PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove thts checkout ftom your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before duo duo. DATE DUE ‘ DATE DUE DATE DUE ll gm. 3 j r l' ' __JL_I- MSU In An Affirmdivo Action/Equal Opponunny Institution CWWT FEASIBILITY ANE’QUAIITY'ENEIUQETON’OF FUIIX'CDOKED, INDIVIDUAILK QUICK FROZEN (IQF) DRY BEANS By Julie Anne Beamarchais A.THESIS Submitted.to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER.OF SCIENCE Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition 1989 ABSTRACT FEASIBIIITY AND QUAIIITY EVAIUATION OF FULLY (DOKED, INDIVIIIJALIX QJICK FROZEN (IQF) m BEANS BY Julie Anne Beaumarchais Research was conducted to evaluate the potential for commercial preparation of fully cooked, individually quick frozen (IQF) kidney beans. through a series of processing studies, factors which influence final product quality characteristics were examined. Differential product quality resulted from bean soaking and cooking paraIIBters. Manipulation of these factors damnstrated potential for optimization of bean hydration and softening while IQF freezing resulted in minor physical changes. Differential buffered pH (range 3.0 to 8.0) soak and cook media resulted in significant color, textural and hydration changes of the cooked bean. Sensory characteristics of fully cooked IQF kidney beans compared favorably to canned beans when evaluated for color, appearance, texture and overall acceptability in a chili mix. mks of these soldier indicate that the preparation of highly acceptable fully cooked and frozen bean products are technically feasible and that various processing strategies are available to modify SpeCific characteristics of the bean. To the memory of my grandparents, Marion Cnaplow and Anton Machiorlatti who inspired me. iii ACIWCJWLEIEEMENI‘S My thesis work could not even have been completed without the professional assistance and guidance from my committee members Drs. Cash, Haines and Hosfield. 'Iheir counsel allowed me to progress and develop throughout my graduate studies . Sincerearriwarmtharflcsgoestomypeers fortheirunconditional support and friendship. We endured the rough stretches and celebrated the rewarding moments together. You have influenced my life. I would like to recognize one individual especially for her endurance and positive outlook. Lisa, you will always be a friend. My deepest appreciation is dedicated to my major professor, Dr. Mark Uebersax. I extend my gratitude for his unending efforts toward guiding my progress as a graduate student. The opportunities he has givenmewentbeyondtheboundsofastandardgraduateprogram. I My parents, Joseph and Joan and my sister, Jennifer have been supportive of my work throughout my life and deserve my genuine and loving recognition. My husband, David has shared his enduring patience and infinite generositywithmesothatlmay reachthisgcal. Iwishtothankhim for the sacrifices he has made and the support he provided me. I could never had completed this without him. iv TABLEOFGJN'I'EN'I‘S LIST OF TABLES ....................................................... viii LIST op FIGURES ...................................................... xi LIST OF EQUATIONS .................................................... vx INIROIIJCI‘ION ......................................................... 1 II'IERAIURE REVIEW .................................................... 3 Dry Beans .......................................................... 3 Dry Bean Composition ............................................. 3 Protein ........................................................ 3 Lipid .......................................................... 6 Carbohydrate ................................................... 7 Vitamins ....................................................... 8 Minerals ....................................................... 10 Freezing of Food ................................................... 12 History .......................................................... 12 'meor'y of Freezing ............................................... 15 Time and Rate of Food Freezing ard mawjng ....................... 24 Food Quality Changes Daring the Freezing Process ----------------- 26 Effects of Frozen Storage ........................................ 31 Effects of Postfreezing/Handling of Foods ------------------------ 32 Methods of Food Freezing ......................................... 33 Economies of Freezing ............................................ 37 'Ihe Need for Frozen Food ......................................... 37 MATERIAL AND MEI'HOIB . . ............................................... 39 Materials and Handling ............................................. 39 Source of Beans .................................................. 39 Dry Bean Storage ................................................. 39 Methodology ........................................................ 40 Dry Bean EValuation Prior to Processing .......................... 40 Color .......................................................... 40 Moisture ....................................................... 40 Processed Bean Evaluation ........................................ 41 Weight Gain .................................................... 41 Color .......................................................... 47- Texture ........................................................ 42 Moisture ........................................................ 42 Soak and Cook Water Analysis ..................................... Soluble Solids ................................................. Total Sol ids .................................................. Experimental Procedure - Study I: The effect of soak method, cook temperature, duration and storage on the quality of fully cooked dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. ................................. Processing of Beans .............................................. Soaking. ........................................................ Overnight .................................................... Rapid ........................................................ Cooking .................................... . ................... Soaked, Cooked and Frozen Bean Sample Acquistion .............. Soaked Beans ................................................ Cooked Beans ............. . .................................. Cooked and Frozen Beans ...................................... Soaked, Cooked and/or Frozen Bean Evaluation ................... Experimental Procedure - Study II: The effect of soak/cook media pH on the quality of fully cooked dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. . .. Sample Preparation ............................................... Buffer Preparation . . . . ........................................... Soak/Cook Buffers .............................................. Processing Treatments ........................................... Soaan ........................................................ Cooking ........................................................ Soaked and Cooked Bean E\raluation ................................ Cook Water Spectral Analysis ..................................... Experimental Procedure - Study III: Objective and subjective evaluation of the quality attributes of comercially canned and fully cooked IQF light red kidney beans. ......................... A. Conmercial Plant Trials Location ...................................................... Bean Handling Prior to Processing .............................. Processing Scheme .............................. . .............. Soaking. ..................................................... Dewaterlng of Soaked Beans . . . ........... . .................... Cooking ...................................................... Cooling ........................................... . .......... Dewatering of Cooked, Cooled Beans ........................... Freezing ..................................................... Post-Freezing Handling ....................................... Bean and Water Sample Handling ............................... vi 43 44 45 44 44 44 44 47 47 47 47 48 48 48 48 48 48 49 49 49 52 52 54 54 54 54 54 54 S4 56 56 56 58 58 58 B. Objective EValuation ......................................... 5 9 IQF Fully Cooked Bean Evaluation ............................. 5 9 Canned Bean Evaluation ....................................... 59 C. Sensory Evaluation .......................................... 60 Sample Preparation for Sensory Evaluation .................... 61 Chili Preparation ............................................ 61 Sensory Evaluation . .......................................... 61 Triangle Test .............................................. 64 Hedonic Analysis ........................................... 64 Statistical Analysis .............................................. 65 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .............................................. 66 Study I - ‘Ihe effect of soak method, cooking temperature and duration, and freezing on the quality characteristics of processed dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. ...................................... .. 66 SOAKING .......................................................... 66 CDOKENG .......................................................... 72 Weight gain .................................................. 72 Texture ...................................................... 85 Percent Moisture ............................................. 88 Color . . . . ............. . ...................................... 93 StudyII-‘Iheinfluenceofsoakandcookmediapnonthe quality characteristics of soaked and cooked dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. .......................................................... 100 Study III - Objective and subjective evaluation of the quality attributes of commercially canned and IQF fully cooked light red kimm. eeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 12]. SUPMARY AND (INCLUSION ............................................. 125 APPENDICES ............ . ............................................ 127 LIST OF REFERENCES .................................................. 159 vii IIST OF TABLES Table 1. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Proximate analysis of all varieties of kidney beans. Vitamin analysis of all varieties of kidney beans. Mineral analysis of all varieties of kidney beans. Food products that have been successfully frozen by fluidized bed freezing systems. Citrate buffer formulation, target and actual pH values . Phosphate buffer formulation, target and actual pH values. Cooking times of beans processed at commercial plant demonstration trials . Listing, quantity and preparation of ingredients for chili used in the sensory evaluation of locallly purchased canned and IQF fully cooked light red kidney beans. Mean and standard deviation values for quality characteristics of dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans as influenced by soak treatment and freezing. Mean and standard deviation values for weight gain (9) of dark redkidney (Montcalm) beansas influencedbycookingtime (minutes) and cooking temperature ( °.C) Mean and standard deviation values for texture of dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans as influenced by cooking time (minutes) and cooking temperature ( °.C) Mean and standard deviation values for % moisture of dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans as influenced by cooking time (minutes) and cooking temperature ( °.C) Mean and standard deviation values for Hunter Iab color L coordinate of dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans as influenced by cooking time (minutes) and cooking temperature ( °.C) Mean and standard deviation values for Hunter Lab color aL coordinate of dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans as influenced by cooking time (minutes) and cooking temperature ( °.C) viii 15. 16. 17 . 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. Mean and standard deviation values for Hunter Iab color bL coordinate of dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans as influenced by cooking time (minutes) and cooking temperature (0C). Mean and standard deviation values for quality characteristics of dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans, rapid soaked (lOOOC/l m: 11: static) and cooked (95°C/120m) , as influenced by pH of soak and cook medias. Mean and standard deviation values for Hunter Iab Color coordinates (L, as, bL) of dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans, rapid soaked (100 C/l m: 1h static) and cooked (950C/120m), as influencedbypHofsoakandcookmedias. Color characteristics of cooked dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans as influencedbypHofsoakandcookmedias. The relationship of wavelengths to colors and visible radiation. Mean and standard deviation values for sensory evaluation of light red kidney beans as influenced by canning or freezing. Analysis of variance for quality characteristics of dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans as influenced by soak treatment and freezing. Analysis of variance (mean squares) for quality characteristics ofdarkredkideny (Montcalm) beansasinfluencedbycookingtime (minutes) and cooking temperature (0C). Analysis of variance (mean squares) for quality characteristics of dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans as influenced by soak treatment (overnight: 200C/12h; rapid: IOOOC/lm: 1h static) and cooking time (minutes). Analysis of variance (mean squares) for quality characteristics of dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans as influenced by soaking treatment (overnight: 200C/12h; rapid: loOOC/lm; 1h static) and cooking temperature (0C) . Anal is of variance for quality characteristics of rapid soaked (100 C/lm: 1h static) and cooked (950C/120m) dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans as influenced by pH of soak and cook medias. Mean values for % moisture and Hunter Iab color coordinatcs (L, aL, bL) of three classes (small red, dark red kidney and pink) beans as influenced by commercial soak, cook, cool and IQF treatments. ix 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. Mean valucs for % moisture and Hunter Lab color coordinates (L, aL, bL) of lightredkidneyandsmallredbeansasinfluencedby connercial soak (0.3% citric acid), cook, cool and IQF treatments. Determined values of total and soluble solids in water used to soak, cockandcool darkredkidney, smallredandpinkbeans prior to commercial IQF processing. Determined values of total and soluble solids in water (0.3% citric acid) used to soak, cook and cool dark red kidney, small red and pink beans prior to commercial IQF processing. Mean values of objective evaluation of locally purchased, canned light red kidney beans. Analysis of variance for sensory evaluation of light red kidney beans as influenced by canning or freezing. LIST OF FIGURES Figure 10. 11. Dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) seed: (A) external side view: (B) edge view; (C) embryo opened view (Salunkhe et al. , 1985) . Representative curves of food temperature during freezing: (1) surface temperature: (2) temperature at thermal center; (3) zone of maximum ice crystal formation; (4) supercooling: (5) equilibration tenperature (adapted from IIR, 1986) . Schematic of freezing of food tissue: (a) unfrozen tissue: (b) sane tissue after slow freezing with one very large ice crystal between dehydrated, shrunken cells: (c) sane tissue after very rapid freezing with many small ice crystals between and inside cells (adapted from Boegh-Soerensen and Jul, 1985) . Representative thawing curve for a food (Bcegh-Soerensen and Jul , 1985). Processing design for Study I: The effect of soak method, cook teuperatmre and duration and freezing on the quality characteristics of processed dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. Sample treatment and quality evaluation design for Study I: ‘Ihe effect of soak nethod, cook temperature and duration and freezing on the quality characteristics of processed dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans . Process and evaluation design for Study II: The influence of soak and cook media pH in the quality characteristics of soaked and cooked dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans . Process design for the fully cooked, IQF bean component of Study III: Objective and subjective evaluation of the quality attributes of commercially canned and IQF fully cooked light red kidney beans. The effect of soak treatment on weight gain (grams) of dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. The effect of soak treatment and freezing on the percent moisture of dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. The effect of soak treatment and freezing on texture (conpressability: kg force/1009 beans) of dark red kidney (Montcalm)beans xi 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. The effect of soak treatment and freezing on the Hunter Iab Color L value of dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. TheeffectofsoaktreatnentardfreezingonthemmterIabOolor 3L value of dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. The effect of soak treatment and freezing on the Hunter Iab Color bL value of dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. The influence of cooking tenperature and time on the weight gain of "overnight" soaked kidney beans (mean over nonfrozen and frozen samples, n=6) . Theinflueree ofcookingtemperatureardtime ontheweightgain of "rapid" soaked kidney beans (nean over nonfrozen and frozen samples, n=6) . Theinfluenceofcookingtenpera’wreandtineonthetexture (coupressibility: kg force/1009 beans) of "overnight" soaked kidney beans (mean over nonfrozen and frozen samples, n=6) . Theinfluenceofcookingtenperatureandtineonthetexture (compressibility: kg force/100g beans) of "rapid" soaked kidney beans (nean over nonfrozen and frozen samples, n=6) . Theinfluenceofcookingtenperatureandtineonthepercent moisture of "overnight" soaked kidney beans (mean over nonfrozen and frozen sanples, n=6) . The influence of cooking tenperature and time on the percent moisture of "rapid" soaked kidney beans (mean over nonfrozen and frozen samples, n=6) . Effect of media pH on weight gain of soaked and cooked dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans (initial bean weight = 1009 bean solids = 114.79 beans, fwb) . xii 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. Weightgainccmparisonofsoakedandcookeddarkredkidrey (Montcalm) beanstreatedwithsamepHsoakandcookmedia (initial bean weight = 100g bean solids = 114.7g beans, fwb) . Effect of media pH on hydration ratio of soaked and cooked dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. Effect of media pH on percent moisture of cooked dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. Effect of media pH on textmre (compressability measured as kg force/100g beans) of cooked dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. The influence of cock media pH on the interrelationship between percent moisture and texture (compressability measured as kg force/100g beans) of dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. The influence of cock media pH on the interrelationship between weight gain (grams) and texture (compressability) measured as kg force/100g beans) of dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. Effect of media pH on Hunter Lab Color L values of soaked and cooked dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans . Effect of media pH on Hunter Iab Color aL values of soaked and cooked dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. Effect of media pH onHunter Iab Colorvaalues of soaked and cooked dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. The influence of cookmediapHon deltaEvalues forcookeddark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. Relationship between the absorbance (492nm) of dark red kidney (Montcalm) bean cook media and its pH. Spectral curves corresponding to the Hunter Iab Color coordinates (L, aL, by) of dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans cooked in various pH's (#10; B=4.0; C=5.0; D=6.0; E=7.0: F=8.0). Comparison of sensory attributes of canned and frozen light red kidney beans using a hedonic scale (color intensity: 1 = v. light, 7 = v. dark: appearance: 1 = v. dull/grainy, 7 = v. shiny/smooth: texture: l = v. soft/mushy, 7 = v. firm/crunchy; overall acceptability: xiii LIST OF EQUATIONS Equation 1. Calculation of fresh bean weight equal to desired solids. 