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1 LIBRARY
Michigan State
Unlverslty

 

 

 

This is to certify that the

dissertation entitled

A STUDY OF TINTO'S MODEL OF STUDENT DEPARTURE
AT A RESIDENTIAL, CHURCH-AFFILIATED,
LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGE

presented by

Timothy Marcus Beuthin

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph . D . degree in Educational
Administration

/' / / I"

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' ’/ ’J/I/fl’.” / I [’7/ xix, I'I '

 

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Major professor

Date February 3, 1989

MS U i: an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0- 12771

 

 

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TO AVOID FINES retun on orlbdoro dd. (he.

DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE

 

    

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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MSU I. An Athrmdlvo ActionlEqud Opponunuy Institulon
cmmnt

 

 

A STUDY OF TINTO'S MODEL OF STUDENT DEPARTURE
AT A RESIDENTIAL, CHURCH-AFFILIATED,

LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGE

BY

Timothy Marcus Beuthin

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Educational Administration

1989

5HB4W

ABSTRACT

A STUDY OF TINTO'S MODEL OF STUDENT DEPARTURE
AT A RESIDENTIAL, CHURCH-AFFILIATED,
LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGE
BY

Timothy Marcus Beuthin

The researcher's purpose in this study was to examine
the determinants of freshman withdrawal at a private,
church-affiliated, liberal arts college. The study, which
utilized Tinto's (1975) conceptual framework, also focused
on the effect of religious value dissonance on persistence.
The population consisted of the 119 freshmen who enrolled at
the institution during the fall semester of 1987.

Data were collected in a two—step longitudinal process.
Selected items from the Cooperative Institutional Research
Program were gathered, and a researched instrument measuring
religious values was administered by the orientation
faculty. In May of 1988, the population was invited to
participate in this study. Respondents consented to release
the information gathered in the fall and completed a

researched instrument measuring variables specific to

Tinto's model. Students who did not return for the fall
semester of 1988 were defined as withdrawers.

Data were analyzed using several bivariate and
multivariate methods. Significant differences were found
between persisters and withdrawers on initial and subsequent
institutional commitment, and initial goal commitment.
Achievement in high school was significantly related to
initial goal commitment and to persistence. Social
integration was significantly related to subsequent
institutional commitment. The discriminant function
consisting of achievement in high school, concern over
finances, initial goal and institutional commitment,
academic integration, and subsequent institutional
commitment correctly classified 87‘ of the subjects in this
study.

Tinto's model was found to be useful but limited in its
ability to provide an explanation of the withdrawal process
at this institution. Religious value congruence, a variable
of particular importance in this study, did not appear to
affect the decision to withdraw. The results of this study
indicated a need for further research into the specific
nature of student departure from institutions similar in

mission and character to the one studied.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my appreciation to several
individuals whose support and encouragement carried me to my
destination. My deepest appreciation is extended to my
devoted wife who gave freely of herself so that I could
realize a dream; and to my two boys who sacrificed time with
dad. A special thanks goes to Carolyn, whose expertise at
the word processor was only surpassed by her ability to
listen graciously to my many musings along the way. I also
appreciated my chairperson's patience and guidance, my
committee's balance of understanding and excellence,
Garnet's statistical wizardry, and Sheryl's dedication to
the details of data collection. Finally, my thanks to the
administrators, faculty, and students of Spring Arbor

College who supported this study.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES.......................................... v
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY...................... 1
Context of the Problem......................... 1
The Problem....................................

Purpose Of the StudYOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

oasNa‘

Definition of Terms............................
Limitations of the Study....................... 10
Significance of the Study...................... 12
II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE....................... 14
Spady's Theory of Student Departure............ 17
Tinto's Theory of Student Departure............ 20
Research on Tinto's Model...................... 25
Further Research on the Variables Under Study.. 35
Pre-enrollment Characteristics............. 35
Commitment to College and the Institution.. 4;
Normative Congruence....................... 48
Social Integration......................... 56

Academic Integration....................... 63

summarYCOOOOOOOOCO000.......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 71

iii

III.

IV.

METHODS........................................ 73
Data Collection................................ 73
Instruments.................................... 76
Measurement of the Variables................... 79
Data Analysis.................................. 83
RESULTS........................................ 85
Summary of Descriptive Data.................... 85

Results of the Planned Analysis for Each
HypotheSiS0.00...0.0.0.0....OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 94

sumarYOOOOOOOOOOOO.IOOOOOOOCO0.00.00.00.000000110

CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS
FOR PRACTICEOOOO0.0.0.0000...OOOOCOCCOOOCOOOCOOIlZ

Overview of the Study..........................112
Discussion of the Major Findings...............115
Conclusions....................................129
Recommendations for Further Research...........l35

Implications for Practice......................137

APPENDICES

A.

Letter of Introduction and Consent with
Fallow-up Letter-0.0.0.0....0.0.00.000000000000143

survey Instruments.O0.0.0.000...0.0.00000000000147
Tinto's Model of Attrition.....................153
Project Approval Form from the University

Committee on Research Involving Human
SUbjeCts (UCRIHS)OI...0.0..0.00.00.00.000000000154

BIBLIOGRAPHY...0.00.00.00.00...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00......0.155

iv

LIST OF TABLES
Page
Descriptive Data for All Subjects................... 87

Descriptive Data by Decision to Persist or
WithdraWOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 92

T-test Results of Differences Between Persisters
and Withdrawers..0..0.0...COO...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOIOOOOO 95

Analysis of Pre-enrollment Characteristics by All
Other Independent Variables in the Model............100

Analysis of Institutional Commitment by Social
Integration.00......0..0......C0.0.00.00.00.00000000105

Analysis of Goal Commitment by Academic
Integration.O...0....0..O...0.0.0.0.0...0.00.00.00.0106

Analysis of Normative Congruence by Integration
Variables, Subsequent Institutional Commitment,
and PeISistenceOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.000.000.0000000107

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

Context of the Problem

Spring Arbor College is a four-year, private,
church-affiliated, liberal arts college in south central
Michigan. The mission of the college states:

The Spring Arbor Concept calls for a community of

learners who are distinguished by their serious

involvement in the study of the liberal arts,

total commitment to Jesus Christ as a perspective

for learning, and critical participation in the

affairs of the Contemporary World. . . .
The college is affiliated with the Free Methodist Church of
North America. Though the college is not owned by the
denomination, it is required that two-thirds of the members
on the Board of Trustees, a majority of the faculty, and the
President of the college have membership in the Free
Methodist Church. Furthermore, the teachings and practices
of the college must be consistent with those of the
denomination. Beyond the formal obligations, the churches
of the denomination have been a major source for students
and dollars throughout the 114 years the college has been in
existence.

The academic environment is designed to encourage

students toward a commitment to Jesus Christ as a

perspective for learning. Every faculty, staff, and
administrator must maintain a lifestyle that is consistent
with the standards expected of the students. Each student
is required to take four CORE courses (13 hours) which deal
with the Christian faith on matters of moral issues,
culture, Biblical history and literature, contemporary
society, and personal belief systems. Furthermore, each
student is required to take one course in Bible or an
introduction to Christianity as part of their exposure to
the various academic disciplines. Finally, the academic
handbook makes the following statement relative to spiritual
outcomes for the Spring Arbor College graduate:

The goal of the Spring Arbor experience is the

development of a person who has encountered the

Christian faith; has grasped a portion of its

demands for our day; and has discovered the

perspective that life in Christ can give to all
learning, vocation, and life itself. In this

encounter the graduate will have formed a

meaningful relationship with Jesus Christ and with

his/her fellow men.

The non-academic environment of student residence life
and student activities complements the academic environment
in the development of spiritual values and lifestyle. Each
Resident Director is responsible for spiritual programming
and development as part of his/her job description. Each
residence hall floor has an active floor chaplain and
resident assistant who are selected based on the level of
spiritual development and commitment to the spiritual values

of the college community. Members of the Student

Association, including the officers and programmers, are

expected to support, if not promote, the ethos of the
college through policies and programming. On campus. there
are more than two dozen active Bible studies, a weekly
Wednesday evening Vespers service, and a weekly college
Sunday school class to encourage spiritual development. The
Spring Arbor Free Methodist Church, which has a close
affiliation with the college, provides a Director of College
Ministries to work part time with the college students, and
makes their facilities available for Chapel services,
classrooms, and other joint services and programs.

The college has an open admissions policy. However,
individuals desiring to enroll must agree in writing to
abide by the standards of the college which have grown out
of an evangelical, Christian tradition. Matriculants are
not admitted so much by their tacit agreement with the
tradition and standards but by their agreement to abide by
them while enrolled in the college. Students are encouraged
to honor this agreement through the various programs,
personnel practices, administrative policies, and processes
of the institution.

Attrition data from 1976 to the present provided by the
Office of Institutional Research at Spring Arbor College
indicate that since 1976, 33.7% of each freshman class has
not returned to the college the next fall. An effort to
systematically determine the causes of student attrition in
the freshman year has not been attempted in the past.

However, in order to respond to this trend, all incoming

4

full-time freshmen have been required to take CORE 100, a
freshman development course dealing with personal
development skills, spiritual formation, study skills,
aesthetics, and value development. The course also includes
an intentional faculty-student mentoring system. Despite
this three-year effort to deal with many issues pertinent to
freshman development and persistence, attrition has not been
positively affected. In fact, over this three-year period,
the average percentage of withdrawing freshmen after the
first semester has risen 3.4% above the previous three-year
average.

One of the major responsibilities of the researcher at
this institution is to develop and administer programs,
policies, and processes which encourage students in the
development of moral and spiritual values and behaviors
consistent with those values. As part of that
responsibility, considerable time has been invested working
with individuals who have demonstrated a negative reaction
to the norms and expectations of this educational community.
Often these same individuals have had difficulty within the
academic system as well. It has been the contention of this
researcher that a probable cause for these difficulties lies
in the goodness of fit between the individual student and
the particular educational environment. Specifically, in
the process of integration, how important is the moral and

spiritual fit between the individual and the institution?

The Problem

 

Given the open admissions policy of the institution and
the distinctive ethos, values, and expectations of its
environment, the potential for normative incongruence
exists. What effect, if any, does this incongruence have on
the individual student's ability to integrate socially and
academically into the institution? Furthermore, what
effect, if any, does this incongruence have on his/her
commitment to higher education in general and the
institution in particular?

The problem of incongruency has been viewed from
several perspectives. A recent Carnegie Report (1987)
stated that ”undergraduates are often largely uninformed
about the values and traditions of higher education.“
Keller (1987) added that ”every college, school, or
university has embedded in its tissue an intangible set of
traditions, values, and hopes . . . which need to be
revealed fully and examined candidly." Chamberlain (1987)
pointed out that many institutions had not clearly
identified their distinctive characteristics and
communicated those characteristics clearly to matriculants,
often to the detriment of the student and the institution.
Tinto (1987) contended that mismatches were largely the
result of poor or uninformed choices on the part of the
student. College selection was often haphazard, and many
informed decisions were based on information given to the

individual by the institution which did not accurately

6
depict how the student was likely to experience the
institution. Information was often self-serving and
misleading, or reflected the view of administrators rather
than students. Needless to say, the interaction of student
expectations and institutional reality, coupled with the
distinctive characteristics of the college and the student's
marginal commitment to those characteristics, created a
problem which, if not effectively resolved, could increase

the likelihood of withdrawal from the college.

Purpose of the Study

The researcher's purpose in this study was to examine
the process of persistence/withdrawal of. freshmen at a
private, church-affiliated, liberal arts college. There
were four main objectives in this study: (a) to test, on a
small liberal arts college, the explanatory power of a model
of the process of persistence/withdrawal developed by ‘Tinto
(1975); (b) to test, on a small liberal arts college, the
usefulness of an instrument developed by Pascarella and
Terenzini (1980), designed to measure variables in Tinto's
model; (c) to determine the_inf1uence of several “variables
on the persistence/withdrawal process of freshmen at a

private, church-affiliated, liberal arts college; and (d) to

examine the relationship between _normative congru99991. a
variable included in Spady's (1971) model, and those
variables found in Tinto's model. Based on Spady's (1971)

and Tinto's (1975) models and a review of the literature

7
relevant to them, the following independent variable sets
were examined: (a) grsfinrollmena..C.hsr29§e.rietissn (b)
~initial commitments to the institution and to degree
completion, (c) normative , congruence, (d) social
integration, (e) academic integration, and (f) subsequent
commitments to the institution and to degree completion.
These variables will be described in greater detail in
Chapter 3. Persistence or withdrawal was the dependent
variable.

The following research questions shaped the design and
hypotheses of this study:

1. What influence do the characteristics a student
brings to college have on his/her interaction with the
institution's moral value system, on his/her ability to
integrate socially and academically, on his/her commitment
to completing a degree at the institution, and on his/her
decision to persist or withdraw?

2. What effect does the student's interaction with the
moral value system of the institution have on his/her
ability to integrate socially and academically, on his/her
commitment to completing a degree at this institution, and
on his/her decision to persist or withdraw?

3. What effect does the student's ability to integrate
socially and/or academically have on his/her commitment to
completing a degree at this institution and on his/her

decision to persist or withdraw?

8
4. Given the variables cited above, what is the most
parsimonious model for better understanding why individuals
persist at this institution?
Based on theory and a review of the literature, the
following research hypotheses were examined:
Hypothesis 1: There will be no significant differences

between the scores on the following measures of those who

persisted at the institution and those who withdrew: (a)
initial goal commitment, (b) initial institutional
commitment; (c) normative congruence; (d) social

integration; (e) academic integration; (f) subsequent goal
commitment; and (g) subsequent institutional commitment.

Hypothesis 2: There will be no significant differences
between the scores on the pre-enrollment characteristics and
the other variables in the research model.

Hypothesis 3: There will be no significant
relationships between the commitment variables and the
integration variables. Specifically, no significant
relationships will exist between:

a. initial institutional commitment and social

integration

b. initial goal commitment and academic integration

c. social integration and subsequent institutional

commitment

d. academic integration and subsequent goal commitment

Hypothesis 4: There will be no significant

relationships between normative congruence and each of the

9
following variables: (a) social integration, (b) academic
integration, (c) subsequent institutional commitment, and
(d) persistence.
Hypothesis 5: There will be no discriminant function
which will accurately discriminate between persisters and

withdrawers.

Definition of Terms

 

In this study attrition, withdrawal, and dropout were

 

used interchangeably. They were defined as an individual's

 

cessation from the membership of a single institution: This

 

 

 

 

included individuals who withdrew voluntarily or who were
dismissed for academic reasons. This study included
individuals who were dismissed for academic failure for
reasons cited by Bean (1980). He contended that these
students represented a failure of the socialization process
more than mental deficiencies. Furthermore, the exclusion
of students dismissed for such reasons required the
arbitrary exclusion of very low values on grades.

The terms persistence and retention were defined as a
student's continued enrollment at the institution one year
later.

Normative congruence was defined as the extent of

congruence between the individual'swwmoral‘ and spiritual

.MmM.-—1u piv-fl-“~..-. _- u~u\

values, and the dominant moral norms and spiritual values of

F“ -n. fiw/eohgm'Ao-‘O‘ --‘.""-"~.~h ,p— — ‘

the institution. This congruence was measured by the

Shepherd Scale.

 

10

Social integration was defined as the student's

W

perception of the quality of peer-group interaction and

H.
__,—.._.-...v——p HH’W.‘ ’- we. '.a"'- par-F V ,..- a “,4 wa 4w Q'V'V" all 'N

 

faculty-student interactions as an indicator of

M~—m~

person-environment social fit. This was measured by the
Pascarella and Terenzini (1980) instrument.

Academic integration was defined as the student's

_—....._ . _ .—

 

Perceptlon 9f_ @bf-{Hquell.tYWVVPQVVVseqademic and intellectual
development as measured by the Pascarella and Terenzini
(1980) instrument and his/her cumulative grade point

average.

Goal commitment was defined as the student' 3 reported

-.~fi-’--i’ ”‘9’.“

'JW- ,._ a

commitment to degree completion as measured by the
Pascarella and Terenzini (1980) instrument and the CIRP.
Finally, a freshman was defined as a student who had

accumulated less than 12 hours of college credit.

Limitations of the Study

The following limitations affected the interpretation
and generalizability of the results of this study.

1. The theoretical models under consideration were
based on the results of two large residential universities.
Research on the validity of these models at smaller
institutions was very limited.

2. The variables selected for this study only began to
reflect the complexity of the model. It was assumed that
the operationalized definitions of these variables reflected

the intent of the original model designed by Tinto (1975).

11
Furthermore, the model was not designed to account for all
the variables involved in a student's decision to persist or
withdraw. An exhaustive treatment would have extended
beyond the scope and purpose of this study and the
sophistication of present models.

3. Given the relatively small size of the population
(N - 119), many variables of relative importance were not
included.

4. The instrument (Pascarella and Terenzini, 1980) had
been used to sample second semester freshman perceptions.
In this study, the instrument was administered during the
initial freshman semester as well as the second semester.

5. It was assumed that the Shepherd Scale, used to
measure normative congruence, represented the theological
and behavioral norms of this institution. This assumption
was based on the fact that the theological and behavioral
items measured in the scale are the very items foundational
to the branch of Christian thought and practice the
institution upholds as its standard.

6. The study took place over a single year at a single
institution with distinctive characteristics. This limited
the generalizability of the results to institutions with
these same characteristics.

7. The population was relatively homogeneous given the
general characteristics of matriculants who seek out such an

institution.

12

8. The study did not distinguish between those who
transferred or dropped out temporarily or permanently. The
focus of this study was on the nature of decision making in
the first year of higher education. A longitudinal study
over a longer period of time would be necessary to examine
any differences between temporary and permanent dropouts.

9. The dependent variable was dichotomous, thus more
susceptible to skewness. Persister responses far
outnumbered responses from those who withdrew which
increased the potential for skewness.

10. The rigorous design employed to insure
confidentiality may have affected the response rate. The
response rate brought into question whether or not the total
group of respondents, or the subgroup of respondents who

withdrew, were representative of their population.

Significance of the Study

Spring Arbor College recently completed two significant
institutional evaluations, namely the North Central
Accreditation review and a consultant's report on the
viability of the present enrollment program. Both studies
reinforced a need to identify a profile of that "student"
who would most likely succeed at Spring Arbor College.
Concomitantly, the institution experienced a considerable
drop in freshman enrollment leading to a renewed readiness
to consider the principles of retention and attrition.

Through this study, the researcher attempted to provide

13
insight into that profile and to identify why freshmen left
after one year. Furthermore, in a college environment which
has been committed to conservative evangelical values as
evidenced by its mission, curricula, and standards, the role
of normative congruence has been important. This
institution is only one of hundreds of distinctive Christian
colleges who has been wrestling with the issues of
enrollment declines, retention, attrition, and
accountability to a well-defined constituency. The
researcher's intent in this study was to demonstrate that
Tinto's (1975) model can be an effective tool for explaining
student departure from institutions similar in mission and

character.

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Tinto's model of student departure is better
appreciated when viewed within the context of the many
theories and studies which have tried to explain the
“interaction of the student with his/her educational
environment. The construction of new theoretical models has
been motivated by the recognition of scholars in the field
that the process of departure is complex. Even Tinto (1982)

acknowledged that his model was not designed to account for

all variations in student leaving behavior. An exhaustive

discussion of the history of student-environment interactiggga

-‘v‘. .....

and fit, though beneficial for understanding the complex
nature of the departure process, extends far beyond the
scope of this review. A brief acknowledgement of earlier
theoretical models does seem appropriate in order to place
Tinto's efforts within a context.

Several reviews of theoretical models in the field of
_personfenvironment interagtion are recommended for detailed
study (Walsh, 1973; Huebner, 1980; Lenning, Beal, and Sauer,
1980; Bean, 1982). Walsh (1973) identified five models
explaining this interaction. Barker focused on behavior

settings, maintaining that environments select and shape the

14

15
behavior of the people who inhabit them.
Behavior-environment congruence was a dynamic process moving
toward homeostasis. Stern examined the relationship between
personal needs and environmental press. A dissonant
_gperson-enyironment relationship was predicted to result in
the withdrawal of the participant. xPervin hypothesized that
individuals perform better and are more satisfied in
environments where the discrepancy between their perceived
actual selves and their ideal selves was minimized. /Holland
concentrated on the personality as characterized by the
vocational choice. Bach personality type searched for an
analogous environment, hence _Eongruegtwmpersonzenvironment
relationships lead to predigtable outcomes 239*”ESEEQYEPPPF?_
personalmdeyelopment, and creative _performance. Finally,
Moos evaluated the extent of congruence between the
consensual beta press of the social environment and the
individual's perception of that environment. He, like the
four theorists previously mentioned, postulated that
congruence between the individual and the environment are
related to fisatisfaction, vachievement, successful coping
behavior, and better performance.

Spady (1970) presented the first theoretical model of
the drop-out process. Prior to Spady's work, many
atheoretical models of student attrition involving
descriptive studies had attempted to understand why students

dropped out. Tinto's (1975) model followed containing the

same basic elements. ‘Pascarella (1980) developed a

16

conceptual model emphasizing the critical role of binformal’
“studentffaculty interaction.//Bean (1980) presented a model
built on Price and Mueller's theory of hturnover in work
settings emphasizing the importance of the perceived
practical ”“123“9f education, the sense of_§elf development,
and loyalty to the organization as it related to intent to
leave. Several other researchers have made theoretical
contributions, namely: Rootman's theory of person-role fit
in socializing organizations; Fishbein and Ajzen's model
describing the interrelationship between beliefs, norms,
attitudes, intentions, and behaviors; and Festinger's theory
of cognitive dissonance explaining the effect of dissonance
on individual perception and change. Despite the efforts of
the aforementioned researchers, the complex phenomena of
student departure continues to elude a thorough explanation.

