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I it ik “12W", VERSI ITY LIBRARIES l‘xljgmmumIII“ I II III II ”BMW”! _ Michigan State University l This is to certify that the thesis entitled LEISURE ATTITUDES AMONG MALE SAUDI STUDENTS STUDYING IN THE UNITED STATES presented by __- Ahmad Al-Fadhil has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for M.S degree in Park and Recreation Resources l/{tnzfld 52/26; «Xi/J V" Major professor . /, Date 7/”7/ 5"? 0-7639 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or betore date due. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE _ — .7 I ll MSU Is An Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution LEISURE ATTITUDES AMONG MALE SAUDI STUDENTS STUDYING IN THE UNITED STATES by Ahmad Al-Fadhil A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Park and Recreation Resources 1989 boOllfiX ABSTRACT LEISURE ATTITUDES AMONG MALE SAUDI STUDENTS STUDYING IN THE UNITED STATES by Ahmad Al-Fadhil The purposes of this research were: 1) to investigate leisure attitudes in general and determine the intensity and direction of attitude differences toward leisure among male Saudi students studying in the United States; 2) to explore the impact of a set of independent variables (age, marital status, number of children, level of education, and duration of stay) on male Saudi students' attitudes toward leisure. A questionnaire was distributed to 300 male Saudi students studying in the United States. A total of 159 usable responses were collected. The statistical analysis of the data utilized frequencies and percentage distribution and one-way analysis of variance. The variable that was found to have the greatest and most positive impact upon the sample's leisure attitudes was the duration of stay. Education level was found to have a significant effect on the sample’s attitudes toward leisure. Number of children in the family had a great impact upon the father's attitude toward leisure. Copyright by AHMAD M. AL-FADHIL 1989 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my sincere appreciation and thanks to my committee chairman Dr. James Bristor for his advice, kindness, patience, encouragement, and positive guidance. I also wish to extend my sincere thanks to the committee members, Dr. Kenneth Harding and Professor Theodore Haskell, for their valuable guidance, advice and continuous encouragement. Finally, my special gratitude to my parents who were always generous and supportive, and to my brothers and sisters for their prayers and encouragement throughout my study. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF FIGURES . C O O C O O O O O O O O O O 0 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION . . Purpose of the Study . . Importance of the Study . Limitations of the Study Hypotheses . . . . . . . Definition of Terms . . . CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE Leisure Conceptualization . . Perceived Freedom . . Intrinsic Motivation . Leisure Attitudes . . . . Other Related Studies . . CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES The Sample Process . . . . . . . . . The Selection of the Instrument . . . The Collection of Data . . . . . . . The Statistical Analysis Procedures . CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF DATA . . . . Characteristics of Male Saudi Students . Analysis of Leisure Attitudes Among Saudi Studying in the United States . Age and Leisure Attitudes . . . . Marital Status and Leisure Attitudes Number of Children and Leisure Attitude Education and Leisure Attitudes . . Length of Stay and Leisure Attitude Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary . . . . . . Sample of the Study . . . . . Respondents' Characteristics The Instrument . . . . . . . Methodology . . . . . . . Major Find1ngs . . . . . Age . . . . . Marital Status . Number of Children iv Students PAGE vi 43 45 46 47 50 61 63 63 64 64 65 65 66 67 Educational Classification Duration of Stay . Combination of Education and Duration Conclusions Recommendations Problems for Further Research . APPENDIX A - Copyright Permission Attitude Scale APPENDIX B - Letter of Purpose. APPENDIX C - Follow-up Letter . APPENDIX D - Questionnaire. REFERENCES for Leisure 67 68 69 7O 71 72 75 77 79 81 87 LIST OF TABLES PAGE Table 4.1 Distribution of the Sample According to Age . . . . . 40 Table 4.2 Distribution of the Sample According to Marital Status. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Table 4.3 Distribution of the Sample According to Number of Children 0 O I O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O 41 Table 4.4 Distribution of the Sample According to Educational Classification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Table 4.5 Distribution of the Sample According to Duration of Stay. 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Table 4.6 Measures of Variability of Leisure Attitude Scale and Its Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Table 4.7 Analysis of Variance Table: Association Between Age Groups and Leisure Attitudes. . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Table 4.8 Analysis of Variance Table: Association Between Marital Status and Leisure Attitudes. . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Table 4.9 Analysis of Variance Table: Association Between Marital Status (married/single) and Behavior Subscale . . . . 47 Table 4.10 Means of Behavioral Scores: Association Between Marital Status and Behavior Component . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Table 4.11 Analysis of Variance Table: Association Between Number of Children (1 or 2) and Leisure Attitude . . . . . . 48 Table 4.12 Means of Leisure Attitude Scores: Association Between Leisure Attitude and Number of‘Children . . . . . . . 49 vi Table 4.13 Association Between Number of Children and Leisure Attitude Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Table 4.14 Analysis of Variance Table: Association Between Education Classification and Leisure Attitude . . . . 50 Table 4.15 Means of Leisure Attitude Scores: Association Between Educational Classification and Leisure Attitude . . . 51 Table 4.16 Association Between Educational Classification and Leisure Attitude Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Table 4.17 Analysis of Variance Table: Association Between Duration of Stay and Leisure Attitude . . . . . . . . 53 Table 4.18 ‘ Means of Leisure Attitude Scores: Association Between Duration of Stay and Leisure Attitude . . . . . . . . 53 Table 4.19 Analysis of Variance Table: Association Between Duration of Stay and Leisure Attitudes Components . . 54 Table 4.20 Means of Cognitive Component Scores: Association Between the Cognitive Component and Duration of Stay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Table 4.21 Means of Affective Component Scores: Association Between the Affective Component and Duration of Stay. 0 O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O I . O O 55 Table 4.22 Analysis of Variance Table: Association Between the New Variable (Education + Duration of Stay) and Leisure Attitude. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Table 4.23 Means of Leisure Attitude Scores: Association Between the New Variable and Leisure Attitude . . . . . . . . 57 Table 4.24 > Analysis of Variance Table: Association Between New Variable Leisure Attitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Table 4.25 Means of Leisure Attitude Scores: Association Between the New Variable (Education+Duration) and Cognitive Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 vii Table 4.26 Means of Leisure Attitude Scores: Association Between the New Variable (Education+Duration) and Affective Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Table 4.27 Means of Leisure Attitude Scores: Association Between the New Variable (Education+Duration) and Behavioral Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Table 4.28 Mean Scores in the Leisure Attitude and each Component for all the groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 viii Figure 1: Figure 2: Figure 3. LIST OF FIGURES Maslow's hierarchy of needs . . . Leisure Conceptualization Model . Attitude conceptions. . . . . . . ix CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION Attitudes have been studied intensively during the past few decades. Most events, if not all, stimulate human attitudes either negatively or positively. During historical events there were many major societal changes and social psychologists were concerned about knowing the people's attitudes toward those changes. According to the Saudi Arabian Educational Mission, Washington, D.C., Saudi students started coming to the United States in the early 19505, and they are still coming. At the present time there are approximately 3,000 Saudi students studying in the United States. Living in another country is a major event that might have a strong influence on people’s attitudes. Ragheb (1980) wrote, When individuals interact, they communicate messages and develop relations. Hence, individuals influence each other’s opinions, attitudes, values, and behavior. In sum, group and social interaction are dynamic aspects that are related to almost all possible phenomena. Many of these aspects are relevant to leisure experiences and behavior. They take place while individuals are involved in leisure pursuits. (p. 50). Interaction with American individuals, groups, and culture will influence the attitudes toward leisure among male Saudi students during their stay in the United States. The subjects of this study have integrated with the American 2 culture for different periods of time and their attitudes might have been affected, including their leisure attitudes. The subjects are changing individuals in a changing world (in various degrees). Crandall and Slivken (1980) stated that, "Our attitudes change as we learn new information about an activity. When others reinforce new attitudes, or when our values change, attitudes will also change" (p. 263, 264). In regard to Saudi students’ attitudes, Al-Banyan (1976) reported that, Attitudes concerning traditional Saudi Arabian values became more liberalized by exposure to the United States culture, and that those students who had been in the United States for more than two years experienced a significantly greater change than those who had been in the United States for less than two years. (p. ix) In regard to leisure time activities among Saudi students in the United States, Jammaz (1972) reported that the activities were, Attending parties, dances and social events (49 percent): attending concerts, plays and movies (35 percent): watching television and listening to music and radio (67 percent); traveling (42 percent): participating in sports (30 percent); and reading (44 percent). (p. 64) Purpose of the Study The main purpose of this study was to investigate leisure attitudes in general and to determine the intensity and direction of attitude differences toward leisure between male Saudi students studying in the United States. The study 3 also explored how some demographic variables and time spent in the United States affected attitudes toward leisure. The reason for conducting this study in the United States was the availability of a broad range of leisure time activities, with freedom of choice male Saudi students might not have in Saudi Arabia. The people cannot know what they want unless they are aware of, or have experienced, the available alternatives. Neumeyer and Neumeyer (1958) wrote, Attitudes, wishes, interests, and habits are essential aspects of personality, and all are developed in the matrix of social interaction. The impact of the social environment conditions them, but they are not the product of the environmental situations alone" (p. 171). Because of lack of facilities and limited knowledge regarding leisure in Saudi Arabia, studying Saudi students' attitudes toward leisure was considered to be