2 . calculation of bean weight gain. 3. Calculation of force (kg) required to compress per sample size (grams). 4. Calculation of percent moisture of cooked, canned or frozen bean sample. ivx INTROIIICI‘ION Dry edible beans are an agricultural commodity produced in Michigan, shipped out of state in a dry condition and the majority processed as a canned product within major population centers. This presentsystemhaslimited in-statevalueaddedtoMichigangrown beans. The popularity of the food service industry and its subsequent expanding menu has contributed to an increased labor sensitivity and a minimal preparation requirement for their numerous menu item. Demandsonthefoodserviceindustrytomaintainhighqualitywitha decreased potential for highly trained personnel indicate the increased reliance on centrally processed products. The Michigan fruit and vegetable freezing industry has noted high capacity individually quick frozen (IQF) freezer tunnels and frozen storage facilities. The objective of this thesis was to investigate the feasibility of developing a fully cooked IQF kidney bean product that could acceptably be substituted for canned beans in food products. Study I was conducted to evaluate the effects of soak treatment, cooking time, cooking terperature and freezing on selected quality characteristics (weight gain, color, texture and percent moisture) of kidney beans . This investigation was to determine the relative importance of the different processing parameters on the quality of cooked beans. An objective of this study was to identify and 2 recommend alternative processing parameters that would result in bean products with cmparable quality attributes. The effect of bean soak and cook media pH on quality characteristics was investigated in StudyII. Foodproductsaresusceptibletochanges ianwhichcan result in physical and chemical quality variations. It was expected that results of this study could be applied to processing methods which would increase production efficiency while maintaining consistent, acceptable quality of a fully cooked bean product. Subjective methodology was erployed in Study III to rate the quality of fully cooked IQF kidney beans produced under plant demonstration trials and commercially canned kidney beans in a chili mix. The organoleptic qualities of a food product are obviously important in the marketability and acceptance of the product by consumers. Themainobjectiveofthistestwastodetermine ifthe acceptability of fully cooked IQF kidney beans was comparable to cannedkidneybeansasaningredientinafoodmixture. lIhedevelopmerrtofafullycookedIQFbeanproductwouldincrease the in-state bean processing and diversification of the bean industry. Resultsofthisresearchcouldenablebroaduseofthisbeanproduct for wholesale and retail markets. we to economic constraints on the food service industry coupled with excess processing potential in the State of Michigan, this research is therefore warranted. IITERA'I‘UREREVIEW IRY BEANS The Iegmminosae family includes roughly 600 genera with approximately 13,000 species of seeds each differing in color, size, shape and seed coat thickncss. Excluding peanuts and soybeans, only 15 to 20 of these genera are important ecoiomically (Bressani, 1975; Bressani and Elias, 1980: and Salurflche et al., 1985) . Wig! Thegeneralseedstructureofdryseedsofcommonbean (Phaseolus vulgaris L. is similar among the broad array of commercial classes (Figure 1). One of the major physical structures of the common bean includes the seed coat which serves to protect, attract and provide nutrients to the developing embryo. The cotyledon serves as the energy reserve for the germinating plant. There are minor physical structures (micropyle and nilum) that are believed to be involved in water absorption. The remainder of the seed is composed of structures that are prominent during germination. The proximate analysis of all cultivars of kidney beans is shown in Table 1. min legumes are good sources of protein with crude contents rangingfromZOtoZSpercentonadryweightbasis (Tobinand Carpenter, 1978: Koehler and Burke, 1981) . A broader range for Coty lode“ [Snead ~_ Rodoclc Figure 1. Dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) seed: (A) external side view; (B) edge view; (C) embryo Opened View (Salunkhe et al., 1985). Table 1. Proximate analysis1 of all varieties of kidney beans. Proximate raw cooked canned water(g) 11.8 66.9 78.0 food energy(kcal) 333.0 127.0 81.0 protein(g) 23.6 8.7 5.2 total lipid(g) 0.8 0.5 0.3 carbohydrate, tota1(g) 60.0 22.8 14.9 crude fiber(g) 6.2 2.8 1.0 ash(g) 3.8 1.1 1.7 lUSDA (1986) 6 protein contert of dry beans (P. vulgaris) representing diverse genetic populations has been reported to be within the range of 18 to 29 percent (Varriano-Marston and DeOmana, 1979: Hosfield and Uebersax, 1980) . The protein content of raw, cooked and canned kidney beans is sham in Table 1. The amino acid profile of the protein of legumes demonstrates that they are lacking methionine but contain an adequate balance of lysine which is the amino acid lacking in cereals. In developing countries itiscormontoconsxmeafoodccmposedoflegtmesarrlcerealgrains to derive a more cotplete protein that contains a balanced amino acid profile. There are several antinutritional factors found in seeds of P. vulgaris which include trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors, hemagglutinins (lectins) , phytates, polyphenols , cyanogenic compounds, oestrogens , goiterogens , saponins , allergens and antivitamins (Bressani, 1975) . Heating legumes results in improved protein digestibility since the numerous antixmtritional factors inherent in legumes are heat sensitive (Bressani, 1975) although, nutritioial qualitymustbepreservedthroighminimalthermaldegradationard leaching during preparation. Lipid The lipid content of P. vulgaris L species is generally less than two percent. The lipid content of raw, cooked and canned kidney beans is presented in Table 1. The lipid component is corposed of three major classes. The predominant type of lipid are the neutral lipids are the predominant type of lipid material and comprose approximately 60 percent of the total lipids (Sahasrabudhe et al. , 7 1981) . The second class of lipids are phospholipids which comprise 24 to 35 percent of the lipid (Sathe et al., 1984). Ten percent of the lipid content of legume seeds is cotprised of glycol ipids (Sathe et al., 1984) . Minor contributors to the total lipid content of legumes are cerebrosides and other sphingosine containing lipids (Goodwin and Mercer, 1985) . The fatty acids of legume lipids are highly unsaturated. The general corpositional breakdown of fatty acids is 19 percent saturated (mainly palmitic) , 64 percent unsaturated (oleic, linoleic and linolenic) and seven percent nonsaponifiable matter (Kay, 1979) . Carbohyd_rate The carbohydrate component constitutes the majority byweight ofthe legume seed, accounting foruptoGSpercent (cowpeas) on a dry weight basis (Reddy et al., 1984) . The total carbohydrate content of raw, cooked and canned kidney beans is presented in Table 1. Starch, predominantly in the form of amylose is the major carbohydrate component of the dry bean. The temperature of gelatinization of legume starch ranges from 66°C to greater than 77°C (Naivikul and D'Appolonia, 1979) . The starch component greatly contributes to cooked bean product characteristics and may be accountable for the varying quality between and within different classes of legumes. Other carbohydrate components of legumes are pentosans (8.4 percent), dextrins (3.7 percent), cellulose (3.1 percent), sugars (1.6 percent) and galactans (1.3 percent) (Kay, 1979). Total soluble sugars are comprised of mono- and 01 igosaccharides with the raffinose group being the most dominant, ranging from 31 to 76 percent (Rockland 8 et al., 1979; Reddy and Salunkhe, 1980; Sathe and Salunkhe, 1981) . Included in the oligosaccharides of dry beans are raffinose, stachyose, verbascose and aj ugose with stachyose having the highest content in P. vulgaris L. Several researchers (Reddy et al., 1984: Tobin and Carpenter, 1978) have reported that the dietary fiber composition of bean seeds ranges from 15 to 22.5 percent. The USDA indicates that there are 5.22 grams of crude fiber and 9.7 grams of dietary fiber in 100 grams of raw navy beans (USDA, 1986) . Theamotmtofcrude fiberinraw, cookedandcannedkidneybeansis listed in Table 1. Research by Jeltema and coworkers (1983) found that the flour from navy bean hulls was composed of the following types and amounts of dietary fiber: water soluble pentose (1.13 percent), pectin (8.96 percent), water insoluble hemicellulose (18.00 percent), cellulose (5.81 percent) and lignin (1.03 percent). 17% Dry beans provide trace amounts of the fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) but contribute significant amounts of thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, folic acid and pyridoxine to the diet. During the conventional soaking and cooking preparation of dry beans, some water soluble nutrients are leached. The results of processing on vitamin content of kidney beans is depicted in Table 2 . The proportion of nutrient lost to the processing water is dependent on the individual Table 2. Vitamin analysis1 of all varieties of kidney beans. Vitamin raw cooked canned ascorbic acid(mg) 4.5 1.2 1.2 thiamin(mg) 0.5 0.2 0.1 riboflavin(mg) 0.2 0.1 0.1 niacin(mg) 2.1 0.6 0.5 pantothenic acid(mg) 0.8 0.2 0.1 vitamin B6(mg) 0.4 0.1 0.1 folacin(mcg) 394.1 129.6 49.2 vitamin B12(mcg) 0.0 0.0 0.0 vitamin A(IU) 8.0 0.0 0.0 lUSDA (1986) 10 nutrient, soak duration, composition of water used and the duration and temperature of cooking. Percent retention values typically fall in the range of 70 to 80 percent (Augustin et al., 1981) . Minerals Environmental influences as well as genetic factors contribute to the wide ranging mineral content of dry beans (Salunkhe et al., 1985) . The mineral content of kidney beans is listed in Table 3. Minerals found in dry beans include calcitmm, potassitmm, copper, iron, zinc and magnesium. Potassiumm is the mineral in most abundance, rangingfromZStoBOpercentofthetotalmireralcontemtofthe bean. Beans are also good sources of calcium and phosphorus though, phytic acid is the largest sink for phosphorus and thus, adversely affects the absorption and utilization of calcium (Sallmldle et al. , 1985). Minerals have varied susceptibility to leaching during dry bean soaking and cooking. Several researchers (Meiners et al., 1976: Augustin et al., 1981: Koehler and Burke, 1981) found that retention values differed. Generally, minerals were retained in the cooked bean atthe80to90percentlevelascomparedtotherawbean. 11 Table 3. Mineral analysis1 of all varieties of kidney beans. Mineral2 raw cooked canned calcium 143 28.0 27.0 iron 8.2 2.9 1.2 magnesium 140 45.0 31.0 phosphorus 407 142 105 potassium 1406 403 257 sodium 24 2.0 347 zinc 2.8 1.1 0.6 copper 1.0 0.2 0.2 manganese 1.0 0.5 0.2 lUSDA (1986) 2mg/lOOg edible portion 12 w Freezing is a method of food preservation which involves the following phases: prefreezing treatments, freezing, frozen storage and thawing. As long as each step is done correctly, freezing is generally recognized as the best method for extending the shelf life of food when sensory attributes and nutrient levels are considered (Fennema, 1975). However, throughout the freezing process, fresh productqualityisdiminished, inscmefoodsmorethanothers. Product composition attributes altered by freezing include: color, flavor, texture and nutritional quality. Although quality losses do occur in the freezing of food, in most cases, the benefits derived outweigh the slight loss of fresh product quality. Egg-y: Freezing is one of the oldest methods of food preservation dating back to prehistoric times (Potter, 1978) . The first food freezing system, "weather freezing" took advantage of the subfreezing temperatures of northern climates and preserved fish and meatbysimplyallowingthe foodtoremainoutintheweather (Enochian, 1968). By the 18th century, man had concocted 10 to 15 "frigoric" mixtures known to produce a cold bath, including a mixture of calcium chloride and snow which made possible temperatures down to -2.78°c, which were introduced for commercial use (Enochian and Woolrich, 1977). The first records indicating artificial freezing of food date back to 1865 when fish was frozen by being placed in pans surrounded by ice and salt (Enochian, 1968). During the late 1800s the invention of mechanical ammonia refrigeration systems were first applied to 13 freezing fish. ‘Iherewasadelayintheuseofmechanical refrigeration to freeze food immediately due to the lack of refrigerated warehousing facilities, a principal requisite for any refrigerated or frozen food industry (Potter, 1978) . Frozen fish and pmltrywerethefirstpopularccmmoditiestobeshippedbyrailroad in the U.S. Unfortunately for the retailer and consumer, store and household refrigerators did not exist in large numbers until the 1920s. This caused frozen food deliveries to stores to thaw before it could be brought home or once home, thawed in household ice boxes and generally was of marginal to poor quality (Potter, 1978) . Camercial freezing of small fruits and berries originated in the eastern U.S. around 1905. Vegetables were not commercially frozen until 1917 , yet product quality was poor due to enzymatic action and subsequent off odors, flavors and general product deterioration (Man, 1968). Not until 1929, did research demonstrate that it was necessary to briefly heat treat or blanch vegetables prior to freezing to inactivate enzymatic action and diminish product deterioration (Enochian and Woolrich, 1977). Clarence E. Birdseye entered the field of freezing preservation of food in the 19205. His research was extensive in the area of freezing and included: development of quick freezing methods, freezing equipment, frozen products and frozen food packaging. 'Ihrough his findings, manyimprovementsweremade intheindustryandthe beginnings of modern frozen food industry were initiated. Birdseye also developed quick freezing of food products in consumer size packages. With the increasing availability of home refrigerators and l4 freezers, this advancement in packaging enabled a successive promotion of retail sized packages of frozen food items to the general public (Enochian, 1968) . During World War II a satisfactory procedure for concentrating citrus juices was developed. Post WW II, frozen concentrated citrus juices were the last major food commodities to be accepted by the industry as a profitable product and by consuners as a convenience item for food service and hone use (Enochian and Woolrich, 1977) . In the immediate postwar years nearly 2/3 of the citrus usage was in fresh form and 1/3 in processed form. In the 20 years following their introduction, the consumption of frozen fruit juices, principally orange juice, grew more than any other frozen fresh food category with consumption of 0.3 lbs/capita in 1946 to 29.0 lbs/capita in 1966 (Eriochian, 1968) . In particular, frozen orange juice has exhibited a tremendous growth since 1951-1955 when the per capita consumption was 11.2 lbs to 35.2 lbs in 1981-1985, a 214.3% change (U.S.D.A., 1987). The production of frozen orange juice concentrate far exceeds that of other forms of orange juice, grapefruit juice and all other blended fruit juices combined (Potter, 1978) . The consumption of citrus fruits in processed fonts increased from about 43% of total citrus fruit production in 1950 to nearly 75% in 1978. Frozen citrus juices alone forned the bulk (nearly 76%) of total fruits frozen in 1978. More than 80% of the Florida orange crop is reportedly used to produce frozen comentrate (Deshpande et al., 1982) . ‘Iheconsunerinterestinandpurchasingof frozenfoodshas increased substantially since the first inception of commercially 15 produced frozen foods. With the general introduction of frozen foods in the late 1920s, there was a protracted, yet typical time lag between the first introduction of frozen foods to the consuner and general acceptance. rIhis was probably due to a number of factors including: 1)the depressed economy during the Depression, 2)lack of capital for investing, 3) a shortage of storage and warehousing facilities, 4)consutrer prejudices, and 5) lack of product diversity and marketing channels (Ehcchian and Woolrich, 1977) . Between 1941 and 1946, frozen food production rose from 568 million pounds to 1,317 millimpan'dsardthenalfferedadecreaseduetczealcus overexpansicn. Since 1949, production of frozen foods has grown steadily (mochian, 1968). Today, the popularity of frozen foods is evident by the proportion of grocery store square footage occupied by the frozen foods section. The size of an average conventional supermarket is 10,000 to 25,000 square feet and stocks 9,000 to 11,000 different items (U.S.D.A., 1985) . Typically 447 ft2 of the floor space in conventional supermarkets is occupied by frozen food itens. The competition between food companies for shelf space and specific placement of product is intense. There are approximately 1,114 new ccnsuner sized frozen food items are introduced to the market each year (Rockwell, 1989) . Food companies vie for certain shelf position (eye level) in the frozen food section of the supermarket to aid in increasing their product's sales success. W: Four stages are involved in freezing food: 1) cooling, 2) supercocling, 3) freezing, and 4) temperature equilibrium 16 (i.e. frozen storage). The residence of the food in each stage varies with tine which in turn is influenced by many factors such as, food type, food size, initial tenperature of food, freezing nethod, storage method, etc. The fundamental form of activity of matter is the movement of the constituent particles of matter (atoms and molecules) which are oosntirnmsly in a state of agitation, either vibrating about equilibrium positions or bombarding each other. The rate of that motion is what we call tenperature (luyet, 1968; Woolrich and Novak, 1977) . ‘Ihe rate of a chemical reaction is temperature dependent and is expressed as Q10 = 2, that is, the rate of a chemical reaction generally doubles when the tenperature is raised 10°C (18°F). Primitive man unknowingly exploited this dependence of reaction rate onteuperaturewhenhecocled focdanddisccvered itspreserving effect. much of our food cannot be stored for any length of tine without loss of quality, which is in part due to microbiological, chanical , biochemical and physical processes that occur and cause deterioration. Refrigeration can play a vital role in controlling thesereactions, becausetheyareallten'peraturedependentandare retarded by depressed temperatures thus, extending the storage life of food (Boast, 1985) . There are three modes for the distribution of heat: conduction, convection and radiation. In order to lower the temperature of sone matter, contact must be made with a body of lower telrperature thus allowing the rapidly moving molecules of the warmer body to collide with the slower moving molecules of the cooler body. This interaction 17 depicts the transfer of heat from one body to another (Iuyet, 1968) . ‘Ihe process of heat removal, with consequent temperature reduction, is nottheprocess of freezingthough, itisanecessaryprerequisiteof freezing (Reid, 1983) . The process of freezing requires the controlled removal of heat from the product, at a steady uniform rate, until the heat remaining in the product is equal to its equilibrium heat after stabilization at storage temperature (Boast, 1985) . 