Tinto's (1975) model has been the subject of much
research on student departure in this decade. The
researcher used Tinto's model with the addition of “Spadyis.
fnormative congruence." Tinto included aspects of this
va‘iafilfi“.,..h.i$_..£9n.cep.tua1 framework but dist_r!9t.-_.___i9."9§339?§9

..__.._.—‘.- I ,9

it as thoroughly in his research. The literature is replete

‘_.__-_L__

with replications of Tinto's model, thus providing the
researcher with operational definitions, data collection
designs, statistical techniques, and results. This review
of the literature begins with a discussion of Spady and
Tinto‘s theoretical foundations. Following this, attention

will be given to the work of Pascarella, Terenzini, and

17
associates, who have been the predominant researchers
concerning Tinto's model. Finally, other research relevant

to the major variable sets in the model will be examined.

Spady's Theory of Student Departure
Spady (1970), the first researcher to propose a
comprehensive theoretical model of the 5199:99th process,
drew heavily upon Durkheim's emphasis on shared group values
and friendship support. Spady contended that successfulw
(Wiggial integration.was more likely whennpersonalu attitudes,
values, expectations, interests, and‘ personality
dispositions were compatible with the characteristics,
dominant norms, and influences of the college“ environment,
Stronghperson-environment compatibility encouraged a greater
sense of affinity and identity with the college, assisted in
the establishment of close personal relationships,
contributed to intellectual and aoademiofiwsuccess, and
promoted the integration of the individual into the fabric
of campus life.

Several yariables were included in the model which

affect social integration, “Family background\Mas important

 

in understanding the drop-out process. Within this variable
cluster Spady considered family socioeconomic _factors,

9—. van...— Hfi“# -.', .‘e

“urbanization, religious and ethniguwbackground, and the
~qualityof interpersonal relationships .within. the “family.
(Normative congruence, a second variable cluster affecting
social integration, was the extent of compatibility between

“personal values and expectations and the dominant norms of

18
the college. Spady considered such variables as high school
3°cial,s99-relati99a1, patterns: PEEESEEliEXLLQE§PQ§£§LQQ$i

intellectual, moral, and vocational values; attitudes_toward

.. 4.. ,... .‘~.~

M W

the college; and measures of campus‘ “usubcultural

Wye.-

‘orientations. Thirdg academic potential‘ was included and
was measured by _§ghglasticflpAptitude _$99£§§J high “school
prank, and the quality of the high school academic program.
iFourth,Vintellectual development focused on the perception
of the academicprograms, the ability to think critically.
and the expansion of intellectual and cultural perspectives.
Fifth, the quality and quantity of the student's
relationships with his/her peers were included within a
constructspady (1970) called ”structural relations.” This
construct also measured heterosexual H_ relationships,

w...-

rextracurricularVinvolvements, and a singleritem, index of
fscvltxuseetectS-

The likelihood of assimilation into the social and
academic systems of the college was determined by the
sufficiency of the rewards available to the student,
according to Spady (1970). Grade performance, an academic
variable affecting social integration, was seen by the
student as a tangible resource in the "quasi—occupational
role-playing of the career-oriented student in his
negotiations for improved opportunities for success."
Intellectual development, described earlier, was a more

intrinsic reward in the academic system but more important

to those oriented toward education for personal development.

19
Within the social system, normative congruence and
friendship support were the determinants of success.
Spady's model included the aforementioned variable clusters;
affecting social integration,“ family mbackground, academic

'potential, grade performance, intellectual .development,
normative congruence, and friendship support.

Spady (1970) contended that the link between social
integration and dropping out was indirect. The variables of
satisfaction with one's college experience and commitment to
the social system, i.e. the college, intervened. Of course,
satisfaction with the college depended on the availability
of rewards, and commitment to the college depended upon a
sense of integration in the system. It is important to keep

a.

in mind that this model was cyclical and interactive. For
example, the effect of the whole‘ assimilation process on
institutional commitment could in turn begin to affect the
individual's set of personal attributes and the state of
normative congruence.

Spady's research at the University of *Ehicago focused
on the freshman class of Fall 1965.V The sample consisted of
683 students, 62% male and 38% female, and nearly two-thirds
of them scored above the 90th percentile for all American
college students on the “Scholastic .Aptitude ,Verbal and
_Quagtitative tests. Despite the relatively homogeneous
academic qualifications of the sample, they came from

diverse ethnic, religious, regional, socioeconomic, and

cultural backgrounds.

20

Spady found that for men the drop-out process was most
affected by rewards in the academic ,,system, namely
pre-college aptitude and performance, intellectual
development, and college grade performance (3 < .01).
Significant but secondary influences included heterosexual
relations, extracurricular involvements, faculty contacts,
social integration, and institutional commitment. On the
other hand, women were strongly influenced by institutional
commitment followed by heterosexual relationships,
extracurricular involvements, and faculty contacts (pp <
.01). Grade performance was the strongest determinant of
satisfaction for men; social integration, defined as a
subjective sense of belonging and fitting into the
interpersonal relationships of the institution, and an
absence of pressure arising from normative differences, was
the strongest determinant of satisfaction for women. Spady
concluded that commitment to the institution was largely
generated at the early stages of the drop-out process and

for men was affected by the intrinsic satisfaction with the

intellectual and social aspects of the college. Women were
less likely to modify their initial orientations throughout

the first year.

Tinto's Theory of Student Departure
The researcher's thesis is based on Tinto's (1975)
theory of student departure from institutions of higher

education. Tinto contended that it was the individual's

~1—.—....__.'__

21

integration into the social and academic «systems of the

,_.—~_
i.- - ’ ' [h v4 ”—1.1”

«r r. fl.-.

college that most directly related to his_/her continuance l9“.

‘——-___._.,.~..‘,.,H._, ,. ”-

that college. Furthermore, it was the interaction between

*‘II’
”~— ’4'"

that individual's commitment to ‘the_ goal_ of ”completing
college and commitment to a particular institution /that
determined whether or not the individual decided to depart
and the form of drop-out behavior that was adopted.

Tinto (1987) used Durkheim‘s theory of suicide and Van
Gennep's study of rites of passage in tribal societies to
support his theory. Durkheim (1961) posited that the
tendency for_§uicide increased when an individual Ilacked
_sufficientr moral (value) integration', and collective
affiliation within that society. Malintegration was
probable when an individual held highly divergent views and

lacked personal interaction with other members of the

community. Van Gennep (1960) focused on the three stages of

“-- zo- ,’0-( -

/

passage from one society to another, namely separation,

transition, and incorporation. During this process, a state

W-
W. 4-a-» fr"

ofCEormlessness>exists due to the absence of guiding norms

waver-‘0

and beliefs. It is this normlessness which heightens the
likelihood of departure from .a community prior to
incorporation. The following discussion will focus on
several aspects of Tinto's theory and model of student
departure.

The %gongruence or person-role fit between the

individual and the normative climate of the institution is a

critical factor in persistence. Tinto (1975) contended that

.4,-

22
1 voluntary withdrawal becomes a way of coping when a state of
(intellectual or ‘social incongruency,p exists with an
institution. Tinto described incongruency in the following
manner:

V/ (incoggrnence)refers in general to the mismatch or
,lack of fity between the needs, interests, and
preferences of the individual and those of the
institution . . . it springs from individual
perceptions of not fitting into and/or at odds
with the social and intellectual fabric of
institutional life.

Individuals experience the character of institutional life
through formal and informal interactions with other members
of the academic community. Most frequently, individuals
choose to leave an institution not so much from an absence
of integration as from a personal judgement that integration
would be undesirable based on these interactions. Social
incongruence can be seen in a mismatch between social
values, preferences, and behavioral styles of the person and

..-L«
_. _- ____ ”I” ’

those characteristic of the collective group. Intellectual
incongruence can result from a sensitivity to the character
and shortcomings of academic life. One individual may
perceive an institution as lacking intellectual challenge,
while another individual may perceive the same institution
as too demanding for their aptitude and skills. Both
individuals experience intellectual incongruence.

According to Tinto the. individual must (socially)
integrate into some community within the institution in

-_ ‘0 14/ ’

order to ensure persistence. There is a dominant community

which portrays the prevailing institutional “ethos . and

23
Ksezeral peripheral -subgpltufes' each one unique in its
relationship to that dominant community. Though integration
into the ’dominant' culture enhances the perception of

congruence, individuals may persist who deviate from the

norm through affiliation with a subculture more consistent
with their personal characteristics. Their persistence
through this alternate culture will be affected by the
degree of marginality which exists between it and the
dominant community. Consequently, the more marginal one's
group is to the life of the institution, the more likely is
one to perceive oneself as being deviant from the
institution, and more likely to withdraw from it.

Individual intention to participate in higher education
and to attend a specific institution are important variables
in Tinto's model of student departure. An individual's goal
commitment, i.e., their level of educational expectation and
commensurate intensity to attain it, helps specify the
psychological orientation he/she brings to college. It
would appear reasonable that goal commitment be directly
related to persistence in college. For example, a person
expecting to complete a doctoral program would be more
likely to complete a four-year program than one expecting to
stop after the completion of the baccalaureate degree
(Tinto, 1975). Furthermore, an individual:s_commitment to a

. .—.—..~r,'v.<o.r».

specific institution would be expected to be directly

V

related to persistence in that specific college. Again,

such a psychological orientation would follow the individual

24

into college. Tinto argued that, all things being equal,
the higher the degree of integratiOn into the college system}
the greater will be his/her goal commitments to_ higher
Meducation in general and to the specific institution. /’ On
the other hand, a high level of commitment to college
completion may sustain persistence even with insufficient
levels of social or intellectual integration. Individuals
in this condition may choose to ”stick it out” depending on
the factors which are motivating them to persist. Different
interactions between commitment and integratigh_ will yield
different effects. ‘

For Tinto (1987) the sequence of events which leads to
persistence or to departure begins in the quality of the
initial contacts between the institution and the individual.

W MM-r’flmw'fi." '
W“,

First _impressions about the social and intellectual

P...“ ,M':;,M . 4'- .--. #‘vrfir

character of the institution are made during those initial

contacts. If information about the institution is
misleading or inaccurate, or if expectationshfl are
unrealistic, then the potential _forc.malintegrative

interactions is heightened. Individuals misread, fail to

A... p..

 

read, or read into printed materials. Most institutions do
not go beyond the formal institutional presentations about
its character to expose the individual to typical students
who are more likely to accurately represent an informal
day-to-day portrait. Consequently, an individual may make a
decision to come to a college that not only does not exist,

but where he/she will be seriously at odds with the

25
prevailing norms of the community. Such an individual will
be very susceptible to departure during that transitional
first semester as they encounter considerable incongruency.
In summary,”student background characteristics/ at the

L.-- .....,- ,-._ v-'

time_of ”entry into college will influence the initial
,commitment to the institution and to the goal of graduation.
This combination of background characteristics and initial
commitments works together to influence the individual's
social and academic integration into the institution.I/These
constructs combine to affect subsequent commitmgggsk to the
institution and to the goal of graduation. // Within the
academic system, goal commitment is expected to positively
affect ’grade performance and intellectual development,
which, in turn, affects academic integration, which affects
goal commitment. Within the social system, institutional
commitment is expected to affect peer-group and faculty

interaction, which affects social integration, which, in

turn, increases institutional commitment (see Appendix C).

Research on Tinto's Model

Pascarella, Terenzini, and associates have tested the
validity of Tinto's (1975) model (Terenzini and Pascarella,
1977, 1978; Pascarella and Terenzini, 1979, 1980, 1983;
Pascarella and Chapman, 1983; Pascarella, Duby, and Iverson,
1983; Pascarella, Terenzini, and Wolfle, 1986; and Stoecker,
Pascarella, and Wolfle, 1988). Except for Pascarella and

Chapman's (1983) multi-institutional study, all the early

26

research cited above was limited to single institutions.
These single institutions were characterized as medium
sized, urban, doctoral granting universities, and with the
exception of the study by Pascarella, Duby, and Iverson
(1983) were all residential. The population for each of
these studies was the entering freshman class. Stoecker,
Pascarella, and Wolfle (1988), realizing the limitations
placed on generalizability from the earlier studies, did a
national, nine-year, multi-institutional study using data
from the 1971 Cooperative Institutional Research Program
survey and a follow-up survey completed nine years later by
the same respondents. The results of this last study will
be considered in greater detail following a discussion of
the earlier studies.

The effect of pre-enrollment characteristics on
persistence was found to be insignificant in all the early
studies cited above except in the case of Pascarella, Duby,
and Iverson (1983) where these characteristics accounted for
the largest increase in R2. These results were attributed
to the unique cluster of characteristics which commuter
students brought to college. Pascarella and Terenzini,
(1979) in their study of interaction effects, found
significance between the entering characteristics of level
of parents' formal education and importance of graduating
from college, and student-faculty relationship variables.
Pascarella, Terenzini, and Wolfle (1986) found that

secondary school integration had an indirect effect on

27
persistence mediated through social integration in college.
In general, the researchers found that pre-enrollment
characteristics did not directly affect persistence.

The role of initial institutional and goal commitment
evolved in the research of Pascarella, Terenzini, and their
associates. Terenzini and Pascarella (1977, 1978) did not
include commitment in their earliest work. In their study
the following year, Pascarella and Terenzini (1979) included
it in the design and measured freshman commitment prior to
enrollment and during the spring semester of the freshman
year. Initial institutional commitment and goal commitment
were included in the measure of pre-enrollment
characteristics which did not have a significant effect on
decisions to persist or withdraw. However, in this study,
which investigated interaction effects in Spady's and
Tinto's models, institutional and goal commitment as an
outcome variable had a significant main effect on
persistence for men. Pascarella and Terenzini (1983)
employed path analysis to re-examine the data from their
1979 study. Using reduced path models for males and
females, they found that initial goal commitment had a
direct positive influence on all subsequent variables in
both models, but most importantly, initial goal commitment
had a direct influence on persistence for females.
Pascarella, Duby, and Iverson's (1983) study at a
non-residential university using path analysis found that

entering commitment did not directly influence persistence,

28
only academic integration and subsequent commitment. In
general, initial institutional and goal commitment played an
indirect role in the decision of students to persist or
withdraw.

According to Tinto (1975), the individual's integration
into the social and academic systems of that college had the
greatest influence on his or her continuance in that
college. Terenzini and Pascarella (1977) focused their
attention on this phenomena. Their results confirmed
Tinto's theoretical view that social and academic
integration were approximately equal in importance for
student decisions to remain or withdraw. Both variable sets
were significantly related to persistence. Stayers reported
significantly more positive perceptions, contacts, and
experiences in their academic and non-academic lives than
leavers.

Their 1978 study found modest but significant
relationships between social integration and persistence,
and academic integration and persistence. In contrast to
their earlier study, academic integration was found to have
greater influence on the decision to persist than social
integration. Pascarella and Terenzini (1979) investigated
interaction effects and found that the main effects of
social and academic integration were significant for both
sexes (p < .001). Academic integration had a somewhat
stronger influence on men, whereas social integration,

particularly peer-group relations, had a somewhat stronger

29

influence on women. Support was found for Tinto's
hypothesis of compensatory association between social and
academic integration. Path analysis of these data by the
authors (1983) confirmed that both variable sets had an
approximately equal direct effect on persistence.
Furthermore, they found that both variable sets directly
influenced both goal and institutional commitment.

Social integration had a significant direct effect on
persistence for the residential sample in Pascarella and
Chapman's (1983) study, whereas academic integration had
neither a direct nor indirect effect on persistence. In the
commuter sample, academic integration had an indirect
influence, whereas social integration had no direct or
indirect influence. When they analyzed a pooled sample,
they found that both variable sets, while not directly
influencing persistence, did have an indirect effect through
their influence on institutional commitment (social
integration) and both institutional and goal commitment
(academic integration). Pascarella, Duby, and Iverson
(1983) found that both academic and social integration had
relatively strong direct effects on persistence in their
study of a commuter institution. Furthermore, academic
integration directly influenced institutional commitment.

Pascarella and Terenzini (1979) found that
institutional and goal commitment had a significant main
effect on persistence for men (p’< .001) but not for women.

When the researchers plotted significant interactions,

30

commitment was paired with contacts to discuss intellectual
matters for men and paired with peer-group relations for
women. Path analysis on the same data (Pascarella and
Terenzini, 1983) revealed that the influence of
institutional commitment on persistence was nearly three
times that of goal commitment for the overall sample. Both
variables had a direct effect on persistence. Institutional
commitment had a direct effect on persistence for females.
Both variables directly affected persistence for males.
Pascarella and Chapman (1983) found that institutional
commitment had a much stronger direct effect than goal
commitment in the four-year residential and commuter models,
whereas goal commitment maintained a stronger influence in
the two—year commuter model. Pascarella, Duby, and Iverson
(1983) found the two commitment variables to have no direct
influence on persistence in their commuter sample.

In general, the early studies of Pascarella, Terenzini
and associates found Tinto's model to be a useful model for
understanding the process of student persistence/withdrawal
decisions in postsecondary education. It was recognized by
the researchers that the model, though useful, explained a
relatively small proportion of the variance due in part to
the operational definitions of the variables. The studies
pointed out the limitations of single institutional samples
and single year longitudinal designs which Stoecker,

Pascarella, and Wolfle (1988) addressed in their

31
multi-institutional, nine-year study. A discussion of this
study follows.

Stoecker, Pascarella, and Wolfle (1988) tested the
validity of Tinto's model, specifically addressing some of
the limitations of earlier studies on this model. They
addressed the problem of single-institution studies by using
a sample of 10,326 students attending 487 four-year
undergraduate institutions. Data for this study were
obtained from respondents to the 1971 Cooperative
Institutional Research Program survey who also completed a
follow-up instrument in 1980 focusing on their actual
college experiences and subsequent educational and
occupational attainments. This design corrected the
limitation of single year studies used in previous research.
Persistence was defined as the completion of a baccalaureate
degree by the end of the nine-year period. By
operationalizing this dependent variable in this manner,
they corrected the problem in early studies of failing to
identify temporary withdrawal states such as transferring
and stopping-out, and corrected for the factor of academic
dismissals. Furthermore, they added two variable sets to
Tinto's model based on recent research. Three measures of
structural and organizational characteristics were included,
specifically selectivity, size, and predominant race.
Because the academic department had been found to be an

important normative influence on student values, attitudes,

32
and behaviors, a second set of variables related to major
field of study was also added.

In their study, Stoecker, Pascarella, and Wolfle (1988)
analyzed the data by sex and ethnicity (black, white). Of
particular interest to them was direct and indirect effect
on persistence. They contended that failure to recognize
indirect effects might lead to an underestimation of
important sources of influence. Direct effects capture only
part of the total effects in the causal model. Controlling
for other variables, academic integration had the strongest
direct effect on persistence for all four groups. Social
integration had a significant direct effect on white males
and females and black males. When analyzed by ethnicity and
sex, several direct and indirect effects were found.
Secondary school social accomplishment, college academic
achievement, interaction with faculty, and social leadership
activity had direct effects on persistence for white men.
Family socioeconomic status, secondary school social
accomplishment and academic achievement, and initial degree
aspiration had indirect effects. For white women, family
socioeconomic status, secondary school social
accomplishment, initial degree aspiration, college academic
adjustment, interaction with faculty, and social leadership
activity had direct effects on persistence. Indirect
effects were found for family socioeconomic status,
secondary school social achievement and academic

achievement, and initial degree aspiration (p < .01). The

33
researchers concluded that academic and social integration
were the most important determinants of persistence. The
inclusion of college characteristics and major in this study
demonstrated that these two variable sets do exert indirect
influence on the withdrawal/persistence process.

Several other researchers have tested the validity of
Tinto's model in recent years (Munro, 1981; Getzlaf,
Sedlacek, Kearney, and Blackwell, 1984; Williamson and
Creamer, 1988). Munro (1981) used path analysis in order to
analyze a sample drawn from the National Longitudinal Study
of the High School Class of 1972. The design included all
the variable sets used in Tinto's model except for initial
goal and institutional commitment. Pre-college
characteristics exerted an indirect influence on
persistence. Academic integration had a strong effect on
persistence, whereas social integration had no significant
effect (p_ < .05). Goal commitment had the strongest
significant effect. Contrary to Tinto's theory, educational
aspirations, not social integration, had the most direct
effect on institutional commitment.

Williamson and Creamer (1988) replicated Munro's (1981)
study design using a sample from the National Longitudinal
Studies Program (1983, 1984). The major difference is this

study involved the definition of dropout. A dropout had to

remain out of higher education for at least 20 months.
Previous studies using Tinto's model generally classified

drOp-out behavior at a particular point in time. Gender,

34

race, and socioeconomic status directly affected persistence
both in the institution and higher education (2. < .05).
Social and academic integration directly affected
persistence in the institution but had no significant direct
effects on persistence in higher education. Goal commitment
had the strongest direct effect on persistence. The authors
challenged the usefulneses of Tinto's model, especially
concerning the impact of academic and social integration, in
explaining long—term persistence patterns of students. They
contended that his model was sensitive to changes in the
definition of persistence.

