Breakfast 73. Shell Credit Card
48. Friskies Catfood 74. John Deere

49. Nuprin 75. Amoco (A)

50. Dewey Stevens Wine Cooler 76. Homemade Icecream

51. Summer's Eve Douche 77. JohnDeere Lawnmower(A)
52. Burger King Late Night 78. Domino's Pizza

53. Diet Pepsi (A) 79. Disney World

54. Labatt's Blue Beers 80. Anderson Windows

55. Minute Maid Juices 81. Kool-Aid (A)

56. Coppertone Lotion 82. McDonald Salads

57. Maybelline Mascara 83. Riverrock

58. Dentyne Gum 84. Land-O-Lakes Margarine
59. Firestone Mastercare (B) 85. Rid-X Toilet Cleaner
60. Ziploc Bags (A) 86. Anacin Caplet

61. Olympus Infinity Camera 87. Whirlpool Range

62. Gallo Wine 88. Ex-Lax (B)

63. Nuvision 89. Mazda RX-7 SE

64. Tender Chops Dogfood 90. Maalox Plus

65. Eckrich Sausages 91. Micatin

66. French's Mustard 92. Correctol Laxatives
67. Die Hard Battery 93. Legatrin

68. Kellogg's Raisin Bran 94. IBM Learning Program
69. SOS Cleaner 95. Tums

70. Alka-Seltzer (A) 96. Gulf Lite Starter

59

97. Ragu Spaghetti Sauce

98. Ford Truck

99. Jong Deere Lawnmower

100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
111.
112.
113.
114.
115.
116.
117.
118.
119.
120.
121.

122.

Nabisco Shredded Cereal
Crunch-n-Munch

Jello Pudding Pops

Coke

Hires Rootbeer

Wisk Detergent (A)
Mountain Dew

Krona Butter

Clorox 2 Detergent
Ziploc Bags (B)
Chico-San Rice Cakes
Heaven Ice Cream Bar
Band Aid Clear

Kellogg's Froasted Flakes
Crystal Light

Jello Fruit Bars

RC.Cola

Kraft Real Mayonnaise
Pantene Shampoo (A)
Bartles and James Cooler
Kraft Cheese Whiz Spread
Close-Up Toothpaste

Kellogg's Pro Grain

123.

124.

125.

126.

127.

128.

129.

130.

131.

132.

133.

134.

135.

136.

137.

138.

139.

140.

141.

142.

143.

144.

145.

146.

147.

148.

Century 21

7-UP (A)

Reach Toothbrush
Johnson Baby Oil
Chiquita Fruit Bars
Heinz Ketchup (A)
ALL Detergent
Cannon Camera

Puppy Chow Dogfood
Cat Chow Catfood
Star Kist Tuna Can
Hefty Cinch Sak
Sanka Coffee (A)
Sticklets Gum
Kodak Colorwatch
Kinney Shoes
Kellogg’s Special K
Sylvania ElectricBulbs(A)
Lipton Iced Tea
Clarion Cosmetics
Slice

Erb Lumber
McDonald Breakfast
Amoco (B)

Cherry 7-Up

TOI‘O Lawnmower

149.

150.

151.

152.

153.

154.

155.

156.

157.

158.

159.

160.

161.

162.

163.

164.

165.

166.

167.

168.

169.

170.

171.

172.

173.

174.

60

McDonald Chicken Salad
Volkswagen

Snickers Bar

Mylanta 2 Antacid
Benjamin Moore Paints
Dole Fruit Juices
Mazda 626 Coupe

John Deere Lawnmower(B)
Diet Pepsi (B)
Reynold's Plastic Wrap
Soft Swirl Ice Cream
Klondike Ice Cream Nuggets
Pentax Camera

Playtex Bra (B)

Miller Genuine Beer (A)
Max Factor Manicure
Clear Eyes Eyedrops
Kellogg’s Cornflakes
Miller Genuine Beer (B)
McDonald Chef Salad
FTD Florist (B)

Sure Antiperspirant
Downy Softener
Anacin-3

Pantene Shampoo (B)

Coast Soap

175.

176.

177.

178.

179.