'Ihe freezing process is complete when most of the freezable water at the thermalcenteroftheproducthasbeenconvertedtoice. ‘Ihethermel centermaybedefiredasthepointwithintheproductwhichhasthe highest tenperature at the end of the chilling or freezing process. Inhanogereousandisotropicmixtures, thethermalcenterlies inthe geometric center of the product (Ciobanu et al., 1976) . For most food products, a completely frozen state is achieved when the thermal center temperature equals that of the storage temperature. The amotmt of heat to be removed during the freezing (or the total change of enthalpy) of a food mass in largely dependent on the quantity of freezable water present (IIR, 1986) . Living cells contain water which often comprises two-thirds or more of a cell's weight. Found in this medium are organic and inorganic substances (salts, sugars and acids) in solution and complex organic molecules, such as proteins which are in colloidal suspension (Desrosier and Desrcsier, 1977) . Water contributes to increased molecular mobility and in doing so, it exerts a deteriorating effect on food similar to that of high temperature. ‘Ihe higher the water content, within limits, the faster the deterioration 18 (luyet, 1968) . Water in food exists in two states: bound water and free water. Bound water has been defined as that WhiCh does not freeze at -2o°c. three water exhibits the physical and chemical properties of liquid water and freezes according to its condition of solution (Desrosier and Desrcsier, 1977). Solutions contain a solute whidh competes fOr'water and makes water less available to be frozen and also slows the motion of water molecules and reduces the rate of diffusion (Iuyet, 1968). The freezing of pure water is accompanied.by a volume increase of 8-10% (Fennema, 1985; IIR, 1986). The volume change in.fOods as a result of ice fOrmation is about 6% due to only a part of the water present in food becoming frozen and the presence of air spaces in some food (IIR, 1986) . Supercooling also referred to as undercooling, occurs when the 'withdrawal of heat from a solution or material steadily causes a reduction of the temperature to below its initial freezing point ‘without crystallization occurring. Carerl evaluation of the freezing curve for a food under controlled conditions demonstrated first that supercooling occured, and.that.this is a Characteristic of a.product (Figure 2). Rapid.cooling to a very low temperature does not allow sufficient time for the liquid water molecules to align themselves thus, no crystalline structure forms. Ice crytallization occurs during freezing only after a degree of supercooling and the freezing process is accompanied by'a rise in temperature close to the cryoscopic (initial freezing point) temperature (IRR, 1986). crystallization is defined as the transition of water molecules in the liquid.state (i.e. random arrangement) to the solid state (i.e. 19 ordered arrangement). The more complete the change from free water to a more stable state, the better is the retention of quality in the frozen food (Desrosier and Desrcsier, 1977) . Nucleation or the addition of a stable seed (dust particle, bacteria or other foreign particle) to supercooled liquid commences immediate crystallization due to the presence of a foundation (i.e. the seed) upon which crystals may form (Reid, 1983) . Freezing is the crystallization of liquid water into the solid form of water we know as ice (Reid, 1983) . ‘ The freezing point of a solution is lower than that of a pure solvent thus, the freezing point of food is lower than that of pure water (Desrosier and Desrcsier, 1977) . From a physical stand point, foods may be considered as dilute aqueous solutions, with a freezing point below 0°C (IIR, 1986) . The "freezing point depression" 1.86 0C mol"1 liter"l means that the freezing point of a product depends on the concentration of dissolved molecules in the water phase, and not on the water content in the food (Boegh-Soerensen and Jul, 1985; IIR, 1986) . During freezing of foodstuffs, ice crystals begin to form in the liquid between the cells, and the main reason is presumably the higher freezing point of the extracellular liquid compared with the intracellular liquid (love, 1968; IIR, 1986) . As freezing proceeds, more and more water is frozen so that the residual solution becomes more and more concentrated. The extent depends on the product, the end temperature and the freezing rate (Boegh-Soerensen and Jul, 1985) . The freezing process results in ice crystals being formed inside the product, and the size, or 20 O .3. Q 3 o. E t 2 0°C (32'Fl P-- ‘ -------------------- 3 S - 18 ‘C (O ’F} r- --------------------- I F r.’ .l Holding time in Equulibraticn period (ranting apparatus Figure 2. Representative curves of food temperature during freezing: (1) surface temperature; (2) temperature at thermal center; (3) zone of maximum ice crystal formation; (4) supercooling; (5) equilibration temperature (adapted from IIR, 1986). 21 charge in size, of these crystals will determine the quality of the product upon thawing (Boast, 1935). Ice crystal growth is possible once nucleation has taken place and the rate is dependent on the rate of heat removal, the direction of heat removal (Reid, 1983) and the rate of diffusion of water from the surrounding solutions or gels to the surface of the ice crystals (IIR, 1986) . The type of crystallization units obtained with a given solute depends primarily on the cooling rate and on the concentration of the solute (Inyet, 1968) . Solution viscosity plays an important role in ice crystal propagation as well as solute behavior in the growing ice interface such as interference and/or adsorption of the solute onto the growing interface (Reid, 1983) . Many factors influence the size and shape of ice crystals. During initial freezing the interaction between nucleation and crystal growth affects size of the resultant crystals (Reid, 1983) . The number and size of the crystallization units formed in a product depends first on the rate of nucleation and the rate of crystal growth, and these in mm, depend on the cooling rate and on the concentration of the medium (Iuyet, 1968) . The amount and kind of solutes present can influence the quantity, size, structure, location and orientation of ice crystals (Fennema, 1985). The rate of freezing influences the number and size of ice crystals in food. Daring freezing of food, ice crystals begin to form in the extracellular fluid due to the lower concentration of solutes (Iove, 1968; IIR, 1986) . Rapid freezing tends to form nlmerous small, uniform ice crystals and gives the product a fine texture, whereas 22 slow freezing tends to produce few ice crystals that are large and irregularly shaped and a subsequent course product texture (Boegh— Soerensen and Jul, 1985; Desrcsier and Desrcsier, 1977; and Reid, 1983) . Figure 3 depicts the outcome of two rates of freezing of food. With rapid cooling (freezing) rates there is usually an undercocling and an increased frequency of nucleation (i.e. sensitivity to seeds) with many epicenters of crystal growth initiation formed and an accompanying increase in the number of small ice crystals (Reid, 1983) . If the product is frozen slowly, or fluctuating conditions of terperature occur during storage, ice crystals formed extracellularly grow in size thus, causing an increase in solution concentration which csmotically pulls intracellular water through membrares, leaving the cells in a partly or entirely collapsed, dehydrated state (Boegh- Soerensen and Jul, 1985; IIR, 1986) . When few, large ice crystals are form their shape ptmctures the cells and the thawed tissues cannot return to their original state due to an inability of reabsorption of the lost cellular fluid. When muscle tissue is subjected to a slow freezing rate ice crystals begin to form between fibers and the latter become dehydrated, shrink and become separated by large spaces occupied by the ice. Rapid freezing of muscle tissue facilitates the formation of nuclei within the fibers and ice spears grow before any noticeable dehydration occurs (Inyet, 1968) . For most foods, the size and distribution of ice crystals found in good commercial practice have relatively little effect on sensory quality. However, very slow freezing can result in undesirable effects like "drip" upon thawing, while very fast freezing may preserve the textural integrity of some food products (IIR, 1986). Figure 3. Schematic of freezing of food tissue: (a) unfrozen tissue; (b) same tissue after slow freezing with one very large ice crystal between dehydrated, shrunken cells; (c) same tissue after very rapid freezing with many small ice crystals between and inside cells (adapted from Boegh-Soerensen and Jul, 1985). 24 Time and Rate of Food Freez1_ng’ and Tham’ : The time to freeze a food is a result of the freezing method and/or equipment design. Certain fruits and vegetables show a markedly deteriorated texture and color with long freezing times (Ciobanu et al., 1976) . The quality and quantity of frozen foods are both influenced by factors related to the rate of freezing. The integrity of a frozen food is greatly dependent on the ice crystal number and size which, in turn, is a function of the freezing rate. The production capacity of a freezing system is directly dependent on the rate of heat removal from the product (Heldman, 1983). The freezing time of a food product is defined as the time elapsed from the start of the prefreezing stage until the final, desired temperatureisreachedatthethermalcelteroftheprcduct. The actual duration of the freezing process is dependent on several factors relating to the product to be frozen or the equipment used for freezing. The most significant factors affecting freezing times include: 1) dimensions and shape of the product, especially the thickness or diameter; 2) product initial and final temperatures; 3) tetperature of the freezing vehicle; 4) surface heat transfer (convective heat transfer) coefficient of the product; 5) change in enthalpy (internal energy): (Heldman, 1983; IIR, 1986). For a product, the freezing rate (DC/h) is the difference between the initial and the final temperature divided by the freezing time; with the local freezing rate equal to the difference between the initial temperature and the desired temperature divided by the time elapsed until the moment at which the latter temperature is achieved 25 in the particular part (IIR, 1986) . The freezing rate of the product may also be evaluated by the average speed at which the ice front progresses in the product (cm/h); the rate is faster near the surface and slower towards the center (Boegh-Soerensen and Jul, 1985; Ciobanu, et al., 1976 and; IIR, 1986a) . Having the capability to predict the freezing times of foods is an initial step in freezing system design; without this ability, process design becomes entirely dependent on laboratory and pilot scale experiments which involve higher costs (Heldman, 1983) . In the literature, there are many proposed models and methods to predict the freezing time of foods (Cleland and Earle, 1979; Cleland and Earle, 1984; Mascheronei and Calvelo, 1982; Mannapperuma and Singh, 1988) . Presently, methods for freezing time prediction can provide significantly different results and must be coupled with a verifying freezing experiment to be credible. Heldman (1983) stressed that in order to improve the use and acceptability of freez ing—time prediction methods for freezing system design, emphasis should be placed on selection and verification of a ' standard method' for freezing time prediction. A systematic procedure for assessing freezing time prediction formulas is advocated by Cleland and Earle (1984) . The overall thawing time of a product is the time elapsed from its initial frozen temperature to the point where no ice remains in the product (Boegh—Soerensen and Jul, 1985) . Negative quality consequences may result during the thawing process since it is more difficult to control than the actual freezing and frozen storage. Cleland and researchers (1986) proposed a model for predicting the 26 thawing times of foods to eeble the design, operation and control of thawing equipment to be optimized so that product quality is maintained while minimizing production costs. The thawing process can be divided into three stages: 1) heating the sol id to its thawing plateau (tempering); 2) thawing: and 3) heating the food above its thawing point. This is depicted in Figure 4. Food Qua_lit_:y C1_iames Duryg' Freezgg’ Process: As food goes through the stages of freezing: preprocessing, preblanching, blanching or cooking, freezing, frozen storage, thawing and reheating or cooking, changes occur both in the whole food and to constituents of the food. The following quality characteristics of food may be altered by the freezing process: 1) sensory properties and consumptive safety, 2) product composition and physical properties , 3) chemical and enzymatic reactions and 4) microbiological interaction and growth (Wells et al. , 1987) . In general, many of these changes in food are unavoidable and accompany the entire freezing process but are especially dependent on storage conditions, namely the combined effects of time and terperature. Through the utilization of certain commercial freezing practices adverse changes in the food. can be minimized. Preservation of food by freezing will not improve the quality of an inferior product (raw or precooked) , it can not even completely preserve present quality therefore, prefrozen product quality is of prime importance to end product quality (Iuh et al., 1975: Tub and Iorenzo, 1988) . There are many traits of raw foods that play an important role in determining frozen product quality. Factors of raw fruits and vegetables that influence frozen product quality include: 27 Time Figure 4. Representative thawing curve for a food (Boegh-Soerensen and Jul, 1985). 28 species, variety, growing conditions (soil and climate), fertilization, irrigation and other cultural practices (Olson and Dietrich, 1968: Ponting et al., 1968: IIR, 1986). Certain fruit and vegetable species that are normally consmted in the raw state (lettuce, cucumber, table grapes, watermelon) do not adapt well to the freezing process due to loss in turgor (rigidity), crispness, discoloration and off flavors (IIR, 1986) . Certain vegetable varieties are more suitable for freezing than others although, if a variety produces good quality when canned this does not indicate it is also appropriate for freezing (Feinberg, et a1. , 1968: Olson and Dietrich, 1968: IIR, 1986) . Summer and Fall growing seasons and outdoor conditions produce vegetables of higher quality compared to those grown indoors and during off seasons (Luh and Iorenzo, 1988) . For freezing, harvest of the fruit or vegetable is made at or close to optimum maturity corresponding to that required for immediate consumption (Iuh, et al., 1975: Perrson, 1975). Harvested vegetables should be processed on the same day to off set deterioration due to over maturation, increased susceptibility to insect infestation, etc., or they should be immediately refrigerated to remove field heat from the product (Olson and Dietrich, 1968: Persson, 1975; IIR, 1986). According to Persson (1975) a delay of a few hours in precooling harvestedprcducecansometimesbeequaltoalossofseveralmonths of storage time at a later stage of the food preservation chain. Some fruits and vegetables may be stored in controlled atmospheres for longer periods of time prior to freezing although, require certain readying treatments to produce a optimimm frozen product. For 29 instance, potatoes destined to be processed into frozen french fries must be acclimated from controlled atmospheric storage to reconvert the monosaccharides to polysaccharides thus , preventing darkening of product when cooked. After harvest and before freezing, fresh produce is subjected to a number of treatments to assure maximum quality whether frozen or canned. Mostofthesearemechanicalandautomatedandproceedin rapid succession except for visual inspection which is labor intensive. Cleaning and/or washing removes field insects, dirt, debris and residue from fruit and vegetables and decreases microbial load (Olson and Dietrich, 1968: IIR, 1986: Feinberg et al., 1968: Iuh et al., 1975; huh and Iorenzo, 1988). Sorting, selecting and grading operations determine the quality grade of fruit and vegetables (Olson and Dietrich, 1968) . Such vegetables as turnips, yams, potatoes and carrots require peeling which is accomplished by one of three principle methods: abrasive, steam and lye. Flame-peeling is frequently used for peppers and onions (IIR, 1986: 1th et al., 1975; Feinberg et al, 1968: Inh and Lorenzo, 1988) . Blanching is a kind of pasteurization generally applied to fruits and vegetables primarily to inactivate natural food enzymes (Potter, 1978: Jul, 1984) . Blanching also reduces microbial population (Olson and Dietrich, 1968) and releases intercellular air thus, allowing a fuller pack for canned foods. Enzymes are natural constituents of living matter that control chemical reactions of metabolism. It has long been recognized that by inactivating inherent enzymes the quality namely, color, texture, flavor and nutritional value of the frozen 30 product is preserved (Dietrich, et al., 1955; Joslyn, 1949: Iee et al., 1955; Pireent, 1962: Wageiknecht and Lee, 1957). There are four groups of enzymes primarily responsible for the quality deterioration of unblanched vegetables: 1) lipoxygenases, lipases and proteases affect off-flavor: 2) pectic eizymes and cellulases affect texture; 3) polyphenol cxidase, chlorophyllase and peroxidase may affect color: and 4) ascorbic acid oxidase and thiaminase can affect nutrients (Williams, et al., 1986). \_ Recommended blanching treatments vary from one product to another and for similar products according to species, variety, size, maturity, etc. (IIR, 1986; Duh and Lorenzo, 1988). For each product there isaoptimlmmblanchingtreauhentwithrespecttotemperatureand time to achieve inactivation of enzyme (5) while preserving the raw product quality. The two widely used blanching methods are submersion in hot water or steam. Depending on the product to be frozen dictates which blanching method is optimum (Feinberg, et al., 1968; Olson and Dietrich, 1968) . Rapid cooling after blanching is required to stop the heating of the product thus, avoiding loss in quality and leaching of soluble solids and nutrients (IIR, 1986; quh and Iorenzo, 1988: Olson and Dietrich, 1968) . Fully cooked products can be frozen and are simply thawed and/or reheated to serve. Many fully prepared and cooked products have been successfully frozen including doughnuts, bread, concentrated milk, egg products, various soups, stews and chowders (Bechtel and Kulp, 1960: Pence et al., 1955: Doan, 1952; Zabik and Figa, 1968: Tressler, 1968b) . According to Tressler (1968c) both dried beans-pork and 31 tomato sauce type and baked beans products have yielded good quality coumercially frozen. Effggs of Ezen Storag : Many of the physical, chemical, enzymatic and microbial changes which contribute to frozen food quality are highly dependent on storage conditions , namely, the combined effects of time and temperature. During frozen storage there is a moderate cmmulative and nonreversible deterioration of quality with time. Dryingoutofthe foodsurfacemayresultandseverecasesleadto freezer burn. This physical loss in quality can be minimized through proper packaging combined with low and relatively consistent storage temperatures. There are few chemical changes in properly stored frozen foods. Of the chemical reactions that may take place during frozen storage include those that affect texture, appearance, flavor and nutritional value. Protein is relatively stable to frozen storage though, some enzymes are damaged by the freezing process. Some proteins, namely in animal products may undergo some denaturation which produces a tough product upon thawing. Examples of animal products include fish, egg yolk and egg white. Gelatinized starch, especially the amylose component is susceptible to retrogradation during frozen storage which produces liquid separation from frozen food upon freezing. Change in pigment of frozen vegetables is common yet unavoidable due to required blanching to inactivate certain enzymes. ‘Ihis is apparent in many green vegetables where the change from chlorophyll to 32 pheophytin is temperature dependent. Browning of light colored fruits and vegetables may develop because of the interaction of the enzyme, polyphenol oxidase with oxygen forming brown polymers . Addition of certain chemical agents (vitamin C, sulfur dioxide) or blanching can prevent this reaction (Boegh-Soerensen and Jul, 1985) . Foods with high lipid content are more prone to Off flavor and odor development during frozen storage. Rancidity is the result of oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids, and, through a group of reactions, a range of organic campounds are produced, including saturated and meaturated aldehydes, ketones and alcohols. The aldehydes are the main cause of off flavor and odor in rancid foods (Boegh-Soerensen and Jul, 1985) . Freezing is the most optimum food preservation technique for retaining the nutritive value of the fresh food. Drip loss results is some losses of water soluble vitamins and minerals but proper thawing methods can minimize this. The major loss of nutrients in frozen foods is during the blanching operation where water soluble components leach from the food into the blanching medium. Effects of Postfreezu_._ng' Mm. of Foods: Depending on the prefreezing process, frozen food is reheated without thawing or a thawing period is required prior to heating or cooking. One of the most disputed questions concerning the reheating of precooked foods is the desirability of thawing prior to reheating; with the Opposing views being: 1) thawing (partial or whole) promotes even heating of the product and 2) no thawing ensures the microbial quality of the 33 product (Tressler, 1968a) . Partially cooked or raw foods that are frozen require thawing or a integration of the thawing and cooking steps. 