Getzlaf, Sedlacek, Kearney, and Blackwell (1984) tested
five of the seven constructs of Tinto's model in a
comparison of dropouts and a control group of persistors
(initial commitment and social integration were omitted).
The model correctly classified 78% of the cases. Contrary
to earlier studies pre-college academic achievement,
pre-college aptitude, and academic performance in college
did contribute uniquely in the discriminant function. The
authors concluded that a drop in grade point average from
high school did affect the perception of successful academic
integration. Institutional commitment also contributed a
unique amount of variance.

In general, research using Tinto's model has confirmed
it as a useful tool for explaining the student
persistence/withdrawal process in higher education.

Consistently, the model has explained a relatively modest

3S
amount of variance. This fact supports the contention by
most researchers that the process of withdrawal is an

extremely complex and multifaceted process.

Further Research on the Variables Under Study

The variable sets in Tinto's model have been studied by
many researchers, especially over the last three decades.
Several comprehensive reviews of the literature have
attempted to provide an understanding of the results of a
vast body of attrition research (Summerskill, 1962; Spady,
1970; Astin, 1975; Tinto, 1975; Cope, 1978; Pantages and
Creedon, 1978; Lenning, Beal, and Sauer, 1980; Tinto, 1987).
The researcher is indebted to these reviews because they
provided a wealth of pertinent studies for closer
investigation and identified trends in variable interaction.
Findings on the effects of pre-enrollment characteristics

pertinent to this study will be discussed first.

Pre-enrollment Characteristics

 

Pantages and Creedon (1978), while recognizing that
several studies found sex to be a significant variable in
determining persistence or attrition, concluded on the basis
of their thorough review of the literature that, generally
speaking, sex is not a significant correlate of retention.
Tinto (1975) contended that sex appeared to be related to
college persistence because a higher proportion of men
finished degree programs than women. Regarding those who

dropped out, a greater proportion of women tended to be

36

voluntary withdrawals than academic dismissals. In
contrast, Demos (1968), in his study at a state college with
a 7 to 5 ratio of males to females, found that there were
significantly more males than females dropping out.
Furthermore, Astin (1964) found that females had a
significantly higher drop-out rate (R < .001) than males.
Disque (1982) and Gille (1985) found sex to have a
significant relationship to persistence at the p_ < .05
level. Aitken's (1982) findings were consistent with
Pantages and Creedon's (1978) contention that sex is not a
significant variable (3 < .05). The studies cited above
lend support to the observation of Lenning, Beal, and Sauer
(1980) that sex must not be a primary factor in the
persistence/withdrawal process because the evidence is
conflicting and inconsistent.

Summerskill (1962) aptly pointed out that though males
and females withdrew at similar rates, the researcher must
be careful not to assume that they were similar in their
reasons for leaving. Pantages and Creedon (1978) recognized
that sex became more significant as scholastic,
environmental, institutional, and longitudinal factors were
brought into consideration. Contrary to inconsistencies in
the findings on persistence rates, there was greater
agreement in the literature on why each sex left.
Summerskill (1962) found that females dropped out more
frequently for non-academic reasons. Astin's (1964) study

found that females cited family responsibilities and money

37

as reasons for leaving, while males cited doubts about
academic performance and course of study and general
dissatisfaction with being a student. Spady (1970), in his
study at the University of Chicago, concluded that the
drop-out process for males was primarily explained by their
inability to accumulate extrinsic rewards within the
university's academic system, whereas the females' departure
process was most influenced by subjective, intrinsic
variables such as institutional commitment, heterosexual
relationships, faculty contacts, and extracurricular
involvement.

Johansson and Rossman (1973) observed that the majority
of the females mentioned personal or social life as reasons
for leaving while the males' reasons centered around
curricular issues. These observations are consistent with
the conclusions of Cope and Hannah (1978) who also observed
that women attributed their reasons for leaving to forces
external to the college. The most recent review of the
literature by Tinto (1987) continued to support the earlier
findings that the departure of females, relative to that of
males, was more determined by social forces than academic
ones. These findings demonstrated the importance of sex as
a variable in the withdrawal/persistence process, not as a
single factor variable, but as an explanatory variable to
account for personality and socialization differences which

may exist between males and females.

38 -

Summerskill (1962) concluded that high school grades
were significantly related to college attrition. He based
this conclusion on eleven studies in which several showed
significant differences, and all but one of the remaining
showed differences in the predicted direction. In their
review of the literature, Pantages and Creedon (1978) found
that in the majority of studies, grade point average and
class rank differentiated potential dropouts and persisters.
They went on to contend that these two academic variables
were still the strongest single-variable predictors
presently available. Tinto (1975), citing six studies,
found high school grade performance to be related to
persistence. In fact, he supported the contention of Astin
that it was a stronger predictor of success in college than
standardized tests because it corresponded more closely to
the individual's ability to achieve within an educational
setting with social and academic requirements similar to
that of the college. Astin (1975), in his longitudinal
study of more than 41,000 undergraduates attending 358
two-year and four-year colleges and universities, included
poor academic records in high school in his profile of the
drop-out prone freshman. This conclusion was consistent
with the findings in his earlier study with Panos (1968). A
study done at a religious, coeducational, liberal arts
college found high school grade performance to be positively
related to persistence among women (Bean and Creswell,

1980). The study by Hutchison and Johnson (1980) done at a

39
small liberal arts college found this variable to have the
strongest power to discriminate between persisters and
withdrawers at‘p < .05 level of significance.

However, not unlike the variable sex, findings
involving high school grade performance have been
inconsistent. Nelson, Scott, and Bryan (1984) did not find
a significant relationship between high school performance
and persistence (p}< .05) in their sample of 400 subjects at
a state university. Studies by Schmid and Reed (1966), Rose
(1965), and Rossman and Kirk (1970) did not find a
significant relationship. Pantages and Creedon (1978)
suggest that because a large majority of dropouts transfer
or re-enroll at a later time, their high school performances
could very well be the same as non-dropouts over time.

Concern over finances was ranked third in importance by
students as a reason for dropping out according to a study
by Ifferts (1957). Summerskill (1962) reviewed twenty-one
studies and found that in sixteen of them, financial reasons
was ranked among the top three factors leading to attrition.
Rowell (1974), in his review of the literature, observed
that financial problems was the reason most often given for
leaving. Demos (1968), in his interviews with 250 students,
found financial problems to be most often cited, but he
cautioned that some students give this reason mainly because
it is socially acceptable. However, Hutchison and Johnson
(1980) found the percent of college cost for which the

student is responsible to be a significant variable in their

40

discriminant analysis (p‘< .05). On the other hand, Schmid
and Reed (1966) concluded, along with Jensen (1981), that
the role of finances in the decision process to stay or
leave is statistically insignificant (p < .05). Again,
results on the effect of this variable on the
persistence/withdrawal decision process were inconsistent.

When considering the effect of finances on the
persistence/withdrawal decision, a distinction between
loans, and grants and scholarships was made in the
literature. Kohen, Nestel, and Karmos (1978) found a strong
positive relationship between the amount of scholarship
money and persistence (p < .05). This was consistent with
the conclusion of Lenning, Sauer, Beal (1980b) who
maintained that grants and scholarships relate positively to
student retention, and loans relate negatively to retention.
This conclusion was based on their review of research
findings and the report of the study "What Works in Student
Retention" (WWISR) which involved 1,600 college and
university presidents reporting on retention programs,
studies, and results from their institutions. However,
Pantages and Creedon (1978) cite several major studies which
document inconsistency in the findings:

1. Iffert (1957) found no relationship between grants
and scholarships and persistence.

2. Astin (1973) and Blanchfield (1971) found a
significant positive relationship to contradict Iffert's

study, and no relationship between loans and attrition.

41

3. Fields and LeMay (1973) found that receiving
financial aid increased the chances of enrollment regardless
of the type of aid. In fact, it was the above study which
forced Iffert in a post hoc analysis to conclude that all
aid should be used solely in grant form.

Tinto (1982, 1987) concluded that financial aid was not
a central element in student persistence. Much of the
impact of finances occurred at the point of entry. However,
beyond entry, Tinto acknowledged that short-term
fluctuations in financial status could lead directly to
departure especially if they arose when the goal of college
completion and its potential benefits were still quite
distant and uncertain. Hence, finances did have an indirect
effect on departure as the student weighed the costs and
benefits of a college degree.

Very little has been written concerning the effect of
high school study habits on the decision to persist in or
withdraw from college. Pantages and Creedon (1978) cited a
study by Stone and Ryan (1964) which determined that
students who reported spending more time studying during
their senior year in high school persisted in greater
numbers through the freshman year. They also had fewer
academic adjustment problems in the transition from high
school to college. Astin's study (1975) included the
characteristic of "poor study habits" in his profile of
drop-out prone freshmen. Tinto (1987) concluded that poor

study habits, inadequate study skills, and the quality and

42
type of high school were associated with withdrawal from
college. It was expected, as pointed out by Tinto, that the
quality of preparation in high school would have an effect
on academic performance, adjustment, and integration in
college.

As in the case of high school study habits, very little
documentation existed describing the relationship between
high school social patterns, extracurricular activities, and
college persistence. Schmid and Reed (1966), in their
review of the literature, found that college dropouts
participated in fewer high school activities. However, the
results of their own study concerning the effect of
extracurricular activities on persistence were
insignificant. Panos and Astin (1968) found a significant
relationship between student involvement in high school
government and theatre and persistence in college (2 < .05).
Spady (1970) found a statistically significant relationship
between a female's level of high school extracurricular
participation and institutional commitment (p < .05). High
school social patterns, though rarely isolated in the
research, would seem to inevitably affect the quality of
social adjustment and integration especially during the

first year in college.

Commitment to College and the Institution
In the following discussion of the construct of

commitment, an examination will be made of the effects of

43

intent to leave or drop out, aspirations and attitudes
toward the academic degree sought, and rank of college
choice on college persistence and withdrawal. These
variables, measured by items in this study, have been the
subject of much research over recent years. Commitment,
whether initial or subsequent to the process of integration,
was a critical factor in the decision to persist in a
particular institution or higher education.

Research findings aside, Tinto (1987) contended that a
person's willingness to work toward the attainment of
his/her goals is an important factor in the process of
persistence. In his theory, Tinto (1975) maintained that it
was the interplay between the individual's commitment to the
goal of college completion and his/her commitment to the
institution that determined whether or not they decided to
drop out and the form of drop-out behavior they adopted.
While recognizing the limitations of early research on
student motivation, Summerskill (1962) reported that the
largest number of dropouts cited lack of interest in college
and studies, marriage plans, transfers, and job
opportunities as reasons for leaving. Mark's (1967) study,
cited in the review of literature by Pantages and Creedon
(1978), found a significant relationship between
expectations to drop out and attrition. A dropout in his
study was found to be uncommitted to college, had low

aspirations and educational values, and had difficulty

44
resolving conflicts involving his/her level of commitment to
those educational values.

Hackman and Dysinger (1970) were able to distinguish
between persisters, transfers, voluntary withdrawals, and
academic dismissals based on their level of commitment to
the goal of college completion. Results using chi-square
analysis (3 < .001) confirmed that persisters were highest
in commitment of the four groups, and voluntary withdrawals
were lowest. Their study was of greater significance to the
present study because of the nature of the design and
sample. Data were collected from 1,407 students at three
midwestern, church-affiliated residential colleges. Each
student completed a questionnaire during freshman
orientation designed to measure institutional and goal
commitment. Their hypothesis, that students who enrolled
with a strong commitment to a college education would be
more likely to persist through the critical first year, was
supported (2 < .05).

Trent and Medsker (1968) sampled over 10,000 high
school students over a six-year period. They reported that
persisters entered college with an attitudinal
predisposition not found in dropouts. Furthermore,
irrespective of ability and socioeconomic status, persisters
were more intent on attending and graduating from college,
were more selective in choosing their institutions, and saw
more reasons for attending college. In contrast to the

previous study, Rossman and Kirk (1970) sampled freshmen in

45

the College of Letters and Science at the University of
California, Berkeley (N I 2,324) and found no significant
differences between withdrawing and persisting students in
terms of their own level of aspiration, their objectives in
college, nor their attitudes toward enrolling at Berkeley
initially (p < .05). However, Spady (1970) sampled the
freshman class who entered the College of the University of
Chicago (N s 683) and found that for women, institutional
commitment was by far the most powerful determinant of
attrition (p < .01), and for men, it was a significant
determinant (p < .01) but not the most powerful. A later
study by Timmons (1978) was consistent with Spady's findings
in that females indicated a significantly higher chance that
they might withdraw before the end of the freshman year.

Cope and Hannah (1975) appeared to summarize research
with their impression that personal commitment to either an
academic or occupational goal was the single most important
determinant of persistence in college. Of course, this
assertion echoed the conclusion previously cited by Tinto
(1975). However, Muskat (1978), employing a sample of 350
subjects, found no significant differences between
persisters and withdrawers in terms of importance attached
to college graduation, likelihood of temporary college
withdrawal, transfer probability, and future academic plans
for graduate school. Johnson (1980) attempted to further
validate Tinto's model focusing on social and academic

integration. Though the findings did not support the

46
complete model, he found the best predictor in identifying
dropouts was the question, "Do you plan to return to this
college for the next semester?“ Forty percent of those
students who indicated they would not return to campus for
the next semester did, in fact, not return.

Bean and associates focused their attention on the
intent to leave college (Bean, 1980; Bean and Creswell,
1980; Bean, 1982). Bean (1980) developed a causal model
based on Price's model of employee turnover in work
organizations. Though Bean's model was based more on an
organizational framework than a sociological one, it
measured many of the same institutional and individual
characteristics suggested by Tinto's model. Their decision
to measure intent to leave rather than actual attrition
enabled them to analyze data while students were still
enrolled. According to Bean and Creswell (1980), intent to
leave had been widely used as a surrogate measure of actual
turnover in research in work organizations. The measure
proved to be reliable in this study; correlation with
institutional commitment was .85. They studied intent to
leave rather than actual attrition, and found ”importance of
graduation from this college" significantly related to
intent to leave (p,< .05). Their findings were consistent
with Astin's (1975) observation that students who predicted
that they would stay in school were much more likely to stay
than students who indicated less certainty. Bean (1980)

found that institutional commitment was significantly

47
related to departure (p'< .001). Bean was surprised to find
that goal commitment was ranked eighth in the total causal
effects on dropout for females. It had even less influence
on males.

Bean (1982), in his study of determinants of university
freshman attrition, found intent to leave to have the
largest direct influence. He expected this variable to be a
significant determinant based on Fishbein and Ajzen's theory
that attitudes and past behaviors acted through intentions
to affect future behavior. Hence, the main sequence of
causal effects moved from the organizational variables
(grades, courses), personal variables (educational goals,
major and job certainty), and environmental variables
(opportunity to transfer, family approval), through the
attitudinal variables (loyalty, certainty of choice,
practical value of education), through intent to leave, to
drop out. The main ranking of the total effects of the
various independent variables on dropout placed intent to
leave first, opportunity to transfer third, certainty of
choice fifth, and loyalty sixth. All three attitudinal
variables had significant negative relationships with
intent. For high confidence women, those confident of
success in college, intent to leave, opportunity to
transfer, and loyalty were positively related to dropout.
For low confidence women, significance was obtained on

intent to leave and grades. For high and low confidence

48
men, only intent to leave and grades were significantly
related to dropout (p'< .05).

Tinto (1987) maintained that absence of prior
commitment may lead individuals to withdraw at the first
sign of difficulty. On the other hand, he recognized that
uncertainty was part of the process of student development
and to a degree should be encouraged. However, if initial
commitments to higher education and the institution were not
strengthened through the process of social and academic
integration, more than likely the individual would transfer
or drop out of higher education. One such set of
uncertainties arose from the interaction of individual norms
and values, and institutional norms and values. A

consideration of this interaction follows.

Normative Congruence

Spady (1971) included the construct "normative
congruence” in his model of the student departure process.
Operationally, it contained five clusters of variables: (a)
patterns of relationships and expectations generated within
the high school context, (b) personality dispositions and
characteristics, (c) intellectual, moral, and vocational
values, (d) attitudes toward the institution, and (e)
measures of campus subcultural orientations. Based on his
review of the literature, he concluded that considerable
ambiguity existed about the relationship between these

variables and attrition. This ambiguity was perhaps a

49
result of a lack of systematic research on these variables
and the fact that many of the relationships may indeed be
curvilinear. Furthermore, he recognized that the nature and
scope of this construct made it the most complex and
problematic in the model.

The variable clusters in Spady's (1971) study did not
make any significant stepwise contributions to the
explanation of variance in first-year dropouts (p. < .05).
Though none of the variables reached statistical
significance, it was apparent that the construct had a
stronger relationship to attrition for women than men.
Personality dispositions, value orientations, and
subcultural orientations were of considerable importance to
the women in the decision to drop out. In fact, subcultural
orientations made a significant unique contribution (p <
.01). Personality dispositions appeared moderately
important to the men. In general, for the men, high school
experiences was significantly related to friendship support
(p,< .01), intellectual development, and grade performance;
personality dispositions to friendship support, intellectual
development (2 < .01), grade performance (2 < .01), social
integration (3 < .01), satisfaction with the year (2 < .01)
and graduation (p_ < .01); institutional dispositions to
social integration and institutional commitment; and
subcultural orientations to social integration and
satisfaction with the year. Value orientation was not

signficantly related to any .of the variables in the

50

regression. In general, for the women, high school
experiences was significantly related to institutional
commitment; personality dispositions to grade performance (2
< .01) and satisfaction with the year; value orientations to
institutional commitment; and institutional disposition to
social integration (p.< .01) and institutional commitment (p
< .01). Subcultural orientations were not significantly
related to any of the variables in the regression model.

Value orientations, the variable cluster of interest in
the present study, did not have a significant effect on most
of the variables in Spady's study. However, for the men,
this cluster had moderate influence on friendship support.
In fact, it made a unique contribution to the regression
model. A unique contribution reflected the proportion of
variance in the dependent variable that was shared uniquely
with the specific independent variable, net of all other
predictor variables. For the women, this variable had
considerable influence on friendship support, intellectual
development, grade performance, and graduation. Though not
statistically significant, value orientation had a
moderately strong influence on the decision to drop out in
the first year. Over all, value orientations were more
influential for women than men in Spady's study.

Though not included in his model, Tinto (1987)
recognized the potential for social and academic
incongruence between the individual and the institution.

The mismatch between the social values, preferences and/or

51

behavioral style of the individual and those which
characterized other members of the community was most keenly
felt in the day-to-day informal interactions among students,
faculty, and staff. The individual's perception of the
prevailing ethos of the institution was determined to a
greater degree from these daily contacts. Tinto contended
that among young adults, especially in residential settings,
being substantially at odds with the dominant culture of the
institution and/or with one's student peers was an important
factor in voluntary departure.

Furthermore, Tinto (1987) observed from his review of
the literature that studies which highlighted the importance
of congruence were done at small, very homogeneous
educational settings. Small colleges tended to be more
socially and intellectually homogeneous and normally
provided for greater contact with faculty and staff. Tinto
concluded that such characteristics may have acted to
magnify individual differences from the norm. In contrast,
larger university settings provided a broader range of
social and intellectual communities yielding more diversity
and potential for the acceptance of individual differences.
However, larger settings discouraged extensive contact,
leading to problems of isolation instead of incongruence.
Finally, Tinto pointed out that the ”ideal” graduate was
often described in terms of the prevailing ethos of smaller
institutions, a phenomenon less likely in larger, more

heterogeneous settings.

52

Rootman (1972) found that “interpersonal fit" and
“person-role fit' were the major determinants of voluntary
withdrawal in his study at the Coast Guard Academy. Leavers
differed significantly (p < .05) from those who stayed on
measures of perceived attachment to cohorts, reports of
attachment from cohorts, and measures of values considered
critical to the role of a cadet. He observed that
relentless pressure was placed on the new cadets to conform
to the role of a cadet and to the expectations and values of
his socializing group. The process of socialization was
directly affected by the degree of "fit" between the
individual and his immediate socializing environment.
Rootman contended that withdrawal was an apparent means of
coping with the press of roles and expectations.

Cope and Hannah studied the role of religious values in
the withdrawal/persistence process (Cope, 1967; Hannah,
1969a, 1969b; Cope and Hannah, 1975). On the basis of their
review of literature relating religious preference to
persistence or withdrawal, they concluded that it was not
the practice of a religious belief that appeared to be
directly related to persistence, but rather the style of
life and the value orientations of particular religions
(Cope and Hannah, 1975). Furthermore, they contended that,
given the range of value conflicts common to the college
environment, religious values and morality standards were
probably the dominant areas of conflict. These conflicts,

when combined with other stresses, lead to withdrawal,

53
whereas value conflicts such as political belief had no
effect on leaving.

In their own study (1975) leavers were asked to
indicate topics which came up for discussion as withdrawal
was considered. Of the 20 alternatives, religious beliefs
and attitudes, and values were ranked fourth and fifth
respectively behind academic difficulty, educational plans
and purposes, and vocational plans. Those who withdrew from
conservative, church-related colleges were found to be more
religiously and socially liberal, manifesting greater
difficulty in subscribing to the community spirit and the
”model student“ explicitly set forth by the college. Cope
(1967) studied the effects of lack of ”fit“ on withdrawal
within a university liberal arts college. He found that
male students who dropped out tended to be more religiously
or politically conservative. On the other hand, Hannah
(1969a) found students who withdrew from the conservative
liberal arts colleges in his study were more religiously
liberal. The results of their own studies, coupled with the
results of those studies they reviewed, led Cope and Hannah
(1975) to conclude that colleges were more likely to retain
students who chose the institution because of its clear
image, values and program, and knew this was what they

wanted.

