mass 3 1293 00669 8116 This is to certify that the thesis entitled {INSTRUMENTAL COMPETENCIES AND BEHAVIORAL STRATEGIES IN DUAL-EARNER FAMILIES AND FAMILY DAY CARE HOMES presented by BETTY LOU ABEDOR has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for ' Ph-D—-_ degree in W0 93’ gMfl? éagéézl’ Major professor Date February 23, 1983 0-7 639 MSU LIBRARIES \— RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. szfis 523’ INSTRUMENTAL COMPETENCIES AND BEHAVIORAL STRATEGIES IN DUAL-EARNER FAMILIES AND FAMILY DAY CARE HOMES by Betty Lou Abedor A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Family and Child Ecology 1983 /3a-4é86 Copyright by BETTY LOU ABEDOR 1983 ABSTRACT INSTRUMENTAL COMPETENCIES AND BEHAVIORAL STRATEGIES IN DUAL-EARNER FAMILIES AND FAMILY DAY CARE HOMES By Betty Lou Abedor This ex post facto study was designed to investigate competencies valued and behavioral strategies used by adults in two family settings, the dual-earner and family day care home. Variables of interest were ten instrumental competencies and their corresponding ten behavioral strategies. They were defined as: good manners, tries hard to succeed, honest, neat and clean, self-control, acts like a boy/girl should, gets along with other children, obeys parents well, considerate, and interested in how and why things happen. The degree to which adults in the two settings valued ten instru- mental competencies was measured using a revised version of Kohn's Index of Parental Values. Adults' use of ten behavioral strategies to instill competencies was measured using an instrument designed for the study, the Parent Behavioral Strategies Scale. To further compare settings, demographic data were obtained using the Family Characteristics Interview. Twenty-five pairs of dual-earner parents who had a child in family day care were matched with pairs of family day care providers and spouses using specified criteria. Data were collected from a total of 87 adults during home interviews. Statistically significant differences were found on both instru- mental competencies valued and behavioral strategies used by adults both within and across the dual-earner and family day care settings Betty Lou Abedor with males and then dual—earner parents differing the most. Four groups of adults consistently differed with respect to four instru- mental competencies and their corresponding strategies. The four groups of adults were: (1) dual-earner males and females; (2) family day care males and females; (3) females across settings; and (4) males across settings. The four competencies and corresponding strategies on which these adults differed were: (l) tries hard to succeed; (2) honest; (3) gets along with other children; and (4) obeys parents well. No statistically significant relationships were found between sets of instrumental competencies and behavioral strategies. There were, however, a number of low, positive, and statistically significant correlations found between corresponding pairs of competencies and strategies such as: (l) tries hard to succeed; (2) interested in how and why things happen; (3) neat and clean; and (4) acts like a boy/girl should. 9 . l I l ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I gratefully acknowledge the support, guidance, and encouragement from the members of my committee: Dr. Eileen Earhart, Chairperson, and Drs. Margaret Bubolz, Hiram Fitzgerald, and Beatrice Paolucci. I extend sincere appreciation for the time and thought given by those who served as the panel of experts as they read and reread the Parent Behavioral Strategies Scale. Those who willingly served were: Dr. Mary Andrews, Dr. Dolores Borland, Dr. Martha Bristor, Dr. Gayle Clapp, Margaret Crawley, Dr. Verna Hildebrand, Donna Howe, Dr. Marjorie Kostelnik, Dr. Lillian Aotaki Phenice, Janet Ronk, Marcia Ryztak, Dr. Anne K. Soderman, Laura Stein, Elaine Williams, and Dr. Alice P. Whiren. I wish to thank the following people for their assistance in find- ing subjects for the study: Mark Sullivan, Margaret Crawley, and Linda Giles Gordon, staff at the Ingham County Office for Young Children, and Betty Garlick and Diane Wood, staff at the Association for Child Develop- ment. Sincere appreciation is also given to the Johnson and Johnson Com- pany who was interested enough in families and children to donate copies of The Communication Game to families who participated in this study. Special thanks go to the families who so willingly volunteered their time and information for without their willingness to cooperate, there could not have been a study of this type. Deep appreciation is also expressed to Dr. Craig Johnson and Ms. Mary Curran of the University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston for their invaluable assistance in the data analysis for this study. Finally, I thank my daughter, Carolyn, and son, John, for their support and in particular, I thank my husband, Allan, who listened, encouraged, and offered guidance and love from the inception of the idea to the final stage of this dissertation. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ...................... vii LIST OF FIGURES ..................... ix CHAPTER Page I THE PROBLEM .................... 1 Background of the Problem ........... 1 Statement of the Problem ............ 4 Importance of the Study ............ 5 Purpose .................... 6 Theoretic Framework .............. 6 Definition of Terms .............. 7 Research Questions and Hypotheses ....... 12 Assumptions .................. 16 Overview of the Study ............. 16 II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ........... 17 Introduction .................. 17 Developmental Tasks and Competencies of Young Children .................. 17 Family Day Care ................ 30 III METHODOLOGY .................... 37 Introduction .................. 37 Research Design ................ 37 Instrumentation ................ 4O Demographic Data .............. 4O Instrumental Competencies .......... 40 Parent Behavioral Strategies ........ 43 Content Validity ................ 45 Approval by Human Subjects Committee ...... 47 Selection of Subjects ............. 47 Procedure ................... 50 Bias Reduction ................. 53 Research Hypotheses .............. 54 Data Analysis ................. 57 Summary .................... 59 CHAPTER Page IV ANALYSIS OF RESULTS .................. 63 Introduction .................... 63 Analysis of Demographic Data on Dual-Earner and Family Day Care Settings ............ 63 Dual—Earner Family Demographic Analysis . . . 64 5 ‘ Family Day Care Home Demographic Analysis . . 68 ‘ Summary of Demographics ........... 72 Means and Standard Deviations of Instrumental ll Competency and Behavioral Strategy Scores . . . . 72 i' Analysis of Instrumental Competencies Valued . . . . 75 Hypothesis 1: Males and Females in Both Dual- Earner and Family Day Care Settings ..... 75 Hypothesis 2: Males and Females Within Settings . 75 Males and Females Within the Dual-Earner _, Setting .................. 75 p; Males and Females Within the Family Day Care iifl Setting .................. 77 ‘ l?’ Hypothesis 3: Females in the Dual-Earner and ' . _ Family Day Care Settings ........... 77 I ‘ Hypothesis 4: Males in the Dual-Earner and l ‘ Family Day Care Settings ........... 79 2 Analysis of Behavioral Strategies Used ....... 82 Hypothesis 5: Males and Females in Both Dual— Earner and Family Day Care Settings ..... 82 Hypothesis 6: Males and Females Within Settings Males and Females Within the Dual—Earner Setting .................. 82 Males and Females Within the Family Day Care Setting .................. 84 Hypothesis 7: Females in the Dual-Earner and Family Day Care Settings ........... 86 Hypothesis 8: Males in the Dual-Earner and Family Day Care Settings ........... 86 Summary of Analyses of Instrumental Competencies and Behavioral Strategies ............ 88 Analysis of Relationships Between Instrumental Competencies and Behavioral Strategies ..... 88 Hypothesis 9: Adults in Both Dual-Earner and Family Day Care Settings ........... 88 Hypothesis 10: Adult Males and Females Within Each Setting ................. 91 Hypothesis 11: Adult Females Across Dual— Earner and Family Day Care Settings ..... 93 Hypothesis 12: Adult Males Across Dual- Earner and Family Day Care Settings ..... 95 Other Relationships Found Between Competencies and Strategies ................. 98 CHAPTER Summary of Analyses of Relationships Between Instrumental Competencies and Behavioral Strategies .................. V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ............... Overview ..................... Summary of the Study ............... Conclusions ................... Conclusion 1 ................. Conclusion 2 ................. Conclusion 3 ................. Conclusion 4 ................. Conclusion 5 ................. Conclusion 6 ................. Adults in Both Dual-Earner and Family Day Care Settings .............. Adults Within the Dual-Earner Setting Adults Within the Family Day Care Setting Females Across Dual-Earner and Family Day Care Settings .............. Males Across Dual—Earner and Family Day Care Settings . . .' ........... Limitations ................... Implications for Future Research ......... BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................... APPENDIX A Family Characteristics Interview ..... APPENDIX B Kohn Index of Parental Values ....... APPENDIX C Parent Behavioral Strategies Scale APPENDIX D Letters to Parents and Caregivers ..... APPENDIX E Summary of Analyses of Relationships Between Instrumental Competencies and Behavioral Strategies by Competency . . . . vi Page 117 119 122 126 133 135 147 149 1 -,,.. - TABLE 10 11 12 LIST OF TABLES COMPARISON OF ADULTS IN DUAL-EARNER AND FAMILY DAY CARE SETTINGS ON MAJOR DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS . CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILD IN DUAL-EARNER FAMILY AND ARRANGEMENTS MADE FOR CHILD IN FAMILY DAY CARE HOME BY DUAL-EARNER ADULTS ............. FAMILY DAY CARE PROVIDER'S EXPERIENCE ......... MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF INSTRUMENTAL COMPETENCY SCORES BY ADULT ............. MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF BEHAVIORAL STRATEGY SCORES BY ADULT .............. MULTIVARIATE AND UNIVARIATE ANALYSES FOR INSTRUMENTAL COMPETENCIES VALUED ACROSS BOTH THE DUAL-EARNER AND FAMILY DAY CARE SETTINGS ............ MULTIVARIATE AND UNIVARIATE ANALYSES FOR INSTRUMENTAL COMPETENCIES VALUED WITHIN THE DUAL-EARNER AND FAMILY DAY CARE SETTINGS .............. MULTIVARIATE AND UNIVARIATE ANALYSES FOR INSTRUMENTAL COMPETENCIES VALUED BY FEMALES IN THE DUAL-EARNER AND FAMILY DAY CARE SETTINGS ............ MULTIVARIATE AND UNIVARIATE ANALYSES FOR INSTRUMENTAL COMPETENCIES VALUED BY MALES IN THE DUAL-EARNER AND FAMILY DAY CARE SETTINGS ............ MULTIVARIATE AND UNIVARIATE ANALYSES FOR BEHAVIORAL STRATEGIES USED ACROSS BOTH THE DUAL-EARNER AND FAMILY DAY CARE SETTINGS .............. MULTIVARIATE AND UNIVARIATE ANALYSES FOR BEHAVIORAL STRATEGIES USED BY MALES AND FEMALES WITHIN DUAL- EARNER AND FAMILY DAY CARE SETTINGS ........ MULTIVARIATE AND UNIVARIATE ANALYSES FOR BEHAVIORAL STRATEGIES USED BY FEMALES WITHIN DUAL-EARNER AND FAMILY DAY CARE SETTINGS .............. vii Page 65 66 71 73 74 76 78 80 81 83 85 87 .0 - 11.5-1.4... . :-.~_ 2795 TABLE 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 LIST OF TABLES MULTIVARIATE AND UNIVARIATE ANALYSES FOR BEHAVIORAL STRATEGIES USED BY MALES WITHIN DUAL-EARNER AND FAMILY DAY CARE SETTINGS ............. SUMMARY OF SIGNIFICANT UNIVARIATE F TESTS FOR DUAL- EARNER AND FAMILY DAY CARE SETTINGS AND MALES AND FEMALES ................... EXPECTED AND SIGNIFICANT RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN COMPETENCIES AND STRATEGIES ACROSS BOTH DUAL- EARNER AND FAMILY DAY CARE SETTINGS ....... EXPECTED AND SIGNIFICANT RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN COMPETENCIES ANS STRATEGIES, ADULTS WITHIN SETTINGS ..................... EXPECTED AND SIGNIFICANT RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN COMPETENCIES AND STRATEGIES, FEMALES ACROSS DUAL-EARNER AND FAMILY DAY CARE SETTINGS ..... EXPECTED AND SIGNIFICANT RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN COMPETENCIES AND STRATEGIES, MALES ACROSS DUAL-EARNER AND FAMILY DAY CARE SETTINGS ..... SUMMARY OF SIGNIFICANT RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN COMPETENCIES AND THEIR CORRESPONDING STRATEGIES FOR ALL ADULTS GROUPS .............. SUMMARY OF RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN COMPETENCIES AND STRATEGIES .................... viii Page 89 90 92 94 96 97 99 153 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE Page 1 DESIGN FOR INSTRUMENTAL COMPETENCIES VALUED, BEHAVIORAL STRATEGIES USED, AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP ................... 39 ix CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM BACKGROUND OF THE PROBLEM An individual's human resources have been broadly defined as all of one's abilities, skills, knowledge and physical attributes which are needed to complete specific tasks (Liston, l975). These skills, know- ledge and abilities are referred to as competencies. Through normal ma- turation, incidental learning, and formal learning, individuals develop competencies which they need to fulfill roles in society (Liston, 1975). Development of these competencies continues throughout the life cycle in many settings, e.g., within the family household, in day care settings, schools, organizational meetings, recreation centers, and in the work- place (Bawden, l975). Historically the family household has been the setting for both parental as well as children's competency development as parents worked in or near the family home, and children were either educated at home or in informal or formal community schools (Braun and Edwards, 1972). Al- though compulsory school attendance has resulted in the school's assum- ing a greater role in developing competencies, it is the family and more specifically the parents who assume the primary responsibility for teach- ing values, attitudes, and skills which the child needs to function with- in the society, particularly in the early years of an individual's life (Bawden, l975). As family members interact on a daily basis, both inci- dental and formal learning of competencies occurs as household and indi- vidual tasks are performed. Boulding (l978) supported this position -1- Z v1- Joe-.1- ‘. stating that it is the household which has had continued success over centuries because of its perspective of caring for its members. However, the household's role as a developer of human competencies may be undermined by rapid changes occurring in society. One of these changes is the greater number of women entering the labor force. Despite recent increases in unemployment rates, women are currently entering the labor force in record numbers, and the prediction for the l980's is that they will continue to do so if the general trend towards economic growth continues (Smith, l979). In March, 1978, for example, there were 41 million women in the labor force. Almost 40% of the mothers of children under three are currently working. Furthermore, it appears that young women in their twenties are no longer willing to leave the labor force to rear children (Kamerman, l980). If both parents are working, the question arises as to who is car- ing for and nurturing the children. If a mother assumes two roles, that of out-of—home worker and mother, and if the father continues the tradi- tional role of full time out-of home worker, there is little time for natural parents to develop the essential human competencies in children. As Bane, Lein, O'Donnel, Stueve, and Wells (1979) indicated, parents using out-of-home care report that family schedules are such that child- ren spend relatively little time with their parents and the time they do spend comes at the end of a long active day when both children and parents are tired. Although parents often try to make up for this lost time on weekends, holidays, and evenings by spending quality time with their children, many opportunities for both incidental and formal learning are lost or delegated to a substitute caregiver. The mode of substitute child care that parents choose for their children during their work hours determines the type of substitute care- taker who will provide development of children‘s competencies. Child care may take the form of in-home or out-of-home care. In-home care is performed by a relative or non-relative who comes into the family home. Out-of—home care may be group care in a subsidized or non—subsidized day care center, nursery school, public or private kindergarten, public or private elementary school, or a family day care home in which the substi- tute caregiver is a teacher or other non-relative. Out-of—home care may also be provided by a relative in their own home or by a close friend or neighbor who will accept one or two children in exchange for services by the natural parent (Bane, et. al., 1979; Moore and Hofferth, l979). Gen- erally, upper middle income parents or professionals prefer individual full-time in-home care or some type of group care or a combination of the two (Kamerman, 1980; Moore and Hofferth, l979). Lower middle income dual- earner parents generally prefer sharing child care in their own home by working staggered hours or part-time rather than using out-of—home care (Bane, et. al., l979). However, many professional and working class parents each work full time and must have their children in some form of out-of-home care for some part of the day. Most of the children of working parents from three to five years old are in organized and formal day care centers, or family day care homes (Kamerman, l980). Many working parents put together a "package" of several varieties of child care which include both in-home and out-of—home care to cover all the working hours (Kamerman, 1980; Moore and Hofferth, 1979). However, the two main kinds of day care reportedly being used by both professional and working class parents who work full time is group day care and more specifically preschools and family day care homes (Kamerman, 1980; Moore and Hofferth, 1979). Therefore there are at least two settings, e.g., a child's family home and child care centers or family day care homes in which competen- cies are developed. Although a great deal is known about formal group care and what constitutes quality care in these settings, there is a paucity of information regarding family day care homes. As Moore and Hofferth (1979) indicated, very little is known about how many or who these substitute caregivers are, what their motivations are, how prof- itable cflfild care is, or the type of care that is being provided. In fact, a complaint of working mothers is that they cannot find a family day care provider because these caregivers are located by word of mouth only (Kamerman, 1980; Moore and Hofferth, 1979). Statement of the Problem There is little presently known about the characteristics of sub- stitute caregivers and the values, abilities, skills and knowledge they impart to children in their care. Although parents have voiced concern about the inconsistency of care and discipline their children experience as a result of being cared for in out-of—home settings (Bane et. al., 1979), there has been little or no research to compare settings on the variables of competencies valued and behavioral strategies used by adults in these setting to instill these competencies. Importance of This Study In this research, adults in the dual-earner family setting were compared with adults in the family day care home setting to ascertain what competencies were valued and what behavioral strategies adults perceived they used to instill competencies in children. This study is important in that as young children move from one family setting to another and from one caregiver to another during the course of a day, they are subjected to possible inconsistent care, discipline, values, and modes of interaction. By identifying these inconsistencies, if any, it may be possible to reduce them and thereby porvide a more con- sistent environment for young children. Furthermore, both natural par- ents and family day care providers may benefit from this information, since it may make them aware of interpersonal and child management skills which they could develop. The findings of this study provide additional information about working families such that social policy makers, corporate management, and labor unions could make better decisions regarding benefits provided for workers. Moreover, economists have recently become interested in the investment of human resources as well as in material capital in that decisions made in the family affect the economic system just as de- cisions made in the household do, e.g., fertility, savings, consumption, labor force participation, providing child care in the home for pay, (Shultz, 1974). Thus the findings of