'Ihere are numerous thawing methods employed in the industry and these can be classified into two groups: surface heating and internal heating. Surface heating methods involve the application of heat to the surface of the food via air, water or condensing steam (vacuum- thawing) . When simply thawing a raw product one consideration is that the temperature of the thawing medium must be controlled so that the surfacetemperatureofthefooddoesnotbeccmetoohigh; otherwise, problems can arise with the color and appearance of some products and the microbial status may be in jeopardy (Boegh-Soerensen and Jul, 1985) . When employing air to thaw an unwrapped product the relative humidity must be high enough to prevent any evaporative losses but low enough to control microbiological problems. Utilizing internal heating methods to thaw frozen foods has seen recent popularity. Microwave thawing of frozen foodstuffs can decrease the thawing time drastically (from hours or days to minutes). However, there are some limitations when using microwave thawing which include: 1) a hamogeueous food lends itself more favorably to this thawing method and 2) heating of the product increases as thawing progresses and causes uneven heating (Boegh—Soerensen and Jul, 1985) . MW: 'Ihereareanabundanceof freezing techniques applied to food. A simple categorization of food freezing methods is as follows: 1) freezing in air: 2) freezing by indirect 34 contact with refrigerant: and 3) freezing by direct immersion in refrigerating medium (Potter, 1978) . Still air ("sharp") freezing is the oldest and least costly food freezing method in terms of equipment. The food to be frozen is simply placed in an insulated cold room at teuperatures maintained in the range of -23°C to -29°C. Fans or natural convection currents may move the frozen air around the food product. Realistically, the method is still air freezing when compared to air blast freezing which uses air at high velocities to facilitate freezing. Food may take hours to days to completely freeze depending on size of item and space between each item. Conveyors may also be used in still air freezers. This decreases handling costs. Air blast freezers generally function at temperatures of -29°C to - 46°C with forced air speeds of 10 to 15 m/s (Potter, 1978) . products are either manually placed on shelves located in the freezer or conveyed through the freezer on a continuous metal mesh belt. With conveyor type air blast freezers, the flow of air is usually countercurrent with the product. That is, the coldest air is applied to the exiting (coldest) product while the product entering the freezer is warmest and is exposed to the warmest air. Unpackaged food items are susceptible to dehydration (freezer burn) in an air blast freezer which in turn requires increased defrosting of freezer coils and plates. ‘Ihis problem is overcome by dividing the freezing into three stages. Each stage, from product entry to exit, utilizes air that is progressively less humid, preventing the initial rapid dehydration of the food surface. 35 Fluidized belt (bed) freezers work on the same principle as air blast freezers except air is forced up through the wire mesh belt which is conveying the particulate food product. The forced air vibrates the food particles which accelerates the freezing process (Desrosier and T‘ressler, 1977) . This produces products in the IQF (individually quick frozen) form. Freezing times are ordinarily in the range of minutes. Foods that have been frozen in a fluidized bed freezer are listed in Table 4. Indirect contact freezing can be thoucfiit of as a sandwich of food, cold surface and refrigerant. This method of freezing involves placing food on plates, tray, belts or other cold walls which are chilled by circulating refrigerant. The food never comes in contact with the refrigerant only the cold surface. The nest efficient food shape to be frozen with this method is a thin box. Efficiency of freezing is based on percentage of food in contact with the cold surface. There are batch and continuous types of indirect contact freezers employed in the industry today. Direct immersion freezers utilizes a low texperature brine as the freezing medium. Since the freezing medium is liquid is conforms to the product perfectly and therefore has a high rate of heat transfer (Woolrich and Novak, 1977) . Since the freezing medium has direct contact with the food it must be edible. Solutions of sugars, glycerol and sodium chloride are the nest frequently used. 36 Table 4. Food products that have been successfully frozen by fluidized bed freezing systems. Commodity vegetable fruit fish poultry Type peas, corn, lima beans, cut green beans, sliced green beans, Brussels sprouts, diced carrots, diced blanched potatoes, french-fried potatoes, potato-tots, potato patties, sweet potato slices and diced, okra, southern peas, onion rings and diced squash berries of all kinds, Thompson seedless grapes, sliced peaches, diced peaches, diced pears, apple slices, pineapple cubes, guavas, apricot halves, grapefruit sections, cherries peeled and deveined shrimp, breaded shrimp, cooked fish sticks, raw fish sticks, cooked fish portions, raw fish portions, fish fillets, small fish (whole), small lobster tails, and fishcakes. cut-up chicken 37 W: Manyfactorsenterirrtothecostof food freezing and subsequent storage. A number of energy cost calculations have shown that freezing and frozeu storage are no mere erergy intensive than other long term preservation methods such as canning (Flink, 1977 ; IIR, 1986) . Product quality aspects as well as convenience are difficult to factor into the overall cost of freezing since both are highly dependent on consumer preference . The Need for Frozen Food For the consumer (food service or in-hcme) food and meal preparation convenience accompanies frozen food products . The decreased time and required skills to prepare food using frozen products parallels today's consumer trends both in home meal preparation and for meals eaten outside the home. In 1950, only 24 percent of married women worked outside the home, but this figure has risen to more than 50 percent in the 80s (McCarthy and Perreault, 1984) . The share of women in the U.S. labor force has mere than doubled since 1900-rising from 18 percent to 29 percent in 1950 and 44 percent in 1986. By 1986, the majority of adult women (two-thirds of those between the ages of 20 and 64) worked outside of the horme (U.S.D.A., 1987) . Rising per capita income, a growing number of both married and single women in the workforce, mere families living on two incomes, smaller households, mere people in the 25 to 44 age group (which is inclined to eat out mere often), a very mebile populace, the national inclination to purchase greater convenience, and the advertising efforts of large foodservice chains all led to the consumer's tendency to spend mere of the food dollar away from home 38 CU.S.D.A., 1985) . Today 1/3 of the consumer's food dollar is spent on meals outside of the home (Ott, 1984) . According to the 1988 National Restaurant Association Tableservice Operator Survey, restaurant operators listed the labor shortage as the number-one problem they currently face (Anon, 1988) . In addition, labor costs are rising, further forcing maximum utilization of convenient food preparation. MATERIALS AND MEIHOIB Materials and Handling W Thedarkredkidney (Montcalm) beansusedinStudiesIandIIwere obtained from Foundation Seed Co., Mason, MI. Three commercial classes of dry beans were used in Study III. Small red beans were obtained from Bakker Food Brokerage Inc., North Royalton, OH. Pink and light red kidney beans were obtained from Foundation Seed Co., Mason, MI. 2g gear; Storage DarkredkidreybeansusedinStudiesIandIIwereplacedinlOO pound woven polypropylene sacks and placed within heavy duty 30 gallon lidded plastic containers on four inch rollers. The receptacles were housed in an environmental control chamber maintained at 5.5%. Darkredkidney, pinkandsmallredbeansusedinStudyIIIwere placed in 100 pound woven polypropylene bags and stored on pallets for several days in the processing facility of Coloma Frozen Foods, Inc. , Coloma, IVE: prior to use. Storage temperature was not controlled, yet did not exceed 20°C. 39 40 Methodology The effects of soaking, cooking and/or freezing on the processed quality characteristics of four classes of beans were determined using the following procedures and/or methods. MW All dry beans were evaluated for color and meisture prior to processing. gqlqr: Surface color of dry beans was measured objectively with a Hunter Iab Colorimeter, medel DZSLr-z (Hunter Assoc. , Fairfax, VA) . This instrument measures sample color reflectance using a three scale (L, aL, bL) system. The L coordinate represents lightness (100) to darkness (0) , the 3L coordinate represents greenness (nqative value) to redness (positive value), and the bL coordirate represents blueness (negative value) to yellowness (positive value). The colorimeter was calibrated with a standard pink tile (L = 67.3, a = 19.8, b = 9.0) . A 100 gram sample of dry beans was evenly distributed into an optically pure glass dish and covered to diminish outside light. Hunter Iab coordinate values were recorded in duplicate by rotating the bean sample 90 degrees thus, detecting any discrepancies for each sample of dry beans. misture The initial meisture contents of bean samples were determined by using a Motomco Moisture Meter, model 919 (Motomco Inc., Electronic Div., Clark, NJ). Following fresh meisture determination seed was divided into lots of 100 grams total solids for Studies I and II. To determire the 41 equivalent weight of fresh beans required for 100 grams of total bean solids (dry basis) the following calculation was used: Fresh bean weight equal to desired solids (100 g) = Desired solids (100 q) 100 - 96 meisture content of fresh beans Equation I. Calculation of fresh bean weight equal to desired solids. m Be_ar1 Evaluation Processed bean shall refer to all of the following beans: soaked, cooked, frozeu and cemmercially canned. If one of these categories is emitted frem a particular study or evaluation, then the specific category (ies) will be delirated in the text of thisthesis. All processed beans were evaluated for the following characteristics: 1) weight gain, 2) color, 3) texture and 4) percent meisture. Weiflt 6am After soaking, cooking or freezing, beans were weighed using a top loading balance to determine weight gain during processing. Percent weight gain was calculated using the following equation: Weight gain (fwb) = Firal weight (g) - initial weight (g) Equation II. Calculation of bean weight gain. 42 Color After soaking, canning, cooking or freezing, the surface color of beans was measured using a Hunter Iab Colorimeter (HunterIab, Fairfax, VA) . The technique for this determiration was the same described in the dry bean method. Iexture Following color evaluation, mechanical texture aralyses was performed on soaked, cooked, canned and frozen bean samples in duplicate. One hundred or 50 grams of processed beans at 21°C were evaluated for texture using the Kramer Recording Shear Press (Food Technology Corp., Reston, VA) fitted with the FT 3000 transducer and the multiblade C-lS shear compression cell . Processed beans were uniformly distributed in the cell and sheared with adjustments being made to attenuate the scale range when determined by the investigator to be appropriate . Compression-shear deformation curves were recorded by a strip chart recorder. Results were recorded as kg of force to compress and shear a 100 or 50 gram sample (Equation III). Sheared bean residue was retained for meisture analysis. Kg force/sample size (9) = (Transducer force (lbs) x range) x (1 kn) Peak 100 2.306 lbs x Force Sample size (9) Reading Equation III .Calculation of force required to compress per sample size (grams). Moisture A 25 or 50 gram representative sample of sheared bean "l residue from the texture analysis was weighed into a tared aluminum pan using a top loading balance and dried in a Procter-Schwartz (80°C) cross current forced air dryer for three days to achieve constant 43 weight. Percent meisture for soaked, cooked, canned or frozen beans was calculated using Equation IV. Percentbeanmeisture= processed bean residue (91) - dried bean residue (g) x 100 processed bean residue (9) Equation IV. Calculation of percent bean meisture. W In Study III, bean soak and/or cook water was analyzed for soluble and total solids. Soluble Solids Soluble solids measurement of soak and cook water was performed with a high contrast Fisher Hand Refractereter (Fisher Scientific) . The dry bean to soak/cook media ratio was approximately one to six. All water samples were at 200C for aralysis. Directions accerpanying the refractereter were followed for focusing the scale and sample application and analysis. Distilled water was used to rinse the prism between determirations . W Total solidsmeasurerentofsoakandcookwaterwas performed according to the AOAC (1985) method 33.041 Solids in Water: Total Solids. A sample volume of 50 milliliters was dried to constant weight after a two day period in an 80°C, 53.34 cm Hg Napco vacuum oveu, model 5831 (Napco Scientific Co. , Tualatu'n, OR). 44 MEAL PROCEIIJRE - STUDY I: The effect of soak method, cooking terperature, time and freezing on the quality characteristics of processed dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans Flow diagrams depicting the sequence of processing and evaluation stepsconductedinStudyIareshowninFiguress and6. Processm' of Beans m A one hundred gram sample of bean solids was placed into a numerically coded nylon mesh bag and secured with a wire twist tie and soaked using an "overnight" or "rapid" soak method. Ovemight Soak Thirty nylon mesh bags, containing 100 grams each of bean solids, were soaked in a 15 gallon plastic pail holding distilled water for 12 hours. The temperature for soaking was ambient (20°C). At the end of the 12 hour soakperiod, bean bags were removed ardspreadonstainlesssteelperforatedscreensarxiallowedtodrain for five mirmutes. I lbpid Soak Thirty nylon mesh bags containing 100 grams each of bean solids were placed into a steam jacketed kettle containing moderately boiling distilled water. Boiling restmed within four to five minutes. After the beans were boiled for one minute, the heat source was rereved and the beans retained in previously boiling water for one hour. After the one hour soak period, bean bags were rereved and spread on stainless steel perforated screens and allowed to drain for five minutes. 45 100 g dry kidney bean solids Isoak treatment 20°C/12hh 100°C/"l night} static "over ig t" . ra 1 L drain, 5m ——j) i ’5ample @ok treatment 75°C 85°C 95°C sampling 30 min 60 min 90 min 120 min quality evaluation Figure 5. Processing design for Study 1: The effect of soak method, cook temperature and time and freezing on the quality characteristics of processed dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. 46 cooked bean [soaked beau-1 samples sam les L C001: ice bath, 5 m drain: 5 m [freezing treatmentl { -6°C%3 mo none | quality evaluationl [weight gain] IGXIUFG l % moisturtfl Figure 6. Sample treatment and quality evaluation design for Study 1: The effect of soak method, cook temperature and time and freezing on the quality characteristics of processed dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. 47 Mg Steam jacketed kettles containing distilled water at 75°C 12°C, 85°C 12°C and 95°C 1-2°C were used as cooking vessels. An initial terperature decrease of five degrees centigrade was observed in all kettles immediately following the addition of the soaked bean samples. Within five minutes, cook water temperature stabilized at the assigned treatment values. During cooking, beans were periodically stirred with a wooden paddle. Soaked, @ked and Frozen Bean Simple Aggisition Soaked Beans Eighteen samples per soak treatment were obtained for analysis; nine samples were immediately evaluated by objective measures; the remaining nine samples were packaged in vapor/meisture proof plastic bags and stored, frozen (-6°C) for three months prior to analysis. Cooked Beans Duplicate samples of both "overnight" and "rapid" soaktreatmentswererereved fromeachofthethreekettles attime intervals of 30, 60, 90 and 120 minutes. Upon reteval frem cook water, beans were immersed in distilled ice water for five minutes to prevent additioral cooking. After cooling, bean bags were placed on stainless steel perforated screens and allowed to drain for five minutes. Of the duplicate samples removed frem each cooking terperature, one sample each of the overnight and rapid soak treated beans were immediately evaluated by objective means . Additional samples were packaged in vapor/meisture proof plastic bags and stored, frozen (- 6°C) for future analysis . 48 Cooked Frozen Beans Frozen bean samples were transferred frem freezer storage (-6°C) to a refrigerator (1. 