Bean and Creswell (1980) conducted an attrition study
among women at a religious, coeducational, liberal arts

college. Three intervening variables were significantly

54

related to intent to leave (2 < .05), one of which was a
sense of self development. The most important influence on
development was having similar views to other students,
staff, and faculty at the institution. Lenning (1970) found
student-environment differences in values to markedly affect
educational growth at a church-related liberal arts college.
Astin (1975) found that persistence was encouraged if the
student held the same religious preference as the typical
student. He asserted that after past academic record and
degree aspirations were taken into account, religious
background and preference were the strongest predictors of
persistence. In his study, drop-out prone freshmen most
often reported no religious preference. Rossman and Kirk
(1970) observed that females who withdrew from Berkeley were
less likely to come from families which were affiliated with
a formal religion and were less likely to profess formal
religious beliefs for themselves. Finally, Pantages and
Creedon (1978) concluded from their extensive review of the
literature that the degree to which the attitudes and values
of the student corresponded with those of the institution
was also the degree to which they were likely to persist at
that institution.

Dollar (1970) examined the premise that a student would
more than likely persist if personal values were compatible
with the values of the environment and the values of those
he/she encountered in the development of interpersonal

relationships in that environment. The Survey of

55
Interpersonal Values was administered which measured the
values of support, conformity, recognition, independence,
benevolence, and leadership. The scales did not
discriminate between persisters and dropouts. No
significant differences between groups were found (2 < .05).
Dollar concluded that the heterogeneity of subcultures
within the large public university limited the effect of
interpersonal values on persistence. His observation was
consistent with Tinto (1987) who contended that small,
homogeneous institutions tended to intensify differences in
values due to the lack of subcultures amenable to diversity.
Johansson and Rossman (1973) conducted a five-year
longitudinal study at a liberal arts college and found that
values inventories did not prove useful in discriminating
between persisters and dropouts.

Finally, Johansson and Rossman (1973) identified
religious liberalism as a significant factor distinguishing
male persisters from sale dropouts in their study. They
concluded that males who dropped out of Macalester College
had a dislike for orthodox or fundamental beliefs and
practices. Landis (1963) investigated the adjustment
process of non-constituent students at a denominational
college characterized as unique in character and purpose.
Students with personality needs at variance with the
constraining press of the environment withdrew from the
college in signficantly greater numbers than those whose

personality needs were compatible. Dissonance had a greater

S6
effect on males than females. Though personality factors
were not directly related to the focus of this study, they
were considered because such personality characteristics did
affect values and how the individual resolved any dissonance
that might have existed between those values and the

prevailing values of the institution.

Social Integration

 

Pascarella and Terenzini (1979) concluded that the
absence of sufficient contact with other members of the
institution proved to be the single most important predictor
of departure. This conclusion was maintained even after
taking into account the independent effects of background,
personality, and academic performance. For Tinto (1975),
social integration occurred primarily through informal peer
group associations, semi-formal extracurricular activities,
and interaction with faculty and administrative personnel
within the college. In essence, social integration, as it
pertained to persistence in college, included sufficient
congruency with some part of the social system of the
college. The following discussion focuses on the variables
of interest in this study, namely general social
integration, peer-group interaction, friendship support, and
student-faculty interaction outside the classroom.

Nasitir (1963) examined the context of academic failure
in higher education through a comparison of persisters and

dropouts at Berkeley. He found the drop-out rate among

57

socially non-integrated students to be twice that of
socially integrated students. He concluded that the extent
to which the informal life of the individual was spent with
other members of his/her group sharing in their
interpretations of life affected his/her risk of failure.
Rootman (1972), also frequently cited as a critical study in
social integration, examined 200 variables related to
withdrawal from adult socializing organizations. Of the
eight variables significantly related to withdrawal (2’ <
.05), three were variables which measured interpersonal fit.
Perceived attachment to members of his/her socializing group
was as important to persistence as was the actual attachment
reported by other members. He concluded that interpersonal
fit was a major, if not the major, determinant of withdrawal
from the Coast Guard Academy.

Spady (1971) examined social integration by measuring
the subject's subjective sense of belonging and fitting in
at the University of Chicago, reactions to the general
warmth of interpersonal relationships on campus, and the
perceived absence of pressures arising from the normative
differences between themselves and other students. For the
men, he found social integration was significantly related
to satisfaction with the year (2 < .01), institutional
commitment (p < .01), dropping out the first year (2 < .01),
and graduation (p’< .01). Furthermore, he found family
relationships, personality dispositions (p < .01),

dispositions toward the university, subcultural relations (3

dev

rel
in
me

91

58
< .01), structural relations (2, < .01), and intellectual
development significantly related to social integration.

For the women, social integration was significantly
related to satisfaction with the year (p_ < .01) and
institutional commitment (p’< .01), but unlike the men, was
not significantly related to dropping out the first year or
graduation. In fact, it had little influence at all on the
two latter variables. Family relationships, university
dispositions, and structural relations were also
significantly related to social integration (2’ < .01).
Structural relations had an extremely strong influence on
social integration. In summary, Spady's findings suggested
that social integration had a direct influence on the
decision to persist or withdraw for men. For the women,
social integration was significantly related to
institutional commitment which was for them the most
powerful determinant of attrition. According to Tinto's
theory, social integration was expected to directly affect
institutional commitment.

In Panos and Astin's (1968) study of 248 colleges and
universities, environmental variables concerning student
interpersonal relationships were significantly related to
dropping out (p’< .05). Students were more likely to leave
colleges where peer environments were characterized by
competitiveness, low levels of independence and
cohesiveness, and frequent informal dating. They found that

colleges with high rates of attrition had faculties

59

characterized by their lack of concern for the individual
student, and environments limited in opportunities for the
development of familiarity with the instructors.
Furthermore, other opportunities, like extracurricular
activities, which brought the student and the college
together, were significantly less frequent in settings with
high student attrition.

Aitken (1982) studied a sample from a single, public
university with the purpose of developing a theoretical
model of student satisfaction, performance, and retention.
Residential living and academic satisfaction were
significantly related to retention (p < .01). Peer-group
relationships were found to be the most important
determinant of residential living satisfaction (2 < .001).
The measure of loneliness and isolation was also
significantly related to satisfaction (p_ < .01). The
quality of peer support for academics within the residence
halls was significantly related to academic satisfaction (p
< .05). Nelson, Scott, and Bryan (1984) studied a sample
from a public university and found satisfaction with the
present social life significantly related to retention. The
researchers did not report the specific definition of social
integration in their study, but did conclude that poor
social integration contributed greatly to the decision to
drop out, according to reports from academically successful
students at that institution. Rom (1985) found peer-group

interaction and faculty-student interaction to be

60

significantly related to persistence at a community college.
Rose (1980) also concluded from her study that greater
levels of social integration allowed significant prediction
of persistence at the University of Hichigan-Dearborn. By
way of contrast, Starr, Betz, and Henne (1972), Gille
(1985), and Disque (1982) did not find social integration
significantly related to the decision to drop out or
persist.

Spady (1971) included the variable friendship support
in his study which reflected the quality and quantity of
student relationships with their peers. Friendship support
was more closely related to other independent measures of
interpersonal contact than the other predictor variables in
Spady's model. For the men, high school experiences (p_ <
.01), personality dispositions, and structural relations (2
< .01) were significantly related to friendship support.
Only structural relations was so related to friendship
support for the women (3 < .01). Of course, structural
relations was significantly related to first-year dropouts
for both sexes (p < .01). Because friendship support had
considerable influence on variables in Tinto's model which
were significantly related to the process of social
integration, it should be viewed as important to the
decision to withdraw or persist.

Husband's (1976) findings of the effect of significant
others on attrition at Spring Arbor College supported

Spady's results. He found that 75% of the respondents who

61

failed to persist for more than one year indicated on the
survey that their significant others were individuals not
affiliated with the college. On the other hand, 64% of
those respondents who returned indicated that they had
significant others on campus. Husband concluded that a
strong relationshp existed between the quantity and quality
of significant others and the decision to withdraw or
persist. He maintained that the results of his study were
important for Spring Arbor College, but cautioned about
generalizing his findings to other populations. Simpson,
Baker, and Hellinger (1980) studied failing dropouts and
tranfers, and dropouts and transfers in good standing. One
factor common to all four types of leavers was the lack of
early social integration. All four groups were
significantly different from the continuing group on the
number of close friends at school, and all but the failing
dropouts were significantly different on the loneliness
measure (3 < .05). Tinto (1987) contended that having one
significant other improved the likelihood of persistence
significantly.

Pascarella, Terenzini, and their associates clearly
documented the critical role of student-faculty contact in
the many informal settings which are so characteristic of
college life (Pascarella and Terenzini, 1977 and 1979);
Pascarella and Wolfle, 1985). In fact, Pascarella (1980)
developed a conceptual model of the drop-out process which

focused on the importance of informal student-faculty

62

contact. In his model, informal contact with faculty was
expected to influence and be influencedi by general
institutional factors, college experiences related to peer
culture and co-curricular activities, and educational
outcomes. Educational outcomes were expected to directly
influence persistence/withdrawl decisions. Tinto (1987)
re-affirmed the conclusion that the absence of interactions
between faculty and students was a predictor of individual
departure.

Spady (1971) contended that interaction with the
faculty increased social integration, institutional
commitment, and academic integration. A single-item index
of faculty contact was included along with heterosexual
relationships and extracurricular involvements in a variable
set labeled ”structural relations." Spady was not surprised
to find this set significantly related to friendship support
and social integration. Structural relations was
significantly related to first-year dropouts for both sexes
(p,< .01). He also found that faculty contact had a greater
influence on the process of social integration for men than
women. For women, faculty contact seemed to have a stronger
influence on institutional commitment, more so than men.
This finding is important because institutional commitment
was the strongest determinant of the persistence/withdrawal
decision for women in Spady's study. Nelson, Scott, and
Bryan (1984) found that the degree faculty encouraged

discussion outside of class was significantly related to

63
persistence (p < .05). Rom's (1985) findings on
faculty-student interaction were consistent with those cited
above.

On the contrary, several studies have not found
student-faculty interaction to be a significant variable in
the decision to persist or withdraw. For example, Aitken
(1980) did not find faculty contact to be a significant
variable in his study of student performance, satisfaction,
and retention. Bean (1980) designed his study using a
conceptual model based on turnover in work or organizations.
To his surprise, the study revealed that the staff/faculty
relationship, so predominant in the work of Terenzini and
Pascarella, was not a significant factor. However, the
staff/faculty relationship did appear more important to
women than men, a finding consistent with Spady's (1971)
findings. Gille (1985) and Disque (1982) conducted studies
at single public universities and found that student-faculty
interaction outside the classroom was not significantly
related to the decision to persist or withdraw. Despite the
findings cited above, theory and research, in general,
confirm the importance of student-faculty interaction

outside the classroom as a determinant of persistence.

Academic Integration
Tinto (1975) pointed out that an individual's
integration consists of both structural and normative

components. Intellectual development represented the more

64

intrinsic form of reward in the academic system. It was an
integral part of the student's personal and academic
development as well as an indication of the degree of
individual identification with the system's academic norms.
On the other hand, grade performance was a more tangible
reward which related to the meeting of certain explicit
standards. It reflected the ability of the individual, and
the institution's preferences for certain styles of academic
behavior. Intellectual development was the individual's
evaluation of the system, whereas grade performance was the
system's evaluation of the individual. Tinto (1987)
contended that a lack of academic congruence could arise
between the individual and the system in a number of ways.
A mismatch could exist between the abilities, skills, and
interests of the student and the demands placed upon them by
the academic system. Qualitative differences could exist
pertaining to intellectual values, preferences, or the
general academic ethos of the institution. Such differences
could lead to a dissatisfaction with the character or
shortcomings of the intellectual environment of the
institution, thus affecting the decision to persist or
withdraw.

According to Tinto (1987), intellectual incongruence,
like social incongruence, had a significant influence on the
decision to persist or withdraw. Intellectual incongruence
could take many forms such as quality of teaching, level of

intellectual inquiry, degree of academic challenge in the

65

environment, or sensitivity to the intellectual shortcomings
perceived in the faculty and/or curricula. Summerskill
(1961) concluded that intellectual incongruence was
significantly related to withdrawal. Pantages and Creedon
(1978) found that concerns related to academic and
intellectual congruence were those most often cited by
students as reasons for leaving. Trent and Hedsker's (1968)
six-year, longitudinal study of 10,000 high school students
revealed that college persisters studied harder, were less
prone to allow social life to interfere with their studies,
and tended to be more intellectual, self-reliant, and
open-minded than were dropouts. Astin (1975) concluded that
student involvement in the academic system was strongly
related to persistence.

Nasitir (1963) studied the effects of academic context
and academic orientation on drop-out behavior. He found
that 90 per cent of all the dropouts from academic
residential contexts had non-academic orientations.
Academically-oriented students in academic residential
contexts tended to persist. However, the drop-out rate
among non-academically oriented students who also lacked
academic integration with the institution was twice that of
those academically integrated. He concluded that without an
academic orientation and without sufficient residential and
institutional support, students manifested a high drop-out
rate. Rossman and Kirk's (1970) findings supported

Nasitir's conclusions on the importance of the relationship

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66
between academic congruence and context and academic
orientation. Individuals who withdrew from Berkeley had
significantly higher verbal ability scores and were more
intellectually oriented than those who persisted. In this
case, academic incongruence involved a lack of academic
challenge within the academic context.

Spady (1971) found that intellectual development was
more directly related to persistence among women than men.
Furthermore, the social structure of the college had a more
significant influence on that development for women. High
intellectual development among both sexes was associated
with greater contact with faculty members and involvement in
co-curricular activities. Academic potential, measured by
Scholastic Aptitude Test scores, high school rank, and high
school quality, was not found to be an important independent
predictor of intellectual development. Though intellectual
development among men was significantly related to dropping
out in the stepwise equation (p‘< .01), Spady concluded that
this variable was more important for women in the decision
to drop out based on its significant unique contribution to
the explained variance in the dependent variable.

Aitken (1982) found that academic satisfaction was
significantly related to first-year student retention (2 <
.01). As a dependent variable, academic satisfaction was
significantly related to perceived grade point average (2, <
.001), course satisfaction (3 < .001), satisfaction with

major (p < .001), and. rating of instructors (p < .01).

67

Satisfaction with the academic advisor was not statistically
significant. Expected grade point average at the conclusion
of the first year was the most important variable
determining academic satisfaction, followed by satisfaction
with the courses, the majors, and the instructors. Starr,
Betz, and Henne (1972) also found significant differences in
satisfaction with the quality of education between dropouts
and persisters (p < .01). Included in this variable were
measures of intellectual and vocational development,
competence and helpfulness of faculty and staff, and the
adequacy of curriculum requirements, teaching methods, and
assignments.

Further studies support the findings cited above that
intellectual development and the quality of the academic
environment which fosters it strongly influence the decision
to persist or withdraw. Panos and Astin (1968) examined the
effects of classroom environment on persistence and found a
significant positive relationship with classrooms
characterized by a high level of personal involvement on the
part of instructors and students, a high degree of
familiarity with the instructor, 3 low degree of cheating
and verbal aggression, and grading practices which were not
severe. Withdrawal behavior was significantly related to
allowing the student freedom in selecting courses and a
permissive faculty who were not concerned with the
individual student. Nelson, Scott, and Bryan (1984)

discovered that persistence was significantly related to

68

interesting instructors who encouraged talk outside of
class, and the desire for accelerated academics at
matriculation (p < .05). Timmons (1978) reported in his
study that males who withdrew stated significantly more
often than males who continued that they were not interested
in their courses, and dissatisfied with the advising system.
This finding was consistent with the conclusion of Johansson
and Rossman (1973) that the general pattern seemed to be
that men, more so than women, dropped out for curricular
reasons. The findings stated above were replicated in a
national study on retention conducted by Lenning, Sauer, and
Beal (1980), who stated that those campus factors most
related to student retention were (a) a caring attitude of
faculty and staff, (b) a high quality of teaching, and (c) a
high quality of advising.

Summerskill (1962) found a highly significant
relationship between attrition and first semester college
grade performance in all 35 studies he examined. Prediction
of dropouts was better at the lower end of the grade scale,
i.e. students maintaining poor grades were very likely to
drop out while students with excellent grades could drop
out. Summerskill cautioned that poor grades were a far more
stable predictor of attrition than good grades were a
predictor of retention, because successful students drop out
in larger numbers than would be expected. Tinto (1975)
concurred with Summerskill on the power of grade

performance, indicating that many studies found it to be the

69
single most important factor in predicting persistence in
college. Other reviews of the literature have prompted the
same conclusion that grade performance had a strong
influence on the decision to drop out or stay in college
(Cope and Hannah, 1975); Pantages and Creedon, 1978);
Lenning, Sauer, and Beal, 1980; and Tinto, 1987).

Hackman and Dysinger (1970) conducted a study on the
interaction between individual goal commitment and college
grade performance and were able to distinguish between
persisters, transfers, voluntary withdrawals, and academic
dismissals. They found that individuals with strong grade
performance but low commitment to college completion tended
to withdraw voluntarily or transfer, often seeking
readmission at a later date. Individuals with high
commitment but low performance persisted until graduation or
academic dismissal. Individuals with low commitment and low
performance tended to drop out of higher education
completely. They concluded that commitment and grade
performance were very strongly related to each other and to
the withdrawal/persistence process.

Spady (1971) found college grade performance to be
strongly related to the decision to drOp out in the first
year among men (2 < .01). It made the strongest stepwise
and unique contributions to the explained variance in
dropout of any variable in the model. For women, grade
performance made a modest but significant unique

contribution. Spady concluded from this that the drop-out

70

process for the men in his study was primarily explained by
their inability to accumulate extrinsic rewards within the
institution's academic system. However, the drop-out
process for women was explained through more intrinsic,
subjective variables. The results of Spady's research were
consistent with Cope and Hannah's (1975) conclusion that men
more consistently than women attributed their dropping out
to low grades.

Bean (1980) found college grade performance to be
significantly related to dropping for men but not for women
(2 < .05). It was ranked second only to institutional
commitment in total causal effects among men, but did not
appear at all in total causal effects among women. In a
later study, Bean (1982) found grade performance to be the
second most significant variable influencing dropout among
men, and fifth among women (2 < .05). Johansson and Rossman
(1973) studied two successive freshman classes at a liberal
arts college. The first year a significant relationship
existed between first term grades and drop-out behavior for
women, but not for men (2 < .05). The second year results
were reversed. However, a strong relationship existed
between the terminal grade point average and drop-out
behavior for both sexes (p < .001). Aitken (1982) included
the dummy variable measuring whether or not the individual
reached the minimum grade point average required for
graduation at the end of the freshman year. This variable

had the strongest significant relationship with retention of

71
any variable in the model (3 < .001), followed by actual
grade point average (p < .01). The findings above were
consistent with those found by Pascarella and Terenzini in
their work with Tinto's model (Terenzini and Pascarella,

1978; Pascarella and Terenzini, 1979).

Summary

The review of literature illustrated the complex nature
of the departure process. The influence of
person-environment fit appeared to be a common thread
throughout the various theories, models, and studies. There
were considerable differences between studies relative to
research design, operational definitions, data analysis, and
findings. Variables common to Tinto's model have been
examined extensively in the literature. The findings
supported strong conclusions about the relationship between
these individual variables and persistence. However, when
these variables were examined within Tinto's model, the
degree of explained variance was moderate. The

pre-enrollment characteristics of gender, high

.9—

school

grades, and finances were found to be strong single-variable

Wag-w}, :- -

predictors of persistence in several studies. However,
studies employing these variables within Tinto's model found

E35915? be insignificant. Normative congruence, a variable

r.—

of particular interest in this study, was found to be a
significant factor in studies where it was defined in terms

of moral values and lifestyle. Yet, Spady (1970) did not

72

find it to have a strong direct influence on persistence.
The commitment variables and the integration variables were
found to be consistently strong predictors of persistence.
Of these two groups, the integration variables most often
explained the greatest amount of variance. However, several
prominent studies found commitment variables, particularly
intent to leave and goal commitment, to be the most
influential.

Finally, the importance of the operationalization of
terms recurred in the literature. Tinto's model appeared to
be sensitive to the definition of variables within it,
particularly the dependent variable persistence. Spady
(1970) acknowledged the problem of ambiguity relative to the
operational definition of normative congruence in the
literature. The diversity of operational definitions in the
various studies and the results based on those definitions
were apparent. A general conclusion prevailed that Tinto's
model was a useful tool for understanding. thelldeparture.

1PE999§§;. The review of literature provided the theoretical

foundation and model, the research design and
instrumentation, and the substantive findings necessary to

initiate and sustain this study.

CHAPTER 3

METHODS

In this chapter the design and methodology of this
study will be discussed. First, the data collection
procedures will be presented including a description of the
population, collection procedures, and rate of response.
Next, the major instruments used in the study will be
described and evaluated for their validity and reliability.
A detailed description of how the variables were coded for
measurement will follow. Finally, the chapter will conclude
with a discussion of those statistical techniques used to

analyze the data.