this study may also be of interest to economists who are concerned about household production and how it adds to a family's income. . Flr'fi' [Egg-:7 1 -5- ' PURPOSE 1‘ g The purpose of this study was to compare adult males and females in two family settings: the dual-earner family and the family day care home. Settings were matched using a three to five-year—old child of the dual-earner family who received substitute care in the family day care home. Dimensions of interest were: (1) instrumental competencies ' -; adults valued in children; (2) behavioral strategies they perceived ‘ they used to instill instrumental competencies in children; and (3) relationships between instrumental competencies valued and behavioral strategies used. THEORETIC FRAMEWORK A management framework was used as the basis for this study of human resource development in the family. This framework provided the means for studying the managerial subsystem within the family organi- zation. Deacon and Firebaugh (1981) have defined management as plan- ning the use of resources and then implementing the plans to meet de- mands. During these processes, family members make decisions regarding standards they set, the sequence of actions they take, facilitators they choose to implement plans, and then the actual implementation of the plans which involves checking, adjusting, amd facilitating. Demands were defined by Deacon and Firebaugh as goals or events that may originate from within or outside the family which require action. Sources of demands that were of particular interest in this Study in- cluded socio—cultural expectations, e.g., behavioral norms such as the age at which children begin their formal education, parental roles in caring for and educating children, use of parent surrogates and their roles, and children's obedience to parents. Society expects parents or parent surrogates to instill competencies in children. However, in order for adults to inculcate competencies in children, they must possess certain human resources themselves. Thus human resources become the means for meeting the above demands. The instrumental competencies that parents value and instill in children become human resources children use to meet demands placed on them by society. Instrumental competencies be- come ends as well as means. To summarize, the family may formulate goals, identify and choose among resources, implement actions, recognize facili- tating conditions, and evaluate the total process for future actions ( Deacon and Firebaugh, 1981). Thus the process that families may use as they determine which competencies are important to them and which behaviors they will use to inculcate those competencies valued is similar to that described in the management framework. DEFINITION OF TERMS Dual-earner family. This term referred to a family in which both adults hold paid jobs (Rapoport and Rapoport, 1978). Family day care home. This term referred to out of home care which may be of two different types according to Cohen and Brandegee (1974). One type is family day care in which one caregiver provides care for child- ren from more than one family. In this type of family day care, the num- ber of children, including the caregiver's, is limited to six, and there are few alterations made to the home. The second type is family group day care which involves more than one caregiver and seven to twelve children. The limit on the number of children includes the caregiver's children, and there are usually alterations made to the home ,i.e., additional rooms, exits. Natural parents. Natural parents was defined as the biological, adopted or step parents of children as opposed to caregivers or pro- viders of care who are substitute parents. Perceived behavioral strategies. Perceived behavioral strategies was defined as the manner in which parents or caregivers think they act or behave with children in a given situation. Instrumental competencies. Instrumental competencies were defined as individual behaviors, such as self-control, honesty, obedience, using etiquette, acting in a socially acceptable way or getting along well with other children. Instrumental competencies are considered useful in achieve- ing some desirable end or goal (Kohn, 1977; Baumrind, 1970). Ten instru- mental competencies were of interest in this study and are defined below. For each instrumental competency both a conceptual and operational defi- nition was developed. Each of the operational definitions below refers to items on a specific instrument developed for the present study. Competency 1: To be Honest Conceptual Definition: Honesty was defined as being truthful or trustworthy as opposed to lying, cheating, or stealing. Operational Definition: Being honest was operationally defined by five items measuring the following behaviors: (a) Telling the truth (b) Restraining oneself from taking and keeping another's belongings. Competency 2: To be Neat and Clean Conceptual Definition: Neat and clean was defined conceptually as orderly or tidy in appearance. -9- Operational Definition: Neat and clean was operationally defined by five items measuring the following behaviors: (a) Keeping one's body free from dirt or germs by means of groom- ing, e.g., washing,cutting nails, combing hair (b) Keeping one's clothing free from dirt and in good repair Competency 3: To Have Good Manners Conceptual Definition: Good manners was defined as etiquette, so- cially correct way of acting, or polite behavior. Operational Definition: Manners were defined by five items measur— ing the following behaviors: (a) Using polite verbal expressions such as ”thank you, please, excuse me,” and ”I'm sorry“ when appropriate (b) Using utensils correctly at mealtimes (c) Chewing with one's mouth closed (d) Speaking when no one else is talking Cpmpetency 4: To Obey Parents Well Conceptual Definition: Obeying parents well was conceptually de— fined as obedience or carrying out a request or command given by parents in a dutiful manner or being submissive to outside control, e.g., of par- ents or surrogate parents. Operational Definition: Obeying parents well was operationally de- fined by five items measuring the following behaviors: (a) Carrying out a verbal or non-verbal command given by parents without question (b) Following rules established by parents without question -10- Competency 5: To be Considerate of Others Conceptual Definition: Being considerate of others was defined as behaviors which indicate a deliberate regard or respect for the needs, rights, or feelings of others. Operational Definition: Consideration of others was operationally defined by five items measuring the following behaviors: (a) Taking another's point of view (b) Asking permission from others before borrowing or using their belongings (c) Using rules of conduct established in the family to teach children consideration of others (d) Putting toys and belongings away with regard for other's safety and well-being (e) Receiving just or fair treatment Competency 6: To Get Alonngith Other Children Conceptual Definition: Getting along with other children was de- fined as being amiable rather than antagonistic or warm and comforting rather than cold and aloof. Regarding oneself as worthwhile and valuable to others was also included. Operational Definition: Gets along well with other children was operationally defined by five items measuring the following behaviors: (a) Having opportunities to interact and play with others and ex- periencing both positive and negative interactions in the process (b) Standing up for one's rights (c) Taking turns with others -11- Competency 7: To Have Self-Control Conceptual Definition: Self-control was defined as using one's own will to control behaviors that result from strong emotions or de- sires. Operational Definition: Self-control was operationally defined by five items measuring the following behavior: (a) Expressing emotions in a socially acceptable manner, e.g., verbally rather than physically, rationally rather than irrationally Competency 8: To Act Like A Boy or Girl Should Conceptual Definition: Acting like a boy or girl should was de- fined as conforming to patterns or manners appropriate for a male (or female) by parents and/or society. Operational Defintion: Acting like a boy (or girl) should was op- erationally defined by five items measuring the following behaviors: (a) Playing or working with toys or materials or wearing clothing specifically designed for one's own gender (b) Behaving in a manner which has been defined by society as acceptable for a male or acceptable for a female Competency 9: To Be Interested in How and Why Things Happen Conceptpgl Definition: An interest in how and why things happen was defined as being curious or as desiring to know or learn especially about something new or strange. Operational Definition: An interest in how and why things happen was operationally defined by five items measuring the following behav- iors: -12- (a) Questioning (b) Exploring, investigating, examining and using perceptual skills : such as auditory, tactile, olefactory, taste and visual discrimination Competency 10: To Try Hard to Succeed Conceptual Definition: Trying hard to succeed was defined as accom- plishing something that one desires or intends to do or to have success at doing a task. Operational Definition: Trying hard to succeed was operationally defined by five items measuring the following behaviors: (a) Completing a task with some success I (b) Meeting an internal expectation as well as an external expec— tation (c) Solving simple problems RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES Twelve main research questions of interest in this study have been identified and delineated into twelve corresponding hypotheses. The research questions and hypotheses were further organized into three logical groups for more efficient data analysis and presentation of findings. The first group includes four research questions and hypothe- ses related to instrumental competencies. The second group of questions and hypotheses relates to behavioral strategies used. The third group of four questions and hypotheses deals with the relationships between competencies valued and behavioral strategies used. l... -13... Category One: Instrumental Competencies Valued by Adults The first research question in this category is as follows. How do the dual-earner family and family day care settings differ with re— spect to instrumental competencies adults value in children? Hypothesis 1: There is a difference in