180.

181.

182.

183.

184.

185.

186.

187.

188.

189.

190.

191.

192.

193.

194.

195.

196.

197.

198.

199.

200.

Ford

Bayer

Preparation H

Pringles Cheez Umz
Neosporin Ointment
Always Napkins

Always Plus Maxi Pads
Black Flag Roach Ender

Vidal Sassoon Shampoo

 

Zest Soap

Oil of Olay Skin Lotion
Haltran Anticramping Aid
RC Cola (A)

Benadryl

Cadillac Allante
Tylenol

Shower to Shower
Drop-Ins Toilet Cleaner
Sominex-2

GTE (A)

Sprite

Wisk Detergent (B)
Suave Antiperspirant
VISA Card

Midol 200

Love-My-Carpet

 

 

201.
202.
203.
204.
205.
206.
207.
208.
209.
210.
211.
212.
213.
214.
215.
216.
217.
218.
219.
220.
221.
222.
223.
224.
225.

226.

61

Pepto-Bismol (A)
Bounce

Ivory Soap

Q—tips Swap
Chi-Chi's Restaurant
Pepto-Bismol (B)
Coors Light Beer
Klondike Bar
Primatene Mist
Volkswagen Fox
Culligan Water System
Lender’s Bagels
Cherry 7-Up (B)

Red Lobster
Medipren Pain Reliever
Subaru (B)

Norelco Shaver
Cannon Copier
Phillip's MOM

Fiber Guard
Whirlpool Dishwasher
Kool-Aid (A)

Uncle Ben's Rice
Beatrice Butter Hams
Certs

Planters Peanuts

227.

228.

229.

230.

231.

232.

233.

234.

235.

236.

237.

238.

239.

240.

241.

242.

243.

244.

245.

246.

247.

248.

249.

250.

251.

252.

H

Miller Lite (A)

Aim Toothpaste

Discover Credit Card
AT&T (C)

Dodge Guarantee

Dodge Financing

Atra Plus Shaver

Alpo Dogfood

AT&T (D)

Miller Lite (B)

Nissan 4*4

Garcia Vega Cigar

US Sprint Long Distance(A)
Prudential Financial (A)
Car Quest Autoparts
Afta Aftershave Lotion
California Cooler

AMEX Credit Card (A)
Prudential Financial (8)
Jeep Cherokee

Honda Bike

Miller Beer

Top-Flite Golf Balls
Atra Shaver

IBM PS/2

Renault Medallion

253.
254.
255.
256.
257.
258.
259.
260.
261.
262.
263.
264.
265.
266.
267.
268.
269.
270.
271.
272.
273.
274.
275.
276.
277.

278.

62

McDonald Garden Salad
RC Cola (B)

Glad Garbage Bags

Fram Oil Filters

Dodge Dakota Truck
Honda Generator

AMEX Travelers'Checks (B)
Metamucil Fiber

7-UP (B)

Spray-n-Wash Cleaner

RC Cola (C)

Ultress Gel Colorant
Weight Watcher's Mexican
Equal Sweetener

Bon Bons Ice Cream
Tampax Tampons

Ziploc Bags (C)

Snuggle Softener

Kraft Barbeque Sauce
Keeblers Chips Deluxe
Dole Pineapple Juice
Gillette Razor

Liberty Mutual Insurance
Nissan Cars

Kendall Motor Oil

Sylvania Electric Bulbs(B)

279.

280.

281.

282.

283.

284.

285.

286.

287.

288.

289.

290.

291.

292.

293.

294.

295.

296.

297.

298.

299.

300.

301.

302.

303.

304.

State Farm Insurance (A)
Auto Lite Battery
AMEX Credit Card (B)
Schick Shaver

United Airlines (A)
Double Mint Gum

Acura Cars

American Airlines
Mercedez Benz

Dannon Yogurt (A)
Dannon Yogurt (B)
Roommate Air-Freshener
Drano Draining Aid
Stouffer's Entrees
Gatorade

United Airlines (B)
Taco Bell's Salad
Lipton Potatoes Sauce
Ford Aerostar Van
Cadillac Seville
Keopectate

US Sprint Long Distance(B)
Alka Seltzer (B)

BMW 325

Kellogg's All-Bran

Samsonite Luggage Bass (A)

305.

