«904 e..u._~w~\iv In; .. z... . nu. *NJEWKs Iv)“; :«vok JA'. t. to. . 91:. 7. .Isun. u....’.«¢‘1 35’; I 9.... 2+? ifm. e r!!- if"... . 41“.... .10. 1.1.31... :1 . .H...:..s+.iy 2.2.15": ..;.‘:-‘.3. . . y...-rv'p $4.. Hfikmxufl.» " LI- NIIVERS ITY LIB IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII| I I I IIIIIIIIII \ 0755’ M’ I: ; / _3 1293 00788 369 Ut‘fzriARY Michigan State University —. "no—tap-.. .c u ‘ d—--—~ -- ~r- This is to certify that the thesis entitled THE IIVH’ACT OF AMERICAN TELEVISION COMMERCIALS UPON SAUDI ARABIAN STUDENTS' CHILDREN'S HABITS IN TERMS OF PURCHASING BEHAVIOR presented by Hassan Omar Basfar has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Master of Arts degree in Communication / [I —( I ‘ [2/1/25 IUI \M Major professor /' , , "a“ Date if), “2% (6/ / 0-7639 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. F—_————————_% DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE JUN 2“: "£5.” H *‘1 fl =—_Im MSU Is An Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Inaitution pitta-W . THE IMPACT OF AMERICAN TELEVISION COMMERCIALS UPON SAUDI ARABIAN STUDENTS’ CHILDREN’S HABITS IN TERMS OF PURCHASING BEHAVIOR By Hassan Omar Basfar A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Communication 1989 a I! P V L / Av rv \ . J EOOIEOI ABSHMCT THE IMPACT OF AMERICAN TELEVISION COMMERCIALS UPON SAUDI ARABIAN STUDENTS’ CHILDREN’S HABITS IN TERMS OF PURCHASING BEHAVIOR By Hassan Omar Basfar This study attempted to examine some Of the effects Of American television commercials on Saudi Arabian students’ children’s habits in terms Of purchasing behavior. The study employed a questionnaire survey mailed to Saudi Arabian-named students who had at least one child between the age Of 3-15 years. A total Of 42 Saudi Arabian students participated in this study. Descriptive statistics and the non- parametric chi-square test Of statistical significance was used in the analysis and presentation Of data. The study revealed that American television commercials have a significant effect on Saudi Arabian children’s habits in selecting toys; both television channels, Nickelodeon and channel 23, have a significant influence on Saudi children’s purchasing habits; television commercials during special occasions like Christmas and halloween significantly increase children’s demand for purchases; television commercials typically do not have an impact on Saudi children’s parents’ household purchases; and Saudi Arabian children’s parents watch more American movies than either Arabian or Indian movies on their video cassette recorders (VCR). COPyright by HASSAN OMAR BASFAR 1989 Dedicated to my beloved father, Omar Basfar; mother, Salha Al-Aamoudi, and to all my brothers, sisters, and immediate family members. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis would not have been completed without the direct and indirect assistance and encouragement Of some people. Special appreciation goes to Professor Jack Bain, my advisor and chairperson Of the guidance committee, for his assistance, patience and advice. My appreciation also goes to the members Of the committee, Professor Charles Atkin and Professor Joseph Straubhaar, for their support, guidance and advice. I also would like to thank Joshua Bagaka’s for his professional assistance in the statistical design Of this study; Joanne Lewis, for her timeless service Of high quality typing Of this thesis; my two friends, Mohammed Al-Wahid and Saad Al- Saaran, for encouragement and suggestions; and all Saudi Arabian students at Michigan State University for participating in this study. In Saudi Arabia, I would like tO extend a special acknowledgement to Professor Abdullah AL-Turki, Rector Of Imam University; Professor Mohammed Al- Salem, Provost of Imam University; Professor AbdulKader Tash, Chairperson Of the Department of Mass Communication at Imam University; and staff at the Department Of Imam University for encouraging me to go for further studies. Last but not least, my very special thanks goes to Imam University and Saudi Arabian Cultural Mission for sponsoring my studies in the United States. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION ........................... Statement Of the Problem ............................... Purpose Of the Study ................................... Significance Of the Study ................................ Research Questions .................................... Definition Of Terms ................................... Limitations Of the Study .................................. Summary ........................................... CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW ...................... Introduction ......................................... Review Of Literature ................................... Summary ........................................... CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY . . . Introduction ......................................... Population and Data Collection ........................... Instrumentation ...................................... Data Anaysis ........................................ Design Limitations .................................... CHAPTER FOUR PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA . . . . Introduction ......................................... Research Question 1 ................................... Research Question 2 ................................... Research Question 3 ................................... Research Question 4 ................................... Research Question 5 ................................... Research Question 6 ................................... Research Question 7 ................................... Research Question 8 ................................... Research Question 9 ................................... Research Question 10 .................................. Research Question 11 .................................. Research Question 12 .................................. Research Question 13 .................................. Research Question 14 .................................. Research Question 15 .................................. 10 10 10 16 18 18 18 19 20 26 27 27 29 3 1 32 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 44 45 46 CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION .......... 47 Introduction ......................................... 47 Summary Of Findings .................................. 48 Conclusions ......................................... 50 Recommendations ..................................... 51 Overall Recommendations .......................... 53 APPENDIX A LETTER TO SAUDI STUDENTS AND QUESTIONNAIRE .......... 54 APPENDIX B FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSES TO DIFFERENT VARIABLES IN THE STUDY ..................... 63 ENDNOTES ............................................. 69 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................... 71 vii LIST OF TABLES Table 4.0 Frequency and percentage Of viewing different television channels .................................... 4.1 Effect Of American TV commercials on Saudi children in the selection of food, toys, clothing and rejecting parents’ selections .............................. 4.2 Effect Of exposure to American television commercials on purchasing demand ................................. 4.3 Effect Of access to television channels on children’s purchasing habits on selecting foods, toys, and clothing ............................................ 4.4 Frequencies and percentages for the time interval when children view television during the week-days and week-ends ....................................... 4.5 The effect of length Of time parents have been in the U.S.A. and perception Of the general children’s habits, in selection Of food, toys and clothing ................. 4.6 Effect of special occasions like Christmas and halloween on the number of toys purchased, children’s diet and general demand for purchases ..................... 4.7 Frequencies and percentages showing the parents’ disagreement with children’s choices and children’s rejecting parents’ selections ...................... 