instrumental competencies valued by adults in the dual-earner family and family day care settings. The second research question deals with what sex differences, if any, exist within settings with respect to instrumental competencies that adults value in children. Hypothesis 2: There is a difference in instrumental competencies valued by adult males and adult females within a setting. The third research question is as follows. How do adult females in the dual-earner family and family day care settings differ with re- spect to instrumental competencies valued in children? Hypothesis 3: There is a difference in instrumental competencies valued by adult females in the dual-earner family and family day care settings. The fourth research question in this study is as follows. How do adult males in the dual-earner family and family day care settings differ with respect to instrumental competencies valued in children? Hypothesis 4: There is a difference in instrumental competencies valued by adult males in the dual-earner family and family day care settings. -14- Category Two: Behavioral Strategies Used by Adults The first research question in this category deals with the follow- ing concern. How do the dual-earner family and family day care settings differ with respect to perceived behavioral strategies adults use to in- still instrumental competencies in children? Hypothesis 5: There is a difference in perceived behavioral stra- tegies used by adults in the dual-earner family and family day care settings. The second research question concerns the following. What sex diff- erences, if any, exist within settings with respect to perceived behav- ioral strategies that adults use to instill instrumental competencies in children? Hypothesis 6: There is a difference in perceived behavioral stra— tegies used by adult males and adult females within a setting. The third research question deals with the following issue. How do adult females in the dual—earner family and family day care settings differ with respect to perceived behavioral strategies used to instill instrumental competencies in children? Hypothesis 7: There is a difference in perceived behavioral stra- tegies used by adult females in the dual—earner family and family day care settings. The fourth research question in this category asks the following. How do adult males in the dual-earner family and family day care settings differ with respect to perceived behavioral strategies Used to instill instrumental competencies in children? Hypothesis 8: There is a difference in perceived behavioral stra- tegies used by adult males in the dual-earner fam— ily and family day care settings. -15- Category Three: The Relationships Between Competencies Valued and Behavioral Strategies Used by Adults The first research question in this category deals with the follow— ing concern. What is the relationship between instrumental competencies valued and behavioral strategies used between the adults in dual-earner family and family day care settings? Hypothesis 9: There is a relationship between instrumental compe- tencies valued and perceived behavioral strategies used by adults in both settings. The second research question asks the following. What is the rela- tionship between instrumental competencies valued and behavioral strate- gies used by the males and females in each setting? Hypothesis 10: There is a relationship between instrumental compe— tencies valued and perceived behavioral strategies used by sex of adults within a setting. The third research question asks the following. What is the rela- tionship between instrumental competencies valued and behavioral strate- gies used by females in the dual-earner family and family day care set- tings? Hypothesis 11: There is a relationship between instrumental compe- tencies valued and perceived behavioral strategies used by females in the dual-earner and family day care settings. The fourth and final hypothesis in this category is as follows. What is the relationship between instrumental competencies valued and behavioral strategies used between males in the dual-earner family and family day care settings? Hypothesis 12: There is a relationship between instrumental compe— tencies valued and perceived behavioral strategies used by males in the dual-earner and family day care settings. -15- ASSUMPTIONS The following assumptions were made in this study. 1. Parents and caregivers have some idea of competencies they desire and think important to develop in young children. Given an appropriate instrument they are able to express what they value. 2. Parents and caregivers have behaviors that they routinely use with children in given situations. 3. Males in the family day care setting influence instrumental competencies that caregivers value and behavioral strategies they use with children. 4. Parents and adults in the family day care home define instru- mental competencies referred to in this study in the same way the researcher does. 5. The level of parenting experience which adults in the dual- earner and family day care settings have affects competencies valued and strategies used. 6. The sex of a child has some effect on competencies valued and behavioral strategies used. OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY In Chapter II, the literature related to this study is presented. Included in the review are studies on developmental tasks and competen- cies observed in young children as well as studies pertaining to family day care. The methods used to develop the instruments, to collect the data and to analyze it are described in Chapter III. Findings and rele- vant discussion are presented in the final two chapters. In Chapter IV, the results of the descriptive and inferential statistical analyses are described. In Chapter V, the results and their implications are pre- sented, conclusions are drawn, and recommendations are made for further research which will contribute to existing knowledge on family day care and competency development in young children. CHAPTER II 1 ‘.. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE I INTRODUCTION In this review of the literature, research that has focused on the study of developmental tasks was emphasized. In addition, findings ,‘i in the literature on family day care were reviewed which related to the present study, e.g., developmental differences observed in children cared for in day care homes as opposed to natural homes, the need for additional training expressed by providers, expectations of parents and providers, and the question of continuity or discontinuity between the natural family and family day care settings. DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS AND COMPETENCIES OF YOUNG CHILDREN Havighurst's (1953) concept of "developmental task" was one of the earlier attempts to define what is expected of an individual at a particular point in the life cycle based on what the individual is biologically capable of doing, what the culture expects, and the individ- ual's personal values or view of self. Havighurst stated that when tasks are successfully achieved, the individual is happy and experiences success with later tasks. On the other hand, if the individual fails, he/she is unhappy; society expresses disapproval; and the individual has difficulty with later tasks. Prior to age six, Havighurst stated that a child should learn to walk, talk, eat solid foods, and control the elimination of body wastes. In addition, the child should be able to discriminate between the sexes and be capable of forming other simple -17- -l8- concepts of social and physical reality. Since the child has acquired and shared so many experiences with his or her family, and other people, an emotional relationship should be established between the child and significant others. Finally, Havighurst indicated that by age six a child should be able to distinguish right from wrong and be developing a conscience upon which values and morality will later be built. Baumrind (1966, 1967, 1970, 1971) studied parent-child relations and more specifically the effects of parental authority on the behavior of preschool children. In a series of three studies using direct obser- vation, interviews, and self-report, Baumrind (1966, 1967, 1971) identi— fied three groups of middle-class nursery school children (three and four years of age from well educated families) based on the following competencies: self-control, self-reliance, curiosity, and contentedness, and then contrasted the child rearing practices of their parents. She found that children who were the most self-reliant, self-controlled, ex— plorative and centent were those who had parents who were controlling and demanding, but were also warm, rational, and receptive to the child's communication. This type of parent was labeled "authoritative". A sec- ond group of children, as compared to the others, was found to be dis— contented, withdrawn, and distrustful. Parents of these children were found to be detached, controlling, and somewhat less warm. These par- ents were labeled ”authoritarian". The third group of children were the least self-reliant, explorative, and self-controlled. Parents of these children were found to be non—controlling, non-demanding, and relatively warm. These parents were labeled ”permissive". -19- In a second study, Baumrind and Black (1967) used an additional 95 nursery school age children and their parents. The results of the study also supported Baumrind's (1966, p. 905) position, "authorita-' tive control can achieve responsible conformity with group standards without loss of individual autonomy or self-assertiveness." In a third study, Baumrind (1971) investigated subpatterns of parental authority within the broad categories of authoritative, au- thoritarian, and permissive. In this study she found that middle class parents clearly value instrumentally competent behaviors which were de- fined as behaviors that are socially responsible and independent; friendly rather than hostile to peers; cooperative rather that resistive with adults; achievement rather than non-achievement oriented; dominant rather than submissive; purposive rather than aimless. These values are similar to those that Emmerich and Smoller (1964) found among middle class parents. When asked to rank the attributes they valued and did not value in children, middle class parents indica- ted the most valued were assertiveness, friendliness, independence and obedience. Those least valued were aggression, avoidance, and depen— dency. Baumrind (1970) also expressed concern about differential treatment of the sexes which begins in early education. For example, she found that girls are systematically socialized for incompetence in our society. Being affiliative and cooperative, girls are more receptive to socializ- ing agents who may inclucate passivity, dependence, conformity, and soc- iability at the expense of independence and pursuit of success or _20_ _ Eu ' scholarship. Parents in Baumrind's study who had the most achievement ! oriented and independent daughters were the authoritative parents. As a result of her work in this area, Baumrind suggested that adults facilitate the development of socially responsible and indepen- dent behavior in both boys and girls by: (1) modeling socially respon- sible and self-assertive behaviors; (2) using firm enforcement policies by reinforcing socially responsible behavior and punishing deviant be- havior and by explaining demands and sanctions to the child; (3) devel- oping nonrejecting but not overprotective or passive—acceptant attitudes 1 toward the child by showing interest in the child but at the same time ‘ :_; letting the child know that approval is conditional upon the child's I behavior: (4) demanding achievement and conformity to parental policy, but also being receptive to the child's rational demands; and (5) pro- viding the child with a complex and stimulating environment. White, Watts, Barnett, Kaban, Marmor and Shapiro (1973) also in— vestigated the subject of competence. They were primarily concerned with the problem of structuring experiences and environment in the first six years of life so there was a maximal development of competence. However, in order to investigate how human competence was best de- veloped, they had to first define it. Through observing children and administering objective tests for intelligence and motor and sen— sory capabilities to a sample of 51 three, four, and five year-olds from very diverse backgrounds, it was found that half the children were high on overall competence and half were very low but without gross pathology. After further observations of these children, 13 of the -21- most talented and 13 of the least talented were selected, and a list of abilities was divided into social and non social types. Since differences in motor and sensory capacities were minimal between high and low groups,these abilities were not included in their description of competencies. Social abilities in the White et a1. study included behaviors such as: (l) attract and maintain the attention of adults in socially accep- table ways; (2) use adults as resources; (3) express both affection and hostility verbally and physically; (4) lead and follow peers; (5) com- pete with peers; (6) praise oneself and/or show pride in one's accom- plishments; and (7) involve oneself in adult role-playing behaviors or to otherwise express the desire to grow up. Non social abilities included: (1) linguistic competence, i.e., grammatical capacity, vocabulary, articulation, and extensive use of expressed language; (2) intellectual competence, i.e., ability to sense dissonance or note discrepancies, ability to anticipate consequences, ability to take the perspective of another, ability to make interesting associations; (3) executive abilities, i.e., ability to plan and carry out multi-step activities, ability to use resources effectively; and (4) attentional ability/dual focus, i.e., to attend to two things simultan— eously or in rapid alternation. In addition to the competencies of children identified by White et al. in 1973, Carew, Chan, and Halfar (1975, 1976) found that the types of interactions parents had with children had an effect on the intellec- tual competence of young children. Children below the age of three were -22- f F were found to gain in skill and knowledge, as measured by objective tests, through interacting with adults and by observing behaviors of adults. Categories of adult behaviors which created intellectual ex- ‘ periences for children and which were related to intellectual compe- tence were: (1) actively participating with children by teaching,con- versing, entertaining and sharing in intellectual activity; (2) re— stricting children's behavior by scolding, preventing, and distracting; (3) facilitating the children's behavior by providing materials, sug- gesting activities, and praising; and (4) observing children's behav- iors by listening and watching. As a result of their studies, White et a1. (1973) and Carew et a1. 6 L (1975, 1976) found that the number of interactions a child has, the I 1 quality of those interactions, and the kinds of activities the child engages in all contribute to the child's intellectual and social com- petencies. Furthermore, these studies also suggested that observable differences in the home environments of children who will develop well and those who develop poorly can be identified by the time the child is one year old, and that these differences persist at least until the child is three years old. A series of exploratory studies were carried out by Kohn (1959, 1963, 1977). Kohn studied the relationship of social class to parental values and behavior in three separate studies, two of which were conduc- ted in the United States and one which was conducted in Italy. In the Washington D.C. study, Kohn (1977) studied the relationship of social class to parental values and how class differences in parental values -23- (I l l i might affect child-rearing practices. He defined values and standards of desirability or criteria of preference. Using a list of seventeen characteristics derived from parents, he asked respondents (339 mothers, 82 fathers) to choose the three they considered most important for their fifth grade child and assigned a value only to these three characteris- tics. Values found to be significantly related to social class were: (1) consideration; (2) happiness; (3) self-control; (4) curiosity; (5) ’ w-‘“- ability to defend one's self; (6) obedience; and (7) neatness and clean- liness. . 15%. _ mafia—r In this study he found that although parents of both social classes considered it important that children be honest, happy, considerate, obedient, dependable, and respectful of other's rights, middle class parents were more likely to emphasize self-direction, e.g., a greater propensity of middle class parents chose consideration and self-control as highly desirable, whereas working class parents emphasized conformity to external authority, e.g., a greater propensity of working class par- ents chose obedience and neatness as highly desirable. In addition, middle class mothers valued the same characteristics for children of both sexes whereas working class mothers valued masculine characteris- tics for boys and feminine characteristics for girls. There was some question as to the definition of honesty as defined by both sets of mothers, e.g., honesty was positively related to consideration, depen— dability, and manners but negatively related to popularity for middle class mothers whereas for working class mothers honesty was positively associated with manners, popularity, and happiness but negatively -24- related to being a good student. As a result of this first study, Kohn was able to further define self-direction as being a focus on internal standards for behavior and a concern with intent. On the other hand, conformity was defined as being focused on externally imposed rules and attuned to obedience to the dictates of an authority. The seventeen individual characteristics which parents were asked about were not defined for them by the research- er. Rather, each participant attached his or her own meaning to each in- dividual characteristic. This may have affected differences Kohn found in parental values between the two social classes. . In order to make a cross national comparison, Kohn conducted a sec- ond study in Turin, Italy. His intent was to establish the generality of the relationship of social class to parental values. Using parents (468 mothers, 308 fathers) of ten and eleven year-olds as respondents, as he did in the Washington D.C. study, he asked them to state three characteristics (of the seventeen provided) which they considered most important, but in addition to judge the remaining as important or un- important. This enabled the researcher to classify each parent as val- uing a characteristic highly (one of the three most important),moderately (not selecting it as one of the three most important but judging it to be important) or not at all (judging it unimportant). Values found to be significantly related to social class were: (1) self-control; (2) depen- dability; (3) consideration; (4) happiness; (5) manners; (6) obedience; (7) neatness and cleanliness; and (8) good student. -25- Middle class parents in Italy put greater emphasis on children's self-direction by valuing self-control, dependability, happiness, and consideration. Working class parents, on the other hand, emphasized conformity to external standards by valuing obedience and neatness. Italian mothers, regardless of social class, made no distinction be- tween what was desirable for boys and girls, and Italians in general seemed to value obedience more than Americans. For example, parents of the working class of both countries valued obedience more than the middle class. However, despite cultural differences between countries, in general, Kohn found the relationship between social class and par- ental values to be consistent. A third study, the National Study, was conducted by Kohn to assess: (1) the generality of his essential findings of both the Washington D.C. and Turin studies---that the higher social class position was related to greater valuation of self-direction, and lower social class position was related to greater valuation of conformity to externally imposed stan- dards; and (2) the magnitude of the class-values relationship. Fif— teen hundred fathers of children between the ages of three and fifteen who lived at home were interviewed. However, the index of parental val- ues was further revised for this study. Six characteristics were drop- ped altogether, and four were modified to broaden their connotations as follows: (1) dependable was changed to responsible; (2) popularity was changed to getting along well with other children; (3) curious about things was changed to interested in how and why things happen; and (4) ambitious was changed to tries hard to succeed. Two characteristics -26- were added: (1) acts like a boy/girl should; and (2) good sense and sound judgment. Thus the index of parental values used in this study consisted of thirteen characteristics. Fathers were told to choose the three that were most desirable, the one which was the most desir- able of all, the three that were least important (even if desirable), and the one that was least important of all. This allowed the re- searcher to then classify each father's valuation of each character- istic on a five point scale. As in previous studies, parents were expected to attach their own meaning to each characteristic, but Kohn described the following characteristics as receiving certain emphasis: (l) manners emphasized the proper form of behavior; (2) being a good student emphasized how one's performance is judged by others; and (3) interest in how and why things happen emphasized intellectual curiosity. It is not known wheth- er the interviewer actually defined a characteristic or not during the course of an interview or whether respondents ever asked for a definition. Kohn found a statistically significant linear relationship in the appropriate direction between social class and fathers' valuation of all the following nine characteristics of which the first four reflect self-direction and the last five reflect conformity: (l) consideration; (2) interest in how and why things happen; (3) responsibility; (4) self-control; (5) manners; (6) neat and clean; (7) being a good stu- dent; (8) honesty; and (9) obedience. The magnitude of the relation- ships was not found to be great, e.g., correlations between class and -27- each value were no larger than 0.20, although a canonical correlation between class and the entire set of values was found. The consistency found between class differences and parental values was emphasized rather than the magnitude. Hence the conclusions were the same as for the two previous studies, e.g., the higher the social position, the greater the father's valuation of characteristics that indicate an em- phasis on self-direction; the lower the social position, the greater 1 was the father's valuation of characteristics that indicate an emphasis on conformity to externally imposed standards. ‘ 2‘1 Additional findings of this third study which were particularly 1 . 5: pertinent to the present study involve the age and sex of the child and the working status of the wife—mother. Kohn found that class- value relationships extended to children beyond the ages of ten and eleven (the ages of children in the first two studies). While such class-value relationships applied to children from the age of three to fifteen years, some were more pronounced for children of some ages but weak or nonexistent for children of other ages. For example, the older the child, the more highly fathers in the National Study valued responsibility, being a good student, honesty, good sense and sound judgment, and the less highly they valued interest in how and why things happen, manners, obedience, acting as a boy or girl should, and getting along well with other children. Self-control was highly valued for both the youngest and oldest children. Children's sex was also related to a father's values but not as strongly as age. For example, fathers thought it more desirable for —28— boys to be interested in how and why things happen, be honest, and try hard to succeed whereas they thought it more desirable for girls to be neat and clean. Fathers considered it important that children before the age of adolescence act in accordance with what society ex- pects of each sex, but during adolescence fathers thought it more im- portant that girls conform to their sex role. The higher the social class, the more highly fathers valued good sense and sound judgment for older children; the lower the social class, the more highly fa— thers valued older girls conforming to the sex role. Fathers in gen- eral valued self-direction more highly for boys than for girls. . i“ I. The aspect of family life which correlated with father's values 1 independent of social class was wives working outside the home. Men I whose wives had jobs outside the home were likely to value responsi- bility but unlikely to value consideration and acting as a boy/girl should. The higher the wives' occupational status, the more highly men valued self-direction and those values related to self-direction. In summary, although many social variables were considered in the National Study, Kohn found that regardless of race, religion, and or- dinal position of child in the family, the relationship of social class to fathers' values was the same. He found that the higher the class position of the fathers, the more highly they valued self-direc- tion and the less highly they valued conformity to externally im- posed standards. Kohn also pursued the question of how parental values might affect child-rearing practices by presenting additional open-ended -297 questions about specific incidences of children's misbehavior and par- ental reaction to it. Specific situations asked about included: (1) playing wildly; (2) fighting with brothers and sisters; (3) fighting ‘ , f with other children; (4) losing one's temper; (5) refusing to do what 5 L parents told child; (6) swiping something from home or other children; i (7) smoking cigarettes; and (8) using language the parent did not want the child to use. Parental reactions to the children's behaviors as indicated by responses primarily from mothers, fathers and ten and eleven-year-old children (from the Washington study) fell into the following classifications: (1) ignore and do nothing about it; (2) scold (admonish to be good, demand that the child stop, inquire as to “ L cause of behavior, scream, threaten to punish); (3) separate from I other children or divert attention (remove child from the situation or provide alternative activities); (4) restrict usual activities (limit the child's freedom of movement or activity without isolation); (5) isolate (confine the child to a place alone for a period of time); and (6) punish physically (anything from a slap to a spanking). From the research reviewed on children's competencies, several implications were drawn for the present study. First, instrumental competencies which children could obtain by the age of six were clear- ly delineated, and many of these competencies were incorporated in the development of an instrument for this study. Second, parental behav- iors and values which both facilitated the acquisition of instrumental competencies and which would tend to inhibit the development of com- petencies were described. These behaviors were useful in designing an instrument for the present study. Third, methods employed in these -30- studies, such as interviews and administering questionnaires, provided a model for the methods chosen for this Study. Fourth, both Baumrind (1970) and Kohn (1977) suggested that children's acquisition of compe- tencies is related to both sex role expectations of adults and behav- iors that adults use to teach sex roles to children. That is, parents and caregivers tend to expect different behaviors from boys and girls and tend to treat children differently from an early age. These find- ings provided the rationale for including adults of both sexes in this study and for selecting parents as participants who had male children and parents who had female children. Fifth, Kohn suggested that the working status of the mother may affect competencies which parents value. Therefore, this finding provided additional rationale for se- lecting families as participants in which both parents worked. Finally, Kohn’s Index of Parental Values, one part of Kohn's total question- naire was selected as the instrument to measure instrumental competen- cies valued by parents and family day care providers in the present study (with the exception of three qualities which Kohn reported were more highly valued when children were older, e.g., good student, re- sponsibile, and good sense and sound judgment). FAMILY DAY CARE In general, the literature on family day care revealed very little about values, abilities, skills, and knowledge which providers instill in young children. Cocheran (1977) compared the experiences that Swed- ish children have in their own homes, in day care homes, and day care centers to see what possible developmental differences were exhibited -31- by the children. She found that there were more interactions between children and adults in day care homes and in natural homes than in the center and that children in home settings were more likely to be engaged in cognitive verbal interactions, exploring, and play when involved with adults. Adults in home settings used more teaching and supervising, i.e., restricting and directing of activities. Rubin (1975) found that training and support systems were being requested by providers who were sponsored by some sort of agency. In the Rubin study, questionnaires were used to ascertain what the provi- 1‘”y der and an agency home visitor's perceptions were of their ideal and actual on-the-job-behaviors. She found that home visitors and provi- ders had a common view of what the ideal provider ought to do, e.g., provide a safe physical environment; follow an established daily rou- tine; allow children to assist with jobs around the house; and spend some time alone with each child daily. Rodriquez (1976) designed a family day care home rating scale which is currently being used to observe and evaluate family day care homes; however, no statistical data were available on the instrument. Rodriquez and Hignett (1976) reported, however, that the provider was the key to quality care and that quality of care and consumer satisfac- tion are not necessarily related. They suggested that the model of agency sponsored family day care is desirous since it allowed for more careful screening of providers and provides a vehicle for training and monitoring their behaviors. Collins and Watson (1969) indicated that it was difficult to find FTYVHH -32- ! out just how mothers and providers perceived family day care using the method of self-report. For example, working mothers tended to minimize the amount and type of care their child received in day care to allevi- ate their guilt over having their child in poor care. 0n the other hand, providers tended to minimize arrangements they made with families . because they were uneasy about legal issues connected with family day : care, e.g., they did not report their work for income tax purposes, and they did not want to acknowledge the low status of their