306.

307.

308.

309.

310.

311.

312.

313.

314.

315.

316.

317.

318.

319.

320.

321.

322.

323.

324.

325.

63

State Farm Insurance (B)
Lava Hand Cleaner
Allante Hair Spray

Miller Lite (C)

326.
327.
328.

329.

Orville RedenbacherPop-Corn330.

Hefty Cinch Sak

Sure & Natural Pads
Whirlpool Appliances
Sun Light Detergent
Nabisco Fruit Cookies
Seagram's Cooler (B)
Messengel Douche
Kodak Cameras

Baby Ruth Snacks

Ritz Cracker
Covergirl Mascara
Palmolive Degergent
Samsonite Luggage Bags (B)
Wendy’s

Pepsi Taste Test (C)

GTE (B)

331.

FTD Florist (C)

Heinz Ketchup (B)

Weight Watcher's Popsicle
Wishbone Itlian Dressing
Loreal Cosmetics

Sanka Coffee (B)

.-!~=i

64

2 . Listing of Korean Advertisements in the Sample

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68

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nu; ——-’

69

APPENDIX B

Definitions of the Information Cues

1. Brand Name: Refers to the brand name(s) of the
product(s) or service(s) advertised.

2. Product: Refers to describing or showing of the
product(s) advertised.

3. Company Name: Refers to the name of the manufacturer or
the service entity.

4. Price: Refers to the amount the consumer must pay for
the product or service: this may be in absolute
terms, like a suggested retail price, or relative
terms, like a 10 percent off sale.

5. Varieties of the Product: Refers to claiming for or
featuring more than one product.

6. Value: Refers to some combination of price and quality
or quantity, as in more X for the money, better
quality at a low price, the best value for the
dollar.

7. Quality: Refers to how good the product or service is;
may refer to craftsmanship and /or attention
during manufacture, use of quality (better, best)
ingredients or components, length of time to
produce or create the product.

8. Economy/Savings: Refers to saving money or time either

70

in the original purchase or in the use of the
product relative to other products in the
category.

9. Dependability/ Reliability/ Durability: Information
concerning how long the product will last without
repair, service records, and so on.

10. Sensory Information (taste, fragrance, touch,
comfort, styling, color, smell, feeling, etc.):

Information concerning a sensory experience:

"smells April fresh," "tastes homemade," "feels
silky smooth," "smooth taste," . "luxurious
comfort," "classic beauty," and so on.

11. Components, Contents, or Ingredients: What went into
the making or manufacture of the product-for
example, "contains lanolin," "made with
pudding." These contents should be in the
product purchased, not ingredients added to the
product by the consumer in preparation for use.

12. Availability: Any information concerning the place(s)
the consumer may purchase or otherwise obtain the
product-for example, ”available in supermarkets,"
"look for it in the dairy section." May also
refer to places where the product is not
available-for example, "not available in all
areas.”

13. Packaging: Information about the packaging of the

 

14.

15.

16.

17.

71

product-for example, "look for the package with
the red spoon," "look for our special two in one
package," "the package is reusable," "in the

convenient one serving package."

Guarantees or Warranty: Refers to any information

concerning the presence of a guarantee or
warranty, including but not restricted to money
back offers, offers to repair or service the
product in the event of problems, or offers to
replace the product if the consumer is
dissatisfied or has a problem.

Safety: Information concerning the safety of the
product-for example, "has a built-in cut-off
switch," "nontoxic," "won't harm delicate hair."

Nutrition/Health: Information concerning the
nutritional or health-related characteristics of
the product-for example, "fortified with vitamin
D," "the formula doctors recommend," "relieves
iron-poor blood."

Independent Research Results: Information offered
about tests of the product or of product users
that were carried bout by an identified
individual or organization other than the company
manyfactruing or distributing the product, such
as Underwrtiter's Laboratory, a leading

university, or the U.S. government. Such tests

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

72

may concern objective product characteristics
("lasts twice as long") or may be related to user
preferences ("preferred by two thirds of the
people surveyed").