Data Collection

The CORE 100 program, which was used in the process of
data collection, was a required developmental course
designed to assist the first semester freshman in the
process of orientation and adjustment to college. Each
class consisted of twelve freshmen randomly selected and
matched with one faculty member. The class met two days a
week, and the faculty member met with each one of the twelve
students twice each month for a mentoring session to discuss

personal and curricular issues. The curriculum included

73

74
adult development theory, values exploration, moral and
spiritual formation, career exploration, academic skill
development, aesthetics, and self-development issues.

The population consisted of the entire 1987-88 freshman
class at Spring Arbor College (3 - 119). All freshmen were
required to attend Freshman Orientation which was
administered by the CORE 100 faculty. The first two
mornings of orientation week have been traditionally set
aside for testing and evaluation. It was during this time
that the instrument from the Cooperative Institutional
Research Program (CIRP) was administered as part of a
national project which the institution has participated in
for several years. The Shepherd Scale was also administered
during this period (see Appendix B). In order to
accommodate the evaluation schedule of the proqram and
minimize test fatigue and overload, six classes were
administered both instruments on one morning, and the other
six classes were administered both instruments the
following morning. Prior to the administration of these
instruments, each CORE 100 faculty member was given explicit
directions for instrument administration along with a brief
text which was read to the class. The administration took
place in all six classes at the same time within the
individual class units of twelve students. Respondents were
guaranteed confidentiality through a coding process in order
to encourage greater openness and accuracy. Relevant data

were taken from the CIRP instrument before it was sent to

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75
UCLA for inclusion in the national study. One hundred
‘nineteen students completed both instruments.

The instrument developed and validated by Pascarella
and Terenzini (1980) was administered in early December of
1987 to the same population during a scheduled class
evaluation period (see Appendix B). Each CORE 100 faculty
member administered it to his/her class. Absentees were
requested to respond to the instrument through the campus
mail system. One hundred nineteen students, 100% of the
original group initially surveyed, completed the instrument.
Consequently, 119 complete data sets were collected on the
three instruments: selected items from the CIRP instrument,
the Shepherd Scale, and the instrument by Pascarella and
Terenzini (1980).

In May of 1988, the researcher administered a mailing
to each member of the freshman class who had taken the Fall
1987 surveys (see Appendix A). Included in the mailing were
the following items: (a) a cover letter which explained the
purpose and design of the study; solicited the student's
involvement in the study; and provided information on
confidentiality, consent, and how to complete and return the
necessary materials; (b) another copy of the instrument
developed by Pascarella and Terenzini (1980) to be completed
by the respondent in order to examine the effect of time on
those variables found in Tinto's model; and (c) a consent
form which would release selected data from the CIRP

instrument, the Shepherd Scale, and Pascarella and

76

Terenzini's instrument administered the previous fall in the
CORE 100 program. In order to increase the return rate, a
follow-up mailing, containing all the materials found in the
original mailing, was sent to the total population one week
later. Two weeks later, a second follow-up mailing,
identical in content to the first, was mailed to the total
population. As a result of these efforts, 48 useable
surveys were returned, which represented 408 of the total
population.

After final enrollment figures were determined for the
fall semester of the 1988-89 academic year, college records
were used to determine which members of the population did
not return to Spring Arbor College. College records were
also used to identify the cumulative grade point average of
those individuals who had agreed to participate in the

study.

Instruments

 

The Shepherd Scale (Basset, et al., 1981) was an
instrument designed to differentiate Christian and
non-Christian orientations (see Appendix B). The items
reflected qualities characteristic of Christian orientations
based on principles found in the New Testament. The
instrument was pilot-tested in a small Christian liberal
arts college and correlated with Clock and Starks Dimensions
of Religious Commitment (1965). Correlation was moderately

strong and positive in direction. The authors again tested

77

a larger group of students from a small Christian liberal
arts college and found the instrument to exhibit high
reliability and validity. King and Hunt's instrument on
religiosity was used to establish criterion-referenced
validity. Results were statistically significant. The
authors also sampled a broader range of respondents in a
door-to-door interview design. The instrument revealed
statistically significant differences between self-reported
Christian and non-Christian orientations.

Other studies further demonstrated the utility of the
Shepherd Scale. Pecnik and Epperson (1985) attempted to add
to the psychometric data with a study of 238 students of a
midwestern state university. Internal consistency and
validity results were significant. Boivin, Darling, and
Darling (1987) used the instrument with a sample of Spring
Arbor College students and students from a nearby community
college. The instrument adequately distinguished between
Christian and non—Christian orientations. Elzerman and
Boivin (1986) administered the Shepherd Scale, the Character
Assessment Scale (CAS), and the Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory (MMPI) to 120 student volunteers from
five southern Michigan college campuses, attempting to study
the interrelationships between religiosity within the
evangelical Christian faith, character traits, and
dimensions of personality. After principal components
analysis, the CAS subscales of sexuality, attitudes toward

money, and respect were most strongly related to the

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78

Shepherd Scale and the MMPI supplementary scale of control.
These subscales all loaded on Factor 1, the religious
factor. Analysis of variance was used to compare
differences between the groups from the five campuses, and
statistically significant differences were found in the
subscales given above at the .01 level. The subscale score
difference on money was significant at .05. In summary, the
Shepherd Scale was a valid and reliable instrument for the
purpose of distinguishing Christian and non-Christian
orientations.

Pascarella and Terenzini developed an instrument to
measure social and academic integration in the freshman year
(see Appendix B). The instrument was used in several
studies including two-year, four-year, commuter, and
residential institutions (Pascarella and Terenzini, 1979,
1980, 1983, 1986; Pascarella, Duby, and Iverson 1983; and
Pascarella and Chapman 1983). Principal components analysis
of the Likert-type instrument yielded five factors
(Pascarella and Terenzini, 1979). Multivariate analysis of
covariance and discriminant analysis were used to determine
predictive validity. The factors appeared generally
consistent with Tinto's (1975) model. The alpha
reliabilities of the scales ranged from .71 to .84.
Intercorrelations among the scales ranged from .01 to .33
with a median of .23. The author's 1980 study demonstrated
that each of the five scales significantly differentiated

freshman persisters from voluntary dropouts (p < .05). When

79
added to pre-enrollment characteristics, academic
performance, and extracurricular involvement, the scales
increased identification of persisters by 23% and dropouts
by 41!. The scales identified over 75% of the persisters
and dropouts. Based on their findings, the authors

recommended this scale for use in other studies.

Measurement of the Variables

The variable sets introduced in Chapter 1 will now be
examined in greater detail in the order they appear in
Tinto's model. The individual variables within each set
will be described along with the coding procedures used for
analysis.

The first variable set in Tinto's model (1975) included
family background, individual attributes, and pre-college
schooling. In this study the three groups of variables were
combined for simplification and labelled pre-enrollment

characteristics.

Pre-enrollment Characteristics

1. Gender (0 - male, 1 - female)
2. Achievement in high school--the sum of two scores:
a. Average grade in high school (8 - A+/A to l -
D)
b. Study patterns--hours per week (8 - over 20 to

l - none

 

80
3. High school social pattern--the sum of two scores:
a. Socializing with friends-~hours per week (8 -
over 20 to l - none)
b. Student clubs/groups--hours per week (8 - over
20 to l - none)
4. Concern over financing college (3 - none, 2 - some,
1 - major
Initial institutional commitment and initial goal
commitment (commitment to completing a degree) were the
second and third variable sets in the model. This data was
taken from the CIRP instrument.
Initial Institutional Commitment--sum of three items:
1. College choice (4 - first choice to l - less than
third choice)
2. Drop out temporarily from this college (4 - no
chance to l - very good chance)
3. Transfer to another college before graduating (4 -
no chance to l - very good chance)
Initial Goal Commitment--sum of two items:
1. Get a bachelors degree (4 - very good chance to l -
no chance)
2. Drop out permanently (4 - no chance to l - very
good chance)
Normative congruence measured by the Shepherd Scale was
the fourth variable set in the model.
Normative Congruence--sum of the scores from the two

subscales of the Shepherd Scale (see Appendix B):

 

81

l. Belief subscale--items 1 through 13 (1 - true to 4
- not true)

2. Behavior subscale--items 14 through 38 (l - true to
4 - not true)

These variables were later recoded for the purpose of
consistent analysis and interpretation.

Academic integration, the fifth variable set in the
model, was measured by the instrument developed by
Pascarella and Terenzini (1980) and the cumulative grade
point averages taken from college records (see Appendix B).
Academic Integration-~sum of the three variables:

1. Cumulative grade point average (8 - above 3.5 to l

- .00 to .49)

2. Intellectual development--a seven-item, factorially
derived Likert-response scale measuring student's
perceived level of intellectual development-—items
18 through 24 (l - strongly disagree to S -
strongly agree)

3. Faculty concern for quality teaching and student
development-~a five-item, factorially derived
Likert-response scale measuring a student's
perception of faculty concern for quality teaching
and student development--items 13 through 17 (1 -
strongly disagree to 5 - strongly agree)

Social Integration, the sixth variable set, was also

measured by the instrument developed by Pascarella and

Terenzini (1980).

82
Social Integration-~the sum of two variables:

1. Peer-group interaction--a seven-item factorially
derived Likert-response scale measuring the extent
and quality of a student's relationships with peers
at the institution--items 1 through 7 (l - strongly
disagree to 5 - strongly agree)

2. Informal relations with faculty-—a five-item
factorially derived Likert-response scale measuring
the quality and impact of a student's informal,
non-classroom interaction with faculty--items 8
through 12 (1 - strongly disagree to 5 - strongly
agree)

Subsequent institutional commitment and subsequent goal
commitment were variable sets seven and eight. These
variables, measured by Pascarella and Terenzini's (1980)
instrument, were the last independent variables in Tinto's
model.

Subsequent Institutional Commitment--sum of three items:

1. College choice as a good one--item 26 (l - strongly

disagree to 5 - strongly agree)

2. Intent to register next semester--item 27 (l -
strongly disagree to 5 - strongly agree)

3. Importance of graduating from this college--item 28
(l - strongly disagree to 5 - strongly agree)

Subsequent Goal Commitment—-sum of three items:
1. Importance of graduating from college--item 25 (l -

strongly disagree to 5 - strongly agree)

83

2. No idea for a major--item 29 (l - strongly disagree

to 5 - strongly agree)

3. Unimportance of grades-~item 30 (1 - strongly

disagree to 5 - strongly agree)

The dependent variable first year persistence or
withdrawal was dummy coded l - returned for fall semester
1988, 0 - did not return for fall semester 1988.

In order to simplify interpretation, variables were
coded, or recoded in the case of the Shepherd Scale, to
reflect the assumption that a higher score would correspond
with a greater likelihood of persistence. Categorical data
were dummy coded for use in analyses requiring continuous
data. Intermediate scores were assigned for two cells of

missing data.

Data Analysis

 

Several statistical procedures were used to analyze the
data. The selection of the appropriate method was
determined in part by the requirements of each individual
hypothesis. Consequently, both bivariate and multivariate
methods were employed depending upon the kind of
relationship being explored. Selection criteria also
included the general assumptions, strengths, and limitations
of each statistical procedure, as well as the sample size,
subgroup size, and kinds of data under consideration. In
this study, the following statistical procedures were used:

t-test for independent means, ANOVA, Pearson product-moment

 

an.

3.1“ L-

84
correlation; chi-square analysis, multiple regression, and

discriminant analysis.

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS

This chapter includes a description of the findings
derived from an analysis of the data. First, descriptive
data will be presented for the total group followed by a
closer analysis of the two subgroups, those who persisted
and those who withdrew from the institution. Second, the
results of the planned statistical analysis for each
hypothesis will be presented along with an assessment of
whether the data reject or fail to reject that hypothesis.
Finally, the chapter will conclude with a brief summary of

important findings and observations.

Summaryiof Descriptive Data

Ofthe 48 respondents, 31 were females (65%) and 17
were males (35%). Institutional records indicated that the
entire population consisted of 63 females and 56 males.
Forty-nine percent of the females and 30% of the males
participated in the study. Ten respondents (21%) indicated
that they had no concern relative to financing the college
experience. Thirty-one respondents (64%) indicated some
concern, and seven (15%) indicated major concern.

Aggregated data from the CIRP project available through the

85

 

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86
college Coordinator of Institutional Research indicated that
31 of the 113 subjects in the project (27%) reported no
concern relative to financing college. Sixty-one subjects
(54%) reported some concern, and 21 subjects (18%) reported
major concern.

The mean, standard deviation, minimum score, maximum
score, and possible range of scores are given for each
continuous variable in Table l.

Achievement in high school, a composite of the average
grade in high school and the amount of hours invested in
homework each week in high school, had a group mean score of
10.0. The average grade in high school was approximately a
B (§.- 5.52). This compared to the average grade of B (M_ -
5.02) of subjects who were included in the CIRP aggregate
data.

Though the CIRP response did not include the total
population (95%), it would appear that the respondents in
this study were similar to the population on the variable of
average grade in high school. The group mean for the
variable high school study patterns (M = 4.48) represented
approximately six to ten hours spent with homework each
week. Complete data on this variable were not available
from the CIRP report for comparison purposes. In summary, a
respondent achieved an average grade of B in high school and
spent an average of six to ten hours each week with his/her

homework.

 

87

Table 1

Descriptive Data for All Subjects

 

 

Variable M SD Min Max Range
Achievement in 10.0 1.8 6.0 13.0 2.0-16.0
high school

social pattern

commitment

Initia1_ 9.6 1.4 7.0 12.0 3.0—12.0
institutional

commitment

Normative 48.0 3.5 39.0 52.0 13.0-52.0
congruence-

belief

Normative 87.5 8.5 57.0 100.0 25.0-100.0
congruence—

behavior

integration

Academic 50.4 8.0 29.0 67.0 13.0-68.0
integration

Subsequent 13.6 1.6 8.0 15.0 3.0-15.0
goal commitment

Subsequent 10.8 3.4 3.0 15.0 3.0-15.0
institutional

commitment

 

88

High school social pattern was a composite of two
scores, hours spent each week with friends and hours spent
each week in clubs and groups in the school program. The
dispersion of scores (SQ . 2.0) was similar to achievement
in high school (SQ - 1.8); however the group mean (E.' 8.6)
was lower. A breakdown of the composite score into two
scores indicated that a respondent spent an average of six
to ten hours each week with friends (M s 5.3) and invested
one to two hours each week (M s 3.3) in high school clubs
and groups. Though complete data were not available from
the CIRP report, limited data on these two scores indicated
that 74.1% of the subjects spent six to fifteen hours each
week with friends, and 34.8% did not invest any time in high
school clubs and groups.

In contrast to the mid-range group means of achievement
in high school and high school social pattern, the group
mean (M - 7.1) for initial goal commitment was found at the
upper end of the range of scores. It would appear that the
respondents entered college with a relatively strong
commitment to higher education. By way of comparison, 69.6%
of the CIRP subjects reported that chances were very good
that they would complete a bachelors degree. Only 1.8%
reported that chances were very good that they would drop
out permanently. Similarly, the respondent group mean for
initial institutional commitment (M - 9.6) was found at the
upper end of the range of scores. Again, there appeared to

be a relatively strong commitment to the institution upon

89
entrance into college. Seventy-seven percent of the
respondents indicated that this institution was their first
choice. This compared to 78.8% of the CIRP subjects who
indicated the same first choice.

Considerable attention has been given to a discussion
of the pre-enrollment characteristics and the initial
commitment variables because they could be compared with the
CIRP aggregated data. Though CIRP data did not include the
entire population or provide a complete analysis of all the
variables relevant to this study, it did provide a
representative view of the population and perhaps a better
understanding of how the respondents in this study compared
to the population on selected variables. Due to the
limitations of the research design, comparative population
data were not available for the remaining variables in this
study.

In Table 1, normative congruence is broken down into
two scores, belief and behavior. The belief group mean (M I
48.0) was in the upper range of possible scores. The
average score on each of the 13 items in this scale (M I
3.69) suggests that a typical respondent found the belief
statements to be "generally true” (see Appendix B). The
standard deviation (SQ I 3.5) appeared considerably smaller
than the standard deviation of social integration (§Q_I 7.0)
and academic integration (SQ I 8.0) whose ranges were
similar. The behavior group mean (M_= 87.5) was also in the

upper range of possible scores. The average score on each

90

of the 25 items in this scale (M, I 3.5) suggests that a
typical respondent found the behavior statements to be
“generally true.” The standard deviation (§2 I 8.5)
appeared relatively small when compared with social
integration (SQ I 7.0) and academic integration (8.0). The
group taken as a whole appeared to be relatively homogeneous
in its response to the belief and behavior subscales of the
Shepherd Scale.

Social integration included a measure of the perceived
quality of peer—group interaction and informal relations
with faculty (see Appendix B). The group mean (M I 46.6)
was based on a 12-item Likert-response scale. A high score
(maximum I 60) was indicative of a high degree of social
integration among faculty and students. Therefore, the
average score (M I 3.88) suggests that a typical respondent
reported a moderate degree of social integration. Given the
range of possible scores, the standard deviation (SQ I 7.0)
appeared to be quite large suggesting considerable variation
in the scores. Academic integration, a measure of perceived
intellectual development and faculty concern for teaching
and student development, had a moderate group mean score (M
I 50.4), a moderate respondent mean (M I 3.87), and a
relatively large standard deviation (S2 = 8.0). Both
integration variables were remarkably similar on measures of
central tendency and dispersion.

Subsequent goal commitment included a measure of the

importance of graduating from college, the identification of

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91

a major, and the importance of grades. Given the range of
scores, the group mean (M_- 13.6) appeared high. A typical
respondent (E.' 4.5) reported relatively ”strong agreement”
with the importance of grades and college graduation, and
the identification of a major. The standard deviation (S2 I
1.6) and range of reported scores (8.0 — 15.0) would suggest
a small amount of variation in the scores. By contrast,
subsequent institutional commitment, measuring college
choice, intent to register for the next semester, and the
importance of graduating from the college, had the same
possible range of scores; but a lower group mean (M I 10.8),
a larger standard deviation (SQ I 3.4), and a broader range
of reported scores (3.0 - 15.0). Subsequent institutional
commitment would be expected to have greater variation in
the scores than subsequent goal commitment.

In Table 2, descriptive data on the variables in this
study are broken down by the decision to withdraw from or
persist at the institution. Those who persisted (M I 40)
had higher group means on each variable than those who
withdrew (M I 8). Except for the variables of high school
social pattern and initial institutional commitment, the
standard deviation from each group mean was greater for each
variable in the group which withdrew. However, any
inferences relative to the differences between the means and
measures of disperson of the two groups must be qualified by
the small sample size of withdrawers as well as the

disparity in sample sizes of the groups.

 

 

92

Table 2

Descriptive Data by Decision to Persist or Withdraw

 

 

 

 

 

Persist Withdraw
Variable M SQ M S2 MinL[Max.
Achievement in 10.3 1.7 8.7 2.1 6.0-13.0
high school
social pattern
commitment
institutional
commitment
commitment
Subsequent 11.7 2.9 6.4 2.6 3.0-9.0
institutional
commitment
Normative 48.2 3.3 47.3 4.6 40.0-52.0
congruence-
belief
Normative 87.7 8.4 86.6 9.4 66.0-96.0
congruence-
behavior
integration
Academic 50.7 7.3 48.8 10.9 31.0-61.0

integration

 

 

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93

The independent variables in Table 2 are categorized
according to the size of their possible range of scores in
order to emphasize the relationship between the means,
standard deviations, and ranges within and between scores
for persisters and withdrawers. The first category
consisted of independent variables with a smaller range of
scores (2.0 - 16.0). Differences between group mean scores
for the two groups were as follows: achievement in high
school (1.6), high school social pattern (1.1), initial goal
commitment (1.1), initial institutional commitment (1.1),
and subsequent goal commitment (.8). The difference between
the two group means for subsequent institutional commitment
(5.3) was considerably greater than the difference found
between the two groups for the other variables in this
category. Furthermore, the difference in group means for
initial goal commitment must be interpreted in view of its
smaller range (2.0 - 8.0).

The second category consisted of variables with greater
ranges of scores (12.0 - 100.0). Differences between group
mean scores for the two groups were as follows: belief
(.9), behavior (1.1), social integration (4.4), and academic
integration (1.9). The mean of the differences was 1.85,
compared to 1.14 for the first category. Considering the
greater potential for variation with a greater range of
scores, the differences in this category appeared to be much
less important than those in the first category. Other

observations must be considered in order to properly

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94
interpret these differences. The social integration
difference was notably greater than the others. The range
of the behavior scores was 20 points greater than the next
range in this category, perhaps affecting the significance
of any difference. Based on this comparison, it would
appear that the differences between the two groups on the

normative congruence variables and the integration variables

were marginal.

Results of the Planned Analysis for Each Hypothesis

 

The results of the planned statistical analysis for
each hypothesis will now be presented. Each hypothesis will
be restated followed by a discussion of the results and a
decision as to whether or not to reject the null hypothesis.

1. There will be no significant differences between

 

the scores on the following measures of those who persisted

 

at the institution and those who withdrew: (a) initial goal
commitment, (b) initial institutional commitment; (c)
normative congruence; (d) social integration; (e) academic
integration; (f) subsequent goal commitment; and (g)

subsequent institutional commitment.

 

In order to test this hypothesis, a series of t-tests
for independent means was performed on each of the
variables. A one-tailed test of significance was used with

a significance probability level of p < .05. The results of

this series of tests are presented in Table 3.