work. In some cases, they did not even consider themselves employed. Collins (1966) found a great deal of discontinuity of care for children in family day care settings due to the frequency of moves and the various types of care children experienced, e.g., children were moved from one provider to another, from provider to relatives, from relatives to part-time care provided by older siblings, and from older siblings to self-care and back to providers again. She identified the key to quality and continuity of care for children to be the relation- ship between the provider and natural mother. Collins and Watson (1969) found that mothers whose children were in care for more than a year (and these were in a minority) were the ones who maintained a friendly re- lationship with the provider. Children needing the most hours of care (over 50 hours per week) were those who remained with a provider for the shortest periods of time. Natural mothers tended to terminate the relationship with the provider four times as often as the provider, and a businesslike relationship existed with short term'care whereas in long term care the relationship was more friendly. -33- Sale (1973) described family day care as a large but somewhat in- visible network of people who provide a real service to families need- ing child care. She indicated that during the Community Family Day Care Project, many providers initially had low self-esteem. They did not realize the great responsibility they had assumed nor how much they contributed to children and families until the project was well under- way, and professionals had worked with them. During the project, how- ever, providers realized that they could teach professionals about their jobs, and they became aware of the vast amount of counseling they did with parents of children in their care. In addition, Sale's providers indicated a need for additional knowledge particularly of child devel- opment so that they could continue to improve their services. A par- ticular advantage to family day care which Sale found was that natural parents were willing to learn from providers since both the natural parents and family day care provider were both usually from the same economic status and because their life styles were similar. If this were the case, and natural parents were willing to learn childrearing practices from providers, there would tend to be some continuity in learning experiences for the child. Host (1976) also indicated that family day care programs were successful only when those involved, e.g., agency, child's parents and providers worked closely together in caring for the child. Since care of the child was actually shared by two families, the child needed to experience settings which were as similar as possible so that the child was not confused by different concepts and approaches. -34- 1;: . ‘ Wattenberg (1977) mentioned the meager amount of research conduc- ted regarding family day care as a whole and the parent-caregiver re- lationship in particular. Although Wattenberg participated in the Ramsey County Training Project which was primarily designed to learn 1 more about family day care providers' attitudes toward and preferences in training, she described factors other than provider characteristics. During the project, tensions were observed between natural parents and providers. Each set of adults criticized the other; e.g., providers described parents as immature, indifferent, irresponsible, uncaring, 1 f and unreliable whereas parents described providers as being inade- quate housekeepers and nurturers of children. A main source of tension y} appeared to be the unexpressed fear that day care would lessen or harm children's attachment to mothers since children spent so many hours of the day with providers. A second critical factor identified by Wattenberg which was pertinent to the present study was the differing life styles of providers and parents which result in value conflicts. The question of colliding values and disruptive influences on children as a result of their being cared for by persons of a different social milieu from their parents was raised. Socioeconomic, racial, and eth- nic differences as well as cultural values, particularly that of accepting women in their changing roles, were of concern. Despite their interdependence, a definite division appeared between women who worked outside the home and left their children with providers and the women who stayed at home in the role of provider. For example, comments of providers indicated they were envious, resentful, and bitter toward '35— ‘ lFi.” working mothers and had little understanding of the demands, anxieties, and stress that working women endure as they struggle with their varied roles. In addition to many other conclusions which Wattenberg reached in regard to the training of family day care providers, she emphasized the need for focusing on the provider—caregiver relationship with par— ticular attention given to cultural value conflicts. Powell (1978) studied the relationship between parents and day care center caregivers and found that, in general, communication atti- tudes became more positive as communication frequency increased. Par- ental and caregiver attitudes both became more positive with regard to discussing child-rearing values as communication increased. Parents and caregivers considered the topic of general parental expectations of the center to be appropriate whereas fewer parents and caregivers considered specific caregiver practices to merit attention. Family related topics were discussed infrequently; the child was found to be the main channel of communication in many instances and for many par— ents there was no consistent communication with a particular center staff member. Most of the communicating was accomplished at transi- tion points, i.e., at pick up and drop off time. Therefore, Powell concluded that there were few attempts made between parents and staff toward coordinating children's socialization processes and thus the child's world appeared fragmented and discontinuous since the child's family, other children's families, and the day care center functioned as independent, detached systems. Several implications were drawn from the literature on family -35- day care for the present study. First, a definite need was established to examine parental and provider perceptions about the development of competencies in the home and family day care settings. Second, it was found that studies which provide additional information about the degree of continuity or discontinuity between a child's home and family day care were needed. Third, the methodology of interview and question- naires employed by Cocheran (1977) were considered applicable in the present study. Fourth, the literature indicated that providers want and need more information which will further their own competency de- velopment and thereby improve the quality of care they give children and the relationship they establish with parents. Finally, these studies suggested that gathering data from both parents and providers was a difficult task which might require assistance from professionals in family day care, especially in locating providers and parents. In addition, it was found that the interview and instruments needed to be carefully designed to expedite gathering information from people with very busy schedules. CHAPTER III ( METHODOLOGY . INTRODUCTION In this chapter, there are eight main sections which include de- scriptions of: (l) the research design; (2) instruments used; (3) approval by human subjects committee; (4) selection of subjects; (5) data collec- tion procedures; (6) how bias was reduced; (7) research hypotheses; and (8) how data were analyzed. RESEARCH DESIGN i . This ex post facto (field) study was both comparative and correla- tional in design (Kerlinger, 1974). It was comparative in that child- ren's instrumental competencies valued by adults both within and between two settings (dual-earner family and family day care) were compared. In addition, the behavioral strategies used by adults to instill competencies were compared within and between both settings. The study was correla— tional because correlations were performed to determine the strength of the relationship between the competencies valued and the behavioral strategies used by adults in these two settings. Thus the combination comparative and correlational design was used to determine: (1) how similar or different adults in two settings were with respect to in- strumental competencies valued; (2) how similar or different adults in two settings were with respect to perceived behavioral strategies used to instill the valued competencies; and (3) the relationship, if any, between the instrumental competencies valued and the perceived behavioral -37_ -38- strategies used by adults in two settings. Major design variables of interest in this study were adults, male and female, in both the dual-earner and family day care settings as the independent variables. The dependent variables were ten instrumental competencies valued and ten perceived behavioral strategies used to in- still the instrumental competencies. The design for the three aspects of the study is shown in Figure 1. The first aspect dealt with the comparison of ten instrumental competen- cies valued both within and between the dual—earner and family day care settings. The second aspect dealt with the comparison of ten behavioral strategies used to instill competencies both within and between the dual- earner and family day care settings. The third aspect of the study dealt with the relationship between the instrumental competencies valued and the perceived behavioral strategies used. The same basic design was used for all three aspects, but for each aspect, a different set of dependent variables was measured. A key to identification of the instrumental competencies measured in this study is as follows: C \OWNO‘m-P-WNI—I ll Good Manners Tries Hard to Succeed Honest Neat and Clean Self-Control Acts Like a Boy/Girl Should Gets Along With Other Children - Obeys Parents Well - Considerate of Others Interested in How and Why Things Happen 00000000 O |—‘ C II -3g- aHzmonH<4mm «Hump oz< .omm: mmemp mmHuzmHmmzoo 4omm mm4Hz4Hz Ammv mms Ammv mm-4Hzm mumoom >omh<¢hm 4<¢O~><2mm mo mzo_hmo omHh4=z .