more appropriately conducted in one of the leading countries in this field. Importance of the Study Understanding male Saudi students' attitudes toward leisure should greatly contribute to program offerings and facility planning in Saudi Arabia. Knowing the leisure attitudes among Saudi students studying in the United States can lead to leisure education efforts to change certain attitudes toward leisure, namely negative leisure attitudes. Neulinger (1974) stated that "If we wish to provide adequate leisure services, if we wish to improve such services and anticipate what people really want, it is an absolute necessity that we know what their attitudes on leisure are" 4 (p. 130). Furthermore, Iso-Ahola (1980a) wrote, "A positive leisure attitude toward an activity is interpreted as an aspect or a special case of intrinsic leisure motivation" (p. 250). Saudi Arabia is one of the developing third world countries: therefore, it has neither leisure facilities available in most places, nor studies about people’s needs. Saudi Arabians still do not distinguish between free time and leisure time. For a study done in part of the country, "Leisure Among Saudi Youth" by Kandil et al (1978), the authors used leisure time and free time as synonymous words. In contrast, DeGrazia (1964) stated that, Leisure and free time live in different worlds. We have got in the habit of thinking them the same. Anybody can have free time. Not everybody can have leisure. Free time is a realizable idea of democracy. Leisure is not fully realizable, and hence an ideal not alone an idea. Free time refers to a special way of calculating time. Leisure refers to a state of being, a condition of [humanity] which few desire and fewer achieve. (p. 5) Leisure in Saudi Arabia is in its infancy. It has not received enough attention except in the last few years where the development of some facilities are underway. It is hoped that the respondents benefitted immediately from the study because: first, it served as a leisure education tool; and second, it should have reminded them to take advantage of their time while living in the United States. 5 Limitations of the Study The generalizability of the findings of this study will be limited to male Saudi students 18 years of age or older and studying in the United States for at least one year. The hypotheses were formulated for the leisure attitude in general. Thus, there were no hypotheses for the leisure attitude components (cognitive, affective, and behavioral). The definition of leisure attached to the questionnaire was simply non-obligatory and non- work activities, because of the scale developers' request to have nothing changed in order to achieve a high reliability of the scale. Hypotheses Older Saudi Arabian male students develop more positive attitudes toward leisure than younger male students. Single Saudi Arabian male students have more positive attitudes toward leisure than married male Saudi Arabian students. The fewer children a male Saudi Arabian student has the more positive personal attitudes he develops toward leisure. 6 4. Male Saudi Arabian graduate students develop more positive personal leisure attitudes than male undergraduates. 5. The longer the male Saudi Arabian student has lived in the United States, the more positive personal attitudes he develops toward leisure. Definition of Terms Attitude: "An attitude is a relatively stable evaluative response toward an object (i.e. leisure) that has cognitive, affective, and probably behavioral components of consequences" (Lamberth, 1980, p. 184). Cognitive - the individual's general knowledge and beliefs about leisure, its characteristics, virtues, and how it relates to the quality of one's life. Affective - The individual's feelings toward his/her own leisure, the degree of liking or disliking of leisure activities and experiences. Behavioral - The individual's past, present, and intended actions with regard to leisure activities, and experiences (Ragheb and Beard, 1982, p. 158). Foreigners: Individuals who are living in the United States but do not have United States citizenship. Saudi Students: Students who are Saudi citizens and enrolled in graduate or undergraduate programs at any university in the United States. 7 Culture: "Culture is the integration of knowledge, beliefs, ways of doing things, customs, traditions, values, and laws" (Ragheb, 1980, p. 53). Leisure: Any freely taken action (active or passive) during one’s convenient time to satisfy some needs and/or desires initiated by the perceived freedom and motivated intrinsically. CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE The review of literature for this study has been divided into three major parts. The first part deals with leisure conceptualization: the second part deals with attitudes and how it relates to leisure; and the third part presents some studies related to attitude changes among foreigners. Leisure Conceptualization Leisure has been looked at as an important element in human life for a long time. For instance, Ibn Khaldun (1332- 1406), who is known as the foremost authority on Arab Muslim history, included leisure in his list of human desires. According to Bala et. al. (1981), "Ibn Khaldun is regarded as a precursor of the society and the first attempt to formulate social laws" (p. vii). Unfortunately, the discovery of Ibn Khaldun’s work came a little too late. Cook (1984) in regard to Ibn Khaldun wrote, In 1381, without precedent there appears a work of adab by a Tunisian statesman, Manque, that was to tantalize and inspire scholars all over the world, but only after half a millennium of virtual neglect has separated the creator from the fruit of his creation---Ibn Khaldun's Muqaddinah and first six chapters of Kitab al-Ibar were rediscovered by orientalists' oriental as well as occidental, to suit their purposes" (p. 27). 9 Ibn Khaldun’s list of human desires as reported by Mahdi (1957) are: (1) bodily appetites; (2) desires for safety; (3) desires for affiliation; (4) desires for superiority: and (5) desires related to leisure. Ibrahim (1988) wrote, Ibn Khaldun believed that human desires are capable of infinite variations, from the simplest instinctive urge for the satisfaction of hunger to the most intricate, complex, and specialized desire developed in highly c1v1lized soc1al order (p. 52). The desires related to leisure contain three sets of desires connected with leisure. These sets of desires according to Mahdi (1957) are, first, the desire for amusement, relaxation, and laughter. The second set contains the desire for rhythmic tunes, and the desires to experience objects of hearing, tasting, touching, smelling or seeing, which leads to delight and delectation. Included in the final set are the desire to wonder, to learn and to gain knowledge (p. 179). Thus, human beings are motivated (probably naturally) to achieve their desires including desires related to leisure. The motivation then is part of the individual’s attitudes. For further clarification of where leisure stands in human lives, Lefrancois (1982) illustrates Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Figure 1). 10 23’ 00 ¢ It 0 (9 ‘1‘” es; 45’ Aesthetic J Goodness beauty truth justice Cognitive knowledge symmetry Self-Esteem competence approval recognition ,. Belongingness and Love 3; {a affiliation acceptance affection ;; a“? a fi’ Safety 3 fig security psychological safety ~% “2;. 0 Physiological .9 food drink Figure 1: Maslow's hierarchy of needs. (Lefrancois, 1982, p. 306) 11 He divided the needs into basic needs and meta-needs. The distinction between them, according to Lefrancois is, Maslow’s basic needs are also termed efficiency needs since they motivate (lead to behavior) when the organism is deficient with respect to a need, (for example lacks food or water). The meta-needs are termed growth needs since they motivate behaviors that do not result from deficiencies, but that result, instead, from our instinctual tendencies toward growth. (p. 305) The higher two stages in Maslow's hierarchy (growth needs) are the heart and the ultimate of leisure. In defining the term self actualization, Maslow (1970) wrote, It refers to man’ s desire for self— fulfillment, namely to the tendency for him to become actualized in what he is potentially. This tendency might be phrased as the desire to become more and more what one idiosyncratically is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming." (p. 46) In order to achieve this need, satisfaction of previous ones is necessary. Maslow (1970) stated, As for the concept of emergence of a new need after satisfaction of the prepotent need, this emergence is not a sudden, saltatory phenomenon, but rather a gradual emergence by slow degrees from nothingness. (P- 54) Leisure, then, is one of the human needs which is derived by the person’s attitudes towards fulfilling some needs and/or desires. Ibrahim (1988), in discussing the similarities between these ideas, stated, While Maslow has used the term needs to arrive at his motivation theory, Ibn Khaldun used the term desires to arrive at the motivational factors behind the steps he designed for the historical development of state and society (p. 56). 12 This motivation is the central element for human satisfaction including leisure. It is needed and desired when other needs/desires are fulfilled. The question that arises, then, is ’what is leisure?’ The following paragraphs will demonstrate a conceptualization of leisure. Defining leisure is not easy. Many definitions of leisure have been suggested over the years causing a great challenge for anyone dealing with leisure and its meaning. One simple way of dealing with the definition of leisure, but a comprehensive one, is defining it either objectively or subjectively. Objectively, leisure can be defined as time left over after work, or discretionary time. It can be defined as activity. Subjectively, leisure can be defined as a state of mind or an experience. In an attempt to develop an unambiguous, realistic, and logical approach for conceptualization of leisure, the literature has been reviewed. Some authors have discussed the distinction between the objective and the subjective definitions. Neulinger (1980) stated that, "The importance of drawing the distinction between the two types of definitions is not that one is better, more useful, or generally preferable to the other. The appropriate use of either depends on the purpose and the target of one’s investigation" (p. 10). Corbin and William (1973) wrote, "For too long we have associated leisure with time. Leisure is an attitude toward life; it reflects our value system as we select activities for our pattern of living" (p. 5). Neulinger (1984) stated, 13 Perhaps the most weighty implication of a state of mind conception of leisure is the fact that the phenomenon chosen to be dealt with has a highly positive connotation. It is by its nature, an end in itself, closely linked to values we hold dear: health, both mental and physical, freedom and meaning. This cannot be said of free time, which remains forever a means to an end. (p. 33). The supporters of the subjective definition emphasize the importance of an individual’s leisure experiences rather than their participation in activities. It should be noted that there are different kinds of leisure experiences. Tinsely and Tinsely (1986) in their theory stated that, "There is a general agreement among theorists that there is not a single leisure experience but a continuum of leisure experiences" (p. 5). It is clear that the focus of leisure experience is in the individual not the activity. In the causes of leisure experience as an exposition of "A Theory of the Attributes, Benefits and Causes of Leisure Experience," Tinsely and Tinsely (1986) stated that, We believe that four conditions must be present for a person to experience leisure or the leisure state: perceived freedom of choice, intrinsic