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95

Table 3

T-test Results of Differences Between Persisters and

 

 

 

 

 

*** p < .05

Withdrawers
n 9:. s 9.
'Variable Persist Withdraw
Initial goal 7.3 6.2 7 1.98 .044***
commitment
Initial 9.8 8.7 15 2.70 .008**
institutional
commitment
Normative 135.9 133.9 9 .44 .34
congruence
Social 47.4 43.0 8 1.20 .13
integration
Academic 50.7 48.8 8 .62 .28
integration
Subsequent goal 13.7 12.9 7 .91 .20
commitment
SUbsequent 11.7 6.4 13 5.27 .0000*
institutional
Commi tment
* p < .001
‘** p < .01

high
7.3)
per:
CIRI
g<

rep<
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The

the

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Sig

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tw

Si

96

Individuals who persisted at the institution did have a
higher score on initial commitment to higher education (5. I
7.3) than those with withdrew (M I 6.2). The commitment of
persisters, according to the self reports taken from the
CIRP instrument, was significantly higher (p I .044) at the
pg< .05 level of significance. Those who persisted also
reported a higher score on initial commitment to the
institution (M I 9.8) than those who withdrew (M, I 8.7).
The difference in commitment to the institution between
these two groups was significant (p I .008) at a level of p
< .01. Hence, the null hypothesis stating that no
difference exists between these two groups relative to
initial goal commitment and initial institutional commitment
must be rejected for both variables at the p < .05 level of
significance.

Based on the assumptions of this research design and
the instrument used to measure normative congruence, it was
expected that individuals who persisted would have a higher
score on the Shepherd Scale than those who withdrew. In
this sample, persisters did have a higher mean score (M I
135.9) than those who withdrew (M I 133.9). However,
according to the low 5 score (3 I .44) and the probability
level (2 I .34), the hypothesis of no difference between the
two group means can not be rejected at the p < .05 level of
significance.

The results from the data analysis using Pascarella and

Terenzini's instrument (1980) indicated that the persisters

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97

scored higher (M I 47.4) on measures of social integration
than the withdrawers (M_I 43.0). The p_ value (p, I .13),
though not significant according to the established
criterion, was considerably closer to the level needed to
reject the null hypothesis than the other variables in Table
3. However, a hypothesis of no difference between group
means can not be rejected. Results on academic integration,
which used two different subscales of the above instrument
and included the variable college grade point average,
indicated that persisters had a higher mean score (M I 50.7)
than withdrawers (M I 48.8). In contrast to social
integration scores, the t score (5 I .62) was considerably
smaller, and the p value (p I .28) was considerably larger.
Consequently, the hypothesis of no difference between group
means on the variable academic integration can not be
rejected.

Persisters scored higher on items measuring subsequent
goal commitment (M I 13.7) than withdrawers (M I 12.9). The
p value (p’I .20), though not as large as was found with
normative congruence and academic integration (see Table 3),
was well beyond the established level of significance. A
decision not to reject a hypothesis of no difference between
group means is necessary. It is perhaps noteworthy to
recall that the two group means were significantly different
on the initial measurement of goal commitment (p’< .05).

In contrast to the results on subsequent goal

commitment, the analysis indicated that the group mean

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98

differences based on items measuring subsequent
institutional commitment were significant at the p. < ‘,001
level of significance. Persisters had a group mean of 11.7,
whereas withdrawers had a group mean of 6.4. Given the
unusually low 2 value (p I .0000), a decision to reject the
hypothesis of no difference between group means can be done
with considerable confidence. Of particular interest is the
fact that the second highest 2 value in Table 3 was the
initial measurement of institutional commitment obtained the
previous fall. Consequently, three independent variables
obtained statistical significance; two were initial
commitment variables and the other was a subsequent
commitment variable.

As a group those who persisted at the institution
scored higher on measures for each variable than those who
withdrew. However, based on a statistical analysis of these
scores, statistically significant differences existed
between these groups only on the three variables cited
above. The null hypothesis can not be accepted for all
remaining variables in the hypothesis.

2. There will be no significant differences between
the scores on the pre-enrollment characteristics and the
other variables in the research model.

In order to examine the relationship between the
pre-enrollment characteristics and the other variables in
the model, various statistical tests were performed

depending on the kind of data. A summary of the results of

 

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99
the analysis is shown in Table 4. For example, the
relationship between sex and the other variables in the
model was examined using a t-test for independent means.
Given the established level of significance at which the
null hypothesis would be rejected (2 < .05), none of the
variables were significantly related to sex. Two variables,
initial goal commitment (p I .08) and subsequent goal
commitment (p I .06), were close to statistical
significance. Males had a higher mean score (M I 7.47) than
females (M I 6.97) on measures indicating initial goal
commitment. On the other hand, females had a higher mean
score (M I 13.94) than males (M I 13.00) on the measures for
subsequent goal commitment. All other variables had
relatively high 2 values, especially the value for social
integration (2 I .65). The hypothesis of no difference
between the group means of males and females on the
commitment variables, integration variables, and normative
congruence can not be rejected.

The relationship between concern over finances and the
commitment, integration, and normative congruence variables
in the model was analyzed with an analysis of variance
(ANOVA). The results of the analysis (see Table 4)
indicated an extremely wide range of 2| values. Social
integration (M I 3.17) was very close to statistical
significance (2’. .05). Those who indicated no concern over
finances (M I 10) had the lowest mean score (M I 42.00),

compared to those with some concern (M I 31, M I 48.13) and

100
Table 4

Analysis of Pre-enrollment Characteristics by All Other

Independent Variables in the Model

 

 

 

HOS. HOS.
Sex Finance Achieve. Social.

Variable p p r r
Initial goal .08 .83 .371* .278
commitment
Initial .28 .78 .196 .016
institutional
commitment
Normative .25 .36 .177 -.010
congruence
integration
Academic .37 .19 .229 -.025
integration
Subsequent goal .06 .14 .094 .064
commitment
Subsequent .19 .50 .261 .085
institutional

commitment

 

* p < .05

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The
the con
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higher 3
(E < .05
school ‘
(See Ta
commitme

in high

101

those with major concern (M I 7, M I 46.571). Those with no
concern also had the largest standard deviation (ME I 9.12)
as compared to some concern (§2.' 5.95) and major concern
(SM I 5.88). A t-test was performed to examine the
differences in social integration group means between those
who indicated no concern over finances and those who
indicated some concern. A statistically significant
difference was not found to exist between the two groups on
this measure (2 I .072). However, these results seem to
suggest that a curvilinear relationship could possibly exist
between concern over finances and social integration.
Initial goal commitment (p I .83) and initial institutional
commitment (p I .78) had very high 2 values, and low z
scores of .18 and .25, respectively. The hypothesis of no
difference in the mean scores of the commitment,
integration, and normative congruence variables according to
levels of concern over finances can not be rejected.

The relationship between achievement in high school and
the commitment, integration, and normative congruence
variables in the model was examined using a Pearson
product-moment coefficient r. A coefficient of .285 or
higher was necessary to establish statistical significance
(p < .05). The results indicated that achievement in high
school was significantly related to initial goal commitment
(see Table 4). On the other hand, subsequent goal
commitment appeared to have no relationship to achievement

in high school (5 I .094). The correlation between

achiev«
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Persis

102
achievement in high school and subsequent institutional
commitment (r I .261) would have - been statistically
significant had the level of significance been established
at‘p < .10. Though the mean correlation coefficient of the
variables was .22, only one of the variables attained
significance.

The relationship between high school social pattern and
the commitment, integration, and normative congruence
variables in the model was also analyzed using a Pearson
product-moment coefficient 5. Table 4 displays the results
of the analysis. Except for initial goal commitment (5 I
.278), the other variables had an 5_ very close to .0.
Perhaps it is noteworthy that the correlation which existed
between initial goal commitment and high school social
pattern was consistent with the correlations with sex and
achievement in high school. However, based on the critical
r of .285, none of the variables had a statistically
significant relationship with high school social pattern.

The relationship between each of the pre-enrollment
characteristics and persistence was examined. A t-test for
independent means was used to analyze the relationships
between persistence and achievement in high school, and
persistence and high school social pattern. The analysis of
achievement in high school and persistence yielded 3.2 score
of 1.88 and 3.2 value of .048, which was statistically
significant (p < .05). Persisters had a group mean score of

10.25 while withdrawers had a group mean score of 8.75. The

hYP‘
per:
hig‘.

bet'

tho
Per
grc
rej

SOC

an<
ch:
re
pe

Pe

St
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103
hypothesis of no difference in the group mean scores between
persisters and withdrawers on the variable achievement in
high school must be rejected. The results of the analysis
between high school social pattern and persistence yielded a
p value of .10. The probability level was noteworthy,
though not statistically significant at the p < .05 level.
Persisters had a group mean score of 8.80 and leavers a
group mean score of 7.75. The null hypothesis can not be
rejected relative to the relationship between high school
social pattern and persistence.

Finally, the relationships between sex and persistence,
and finances and persistence were examined using a
chi-square statistic. A statistically significant
relationship was not found to exist between sex and
persistence (12 I 2.204), or concern over finances and
persistence (£2 I 1.110). Chi-square values of 3.84 and
5.99, respectively, would have been necessary to attain
statistical significance at the p < .05 level. Therefore,
the null hypothesis can not be rejected for both independent
variables.

In summary, only one of the pre-enrollment
characteristics had a statistically significant relationship
with the other independent variables in the research model
at the p < .05 level of significance. Achievement in high
school had a significant relationship with the independent
variable initial goal commitment and the dependent variable

persistence. It would appear that a higher level of

ach

tWO

pr0|

104
achievement in high school was positively related to these
two variables at the institution under study.

3. There will be no significant relationships between
the commitment variables and the integration variables.
Specifically, no significant relationships will exist
between:

a. initial institutional commitment and social

integration

 

b. initial goal commitment and academic integration
c. social integration and subsequent institutional

commitment

 

d. academic integration and subsequent goal commitment

The hypotheses were analyzed using a Pearson
product-moment correlation r. A correlation coefficient of
.285 was necessary to establish statistical significance.
The results of the correlation analysis are presented in
Table 5 and Table 6. The relationship between social
integration and initial institutional commitment (r I .221)
was not statistically significant. Peer-group interaction
had a higher 5 value than faculty-student interaction, but
neither variable had a significant relationship to the
commitment variable. In contrast to these findings, the
relationship between social integration and subsequent
institutional commitment (r I .519) was statistically
significant (p < .01). Peer-group interaction and
faculty-student interaction were also significantly related

to subsequent institutional commitment.

 

Ana

meas
Sign
comp
init
COnc
Stat
CQmm
The

and

aPPa

90a1

CQII

105
Table 5

Analysis of Institutional Commitment by Social Integration

 

Institutional Commitment

 

 

Initial Subsequent
Variable r 5
Peer-group interaction .214 .433*
Faculty-student .149 .439*
interaction
Social integration .221 .519*
* p < .01

The relationships between academic integration and both
measures of goal commitment were not statistically
significant (see Table 6). The correlaltions were
comparable to those found between social integration and
initial institutional commitment (r I .221). Faculty
concern over student development would have had a
statistically significant relationship to initial goal
commitment (r I .251) at a p'< .10 level of significance.
The marginal correlation values of intellectual development
and grade point average on initial goal commitment were
apparent. The correlations between grade point average and
goal commitment changed from positive to negative over time.
On the other hand, intellectual development had a higher

correlation value in the subsequent measurement. In

106
summary, except for the variable college grade point average
(g_ I -.080), all correlations between the commitment
variables and the integration variables were positive in
direction. However, none of the relationships were
statistically significant according to the critical value of

r I .285.

Table 6

Analysis of Goal Commitment by Academic Integration

 

Goal Commitment

 

Initial Subsequent
Variable r 5
Faculty concern .252 .213
Intellectual development .069 .180
Grade point average .164 -.080
Academic integration .196 .208

 

Though not directly related to this hypothesis, a
correlation analysis was performed to examine the
relationship between initial and subsequent commitment to
the institution and to higher education. Tinto (1987)
maintained that initial measures would be related to
subsequent measures on both variables as illustrated in
Appendix C. A statistically significant relationship was

found to exist between initial and subsequent institutional

 

commi tmet
subsequel

support '

relatior
under c.
the re51
variablt

on the .

Variai

Norma
Cong:

Statis

107
commitment (£_I .397, p < .01), and between initial and
subsequent goal commitment (g I .292). These results
support Tinto's model.

4. There will be no significant relationships between
normative congruence and each of the following variables:
(a) social integration; (b) academic integration, (c)
subsequent institutional commitment; and (d) persistence.

Several statistics were used to examine the
relationship between normative congruence and the variables
under consideration in this hypothesis. Table 7 presents
the results of correlation analysis on the independent
variables and the results of a t-test for independent means

on the dependent variable persistence.

Table 7
Analysis of Normative Congruence by Integration Variables;

Subsequent Institutional Commitment, and Persistence

1).. 3|

 

 

 

 

 

Subsequent
Social Academic Institut.
Integrat. Integrat. Commit. Persist.
Variable 5 E
Normative .248 .254 .206 .34

congruence

 

The two integration variables would have had a

statistically significant relationship to normative

cont
com;

COII

Bas:
Sig:

C011

to
of
con
tha

dev

{ES

Scc

C0:

108

congruence at the p < .10 level of significance. By way of
comparison, normative congruence had a much smaller
correlation value with subsequent institutional commitment
(r I .206) than that of social integration (5 I .519).
Based on the critical value r I .285, no statistically
significant relationships were found between normative
congruence and the independent variables.

A t-test for independent means was performed in order
to test for a significant difference between the mean scores
of persisters and withdrawers on the variable normative
congruence. Persisters had a higher mean score (!.' 135.9)
than withdrawers (M I 133.9), but a smaller standard
deviation of 10.5 and 12.0, respectively. The test yielded
a t-score of .44 and a p value of .34. Based on these
results, the hypothesis of no difference between group mean
scores can not be rejected at the p < .05 level of
significance.

In order to examine the amount of variance in normative
congruence that could be accounted for by the other
independent variables in this hypothesis, stepwise multiple
regression was performed. The three independent variables
could only account for 9.6% of the variance. The stepwise
procedure indicated that academic integration was the best
predictor; however, the results of the analysis were
insignificant.

In summary, the correlations between normative

congruence and the two integration variables approached the

109

established level of significance. However, no
statistically significant relationships were found.
Furthermore, no statistically significant differences were
found between persisters and withdrawers on the variable
normative congruence.

5. There will be no discriminant function which will
accurately discriminate between persisters and withdrawers.

Linear discriminant analysis was used in order to
examine this hypothesis. The predictor variables were
entered into the analysis in an order consistent with
Tinto's model. The belief variable and the behavior
variable, both part of normative congruence, were entered
independently in order to examine their effects.
Forty-three of the 48 subjects (89.6%) were correctly
classified, all 8 withdrawers, and 35 of 40 persisters. The
classification coefficients of each group equation were
compared by variable. Those variables which indicated
greater differences between the coefficients of the two
equations were selected out for further analysis. Finances,
achievement in high school, initial goal commitment, initial
institutional commitment, academic integration, and
subsequent institutional commitment were entered into the
analysis. Forty-two of the 48 subjects (87.5%) were
correctly classified, all eight withdrawers were correctly
classified, but one less persister.

A quadratic discriminant analysis was performed using

all the independent variables in the research model. Though

e1
ti

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c1
fu
th
his

[65
Var

Pet
in

Here
reCo
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turn

Patti

110

the linear function appeared to adequately classify the two
groups, the possibility existed that a quadratic function
might improve the percentage of classification. The
quadratic analysis, including all independent variables in
the research model, correctly classified 91.7% of the
subjects. Four persisters were not correctly classified.
The six variables selected out for linear analysis were
entered into the quadratic analysis. One hundred percent of
the subjects were correctly classified, each of the 8
withdrawers and each of the 40 persisters.

Both the linear and quadratic functions accurately
classified no less than 87% of the subjects. The quadratic
function, comprised of six of the independent variables in
this study, was capable of classifying every subject into
his/her respective group. Based on these results, the null
hypothesis must be rejected. Though subject to further
research, it would appear that these six discriminating
variables had a strong relationship to the decision to

persist at or withdraw from the institution.

Summary

Comparative data representing 95% of the population
were available on selected variables through institutional
records. Based on comparison, a higher percentage of
females from the population participated in this study. In
turn, a lower percentage of males from the population

participated. In general, those who participated in the

study app:
pre-enrol
average
pattern.
Per:
all inoe
found be
commitmt
institu
social
{Elatic
model ,
Signif
PEISis
betweq
integ
telax
inSti
Pets
Vari
l n i 1
ac a ‘
Com

Sub

111
study appeared to be representative of the population on the
pre-enrollment characteristics of concern over finances,
average grade in high school, and high school social
pattern.

Persisters had higher group means than withdrawers on
all independent variables. Significant differences were
found between the two groups on the variables initial goal
commitment, initial institutional commitment, and subsequent
institutional commitment. Sex, finances, and high school
social pattern variables did not have a significant
relationship with any of the variables in the research
model. However, achievement in high school was
significantly related to initial goal commitment and to
persistence. A significant relationship was found to exist
between subsequent institutional commitment and social
integration. Normative congruence was not significantly
related to the integration variables, subsequent
institutional commitment, or the dependent variable of
persistence. The discriminant function consisting of the
variables achievement in high school, concern over finances,
initial goal commitment, initial institutional commitment,
academic integration, and subsequent institutional
commitment was able to correctly classify 87% of the

subjects in this study.

Ia?

 

 

CONC

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the

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Part
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betw
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CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

Overview of the Study

The researcher's purpose in the study was to examine
the process of persistence/withdrawal of freshmen at a
private, church-affiliated, liberal arts college utilizing
Tinto's (1975) theoretical model of college student
withdrawal. Because of the important role religious values
was expected to play in the withdrawal process at this
particular institution, Spady's (1971) concept of normative
congruence was also included in the research model. The
researcher was particularly interested in the interaction
between the institution's distinctive moral and religious
characteristics and the new student's level of commitment to
those characteristics. It was expected that high levels of
incongruence would negatively affect the student's
commitment to the institution, his/her ability to
successfully integrate into its social and academic systems,
and ultimately his/her persistence at the institution.

Tinto's (1975) model of student departure consisted of
several variables, namely background characteristics,
initial goal commitment, initial institutional commitment,

social integration, academic integration, subsequent goal

112

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113

commitment, and subsequent institutional commitment. In his
causal model, background characteristics were expected to
influence initial goal and institutional commitment.
Initial goal commitment was expected to influence academic
integration which, in turn, would influence subsequent goal
commitment. Furthermore, initial institutional commitment
was expected to influence social integration which, in turn,
would influence subsequent institutional commitment.
Subsequent goal and institutional commitment were expected
to influence the decision to drop out. According to Spady
(1971), normative congruence, a variable not included in
Tinto's model, would be expected to influence social and
academic integration.

A study of Tinto's model was conducted at Spring Arbor
College during the 1987-88 academic year. The population
consisted of the entire freshman class (M I 119). The CIRP
and the Shepherd Scale used in this study were administered
during a fall orientation class period by the faculty of the
CORE 100 freshman development course. During the final week
of the fall semester, an instrument designed by Pascarella
and Terenzini (1980) was administered to the entire
population by the same faculty. In May of 1988 the
researcher sent a mailing to the entire population
soliciting their involvement in this study. Included in the
mailing was another administration of the Pascarella and
Terenzini (1980) instrument and a consent form permitting

the release of all the data gathered the previous fall in

5;.

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114
the CORE 100 course (see Appendix A). Forty percent of the
population participated in the study. After final
enrollment figures were determined for the fall semester of
the 1988-89 academic year, college records were used to
determine which subjects in the population did not return to
Spring Arbor College.

Five hypotheses were examined exploring various
expected relationships between the variables based on
previous research on Tinto's model. T-tests, ANOVA,
chi-square, bivariate correlation, multiple regression, and
discriminant analysis were used to analyze the data and a p
< .05 level of statistical significance was established.

Significant differences were found between persisters
and withdrawers on scores measuring initial goal commitment,
initial institutional commitment, and subsequent
institutional commitment. Of the pre-enrollment
characteristics, only achievement in high school was
significantly related to any of the variables in the
research model. It was related to initial goal commitment
and to persistence. However, the relationship between
concern for finances and social integration (3 I .052)
approached statistical significance. A significant
relationship was found between social integration and
subsequent institutional commitment (p.< .01). Normative
congruence, the variable added to Tinto's model, was not
significantly related to the integration variables,

subsequent institutional commitment, or persistence at the

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115
institution. The variables which correctly classified 87%
of the subjects in this study were achievement in high
school, concern over finances, initial institutional
commitment, initial goal commitment, academic integration,
and subsequent institutional commitment.

Chapter 5 will include a discussion of the major
findings cited in the previous chapter. Following this
discussion, tentative conclusions, which were supported by
findings from the study, will be offered. The chapter will
conclude with recommendations for further research and

implications for practice.

Discussion of the Major Findings

 

A discussion of the major findings presented in Chapter
4 is presented below. Findings from this study will be
discussed in light of the theoretical framework and the
results of recent research which assisted in the formulation
of the hypotheses. Furthermore, tentative interpretations
will be given as to what the apparent facts are and what
functional relationships seem to exist. Finally,
confounding influences will be examined which might have had
an effect on the results for each hypothesis.