Company-Sponsored Research Results: Information about
tests of the product or useers of the product
that were carried our by the company
manufactruing or distribution the product-for
example, the Pepsi challenge.

Tesearch Results form Unidentified Source: Information
about tests of the product or users of the
product when the source of the test results is
not identified.

New Uses: Refers to any information about a new way to
use an established product-for example, "use X
brand paper cups for sorting and storing nuts and
bolts." "new recipes," "use Y baking soda to
deodorize refrigerator."

Results of Using (either tangible or intangible): Any
information concerning the outcomes associated
with the use of the product. These outcomes may
be in a positive form-"foves hair bounce," "makes
you feel healthier,"-or a negative form-"won’t
yellow floors.”

User’s Satisfaction/ Dedication/ Loyalty: Refers to

any information concerning users' satisfaction,

73

preference for the brand, or length of time
consumer has used the advertised product-for
example, "I'd never give up my Tide," "I've
always used..."

23. Superiority Claim: Information that claims the
advertised product is better than competitive
products or an older version of the advertised
product in some particular way(s).

24. Convenience in Use: Information concerning the
ease with which the product may be obtained,
prepared, used, or disposed of.

25. Special offers or event: Information concerning
special events such as sales, contests, two—for-
one deals, premiums, or rebates to occur for a
specified limited time.

26. New Product or New/Improved Product Features: Refers
to any information concerning a new product
introduction, new components, ingredients,
features, or characteristics of an existing

' product or an improvement (qualitative or
quantitative) in any feature, component,
ingredient, or characteristic of an existing
product-for example, "new and improved," "now
with 50 percent less sugar," "new, milder ...,"
"new, stronger ...," "now with built-in flash."

27. Use Occasion: Information that clearly suggests an

28.

74

appropriate use Occation or situation for the
product-for example, "buy film for the Christmas
season,” "enjoy Jello at a birthday party," ”the
beer for special occasions."

Characteristics or Image of Users: Refers to any
information concerning the type(s) of
individual(s) who might use the advertised
product-for example, "for the young at heart,"

”for the busy career woman."

29. Company Image or Reputation: Refers to any information

30.

31.

32.

33.

about the image or reputation of the company that
manufactures or distributes the product-for
example, "we’ve been in business longer than
anyone else," "we try harder," "the other guys,"
"babies are our business."

Company Age or Size: Refers to claiming for
accumulated business experience of the company
throughout its history, or for the bigness in
terms of the size.

Variety of Business: Refers to claiming for
geographical advantages of the company’s
business, or of its raw material.

Location of Business: Refers to claiming for
geographical advantages of the company’ 5
business, or of its raw material.

Policies toward Public: Refers to any informaticni

75

concerning the conpany’s policy for public in
general.

34. Policies toward Government: Refers to any information
concerning the company’s policy toward government
at any level.

35. Policies toward Employees: Refers to any information
concerning the company’s policy toward its
current or future employees.

36. Other (explain).

Note:

1. The following cues and their definitions came
from Stewart and Furse’s study (1986): Price, Value,
Quality, Economy/ Savings, Dependability/ Reliability/
Durability, Sensory Information*, Components/ Contents/
Ingredients, Availability, Packaging, Guarantees or
Warranty, Safety, Nutrition/ Health, Independent Research
Results, Company-Sponsored Research Results, Research
Results form Unidentifed Source, New Uses, Results of
Using, User’s Satisfaction/ Dedication Loyalty,
Superiority Claim, Convenience in Use, Special Offer/
Event, New Product or New/ Improved Product Features, Use
Occasion, Characteristics or Image of Users, and Company

Image or Reputation.

76

* Sensory Information was modifed and includes

aesthetic claims.

2. The following cues came form Sepstrup’s study
(1985): Brand name, Product, Company Name, Varieties of
the Product, Company Age or Size, Variety of Business,
Location of Business, Policies toward Public, Policies

toward Government, Policies toward Employees, and Other.

P'??’?

10.

11.

12.

77

APPENDIX C

Translation of the Definitions in Korean
.1 .2. #- 1!.