motivation, facilitative arousal, and commitment (p. 11). It should be noted here that the authors in this context used the term leisure experience "to signify a subjective experience of leisure at any level of intensity," and used the term leisure state "to signify only the most potent or engrossing of leisure experiences" (p. 3). Thus, it seems that the leisure state, or state of mind is the best experience the individual can achieve from participation in a (leisure activity). DeGrazia (1964) supported this notion when he wrote, "Leisure refers to a 14 state of being, a condition of [humanity], which few desire and fewer achieve" (p. 5). Only the participant can determine the level and/or the strength of a leisure experience. Leisure, as indicated earlier, has been explained in literature as time, activities, state of mind, or as a synonym of either one without considering for interrelatedness among them. Gunter (1984) has strongly suggested the need for view of the subjective leisure just as the other ways in which individuals personally relate to time or activities. Gunter (1984) emphasized the relationships among them in his writing that, "The forms which leisure takes (either specific, isolated experiences, or more general life-styles) are clearly a function of such relationships" (p. 128). In most literature, there is an agreement that perceived freedom and intrinsic motivation are necessary for a person to experience leisure, (Neulinger 1974, 1984; Kelly 1982; Iso-Ahola, 1980, 1984; Mannell, 1980; Tinsely and Tinsely, 1986). This agreement, however, is limited in regard to their meaning, especially the perceived freedom. Therefore, a review of each follows. Perceived Freedom Researchers agree on the importance of perceived freedom as a prerequisite for leisure. Neulinger (1974) defined perceived freedom as "A state in which the person feels that 15 what he is doing, he is doing by choice and because he wants to do it" (p. 15). Furthermore, Neulinger (1981) wrote, "One cannot conceive of freedom without the potential for choice" (p. 149). Perceived freedom is far more than free choice. Kelly (1982) stated that, "In most approaches to leisure, the stress has been on freedom of choice. At the very least leisure requires that we have a choice, that we could have chosen not to do it" (p. 158). Perceived freedom appears to be a primary requisite to experience leisure. Iso-Ahola (1980a) wrote, "Perceived freedom is the critical regulator of what becomes leisure and what does not" (p. 189). He goes on to state that, "It appears that perceived freedom determines an individual’s perception of leisure, which in turn directly shapes the extent of leisure involvement" (p. 189). Free time, or residual time, presents an opportunity for the individual to exercise preferential behavior. Farina (1985) wrote, The term ’leisure time’ as differing from ’leisure’ describes a particular type of time. On this basis leisure should perhaps be more logically compared with freedom, i.e. the two modifiers in the terms ’free time’ and ’leisure time’ warrant comparison. (Po 31) Leisure is partially an expression of freedom. Bregha (1985) stated that, "Leisure is as much freedom to something as it is freedom from something" (p. 40). The perception of oneself as free is as important as being free in reality. According to Witt and Ellis (1985), the subjective approach defines leisure as "a person’s own perception and inference of quantity and quality of activities" (p. 106). 16 Furthermore, Neulinger (1981a), stressing the perceived freedom and its importance, wrote, "The primary defining criterion of leisure is freedom, or to be more specific, perceived freedom" (p. 15). From that it is clear that perceived freedom of choice serves as a point of departure for a person to experience leisure. Perceived freedom is more than free choice. Harper (1986) stated that "Reducing the meaning of perceived freedom in leisure to the free choice of leisure pursuits leaves us in an uncomfortable predicament" (p. 120). Iso-Ahola (1980), in reviewing some literature, concludes that, To enhance an individual’s perceived freedom, one should be given an opportun1ty for both "outcome" and "decision" freedom. Outcome freedom is high if recreational alternatives are many and varied, thus enabling a person to expect to obtain all the outcomes or rewards des1red through recreational encounters. Decision freedom is high if there are many options in each activity category, and if -these alternatives are closely matched in attractiveness. (p. 196, 197) If what we mean by perceived freedom in leisure is the experience of freedom in reality (makes sense) to the individual experiencing it, then this perceived freedom should be ever present during the leisure experience. Harper (1986) stated, "Freedom is undergone in the experience of leisure; it is lived through and is not some kind of apprehended point of departure or arrival" (p. 122). He further wrote, Freedom, as undergone in leisure, is an experience of ongoing consent. The temporal duration of leisure experiences is characterized by our consenting to something, somehow other than ourselves, yet with which we identify and toward which we are loyal (p. 123). 17 Harper also presents other kinds of freedom in leisure as intensification of ordinary experience. He stated that, "Leisure experiences are markedly different from nonleisure, or ordinary experiences by virtue of their intensity" (p. 125). In conclusion, perceived freedom is a prerequisite for and parallel to an action for a person to experience leisure. Therefore, perceived freedom should be viewed first as perceived freedom from obligations, and second as perceived freedom of choice. In viewing free time as a prerequisite for leisure, Iso-Ahola (1980a) disagrees with Neulinger (1974) in that the former wrote, "Without free time a person cannot have leisure" (p. 8), while the latter believes that leisure can occur in one’s work if certain criteria are met. While Shaw (1986) in her analysis indicated that, Leisure could occur during any type of activity. Much of the le1sure exper1ences occurred dur1ng free time and recreational time, but leisure also occurred quite commonly at work (especially during work breaks) and at home during personal care, child care and other household-related activities. (p. 187) These findings support that only the individuals who perceive themselves as having or actually have freedom from obligation can experience leisure. It should be noted here that freedom from obligations without intrinsic motivation (as will be discussed later) for an action is not leisure, merely free- time. Perceived freedom of choice includes: 1. A choice to participate or not. 2. A choice among alternatives. 18 3. A choice to continue or stop. In other words, perceived freedom in its general way is connected with leisure, which distinguishes leisure experiences from non-leisure experiences. Intrinsic Motivation Besides perceived freedom, a person must be motivated intrinsically, and to differentiate leisure activities and experiences from non-leisure experiences and activities. Ruskin and Shamir (1984) wrote, "The concept of motivation rests on the assumption of the existence of needs, wishes, aspirations, attitudes and expectations which endow human behavior with the energy it needs and direct and channel it, towards certain horizons" (p. 141). They continue to define the intrinsic motivation as, "That motivation which is directed to the activity itself and to the benefits supplied by actual participation or execution" (p. 143). The intrinsic motivation, therefore, is affected by the perceived freedom. Iso-Ahola (1982) stressed that perceived freedom and freedom of choice are key components of leisure, and perceived competency is, "At the heart of intrinsic motivation" (p. 32). He stated, "For the pursuit of and involvement in leisure activities to become intrinsically motivated, a person has to be able to participate in them freely and to feel as competent because of engagement" (p. 32). The interaction between a person and an object, then, is the result of intrinsic motivation. 19 Weissinger and Iso-Ahola (1984) stated that, "The internal causality personality is characterized by a belief in one’s self as a causal agent in the environment, a strong sense of competence and self-determination and a high degree of willfulness" (p. 218). They continue by summarizing Kobasa (1979) and Deci (1980), They both suggest that the presence or absence of intrinsic motivation is determined by the interaction of personal and situation characteristics, and that there may exist a personality orientation which facilitates the likelihood of intrinsically motivated behavior. (p. 219) Since the intrinsic motivation is a product of a person’s interaction with an object, then the environment, undoubtedly, has some influence on the development-of the intrinsic motivation. Iso-Ahola (1980a) wrote, "Environmental factors can reduce the role of intrinsic motivation in leisure behavior either by minimizing an individual’s perceived recreational freedom or by limiting perceived competence to perform certain leisure skill" (p. 236). It is understood that the intrinsic motivation, just as the name implies, comes from the human’s thinking in fulfilling some leisure needs and/or desires. The findings of DeCarlo’s study (1974), "Participation Patterns and Successful Aging," indicated that the inclusion of the "thought processes" during participation in an activity would probably be most beneficial to the enhancement of physical and mental health. This does not deny the benefit of participation in physical motor activities, but 20 suggests that cognitive and mental exercises are needed for the maintenance of physical and mental health. Intrinsic motivation is derived by certain needs, i.e. needs for competence, excitement, and self-determination. Every human being is intrinsically motivated. Deci and Ryan (1985) stated that, "They (adults) spend large amounts of time painting pictures, building furniture, playing sports . . ., and doing countless other things for which there are no obvious or appreciable external rewards." They continue to state that, "Intrinsic motivation is the energy source that is central to the active nature of the organism" (p. 11). To distinguish intrinsic motivation from other motivations, they wrote, "When people are intrinsically motivated, they experience interest and enjoyment, they feel competent and self-determining, they perceive the focus of causality for their behavior to be internal, and in some instances they experience flow" (p. 34). It should be noted here that what intrinsically motivates one person may not motivate another. Moreover, a person’s perception of his motivation for engaging in an activity may vary across time in the activity (Tinsely and Tinsely, 1986: Iso-Ahola, 1980). In Iso-Ahola’s (1980) reporting of the findings of his two quasi-experimental studies (1977a, 1978), he stated (in 1980 book) that, "These findings were entirely consistent with Neulinger’s and Kelly’s theorizing, in that it was freedom rather than lack of it, intrinsic rather than extrinsic motivation, low work-relation rather than high 21 work-relation and final goals rather than instrumental goals, which increased the subjects’ perceptions of leisure" (p. 187) When a person perceives freedom, whether during free time or work, the intrinsic motivation is likely to function in order to fulfill some needs and desires. The individual’s decision of what action to take (passive or active) to fulfill this freedom satisfactorily is the entrance to the world of leisure. As a result of the literature review regarding the conceptualization of leisure, the following model (Figure 2) presents leisure in a general way, combining the subjective and object view of leisure. This model expresses that any action taken because of perceived freedom and intrinsic motivation is a leisure action. This action, therefore, will lead to a leisure experience, which in turn may take the individual to the ultimate of leisure, that is the leisure state or state of mind. From this model leisure can be defined as any freely taken action (active or passive) during one’s convenient time to satisfy some needs and/or desires initiated by the perceived freedom and motivated intrinsically. The relationship between attitude and leisure is very strong and can be measured. The following part of the literature review will examine the attitudes in general and their relation to leisure. 