1. In hypothesis 1, no significant differences were
expected between the group mean scores of persisters and
withdrawers on the commitment variables, integration
variables, and the variable normative congruence. Persister

scores, though higher on all variables, were only

 

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116

statistically significant on the two initial commitment
variables and subsequent institutional commitment. Tinto's
model maintained that the effect of initial commitment
variables on persistence would be mediated by subsequent
commitment variables. This relationship between commitment
variables and persistence in Tinto's theoretical framework
would appear to support the strength of the relationships
observed between these same variables in the study. In
addition, theory and recent research would appear to support
the significant relationships found in this hypothesis.
Many researchers have found initial commitment variables to
have a direct effect on subsequent variables in Tinto's
model and an indirect effect on persistence. However, the
strength of the relationship between initial commitment
variables and persistence was found to be significant in
several studies (Trent and Medsker, 1968; Cope and Hannah,
1975; Pascarella and Terenzini, 1983). Bean (1980, 1982)
and his associates found intent to leave, which was measured
in the subsequent institutional commitment variable in this
study, to have a strong relationship to persistence.

Tinto (1975, 1987) maintained that the integration
variables would account for the greatest amount of variance
in and be the best predictors of persistence. Many studies
that have tested his model tended to support this position
(Pascarella and Terenzini, 1979; Spady, 1971; Panos and
Astin, 1968). Admittedly, results on these variables from

other studies had also failed to support it. However,

'v‘

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117
studies that operationalized the definition of social
integration through the use of Pascarella and Terenzini's
instrument found, in general, a strong relationship. The
results of this study on the integration variables would not
appear to support these earlier findings.

Spady (1971) did not find a significant relationship
between value orientations and persistence. Furthermore,
his definition of normative congruence, which included value
orientation, was much broader and was tested in a larger,
more diverse institutional setting. The results between
normative congruence and persistence were consistent with
Spady's study. However, the operational definition of the
variable and the context of the study must be considered in
the comparison.

Based on the results of this study, the commitment to
the institution and to higher education that a student
brings to this institution would appear to be important.
The variable normative congruence thought to be a
considerable influence on the college experience did not
appear to be so, at least as it was defined in this study.
Social integration might have been a factor in the decision
to persist. Finally, the results on subsequent
institutional commitment would suggest that perceptions
about the quality of institutional experiences at the time
of departure were important though not necessarily the

reason for departure.

118

The potential of sampling error must be acknowledged at
the outset. The population was relatively small, and the
response rate was relatively poor due in part to the
research design of this study. Any interpretation or
conclusion must be qualified in light of the disparity
between the large number of respondents who persisted and
the very small number of respondents who withdrew.
Furthermore, any conclusion based on eight respondents must
be done with caution, especially when it is not known
whether these respondents were representative of the forty
students who, according to institutional records, did not
return. A larger sample size would have increased the
probability of significance with the integration variables.
The instrument used to measure them had relatively high
reliability and validity based on tests at large university
settings. However, the instrument may not be effective in a
markedly different context. The homogeneity of the
responses of both groups to the Shepherd Scale was apparent.
It is possible that the respondents might have been
homogeneous on any measure of normative congruence. On the
other hand, the construct validity of the variable, the way
it was operationalized, or the reliability and validity of
this instrument in this setting may have affected the
results.

2. In hypothesis 2, no significant differences were
expected between the scores on the pre-enrollment

characteristics and the other variables in the research

uh I-

119

model. Achievement in high school was the only
characteristic which did not support this expectation. All
of the studies which tested Tinto's model, with the
exception of Pascarella, Duby, and Iverson (1983), found no
significant relationships between pre-enrollment
characteristics and persistence. Their study was done at a
commuter institution. Tinto (1975) did expect that such
characteristics would have an effect on the integration
process. This did not appear to be the case in this study
though specific direct and indirect effects were not
examined. In other studies which did not utilize Tinto's
model, sex and finances demonstrated moderately strong
relationships with persistence (Pantages and Creedon, 1978;
Summerskill, 1962; Astin, 1975). These same studies found
grades in high school, which along with study patterns
comprised the variable achievement in high school, to be a
very strong predictor of persistence. Hutchison and
Johnson's (1980) study conducted at a small liberal arts
college found high school grades to be the strongest
predictor of persistence. However, it must be acknowledged
that results on these variables have been inconsistent in
the literature.

The pre-enrollment characteristics of the respondents
did appear to provide a limited amount of information on the
process which led to a decision to persist or withdraw. For
the most part these characteristics, with the exception of

finances, appeared to have much higher probabilities of a

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120

significant relationship with initial commitment to
education than to an initial commitment to the institution.
Sex would have been significantly related to both goal
commitment variables at‘p < .10. Males indicated a stronger
initial commitment, but females a stronger subsequent
commitment. The p value between financial concern and
social integration was unanticipated. The results suggested
that students who have less concern over finances were also
less likely to be socially integrated. In order to better
understand this relationship, such variables as personality
characteristics, employment records, and levels of
institutional and goal commitment would need to be examined
in a multivariate design. The relationship between
achievement in high school and the commitment variables was
not unexpected. Two assumptions might have shaped this
expectation. First, achievement in high school and
commitment to that educational system would be strongly
related. Second, achievement in high school and commitment
would carry over to another educational system. The results
of this study would seem to support both assumptions. The
correlation between achievement in high school and
subsequent commitment to the institution would have been
significant at p < .10. The marked change in the
correlation with subsequent goal commitment cannot be
explained.

The percentage of male respondents from the population

was lower than the percentage of females from the

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121

population. Again, sampling error could have affected the
results. Sex appeared to have a weak relationship to
persistence; however, the low representation of males and
withdrawers would caution against a confident interpretation
of the results. The results from the other pre-enrollment
characteristics may have been affected by the limited number
of items used to measure some variables. More independent
items for each variable would have better represented their
complex nature. These variables, in fact, may have been
inadequately represented by the items intended to measure
them. Finally, despite the low response rate, the
comparative data did suggest that the respondents were
representative of the population on several of the
pre-enrollment characteristics. Though this relationship
cannot be generalized to the other variables in the model,
it would seem to allow for more confidence in the
interpretation of the results.

3. In hypothesis 3, no significant relationships were
expected to exist between the commitment variables and the
integration variables. Contrary to this expectation, a
significant relationship was found to exist between social
integration and subsequent institutional commitment.
According to Tinto (1975, 1987), both goal commitment
variables were expected to interact with the process of
academic integration, whereas both institutional variables
were expected to interact with the process of social

integration. Earlier research by Spady (1971) found social

 

 

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122

integration and institutional commitment to be significantly
related (p < .01). Research by Pascarella, Terenzini, and
their associates consistently supported Tinto's expectations
on the strength of the reciprocal influence between goal
commitment and academic integration, and institutional
commitment and social integration. The results of this
analysis provided little support to the conceptual model and
research findings.

Commitment to the institution during the first week of
college did not appear to be strongly related to the quality
of social integration measured at the end of the freshman
year. However, the subsequent measurement of the quality of
integration with students and faculty had a strong
relationship with an individual's commitment to the
institution at that time. Faculty concern over student
development would have been related to initial goal
commitment at the p < .10 level of significance. If so,
then it would appear that the quality of teaching and the
instructors' interest in the development of the student were
relatively important to a commitment to higher education.
On the other hand, college grade point average, perhaps the
most extrinsic measurement of academic integration, had no
relationship to a commitment to higher education as defined
in this study. Though the interpretation of the results
found in Table 6 must be shaped by the limitations of this
study, it would suggest that early measurements of intent to

get a bachelor's degree and the likelihood of dropping out

 

 

 

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123
permanently were not related to the subsequent quality of
academic integration. The quality of academic integration
was not related to subsequent measurements of the importance
of grades, college graduation, and the identification of a
major.

The issue relative to the validity and reliability of
Pascarella and Terenzini's instrument for this particular
population has already been cited. The unexpected results
presented in Table 6 could be explained, in part, by the
limitations of the instrument for this population. Another
explanation may be found in the choice and quantity of items
used to measure the goal commitment variables. Only two
items were used to measure initial goal commitment. It is
possible that these two items may not have provided
independent measures of the variable, which would have
affected validity. Furthermore, goal commitment was defined
more broadly in the subsequent measure, perhaps confounding
the interpretation of the results. Finally, the
administration of the instrument measuring the integration
and subsequent commitment variables was given at the end of
the spring semester when academic pressures were more
apparent. This could have affected responses to academic
statements, even perhaps the quality of the responses on all
the variables. It is not unlikely that the factor of timing
also affected the response rate both on the percentage of
respondents as well as the kind of respondent who

participated in the survey.

 

 

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124

4. In hypothesis 4, no significant relationships were
expected to exist between normative congruence and the
integration variables, subsequent institutional commitment,
and persistence. No significant differences were found to
exist. Tinto (1987) referred to the role of value
orientation in the development of his theoretical framework.
Building on the theories of Van Gennep (1960) and Durkheim
(1961), he contended that social incongruence, defined as a
mismatch between the individual and the collective group on
social values, preferences, and behavior style was a
considerable influence on persistence. However, studies
testing Tinto's theory did not define social integration so
specifically. On the other hand, Spady (1971) was more
specific in the definition of the value dimension included
in the variable normative congruence. Spady found that
normative congruence was not significantly related to
persistence. The variable value orientations, perhaps most
closely related to the definition of normative congruence in
this study, was not significantly related to any of the
variables in Spady's study. However, it had a relatively
strong influence on friendship support for males, and
friendship support, intellectual development, grade
performance, and graduation for females.

Cope and Hannah (1975) concluded that conflicts over
lifestyle and value orientations contributed more to the
dissonance which led to dropout decisions than religious

beliefs. Studies at small, church-related institutions

 

 

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125
found value orientations to be significantly related to a
sense of self development and to the overall process of
educational growth (Bean and Creswell, 1980; Lenning, 1970).

It would appear that the religious beliefs and behavior
a freshman brought to this institution may have made a
contribution to the process of academic and social
integration, but they did not seem to have a direct
influence on the decision to return for the sophomore year.
Perhaps a measurement of religious beliefs and behavior at
the time of the measurement of the other variables in this
hypothesis would have yielded a more helpful understanding
of their relationships. It was expected that institutional
values would be a considerable influence on the student
during the first year. However, the interaction between
individual values and institutional values did not appear to
have a direct effect on institutional commitment at the
close of that year.

Descriptive data on the variable normative congruence
seemed to indicate that the respondents as a group were
relatively homogeneous in their responses to the instrument.
The reliability and validity of the Shepherd Scale had been
examined in settings with characteristics similar to those
at the institution in this study. However, it is
questionable whether this instrument, though having
considerable construct validity, had the power to
discriminate within a sample that seemed to be very

homogeneous. The fact that this instrument was administered

 

 

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126

by the Dean of Students, who is often perceived as an
institutional arbitrator on matters of moral and religious
conduct, may have affected a response bias regardless of
anonymity. Furthermore, it is possible that the homogeneity
of the responses may be due in part to a response set of
social desirability. Also, the study assumed that the
individual was immersed in a value-saturated culture where,
as Tinto (1987) noted, differences were intensified due to
the lack of subcultures amenable to diversity. The role of
an existing subculture in the institution may have provided
a support system that could have ameliorated the influence
of the dominant religious press. Again, a larger sample of
withdrawers would have been necessary to better evaluate
these complex relationships.

5. In hypothesis 5, it was expected that no
discriminant function would accurately discriminate between
the persisters and withdrawers in this study. The
hypothesis was rejected. The quadratic discriminant
function, which included concern over finances, achievement
in high school, initial goal commitment, initial
institutional commitment, academic integration, and
subsequent institutional commitment, classified 100% of the
subjects in this study. According to Tinto (1975, 1987),

pre-enrollment characteristics were expected to exert an

indirect influence on persistence. Most of the earlier
studies testing his model found this to be true. However,

Getzlaf, Sedlacek, Kearney, and Blackwell (1984) found that

pre
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127
pre-college academic achievement and institutional
commitment made unique contributions to the discriminant
functions. Summerskill (1962) and Rowell (1974) found that
finances was one of the major reasons given by those who
withdrew.

Tinto also maintained that an individual's commitment
to either higher education or the institution could
ameliorate the effect of insufficient academic or social
integration. On the other hand, low commitment could
neutralize the effects of a positive integration process.
His contention that the commitment variable played a pivotal
role in the decision to persist or withdraw has been
supported by several studies (Pascarella and Terenzini,
1979; Munro, 1981; Bean, 1981). Pascarella and Terenzini
(1983) found that the influence of institutional commitment
on persistence was much greater than that of goal
commitment. This was consistent with the results of this
study.

Tinto (1975) contended that the integration variables
had the greatest influence on persistence. Stoecker,
Pascarella, and Wolfle (1988) found that academic
integration had the strongest direct effect on persistence.
On the other hand, Pascarella and Chapman's (1983) study at
a residential college revealed that social integration had
the strongest direct effect. In general, studies testing
this model have found social integration to be the stronger

predictor. Finally, the fact that the. variable sets

 

 

128
included in Tinto's model were able to classify over 89% of
the subjects into their respective groups, would indicate
the model's usefulness in this study.

The results from the discriminant analysis appeared to
have some similarities with the results from the earlier
bivariate analyses. In hypotheses l and 2, differences were
found between persisters and withdrawers on scores measuring
high school achievement and these same commitment variables
which appeared in the discriminant functions. This
multivariate analysis identified concern over finances and
academic integration as predictors. Neither of these
variables had been found to be significantly related to
persistence in earlier analyses.

Given the power of these variables to properly classify
the subjects in this study, their role in understanding the
process of withdrawal at this institution must not be
minimized. Commitment to this institution and to higher
education appeared to be a predominant factor in the
respondents' decision to persist or withdraw. The
considerable influence of finances appeared to be consistent
with the findings from the literature. The absence of
social integration from the function was unexpected given
its p value in the bivariate analyses. Though a breakdown
was not included in the analysis, earlier results seemed to
suggest that faculty concern for teaching and student
development could have been a factor in the predictive power

of academic integration. Finally, the level of academic

 

 

129
achievement in the high school system seemed to carry over
into and greatly influence the college experience.

An interpretation of the results of the commitment
variables and the pre-enrollment characteristics must be
qualified by the limited number of items used to measure
each variable. Though significant results were attained,
further research including more items per variable would

increase construct validity and reliability.

Conclusions

1. Based on the findings of this study; it would
appear that Tinto's (1975) model was useful, but limited in
its ability to explain the persistence/withdrawal process at
this institution.

Though a final determination on the utility of Tinto's
model at this institution should be withheld until further
study, the results indicated that his model assisted in the
identification of several influences on withdrawal.
Pre-enrollment characteristics, though not expected to be
significantly related to persistence, were considered by
Tinto (1987) to be important to a full understanding of the
attrition process. This study did not examine family
background characteristics and individual attributes also
included in Tinto's model (see Appendix C). However, the
pre-enrollment characteristics which were included in this
study did make some contribution. A relatively strong

relationship existed between subsequent institutional

 

 

commi
subse
signi
varia
to pe
analy
class

relat

130

commitment and social integration. The initial and
subsequent measurements on both commitment variables were
significantly related. Furthermore, the commitment
variables appeared to play an important role in the decision
to persist or withdraw. According to the discriminant
analysis, the variables in Tinto's model correctly
classified 89% of the subjects. In summary, all these
relationships were consistent with Tinto's model.

On the other hand, though several relationships between
variables appeared to support the model, most of the
findings were not statistically significant. This could be
explained by the limitations of the study or by the
limitations of the model. Bean's (1980) model identified
other influences on persistence, both inside and outside the
institution, such as family responsibilities, job
opportunities, family support of the institution, and the
perceived practical value of education. Other variables
based on research and observation might be considered:
student locus of control and attributional inclinations;
institutional policies on finances, academics, and housing;
and the effects of institutional processes, procedures, and
regulations. In summary, Tinto's model did provide a useful
framework for this study. However, alternative models must

be explored which would not be limited to pre-enrollment

variables, integration variables, and commitment variables.

 

 

131

2. Normative congruence; as defined and
operationalized in this study, did not appear to exert a
direct influence on an individual's decision to withdraw.

The general purpose of this study was to examine the
persistence/withdrawal process at this particular
institution. However, a specific problem was identified
relative to the effect of value incongruence on the quality
of an individual's freshman year college experience. It was
assumed that considerable levels of incongruence would have
a negative effect on the college experience, in general, and
on persistence, in particular. This did not appear to be
the case in this study. It must be recognized that this
group of respondents may not have been representative of the
population because they volunteered to participate. They
may have been more sympathetic with the institution's ethos
especially in the particular areas of belief and behavior.
However, it is probable that they were, in fact,
representative of a very homogeneous population.

It is not uncommon for institutions with distinctive
characteristics to attract individuals who desire or need
such an environment. Keeler (1987) maintained that every
institution had embedded in its tissue an intangible set of
values which needed to be fully revealed and candidly
examined. It is probable that the applicants' understanding
of the institution's dominant values may have been more
accurate than anticipated, and that this understanding may

have had a considerable influence on whether or not they

 

 

132
chose this institution. For whatever reason, over 75% of
the population reported that this .institution was their
first choice to attend.

An environmental characteristic may have ameliorated
the effect of any considerable levels of value dissonance.
For example, an individual may have persisted though
experiencing considerable dissonance if the environment was
perceived to be accepting and nurturant, or at least
tolerant of diversity. Also, a subculture may have acted as
a buffer against the dominant press. Reactions to the new
environment may have been more readily identified earlier in
the academic year when developmental issues and the
normlessness of societal transitions noted by Van Gennep
(1960) were taking place. Furthermore, the individual who
has notably divergent values from this environment may be
difficult to identify in the first year of college when so
many developmental issues can have a confounding influence.

3. The social system of this institution appeared to
play a relatively important role in the student perceptions
of college life in their freshmanyyear.

Social integration and institutional commitment
appeared most frequently with notable results in the planned
statistical analysis. Tinto (1987) considered these two
variables to be important variables in the social system.
Initial and subsequent institutional commitment yielded
significant results when persisters and withdrawers were

compared. The two measurements of institutional commitment

 

 

133

also were significantly related and both were included in
the discriminant function for persisters and withdrawers.
Though the mean score for the entire sample on social
integration was not statistically significant, the pp value
(p_I .13) on the differences between the two groups was
moderately low. Financial concern and social integration
appeared to have a significant relationship (p I .05).
Social integration had a significant relationship with
subsequent institutional commitment (r I .519).

Though the limitations of this study must be kept in
view, the social system appeared to be important to the
respondents. The respondents entered college with a
relatively strong commitment to this institution. Nine
months later, those who would inevitably return the next
fall would report a better evaluation of the social system,
which, in turn, would relate to the commitment they had to
the institution. Throughout the freshman year,
relationships between peers and faculty members and concerns
over the financing of college appeared to influence those
perceptions.

The influence of the social system on perceptions of
the college experience at a small rather homogeneous
educational setting was not unexpected. Tinto (1987)
observed that in such environments, characterized by social
and intellectual homogeneity, greater interaction between
faculty and staff was a common feature which tended to

reinforce the value of conformity to the prevailing ethos of

 

 

 

134

the institution. Perhaps such consistent contact within an
environment with a relatively consistent value orientation
supported the respondent through the stages of passage from
one society to another, specifically from separation through
transition to incorporation (Van Gennep, 1960). The
prevalence of the social system in the results of this study
may be a reflection of that incorporation process.

4. The process of and reasons for withdrawal at this
institution were far more complex than could be determined

in this research design.

 

The complexities of the withdrawal process were alluded
to in the discussion of the usefulness of Tinto's model.
The dynamics at work in the environment of a small
church-related, liberal arts college may be markedly
different than those of the larger public institutions. Two
of the main objectives of this study were to test a
conceptual model and to test an instrument which had been
used to examine the withdrawal process at larger, public
institutions. Both contributed to an understanding of
withdrawal in this study. However, the variables selected
did not appear to adequately address the complexity of the
withdrawal problem, though limitations in the study may have
precluded an accurate view of their importance.

A model of the withdrawal process at an institution
similar in mission and character must consider many
influences. The characteristics a matriculant brings to

this institution along with his/her level of understanding

 

 

135
about the ethos and expectations of the institution should
be considered. Furthermore, perceptions about institutional
processes, procedures, and policies should be included in
the model. A measure of the individual's locus of control
would be helpful in understanding how he/she responds to
institutional patterns of challenge and support. The
influence of social networks, within and without the
institution, should be measured as well as utilized in the
gathering of data. Because the process of and reasons for
withdrawal are so complex, qualitative as well as

quantitative methods should be employed in the design.

Recommendations for Further Research

 

An understanding of the withdrawal process at this
institution can be expanded through the following
recommendations:

1. Alternative models of student departure should be
examined that might better explain the process at
institutions similar in size, mission, and character to the
institution under study.

2. A longitudinal design involving more than one year
would enable the measurement of effects over a greater
length of time and include those subjects who drop out
temporarily and return at a later date.

3. The research design should include several
institutions with similar characteristics. Such a design

would provide a larger sample, provide multiple settings to

 

 

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inst

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136
examine the validity and reliability of revised models and
instruments, and improve the generalizability of the
findings.

4. Regardless of the model employed, variables should
be defined and operationalized to reflect the particular
characteristics of the institution. Instruments used in
this study were selected for their validity and reliability
based on results from other institutions.
Institution—specific instruments could limit
generalizability to other settings but improve explanatory
and predictive power. Other variables should be carefully
examined for their construct validity. For example, the
pre-enrollment characteristics and commitment variables in
this study could be expanded to provide broader, more
independent measures of the construct.