1°C) and placed on perforated racks to facilitate air flow to all surfaces thus, providing uniform thawing of all samples. Packaged samples retained at refrigerated temperature for 12-14 hours, removed frem refrigerated storage, and held at roem terperature (21°C) for one to two hours prior to aralysis. SM. Cooked and1or Frozen Bean Evaluation Weightgainofbeansampleswasmeasuredaftersoakingtmutnot freezing. Weight gain (or loss) of cooked bean samples after frozen storage was measured. Surface color, texture and percent meisture of the bean samples were assessed. W3 The influence of soak and cook media pH on the quality characteristics of soaked and cooked dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. A flow diagram depicting the sequence of processing and evaluation steps involved in Study II is shown in Figure 7. fl S_ample Premtion Ore mundred grams of dark red kidney (Montcalm) bean solids were desigrated as a sample with six samples per trial, replicated three times. Effer Prepagtion SpayCook Buffers. Citrate buffer (citrate and sodium citrate) was used to achieve soak/cook medias of equilibrated pH values of approximately three, four and five. Phosphate buffer (menobasic 49 sodium phosphate and dibasic sodium phosphate) was used to achieve soak/cook medias of equilibrated pH values of approximately six, seven and eight. The buffer formulations are presented in Tables 5 and 6. Deviations frem target pH values did not exceed 1 0.24 units. Messing Treatments §o_al_ See; 5 ”EZUooo—v no H mm o; H Nw Wm H 9: mdv H odes QN H men an H egg oz 293. wd H v6 v; H mm— wd H mdm mmm H axon 0.0 H w.mm --- 8% Asmzooos o._ H Wm m; H 0.2 ad H Nam wdm H v.33 5o H m.mm ma H mo: 02 EwEB>O .5 as 1— moeaxoe. 1.22562 so 3va 5% :3ch E253: .o8_oo be: cores: Ewfi? zoom .wefiooc pee Eoeoeob zoom .3 eooeoscfi we meson Awe—«3:35 >265 cos fee so mocmtoooeeeso 3:55 8e _meo:e_>oe Reese; use 2:32 .o Base. uuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuu 22222 ssssssssssssssss % Moisture : [. Unfrozen Frozen ‘ ‘m‘ 101 / ; Overnight Soak 20 C/12h Soak Treatment Rapid 100 C/ 1111; Figure 10. The effect of soak treatment and freezing on percent moisture of dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. Soak 1h static 7O ‘metactureofsoakedbeanswasfirmardrelatively inconsistent throughout each sample tested. Inherently, some beans absorb water more readily than others and thus, were evaluated as less firm. Sufficient heating of hydrated beans initiates starch gelatinization, cellexpansionandasofteningofthetextmre. Theovernightsoaking treatment did not include any heating of beans and therefore no starch gelatinization occurred. Rapid soaking imiolved heat application to beans which possibly allowed some starch to gelatinize and thus, produce a softening effect. It is apparent that significant (p 5 0.001) differences in texmre existed between frozen and unfrozen bean samples although, no differences were found between soak treatments (Figure 11) . Frozen beans were less firm than nonfrozen beans due to cellular disruption and cell wall degradation during frozen storage. Hunter Lab color evaluation of frozen and unfrozen and overnight and rapid soaked beans demonstrated consistent trends. Generally, rapid soaked beans were significantly (p 5 0.001) darker (decreased L), less red (decreased aL) and less yellow (decreased bL) than overnight soaked beans (Figs. 12, 13 and 14). The more aggressive heat treatment inherent to the rapid soak process may be accountable for an increased rate of pigment darkening in the beans. Frozen storage significantly (p 5 0.001) altered the bean color (Hunter Lab colors aL and b1) making the color less red and less yellow whereas and to a lesser degree, the L value was significantly lower (p _<_ 0.01) or darker beans. This difference between frozen and unfrozen samples wasgreaterintheovernightsoakedbeansthaninrapidsoakedbeans. Oxidation of the bean surface during frozen storage may have physically altered the color compared to that of the unfrozen samples. Texture kg force/100 g beans) (compressibility: 150 " 100 '- 50 " 71 ’1 "77' Rapid Soak 20 C/12h 100 C/lrn; 1h static Soak Treatment Figure 11. The effect of soak treatment and freezing on texture (compressibility: kg force/100g beans) of dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. 72 The rapid soak method resulted in greater weight gain and thus, a higher percent moistlre than overnight soaked beans. The rapid soaked treatrent resulted in less firm beans. Although, sound conclusions involving soaked bean textural analysis are difficult due to the relative firmness of the sample coupled with the sensitivity of the objective instrument used. Freezing tended to soften the hydrated beans. Rapid soaked beans were darker, less red and less yellow than overnight soaked beans. Freezing altered overnight soaked bean color (darker, less red and less yellow) to a greater degree than rapid soaked samples. (IDOKING The means and standard deviations for weight gain, textlre, percent moistlreandmmterlabcolorcocrdinatesL, aLandbLofccckedbeans are presented in Tables 10, 11, 12, TB, 14 and 15. The analysis of variance for weight gain, texture, percent moisture and Hunter Lab color coordinates L, aL and bL is presented in Appendices B, C, and D. Weight ga' : Weight gain of bean samples increased as cooking temperature and cooking time increased (Table 10). By examining individual cooking duration treatments it is evident that the difference between weight gain of beans cooked at temperatures of 85 and 95°C is greater than that obtained between 75 and 35°C regardless of soak treatment (Figures 15 and 16). There was no consistent trend in weight gain of beans cooked at 75 or 85°C when comparing among the four cooking duration treatrents. Conversely, at the 95°C cooking temperature, as cooking duration increased, bean weight gain increased rather consistently at 5 to 7 grams per 30 minutes interval. 73 Hunter Lab color L \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\s 10‘ a Overnight Soak Rapid Soak 20 C/ 12h 100 C/lm; 1h static Soak Treatment Figure 12. The effect of soak treatment and freezing on the Hunter Lab color L value of dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. Hunter Lab color aL \ 74 20- 15- 10" \g / Overnight Soak Rapid Soak 20 C/12h 100 Ohm 1h static Soak Treatment Figure 13. The effect of soak treatment and freezing on Hunter Lab color aL value of dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. _ .. ............................................................................................... r ..... 9999999999 76 Individually, cooking temperature and cooking duration treatments affected bean weight gain significantly although, no interaction between these treatments occurred (Appendix B). Soakingtreatment had a significant (p 5 0.05) influence on weight gain of beans cooked at 75°C, unfrozen and beans cooked at 95°C, frozen (Appendix C). There were no significant differences between soak treattents at 85°C. Generally, for each cooking temperature the overnight soaked beans weighed more than the rapid soaked beans when compared at the identical cooking durations (Appendix B). This is opposite of the result found when soaked beans were analyzed for weight gain, where the rapid soaked beans gained more weight than the overnight soaked beans. Possibly, the heat treattent of the rapid soak process caused somebeanseedccatstobeccmeless receptivetowaterentrywhich resulted in lower weight gain during cooking. Regardless of soak treatment, as cooking time increased, weight gain of beans cooked at 75, 85 or 95°C increased (Table 10) though only 75 and 95°C resulted in significant differences (Appendix C). At 95°C cooking temperature, the difference between weight gain of beans at 30and120minuteswasthegreatestcomparedto75and85°¢ccoking temperature treatments. There was no significant interaction between soak treatment and cooking time or cooking temperature on cooked bean weight gain (Appendiess C and D). Soaking treatment did not have an influence on weight gain of beans with respect to cooking time (Appendix D). Cooking temperature significantly affected weight gain of beans cooked for 30, 60, 90 or 120 minutes, independent of soak treattent. 77 2.2 3.: all: 3.3 Seems em.mH mmsm: c_.mH $.53 mw.NH 2.8— sde Ram: mo OmSH SN: 56H 3&3 MESH $63 3SH 2.6.3 mw oc.mH sawm— mw4 H Rd? :oSH cod: QTNH 8.9: we ofi so vH omcfl mm.mH 8&2 m~.mH madm— N_.mH omfifl we no vH 5&3 $.vH ONCE oodH cod: owSH tum: mw me n H mmdfl or; H 362 56 H 3.9: 2; H cud? m e co we. mH $.02 ow.~H no.5; om.mH Rams vcaH modfl no mo 0H 3.9: oo.mH ends: ooSH mtfil _ccH 3.3: mm mth 369 mo.mH :69 oofiH afiwme 26H 3.02 we 8 mm m M 9.3: male H CNNE 36 H owe: ZN H 8.3; mm mm m H ende— omd H omcm— 3.x H 362 2: H ntwme mm 2.. _ + flamm— Ed H mm.mm_ mad H 3.32 sod H PT: we 0m no» 0: more 0: Gov AEEV coNoi . coNcE 2223th 2:2. . seen 5 ”5:88: pas. 22533 seated MWassoc mesooo .AUev 2332—82 wcficco ecu $825.5 2:: mcicco E coocoscfi we meson 3:32.03: >263 not View to A3 5% Emma)» t8 access—o Estes; can memo—z .3 29¢. 78 RV Ewen? coon smote - va EwEB coo—coo n Eew £32.: 3383 m n E 2.2 3.: all: an: 2.564 e~.mH ange— 3.NH mwfim— mw.~H 2.02 nde 563 we omSH 5N3 SW mH 3&3 MESH We: SSW 2.63 mm oo.mH 5&2 mm; H Kam— SoSH cod: ad + Codi we om— _o.vH omom— modH OVNE m~.mH mod: m_.mH cmfifl ma nmaH 5N3 SéH cade— ocdH oede— owSH eta: mm Sim H mmdm— so; H mtmm— _wfi H 363 2; H Enam— m N. co we mH nmdfl ow.mH no.2: am.NH swans wodH modm— no mocH 3.9: oo.mH 3.9L omSH 3&3 _ocH $.13 mm mm. 0H new? mc.mH :62 oo.mH otwm— 26H 8.02 we. or ww.m H 3.3: med H CNN: om.m H owe: _m.m H mail 3 mm N. M Ode omfi H omofl 3% H ode nos H Rumm— mm mm; + Stam— 3.N H 3&2 mad H 3.3: sod H Ream— mh cm mo» cc mo» c: 0% AEEV 5on concen— ocaetodctoe. oEE. seas Elsasoo: ease 1 2283 record menace menace .AUoV 823352 wcicoo ecu $2255 2:: wcficoo t3 coocoscfi we meson AEEoEc—zv spent. to. diet to ~va Saw Ems? toe _mcotnFoc panacea can memo—2 A: 235. 79 match w 8:028 we. ”52363568 we cocameoem moi—com N x museum—doe m n :— ameo ease 2.3 as: 2.23 med H 8.8 ovd H 9%: sad H coda Nxd H owes no code 9&2 oo.vMH 2.me cod—H mwdo— oode endow mm oe.3H comma 2.:H omdmm 05S H otmmv ow.~_ + 8.8m we. o2 004 H code :6 H swam— omé H 369 2.va 562 mo om._mH 86M: ovdfim ow.mmm oodNH oodvm 3me Room mm mv.mmH 9.3m oo.c_ + 002v wee H 349 ooc + codes 2. ca mm.m H Sod: mo.o_H nméom mo.:H Egon one H otwom no wbdvm 3.8m 09me 3.on mes M to? oode ofimmv mm mg: + $.th 3.2 + cos; m; + 2N; no.2 + hwgmm we so mm.:H end: 2.va oc.wwm ow.w H oedmm :6 H hmdem mo 2.me $.on mwé H hmdov ova H 93? mo.:H 5.33 mm ocNH océom mo.:H $4; meéNH 3.va ww.m~H $.me we 0m mo» c: mo» c: 0% AEEV . couci . concert 2833th 2:? ones 5 ”55¢er eds. aliases resold wsrooo werooo .Auov 223255. wet—coo tee 3225:: 2:: wet—coo E coocoscE me meson Act—escc—zv >263 too fat to N225. toe _mco:e_>oe Eaten; can memo—2 .2 225. o3 x GEES 23:53:23“ 326 - 9 29:3 35:: u 2:388 §~ 830:9: m n 5 80 E4. 8;. 2+ 8.... 2.5.3 wde 3.3 avdH 3.3 3.0H 3.3 mde 3.3 no Om._H 3.3 :.mH 3.3 bNAH 3.3 :4M 3.3 mm ow._H 3.3 9: H 3.3 wm.mH 3.3 m~.m+ 3.3 mm o: NNJH 5.3 NWOH 3.3 mde 3.3 36H 3.3 no NodH 3.3 noéH 913 _N._H 3.3 om.NH 3.3 mm 34H 3.3 mm._H 3.3 om._H 3.3 oméH 3.3 ms co NaoH 3.3 3m._H 3.3 wde 3.3 vm._H 3.3 mo 2 NM 3.3 3m._H 3.3 3_._H 3.3 mm; H 3.3 mm as; + 3.3 acdH om.3 34H 5.3 voAH 5.3 mm O3 modm 3.3 ondH 2.3 ow._H 55.3 23.—H 3.3 mo ow._H 3.3 owAM 3.3 omAH 3.3 3m._H 3.3 mm ow.o+ 3.3 3m._ + 5.3 Nw._H 3.3 vwdH 3.3 mm on 8% 0: mom 0: Cov AEEV . :38”. . :88”. 233363. 08E. 3:2 f Hezuocoquaé . 22838 2&520 @380 3:38 .Aucv 238382 wcfiooo new $825.5 2:: mac—coo .3 30:03.35 S 2:82 €338,523 >265 no. fan 30 3535:. 03 38 3.533% 22:53 was 2:32 .3 03a... 29:3 Ba 3532: N x 3:3sz m u 5 81 mm; 2:0. mm; 3; 2.5.3 oNAH 2.2 22H 3.2 NodH 3.2 whdH 2.2 no cwdH mw.2 owdH 2.2 wwdH 3.: wvdH >02 mm ode 3.2 ode mm.2 deH 3.: :udH 3.: mm om— vvdH 2.: an _H om.: :6H 3.2 cde 2.2 mm mndfl 8.2 oudH no.2 ade 3.: 22H 3.: mm mm 2H mw.2 :WJH ~62 mde 5%: 36%. 3.: mm oo wde P.: vde 5.2 31:9. 2.2 oodH 3.: mo wde ~52 _de 3.2 deH 55: nde 3.: mm vvoH :.2 52H N52 ode oc.: _de mod: mm oo amom ww.2 ocdH no.2 modH ms: 36%. 3.2 mm mvdH 3.2 hde 322 deH wm.2 mde 8.2 mm ooo+ no.2 ode 8.2 chH 3.2 ondH avw— mu cm 8% o: 8» o: 8% AEEV . :88”: . :Boi 2333809 08C. . Guam 5 ”5:88: Emma . 22038 23.26 @389 $326 .AUoV 8332.82 mac—coo was $225.5 2:: mixes .3 Boson—.25 3 £52. 956235 .355. um: fan :0 22.658 4 BBQ 93 “2:3.— 5: _m=o_§>ov 2.353 was 232 .2 032. aC'III-H ‘I‘.\" ~.1l§‘.\w‘l\ul\lln‘~.‘ ~‘L-L‘EFh-h‘v’ ‘\-.h-\I D’ARN‘NMJ‘e oWV‘ 2 £ .2. 82 29:3 .8: 3538:: m x 823:3: m u :: mod cc; :2: mm; 86mm; vvdfl Nmfi mvdH 8.x NYQH cod ovdH mad ma wcdH 3.: ode NON. mde flaw ovdH wc.w mm hde Nm.m modH wws hde 36 vodH mmd: mm om: ede was nodH No.5 mvdH mmd mvdH and no _mdm mo.w vde NEw modH Nvd ondH 2d mm ww.o+ 2.x aNJH 2.5 :de mad :6”... 8.2 mm co dem 59w deH om.w 32H mod and“. mod mo ode 9.x mvdm mnw 22.—H :d vcdfl and ww on.o+ :3 2%: + wmfi deH mwd nodH 3.2 mm co deM wm.w 36M 26 2 _H Nod mde 3.2 mo ode mod vde 00.x wodH mm.2 N2._H 2.2 mm mm.o+ 2d om.o+ 2.x 26H mmd: Ode mm;— mn on we» 0: mo» o: 6% AEEV :38: :38": EEEKEuP 08F 62% £15525: 2%: £588 2:955 $6.80 ”:38: .AUoV 2:38:82 3308 :5: $2.525 0:: $298 3 3053.25 3 2:3: AEEBSEV >263 :8 x5: :0 2:53:00 .5 8.8 93 8:23 :8 232223: 335:; :5 £822 .3 2:3. 83 0383 En 8:538 m x 83332 m u E :3 a: Mad 3o 2.55.. 696M mmd vm6H me om6H 6N.»V nm6H 36 no mm6H M26 36H mw.~ mm6H ww.m wm6H mod mm mm6H Nca nN6H :6 om6H m5” vv6H mm: mm 6: ov6H hmd 36H mna 86H 9; NN6H 56 mo wN6H mm.m om6H hwm mm6H mud 6v6H mfiv mm wv6H mva vm6.l+. mad m66ufl mwé cm6H mod mm 6o ov6H mmd nm6H Dim cm6H wwé om6H and mo 36H mod w_6H mm.m $6“. 36 6m6H mm...v mm vv6H $6. mm6H Rd 6N.6 H mud wc6uu 6m.n ms 66 cm6m cod Nm6m mud wo6H mmé wm6H wwé no cm6H Dam 86H mm.m mv6H w6.m 26H mwé mm 666+ 6m.m 6.6+ wN.m vm6H 5w mm6H Rd mm on no» 0: me» o: 6% AEEV :3on 585 2330680... 08:. 6cm; 5 HE2036: Emmy— . Asa—U38 23525 wet—oou wcioou .Auov 22559:». $5.80 25 $2255 2:: $5.80 .3 68:25.: 3 2:36 AEEoEo—zv >263 to. fan ho 2.2.658 .5 530 23 5:5: 5.6 3:22:56 6:653 25 2:32 .2 265. gain (grams) Weight 84 170} 160‘ 150‘ 140‘ 130 f f F r ' I ' ' I r r I ' f j 0 3O 60 90 120 150 Cooking time (minutes) Figure 15. The influence of cooking temperature and time on the weight gain of "overnight" soaked kidney beans (mean over nonfrozen and frozen samples, n = 6). gain (grams) Weight 85 170- 160-1 95% 150‘ 85.“\ 140‘ /—-’/ K 75C 130...-.rr. ‘I V T I 0 30 60 90 120 Cooking time (minutes) Figure 16. The influence of cooking temperature and time on the weight gain of "rapi " soaked kidney beans (mean over nonfrozen and frozen samples, n = 6). r l 150 85 Texture: The texture (con'pressibility) of cooked beans softened as cooking duration and cooking tenperature increased for each soaking treatment although, no significant interaction occurred between these two (Appendix B). The textural data for overnight and rapid soaked beans is represented in Figures 17 and 18. Cooking duration had a significant (p 5 0.01) softening influence on cooked bean texture, with longer cook times producing softer beans. However, the softening effect is nonlinear as cook time was lengthened. ‘Ihis difference in softening rate of cooked beans could be attributed to the majority of the starch being gelatinized during the first stages of heating and subsequent softening of the bean later inthecookaresult ofincreasedwaterabsorptionbythebean. The difference in texture of beans cooked at 75°C and 85°C was generally less than that of beans cooked at 35°C and 95°C (Table 11) . Indicating a temperature dependency for certain key reactions involved in softening of the bean components. Cooking temperature was found to be a significant (p 5 0.001) factor in cooked bean texture analysis (Appendix B). There was a Signigicant interaction between cooking time and temperaturewhentexture of cookedbeanswas evaluated (Appendix B). Soaking treatment had a significant influence on the texture of cooked beans at all temperatures. This is evident in Table 11 where thetexturaldatashcwsthatrapidsoakedbeansaresofterthan overnight soaked beans at all cook times and temperatures. Texture 86 600 a 73 = a 0 .6 u 500 ‘ ¢ 3 T» e 75 C .2 400 - u 2’ a: 85 C 3. 300 - a 5 C O 'a. 200 - [9 E Q 3 . 100 . T u r r r . . r r O 3 0 6 O 9 0 1 2 0 Cooking time (minutes) Figure 17. The influence of cooking temperature and time on the texture (compressibility: kg force/ 100g beans) of " overnight" soaked kidney beans (mean over nonfrozen and frozen samples, n = 6). Texture beans) force/100g k8 (compressibility: 87 500 - 400- 300 -' 200 ‘ 1 00 r r . . . . O 3 0 6 0 9 O 1 2 0 Cooking time (minutes) Figure 18. The influence of cooking temperature and time on the texture (compressibility: kg force/ 100g beans) of "rapid" soaked kidney beans (mean over nonfrozen and frozen samples, n = 6). 89 Significant (p 5 0.001) differences in percent moisture of cooked beans existed among cooking times (Appendix B). Generally, the percent moisture of beans cooked at 750C increased at a faster rate between30ard60mimrtesandbetween90and120mimrtesthanbetween 60 and 90 minutes. Inconsistent with this trend were rapid soaked beans, unfrozen, which showed the largest increase (+ 0.84%) in percent moisture between 60 and 90 minutes cooking time for beans cooked at 75°C. A cooking temperature of - 850C exhibited no consistent trendinrateofpercentmoistureincreaseovercookingtimes. Percent moisture of the overnight and rapid soaked treated beans cooked at 95°C and then frozen exhibited a faster rate of increase between 60and90minutescooktimeversusbetween 30and60 or90and 120minutes. Thiswasnotthecasefoxmdinpercentmoistureof overnight and rapid soaked beans cooked at 95°C and not frozen where themostsubstantial increaseinpercentmoistureoccurredbetweenthe 30 and 60 minute cooking treatments. When percent moisture between cooking temperatures of 75 and 85°C and 85 and 95°C is analyzed, it is evident that the greatest difference generally occurs between 85 and 95°C. There was a significant difference in percent moisture of overnight soaked, frozen (p 5 0.05) and rapid soaked, unfrozen (p _<_ 0.01) beans when the interaction of cooking duration and cooking temperature was analyzed (Appendix B). Soaking treatment had no significant effect 'on percent moisture of beans cooked at 75°C, 85°C or 95°C (Appendix C). Percent moisture data were significantly (p 5 0.05) different among cooking times for beans cooked at 850C, unfrozen. A greater moisture Percent 9O 68' 66- 75C 58 ' . I f r I r ' I r r 0 3 O 6 O 9 0 Cooking time (minutes) Figure 19. The influence of cooking temperature and time on the percent moisture of "overnight" soaked kidney beans (mean over nonfrozen and frozen sammos, n = 6). I 120 T moisture Percent 91 75C 60 t r I I I l I v I v fi I o 30 , fin _ an 120 Cooking time (minutes) Figure 20. The influence of cooking temperature and time on the percent moisture of " rapid" soaked kidney beans (means over nonfrozen and frozen samples, n = 6). 