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it 38a ”fl.

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ed as.

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13.

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78

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flu.

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80

APPENDIX D

Back-Translation of the Definitions

of Information Cues

1. Brand Name: Brand name of product or services
advertised.

2. Product: Showing or dexcription of advertised product.

3. Name of Company: Name of manufacturer of product/name
of company providing services.

4. Price: Monetary value to be paid by consumers for
product or services. It can be expressed by
absolute value such as retail price, or by a
relative limit 910% discount sales).

5. Varieties of the Product: Advertising by showing more
than one product or service. Those multiple
products/services should be manufactured or
produced by the advertiser.

6. Value: Advertising on price by comparing price with
quality, price with quantity when pruchased
(e.g., the best possible quality at this price:
more (quality) with less (money).

7. Quality: Stressing good quality of productc or service.
Expertise techniques: attention given during
production process: tough selection procedure of

new materials: long periods required for

81

production.

8. Economic Value/Savings: Time or monetary value to be
saved when buying or using the product/service.

9. Durability: Comments on durability of product-how long
the product can be used without repair or
remodeled.

lo. Sensory Information (taste, aroma, touch, comfort,

. style, color, smell, feeling, etc): Comments on
sensory experience (e.g., April fragrance:
nostalgic flavor; soft as silk: soft taste:
fancy comfort: classic beauty).

11. Contents/Ingredients: Information about ingredients
being used to make the product. This is about
ingredients being already contained (when you
buy the product).

12. Location of Purchasing: Information about stores where
consumers may buy or obtain the product, or
about other means of buying obtaining the
product (e.g., available at department store;
find the product in a NAKNONG product category),
and indicates the product is not easily
available (e.g., it can be found only in a
certain place).

13. Packaging: Information about packaging of productc
(e.g., please search for a new red picture:

package can be recycled).

82

14. Guaranty/Warranty: Information about
guaranty/ warranty given when product was
purchased (e.g., warranty or repair or remodel
when needeed: guaranty on money refund when not
satisfied; or exchange, etc.).

15. Safety: Product information on safety (e.g., not
poisonous: not harming hair).

16. Nutrition/Health: Information about product features
relative to nutrition and health (e.g., vitamin
A enriched: most doctors using).

17. Research form Outside Comapny: Information about
research on product and its users conducted by
independent individuals or organization, other
than a manufacturer or a marketing company. The
independent individuals or organization should
be identified (e.g., the Korean Science
Institute: the U.S. government). These
researches can be objective evaluation of
product benefits ("lasting twice long"), or
about the users' preference ("being used by 2/3
of the consumers).

18. Research done by Company: Research information about
the product or users: research conducted by
manufacturer (of the product) or marketing
company.

19. Research from unknown Sources: Research information of

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

83

unidentified sources, about the types of data
similar to item #18 and #19 of above.

New users or application of Productc: Informationo
about new application of existing product (e.g.,
please try a cup with an X mark for
classification of nut/bolt and button).

Results of Using: Information about the results of
product use (e.g., refreshing feeling: no more
stain on floor).

Consumer Satisfaction: Information about consumer
satisfaction, preference, long lasting (e.g., I
always use ...: I used it ...: I like it very
much).

Productg Superiority Appeals: Claiming that an
advertised product is superior against a
competing product or an existing product of the
same company (product extension) on certain
elements.

Usage Convenience: Information about convenience on
product purchase, use, discard, etc.

Special Event or Special Offer: Information about
sales offer, discounts, or the like for a given
time period.

New Productc or Improved Features: Information about
new product, new ingredients, new features, new

performances.

84

27. Usage Occasion: Information about proper use occasion

28.

29.

-30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

or for timing (e.g., buy a doll for the
children's day: have a beer on a joyful day).

Users' Characteristics: Information about the
characteristics of users (e.g., for busy
salespeople: for your heart).

Image or Reputaion of Company: Information about
general image/reputation of (a) manufacturer or
marketing company (e.g., we try harder; unique
corporate).

Company's Experience and Size: Information about
company's experience through its history or its
size.

Varieties of Business: Information about varieties of
business involved.