4.8 Chi-Square values for the relationship between viewing different types of television commercials and children’s selection habits ............................ 4.9 Effect Of television commercials on children’s habits in the United States and Saudi Arabia ................. viii Page 30 32 33 35 37 37 38 39 4.10 Reason why Saudi children are affected by television commercials in the United States of America ................. 41 4.11 Effect Of television commercials on Saudi parents’ household purchases ................................... 42 4.12 Effect Of teachers, friends, school and television commercials on children’s habits on what to buy ............... 43 4.13 Individual or combination of family members who decides items to be bought for the child ..................... 44 4.14 Frequency Of watching American, Indian and Arabian movies on VCR ................................ 45 4.15 Children’s agreement with parents about what their parents watch on their VCR ............................. 46 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION The primary focus Of this study is tO examine the perception Of Saudi students and their spouses, who are parents, towards the impact Of television (TV) commercials on their children’s habits in terms Of purchasing behavior. The children in this study are accompanying their parents who are attending graduate and undergraduate studies at Michigan State University (M.S.U.) in East Lansing. These children are exposed to American TV commercials. The American commercials demonstrate or present many American purchasing habits. The habits that are the focus of this study are the habits Of Saudi children towards purchasing behavior in terms Of selecting fOOd, toys and clothing. Also, this study will show the children rejecting their parents’ choices for purchases. Will these children accept the ideas that are presented in the TV commercials? Saudi children seem to increase their demand for items from their parents while they are living in the United States, than when they are living in Saudi Arabia. This increase may come as a result Of watching many hours Of TV commercials on American television. Many factors (e.g., schools, teachers, and friends) may influence the children’s habits towards purchasing behavior. However, this study is focusing on the effect Of American TV commercials on Saudi children’s habits towards purchasing behavior. Unfortunately, no studies have been done on this topic, either in Saudi Arabia or the United States. This is due to the limit Of this topic tO Saudi children’s habits in terms Of purchasing behavior. Furthermore, TV commercials are a recent phenomenon in Saudi Arabia. In 1986 the first TV commercial was introduced to the Saudi Arabian society. There are two TV channels in Saudi Arabia; one is in Arabic and the Other in English with daily news in French. TV commercials are displayed on both channels from 8:30 to 8:45 pm. and from 10:30 to 10:45 pm. A portion Of the Saudi commercials are targeted for children. Oirrently, TV commercials are displayed five times daily on Saudi TV. This event tells us that TV commercials have become a more acceptable matter to the Saudi society. On the Other hand, many studies have been done in the United States about the negative impact of TV commercials on American children. The findings Of these studies Show and reflect the negative effect on these children, due to watching many commercials on the small window television. For example, in Robin J. Moss’ book review about research on the effect Of television advertising on children, he stated that: The average American child under 12 watches around 20,000 television commercials each year; the average high school graduate may have seen some 350,000 such messages in his or her life.1 He also concluded that: Half the children in the United States under 12 are watching television at 8 p.m.; at 10 pm, 25 percent are still watching. Each week the average child under 12 watches 27 hours Of television, that is, rather more than he or she will spend on studying at school each week.2 The effects Of TV commercials cause the parents Of those children to be concerned, uncomfortable and complain about the problem. Robertson (1979) concluded that during 1973 only 34 consumer letters were reported by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). Those letters complained about commercials’ effects and children. Following that year, the number Of letters received increased to over 100,000 letters. Ninety percent Of the total letters included negative comments on TV commercials’ effects on children.’ TV commercials may affect the relationships between children and their parents. These effects Of TV commercials may create a conflict between the parents and those children. This conflict may come as a result Of the children demanding more than their needs for purchasing items that they have seen on the TV commercials. For example, when children see items that are on commercials, they ask their parents tO buy those items because those children consider that what is displayed on the commercials is the right items for their needs. However, parents may refuse tO buy for their children what they see on TV advertising. It is agreeable that television is a medium which strongly effects children. This small window TV includes many programs, and among these programs several TV advertisements are displayed. The advertisements in this medium are very powerful tools that persuade many people in different ages and different ethnic groups. One Of the major problems and concerns parents have is that TV commercials may create a conflict between the children and their parents. Culley, Lazer and Atkin examined attitudes toward children’s commercials across a range of the publics, including "townspeople," "advertising agency executives," ”ACT spokespersons," and "government." Although only the townspeople respondents were randomly selected and interviewed in person, whereas the other groups were interviewed by mail. The comparison of vantage points across publics which this study provides is interesting. In general, about one- fourth Of the "townspeople" feel that advertising helps develop good consumer skills, about one-half feel that commercials may arouse anxieties in children, two-thirds feel that commercials increase parent- child conflicts, and almost all feel that commercials may persuade children to want things they don’t need.‘ Statement of the Problem Saudi students’ children are no exception from others. They are affected by American television commercials. These children usually make demands on their parents to buy more products. It is frustrating for children when their parents refuse to buy them the items that they see on commercials. In Saudi Arabia, the children do not see as many commercials as seen in the United States (U.S.); and the parents control what they will buy for their children. But in the US, the situation is different. This makes parents anxious because they feel that their children demand more than usual compared to back home, in terms Of purchasing behavior. Saudi students perceive that American television affects their children’s habits in terms Of purchasing behavior. Purpose of the Study The primary focus of this study is to examine the perception of Saudi students and their spouses, who are parents, towards the effect of American television commercials on their children’s habits as a result of watching television commercials. DO these students perceive that American television commercials affect their children in terms of purchasing behavior? This study will explore how Saudi students who are parents perceive the impact Of American television commercial on their children’s habits in terms Of purchasing behavior. Significance of the Study The significance of this study relies upon the fact that it reflects to what extent American television commercials affect Saudi students’ children in terms of purchasing behavior. Because this research studies the