92 significant (p 5 0.001) difference in percent moisture existed between cooking duration treatments for beans cooked at 95°C, unfrozen or frozen. The reported percent moisture increase from 30 to 120 minutes of cook time was approximately five percent for both the overnight and rapid soak treated beans. There was no significant interaction between soak treatnent and cooking duration which affected percent moisture of cooked beans. Soak treatment did not affect the percent moisture of beans cooked at 30 minutes, unfrozen or 60, 90 and 120 mimrtes, both unfrozen and frozen. Whereas, soak treatnent showed significant (p 5 0.05) differences in percent moisture of beans cooked for 30 minutes, frozen. Higher cooking temperatures resulted in beans with higher moisture percentages for all cooking duration treatnents stidied (Table 12) . Significant (p 5 0.01) differences existed for percent moisture between rapid and overnight soaked beans cooked for 30 minutes, unfrozen or frozen and beans cooked for 60 minutes, unfrozen. Beans cooked for 30 minutes showed no consistent trends with respect to the affect of cooking temperature on percent moisture. Cooking temperatures resulted in significant (p 5 0.001) differences for percent moisture of rapid or overnight soaked beans cooked for 60 minutes, frozen and 90 and 120 minutes. A common trend for increased percent moisture was demonstrated among beans cooked for 60, 90 or 120 minutes. Generally, the positive percent moisture increment between 85 and 95°C cooking times was greater than the increment between the 75 and 85°C treated samples. Exceptions to this pattern were beans 93 cooked at 75°C for 120 minutes where the largest percent moisture increase occurred between the 75 and 85°C treated samples. Percent moisture of cooked beans was not significantly influenced by the interaction of soak treatment and cook temperature. 9.0M: Cooking time and cooking temperature treatments produced differing results in cooked bean color characteristics. Significant (p 5 0.001) differences existed in Hunter Lab color L values for overnight soaked, unfrozen beans as influenced by cooking timeandcookingtemperature.'1heoveralltrendwasdarkening (decreased L) of beans as cooking time lengthened. No specific tendencywasobservedinHunterlabcoloeralueswithrespectto cooking temperature although, there were significant differences among cooking temperature treattents. At cook temperatures of 75°C and 85°C, overnight soaked beans, frozen tended to darken (decreased L) with lengthened cook duration. Beans cooked at 95°C and frozen tended not to change in color or became slightly lighter (increased L) in color with increased cooking duration. Significant (p 5 0.05) differences were shown for cooking duration. Overnight soaked, unfrozen and frozen beans tended to become less red (decreased aL) and less yellow (decreased hr) with increasing cook duration and cook temperature. For most cooking durations, the Hunter lab color aL and bL values for both frozen and unfrozen beans, overnight soaked decreased (less red and less yellow) from 75 to 850C. However, overnight soaked beans cooked at 950C, unfrozen or frozen were slightly more red and more yellow (aL and bL increased) than 85°C cooked samples. The aL and bL values for beans cooked at 95°C were 94 less than those at 75°C. The Hunter lab color 3L and bL values imrements between 75°C and 85°C were usually greater than those between 85°C and 95°C. Exceptions were found for both aL and 1),; values of beans cooked for 60 minutes, unfrozen and 3L value of beans cooked for 90 minutes, unfrozen where the increment between 85 and 95°C was greater. This general trend of decreasing Hunter lab color aL and bL values between 75°C and 85°C coupled with increasing values between 85°C and 95°C was not evident in beans cooked for 30 minutes and frozen where Hunter lab color aL values increased (more red) at 85°C and decreased (less red) at 95°C. Hunter Iab color bL values constantly decreased (less yellow) with increasing cooking temperature for the 30 and 90 minute cook duration treatments. The effect of cooking time and terperature on rapid soaked beans, unfrozen and frozen, showed varied results in Hunter lab color evaluations. No significant differences were found in Hunter Iab color L values between cooking duration treatments . Conversely, Hunter Iab color L values for unfrozen and frozen beans were significantly (p 5 0.01 and p 5 0.001) different among cooking temperature treatments. When each cooking time was addressed individually, the apparent tread was found to be darkening (decreased L) between 75°C and 85°C and lightening (increased L) between 85°C and 95°C. Beans cooked for 90 minutes and frozen and those cooked for 120 minutes, unfrozen and frozen differed from the darkening trend and exhibited increasing Hunter lab color L values with increasing cook taperature- 95 Significant differences existed for Hunter Lab color 3L and bL values for rapid soaked beans, unfrozen and frozen among cooking time treatments. There was no apparent trend in the rate of decreasing Hunter Lab color aL (less red) for rapid soaked, unfrozen beans over the four cooking times. For all cooking durations, Hunter lab color 3L values for rapid soaked, frozen beans decreased (less red) as the cooking temperature increased from 75 to 85°C. As cooking temperature increased from 85 to 95°C, rapid soaked, frozen beans cooked for 90 or 120 minutes continued to become less red (decreased aL) while samples cooked for 30 or 60 minutes became more red (increased aL). 'Iherewasanapparent increasingtrendforHunterLabcolorbL values between cooking tetperatures of 75 and 85°C for rapid soaked beans cooked for 30, 60 and 90 minutes, unfrozen. Beans cooked for 120 minutes exhibited a slight decrease in Hunter Iab color bL values between75and85°Cbutalargeincreasewasobservedascooking terperature increased from 85 to 95°C. Cooking temperatures were found to have a significant (p 5 0.001) effect on Hunter lab color 3L and bL values for rapid soaked, unfrozen beans but no effect on rapid soaked, frozen beans. There were no consistent trends demonstrated among cooking temperatures for Hunter Iab color 3L and bL values. Soaking treatment had a significant (p 5 0.001) effect on cooked beanHunterlabcolorcoordinatee L, aLandbLofbeanscookedat 75, 85 and 95°C. Overnight soaking produced cooked beans that were generally lighter (increased L), more red (increased a1) and more yellow (increased b1) than rapid soaking. 96 Cooking time had significant effects on Hunter Lab color L values of frozen beans cooked at 75°C, 85°C and 95°C with substantial influence at the 75°C cooking temperature treattent. The general trendwasoneofincreaseddarkening (decreasedL) ascookingtime lengthened. There were some exceptions to this, especially with beans cooked at 95°C where no apparent treld was observed. No significant interactionbetweensoaktreatrentandcookingtimewas foundto influence Hunter lab color L values for beans cooked at 75, 85 or 95°C. As cookingtime increased, Hunter Lab color aLvaluesdecreased (less red) significantly for beans cooked at 85°C then frozen and for beans cooked at 95°C both frozen and unfrozen. There was no significant cooking time influence on Hunter lab color aL for beans, unfrozen or frozen and cooked at 75°C and for unfrozen beans cooked at 85°C. There was no significant interaction between soak treatment and cooking time on Hunter Iab color aL values. A cooking temperature of 85°C produced significant (p 5 0.001) differences in Hunter lab color bL values for both unfrozen and frozen beans among cooking times. At 85°C, cooked beans were typically less yellow (decreased bL) with longer cooking times. No significant effects among cooking durations were observed at 75 or 95°C. Analysis of soaking treatrent and cooking duration demonstrated no significant interactive influence on Hunter lab color bL values for unfrozen or frozen beans. Soaking treatment had a significant (p 5 0.001) effect on Hunter Iab color aL and bL values of beans cooked for 30, 60, 90 and 120 97 minutes. All differences were significant at the p 5 0.001 level excepttheHlmterLabcolorbvalueofbearscookedforBOmimtesand frozen which was significant at p 5 0.01. A simple comparison of beans cooked for the different cooking times shows that rapid soaked beans were darker (decreased L), less red (decreased a1) and less yellow (decreased bL) then overnight soaked samples. For each cooking time, Hunter Lab color L values generally decreased between 75°C and 85°C but increased between 85°C and 95°C. Not consistent with this trend was overnight soaked beans cooked for 30, 60 and 90 minutes and frozen and rapid soaked beans cooked for 120 minutes, unfrozen. Cook terperature had a significant (p 5 0.001) influence on the Hunter Lab color L values of beans cooked for 60 mimrtes, frozen and 120 minutes, unfrozen and frozen. Beans cooked for 90 minutes, unfrozen and frozen had significantly (p 5 0.01) different Hunter Lab color L values. There was no significant interaction between soak treattent and cooking terperature on Hunter Lab color L values for cooked beans, unfrozen or unfrozen. There is no consistent relationship between cooking temperature and Hunter Lab color 3L values for each cooking time interval studied. Cooking terperature did have significant (p 5 0.05) influence on Hmter Iab color aL values of beans cooked 60 and 90 minutes, mfrozen. There was a highly significant (p 5 0.001) difference between cooking temperatures as they influenced Hunter Lab color 3L values of beans cooked for 120 minutes, frozen. There was no 98 significant interaction between soaking treattent and cooking temperature on the Hunter Lab color 3L values of cooked beans. Highly significant (p 5 0.001) differences in Hunter Iab color bL values existed for beans cooked for 120 minutes, unfrozen and frozen. Beans cooked for 60 minutes, unfrozen showed a significant (p 5 0.01) difference in Hunter Lab color bL values between cooking temperatures. Ageleraltrendofdecreasingandthen increasingHunterLabcolorbL valueswasobservedasthecookingterperatureincreasedfrom75to 85°C and from 85 to 95°C. There were no other treatments exhibiting significant differences. There was no significant interaction between soaking treatrent and cooking temperature on Hunter Lab color bL values of cooked beans, unfrozen or frozen. The quality characteristics (weight gain, texture, percent moisture andHunterLabcolor) of cookeddrybeansare influencedbysoak treattent, cooking time and terperature and freezing. Increasing cookirgtimefrem90t0120minutesandincreasingcookingterperat1re from 85 to 95°C resulted in the most dramatic quality changes in cooked beans. Longer cooking times and higher cooking temperatures caused cooked beans to have a higher weight gain, softer texture and greater percent moisture than minimal cooking times and temperatures. Hunter Iab color values L, aL, aL were somewhat inconsistently altered by the various cooking times and terperatures. In general, as cooking timeincreasedthecookedbeansbecamedarker, lessredandless yellow. Freezing of cooked beans modified quality characteristics although, not to a great degree. 99 Oneutilizing the results ofthisstudycanmakerecommedations regardingtheoptilmnmsoakingarxicookingparameterstobeusedfor maintainance of a high quality product. 100 M—TheinflueoeofsoakandcookmediapI-Ionthequality characteristics of soaked and cooked dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. Means and standard deviations (Tables 16 and 17) and analyses of variance (Appendix B) were calculated for quality characteristics of darkredkidney (Montcalm) beanssoakedandcookedinvariouspH medias. Objective and calculated measurements of color characteristics of cooked dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans as influenced by media pH are presented in Table 18. Weightgainofbothsoakedandcookedbeansincreasedasthe treatrent media pH became more basic (Figure 21) . Soaked beans exhibited a relatively progressive weight gain with increasing pH with a major increase between pH 6.0 and 7.0 although, at pH 8.0 weight gain of soaked beans decreased slightly. The standard deviation value of weight gain for soaked beans in pH 8.0 was larger (1- 11.5) than the other treattents, where i 8.6 was the highest. Disregarding this minor inconsistency, the general trend of increasing weight gain of soakedbeansas influencedbyincreasingmediaprasupheldalbeit, no significant differences existed among treattents. Beans cooked in medias of pH 3.0 - 6.0 exhibited increasing weight gains (p 5 0.01) with a leveling off through the pH range of 6.0 - 8.0. Thesamebeansamplethatwassoakedataspecifiedpi-lwas subsequentlycookedinthesamemedia. Atrendwasseenwhen comparingtheweightgainofsoakedandcookedbeansatthesamepH (Figure 22). It is apparent that beans soaked then cooked in pH 5.0, 6.0, 7.0 and 8.0, held at a high temperature (95°C) for a given length of time (120 minutes) increased in weight more dramatically than beans , ,_,._..____ III?“ s - . a...-.. 101 secs mEEw 66:8qu we. 86— x 335cm BEBE—6:2 cote: . 62 u mom—om as . 63 n 8332: sen ”ax—Emmmoaccooo 3 £903 coon 3:258”. to snow cote Awe Ems; cs8 u 33: cost counties Ewe; smut - Ame Ewe; sooo to seen u 5% Ewfiam mozom econ w 62 u Ewes; secs BEEN access—moo m u 5 sec seas e 3: 2N ea is so e5 Sm seem; tn H has to H see oooH one SSH :H as H 32 SH 3.2 as 2 H too of H see 88H one oooH 8H ms H on: so H to: as S H was to H ewe NEH e3 SSH one eéH 3.2 E H some as e§H case so H see eeeH age SSH woe 02H es: as H ex: as as H es: M: H So weeH 2H 3% 8e. eBH some es H es: or. 3H News 3 H one 85H cos oeoH was 3 H 3.: as H 2: em eeeooo 855 858 esteem essooo Beam 2.25 15% Illeacceu consume: I...5I..efianelll.=s set... .362: sooo sea case .5 :e .3 eooesscs we .2: 85.5 858 see scam e _ ns 5.8: eases... see .253 Assess—.6 .8503 not been so motmtocoouoco .2255 not accession nuance: oco mono—z .2 Bone. 102 c u 32 m x 3.955 m n E 33 2 3 3 3 «H 3.53 N o H 3 _o H mm 2 H 3 Ho H 3 No H 92 S H n: 3 m o H 3. 3 H Z ad H mm _ _ Hos _dH 3: _H H 5.2 as N o H mm 2 H 3 9o H 3 3 H 3 f H of No H 2: 3 w o H? no H on S H 2: I H 3: 3 Ha: 3 H m9 ow we H 3 3 H 3 3 H q: 3 H S: 3 HQ: 3 H SN 3 Yo H M2 5 o H mm 2 H n: 3 H 3: 2 H 3: S H 92 3 .580 Bfiom .3280 52% .325 8.3% $23 . ‘5 5.00 l ,5 8.00 A 560 In 338. .362: 308 cc“ xaom go In E coocoscfi 3 .AE omioomov noxooo ncm Aotfim ; _ ”E _UoooC 2338 29: £533 Ash—«852V >263 c8 x56 90 Ga :5 JV 322.6500 .830 93 8:5: 59 _mcoggov c5953 nan 2522 .2 03m... 103 28082:: N92“ N33 + N34: :33 u mdm camp .wéum HS“: 5.: 28:: E: 8:5? mud 26m mad m._ N: o.m_ 0.x we; mmém om.m Nd Wm fl: 0.x. owd Nm.mm M28 5m m6 0.2 o6 nmd 2.; Sum ad 2: NS ed and oodm oo.m 3” Q: N: 0.: w md 09% SN m.m 0: 0M: o.m $22.8? Hmd ea .3 .3 A $33 . 2:068:32: 68:62.5 . _ .560 :3 56:3 In 895. .362: 68 6:: 68m 6 In :3 685.55 m: 23: $58303: 3:63 62 f6 6868 6 85:20:55 .560 .M: 035. gain (grams) Weight 104 160 - ll soaked 150 - 0 cooked 140 - 130 - 120 a 110 fi I ‘ I ' I ' r r I ' r ' I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Soak and cook media target pH Figure 21. The effect of media pH on weight gain of soaked and cooked dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. 105 Figure 22. Weight gain comparison between soaked and cooked dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans treated with the same pH soak/cook media. 106 maintained in more acidic medias. The largest difference (28.4 grams) between soak and cook bean weight gain was observed with pH 6.0 treatment. . 'Ihe hydration ratio mean and standard deviation values paralleled the same trend as the weight gain which are graphically depicted in Figure 23. The increasing treatment pH resulted in increasing hydration ratios with a very slight decrease in the soaked bean sanplesarxialevelingoffinthecookedbeansamplosasthepI-I approached the basic condition. The pH treatments caused significant differences (p s 0.01) in both the soaked and cooked hydration ratios. AsthetreatmentmediapI-Iwent fromacidtobasethepercent moisture of cooked beans significantly (p < 0.01) increased as shown in Figure 24. 'Ihe difference in percent moisture of cooked beans between pH 3.0 and 4.0, 5.0 and 6.0, and 6.0 and 7.0 was virtually the same, showing a 1.0% increase with the more basic treatment. ‘Ihere was a slight decrease in percent moisture between pH 7.0 and 8.0 treated samples. Contrasted with this trend, the percent moisture increased 2.0% when comparing pH 4.0 and 5.0 treated beans. Further demonstration of the increasing moisture effect of basic pH media on cooked bean quality was apparent in textural data (Figure 25). Beans soaked and cooked in more basic pH medias significantly (p 5 0.001) exhibited less resistance to compression than beans soaked and cooked in acidic medias. An equalling of compression values occurred as media pH approached 8.0. Figures 26 and 27 graphically represent the influence of cock media pH on the interrelationship between percent moisture, texture and weight gain for cooked dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. ratio Hydration 107 2.4 - fl soaked 2.3 . 0 cooked 2.2 - 2.1 - 2.0 -' 1.9 v I r I ' r ' I ' I r I ‘ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Soak and cook media target pH Figure 7.3. The effect of media DH on bvdration ratio of soaked and cooked dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. moisture % 67 1 66 - 65 '- 64 - 63 1 62- 108 61 r r r l' I r I’ I 1 l r r 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Cook media target pH Figure 24. The effect of media pH on percent moisture of cooked dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. Texture force/100 g beans) k8 (compressibility: 109 300- 200: 100- o‘ e I - , T . .er - , e 2 3 4 5 6 7 Cook media target pH Figure 25. The effect of media pH on texture (compressibility) of cooked dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. 110 Color characteristics of dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans soaked and cooked at various pH levels exhibited relatively consistent and significant trends. At soak pH treatment of 3.0, 4.0 and 5.0 the L value remained relatively unchanged. As soak and cook media pH increased beyond 5.0 the beans tended to become darker in color as illustrated in Figure 28. This was readily apparent when comparing pH 5.0and6.0treatedcookedbeanswheretherewasamarkeddecreasein L value and a perceptible darkening. The cooked beans were darker than their soaked counterparts and the largest difference was observed at pH 4.0 treatment. Soaked and cooked beans became significantly (p 5 0.001) less red and less yellow with increasing media pH (Figures 29 and 30). Major decreases inaLandvaalueswereobservedinsoakedandcookedbeans between pH 5.0 and 6.0. Overall, the cooked beans were darker less redandlessyellwtlmnthesoakedbeansatthesamept—I. There was no congruent tendency in the derived color measurement a/b for this study. Figure 31 shows a consistent relationship between deltaEandmediapH. SincedeltaEwascalculated fromL, aLandbL values the increasing delta E values were somewhat predictable. The relative absorbance of cock media appears to be dependent upon media pH. Figure 32 delineates the relationship between absorbance and cook media pH. As cook media pH increased, the absorbance at 492 nm increased. Table 19 shows the absorption of visible light and color. The results of the spectral analysis of bean cook water coincide with those of the Hunter Lab color determination of cooked bean surface color. Ascookamedia increased, thecookedbeansterxitobecome 111 67 n - 300 —-In— % moisture 7; ' —o— texture g 2 66 - ea . e ¢ 2 65 - - 200 3 I- c 1 h 0 0 g 64 u- p 5 3 a 33 .3 d F 00 E :3 B? 63 " " 100 :3 '3 q “I o ‘a 62 - ' E o 3.. 61 t l I ‘r I I t I I r v I I o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Cook media target pH Figure 26. The influence of cook media pH on the interrelationship between percent moisture and texture (compressibility) of dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. 112 160 T - 300 —9— Weight gain ‘ —r— Texture 150 d 3' - 200 = I ’3 en _, 140 "' I- 8 ea '3 3 . - 100 130 . 120 I I fl I T I ' I ' I . I - 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Cook media target pH Figure 27 . The influence of cook media pH on the interrelationship between weight gain (grams) and texture (compressibility) of dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. kg force/100 g beans) Texture (compressibility: 113 21- 19 . fl soaked 0 cooked 18‘ 17" Hunter Lab color L 16" 15" 14 . I 2 3 4 S 6 7 Soak and cook media target pH Figure 28. The effect of media pH on Hunter Lab color L values of soaked and cooked dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. I' I r I’ I l t r f LI.