22 _A 1_____J PERCEIVED INTRINSIC FREEDOM MOTIVATION LEISURE ACTION ACTIVE 93 PASSIVE LEISURE EXPERIENCE l LEISURE STATE Figure 2. Leisure Conceptualization Model Leisure Attitudes Attitudes basically are a reflection of the individual’s experiences with the surrounding environment, new ones formed and old ones changed. Experience with objects, people or events tends to lead to a more flexible attitude. Attitude is generally conceptualized as a learned disposition to respond in a consistent evaluative manner toward an object or class of objects (Allport, 1935; Rosenberg and Horland, 1960; Thomas, 1969). Concerning the relative stability of attitude, Likert (1932) stated that, If an attitude can be defined as a tendency toward a particular response in a particular situation, it is clear that the number of definable attitudes existing in a given person at a given time will depend upon the range of stimuli to which he is subjected. (p. 7). 23 Likert defined attitudes as "Dispositions toward overt action, and they are verbal substitutes for overt action" (p. 9). Overt behavior (action) toward an object reflects not only the attitude elicited by that object, but also the influence of other variables -- namely affective and cognitive (Rosenberg and Harland, 1960). Furthermore, they stated, When the affective and cognitive components of an attitude are mutually consistent the attitude is in a stable state: when the affective and cognitive components are mutually inconsistent (to a degree that exceeds the individual’s present tolerance for such inconsistency) the attitude is in an unstable state and will undergo spontaneous reorganizing activity until such activity eventuates in either 1) the attainment of affective-cognitive consistency, or 2) the placing of an "irreconcilable inconsistency beyond the range of active awareness (p. 22). In an attempt to ease the complexity of studying attitudes, Rosenberg and Harland (1960) classified the variables that interact and affect the state of attitude into three categories: 1) measurable independent variables: 2) intervening variables; and 3) measurable dependent variables. Figure 3 illustrates the schematic relationships between attitudes and these variables. 24 Measurable Independent Intervening Measurable Dependent Variables Variables Variables Sympathetic nervous I responses STIMULI Verbal statements of effect Individuals Ir Situations __r ,z’rPerceptual responses Social issues [Attitude Epgnition [Verbal statements of Social groups ~*\\\L belief Other attitude objects r,/”'lOvert actions Behavior 'Verbal statements «‘a“_jconcerning behavior Figure 3. Attitude Conceptions (Rosenberg et. al., 1960, p. 3) It should be mentioned here that the instrument used in this research--the leisure attitude scale--which has been developed by Ragheb and Beard (1982), contains the same components: cognitive, affective and behavioral. In regard to the validity of attitude measurement, Likert (1932) pointed out that, We are dealing only with verbal behavior and claim nothing more than the importance of the verbal reactions. Ultimately it is to be hoped that the relationship between the verbal behavior expressed on an attitude scale and other more overt forms of behavior may be examined and determined, but at present we are concerned with verbal behavior only (p. 32). Furthermore, Ajzen and Fishbein (1969), in their study "The Prediction of Behavioral Intentions to Perform a Choice Situation," found that, "Behavioral intentions to perform specific behavioral acts can best be predicted by considering the attitudes as well as normative beliefs toward these acts" (p. 414). 25 Knowing people’s inclinations, feelings (likes and dislikes) biases, ideas, and convictions toward certain objects is the main purpose of studying people’s attitudes. Such knowledge is assumed to help us predict accurately people’s behaviors toward that object. And certainly that makes our planning more adequate in relation to the people’s interests and desires (Bu-Salih, 1984). Thus, the measurement of attitude toward an object--leisure--will be concerned with a continuum of measurement, ranging from complete acceptance to a complete rejection. The relationship between attitude and leisure is very strong and can be measured. Ajzen and Fishbein (1977) wrote, A person’s intention is in turn a function of his attitude toward performing the behavior and of his subjective norm. It follows that a single act is Eggdictable from the attitudes toward that act (p. Leisure, therefore, is the act and this research is measuring the attitudes toward that act. People’s actions are found to be systematically related to their attitudes. It is consistent for a person to perform favorable behavior if he holds a favorable attitude toward some object (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1977: 888-9). Neulinger (1981) defined a person’s attitude toward leisure as one’s particular way of thinking about, feeling about, and acting toward or regards leisure (p. 58). The importance of attitude toward leisure can be seen in the writing of Neumeyer and Neumeyer (1958). They wrote, "Attitudes and habits are important factors in the choices of 26 leisure pursuits and the continuity of interest in them" (p. 248). Attitudes toward leisure may change across the person’s life span and situations and places. The most frequently offered reason for participation in leisure is "because I like it." According to Iso-Ahola (1980), "It is this concept of liking or feeling or affect that constitutes the heart of construct called attitude. Thus, a positive leisure attitude toward an object may be viewed as a special case of intrinsic leisure motivation" (p. 31). However, it should be noted here that leisure in this research is the object of attitudes. Because of a lack of studies regarding leisure attitudes among Saudi students studying in the United States, the following part will constitute some studies related to attitudes of foreign students in general. Other Related Studies Attitudes toward leisure among foreigners in general doubtlessly have been affected by the cultural background of the individual. Neulinger (1981) wrote, "It is quite conceivable that the strongest factor in the development of leisure attitudes is the person’s cultural background" (p. 168). Living in the United States for a period of time is another factor affecting the individual’s attitude positively or negatively. Shaw and Wright (1967) stated, 27 Attitudes are learned through interaction with social objects and social events or situations. Since they are learned, attitudes demonstrate the same properties as other learned actions, such as latency and threshold, and they are subject to further change through thinking, inhibition, extinction, fatigue, etc. (p. 10). As mentioned in the previous pages, attitude is a combination of affective, behavioral, and cognitive components. Franklin (1982), adding to that, wrote, "The formation of attitudes is the emergence of a set of beliefs, feelings, and tendencies to act toward some object. Alteration or modification of a set of beliefs, feelings, and tendencies to act is a change in attitude" (p. 16). In discussing the differences between cross-cultural contact and intergroup contact within a country, Selltiz and Cook et. al. (1956) wrote, The only major new experience which is a likely determinant of change in ethnic attitudes is the specific experience of personal association. But this is typ1cally not the case for at least one party to cross-cultural contact, the individual who is in a strange country. For him, personal associations are only one part of a total new experience. He is eating new food, reading unfamiliar newspapers . . . observing different ways of doing things . . . . These other aspects of his experience may influence his attitudes at least as much as do his more intimate personal associations" (p. 34). Leisure, use of one’s time and life style, is an important part of the new experience among foreigners in the United States, especially students. Neumeyer and Neumeyer (1958) stated that, "Attitudes, wishes, interests, and habits are essential aspects of personality, and all are developed in the matrix of social interaction. The impact of the social environment conditions them, but they are not the product of 28 the environmental situations alone" (p. 171). Furthermore, Goldsen et. a1. (1956) wrote that, "Contact between cultures leads, on the societal level, to cultural diffusion and change, on the individual level, to a process of learning and adjustment" (p. 26). It should be noted here that if a change occurs in one of the attitude components, change may be generated in the others (Al-Banyan 1980, p. 16). Since the concern of this study is the attitudes toward leisure among Saudi students as foreigners living in the United States, and because of lack of studies regarding this group, studies of foreign students in general are under consideration. Siegel (1956) pointed out that, "The sojourn of foreign students in a host country, whatever special characteristics it may have, is clearly an instance of what anthropologists have labeled acculturation" (p. 52). Al-Banyan (1980) wrote, Since the visiting student is released from societal pressures of conforming to his traditional cultural norms, he is to some degree free to engage in cognitive experimentation. As his exposure to various elements of the host culture earns him an increasing store of new ideas, insights, and concepts, he is able to examine more objectively many aspects of his traditional cultural values that he had heretofore taken for granted. (p. 10) These experimentations are believed to increase by personal contact with American way of life. This contact, according to Amir (1969), Gives the outgroup member an opportunity to see and evaluate life from the ingroup member’s point of view and this is held to enable him to appreciate, understand, and perhaps even adopt the latter’s way of life . . . . The basic premise is typically that personal contact can overcome difficulties where tons of paper work and memoranda have not succeeded. (p. 320) 29 He further stated that, "It was found that males are more likely to be exposed to intergroup contact, and that education, on the whole, tends to increase exposure to intergroup contact for all groups" (p. 323). Therefore, Saudi male students are a suitable group for attitude studies. Students have enough time for personal contact and personal needs after the time spent in the classroom in formal education. The typical college student has approximately 60 to 70 hours a week which can be used for informal learning through student development activities (Penn and Durham, 1978, p. 264). A foreign student’s past experiences are very important for his attitudes toward the host country. Hull (1978) concluded that, "Foreign students who were traveled were consistently more likely to report more positive and more frequent encounters with Americans than those who were untraveled" (p. 99). It should be noted here that "traveled" in this context means prior international experience outside the student’s home country for more than a month. The nationality of the student has some effect on his interaction with Americans. Ibrahim (1970) in his study, "Interaction, Perception and Attitudes of Arab Students