effects Of commercials during specific periods of time of watching television (e.g., 4 pm. to 6 pm. or 6 pm. to 10 pm.) that makes them understand that in this period, they should discuss and alert their children to understand and recognize what is being displayed on commercials needs to be identified according to Saudi children’s needs. Moreover, this study may show that there is a relation between hours children watch TV and the span of effects of commercials. That leads Saudi students to recognize that they should supervise their children’s watch TV. This study will help Saudi students to be aware of the impact Of television commercials on their children. This awareness can be introduced to new students during their orientation programs either in Saudi Arabia before they are leaving their own country, or when they arrive in the United States. In addition, it is important that this study encourage researchers to do more research regarding this issue because there have not been any prior studies done on the perception of Saudi students towards the impact Of American TV commercials on their children’s habits in terms of purchasing behavior. Research Questions The primary research questions in this study seeks to investigate: DO Saudi students perceive that American television commercials affect their children’s habits in terms of purchasing behavior? Specifically, the following questions will be addressed: QuestjgnJ: What is the perceived impact of American television commercials upon Saudi children? gigging}: DO purchasing demands increase among Saudi students’ children who are exposed to American television commercials? Question}: Is there a greater effect on purchasing habits for those children who have access to more channels than those who do not? maxim: During what time period do Saudi children view the greater amount of Television? Mani: Are children who have stayed longer in the United States more affected by television commercials than those who have stayed less? 91.1mm: Is there a greater effect of American television commercials on children’s purchasing habits during special occasions such as Christmas and halloween? W: Is there a disagreement between the children and their parents about the decision Of what should be purchased for the children? M: Is there a relationship between viewing types Of television commercials (e.g. food, toys and clothing) and the children’s habits in selecting food, toys and clothing? Quesn'mLQ: Is there a greater impact on children’s purchasing practices in the United States than in Saudi Arabia? W: What are some of the reasons why Saudi Arabian children are afiected by television commercials in the United States? Questionil: Do television commercials have an effect on parents’ household purchases? W: To what extent do friends, teachers, schools and television commercials affect the child’s idea on what to buy? W: In the family (mother, father, both parents, father and child, mother and child, both parents and child) who decides for the child what items to buy? W: What types Of movies (American, Arabian, Indian) do the Saudi Arabian students watch on their VCR? W3 Do the children agree with their parents about what they watch on the VCR? Definition of Terms Impact. "The effect of advertising on such an audience, measured by either the extent and degree of its awareness attainments, or the sales it produces."5 WW. Any commercial displayed on American television through local station and/or cable television at Lansing, Michigan. Commercial. "An advertisement on television or radio!“5 Children. Children of Saudi students between the ages Of 3-15 years. These children live with their parents in the East Lansing/Lansing area. Moreover, these children watch TV commercials through the local stations, cable TV, or both. Purchasing. Buying services or merchandise. Inmasjngnnmhasing. The significance of changing in spending on items (clothing, toys, food) that has been demanded by Saudi children. Maxim. "The response Of an individual, group or species to its environment."7 Wm. Saudi students who are parents and enrolled at MSU at the time of conducting this study. These students are graduates (master’s or PhD. degree) and undergraduates. Their age is above 20 years old only. These students are married and have at least one child aged between 3-15 years old. Limitations of the Study This study has the following limitations: 1. This study represents the perception of Saudi students who are parents and enrolled at Michigan State University during the period of conducting this study. Although the results of this study does not represent the perception Of Saudi students in all areas of the United States, this study could give some indication about the perception of Saudi students towards the impact of TV commercials on their children in terms Of purchasing behavior. 2. In order to communicate with children, specially designed tools need to be used that would drive out information and responses from a Saudi child without taking chances Of being misled by a lack of comprehension by children due to language or maturity status. Specially designed tools could be used, such as the Rorschach test or any similar test which also may reflect bias results, but such tests were not designed for the Saudi culture. For the mentioned reason, the parent’s perception was used to conduct this research. Summary There is a strong, negative impact of TV commercials on American children’s behavior. A number of articles and books have been written on this topic. Unfortunately, none of the studies completed were about Saudi students’ childrens behaviors towards American TV commercials in terms of purchasing, as perceived by their parents. However, this study intends to examine the perception of Saudi students’ parents to answer the questionable habits of their children towards the impact of TV commercials in the United States, and that will help Saudi students who are parents to become aware of the effects Of TV commercials on their children. This awareness can be introduced to new students during their orientation program either when they are in their own home, Saudi Arabia, or when they arrive at the United States. CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction The purpose of the literature review Of this study is as follows: first, to seek some studies which were done about the effect of TV commercials on children in the United States; second, to review some studies which were done related or similar to our topic; and, third, to provide the remaining background about the assuming effects of TV commercials on children. In order to seek the purpose Of the literature review Of this study, it was necessary to use more than one computerized library search at Michigan State University, such as SSCI, ERIC, etc. Review of Literature The impact Of TV commercials on children has been studied through different aspects, and we have a number of articles and books regarding this matter. For example, Macklin (1987), in his review Of some studies, mentioned that current research has tried to provide an assessment of children’s comprehension Of informational function of advertising. Informational function is the purpose of advertising from the buyer’s perspective. For example, a particular study by Donohue, Henke, and Donohue (1980) examined the connection between television 11 advertising and purchase behavior among preschoolers. The results showed a minor percentage of preschoolers who exhibited understanding Of commercial intent, 7.5 percent of four-year Olds and 20 percent of five-year Olds selected the correct choice. These results suggest that some preschoolers understand informational function of commercials. Furthermore, these results contradict conclusions made by public policymakers that believed children under the age Of eight are unable to understand commercial meaning. All studies up to 1987 have shown age to be an important mediating variable for children.’ Furthermore, Robertson and Rossiter (1976) studied the "Short-Run Advertising Effects on Children." Their study examines the effectiveness of children’s commercials in a field setting. This was done by conducting a two-wave survey of children between the ages of 7 and 10 years. The children were asked to state their preferred Christmas present choices five weeks before Christmas and one week before Christmas. Their results showed the effect of television advertising on children’s toy and game choices to be moderate though significant. There was a five percent increase in the requests of the children to their parents. This study’s results argue against the increased cognitive resistance explanation, as exhibited by the children’s actual behavior, because the findings suggest that the short-term impact of the commercials on children’s behavioral choices is similar at all age levels.’ Also, Ward and Wackman (1972) did a study on the "Children’s Purchase Influence Attempts and Parental Yielding." Their study focused on interpersonal communication between their mother’s purchases and her yielding to their attempts. The study also examined the influence of three variables: demographics, parent- 12 child interaction, and mother’s mass communication behavior. The findings from their study showed that children’s purchase influence attempts may decrease with age, depending on the type of product. But the mother’s yielding to requests increases with the child’s increasing age. Their findings also suggested that, influence attempts may be part of a more general parent-child conflict, and mothers who control the children’s viewing are not likely to yield to purchase influence attempts.lo Moreover, Feldman, Wolf and Warmount (1977) studied the "Parental Concern About Child-Directed Commercials." Their study explores the concern Of parents toward child-directed commercials, and if the degree Of concern can be predicted depending on various variables. They found that the parents concern about commercials may be high or low on parental controllingness. Also, other factors should be considered to explain their concern. They hypothesize that the parents who are upset with commercials feel that outside forces are interfering with the parents’ prerogatives and goals in the socialization Of their children.11 Atkin and Heald (1977) studied the content of children’s toy and food commercials by videotaping Saturday morning advertisements on all three television networks (CBS, ABC and NBC) on a pair Of comparable days in 1972 and 1973. Their findings indicated that 50 percent of all ads in 1972, and 66 percent in 1973 belonged to toys including games and dolls. Foods constituted another major group, with 48 percent Of all ads in 1972 and 32 percent in 1973. Of all food ads, cereals, especially sugared cereals, accounted for 27 percent in 1972 and 17 percent in 1973. 13 Other food items (e.g., candies, drinks, sweets, snacks, desserts, and fast food) accounted for 21 percent of the 1972 ads and 15 percent of ads in 1973.‘2 Robertson and Rossiter (1977) examined the children’s responsiveness to TV commercials. Their findings showed: (1) high TV exposure children indeed requested proportionately more toys and games than low exposure children; (2) high exposure-low peer integration children were most persuaded, whereas low exposure children, regardless of integration, were least persuaded; and (3) high exposure-low parental education children were the ones most persuaded, whereas low exposure- high education children were least persuaded. The study also found that the dispositional effect of age was very significant. First grade and third grade children were more strongly affected by ads than fifth grade children.13 Atkin’s (1978) study examined the parent-child interaction in the supermarket to determine the processes and effects of decision-making in the selection of breakfast cereals. Questionnaires were administered to children and their mothers were interviewed to determine self-reported interaction in cereal decision-making. According to the findings of the study, approximately one-third of each sample indicated that the child ”Often" asked for breakfast cereals after watching cereal commercials, while another two-fifths reported that this happened sometimes. In addition, one-half Of the children sample, and one-third Of the parents (mothers) reported that refusal to meet children’s desires for cereals, at least and occasionally, brought about mother-child conflict and child unhappiness.“ After reviewing a number Of studies, Atkin (1982) concludes: 14 There is ample evidence that television advertising plays a dominant role in shaping children’s product preferences. Both experiments and surveys show how exposure to advertising increases desire, asking and consumption of advertised products. Children who heavily view television advertising are far more likely to request that parents buy food and toy products for them.” Feshbach, Dillman and Jordan (1979) reviewed studies related to children’s learning from television commercials. Their review indicated: (1) there was strong evidence that children can and do learn from television commercials; (2) younger children are less critical and more likely to accept as truth anything that appears on the television screen; (3) children do attempt to influence their parents’ purchases; and (4) rational, information-oriented messages can increase children’s knowledge Of health and nutrition, while still conveying product information“ Murray and Lonnborg (1984) highlighted the findings of research studies related to the impact of television on children, and provided suggestions to the parents as to why and how they could influence the impact of television on their children. Regarding the influence Of television commercials on children, they referred to the findings of the study done by Drs. Joan Galst and Mary White of Columbia University. These researchers followed preschool children and their mothers on a supermarket shopping trip. Their observations indicated that these children had strong preferences for certain brands of cereals or candy that were related to commercials they had seen on television. However, Murray and Lonnborg also pointed out that on the basis of many studies, that as children grow and begin to grasp the purpose of ads, the number of their requests based on TV commercials also drops.‘7 15 Roedder, Sternthal and Calder (1983) studied the conditions under which children are likely to make attitude-consistent choices in response to television commercials. The findings of their two experiments Show that children’s age and the demands of the choice task are determining factors of attitude-behavior consistency." Sheikh, Prasad and Rao (1974) reviewed research studies related to children’s TV commercials. They reviewed the related literature under the following main categories: (1) content Of children’s commercials; (2) children’s attention to commercials; (3) children’s information processing of commercial messages; (4) children’s attitude toward TV advertising; and (5) children’s attempts to influence their parents to purchase the advertised products. The results of their review, in connection with the influence of TV commercials on children and children’s efforts to influence their parents, indicate that children are influenced by TV commercials and they attempt to influence the parental buying behaviors. Their review also points to the fact that mothers feel that younger children are more influenced by TV ads than Older children." Sheikh and Moleski (1977) conducted a study to find the conflict in the family over TV commercials. They collected the data from 48 children from each of the first, third and fifth grades of a parochial grade school in the Milwaukee metropolitan area. The findings of their study showed that children are indeed influenced by television commercials, and when their parents do not yield to their purchase requests, they express the following behaviors: unpleasant affect, acceptance, aggression, persistence and irrelevant response.” The review also points out that: 16 By the third grade level, the commercials are having a strong