$.U m m H < H a < > H z 3 mquhHmm ma-_z mmHuzmHmazou 44sz oz< whHH422 c m4m mo momzom -77_ null hypothesis was rejected. The independent variable which produced the significant multivariate effect, adults in the dual-earner family, was analyzed for its influence on each separate instrumental competency by univariate F tests. The univariate F tests revealed that good manners, tries hard to succeed, honest, neat and clean, self-control, gets along with other children, and obeys parents well were significant (p.< .05). Males and Females Within the Family Day Care Setting) The doubly multivariate repeated measures analysis for instrumental competencies valued was found to be significant, F (10,15) = 33.44, p < .001, by the Wilks' Lambda Criterion for males and females in the family day care setting. (see Table 7). Therefore, within the family day care setting the null hypothesis was rejected. When the independent variable, adults in the family day care setting, was analyzed for its influence on each separate instrumental competency by means of univariate F tests, the following results were found. Six instrumental competencies were significant (p < .05) including tries hard to succeed, honest, neat and clean, self—control, gets along with other children and obeys parents well. Hypothesis 3: Females in the Dual-Earner and Family Day Care Settings In hypothesis three, it was stated that a difference would be found on instrumental competencies valued by adult females in the dual- earner and family day care settings. When the doubly multivariate re- peated measures analysis was executed on the revised version of the Kohn Index of Parental Values, a significant effect was revealed for females -78- as. N uaddeH SSUIHI g KHM a MOH mw.m ('1 54949.0 4° S 319J9p15u03 aeeeH.mm keemm.em Undo [[9 suuaue sKaq eekmw.mm eeao SJauio M 3 no ('3 911M 113 Buolv ssa Hoo. V a. are Ho.V a re mo. v a a HH. «om.m eeew¢.mv areHo.mN ekemm.omH 0.0 «eave.mm mH.oH mo ewe 0 «mm c eekom mH eeeme mN «kwv m eeewm menu «on: «Jun H” 141; no 1.3 0 a 1.3 0 o J O. J 1. u I. a e u L. 0 1.5 4+.3 9 1+ 3 (.3 my J . u S n S c.1- 0 e 1 3 W OX 0. an— u n 9 9 J D It nrnr a nraa J 0 5 AA . mhH m H < H m < > H z : waHHHmm um4Hz mmHuzmhmmzou 44Hz= az< mhHh-=z n m4m mo muzaom _79- in the dual-earner and family day care settings, F (10,15) = 22.46, p < .001, by the Wilks' Lambda Criterion as indicated in Table 8. Therefore, for females in both settings, the null hypothesis was re- jected. When the independent variable, female adults in dual-earner and family day care settings, was analyzed for its influence on each sepa- rate instrumental competency using univariate F tests, the following results were found. Four instrumental competencies were found to be significant (p <:.05). They were tries hard to succeed, honest, gets along with other children, and obeys parents well. Hypothesis 4: Males in the Dual-Earner and Family Day Care Settings In hypothesis four it was stated that a difference would be found in instrumental competencies valued by adult males in the dual-earner and family day care settings. When the doubly multivariate repeated measures analysis was run on the data from the revised version of the Kohn Index of Parental Values, a significant effect was revealed for males in the dual-earner and family day care settings, F (10,15) = 46.81 p <2.001, by the Wilks' Lambda Criterion as indicated in Table 9. Therefore for males in the dual-earner family and family day care set- tings, the null hypothesis was rejected. The following results were found when the independent variable, male adults in the dual-earner and family day care settings, was analyzed for its influence on each separate instrumental competency using the univariate F tests. In this case all of the ten instrumen- tal competencies were found to be significant (p‘< .05), except for acts like a boy or girl should. -80- Hco. V a «an uaddeH SOULul Ho.v nee mo.v an mo—msmm menu an: s-eeu a seesaw mu. sm.m «aevH.~m «aemm.mm HH. mo.~ mm.m «aamm.¢m «eeo.cm mo. «aaoe.~m mH.cH -Haao H 03 MdO M9 58V OS OH H 11- W9 0 1:0 390. 38 H03 03 la 0 04 90 M .u 1.43 1.1 05.4 UL So- u L. DC OS LaK ls n/S 1.: 91 8 53 up Do 1:... us L9 J. U S n5 3 up 1 v pliql. 0 p. 1... 3 la M 38 S I. J... L u 3H S u. JJ 0 1.x. P 89 K So. u a 84 19 5 pp 3 m zo_h<~¢<> u u h < H a < > H z : m~uhqaz mo mumzom mwthhmm m¢4Hzm omaa<> mmHuzuhmazou 44~z= oz< mhHh4=z m m4m - z a mH<-x<>-H-=z .m.e mazHHHHm mm4Hzm Qua-<> mmHQZMHuaon 44Hza oz< whHhmaz m uam mo momzom ~82- ANALYSIS OF BEHAVIORAL STRATEGIES USED Hypothesis 5: Males and Females in Both Dual-Earner and Family Day Care Settings Hypothesis five stated that there would be a difference in perceived behavioral strategies used by adults in the dual-earner and family day care settings. For male and female adults across settings, the doubly multivariate repeated measures analysis run on data from the Parent Behavioral Strategies Scale revealed significance, F (10,24) = 67.97, p <'.OOl, by the Wilks' Lambda Criterion (see Table 10). Therefore, for adults across both settings, the null hypothesis was rejected. The following results were found when the independent variable, adult males and females across both settings, was analyzed for its influence on each separate behavioral strategy using univariate F tests. Four behavioral strategies were significant (p <:.05): tries hard to succeed, honest, gets along with other children, and obeys parents well. Hypothesis 6: Males and Females Within Settings In hypothesis six, it was stated that a difference would be found in perceived behavioral strategies used by adults when adults were com- pared with a setting. When the doubly multivariate repeated measures analysis was run on the data from the Parent Behavioral Strategies Scale, the results shown in Table 11 were found. Males and Females Within the Dual—Earner Setting The doubly multivariate repeated measures analysis for perceived behavioral strategies used was found to be significant, F (10,15) = 27.85, p < .001, by the WilksI Lambda Criterion. Therefore, within -83- oo. Mm a MOH uaddeH sfiuiul l\ m. aieaaptsuog eeeem.m~m 113M sauaued sKaqo 89v.- a... 8.VQ ea. 8.!- .- eeem©.mmH me. mm.m mH.H eeeom.wN eeemm.m¢ ov. enemm.m© «Janna menu .3 fl-Nu u" (31- no U.L.a L.D a 1.9 O n J o usq+q+ .-«+ I. a P u 3 L. O Ituws Its .3 p.14 3 3 3 D. D. - u S a S J nuuv noel “J 9 4+ .u mm a 1.1. u.L. O u D.uu u uwo 0 N. u D. E U a u n a .4 J u J.D TL J D. a pm... w .. n. .A 0 / u m m h < H m < > H z 2 mhHH4=z mmz—ppum m¢4Hz4Hz= oz< up<~¢<>Hh-=z o. m4m mo mumsom -84— the dual-earner setting, the null hypothesis was rejected. The independent variable which produced the significant multi— variate effect, adults within the dual-earner setting, was analyzed for its influence on each separate behavioral strategy using univariate F tests. These tests revealed that five behavioral strategies were sig- nificant (p < .05): tries hard to succeed, honest, gets along with other children, obeys parents well, and interested in how and why things happen. When adults within the dual-earner setting were asked how much they agreed in regard to the item, "My spouse and I agree on what we expect of children", the data showed a mean difference of -.40 between the two groups. When the means of these two groups were analyzed using the t—test, a t value of -2.31 was found which was significant (p < .05). Males and Females Within the Family Day Care Setting The doubly multivariate repeated measures analysis for perceived behavioral strategies used was found to be significant, F (10,15) = 51.75, p <'.OOl, by the Wilks' Lambda Criterion. Therefore, within the family day care setting, the null hypothesis was rejected. The independent variable, adults within the family day care setting, was analyzed for its influence on each separate behavioral strategy by univariate F tests. Four of the ten strategies were found to be sig- nificant: tries hard to succeed, honest, gets along with other children, and obeys parents well. When adults within the family day care setting were asked how much they agreed in regard to the item, “My spouse and I agree on what we ex- {fl V‘.‘ ., it -oo. v a ... Ho.V a e...- mo. v a . mm. 0.0 eean.mm~ aeamn.oe Hm. Hm.H NH N «aaom.~wH aaemm.m¢H mm.m kaamN.Hm mH.oH .¢-.n em.m ...~n.mm ...~o.c~ Ne. -o. -o. .«.vm.mm «.tem.m¢ o-. ...mn.L~ m-.o- 1H 03 ”.00 ans 8V «JS 3" H SI. 9 . mm In Hum men an we .3 n m... m 5 U OS [3‘ ILLS /S 191’ 9.1+ 3 33 D. 8 59° 1L. US 0. 9 J. U S as _ sm w» n mmw on w w a n. A HUT JJ U110 ILNI D. 109 Eu‘ EaA SD. uuu 3 u d 19 5 a d a D- J a S u m mp<-¢<>-h-=z .c.n m mh<-¢<>-z= mquhhmm m¢-_zm cum: mm~uwp4sz oz< mp<~¢<>~hdzz H— mam no mo¢=Om -86- pect of children", the data showed a mean difference of .08. A t- test of the two group means provided a t value of .36, which was not statistically significant. Hypothesis 7: Females in the Dual-Earner and Family Day Care Settings Hypothesis seven stated that there would be a difference in perceived behavioral strategies used by females in the dual-earner and family day care settings. When the doubly multivariate repeated mea- sures analysis was executed on the data from the Parent Behavioral Stra- tegies Scale, a significant multivariate effect was revealed for females in the dual-earner and family day care settings, F (10,15) = 45.47, p.< .001, by the Wilks' Lambda Criterion as indicated in Table 12. Therefore, for females across settings, the null hypothesis was rejected. When the independent variable, female adults in both settings, was analyzed for its influence on each separate behavioral strategy using the univariate F test, the following results were obtained. Five be- havioral strategies were significant (p <:.05): tries hard to succeed, honest, self-control, gets along with other children, and obeys parents well. Hypothesis 8: Males in the Dual-Earner and Family Day Care Settings It was stated in hypothesis eight that there would be a difference in perceived behavioral strategies when adult males in the dual-earner and family day care settings were compared. When the doubly multivariate repeated measures analysis was run on the data from the Parent Behavioral Strategies Scale, a significant multivariate effect was revealed for males in both settings, F (10,15) = 30.43, p.< .001, by the Wilks' Lambda Cri- -87- CO uaddeH sbuiql to ARM 8 MOH O aseaaptsu03 enemH.mm~ [13M sauaued sKaqo :5. V a «in HQ. V a «a. neva. mm—nsmm menu zno zH-Enu a cmccnu neaw~.oo Hm. e¢~.m em.m nanwo.mm neemo.o~ we. eae~v.we mH.oH -Hnso 3M9 9V S N H 17l- DJ U.L.3 [.3 a 3 0 OJ 0 [.11. J1. I... P- U L. O LU.S 1.5 I: 1. a 33 p p . S "S JOW 5..“ «J On 1. 3 m WWO WM. Aug 3 amen U au "3 1.. 1.. SJ U J5 .I. J 8 pp 3 pg 0 D. 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