Toward Americans," found that, "Arab students who are younger, unmarried, undergraduates, less involved in (OAS)-- Organization of Arab Students-~affairs and had been in the United States longer tend to interact with Americans more" (p. 33). He concluded that, The attitudes of Arab students toward Americans seem to be a function_of: First, the students’ 30 perception of Americans’ attitudes toward the Arabs. Second, the extent to which the students interact with Americans in the variety of everyday situations. (p. 43) Al-Banyan (1974) studied the impact of studying in the United States on the attitudes of Saudi Arabian students toward some traditional Arabian cultural values. He concluded that, Neither exposure nor adjustment seemed to have much effect on students attitudes toward their traditional cultural values. Some relationships were found between length of stay and change in students’ attitudes, but the evidence was not entirely consistent and the nature of the relationship was not clear. (p. 95) Al-Madhy (1983) wrote, The adjustment of a foreign student is based on his cultural background and its influence on his - behavior, his attitude and the cultural distance between the host country culture and the foreign student’s culture, the age of the student, his marital status, his academic status, and finally his race and nationality. All these are very important factors which directly affect the student’s adjustment to social and academic life in the United States. (p. 11) Age, marital status, and academic status showed as the strongest factors affecting the extent of interaction with Americans in Essien’s study (1971). More specifically, he wrote, "The marital status of a foreign student is a major factor in terms of his interaction with Americans because the married student spends his free time with his family" (p. 12 In Al-Madhy). A similar finding has been reported by Bu- Salih (1984) in his study, "Attitude Toward Physical Recreation of Male Saudi Students Studying in the United States." 31 Al-Harethi (1983) wrote, Because cross cultural contact per se involves cognitive, affective and behavioral components, it subsequently can produce attitude change. Particularly if individuals entering the contact situation believe the novel culture has many positive aspects and may be superior to their native culture. They are likely to undergo changes in attitude toward both the new and their own culture. (p. 82) Cross cultural learning experiences were defined by Adler (1972) as, "A set of situations or circumstances involving intercultural communication in which the individual, as a result of the experiences, becomes aware of his own growth, hearing and change" (p. 14). Al-Banyan (1980) wrote, The Saudi Arabian student, coming from a restrictive culture where religious freedom is negligible, where men and women have their separate worlds, where boy-girl relationships are proh1bited b traditional norms, will feel a heavy impact on his attitudes as he becomes immersed in the relative freedom of the unrestrictive culture of the United States: and that his attitudes will yield to this impact, resulting in a critical opinion of his traditional cultural values. (p. 11) Further, Cieslak (1955) asked foreign students to list the best single privilege they enjoyed in America, aside from attending the college of their choice. He found that freedom, independence are the most reported ones (p. 142). Hegazy (1968) studied cross-cultural experience and social change of Egyptian and British students in the United States. Based on his findings, he suggested that, "The closer the socio-cultural background of the respondents in a given institutional area to the corresponding area in the host culture, the smaller the range and depth of change" (p. 32 221). That is why the Egyptian students in this study, "underwent more change than the British students" (p. 223). Saudi Arabian students hold positive attitudes toward Americans in general. According to Al-dakheel Allah’s findings (1984), Saudi students describe Americans as somewhat friendly, hard workers, fairly honest, and somewhat easy to get along with. A notable exception to this is when respondents were asked to select the most typical characteristics of Americans. Seventy-two percent said Americans were slightly "materialistic" (p. 69-70). This view has also been noted by other writers, i.e. Selltiz et. al. (1963) and Morris (1960). In regard to attitudes stages, researchers have discovered a U-curve pattern of adjustment and attitudinal change. Selltiz et. al. (1963) stated, A good deal of evidence suggests that foreign students typically go through a cycle in their feelings toward the host country. Starting out with highly enthusiastic reactions they are likely to become more critical after a few months: a period of relatively negative feelings is likely to be followed by a more favorable evaluation, though the initial rosy view may not be recaptured. (p. 31 in Al-Dakh). Though not at a significant level statistically, Morris (1960), studying attitude change with a multinational sample, found general support for the U-curve. In conclusion, a male Saudi student studying in the United States will feel a heavy impact on his attitudes as he becomes immersed in the relative freedom of the unrestrictive culture of the United States. This may be due, at least in part, to the fact that the Saudi student has come from a 33 restrictive culture where religious freedom is negligible, where men and women have separate worlds, where boy-girl relationships are prohibited by traditional norms. Therefore, his attitudes will yield to this impact, resulting in critical opinion of his traditional values (Al-Banyan, 1980). CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES In this chapter the general design of the study is presented in four general sections: (1) The sample process; (2) the selection of the instrument: (3) the collection of data: and (4) statistical analysis procedures. The Sample Process The sample for this study was comprised of male Saudi students studying in the United States, Winter 1989, who have been in the United States for at least one year. A random sample of 300 male Saudi students was drawn by the official personnel of the Computer Department at the Saudi Educational Mission in Washington, D.C. The Selection of the Instrument In an attempt to find an adequate leisure attitude instrument to be used for this study, several leisure attitude scales which have been cited in the leisure literature, i.e. Crandall and Slivken, 1980: and Neulinger and Breit, 1971, have been reviewed very carefully. The Leisure Attitude Scale, which has been developed by Ragheb and Beard, was selected as the most appropriate 34 35 instrument for the following reasons: firstly, the items of the scale are related to and evenly divided into the three components of attitudes: cognitive, affective, and behavioral (for more detail, see Appendix D). Secondly, the scale was subjected to three pilot studies. Thirdly, a field test of the scale was conducted on two levels: first, an evaluation of content validity by experts in the areas of leisure attitudes and social psychology: second, the scale was administered to a sample of 1,042 and compared with other leisure attitude scales which were administered at the same time. And lastly, the scale, as reported by the developers, yielded an alpha reliability coefficient of .94 for the total scale. For the components it was .91 cognitive, .93 affective, and .89 for the behavioral. However, the reliability of the scale and its components were tested. The results were consistent with what the developer had reported. The leisure attitude scale yielded an alpha reliability coefficient of .95 for the total scale. For each component it was, cognitive = .91, affective = .91, and behavioral = .87. The scale was used in addition to a questionnaire that dealt with information concerning major factors which may affect the Saudi students’ attitudes toward leisure while living in the United States. These factors were: age, marital status, number of children, education classification, .and duration of stay. 36 The Collection of Data A survey method was used to systematically collect information directly from respondents. A popular way of measuring attitudes is by using a written attitude scale. The pencil and paper questionnaire gives the respondents time for thoughtful consideration of each statement in the scale. In regard to this study, the subjects have experienced some cultural differences which affect the attitudes of the individuals in most cases. Therefore, the study of leisure attitudes cannot be achieved in a laboratory. The questionnaire was mailed on February 22, 1989 by the Saudi Mission to the randomly selected subjects. Each subject received an envelope containing the following: 1) A letter of explanation of the importance of their response, encouragement for accurate answers, and thanks for their time and help. 2) A copy of the questionnaire. 3) Pre-stamped and addressed envelope. Several weeks later, March 15, 1989, a follow-up letter was sent to the Saudi students as a reminder and thanks to those who already responded. The responses were directly mailed back to the researcher’s address in East Lansing, Michigan. (A copy of both letters is contained in Appendices B and C.) Out of three hundred questionnaires and follow-up letters sent to male Saudi students, 159 useable responses, 53 percent, were received by April 7, 1989, the pre- established deadline for accepting returned questionnaires. 37 The Statistical Analysis Procedures As the returned questionnaire arrived, the answers were coded and entered into a data file at the Computer Center of Michigan State University. There were three incomplete and improperly filled out questionnaires that were discarded. A computer programmer entered and verified the data gathered from the 159 male Saudi students. As mentioned earlier, one of the aims of this survey was to determine the affects of certain demographic variables, i.e. age, marital status, number of children, education, and duration of stay on the Saudi students’ attitudes toward leisure. The statistical analysis included descriptive and inferential statistics. Frequencies and percentages were used to describe the demographic characteristics and personal data of the respondents. The one-way analysis of variance was used to determine the degree of association between the demographic variables and the leisure attitudes or any of its components (cognitive, affective, and behavioral). The null hypotheses were tested at the .10 level of significance, which represents the accuracy needed for this research. However, the Statistical Package for the Social Science (SSPS/Pc+) showed the .05 level of significance where it occurs. The one-way analysis of variance is a single test whereby several samples can be compared. It basically 38 compares the variability of values within groups with the variability of values between groups. When more than two groups are to be compared, this test answers the question, "Are there one or more significant differences anywhere among these samples?" (Rountree, 1981). Of the 159 respondents, only 142 were analyzed by the Statistical Package for the Social Science (SSPS/Pc+), since missing answers in any subscale of the leisure attitude scale resulted in the elimination of respondents who failed to respond for all the statements included for each part. CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF DATA This chapter contains the gathered data from the male Saudi students’ responses to the questionnaire. These data will be used to (1) describe the characteristics of the male Saudi students: and (2) analyze the Saudi students leisure attitudes and test possible associations with demographic variables such as age, marital status, number of children, education classification, and duration of stay. Characteristics of Male Saudi Students - The sample of this study consists of 159 male Saudi students who were studying in the United States during the academic year, 1988-1989. The subjects fall into three age groups. A summary table of their distribution is show in Table 4.1. As indicated in Table 4.1, the largest group (46.5%) of the Saudi students in the sample were between 18 and 27 years of age. The second largest group were those between 28 and 32 years old (40.9%). Only 12.6 percent were 33 years old or over . 