effect on the children; not only do they make more purchase requests, but they also seem less prone to accept parental refusal and more likely to react aggressively when faced with frustrations.21 As reported by the reviewers, "projective tests suggest that unpleasant consequences Of parents’ refusal to yield decrease with age and sex.” Even though there are a sufficient number of studies related to the effect Of TV commercials and American children, in contrast, studies have not been completed about the effect of TV commercials upon Saudi Arabian students’ children either in the United States or Saudi Arabia. Summary In this chapter, studies related to the impact of television commercials on children’s purchase behaviors have been reviewed. The main purpose of this review was to get insight and direction for this present study. It appears from the review of studies that children are influenced by television commercials. However, the extent of impact of TV commercials vary with the age of the children exposed to television advertising. Younger children are influenced more than older children. Children who are influenced by television commercials try to influence their parents to purchase advertised products. When their purchase requests are denied by their parents, they express behaviors like unpleasant affect, acceptance, aggression, persistence and irrelevant response. It has been pointed out by the review of studies that by the third grade level, television commercials begin to have strong effects on children exposed to TV commercials. 17 These children not only make more purchase requests, but also tend to ignore parental refusals and more likely react aggressively when faced with frustrations. Television commercials mostly fall in two categories: (1) toys including games and dolls; and (2) food items like cereals (especially sugared cereals), candies, drinks, sweets, snacks, deserts and fast foods. CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Introduction The major purpose of the present study was to assess the degree to which American television commercials affect Saudi children in terms of purchasing behavior as perceived by their parents. The research design involved a survey questionnaire mailed through the Office of the Registrar to all Saudi students studying at Michigan State University. Statements and questions (mostly closed ended) were included in the survey instrument to determine the extent to which Saudi children are affected in various aspects by American television commercials as perceived by their parents. Population and Data Collection The population Of this study consisted of Saudi students enrolled at Michigan State University, who are married and have at least one child between the age Of 3- 15 years Old. The participants in this study were identified through the Michigan State University’s Office of the Registrar data base. However, due to the difficulty of the Registrar’s Office to identify only Saudi married students who have at least one child between the age of 3-15 years, the questionnaires were distributed to all Saudi students who were enrolled at Michigan State University during Winter 1989. A total of 98 questionnaires were mailed to all Saudi students at Michigan State University through the Office of the Registrar, which is two questionnaires for 49 19 addresses. Fifty-two responded before a follow-up letter was sent, after which 20 others responded. Of the total 72 respondents, 30 were either single or parents with children younger than 3 or older than 15 years. Thus, the remaining sample of 42 respondents consisted of Saudi married students, both students and their spouses, enrolled at MSU for the Winter 1989 and who had children between the age Of 3- 15 years. All these 42 respondents who constituted valid data owned a television set and their children watched television. The children ranged in age from 3 to 11 years with the largest number (29%) being 5 years old. Of the 42 respondents, 29 (or 70%) have been in the United States for over three years. Instrumentation The questionnaire used in this study consisted of three parts. Part I was designed to collect general demographic information of the children and their parents as well. In addition to these demographic variables like sex, age, marital status, length Of stay in the U.S.A. and the level Of education, Part I also collected information on the average number of hours Saudi children watched television and the type of commercials which the children viewed on television. Four options for the types of commercials were provided, which included food (cereals, pop, ice cream), toys, clothing, and others. A large section of Part I included items which required the respondents to rate the extent to which they perceive American television commercials affect their children’s general habits, in selecting food, toys, clothing, and in rejecting their 20 parents’ purchasing selections. An ordinal Likert type scale ranging from very strong effect to no effect at all was used to measure these perceptions. The question of who decides what or what not to buy for the family and children as well as the extent of authoritativeness of parents towards their children was also examined in Part I. Parents’ perceptions on the effect of American television commercials during special occasions like Christmas and halloween on their children’s demands for purchases of toys and food was presented in Part II. Information on the availability of television channels and viewing schedules was also Obtained through Part II of the questionnaire. Questionnaire items designed to examine the perceptions of parents regarding the extent television commercials in the United States affect their children more than television commercials in Saudi Arabia were presented in Part III of the questionnaire. An ordinal Likert type scale ranging from very strong effect to no effect at all was utilized. Few items regarding the extent of usage and role of video cassette recorders (VCRs) was presented in Part [II of this questionnaire. A few items to evaluate the relative popularity of American, Arabian and Indian movies were also presented in Part III of the questionnaire. Data Analysis The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS-X) was used in the analysis and presentation of data for this study. Simple descriptive statistics, including means, counts, percentages and standard deviations were the major statistical tools used in 21 this survey research. Frequencies and percentages were utilized to represent the demographic information of the respondents. Whenever necessary, a chi-square test of statistical significance was used to determine whether or not significant relationships exist between certain variables. A total Of 15 research questions were addressed and statistical tools used in the presentation and analysis of data are given below. W: What is the perceived impact of American television commercials upon Saudi children? The means and standard deviations of the degree to which the general child’s habits, the selection of food, toys, clothes and rejecting parents’ selections were computed. The means resulting from these variables with the five-point Likert-type responses were given by: (5) very strongly affected (4) strongly affected (3) somewhat affected (2) slightly affected (1) not at all affected and were interpreted as follows: 1.000 - 2.499 - low effect 2.500 - 3.999 - moderate effect 4.000 - 5.000 -- high effect Do purchasing demands increase among Saudi students’ children who are exposed to American television commercials? A chi-square test of statistical significance was used to examine whether or not there exists significant relationship between the amount of exposure to American television commercials and the purchasing demands. KW: Is there a greater effect on purchasing habits for those children who have access to more channels than those who do not? Respondents were provided with a list of channels and were asked to check those channels which are available and are watched by their children. Based