Location of Company: Advantageous location of company
or factory, or information about logistics of
location for raw materials.

Policies toward Public: Information about company's
policies toward the general public.

Policies toward Government: Information about any
forms of policies toward government.
Policies toward Employees: Information about current

or future policies toward employees.

Others (to be explained).

85

APPENDIX E

Definitions of the Product Life-Cycle Stages

Stage on PLC (Product Life-Cycle): Criteria to decide a
stage on product life-cycle are time amount that the
product category has been on the market, and the

number of competitors in the market.

1. Introduction: A period of slow sales growth as the
product is introduced in the market. Profits are
nonexistent in this stage because of the heavy
expense of product introduction.

2. Growth: A period of rapid market acceptance and
substantial profit improvement.

3. Maturity: A period of a slowdown in sales growth since
the product has achieved acceptance by most of the
potential buyers. Profits stabilize or decline
because of increased marketing outlays to defend the
product against competition.

4. Decline: A period when sales show a strong downward

drift and profits erode.

Source: Kotler, Philip, R ' ana eme ° s's

Planning, and Control (5 ed.), N.J.: Prentice-Hall,
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, 1980, p.290.

86

APPENDIX F

Translation of

the Product Life-Cycle Stages in Kbrean
1r l} «e ‘9 4» 7)

7°C.?

£9 49 4fl€fl an:we #!N 2 Mfiflfl flflt Mflfi 2
éblfifl ‘fiifl0l Sat: =$£E 1%!4l3l Illhfl §”9!!flh

L is”: was new flee: same Mfl.flfle saw is
a was «n»n n+4»; flee as a».
Maaaq +1» esnm we: eane an.
mass was amass 41% was ewe ewe:
flee zaaqaw swag}; sass eawe a:
an flee xfld id} 4 an.

a sun :unu New sane an.

 

if”
1

2. «"9»:
3. 431:7!

-r-

 

87

APPENDIX G

Back-Translation

of the Product Life-Cycle Stages

Stage on the Product Life-Cycle: The life-cycle stage of
product is determined by two criteria: the length of
the product in the market and the number of

competitive items in the market.

1. Introduction: The time when a product is introduced.
The sales of the product is small and the profit is
little because of the large amount of expense for
product introduction.

2. Growth: The time when the market demand increases and
the substantial profit increases.

3. Maturity: The time when the sales growth of the product
is getting slow since the product has been accepted
by the maximum number of potential buyers. The
profit is stable, or declines since the amount of
expense against competitive items can be increasing.

4. Decline: The time when the sales of the product and the

substantial profit decline.

88

APPENDIX H

l. Coding Sheet for U.S. Advertisements

1m Gem—1N0

Office use 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O - _ - _ 1-5

Ad 0 No 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0000000000 — — _ 6-8

COder No 0 O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O — _ 9-10

country No 0 O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O I O O — 11
1) U.S.A. 2) Korea

Type of Pzgguct ........................ _ _ 12-13
01) Food

02) Beverage

03) Health Food/Drinks

O4) Alcoholic Beverage

05) Tobacco Product

06) Over-the-Counter Drug

O7) Automobile/Bicycle

08) Automobile-Related (Gasoline, Oil ...)
09) Cosmetics

10) Personal Care

11) Detergent/Cleaner/Air-Freshener

12)
13)
14)
15)
16)
17)
18)
19)
20)
21)
22)
23)
24)
25)
26)
27)
28)
29)

30)

31)‘

32)
33)
34)
35)
36)

37)

89

Insecticide/Pesticide

Household Goods (Gardening, Painting ...)
Clothing/Fashion

Shoes

Textile/Fabric

Furniture/Carpeting

Ceramics/Glassware

Electronic Appliance

Camera/Photographic Supplies
Computer/Computer-Related (Hardware/Software)
Clock/Watch

Comm./Telecommunication Equipment & Supplies
Toys/Games

Sporting Goods

Pet Food/Pet Supplies & Equipment
Entertainment/Recreational

Publication

Record/Cassette Tape/Video Tape
Stationery

Musical Instrument

Industrial/Building Material

Hotel/Motel

Restaurant

Movies/Theater

Department Store

Supermarket

3a)
39)
40)
41)
42)
43)
44)
45)