39 40 Table 4.1 Distribution of the Sample According to Age AGE GROUP _§_ _§__ 18-27 74 46.5 28-32 65 40.9 32-over 20 12.6 159 100.0 The marital status of the sample is indicated in Table 4.2. More than 66 percent of the total sample of the students were married, and 32.1 percent were single. Table 4.2 Distribution of the Sample According to Marital Status MARITAL STATUS _§_ % Single 51 32.1 Married 106 66.7 Others 2 1.2 159 100.0 As it is shown in Table 4.2, two of the respondents reported in the category "others." One of them noted that he was married. In any case, these two respondents were discarded when testing the association between marital status and leisure attitude. The distribution of the married male Saudi students according to the number of children is presented in Table 4.3. 41 Table 4.3 Distribution of the Sample According to Number of Children 7_5F—CEILDREN __N_ % Married w/no children 30 28.0 Married w/one child 38 35.5 Married w/two children 22 20.6 Married w/3 or more children 12 15.9 107 100.0 Among the married respondents, 28 percent have no children, while a large percentage of that group, 35.5 percent, indicated having one child. More than 20 percent of the married group have two children and 15.9 percent have three or more children, as indicated in Table 4.3. The subjects were graduate and undergraduate students. A summary table of their distribution according to education classification is presented in Table 4.4. Table 4.4 Distribgtion of the Sample According to Educational Classification EDUCATIONAL CLASSIFICATION N % Graduate 125 78.6 Undergraduate 34 21.4 159 100.0 42 An overwhelming percentage of the sample (78.6 percent) were graduate students, while undergraduates were only 21.4 percent, as shown in Table 4.4. It should be mentioned here that the majority of all Saudi students in the United States are graduate students. The length of stay (duration) in the United States among the sample of male Saudi students varied from one year to more than six years. A summary table of their distribution according to duration of stay is shown in Table 4.5. Only 7.6 percent of the sample had been in the United States for only one year, while more than 20 percent had been living in the United States for six years or more, which is a reasonable period of time for an average student to learn the language and earn his degree. Table 4.5 Distribution of the Sample According to Duration of Stay WAY _l_ 2 One year 12 7.6 Two years 35 22.0 Three years 35 22.0 Four years 25 15.7 Five years 20 12.6 Six years or more 32 20.1 159 100.0 43 Analysis of Leisure Attitudes Among Saudi Students Studying in the United States The main purpose of this study was to investigate the attitude differences toward leisure among male Saudi students studying in the United States on the basis of demographic variables, including: age, marital status, number of children, education classification, and duration of stay in the United States. In this section an attempt will be made to test the degree of association between attitudes of the students toward leisure and these aforementioned demographic variables. . One-way analysis of variance was used to determine the degree of association between the attitudes toward leisure and each of the previously mentioned demographic variables. The one-way analysis of variance was also used to determine the degree of association between the demographic variables and each component of the scale--cognitive, affective and behavioral. A summary of the sample’s mean score on the Leisure Attitude Scale and each component separately is shown in Table 4.6. 44 Table 4.6 Measures of Variability of Leisure Attitude Scale and Its Components MEAN MEDIAN MODE MAXIMUM MINIMUM Leisure Attitude Scale 129.217 130 124 176 59 Cognitive subscale 47.247 48 49 60 20 Affective subscale 44.769 44 40 60 18 Behavioral subscale 37.013 37.5 42 60 14 From Table 4.6 the sample’s mean score on the leisure attitude scale indicates that the subjects of this study generally have favorable leisure attitudes. However, when the respondents’ mean scores in the scale’s components were calculated separately, the cognitive subscale out-scored the affective and the behavioral subscales as shown in the table. The behavioral subscale, which measures the individual’s past, present and intended actions with regard to leisure activities and experiences, has the lowest mean score among the subscales (37.013), and the most spread score, ranging from 14 to 60. The relationship between male Saudi students’ demographic characteristics and their leisure attitudes were analyzed by testing the formulated hypotheses. In the following pages, for each demographic variable, the null hypothesis was restated, followed by a discussion of the findings and a tabular presentation of the data for that hypothesis. 45 Age and Leisure Attitudes The male Saudi students in the sample were divided into three age groups. To test for significance of differences in attitudes toward leisure among these age groups, a one-way analysis of variance was conducted. The summary table of this analysis is shown in Table 4.7. Table 4.7 Analysis of Variance Table: Association Between _Age Groups and Leisure Attitudes. SOURCE OF M_EAN F . iJ VARIATION DF SQUARES RATIO PROB. Between Groups 2 532.4918 1.0639 .3479 Within Groups 140 500.4950 In this table the F-ratio of 1.0639 is not significant at the .10 level (the predetermined level of significance). Therefore, the first hypothesis which stated older Saudi Arabian male students develop more positive attitudes toward leisure than younger male Saudi students was rejected in favor of the alternative hypothesis. The alternative indicates that the age variable did not have a significant effect on the attitude differences toward leisure among the sample of the present stUdy. Furthermore, a one-way analysis of variance was computed to determine the degree of association between age and 46 leisure attitudes components. The results did not indicate high association between age and each of the components of the leisure attitude--cognitive, affective, and behavioral. Marital Status and Leisure Attitudes The one-way analysis of variance was conducted to test for significance of differences in attitudes toward leisure between single and married male Saudi students. The summary table of this analysis is shown in Table 4.8. Table 4.8 Analysis of Variance Table: Association Between Marital Status and Leisure Attitudes. ‘ A SOURCE OF MEAN F P VARIATION DF SQUARES RATIO PROB. Between Groups 1 1107.8379 2.2287 .1377 Within Groups 140 497.0818 In this table the F-ratio of 2.2287 is not significant at the .10 level. Therefore, the second hypothesis which stated single Saudi Arabian male students have more positive attitudes toward leisure than married male Saudi Arabian students was rejected. However, when a one—way analysis of variance was computed to determine the degree of association between the students’ marital status and the leisure attitude subscales--cognitive, affective, and behavioral--the results indicated that there was a high degree of association only 47 between marital status and the behavioral subscale (p = .0530). The result of this analysis is shown in Table 4.9. Table 4.9 Analysis of Variance Table: Association Between Marital Status (married7single) and BehaviOr Subscale. SOURCE OF MEAN F P VARIATION OF SQUARES RATIO PROB. Between Groups 1 297.6117 3.8026 .0530 Within Groups 151 78.2647 The means ofgthe behavioral component of leisure attitudes (the individual’s past, present, and intended actions with regard to leisure activities, and experiences) are presented in Table 4.10. This table reveals that the single male Saudi students had more positive behavior toward leisure than married ones. Table 4.10 Means of Behavioral Scores: Assogiation Between Marital Status and Behavior Component. STANDARD MARITAL STATUS N % MEAN* DEVIATION Single 49 37.03 38.97 7.34 Married 104 68.97 35.99 9.46 *Higher mean indicates more positive leisure behavior. The Behavior Component Scores: Maximum Score = 60 Minimum Score = 14 Mean Score = 36.947 48 Number of Children and Leisure Attitude The third hypothesis related to this variable stated that the fewer children a male Saudi Arabian student has, the more positive personal attitudes he develops toward leisure. To test possible association between the number of children a Saudi student has and his attitudes toward leisure, the married students were divided into four categories (refer to Table 4.3). Since the aim of testing this variable is to determine the affect of the numbers of children on their father’s leisure attitudes, those who have no children were excluded. Among the married male Saudi students, only 17 persons have three or more children, which is a relatively small number to be representative of that group. Thus, a one-way analysis of variance was applied on the leisure attitudes score of those who have one and two children. The results, as shown in Table 4.11 were significant (p = .0238). Table 4.11 Analysis of Variance Table: Association Between Number of Children (1 or 2) and Leisure Attitude. 4 L SOURCE OF . MEAN F F VARIATION DF SQUARES RATIO PROB. Between Groups 1 2576.0121 5.4186 .0238 Within Groups 53 475.4042 49 Table 4.12 Means of Leisure Attitude Scores: Association Between Leisure Attitude and Number of Children. STANDARD NUMBER OF CHILDREN N % MEAN* DEVIATION One Child 33 60 135.33 18.336 Two Children 22 40 121.36 26.219 *Higher mean indicates more positive leisure attitudes score. Leisure Attitude Score: Maximum Score = 176 Minimum Score = 77 Mean Score = 129.74 As indicated in Table 4.12, Saudi students who have one child have significantly more positive leisure attitudes than those who have two children. Thus, the data failed to reject this hypothesis. Furthermore, a one-way analysis of variance was applied on the scores of each leisure attitude component of those who have one child or two children. The results are shown in Table 4.13. Table 4.13 Association Between Number of Children and Leisure Attitude Components LEISURE ATTITUDE # OF COMPONENT CHILDREN N % Mean S.D. F-ratio P Cognitive one 37 62.7 50.1351 6.01 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 5.2736 .0253* two 22 37.3 45.50 9.52 Affective one 34 60.7 46.3529 7.2148 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 3.2069 .0789* two 22 39.3 42.00 11.0065 Behavioral one 37 62.7 38.8649 8.6576 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 3.9891 .0506* two 22 37.3 33.8636 10.3109 *Significant at the .10 level. 