on this information, a code representing an amount of access to television was given. A chi-square test of statistical significance was then used to examine the degree of dependency between the amount of access to television channels and the children’s purchasing habits as perceived by their parents. In addition to the overall code indicating access to channels, chi-square tests were computed to determine the effect of access to each channel on the children’s purchasing habits. ° : During what time period do Saudi children view the greater amount of television? The following list of time intervals was presented to the respondents to check the time interval when their children watch television during week-days and week- ends: - 8 am. to 12 noon - after 12 noon and before 4 pm. - after 4 pm. and before 6 pm. - after 6 pm. and before 10 pm. - after 10 pm. Frequencies and percentages of responses were computed to show which times of the day most children watch television. W: Are children who have stayed longer in the United States more affected by television commercials than those who have stayed less? A chi-square test of statistical significance was used to examine the relationship between the length Of stay in the United States and the parents’ perception on the effect of television commercials in selecting food, toys, clothing, and the general purchasing habits. KW: Is there a greater effect of American television commercials on children’s purchasing habits during special occasions such as Christmas and halloween? Frequencies and percentages of responses (yes, no) were computed for the parents’ perceptions of whether or not their children are affected more during special occasions in their demand for purchases. . Is there a disagreement between the children and their parents about the decision of what should be purchased for the children? Two items in the questionnaire, one designed to determine the extent to which parents disagree with their children’s choices and another examining the extent to which children reject their parents’ purchasing selections were used. Frequencies and percentages of responses were computed on these items to evaluate the amount Of disagreement that exist between Saudi children and their parents. 39mm: Is there a relationship between viewing types of television commercials (e.g. foods, toys, and clothing) and the children’s habits in selecting foods, toys and clothing? 24 Three types of television commercials considered in this study were commercials on food (cereals, pop, ice cream), toys and clothing. For each of these types of television commercials, a chi-square test of statistical significance was computed to examine the relationship between watching these commercials and the perceived effects on purchasing demands for food, toys, and clothing. WM: Is there a greater impact on children’s purchasing practices in the United States than in Saudi Arabia? Respondents were asked to rate their perception on the extent to which their children’s purchasing practices have been affected in both the United States and Saudi Arabia. Frequent counts and percentages were computed for each level of effect ranging from very strongly affected to not at all affected. W: What are some of the reasons why Saudi Arabian children are affected by television commercials in the United States? Some of the reasons presented in the questionnaire included the amount of television commercials and the television schedule. Respondents were asked to rate the extent to which they agree or disagree that these reasons are responsible in affecting their children’s purchasing habits more in the United States than in Saudi Arabia. A five-point ordinal Likert-type scale shown below was used: (5) strongly agree (4) agree (3) neither agree or disagree (2) disagree (1) strongly disagree ‘1 Means and standard deviations for each Of the reasons were computed. Like in research question 1, the means resulting from these scales were interpreted as follows: 1.000 - 2.499 - Disagreement 2.500 - 3.999 - Neutral 4.000 - 5.000 - Agreement WW: Do television commercials have an effect on parents’ household purchases? A Likert-type scale, ranging from very strongly affected to not at all affected, was used to determine the extent to which television commercials have affected Saudi parents’ household purchases. Frequencies and percentages for each Likert category were computed. KW: To what extent do friends, teachers, schools and television commercials affect the children’s ideas on what to buy? Means and standard deviations were computed for the extent to which teachers, friends, schools and television commercials have affected the children’s ideas on what to buy. The interpretation Of the mean categories are the same as in research question 1. ' : In the family (mother, father, both parents, father and child, mother and child, both parents and child), who decides for the child what items to buy? Frequencies and percentages were computed for each of the combination sets in the family to determine who plays a major role in deciding for the Saudi children what or what not to buy. 26 W: What types of movies (American, Arabian, or Indian) do the Saudi Arabian students watch on their VCR? For each Of the three cultures (American, Arabian and Indian), means and standard deviations were computed to determine which movies are more dominant among Saudi students at Michigan State University. WW: DO the children agree with their parents about what they watch on the VCR? For each category of the Likert-type scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree, frequent counts and percentages were computed to determine the rate Of agreement or disagreement between parents and their children. Design Limitations Due to the difficulty of having a common agreement among Saudi students regarding the average family income in Saudi Arabia, the demographic item on family income did not yield valuable information. Of the three income levels (below average, average and above average) provided, most of the respondents chose average. Consequently, the researcher did not utilize this item in analysis and presentation results. The second design limitation Of this study has to do with the Open-ended questionnaire items. Through the Open-ended questions, the researcher expected to collect information beyond the ones specified in the closed-ended questions. Unfortunately, respondents did not respond to most Of the open-ended questions and, consequently, the open-ended questions in the survey served no purpose in this study. CHAPTER FOUR PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA Introduction The data presented in this chapter was gathered through a survey Of Saudi Arabian married students and their spouses at Michigan State University. Though questionnaires were distributed to all Saudi Arabian students who were enrolled at Michigan State University for the Winter term, 1989, only respondents who were married and had at least one child between the age of 3-15 constituted valid data for this study. Due to the small size sample, it was difficult to achieve significant variations among the respondents, but these variations were enough to tell us about the existing relationships. In all, 42 valid respondents participated in this study. This number represents almost the total population Of married Saudi Arabian students enrolled at Michigan State University during Winter 1989 and had at least one child between the age of 3-15. The data used in this study by no means constitutes a random sample. Due to non-randomness and relatively low number of Observations, this study is mainly descriptive in nature. The researcher will present the results in terms Of frequencies, percentages, means and standard deviation. Whenever appropriate, a non- parametric test, namely the chi-square test, was utilized to examine some of the relationships that may exist between certain selected variables. In order to minimize the problem of empty cells or cells with small expected frequencies, when using the chi-square tests, certain