&L.—“ ' ‘l 114 soaked - 0 cooked Hunter Lab color aL ‘o‘ l 4 f l7 f r I F f I I U 2 3 4 5 6 7 Soak and cook media target pH Figure 29. The effect of media pH on Hunter Lab color aL values of soaked and cooked dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. 115 soaked O cooked Hunter Lab color bL 1 f T ' l ' I V l ' l V 2 3 4 5 6 7 Soak and cook media target pH Figure 30. The effect of pH media on Hunter Lab color bL values of soaked and cooked dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. delta E 116 56- 55' 54- 53‘ 52" 51" 50" 49 ' r ' I r I V I ' I 2 3 4 5 6 7 Cook media target pH H Figure 31. The influence of cook meditfgn delta E values for cooked dark red kidney (Montcalm) beans. 117 lessredandless yellcwwhich isreflectedinthe increased absorption at 492 nm. Spectral curves for each pH media treatment are represented in Figure 33. Drybeanssoakedandcookedinneutraltobasicmediaofrfléfl, 7.0 and 8.0 exhibit a higher weight gain and hydration ratio, a softer texture and darker color than beans treated with more acidic media. Major differences in quality characteristics occur in beans when pH of soak and cook media is moved from 5.0 to 6.0. The application of heat appearstofurtherprcmntethepfiinfluenceoncookedbeanattributes. 118 Cook media absorbance (492nm) 0 r I ' I— ' I r I ' I 2 3 4 5 6 7 Cook media target pH Figure 32. The relationship between the absorbance (492 nm) of dark red kidney (Montcalm) bean cook media and pH. 119 Table 19. The relationship of wavelengths to colors and visible radiationl. Color observed Wavelength Color (transmitted) or (nm) (absorbed) complementary hue 400-450 violet yellow-green 450-480 blue yellow 480-490 green-blue orange 490—500 blue-green red 500—560 green purple 560-580 yellow-green violet 580-595 yellow blue 595-625 orange green-blue 625-750 red blue-green 1Triebold and Aurand (1963). 120 Aodum Hestum 56mm 5.an ”oéum ”cans m.:e 32:; E poxooo meson AEEoEo—zv 5.63. pa. inc co 3a in .5 8225688 5.8 95 5:5: 3 w=:o=o%o:oo mot—5 .8825 .mm 855 A55 gag—35$ com oov k1 i o 1/ O < 1d a m.- m u. ooueqiosqv 121 Mill - Objective and subjective evaluation of the quality attributes of commercially canned and IQF fully cooked light red kidney beans. A. Commercial Plant Trials: A commercial processing study was performed at Colana Frozen Foods in Coloma, Michigan to determine the process feasibility as well as to produce fully cooked IQF dry beans. 'I'wo separate production runs were conducted in which processing parameters and raw beans classes differed. Bean samples were taken at specific points during processing and obj ectively evaluated for texture (compressibility), percent moisture and color. In addition, processed bean water was sampled at specific processing points and soluble and total solids measured. The results of these quality studiescanbefoundinAppendixL. Locallypurchased, cannedlight red kidney beans were evaluated for objective characteristics and these are presented in Appendix M. The commercially produced IQF and locallypurd'iased, cannedbeanswerethenusedinthe sensory evaluation portion of this study. B. Sensory Evaluation: Presented in Table 20 and Appendix N are the means and standard deviations and the analysis of variance for the sensory evaluation component for this study. The analysis of variance between testing days revealed no significant differences. This indicates that experimental conditions: testing environment, sample preparation and presentation were similar for each day and did not iirpinge upon actual sensory evaluation rating of bean samples. 122 Table 20. Means and standard deviations1 for sensory evaluation of light red kidney beans as influenced by canning or freezing. Overall Treatment Color2 Appearance3 Texture4 acceptability5 canned 3.95 i1.07 4.33 10.93 3.78 $1.03 4.64 _-I_—_1.16 frozen 5.78 .1083 4.91 10.88 5.07 11.01 5.12 111.37 LSD0_05 0.48 0.45 0.51 0.63 1n = 32 2color 1 = very light, 7 = very dark 3appearance 1 = very dull/grainy, 7 = very shiny/smooth 4texture 1 = very soft/mushy, 7 = very firm/crunchy 5overall acceptability l = very unacceptable, 7 = very acceptable 123 The influences of bean treatrent (canned or frozen) did result in detectable differences in all sensory attributes measured. Significant differences existed between canned and frozen beans as measured by sensory evaluation for color, appearance, texture (p 5 0.001) and overall acceptability (p 5 0.01) . Compared to commercially canned product frozen kidney beans were found to be darker (less red), more shiny/smooth, more firm/crunchy and more acceptable. The sensory differences between canned and frozen beans are “- on -‘- 4m.“ - I; represented in Figure 34. As perceived by sensory panelists, it is apparent that the greatest detectable difference between canned and arm“ frozen beans is in the surface color. Among the written comments, panelists stated that the frozen beans had a "good color for kidney beans." Figure 34 also depicts the difference found in the textural attributes of canned and frozen kidney beans. While most panelists generally rated the frozen beans as being more firm/crunchy, some describedthecannedbeansasbeingtoomushyarxithus, aperceived negative factor in overall quality. Bean exterior appearance and overall acceptability were found to be the least different when the two beans (canned and frozen were rated. Results from the sensory evaluation indicate that cormercially produced fully cooked, IQF beans are judged to be an acceptable alternativetocannedbeansasaningredient infoodmixtures. 124 SW AND CDNCUJSIONS Research was conducted to evaluate the potential for commercial preparation of fully cooked and individually quick frozen (IQF) kidney beans. 'Ihrough a series of studies, the processing factors which influence selected quality characteristics (weight gain, color, texture and percent moisture) of the final product were evaluated. Assessments were made through lab bench, pilot and commercial plant trials. Differential product quality was obtained through the influence of bean soaking techniques ("overnight": zoOC/iz hours versus "rapid": 100°C/1 minute; static 1 hour), bean cooking temperatures (75, as, 95°C) and cooking times (30, 60, 90, 120 minutes). Each of these factors demonstrated potential for optimization of bean hydration and softening. 'Ihe IQF freezing treatment resulted in minor physical changes . Soak and cook media maintained at differential buffered pH (range 3.0 to 8.0) resulted in significant color, textural and hydration properties of the cooked bean. Generally, as pH increased bean hydration and softening increased during cooking. Color of the seed coat and cook water was dramatically influenced by pH. Manipulation of pH may assist in preparation time reduction and enable development of products with highly specific textural characteristics. The sensory characteristics of IQF kidney beans produced under plant demonstration trials were compared to commercially 125 126 cannedkidneybeans inachilimix. IQFbeanspossessed significantly higher hedonic rating scores for color, appearance, texture and overall acceptability than those obtained for canned beans. Results of these studies indicate that the preparation of highly acceptable fully cooked and frozen kidney bean products are technically feasible and that various processing strategies are available to modify specific characteristics of the bean. Further work is recommended to optimize conditions influencing product quality to enable production of porducts suitable for consumer and/or institutional use. Economic feasibility studies are warranted to assess market potential and cost for retail or institutional ingredient use. APPENDICES 127 128 Appendix A Sims. vmém OW: c9: $.m >er ovd w_._ so; v0.3.1 cm.m Nm cotm c.4199 ***oo.o ow.m m.mmm_ mm; _ mekm AN": ***mo.o_ fight—m .30.: ***mo.wmm34 limbs a 53.5 fine ia....kmgb— 330.com ***oo.oo_ _o.o 31.0% _ 48:... xeom 20823;. mw.m 94.: mpg. 3.90m g6 mm :33. .5 be A Abzfiamocmccoov 2229c Qo to accents; 5.8 no: secs: 22on co noes—5m SEE oocsom AEEoEoEV >263 one fee so 82322220 .3225 c8 coasts; co fineness. .wENoot ecu 32:23: snow .3 poococcfi ms mason ._N 035. 129 Appendix B is sea was on... 3.3 cane 3.3. 3.2 one are. $6 2.... >Uos oo.~ t: o_.~ SA ”Mann 2&3. 3.2.. 3.3% No.2 No.2 2.3 3.2 em totem etc tom... .o_.~ 2.. 23.82 .3332. :33»: 2:83; on?” 2.2 me.mm 2.: o c855 apes ocsaccochb :32"? 3.2.x this 3.3% Iknmmznrlmooeme:lanmnmnfiixm._emmem...on.~3:.o:no .tefiomiimoome N mciooo 8.0V est. ...mm._~ .38.” .zRom .tosm .3263; 2.2.2:: .tmeseeme 3.3322 toezftees: ...wo.ea_.:_m.e: n 3.380 32535. 36 New cos 2; on.~o-_ 3.3.3 2433 222:: 3.5 3.3 2.2: 3.2. mm .28. no» o: no» 9. no» a: nos 9. 8» o: no» o: to co:a_.8> .. :. Soc... :oNoi =39"— =o~o£ :oNoi .438". .«o .xcom Eco. xaom 53:53 snow 39: snow EEEo>o snow 29: zoom EEEo>o oocsom . 2:368 cs 22on QC Emu £303 .Aoov 222882 moo—coo was $22.25 2:: met—o8 .3 poo—Boas. ms 252. Ace—ooscoEv 5.65 e2 etc—o so 85:22:20 >525 .8 303:? 525 3:22; co 39:25. .mm 035. 130 2...- 3.6— oo.~_ 3.: aoS 2.: «Ya 3.6 :10 and omé on... >005 n. o acé mm o cad mud omé omd mvé mud vo. ové and co hotm 3 o 2... 2.... .~ c on o 3.. .2. S... ...~v.~ w... 2... 2.... o 95:... as. 05.32.th S... 3.8... .8 . ...:.n S o :8 v .3.~ ...~..: ...8.£..§.n .3... EN: N 95.80 ab. 25... :8... .NI. ..8....S~ ...~m~ L: .3. ...8... on... m; ..n.....3.~ m «5.80 30.53:. 57c 26 :6 2.6 vmé Nmé ooé o¢.o :4 mm; 3.6 and :. 3.0% no» 0: no." 2. no» 0: 8» o: no» on no» on at :o:£3> . :32". :39". .58.". lalllfloi .58.". .58.". Mo lad: ........u_u.:luldl. > .38 En... llljxaom .. .IdlclE. > lmdwdd; _ Ilajlololx ; E. > 859m JD Ja x.— mo.m:_c.ooo .28 £3 8:53 3:08 .3 03a... 131 C X .1 m woe 06 22v 2% 56 3mm >U§ m. 09: «66 26m. modm mvdm mod 3 Sum vw; No.m mg: owed Sim mm; m 9055 C9 *:§.$m ***€.;m mm? 3.: *3: $2.? m 2:: $308 @$ *om.mo cméw mm.m wvém wo.mm “$0.: ~ E253; amom “SEEP; v0.3 Nv.mm thv 5mm ao.mmc wmgl mm .89.. 3 5% £395 8% 0: me» 0: me» o: 5on :3th . :oNoE :V cos—23> mo 3. .6 850m .AmoEEEV we: wcfiooo was on“; f "Eioooe 632 8 smzuoom ”£3533 258:8: xaom B 3252.2: mm 2.32 AEEoEoEV >263 68 fun mo 35:22:20 5:2: .8 985:; 53:: coast? ho flax—.25 .mm 2an 132 CT?” 2.; vodm _._N NYE Sim.— >U § hobo omdmm 2.9:. 3.3: mm.~o~ 3.3% 3 Sum ***ow.vow vmé: Ivfimoov gnaw: **mm.wmmm u_:_:.nnm.oooo m EU th ***wo.cmm3 :iofigcv *im—émomfimoggmm ***cw.:mo~ ***~v.fim_c m uEFAWWWV—oou 130.33 :Vmsmmm ***Nc.omch***wc.;vom iivfiowwm *imficmmoo _ EoEEMWrmVV—som 208:3; ovazm voénvo :wa: nod—mo mmgvvv omdvmv mm 38% 353: 35:09:: w: umzzfimmoaficov 9.5on 3% o: me» o: 8» o: .6 count? . coaoi . :oNoE . 585 Mo mo mm oohsom 3:08 .mm 2an 133 3. m . mam #3 Q3 gm 8a >u § m: 8; com and 8; am e _ 85 3 Evo 86 mm; :5 3.0 m 5me :9 §*m_.mm ***$.R 2.: *2: Si Se m 2:? mczoou Ca and :55 was m2; is 85 _ 22:30; fiom EoEEEH com a: 3? ”Na Ea MW: mm :25 9.3232 oxe mo» 2. mo» 0: 3% o: .E count? . coup—m 58$ :3ch mo 3 mm fl 85% 63 223382 9.3000 3.58 .mm 23. 134 m_.m cob 36 end ooS ~m.w >U§ de amd 3.9 Bio 26 no; 0 w Stm CV; bud Ed mm; 3.0 om; m F055 :9 *ng E; .33 m: :33 :3 m 2:3 338w $3 *ivmd ***3.mm 33%de "wivmdm ***c_.wm ***o~.mv _ H5830; xmom 288:3; vmd o_._ mm; vmg ow; mo.m :v :30? A 3.8 and .325: 3% 0: mm» o: 8» o: by coast? ENE". . 58¢ . :3on mo mo wx mm venom 68 258095. wEv—oou 3.58 .3 23¢ 135 No.2 mm.: 2.: 3;: 3.2 2.3“ >U§ Ned cvd cmd wmd omd mud ov 82m Bio Omd mm." mod Nwd 3.0 m ~0me :9 *3; **om.~ ***co.m _m.m wmd _o.m m 25H mac—coo £8 13103 “ii—QR "wiggm .1152 itmdm ***o~.cm_ _ Eon—ESP xaom 2253:. no; N_._ co; owb 5; min :u :33. an 8.3 and .325: me» o: 3» o: 8% o: E 533:; 53E . 58$ . 58E ac mm mm mm venom Gov 22559:“: 95.80 4:5an .mm oEfi—L Ci: wwé— 32a: aim: w_.w_ omfim >U§ 136 mad id M26 :6 id Cd ow 52m Ed mmd omd Sic $6 omd m HUme :9 mod moo $.25 tax? :3 a; m 2:2 $580 $3 31.3.6— ...imvd— 13.3.2 :32: ***om._m 1.18.3 : 28828:. xaom 25823:. omd omd $6 $6 omd 2.: :3 :28. .5 5.8 2.3 .525: me» 0: mm» 0: mo» 0: :3 coast? :32... . 58E . :88"— mo mo mm 830m 625“: .mm 033. 137 Appendix D was. wbé 2.6 mod wed vm.v 05.? vfiv >0 e5 o_.mm avg; ~9va amS— bQJVm _hAN cwdm omdm N— notm 0N.o 3.0 Q: omn— hod ocN cod :6 N as xbm , 35V 42.1%“me ***m©.vmb «2.21;.on ***mm.omv **mm.ovM **:.ob— **oc.mom tam—.91 N .95“? VWOOU Pm wmdh mNdV N06 mode mm.wN Oodm wed VVWN _ JEFF xmom E08235. m—.Nv_ hwdg mméo ‘14; mmdo ¢N.wm 3:2» hqmm : :20? a: 5% 233$ me» c: me» c: 3» on mom on mu cocwtg . . :39”. . couch”. fi cowoi . :89”. go o~_ ca co om venom $225.5 0E: wExccU .Aoov 832382 $5.08 95 333m 5 255%? ”Ema. 5 :Ntooom :szRSS 3253: was—mom 3 voocozcfi mm 233 A5832): 3.63 no. is .3 33:22:20 3:25 .8 30:33 525 852:; .3 £93.22 .vm 03$. 138 E .v 2;.» Vm.m and mod 3N No.m 86 >0 ck. MEN mmd 3w.— ood 2N MK.— mh; SN 2 Sum SN $.m No._ 86 omd N_.o omd mm: N Sb x hm 38V ***oo.mv ***V~.hm ***No.wN *...*oo.mm ffahdm **vo.h_ **ow.m_ 4:10.: N .95“? vwooU Em mwd 3d mo; aNd him wmd *wmA: mm.m _ .EEF xaom 30833.... mmg. Nfio Nw.v and nmw 3mm mmd mm.m C :28. 0.23332 § mom 0: mo» c: me» o: 8.7 o: :v count? ‘ :uwdi cough q 53$ . :3on mo o2 co co om 850m w 2225:: 2:: wcicou 3:08 .VN 035E 139 5.5 8.3 8.2. M: .9. a2: 8.: on: 8.2 >9 § Sim 3.0% 3.8.. :23. 2.3. :.§. of: SN? 2 Etm 3.5.3”: 2,338: 2432 $.82 8.2m. :ww$$ :32: .382 N mewoxvs 1.388: 3333 5:28: 2.5.83.2 ..._..$.~$m:.:_m.8mm_:zadmmmo 53.8%.. N deep .68 Egg 223538 33.20: .....8.o§ 2.3.3.20: ._....o_.$5m tamoxam 3.3%»; _ gscmmvsm 3353:. 3:5 8.2:: 3&3: nomocf 2N3: $.36. 26:: 8.2: S :25 3:3: u 2:32: u: "mzzfimmoanscuv 9::on mo» c: me» o: 8» c: me» o: .E Stat? :39". . some". . .5on . 58$ .6 o2 co co om 85cm 6035:: 9:: wcficcu 3:98 .VN 03a... 140 3.x. 0: 3.0 3.5 cod :6 _NS >U ck. $5 and $6 2.6 wad Ed ovd wmd om Etm am; no; wmd SM Ed mod cod mmd m 95 firm 3th 3.2.2.2 3.2.3.“ In: 1.52 t.....§.m 3o m3 3 c m meow .48 km 325.2 tune 12.0% 3.2.3.2 12.3.: 2.3.: .....:..:._m 2.35.9. _ .25.... .38 50830:. 2: mm; mm; me; me; _~._ E.m on; mm .38. 1— ..c.8 53 .825: mo» 0: me» 0: 8» c: mom 9. .8 counts, :39". . duuam . come...— « couchm .«o :2 co 8 am 85am 6225:: 2:: @580 6:88 .VN 2an No.2 ~59 8.: m5: No.9 3.: no.2 2.2 >U§ Ed 36 $6 mmd and 26 ~56 who om 2:5 mo; a: 85 8a 73 NZ 8; 8; N 3.02% as“: M gyms :3 Ed *3; w: *3; m3 of m as“; v.80 1 ch *immdm 1.1—4m *zmwdm 1.1%.: 3.25 ***o_._m .1193 ***mw.mm _ 4.5:. flow 2253; mod El gd .2.— £6 m: ofim 3; mm .309 4a 3.8 as .25.: me» c: m2” 9. . mo» as mom 2. .E 22.3.? . 33$ . :38... . 58E . ESE Ho o2 oo oo om 8.3m . 3235:: 9:: wcioou 3.88 «N 29? 142 3.: Snow NW? 3 .3 No.3 Emo— boam 8.3 >0 ow mad :6 36 Ed 56 Ed mad mad em 3.5 Ed 3o 2:. 81 m3 :5 :2 3o m Eu Cm 8.8V *ihm; ***o~.~ cad mmd _od :36 ovd mad m 95,” xovou Em **._.:.o ***mm.~_ *ihwh— ***mo.w 3.2%.: 1.2%.: **mm.mm “.3322 ~ 485. xaom 25:235. mvd cod and $6 36 mod cod wwd mm :28. A: 3.3 an: .523: me» o: 3» o: 8% c: me» o: ‘6 count? q 5on . 58E ‘ ENE”. . :39”. be o2 co co om 85cm . 3225:: we: was—coo 3:08 .§ 035 Appendix E mwdm ow.m mo.m mesa 3:: cw.: >U§ M ca . N 3 mm: 56 56 8.8 endow S hohm ***vm.wvow_ $00.2 13.0 imod “lingo omdvn m 225.35. mofiwmm _m.m No.0 5.0 SAVN cw.mvm N; 30% ©8600 .5380 c8600 Exam now—coo noxmom :V 533:? TEAS—Ev: :o_mmanoU 2:56;. § 2:: c2236»: 3 mo . 3:33 :32 850m .362: v.80 was V38 .0 in E coocozcfi 3 2:82 AEEoEoZV x263 c2 fan AE ONZUomoV vow—08 «Ea Aocfim ; _ ”E 29503 @338 292 «0 85:22:20 aims: 58 8.8:? go max—91¢ .mm 035% 144 :.wm aodm \lmfim hodm mod 3.: >095 mmd who 2; 2: mm; mm; 2 H85 ***vw.m ***om.w ***oo.~m ***3.SV **ov.m 300.9 m 2253:. om; ww.m NNd— v0.2 Om.m Rd 2 :38. now—coo noxmom now—000 waxwom noxoou coxaom :u coast? 1.5560 an 530 A 830 .8 . 35:9 :32 ooSom EcoUv .mN 03mg. 145 Appendix F Food Science and Human Nutrition Michigan State Uruversny East Lansing. Michigan 48824-1224 November 4, 1988 Dr. John Hudzik UCRIHS 206 Berkey CAMPUS Dear Dr. Hudzik: I would appreciate an expedited review of the attached sensory evaluation proposal. Ms. Julie Hachiorlatti, an M.S. candidate in our Department will conduct this brief sensory evaluation study with a small panel of select judges as part of her thesis research. If you have any questions or need additional information, please contact me at 355-2176. Thank you for consideration of this proposal. Sincerely, Mark A. Uebersax Professor and Acting Chairperson MAU/jam Enclosure 146 Appendix F PROJECT: Feasibility and Quality Evaluation of IQF (Individually Quick Frozen) Fully Cooked Dry Edible Beans. PROJECT COORDINATOR: Julie A. Nachiorlatti, Graduate Assistant, Food Science and Human Nutrition AQVISOR: Dr. M.A. Uebersax, Professor, Food Science and Human Nutrition 1. ABSTRACT: IQF fully cooked dry edible bean product is being developed. Conventionally, dry edible beans are marketed dry or canned. Sensory evaluation of this product will be conducted in the Food Science and Human Nutrition Department. A small (ten person) panel of trained, expert panelists will be used. The beans will be incorporated into a conventional chili recipe. 2, REQUIREMENTS OF TEST §UBJECTSz The panelists will be asked to evaluate small amounts of chili particularly to detect and record the flavor, color, texture and overall acceptability of the IQF beans in this food. Three replicates of sensory evaluation will be conducted. Individuals with prior experience judging canned dry bean quality will be invited to participate on this panel. 3, RISKZBENEFII: A. POTENTIAL RISKS: No risk is anticipated for all panelists. All ingredients used are listed on the GRAS list of additions. All test procedures to be used are standardized sensory evaluation. Total testing time is estimated to be ten (10) minutes per panelist, per session. There will be three (3) test sessions. 8. SAFEGUARDS: Panelists will be instructed on the research procedure to be followed (see attached questionnaire). A list of ingredients (present on the consent form) will be shown to the test subjects prior to giving their consent in order to prevent any potential allergic reactions during evaluation. No personal data will be asked of panelists other than their personal opinion regarding samples to be tested. C. POTENTIAL BENEFITS: There will be no direct benefits to panelists. 4: CONSENT FORMS: Sensory panelists will be asked to sign a consent form prior to their participation in any of the taste testings. A copy of the consent form is attached. 