50 The results of the one-way analysis of variance test with each component of the scale were statistically significant, indicating that male Saudi students who have one child scored higher than those who have two children in every component of the leisure attitude scale. Education and Leisure Attitudes The hypothesis formulated for this variable stated that male Saudi Arabian graduate students develop more positive personal leisure attitudes than male undergraduates. The majority of the male Saudi sample were graduate students (78.6 percent). The undergraduates were (21.4 percent). The present study attempted to test the degree of association between level of education and leisure attitude and its component separately. A one-way analysis of variance was applied on leisure attitude scores of both graduate and undergraduate. The results of the analysis shown in Table 4.14 are significant at the .10 level. Table 4.14 Agalysis of Variance Table: Association Between Education Classification and Leisure Attitude. —_SOURCE OF MEAN E E VARIATION DF SQUARES RATIO PROB. Between Groups 1 1777.4972 3.6136 .0594 Within Groups 141 491.8921 51 However, an inspection of mean differences in Table 4.15 indicates that the significance was in the opposite direction of what was hypothesized: therefore, hypothesis four was rejected in favor of the alternative. Table 4.15 presents the means of leisure attitude scores for both groups (graduate and undergraduate). Table 4.15 Heaps of Leisure Attitude Scores: Association Between Educational Classification and LeiSure Attitude. EDUCATIONAL STANDARD CLASSIFICATION N % MEAN* DEVIATION Graduate Students 109 76.2 127.2477 22.8028 Undergraduate Students 34 23.8 135.5294 20.0004 *Higher mean indicates more positive leisure behavior. The Leisure Attitude Scores: Maximum Score = 176 Minimum Score = 59 Mean Score = 129.216 The affect of educational classification on leisure attitude further tested with each leisure attitude component. The significant results are shown in Table 4.16. It should be mentioned that the one-way analysis of variance showed no statistically significant association between level of study and the cognitive component of leisure attitude among the sample of male Saudi students. 52 Table 4.16 Association Between Educational Classification and Leisure Attitude Components LEISURE ATTITUDE EDUCATION COMPONENT CLASS. N % Mean S.D. F-ratio P Affective grad. 113 76.87 44.053 8.2276 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 3.7384 .0551 undergrad. 34 23.13 47.147 8.0194 Behavioral grad. 120 77.9 36.0 9.197 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 7.2718 .0078 undergrad. 34 22.1 40.58 6.946 Length of Stpy and Leisure Attitude Duration of stay varied among male Saudi students (refer to Table 4.5). The average duration of stay among male Saudi students studying in the United States is about five years. The Saudi students spend at least a year, on the average, studying English: thereafter, five years of undergraduate or more, and more than five years for the graduate students to get a Ph.D. degree. The students were divided into two groups, according to the average duration of stay: those who stayed for five years or less (79.8%), and those who spent more than five years (20.12%). The one-way analysis of variance was computed to test the degree of association between the two periods of stay (five years or less and more than five years), and leisure attitude. The results indicated that the degree of association (p = .0142) was found to be statistically significant (Table 4.17). 53 Table 4.17 Analysis of Variance Table: Association Between Duration of Stay and Leisure Attitude. S' OUR"'C'E " O'F" MEAN F F VARIATION DF SQUARES RATIO PROB. Between Groups 1 2979.9011 6.1649 .0142 Within Groups 141 483.3644 In this table the F-ratio 6.1649 is significant at the .10 level. Therefore, the hypothesis related to this variable which stated, the longer the male Saudi Arabian student has lived in the United States the more positive personal attitudes he develops toward leisure, was not rejected. 0 Table 4.18 presents the means of leisure attitude scores for both groups. Table 4.18 Means of Leisure Attitude Scores: Association Between Duration of Stay and Leisure Attitude. DURATION OF STANDARD STAY N % MEAN* DEVIATION 5 years or less 111 77.62 126.7658 20.9484 More than 5 years 32 22.38 137.7188 25.3253 *Higher mean indicates higher leisure attitude score. The Leisure Attitude Scores: Maximum Score = 176 Minimum Score = 59 Mean Score = 129.2168 54 In testing the affect of this variable (duration of stay) on the leisure attitude’s components, a one-way analysis of variance was applied. The results were statistically significant (p = .0087) with the cognitive component, and (p = .0179) with the affective component. Table 4.19 presents the analysis of these two components. Tables 4.20 and 4.21 present the means of the components scores for both groups. Table 4.19 Analysis of Variance Table: Association Between Duration of Stay and Leisure Attitudes Components 1 LEISURE ATTITUDE SOURCE OF MEAN F F COMPONENT VARIATION SQUARES RATIO PROB. Cognitive Between Groups 478.2074 7.0664 .0087 Within Groups 67.6738 Affective Between Groups 378.9654 5.7388 .0179 Within Groups 66.0357 Table 4.20 Means of Cognitive Component Scores: Association Between the Cognitive Component and Duration of Stay DURATION OF STANDARD STAY N % MEAN* DEVIATION 5 years or less 122 79.2 46.3443 8.1522 More than 5 years 32 20.77 50.6875 8.5097 *Higher mean indicates higher cognitive component score. Cognitive Component Score: Maximum Score = 60 Minimum Score = 20 Mean Score = 47.2468 55 Table 4.21 Means of Affective Component Scores: Association Between the Affective Component and Duration of Stay DURATION OF STANDARD STAY N % MEAN* DEVIATION Five or less years 115 78.23 43.9217 7.6263 More than 5 years 32 21.768 47.8125 9.7466 *Higher mean indicatesihigher affective component score. Affective Component Score: Maximum Score = 60 Minimum Score = 18 Mean Score = 44.7687 The data analysis indicated significant associations between male Saudi students’ leisure attitudes and the education classification and duration of stay variables. In order to determine which one of these two independent variables had the most affect on the male Saudi students’ attitudes toward leisure while studying in the United States, a new variable was developed as a combination of education classification and duration of stay. This new variable consists of four different groups: (1) those graduate students who have been in the United States for five years or less; (2) those graduate students who have been in the United States for more than five years: (3) undergraduate students who have been in the United States for five years or less: (4) those undergraduate students who have been in the United States for more than five years. The one-way analysis of Variance was employed to measure the degree of association between the new variables 56 (combination of educational classification and duration of stay) and the leisure attitude. The results showed that a statistically significant association (p = .0119) did exist between the new variable and leisure attitude. The results are presented in Table 4.22. The means of leisure attitude scores are presented in Table 4.23. Table 4.22 Analysis of Variance Table; Association Between the New Variable (Education + Duration OfiStay) and Leisure Attitude. — _ SOURCE OF MEAN F F VARIATION OF SQUARES RATIO PROB. Between Groups 3 ' 1793.6188 3.7916 .0119* Within Groups 139 473.0462 *Group one and group four are significantly different at the .05 level. It should be difference at the students who have less) and Group 4 the United States the undergraduate mentioned here that there is a significant .05 level between Group 1 (graduate been in the United States for five years or (undergraduate students who have been in for more than five years). That is to say, male Saudi students develop more positive attitudes toward leisure than any other group. 57 Table 4.23 Means of Leisure Attitude Scores: Association Between the New Variable and Leisure Attitude. EDUCATION¥EERATTON STANDARD GROUP NO. N % MEAN* DEVIATION Group 1 84 59.44 125.5294 21.2741 Group 2 24 16.78 133.333 27.1864 Group 3 26 18.18 130.8077 19.6978 Group 4 8 5.59 150.875 12.1707 *Higher mean indicates higher leisure attitude scores. The Leisure Attitude Scores: Maximum Score = 176 Minimum Score = 59 Mean Score = 129 The association between the new variable and leisure attitude was further tested. The one-way analysis of variance was applied to the new variables and each component of the leisure attitude. As indicated in Table 4.24, the results were significant. The mean of leisure attitude scores in each component for each group are presented in Tables 4.25, 4.26, and 4.27 respectively. 58 Table 4.24 Analysis of Variance Table: Association Between New Variable Leisure Attitude. LEISURE ATTITUDE SOURCE OF MEAN F F COMPONENT VARIATION SQUARES RATIO PROB. Cognitive Between Groups 178.6707 2.6202 .0529 Within Groups 68.1907 Affective Between Groups 267.6245 4.1820 .0072* Within Groups 63.9948 Behavioral Between Groups 254.6025 3.3348 .0211 Within Groups 76.3478 EGroup one and group four are significantly different at the .05 level. - Table 4.25 Means of Leisure Attitude Scores: _ Association Between the New Variable g(Education+Duration) and Cognitive Component. EDUCATION+DURATION STANDARD GROUPS N % MEAN* DEVIATION Group 1 96 62.337 46.3845 8.3570 Group 2 24 15.584 49.9167 9.0790 Group 3 26 16.883 46.1923 7.4994 Group 4 8 5.194 53.000 6.4587 *Higher mean indicates higher cognitive component scores. Cognitive Component Scores: Maximum Score = 60 Minimum Score = 20 Mean Score = 47.2468 59 Table 4.26 Means of Leisure Attitude Scores: Association Between the New Variable (Education+Duration) and Affective Component. EDUCATT0N+DURATTON STANDARD GROUPS N % MEAN* DEVIATION Group 1 89 60.54 43.5730 7.5512 Group 2 24 16.32 45.8333 10.3574 Group 3 26 17.68 45.1154 7.9111 Group 4 8 5.44 53.7500 3.8079 *Higher mean indicates higher affectiVe component scores. Cognitive Component Scores: Maximum Score = 60 Minimum Score = 18 Mean Score = 44.7500 Table 4.27 Means of Leisure Attitude Scores: Association Between the New Variable (Education+Duration) and BehaVioral Component. EEUCATTENTEURATION STANDARD GROUPS N % MEAN* DEVIATION Group 1 96 62.337 35.6042 8.7196 Group 2 24 15.584 37.5833 10.9700 Group 3 26 16.883 39.5000 7.1847 Group 4 8 5.194 44.1250 4.9407 *Higher mean indicates higher cognitive component scores. Cognitive Component Scores: Maximum Score = 60 Minimum Score = 14 Mean Score = 37.0130 Table 4.28 summarizes the groups’ mean score in the leisure attitude scale and each component separately. From this table, the lowest scores were for the graduate students 60 who had been in the United States for five years or less. The undergraduate students who had the same period of Sojourn did not differ significantly, with the exception of the behavioral component. While the highest scores were for the undergraduate students who had been in the United States for more than five years, one might argue that development of positive leisure attitudes among male Saudi students studying in the United States may become more likely if the time period of the sojourn is long enough to allow for such development--with regard to individual differences. Table 4.28 Mean Scores in the Leisure Attitude and each Component for all the groups. EDUC. CLASS. MEAN SCORES* +DURATION OF Leisure Cognitive Affective Behavioral GROUP # STAY GROUPS Attitude Component Compgnent Component 1 Graduate/ 125.5294 46.384 43.573 35.604 5 yrs or less 2 Graduate/more 133.333 49.916 56.833 37.583 than 5 yrs 3 Undergrad/ 130.807 46.192 45.115 39.500 5 yrs or less 4 Undergrad/ 150.875 53.002 53.750 44.125 more than 5 yrs *Higher mean indicates more favorable leisure attitudes. Summary In this chapter, the data on the characteristics of the male Saudi students in the United States has been described and presented in table form. The greatest number of the 61 sample were between age 18 and 27 years old (46.6 percent), married (66.7 percent), and graduate students (78.6 percent). In regard to the instrument, the reliability has been presented for the Leisure Attitude Scale and its components. Some measures of variability of the whole sample on the Leisure Attitude Scale and its components were also presented tin table form. Finally, factors affecting leisure attitude, or its components, of male Saudi students studying in the United States were discussed. A statistically significant degree of association was found between leisure attitudes and number of children, education, duration of stay and combination variable of education and duration. CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary Generally speaking, cross-cultural studies have shown that an individual living in a different culture can have his attitudes changed either positively or negatively. The primary purpose of this study was to investigate leisure attitudes in general and to determine the intensity and direction of attitude differences toward leisure among male Saudi students studying in the United States. Another purpose was to explore how some demographic variables and time spent in the United States had affected the male Saudi students’ attitudes toward leisure. The review of literature supported the notion that perceived freedom and intrinsic motivation are prerequisite and parallel to an action for a person to experience leisure. These prerequisites are parts of the individual’s leisure attitudes. Neulinger (1981) defined a person’s attitude toward leisure as one’s particular way of thinking about, feeling about, and acting toward or regards leisure (p. 58). Thus, leisure was defined as any freely taken action (active or passive) during one’s convenient time to satisfy some needs and/or desires initiated by the perceived freedom and motivated intrinsically. 