variables used were appropriately collapsed to reduce the number of empty cells and consequently reduce the chi-square degrees of freedom for each test. Though this did not completely eliminate the problem of empty cells or cells with low expected frequencies, it represents the best effort undertaken to maximize the validity of the chi-square results given the limitations of the study. A description of the valid 42 respondents in relation to important demographic variables was as follows: Of the 42 respondents, 22 (52%) were male and 20 (48%) were females; 23 (55%) had less than three children, while 19 (45%) had three or four children. The children who respondents used in this study ranged in age from three years to eleven years. However, 30 children (or 72%) used in this study were younger than 7 years. The average number of hours these children spend watching television is 3-5 hours a day. Of the total 42 respondents, 25 (or 60%) own video cassette recorders (VCRS) and the average number they spend watching VCR was about 3.4 hours a week. Respondents were asked to indicate the television channels usually viewed by his/her child. The following table indicates the frequencies and percentages of the choice for each television channel. 29 Table 4.0 Frequency and percentage of viewing different television channels. Television Channel Frequency Percentage Channel 47 20 47.6 Channel 23 15 35.7 Disney 20 47.6 Nickelodeon 33 78.6 HBO 7 16.7 WTBS 5 11.9 WGN 3 7.1 A total of 15 research questions were considered in this study. The research findings in relation to the fifteen research questions are presented in the remaining part of this chapter. Research Question 1 What is the perceived impact of American television commercials upon Saudi children? Respondents were asked to rate their perceptions of the extent to which American television commercials have affected their children in a Likert-type scale ranging from (5) very strongly affected to (1) no effect at all, in the areas of selecting food, toys, clothing and in rejecting parents’ purchasing selections. Table 30 4.1 shows the means and standard deviation for each of the perceived areas affected by American television commercials. Table 4.1 Effect of American TV commercials on Saudi children in the selection of food, toys, clothing and rejecting parcnts’ selections. Affected Area Mean S.d. General child’s habits 3.548 0.993' Selection of food 3.405 1289' Selection of toys 4.024 0.780" Selection of clothing 2.171 1.657 Rejecting parents’ selections 2.548 1.533 Was 1.000 - 1.999 - NO effect 2.000 - 2.999 - Low effect ‘3.000 - 3.999 - Moderate effect "4.000 - 5.000 - High effect The results shown in Table 4.1 indicate that, while American television commercials do affect Saudi children’s habits in the selection of food and general purchasing habits, the effect Of television commercials on the selection Of toys was perceived to be the greatest (mean = 4.024, S.d. = 0.780). The questionnaire item on rejecting parents’ selection was designed to indicate the degree to which American television commercials cause Saudi children to reject items which the 31 parents select for them. However, like the effect Of television commercials in selecting clothing, the effect on rejecting parents’ selections was low (mean < 3.000). Research Question 2 Do purchasing demands increase among Saudi students’ children who are exposed to American television commercials? A chi-square test of statistical significance was used to determine whether or not there exists a significant relationship between exposure to different kinds of television commercials and the effect of television commercials as perceived by Saudi children’s parents. Table 4.2 shows the observed chi-square values and their corresponding Observed significance levels for each type of television commercials children are exposed to. From this table, it is shown that the data revealed no statistically significant relationship between the perceptions on the purchasing habits with exposure to American television commercials on toys and clothing. However, there was a statistically significant relationship at 0.05 level Of significance between the purchasing habits and American television commercials on food (x’ = 7.114, p < 0.05). 32 Table 4.2 Effect of exposure to American television commercials on purchasing demand. Chi-Square Significance Types of Television Commercials Value d.f. Level Foods (cereals, pop, ice cream) 7.114 1 0.0076‘ Toys 0.004 1 0.9472 Clothing 0.0696 1 0.7919 'Significant at 0.05 level. For this variable, the data revealed that purchasing demand was significantly higher for those children who watch more food commercials than those who do not. Research Question 3 Is there a greater effect on purchasing habits for those children who have access to more channels than those who do not? A chi-square test Of statistical significance was used to examine whether or not there exists a statistically significant relationship between the children’s purchasing habits and access to television channels. The chi-square results are presented in Table 4.3 below. These results show that there were no statistically significant relationships between children’s purchasing habits with channels except for television channels Nickelodeon and Channel 23 which had a significant influence on children’s habits on general habits and selection of clothing, respectively (x’ --= 4.073, 4.045, p < 0.05). For these variables, the data revealed that, generally, 33 Table 4.3 Effect of access to television channels on children’s purchasing habits on selecting foods, toys, and clothing. Television Chi-Square Significance Affected Area Channel Value d.f Level General habits Channel 47 0.936 1 0.3334 Channel 23 0.000 1 1.0000 Disney 0.000 1 1.0000 Nickelodeon 4.073 1 0.0436‘ HBO 0.000 1 1.0000 WTBS 0.000 1 1.0000 WGN 0.000 1 1.0000 Selection Of food Channel 47 0.019 1 0.8901 Channel 23 0.000 1 1.0000 Disney 0.000 1 1.0000 Nickelodeon 1.018 1 0.3130 HBO 0.549 1 0.4589 WTBS 0.000 1 1.0000 WGN 0.000 1 1.0000 Selection of toys Channel 47 0.000 1 1.0000 Channel 23 0.003 1 0.9569 Disney 0.036 1 0.8493 Nickelodeon 1.436 1 0.2308 HBO 0.000 1 1.0000 WTBS 0.597 1 0.4399 WGN 0.091 1 0.7631 Selection Of Clothing Channel 47 2.005 1 0.1568 Channel 23 4.045 1 0.0443‘ Disney 1.389 1 0.2385 Nickelodeon 0.894 1 0.3443 HBO 0.003 1 0.9581 WTBS 0.000 1 1.0000 WGN 0.251 1 0.6163 *Significant at 0.05 level. 34 children’s habits are affected more for those who watch Nickelodeon than those who do not. This relationship is indicated by the fact that, Of the 33 parents with children who view Nickelodeon, 30 (90%) indicated a very high effect on their children. The relationship between viewing Channel 23 and selection of clothing was similar to the relationship for Nickelodeon. Research Question 4 During what time period do Saudi children view the greater amount of television? Frequencies and percentages Of viewing televison for each time interval for both week-days and week-ends are shown in Table 4.4 below. Table 4.4 Frequencies and percentages for the time interval when children view television during the week-days and week-ends. Week-Days Week-Ends Time Interval Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage 8 a.m. - 12 noon 15 35.7 22 52.0 12 noon - 4 pm. 8 19.0 24 57.1 4 pm. - 6 pm. 23 54.8 19 19.0 6 pm. - 10 pm. 22 52.4 15 35.7 After 10 pm. 2 4.8 1 2.4 35 From Table 4.4, it is evident that children do not view television at the same time during the week-days and over the week-ends. Most children view television in the morning and in the afternoon, before 4 pm. over the week-end and 4 pm. to 10 pm. during the weekdays. The peak hours are 12 noon to 4 pm. over the week- end and 4 pm. to 6 pm. during the week-days. As expected, children typically do not watch television after 10 pm. during the week-days or over the week-end. Research Question 5 Are children who have stayed longer in the United States more affected by television commercials than those who have stayed less? A chi-square analysis was utilized to test the existence of a relationship between the length of time in the United States and the children’s habits in selecting foods, toys and clothing. Table 4.5 shows the results of the chi-square test. Table 4.5 The effect of length of time parents have been in the U.S.A. and perception of the general children’s habits, in selection of foods, toys and clothing. Significance Area Affected Chi-Square Value d.f. Level General habits 0.679 2 0.7122 Selection of food 0.679 2 0.7122 Selection of toys 3.124 2 0.2098 Selection of clothing 5.564 2 0.0619 'Significant at 0.05 level. 