147 _ Appendix G MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY COMMITTEE ON RESEARCH INVOLVING EAST LANSING 0 MICHIGAN ° 48824-1111 HUMAN SUBJECTS (UCRIHS) 206 am HALL (517) 353-973. November 23, 1988 W Julie Machiorlatti Food Science and Human Nutrition Dear Ms. Machiorlatti: Subject: ”FEASIBILITY AND QUALITY EVALUATION OF IQF INDIVIDUALLY QUICK FROZEN) FULLY COOKED DRY DIBLE BEANS W" I am pleased to advise that because of the nature of the proposed research, it was eligible for expedited review. This process has been completed, the rights and welfare of the human subjects appear to be adequately protected, and your project is therefore approved. You are reminded that UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year. If you plan to continue this project beyond one year, gease make provisions for obtaining appropriate UCRII-IS approval prior to November , 1989. Any changes in procedures involvin human subjects must be reviewed by the UCRIHS prior to initiation of the change. U RIHS must also be notified promptly of any problems gnexpekcted side effects, complaints, etc.) involving human subjects during the course of e wor Thank on for bringing this project to our attention. Ifwe can be of any future help, please do not esitate to let us know. Sincerely, J hn K. udzik, PILD. air, UCRIHS JKI-I/sar cc: M. Uebersax MS U is an Al/imawe Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 148 Appendix H Cooked Dry Bean Quality - Visual W Name: Date: You will view eight (8) sets of chili samples, 3 samples per set. For each ‘set, determine which sample is different from the other two. Qircle the number corresponding to the different sample. Proceed to the next set of samples until you have evaluated eight sets. Thank You. Cooked Dry Bean Quality - Visual W Name: Date: You will view eight (8) sets of chili samples, 3 samples per set. For each set, determine which sample is different from the ether two. Circle the number corresponding to the different sample. Proceed to the next set of samples until you have evaluated eight sets. Thank You. Set Set Set Set 149 Appendix I Cooked Dry Bean Quality - Visual Evaluation Sheet: Two of the three samples are identical one is different. Circle the number corresponding to the DIFFERENT sample. : E L— Two of the three samples are identical one is different. Circle the number corresponding to the DIFFERENT sample. Two of the three samples are identical one is different. Circle the number corresponding to the DIFFERENT sample. Two of the three samples are identical one is different. Circle the number corresponding to the DIFFERENT sample. Set Set Set Set 150 Appendix - Two of the three samples are identical one isidifferent. Circle the number corresponding to the DIFFERENT sample. Two of the three samples are identical one is different. Circle the number corresponding to the DIFFERENT sample. :3 Two of the three samples are identical one is different. Circle the number corresponding to the DIFFERENT sample. '—'—l E: Two of the three samples are identical one is different. Circle the number corresponding to the DIFFERENT sample. :] C3 '—_l 151 CONSENT FORM FOR TASTE PANELISTS Appendix J Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition Michigan State University Ingredients: Kidney beans. tomatoes, ground beef, onion, green pepper, carrot, celery, corn, garlic, corn oil, brown sugar, chili powder, jalepeno peppers, ground cumin, oregano, coriander, salt, cloves, and citric acid. I have read the above list of ingredients and find none that I know I am allergic to. I have also been informed of the nature of the research (including experimental materials and procedures) which will be used during the evaluation session. I agree to serve on this taste panel, which is being conducted on this day of 1989. In addition to tasting samples, I will be asked to complete a brief sensory evaluation questionnaire. I understand that I am free to withdraw my consent and to discontinue participation in the panel at any time without penalty. I understand that if I am injured as a result of my participation in this research project, Michigan State University will provide emergency medical care, if necessary, but these and any other medical expenses must be paid from my own health insurance program. Signature Date ”2:06:50 Appendix K awn—CU 5:05:38 53> .— 030300003 58> ._ .23.: fl 03030002.: 20.30008 .N So» 30:80—02: .N 3:23:20 i0> ._ Em: 30> .— 1 03030003: 5.23:0 .m 23833 323.0 .m 3:23:20 30.30005 .N Em: 20.30005 .N 032000025 :oQEE 00.20: .0 >53m230 223:0. .m Em: 323.0 .m 33030000 005:0: .v 30:33.5: 323:0 .m :33??? 00.30: .v 23.330 00.20: .v 03030000 5.23:0 .m 30:30 fooEmiifi 22.3.... .m 0:20 323.0 .m 03030000 30.2009: .0 >5: 30:20.58 .0 __.ooEm\>::_m 30:20—09: .0 0:30 30:20.02: .0 030E003 30> .5 20:328.: 30> .5 __.ooEa\>:Em 55> .5 3:6 55> .5 b=52m000< =E0>O 0.2.8.5 sam 0000:0031“. =a0m 8.00 50m 00300.30 03 5:08:80 0:553 :80 30.0; 033 5 2.3.00 0800.». 0.31:0 £000 8.. 0:000 .52. 5 0.: 2 9.63000 Caz—3030000 =E0>o 0:0 .0530. 02.3.0030 .830 ”8.. 20:00.3: :00; 03205 g. c. 3 ”0:5 ”0:32 0:058:330 5.2.3.05. 023:3 >530 58: >5 300.000 153 oo. 0 3.0600 .00.:{002000 00.00. - oo. n 00:00 00 - co... 00.002000 m 0 00.0800 m n :0 N 00000 3020000.. 3. u 5......000008000 “m. 00.00.00 0050 :0 00.. 00.002000 m u 0 m. ”000.000 .0002. 0.0.0 00. 0200.300 m H = ”000.000 .00000 000 :0E0 00.. 0.00.300 . u 0. D. A 0.00 5.0 0.0 w.wm w5.0wm 0000: 060 w0 m... 0.0N m0.5mm 00.000 N00 0.0 m.w 0.5m w0.wmm 000.000 0.00 0.0 0.0. 0.00 .5000 08:3. 0...... ~00 0.0 0.: o.- 5m.mmm 0000: w.m0 0.m .... 0..m No.0: 00.000 0.00 0.0 0.: 0.; 00.00. 08.08 02.00. 0.5m 0.0 0.: wdm mm.00~ 000.000 000 0.000 0.50 0.0 0.0 van :0: 00000.. 0.50 m0 m... 0.0m 00m... 00.000 0.3 m0 m... 0.mm 5a.... 000.000 0.0m 0.0 md ..mm mm.0.m 000.000 000 :25 00:00.00. 00 00 00 4 00:00.0... 2.08.000... 000.0 =00m . 000.00 001. 00.00: 0:08.00: m0. 000 .000 .0.000 .0.000 _0.0.0EE00 .3 000000.00. 00 00000 >00 30.0 0:0 5000.0. 00.. 0.000 .000 :95. 00000.0 00:: .0 A00 .00 rd 00.00.0500 00.00 00.. 00.00: 0:0 0:00.06 00 00. .00005. .8 0.00... Appendix L2 co. 0 8.9000 .0...0.\000.00. 00:0. - co. u 00:00 00 - 8.0 00.00.30. N x 00.00.00 N u 0m 00000 woo—30.0.. 9. u 00.....0005050N 00.00.30. m n . 154 0.00 0.0 I. :0 00.00. 000 0000.. 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.00 3.00 0.; 0208 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.00 00.0 00. 08.08 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.00 00.00 0.... 08.8.. 0.: 0.0 0.0 .00 .00: o 0 0000... 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.00 00.00. 0 0 00.08 0.00 .0 00 .00 00.0: o 0 08.08 0.00 0.0 0.0 :0 00.000 0 0 08.000 0e :00; 0.00 0.0 0.... 0.00 0.000 00. 0000.. 0.00 0.0 0.0. 0.00 00.00. .0. 00.08 :0 0... .0. 0.0 00...... 3. 08.08 0.00 0.0 0.0. 0.0 0.000 0.; 03.00.... - - - - 0 0 0000... 0.00 0... 0.: 0.00 00.0. o 0 00.08 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.00 00.0: 0 0 0308 02.00. 0.00 0.0 0.... 0.00 00.000 0 = 08.8... 02 0.0.. 00.20.00. 00 u... 1.0 .. N225... 100m... E00000... 000.0 000m 1.0.0.00 00.. .903. 0.00 0.0.0 0.00.500: ”.0. 000 .000 ...000 A200 0....0 0.0m... 0.000 0.0.0.0500 .3 000000...0. 00 00000 00. ..00.0 000 >000... 00. Em: .0 .15 2.0 f: 00.00.0.000 .0.00 00.. .200: 000 0.0.0.0... 00 .0. .0002). .5N 0.00... 155 Appendix L3 Table 28. Determined values of total and soluble solids in water used to soak, cook and cool dark red kidney, small red and pink beans prior to commercial IQF processing. Processing Total solids Soluble solids Bean class treatment (g/SOml) (0Brix) small red soaked 0.1939 0.6 cooked 0.4509 1.0 cooled 0.0253 0. 2 dark red soaked 0.0454 0.4 kidney cooked 0.2879 0.8 cooled 0.0253 0.2 pink soaked 0.0713 0.4 cooked 0.1802 0.6 cooled 0.0220 0.2 156 Appendix L4 Table 29. Determined values of total and soluble solids in water (10.3% citric acid) used to soak, cook and cool light red kidney and small red beans prior to commercial IQF processing. Processing Citric acid Total solids Soluble solids Bean class treatment (0.3%) (g/50ml) (OBrix) light red soaked no 0.0315 0.0 kidney cooked no 0.2896 0. 8 cooled no 0.0263 0 . 3 soaked yes 0.0879 0.2 cooked yes 0.0253 0.0 cooled yes 0.0268‘ 0.0 small red soaked no 0.0651 0.2 cooked no 0.3001 0.8 cooled no 0.0485 0.2 soaked yes 0.1779 0.4 cooked yes 0.2760 0.6 cooled yes 0.0330 0.0 157 Appendix M Table 30. Means1 of objective evaluation of locally purchased, canned light red kidney beans. Characteristic Measure can vacuum 10.5 can headspace (inches) 6/16 total net weight (grams) 507.9 drained weight (grams) 254.2 general appearance OK texture (compressibility: 103.8 kg force/100g beans) % moisture 6 8 .7 5 ln=4 158 Appendix N wmbm w—SN Stow VNSN >088 we; we; $6 36 co Hohm— vwd mm.m 56 5.0 _ err 85 :5 $4 mg 2 So an Iwcd 1.33.3 11.26 :35? ~ Cp 368:3; E2535; we; 34 3.0 on; no .36... a: 38308 22on oocfiaomm< 830 to coast? :Eo>0 - go 8:53 :32 836m .wENooc 5 wficcmo 3 neocosci mm 253 >263 no. Em: do cocasgo >838 c8 8.5:; .8 $92me Am 6331 WCES Amerine, M.A., Pangborn, R.M. and Rcessler, E.B. 1965. "Principles of Sensory Evaluation of Food," Academic Press, New York. Anon. 1988 . 1989 National Restuarant Association Foodservice Industry Forecast. Restaurants USA. 8(11): 21. AOAC. 1984. "Official Methods of Analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists," 14th ed. S. Williams (Ed.), p. 621. Association of Official Analytic Chemists, Arlington, VA. Augustin, J., Beck, C.B., Kalbfleish, G., Kagel, L.C. and Matthews, R.H. 1981. Variation in the vitamin content of raw and cooked commercial m vulggis classes. Food Technol. 34: 75. Bechtel, W.G. and Kulp, K. 1960. Freezing, defrosting and frozen preservation of cake doughnuts and yeast-raised doughnuts . Food Technol. 14: 391. Boast, M.F.G. 1985. The technology of freezing. Ch. 1. In: "Microbiology of Frozen Foods," R.K. Robinson (Ed.), p.1. Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, Iondon. Boegh-Scerensen, L. and Jul, M. 1985. Effect of freezing/thawing on foods. Ch. 2. In: "Microbiology of Frozen Foods," R.K. Robinson (1521.) , Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, Iondon. Bressani, R. 1975. Legumes in human diets and how they might be improved. In "Nutritional Improvement of Food Legumes by Breeding." M. Milner (Ed.). John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY. Bressani, R. and Elias, L.G. 1980. ‘Ihe nutritional role of polyphenols in bears. In "Polyphenols in Cereals and Iegtmies," J.H. Hulse (Ed.), p. 61. IDRC, Canada. Brody, J.E. 1985. Jane Brody's Good Food Book. Living the High Carbohydrate Way. W.W. Norton & Co., New York, NY. Ciobanu, A. Garriela L., Vasile, B. and Niculescu, L. 1976. Effects of Low Temperatures on Foods, Ch. 2. In "Cooling Technology in the Food Irflustry," Abacus Press, Tunbridge Wells, Kent, England. Cleland, A.C. and Earle, R.L. 1979. Prediction of freezing times for foods in rectangular packages. J. Food Sci. 44: 964. Cleland, A.C. and Earle, R.L. 1984. W of freezing time prediction methods. J. Food Sci. 49: 1034. Cleland, D.J., Cleland, R.L., Earle, R.L. and Byrne, SJ. 1986. Prediction of thawing times for foods of simple shapes. Int. J. Refrig. 9: 220. 159 160 Colowick, S.P. and Kaplan, N.O. (Ed.). 1955. General Preparative Procedures. Section I. In: "Methods in Ehzymology," p. 140. Academic Press, Inc. New York, NY. Deshpande, S.S., Bolin, H.R. and Slaunkhe, D.K. 1982. Freeze concentration of fruit juices. Food Technol. 36(5): 68. Desrcsier, N.W. and Desroiser, J.N. 1977. Principles of food freezing. Ch. 5. In: "‘Ihe Technology of Food Preservation," 4th ed. AVI Publishing Co., Inc. Westpcrt, CI‘. Dietrich, W.C., Idridquist, F.E., Bohart, G.S., Morris, H.J. and Nutting, M.D. 1955. Effect of degree of enzyme inactivation and storage temperature on quality retention in frozen peas. Food Res. 20: 480. Doan, F.J. 1952. Frozen concentrated milk. Food Technol. 6: 402. Enochian, R.V. 1968. ‘Ihe rise, present importance, and future of frozen fresh foods. Ch. 1. In: "The Freezing Preservation of Foods vol. 4-Freezing of Precooked and Prepared Foods," 4th ed. D.K. Tressler, W.B. Van Arsdel, and M.J. Copley (Ed.), AVI Publishing Co., Inc. Westpcrt, CI‘. Encchian, R.V. and Woolrich, W.R. 1977. ‘Ihe rise of frozen foods. Ch. 1. In: "Enndamentals of Food Freezing," N.W. Desrcsier and D.K. Tressler (£21.), AVI Publishing Co., Inc. Westpcrt, CI'. Feinberg, 8., Winter, F. and Roth, T.L. 1968. 'Ihe preparation for freezing and freezing of vegetables. Ch. 5. In: "The Freezing Preservatin of Foods, vol. 3-Commercial Food Freezing Operations- Fresh Foods," 4th ed. D.K. Tressler, W.B. Van Arsdel and M.J. Copley (£21.), AVI Publishing Co., Inc. Westpcrt, CT. Feldman, U.S., Gagnon, J., Hofmann, R. and Simpson, J. 1987. "Statview II: The Solution for Data Analysis and Presentation Graphics . Abacus Concepts. Berkeley, CA. Fennema, O. 1975. Effects of freeze-preservation on nutrients. Ch. 10. In: "Nutritional EValuation of Food Processing," 2nd ed. R.S. Harris and E. Karmas (Ed.), AVI Publishing Co., Inc. Westpcrt, CI'. Fennema, O.R. 1985. Water and ice. Ch. 2. In: "Food Chemistry," 2nd ed. O.R. Fennema (Ed.), MarcelDekker, Inc. New York. Flink, J.M. 1977 . A simplified cost corrparison of a freeze-dried food with its canned and frozen counterparts. Food Technol. 31(4): 50. Goodwin, T.W. and Mercer, E.I. 1985. Lipid metabolism. Ch. 8 In " Introduction to Plant Biochemistry, " 2nd ed. Pergamon Press, Oxford. 161 Gueffroy, D.E. (Ed.) 1975. A guide for the preparation and use of buffers in biological systers. Galbiochen, IaJolla, C21. Heldman, D.R. 1983. Factors influencing food freezing rates. Food Technol. 37(4): 103. Hosfield, G.L. and Uebersax, M.A. 1980. Variability in physio -chemical properties and nutritiona comporents of tropical and domestic dry bean germplasm. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 105(2): 246. IIR. 1986. "Recommendations for the Processing and Handling of Frozen Foods, " 3rd ed. International Institute of Refrigeration, Paris, France. Jeltena, M.A., Zabik, M.E. and 'Ihiel, L.J. 1983. Prediction of cookie quality from dietary fiber components. Cereal Oren. 60: 227. Joslyn, M.A. 1949. Enzyme activity in frozen vegetable tissue. Adv. Enzymol. 9: 613. Jul, M. 1984. "The mality of Frozen Foods," Academic Press, London. Kay, D.E. 1979. Haricot bean. In "Crop and Product Digest No. 3 - Food Legumes." Tropical Products Institute, Iondon,‘ England. Koehler, H.H. and Burke, D.W. 1981. Nutrient composition, sensory characteristics, and texture measurements of seven cultivars of dry beans. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 106(3): 313. Iarmond, E. 1977. laboratory methods for sensory evaluation of food. Agriculture Canada Research Branch. Biblication # 1637/E. Lee, F.A., Wagenknecht, A.C. and Heming, J.C. 1955. A chemical study of the progressive development of off-flavor in frozen raw vegetables. Food Res. 20: 289. Little, T.M. and Hills, F.J. 1978. "Agricalmral Experimentation: Design and Analysis," John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY. Love, R.M. 1968. Cited in: Effects of freezing/thawing on foods. 0:. 2. In: "Microbiology of Frozen Foods," 1985. Robinson, R.K. (Ed.). Elsevier Applied Science Biblishers, London. Inh, B.S., Feinberg, B. and Meehan, J.J. 1975. Freezing preservation of vegetables. In: Commercial Vegetable Processing. Inh, B.S. and Woodroof, J.G. (Eds.) AVI Publishing Co., Inc. Westpcrt, CI'. Luh, B.S. and Iorenzo, M.C. 1988. Freezing of vegetables. In: Commercial Vegetable Processing. luh, B.S. and Woodroof, J.G. (Eds.) Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. 162 Iuyet, B. 1968. Basic physical phenomena in the freezing and thawing of animal and plant tissues, 01. 1. In: " 'Ihe Freezing Preservation of Foods, vol. 2-Factors Affecting Quality in Frozen Foods, 4th edition. Tressler, D.K., Van Arsdel, W.B. and Copley, M.J. (Eds.) AVI Publishing Co., Inc. Westport CT. Marmapperuma, J.D. and Singh, R.P. 1988. Prediction of freezing and thawing times of foods using a numerical method based on eithalpy formulation. J. Food Sci. 53(2):626. Mascheroni, R.H. and Calvelo, A. 1982. A simplified modle for freezing time calculations in foods. J. Food Sci. 47:1201. McCarthy, E.J. and Perreault, W.D. 1984. Demographic dimensions of the U.S. consumer market, Ch. 6. In: Basic Marketing A Managerial Approach, 8th edition. Churchill, G.A. (Ed.). Richard D. Irwin, Inc. Homewood, IL. Meiners, O.R., Derise, N.L., Iau, H.C., Crews, M.C., Ritchey, SJ. and Murphy, E.W. 1976. The content of nine mineral elements in raw and cooked mature dry legumes. J. Agric. Food men. 24(6): 1126. Naivikul, O. and D"Appolonia, 8.1.. 1978. Comparison of legume and wheat flour carbohydrates. I. Sugar analysis. Cereal 01em. 55: 913. Olson, R.L. and Dietrich, W.C. 1968. Vegetables: Characteristics and the stability of the frozen product, 01. 4. In: The Freezing Preservation of Foods, vol.2—Factors affecting quality in frozen foods, 4th edition. Tressler, D.K., VanArsdel, W.B., and Copley, M.J. (Eds.). AVI Publishing Co., Inc. Westpcrt, or. Ott, D.B. 1984. Consumer Aspects of Food Consumption. Lecture notes 10/30/84. Pence, J.W., Standridge, N.N., Inbisich, T.M. Mecham, D.K. and Olcott, H.S. 1955. Studies on the preservation of bread by freezing. Food Technol. 9:495. Persson, P.O. 1975. The freezing of vegetables, 01. 10. In: Freeze Drying and Advanced Food Technology. Goldblitt, Rey, and Rothmayr (Fds.) . Pinse'it, B.R. 1962. Peroxidase regeneration and its effect on quality in frozen peas and thawed peas. J. Food Sci. 27: 120. Ponting, J.D. 1968. Vol. 2 p. 107. 4th edition. Tressler, D.K., VanArsdel, W.B., and Copley, M.J. (Fds.). AVI Publishing Co., Inc. Westpcrt, CI'. Potter, N.N. 1978. Cold preservation and processing, 01 9. In Food Science, 3rd edition. AVI Publishing Co., Inc. Westpcrt, CI'. 163 Reddy, N.R. and Salunkhe, D.K. 1980. 01anges in oligosaccharides during germination and cooking of black gram and fermentation of black gram/rice blend. Cereal 01em. 57(5): 356. Reddy, N.R., Pierson, M.D., Sathe, S.K. and Salunkhe, D.K. 1984. metrical, nutritional and physiological aspects of dry bean carbohydrates - a review. Food 01em. 13: 25. Reid, D.S. 1983. nmdamental Physicochenical Aspects of Freezing. Food Tech. 37(4): 110. Rockland, L.B., Zaragosa, R.M. and Oracca-Tetteh, R. 1979. Quick- cooking winged beans (Psophgcmus tetragonolobus) . J. Food Sci . 44: 1004. Rockwell, C. 1989. Personal correspondence. National Frozen Food Association. Washington, D.C. Sahasrabudhe, M.R., Quinn, J.R., Paton, D., Youngs, C.G. and Skura, B.J. 1981. Chemical composition of white beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and functional characteristics of its air-classified protein and starch fractions. J. Food Sci. 46: 1079. Salunkhe, D.K., Kadam, 8.8. and 01avan, J.K. 1985. Chemical Composition, 01. 3 In "Postharvest Biotechnology of Food Legumes." CRC Press, Inc. Boca Raton, FL. pp. 29-52. Sathe, S.K., Deshpande, S.S. and Salunkhe, D.K. 1984. Dry beans of m. A review. Part 2. Chemical composition: Carbohydrates, fiber, minerals, vitamins and lipids. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 21: 41. Sathe, S.K. and Salunkhe, D.K. 1981. Studies on trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitory activities , hemagglutinating activity and sugars in the Great Northern beans (Phaseolus vulggis L.). J. Food Sci. 46: 626. Tobin, G. and Carpenter, K.J. 1978. The nutritional value of the dry bean (Phaseolus vulga_ris): A literature review. Nutri. Abstr. and Rev. 48: 920. Tressler, D.K. 1968a. Handling and use of froze: foods-special reheating equipment, 01. 25. In: The Freezing Preservation of Foods, vol.4, 4th edtion. Tressler, D.K., VanArsdel, W.B., Copley, M.J. (Fds.) AVI Publishing Co., Inc. Westpcrt, or. Tressler,. D.K. 1968b. Soups, chowders, and stews, 01. 6. In: The Freezing Preservation of Foods vol 4-Freezing of Precooked and Prepared Foods, 4th edition. Tressler, Van Arsdel and Copley (Fds.) AVI Publishing Co., Inc. Westpcrt, CI'. 164 Tressler, D.K. 1968c. Other precooked vegetables, 01. 10. In: The Freezing Preservation of Foods vol. 4-Freezing of Precooked and Prepared Foods, 4th edition. Tressler, Van Arsdel and Copley (Fds.), AVI Publishing Co., Inc. Westpcrt, CI‘. U. S . D.A. 1985 . Food Marketing Review. National Economics Division, Economic Research Service . Agricultural Economic Report No. 549 . U.S.D.A. 1986. Agricultural Handbook No. 8-16. Composition of Foods: Legumes and Legume Products. Washington, D.C. U.S.D.A. 1987. National Food Review Yearbook. Economic Research serVicee NPR-370 Varriano-Marston, E. and DeOmana, E. 1979. Effects of sodium salt solutions on the chemical compostition and morphology of black beans (Ehgs_e_c_>_],u_s vulgaris). J. Food Sci. 44: 531. Wagenknecht, A.C. and Lee, F.A. 1958. Enzyme action and off-flavor in frozen peas. Food Res. 23:25. Wells, J.M., Singh, R.P. and Noble, A.C. 1987. A graphical interpretation of time-temperature realted quality changes in frozei food. J. Food Sci. 52(2):436. Williams, D.C., Lim, M.H., 01en, A.C., Pangborn, R.M. and Whitaker, J .R. 1986. Blanching vegetables for freezing-which indicator enzyme to choose. Food Technol. 40:130. Woolrich, W.R. and Novak, A.F. 1977. Refrigeration technology, Ch. 2. In: Fundamentals of Food Freezing. Desrcsier, N.W. and Tressler, D.K. (Eds.). AVI Publishing Co., Inc. Westpcrt, CT'. Zabik, M.E. and Figa, J.E. 1968. Comparision of frozen, foam-spray dried, freeze-dried and spray-dried eggs. Food Technol. 22:119.