46)

90

Other Retailer (Specify:

 

Finance/Insurance Service
Transportation Service
Telecommunication Service

Other Service (Specify:

 

School/Eduational Institution
Hospital/Medical Care
Institutional/Corporate Advertising

Other (Specify:

 

Information Content

01)
02)
03)
04)

05)

06)
07)
08)

09)

 

Y§§______HQ
sound/picture/both
1 2 3 4

Brand Name

 

 

Product

 

 

Company Name

 

 

Price

 

 

Variety of

Product

 

 

value

 

 

Quality

 

 

Economy/Savings

 

 

Dependability/

O.

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

10)

11)

12)
13)

14)

15)

16)

17)

18)

19)

20)

21)

22)

23)

24)

25)

26)

91

Reliability/
Durability

 

Sensory Inform.

 

 

Components/

Contents

 

 

Availability

 

 

 

 

Packaging

 

 

Guarantees/

Warranty

 

 

Safety

 

 

Nutrition/Health
Independent

Research

 

 

 

Company Research
Unidentified

Research Source

 

 

New Uses

 

 

 

Results of Using
User's

Satisfaction

 

 

Superiority

 

 

Convenience in

Use

 

 

Special Offer

or Event

 

 

 

New Product/Im-

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

27)

28)

29)

30)

31)

32)

33)

34)

35)

36)

92

proved Features

 

Use Occasion

 

Characteristics
or Image of

Users

 

Company Image or

Reputation

 

Company Age or

Size

 

Variety of

Company Business

 

Location of

Business

 

Policies toward

Public

 

Policies toward

Government

 

Policies toward

Employees

 

Other (explain)

 

39

4O

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

01)
02)
on)
04)
05)
06)
0?)
as)
09)
10)
11)
129
13)
14)
15)
16)
17)
18)
19)
20)
21)

OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

.....................................

93

2 . Coding Sheet for Korean Advertisements

ll ‘9 4% 3|

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89/44

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12-13

22)
23)
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33)
34)
35)
36)
37)
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43)
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7|

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19

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22
23
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25
26
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39

41

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£3
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£5
£6

34) ‘94-} fit!

'41!

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03) £4?!
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385

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97

APPENDIX I

1. Summary of the Reports
from U.S. Coders about Their Coding

The training session was very helpful since the
coders were able to ask questions and make comments about
what they should be looking for as coders, and to iron-out
any problems with the coding instrument.

However, there was a frequently occuring problem in
being able to distinguish between brand names and product
names, or between brand names and company names. For
example, some coders believed that Stouffer's Entrees is a
brand name, but it is the product name as well. If the
coders were not very knowledgeable about the product, they
would have a difficult time deciding whether the company
was mentioned (visual or audio), just the brand name, or
both. Another frequently occuring problem was determining
the product life-cycle stages. It was especially hard to
differentiate when a product was crossing over from an
intorductioon to a growth stage or when a product went
from a growth to a mature stage.

Generally, the problems that the coders encountered
during the advertisements coding were resolved with
consultations. It was suggested that the informational

cue that related to ingredients should be expanded to

98

include those ingredients that are purposely excluded from
the product by the manufacturer. Such appeals boast of
the ”lead-free, sodium-free, cholesterol-free” attributes
of the product. If nothing else, the definitions of

ingredient items should include such appeals.

99

2. Summary of the Reports

from Kbrean Coders about Their Coding

The most difficult coding part was determining the
product life-cycle stages. It was especially to define
the stages of medicine, car, clothing and cosmetics
advertisements. Even the training session was not really
helpful to code the product life-cycle stages. Another
problem was coding the price information which was shown
in a very small number on the screen.

Generally, the problems that Korean coders
encountered during their coding were not as specific as
American coders did. Almost of the coders suggested that
the information content of TV advertisement should be
analyzed by means of different coding scale in stead of
nominal scale. For example, the information content
should be measured by using likert scale with the question
of at which level the TV advertisements convey a certain

information cue.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

 

100

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