5. Methods should be employed which would provide
qualitative data on respondents and non-respondents. Due to
the constraints imposed upon this study, opportunities were
not available to interview subjects or follow up on
non-respondents. The complexity of the departure process
requires careful dialogue with the individual student. The
interview process would not only strengthen the study but
would help the subject identify and articulate his/her
reasons for leaving the institution.

6. Research efforts should be directed at developing
methods and instruments which would enable institutional

personnel to identify individuals who are planning to leave

 

 

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137
the institution long before they do. Post hoc studies have
been helpful, but have been limited in their ability to
explain the dynamics of a developing decision. The
identification of such dynamics would greatly assist in the
development of intervention strategies.

7. A more thorough understanding of the withdrawal
process could be obtained through the use of more
sophisticated statistical methods. Relationships between
the independent and dependent variables were examined in
this study. The selection of statistical methods was based
on the nature of each hypothesis and the size of the sample
size or subgroup. More powerful multivariate statistical
methods, such as path analysis, would enable the researcher
to determine both the direct and indirect effects of one
variable on another. Given a larger sample of persisters
and withdrawers, a more extensive use of discriminant
analysis would assist in the identification of determinants
in the withdrawal process. In general, a stronger research
design with a larger sample would permit the use of more

powerful statistical methods.

Implications for Practice

The results of this study have several implications
which might be helpful in addressing the problem of
attrition at Spring Arbor College.

1. Emphasis should be placed on interventions that

will strengthen student commitment and loyalty to this

 

institution.

 

 

 

 

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138

A majority of the population who entered this
institution appeared to have a relatively strong commitment
to it. The results suggested that this commitment was a
factor in the decision to persist or withdraw. Therefore,
institutional personnel should be alert to any opportunity
to develop institutional loyalty. Traditions should be
established and maintained which foster community
cohesiveness, accentuate community values, and perpetuate
community priorities. Student involvement should be
encouraged at every level of the institution. Efforts
should be concentrated on enhancing weekend community life
in order to sustain the institutional momentum and vitality
created during the academic week.

Institutional programs should be directed at critical
times in the academic year when decisions relative to
institutional commitment are being formulated. Orientation
should be an institutional priority. Faculty, staff, and
administrators should concentrate their efforts on bonding
new students into the community and re-bonding returning
students who can promote the institutional saga. Residence
hall programmers should focus their efforts on developing
institutional ownership and identity during the first few
weeks of the fall semester, around high stress times in the
academic calendar, before and after major breaks, during the
inclement months of midwinter, and at the end of the spring

semester.

 

;
l

139

Greater attention should be given to the promulgation
of the institutional saga and the benefits of being a part
of its development. The institutional leadership should
systematically provide occasions for the community to come
together for the celebration of membership. Primary
markets, including alumni, church constituencies, applicant
pools, parents, and a greater county area should be
continually reminded of the distinctive qualities of the
institution and how those qualities enhance their lives.
Opportunities for student contact with faculty and staff
should be increased so that the institutional saga embodied
in these individuals can be more caught than taught by the
students.

2. Given the apparent importance of the social system,

its influence should be directed at enhancing every aspect

 

of the college's mission.

 

The mission of the college states that the academic
community is committed to developing learners who are
distinguished by their serious involvement in study, their
total commitment to Jesus Christ, and their critical
participation in the world. Results from this study suggest
that peer-group and faculty—student interaction are
important in the development of perceptions of institutional
life. Though the entire social system was not the focus of
this study, it seems probable that it could affect,
positively or negatively, the fulfillment of the educational

objectives stated in the mission.

 

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140

The social system could be better used to encourage a
stronger student commitment to serious study. The results,
though by no means conclusive, suggested that the academic
system may have had an influence on student persistence.
Perhaps the influence of peer-group interaction could be
used to strengthen academic commitment through the residence
halls, co—curricular programming, and academic support
programs. Peer counselors could be trained to guide new
students through the academic adjustments of the first year.
Classes could be held in the residence halls and
complemented through hall programming and policies directed
at encouraging serious study. The implications of the
faculty-student relationship should be discussed among the
faculty and interventions designed to promote greater
informal contact with students outside the classroom.
Faculty discussion should also focus on the importance of
high standards of instruction supported by an evident
interest in the student's personal development.

A commitment to Jesus Christ as a perspective for
learning cannot be imposed. Such a commitment comes through
a serious examination of the claims of Christ often
validated through the experience of significant others. The
faculty-student relationship could be a powerful influence
toward the realization of this objective. Therefore,
opportunities outside the classroom for dialogue between
faculty and students on issues related both to faith and

. learning should be increased. Greater faculty presence in

 

 

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141
residence halls and other settings perceived as student
territory might provide opportunities for instruction in and
the validation of the Christian experience.

A personal commitment to be a critical participant in
the world is most often made within a social context. Not
unlike Christian commitment, the importance of critical
participation is more often caught than taught. Again, the
role of faculty and peers seems apparent. Institutional
resources must be committed to enable faculty and students
to be immersed together in critical issues. The crucible of
relationships and human need could forge experiences which
create critical participants. Participation in political,
moral, and ethical issues should be encouraged through
programming, policies, and the example of critical
particpants within the academic community.

3. In order to increase retention at this institution,

a profile of the successful student should be develgped and

a system designed to identify those students who are not

experiencing success.

 

 

This study began to identify some of the variables
which have an influence on the success of a given student at
the institution. Ultimately, the development of a profile
would assist in the enrollment process by identifying those
individuals who would appear to best fit in this
environment. For example, high school achievement should
continue to be an important consideration in the enrollment

process. This profile would enable the various departments

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142
to design what might be more effective programs, procedures,
and policies because they could address a better defined set
of develOpmental and academic needs. Furthermore, such a
tool could assist in the deve10pment of remedial
interventions for students who are experiencing adjustment
problems.

Though further research is required, this study
provided some of the groundwork for an early identification
system for individuals who are considering withdrawal.
Unfortunately, a student's intent to withdraw is often
discovered late in the process when available interventions
are few and very limited in their effectiveness to reverse a
decision. Of course, any instrument, plan, or system must
be accompanied by a keen institutional awareness of warning
signs and a commitment to work with whatever plan has been
established. This study has sharpened the researcher's
awareness of these warning signs and his commitment to
designing, implementing, and working a plan that will

strengthen retention efforts at this institution.

4‘ -1 .‘K..- .—

 

 

 

Le

APPEND IX A

Letter of Introduction and Consent with Follow-up Letter

4..

‘.

Dear lember

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A

Spring Arbor College . Spring Arbor, Michigan 49283 . (517) 750-1200

Dear Member of the Freshman Class:

I as a doctoral student at Michigan State University, and I would like
just a few minutes of your valuable time to assist me in my research.

Enclosed you will find a 30-item questionnaire. It asks you to evaluate
the quality of your social and academic experiences at Spring Arbor
College. Also you may recall that last fall you completed several
questionnaires in CORE 100. I would like your permission to use
information from three of the four questionnaires for my research. This
information, along with your completion of the enclosed questionnaire,
will greatly assist me. Before you decide, allow me to explain what
information I need, how it will be kept confidential, and how it will
benefit you. Please read on.

I would like to use information from the CIRP, Shepherd Scale, and
Person/Environment Interaction Scale which you completed last fall.
Enclosed you will find a page of examples describing the information I
will need from the CIRP, which is part of a national project that Spring
Arbor College participates in comparing freshman characteristics across
the country. With the exception of the data being requested for
release, all data has been sent to UCLA where researchers will compile
group statistics and report them to Spring Arbor College in group form
only. On the page of examples you will also find two examples of
statements from the Shepherd Scale which I am requesting to use. The
Person/Environment Interaction Scale is identical to the questionnaire
enclosed. I am interested in comparing your perceptions in the fall
with those in the spring. The 228-item Character Assessment Scale you
completed will not be used. To date no attempt has been made or will be
made to match responses with individuals. Furthermore, at no time or
for any reason will any institutional personnel know individual
responses or have access to any research data.

I am sure you are interested in keeping your statements confidential.
It will be impossible for me to identify your personal responses. The
consent form and questionnaire will be mailed in the stamped, addressed
envelope to Michigan State University where all the released data from
last semester will be kept. Your questionnaires will be randomly coded
and all identification will be physically removed and destroyed before
any data will be made available to me for analysis. In fact, at no

143

point in the study will I know who participated. Michigan State
University will destroy the data of any individual not choosing to

participate. All data will be destroyed following the completion of the

study. Again, it will be impossible to identify personal responses.

Your part in this research, though very important, is still voluntary.
You are not required to participate in this study. There is no penalty
for not participating and you are free to withdraw at any time without
penalty. I would be happy to share the results of this study with you.
You may be curious to know how your freshman classmates rate Spring
Arbor College socially and academically. Please take 5-7 minutes to
assist me in my research project.

Read and sigg this letter of consent releasing the selected information
from last fall's questionnaires.

Complete the 30-item Person/Environment Interaction Scale.

Mail this signed letter and the qyestionnaire in the enclosed, stamped
envelope.

 

Thank you so such!

Sincerely,

T. Beuthin
Doctoral Student

I hereby release the information requested above. I understand that all

information will be kept in strictest confidence and used only for the
purposes stated above.

 

Signature

144

.k

Information requested to be used from the CIRP

1. Sex

2. How old will you be on December 31 of this year?

3. What was your average grade in high school?

4. What is the highest academic degree that you intend to obtain?
5. Is this college your first, second or third choice?

6. Do you have any concern about your ability to finance your college
education?

7. During your last year in high school, how much time did you spend
during a typical week doing the following activities?

Studying/homework
Socializing with friends
Student clubs/groups
8. What is your best guess as to the chances that you will:

Get a bachelor's degree?

DrOp out of this college temporarily (exclude transferring)?
DrOp out permanently (exclude transferring)?

Transfer to another college before graduation?

Be satisfied with your college?

Representative questions from the Shepherd Scale

I believe that God raised Jesus from the dead.

I am concerned that my behavior and speech reflect the teachings of
Christ.

145

4%

Dear Freak

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m _ .
" Beuthil
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.9.

Spring AIbOl' COHQQQ . Spring Arbor. Michigan 49283 . (517) 750-1200

Dear Freshman:

You may recall that I sent you a set of materials just recently
containing a letter of consent, a c0py of the Person/Environment
Interaction Scale, and an envelope for your convenience.

Since I have no way of knowing who has already participated, I am
sending this reminder to everyone in the event that someone has not
taken the opportunity to respond. If you have already responded, please
disregard this reminder. If you have not done so, I have provided
another c0py of the consent form and questionnaire for your convenience.
Please take a few minutes to respond to the consent form, complete the
brief questionnaire, and mail it in the envelope provided. Your
assistance will greatly enhance the quality of my research.

Thank you!

Sincerely,

T. Beuthin
Doctoral Student

146

'[m

APPENDIX B

Survey Instruments

 

 

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stet«
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beha

THE SiEPHERD SCALE

Please answer the following statements giving your best response to each
statement. Remember, no cue will know your personal reponses. Your
honest answers have a very important impact on the quality of this
project.

Please circle the one response for each statement from among the
following categories which best describes your present belief or
behavior:

1 - true

2 - generally true

3 - generally not true
4 - not true

1 2 3 4 1. I believe that God will bring about certain
circumstances which will result in the judgment and
destruction of evil.

1 2 3 4 2. I believe I can have the personal presence of God in
my life.

1 2 3 4 3. I believe that there are certain required duties to
maintaining a strong Christian life-style (i.e.,
prayer, doing good deeds, and helping others).

1 2 3 4 4. I believe that it is possible to have a personal
relationship with God through Christ.

1 2 3 4 5. I believe that by following the teachings of Jesus
Christ and incorporating them into my daily life, I
receive such things as peace, confidence, and hope.

1 2 3 4 6. I believe that God raised Jesus from the dead.

1 2 3 4 7. I believe that God will judge me for all my actions
and behaviors.

1 2 3 4 8. I believe that by submitting myself to Christ, He
frees me to obey him in a way I never could before.

1 2 3 4 9. I believe in miracles as a result of my confidence
in God to perform such things.

1 2 3 4 10. Because of God's favor to us, through Jesus Christ,
we are no longer condemned by God's laws.

1 2 3 4 11. Because of my personal commitment to Jesus Christ, I

have eternal 1i fe.

147

hi

A!

A)

A)

12. The only means by which I may know God is through my
personal commitment to Jesus Christ.

13. I believe that everyone's life has been twisted by
sin and that the only adequate remedy to this
problem is Jesus Christ.

14. I am concerned that my behavior and speech reflect
the teachings of Christ.

15. I respond positively (with patience, kindness,
self-control) to those peeple who hold negative
feelings toward me.

16. I do kind things regardless of who's watching me.

17. Status and mterial possessions are not of primary
importance to me.

18. I do not accept what I hear in regard to religious
beliefs without first questioning the validity of
it.

19. I strive to have good relationships with peOple even
though their beliefs and values may be different
than mine .

20. It is important to me to conform to Christian
standards of behavior.

21. I am most influenced by people whose beliefs and
values are consistent with the teachings of Christ.

22. I respect and obey the rules and regulations of the
civil authorities which govern me.

23. I show respect towards Christians.
24. I share things that I own with Christians.

25. I share the same feelings Christians do whether it
be happiness or sorrow.

26. I'm concerned about how my behavior affects
Christians.

27. I speak the truth with love to Christians.

28. I work fer Christians without expecting recognition
or acknowledgements.

29. I am concerned about unity among Christians.
148

1 2 3 4 30. I enjoy spending time with Christians.

1 2 3 4 31. My belief, trust, and loyalty to God can be seen by
other people through my actions and behavior.

1 2 3 4 32. I can see daily growth in the areas of knowledge of
Jesus Christ, self-control, patience, and virtue.

1 2 3 4 33. Because of my love fer God, I obey his commandments.

1 2 3 4 34. I attribute my accomplishments to God's presence in
my life.

1 2 3 4 35. I realize a need to admit my wrongs to God.

1 2 3 4 36. I have told others that I serve Jesus Christ.

1 2 3 4 37. I have turned from my sin and believed in Jesus
Christ.

1 2 3 4 38. I daily use and apply what I have learned by

following Jesus Christ.

Basset, Rodney L., Sadler, Ronald D., Kobischen, Eric E., Skiff, David
14., Merrill, Ivy J., Atwater, Barbara J., & Livermore, Paul W.
(1981). The Shepherd Scale: separating the sheep from the goats.
Journal of Psychology and Theology, 9, 335-351.

149

PERSON/ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION SCALE

Please answer the following statements giving your best response to each
statement. Remember, your answers will be kept confidential. ‘Your
honest answers have an important impact on the quality of this project.

Please circle one response fer each statement from among the following
categories:

1 - Strongly Disagree
2 — Disagree

3 - No Opinion

4 - Agree

5 - Strongly Agree

1 2 3 4 5 1. Since coming to this college I have
develOped close personal relationships with
other students.

1 2 3 4 5 2. The student friendships I have developed at
this college have been personally
satisfying.

1 2 3 4 5 3. My interpersonal relationships with other
students have had a positive influence on my
personal growth, attitudes, and values.

1 2 3 4 5 4. My interpersonal relationships with other
students have had a positive influence on my
intellectual growth and interest in ideas.

1 2 3 4 5 5. It has been difficult for me to meet and
make friends with other students.

1 2 3 4 S 6. Few of the students I know would be willing
to listen to me and help me if I had a
personal problem.

3 2 3 4 5 7. Most students at this college have values
and attitudes different from my own.

1 2 3 4 S 8. My nonclassroom interactions with faculty
have had a positive influence on my personal
growth, values, and attitudes.

1 2 3 4 S 9. My nonclassroom interactions with faculty
have had a positive influence on my
intellectual growth and interest in ideas.

1 2 3 4 S 10. My nonclassroom interactions with faculty

have had a positive influence on my career
goals and aspirations.

‘150

a...

u‘

5.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

170

18.

‘90

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

Since coming to this college, I have
deve10ped a close, personal relationship
with at least one faculty member.

I am satisfied with the Opportunities to
meet and interact informally with faculty
members.

Few of the faculty members I have had
contact with are generally interested in
students.

Few of the faculty members I have had
contact with are generally outstanding or
superior teachers.

Few of the faculty members I have had
contact with are willing to spend time
outside of class to discuss issues of
interest and importance to students.

Most of the faculty I have had contact with
are interested in helping students grow in
more than just academic areas.

Most faculty members I have had contact with
are genuinely interested in teaching.

I am satisfied with the extent of my
intellectual develOpment since enrolling in
this college.

My academic experience has had a positive
influence on my intellectual growth and
interest in ideas.

I am satisfied with my academic experience
at this college .

Few of my courses this year have been
intellectually stimulating.

My interest in ideas and intellectual
matters has increased since coming to this
college.

I am more likely to attend a cultural event
(for example, a concert, lecture, or art
show) now than I was before coming to this
college.

I have performed academically as well as I
anticipated I would.

151

'77?

 

 

25.

26.

28.

29.

30.

It is important for as to gaduate from
college.

I am confident that I made the right
decision in choosing to attend this college.

It is likely that I will register at this
college next fall.

It is not important to me to graduate from
this college.

I have no idea at all what I want to major
in.

Getting good grades is not important to me.

Pascarella, Ernest T., & Terenzini, Patrick T. (1980). Predicting
freshman persistence and voluntary drapout distinctions from a
Journal of'Higher Education, 21, 60-75.

theoretical model.

152

 

 

 

 

APPEND IX C

Tinto's Model of Attrition

m

 

t‘m-

 

 

TINTO'S MODEL OF ATTRITION

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Audi-tea

l

Commitments Academic System Commitments
FT.“
to e I .
I" ormance T
anL\ r-----1 l 1::lleetual Ii...” 1:1;aI:n\ r——---.-:
I—r—i H [—2.7 PM Development | \1 W '
i Commits-en | L- _-_J I Communion ' .
W14 ‘4 I -__1 _______ I‘ . T...
.,__, I“ _ _,__ "1' "1:2
I I l_ ‘1

l
institutional, guiltllenal I
Commitment I.‘ I I'moCroup I (J mm lemon! 1

Manon// L...___._J AI interactions L—F‘ Social y L_____._j

, 1 Faculty I

interactions I

L__-_J

Social System

 

 

 

Ll

 

 

 

1.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Tinto, Vincent. (1975). Dropout from Higher Education:
A theoretical synthesis of recent research. Review
of Educational Research, 45, 89-125.

153

 

 

:1

 

APPENDIX D

Project Approval Form from the University Committee on

Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS)

 

.‘iiCHIGi

 

EWBUYC
ems sum
in mm H
on am:

May 3

ThnOI
Spnng
Spnn;

Dear

81}

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UCIK

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Ce 1

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

 

mm COMMITTEE ON RESEARCH INVOLVING EAST LANSING 0 MICHIGAN 0 48824-1111
HUMAN SUBJECTS (UCIIHSI

I“ BEIKEY HALL

(”D 393-973.

May 3, 1988

Timothy Bcuthin
Spring Arbor Station #2 "739,
Spring Arbor, MI 49283 ,- I

Dear Mr. Beuthin:
SUBJECT: "A STUDY OF SPADY AND TINTO'S MODEL OF STUDENT

DEPARTURE IN A RESIDENTIAL LIBERAL ARTS, - .
CHURCH-AFFILIATED COLLEGE m2" ; '

 

Ll
UCRIHS' review of the above referenced project has now been com lcted. I am pleased to
advise that since the reviewers' comments have been satisfactorily a dressed, the

conditional approval given by the Committee at its March 7, 1988 meeting has been now
changed to ful approval.

You are reminded that UCRII—IS approval is valid for one calendar year. If you plan to

continue this project beyond one year, please make provisions for obtaining appropriate
UCRIHS approval prior to March 7, 1989.

Any changes in procedures involvin human subjects must be reviewed by the UCRIHS

prior to initiation of the change. U RIHS must also be notified promptly of any problems

(unexpected side effects, complaints, etc.) involving human subjects during the course of
the work.

Thank you for bringing this project to our attention. If we can be of any future help, please
do not esitate to let us know.

Sinccrcl ,
Y , /‘
w /
John K. Hudzik, PhD.
Chair, UCRIHS
JKH/sr

cc: L. Hckhuis

 

154

MSU is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution

 

BIBL IOGRAPHY

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aitken, Norman D. (1982). College student performance,
satisfaction, and retention. Journal of Higher

 

 

Astin, Alexander W. (1964). Personal and environmental
factors associated with college dropouts among high
aptitude students. Journal of Educational Psychology,
§§, 219-227.

Basset, Rodney L., Sadler, Ronald D., Kobischen, Eric E.,
Skiff, David M., Merrill, Ivy J., Atwater, Barbara J.,
& Livermore, Paul W. (1981). The Shepherd Scale:
separating the sheep from the goats. Journal of
Psychology and Theology, 2, 335-351.

 

Beal, Philip E., 5 Noel, Lee. (1980). What works in
student retention. Iowa City and Boulder, CoIorado:
American College Testing Program and National Center
for Higher Education Management Systems.

Bean, John P. (1980). Dropouts and turnover: A synthesis
and test of a causal model of student attrition.
Research in Higher Education, l2, 155-187.

Bean, John P. (1982). Conceptual models of student
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