62 63 Sample of the Study The sample for this study was comprised of 300 male Saudi students studying in the United States. The subjects were randomly selected by the Saudi Educational Mission in Washington, D.C. Out of the 300 mailed questionnaires and follow-up letters, 53 percent were returned (159). Respondents’ Characteristics Among the respondents, 46.5 percent were between 18 and 27 years old, 40.9 percent were between 28 and 32 years old, and only 12.6 percent were 33 years old or older. Concerning the marital status of the respondents, married students constituted 66.7 percent: 32.1 percent were single. Among the married respondents, 28 percent had no children, 35.5 percent had one child, 20.6 percent had two children, and 15.9 percent had three or more children. The majority of the respondents, 78.6 percent, were graduate students; 21.4 percent were undergraduate students. The respondents varied in their duration of stay from one year to more than five years. Only 7.6 percent had been in the United States for only one year, while 20.1 percent of the respondents had lived in the United States for more than five years. 64 The Instrument The Leisure Attitude Scale developed by Ragheb and Beard was used for this study. The scale encompassed three areas of attitude: cognitive, affective, and behavioral, with a reliability coefficient of .95 for the total scale. For each component the reliability coefficient was as follows: cognitive = .91, affective = .91, and behavioral = .87. The scale was used in addition to a questionnaire that dealt with the students’ demographic variables. Methodology Frequencies and percentages were used to describe the demographic characteristics of the respondents. The one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine the degree of association between the demographic variables and leisure attitudes in general and any of its components (cognitive, affective, and behavioral). Major Findings The major findings of this study for each demographic variable are discussed in this section. 65 E The findings indicated that no relationship was found between the age of the respondents and their leisure attitudes in general or any of the leisure attitude components. Similar findings were reported by Bu-Salih (1984) who studied the attitude toward physical recreation among 915 male Saudi students studying in the United States. In his study there were four age groups, 19 to 25, 26 to 32, 33 to 39, and 40 years old and older. His findings indicated that age has no significant effect on the sample’s attitude differences toward physical recreation. It should be mentioned that the Saudi students generally fell in one age bracket (young men). In this study, 87.5 percent of the sample were between 18 and 32 years of age. Marital Status The degree of association between marital status of Saudi students and leisure attitudes was not statistically significant. This finding is consistent with Al-dakheel Allah’s findings (1984). In his master’s thesis, Al-dakheel Allah studied Saudi Arabian students’ attitudes toward Americans. His findings indicated no significant differences between married and single Saudi students in their overall attitudes toward Americans. The data revealed that the behavioral component of the leisure attitude was associated with marital status. The findings indicate that the past, 66 present, and intended leisure actions among single students were more positive than among the married students. This minor finding is consistent with Al-Madhy’s findings (1983), who studied the attitude and adjustment of 247 Saudi students studying in the United States. He found that single Saudi students tend to associate with Americans and have more favorable attitudes toward Americans than married students. Number of Children The findings indicate that male Saudi students who have one child had more favorable leisure attitudes than those who have two children. Thus, one may see that the more children a male Saudi student has the less time he has for leisure, which in turn affects his leisure attitude. Educational Classification The data collected in this study revealed significant differences in attitude toward leisure between graduate and undergraduate male Saudi students studying in the United States. The findings indicated that undergraduate students had more positive attitudes toward leisure than graduate students. This finding is consistent with Bu-Salih’s findings (1984). He found that undergraduate male Saudi students had a more favorable attitude toward physical recreation than graduate students. 67 The data failed to show significant association between educational classification and the cognitive component of the leisure attitudes, indicating that no significant differences existed between graduate and undergraduate male Saudi students in their general knowledge and beliefs about leisure. However, significant differences were found between the education level and both the behavioral and the affective components. Duration of Stay The findings of this study revealed significant association between leisure attitude and duration of stay, indicating that students who have spent more than five years had more favorable attitudes toward leisure than those students who had been in the United States for five years or less. More specifically, duration of stay was significantly associated with the cognitive component and the affective component of the leisure attitude. There was no significant association with the behavioral component of the leisure attitude, indicating that the time spent by male Saudi students in the United States has no significant effect on their present and intended actions with regard to leisure activities and experiences. This finding in general contrasts with Bu-Salih’s finding (1984). He found duration of stay to have no significant relationship with the attitude toward physical 68 recreation of male Saudi students studying in the United States. Furthermore, this finding imitated Al-Madhy’s findings (1983) in his study of the attitude and adjustment of Saudi Arabian students in the United States. He found that the Saudi students who have been in the United States for a long time associate and have more favorable attitudes toward Americans than the students who have resided in the United States for a short time (less than three years). Combination of Education and Duration When the two variables, education classification and duration of stay, were combined, the data expressed a statistically significant degree of association between the combination variables and the leisure attitudes of Saudi students. The results denoted that the undergraduate students who have been in the United States for more than five years had more favorable leisure attitudes. This group was significantly different from graduate students who had been in the United States for five years or less at the .05 level. The findings revealed a significant association between the combination variable and each component of the scale, indicating that undergraduate male Saudi students who have been in the United States for more than five years have developed more favorable attitudes toward leisure than the graduate students with a similar time of sojourn, or the 69 students who have been in the United State for five years or less. Conclusions The following conclusions were based on the study findings. The results may be generalized to all graduate and undergraduate male Saudi students studying in the United States. 1. The age of male Saudi students studying in the United States was not found to affect their leisure attitudes. Single male Saudi students hold more favorable attitudes toward present and intended leisure actions than married students. Married male Saudi students who have one child had more positive leisure attitudes than students who have two children. Undergraduate male Saudi students had more positive attitudes toward leisure than graduate Saudi students. Male Saudi students who have been in the United States for more than five years had developed more favorable leisure attitudes than students who had been in the United States for five years or less. 70 Undergraduate male Saudi students who have spent more than five years in the United States had more favorable attitudes toward leisure than graduate students who had the same time period of sojourn or less, and undergraduates who spent less time in the United States. Undergraduate male Saudi students who had been in the United States for five years or less had more favorable attitudes toward leisure actions than graduate students who spent more than five years in the United States. Recommendations As a result of this study, the following recommendations are offered: 1. The fact that the cognitive component of leisure attitude had the lowest score among the components suggests that some type of leisure education is needed to increase knowledge of and beliefs about leisure among male Saudi students in the United States. Information booklets concerning the United States, its people, customs, social activities, and leisure and recreation facilities should be provided by the Saudi Educational Mission for the new students to read. 71 Because the Saudi students in the United States--which are considered a highly educated group among the Saudis- -showed.the need for leisure education, the researcher strongly recommends some leisure education orientations for the Saudi people. Problems for Further Research It would be meaningful for a researcher to examine the leisure attitudes of Saudi people in Saudi Arabia and compare the findings. This comparison will lead to discovering the effect on the Saudis of living in the United States so that changes can be made to improve the Saudi Arabians’ lifestyle. It would be of great significance for a researcher to conduct a similar study on the leisure attitudes of Saudi students in Europe. Such a study could lead to a meaningful comparison of the effect of different cultures (European, American) on the attitudes toward leisure among male Saudi students. It would be useful to explore Saudi students’ leisure actions while living in the United States and connect it with their leisure attitudes as reported here. This will help determine the degree of effects that recreation opportunities in the United States has on leisure attitude changes among male Saudi students. 72 This should lead to better recreation facility planning and selections. It would be of great value to conduct a longitudinal study among Saudi students studying in the United States to determine whether leisure attitudes changed, and if so, when. APPENDICES APPENDIX A COPYRIGHT PERMISSION FOR LEISURE ATTITUDE SCALE 75 ,,<