36 From Table 4.5, it is evident that the data did not reveal any statistically significant relationship between the length of time parents have been in the United States and children’s habits in selecting foods, toys, clothing, or general children’s habits. Research Question 6 Is there a greater effect of American television commercials on children’s purchasing habits during special occasions such as Christmas and halloween? Frequencies and percentages Of responses with yes were computed on the perceived effects on the number of toys being purchased, children’s diet and general demand for purchases. Table 4.6 shows the frequencies and percentages for each of these variables. From this table, it is clear to note that, the number Of toys purchased and the general children’s demand for purchases is affected during special occasions like Christmas and halloween as perceived by their parents. However, the data indicates that the children’s diet is not affected as much during these special occasions. 37 Table 4.6 Effect of special occasions like Christmas and halloween on the number of toys purchased, children’s diet and general demand for purchases. Area Affected Frequency Percentage Number of toys purchased 30 71.4 Children’s diet 19 45.5 Children’s demand for purchases 30 71.4 Research Question 7 Is there a disagreement between the children and their parents about the decision of what should be purchased for the children? Frequencies and percentages Of responses with yes were computed on whether children reject their parents’ purchasing selection and whether parents disagree with the choices of their children. Table 4.7 shows frequencies and percentages corresponding to perceived parents’ disagreement with their children’s choices or children’s rejecting their parents’ selections. Table 4.7 Frequencies and percentages showing the parents’ disagreement with children’s choices and children’s rejecting parents’ selections. Frequency Percentage Parents disagree with children’s choices 33 78.6 Children rejecting their parents’ selections 30 71.4 38 From this table, it was revealed that there is both a general tendency of children rejecting their parents’ selections (71.4%) and parents disagreeing with their children’s choices (78.6%). Research Question 8 Is there a relationship between viewing types Of television commercials (e.g. foods, toys and clothing) and the children’s habits in selecting foods, toys and clothing? A chi-square test of statistical significance was used to determine whether or not there exists statistically significant relationships between children’s habits in selecting foods, toys and clothing with watching television commercials on these commodities. Table 4.8 shows the observed chi-square values and their corresponding singificant levels. Table 4.8 Chi-Square values for the relationship between viewing different types Of television commercials and children’s selection habits. Types of Affected Chi-Square d.f Sign. Commercials Area Value Level Commercials on food Selecting food 11.624 1 0.0007’ Commercials on toys Selecting toys 6.72 1 0.0095‘ Comemrcials on clothing Selecting clothing 4.263 1 0.0390' ’Significant at 0.05 level. 39 From Table 4.8, the data revealed statistically significant relationships in children’s habits in selecting foods with viewing television commercials on foods (x’ = 11.624, p < 0.05), selecting toys with viewing television commercials on toys (x2 = 11.624, P < 0.05), selecting toys with viewing television commercials on toys (x2 = 6.720, p < 0.05) and selection of clothing with viewing television commercials on clothing (x2 = 4.263, p < 0.05). Research Question 9 Is there a greater impact on children’s purchasing practices in the United States than in Saudi Arabia? Table 4.9 shows the percentages and frequencies of the levels Of the perceived effects of television commercials in both the United States and Saudi Arabia. Table 4.9 Effect of television commercials on children’s habits in the United States and Saudi Arabia. United States Saudi Arabia Level of Effect Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Very strongly affected 4 9.5 1 2.4 Strongly affected 22 52.4 1 2.4 Somewhat affected 8 19.0 5 11.9 Slightly affected 7 16.7 16 38.1 Not at all affected 1 2.4 18 42.9 40 From Table 4.9, it is clear that Saudi children’s parents perceive the effect of television commercials to be much stronger in the United States of America than in Saudi Arabia. It is interesting to note that of the 42 respondents, 26 (62%) perceive the effect of American television commercials to be strongly or very strongly affecting their children compared to 2 (4.8%) who perceive a similar effect in Saudi Arabia. On the other hand, of the 42 respondents, 34 (81%) do not perceive the Arabian television commercials to affect their children’s habits compared to 8 (19%) who perceive a similar effect for the United States of America. Research Question 10 What are some of the reasons why Saudi Arabian children are affected by television commercials in the United States? Based on the respondents ratings on some of the reasons given in the questionnaire, means and standard deviations were computed on the five-point Likert-type scale ranging from: (5) strongly agree to ( 1) strongly disagree. The means and standard deviations for each of three given reasons are presented in Table 4.10. Based on these means, it is clear from Table 4.10 that there is a general agreement among respondents that: (a) Saudi children have seen more television commercials in the United States than in Saudi Arabia; (b) there is a different schedule of how television commercials are displayed between United States television and Saudi Arabian television; and (c) Saudi Arabian children have seen more types of commercials in the United States than in Saudi Arabia. 41 Table 4.10 Reason why Saudi children are affected by television commercials in the United States of America. Reason Mean SD. There are more television commercials in U.S.A. than in Saudi Arabia. 4.500 The schedule Of television commercials is different between the U.S.A. and in Saudi Arabia. 4.333 There are more types Of television commercials in the U.S.A. than in Saudi Arabia. 4.595 0.552 0.754 0.544 KeLfQLmeam 1.000 - 2.499 - Disagreement 2.500 - 3.999 - Neutral 4.000 - 5.000 - Agreement Research Question 11 DO television commercials have an effect on parents’ household purchases? Saudi children’s parents were asked to respond in a Likert-type scale on the question of the extent to which they perceive television commercials have affected their household purchases. Table 4.11 shows the frequencies and percentages Of their perceived effect level. 42 Table 4.11 Effect of television commercials on Saudi parents’ household purchases. Effect Level Frequency Percentage NO effect at all 3 7.1 Slightly affected 7 16.7 Somewhat affected 20 47.6 Strongly affected 9 21.4 Very strongly affected 3 7.1 From Table 4.11, it is evident that television commercials have not affected Saudi parents’ household purchases very much. Only 28.5% of the parents perceived American television commercials to have affected their household purchases either very strongly or strongly, while the rest (71.5%) indicate the effect as being from no effect at all to a moderate effect. Research Question 12 To what extent do friends, teachers, schools and television commercials affect the child’s idea on what to buy? On a Likert-type scale ranging from: (5) very strongly affected to (1) no effect at all, respondents were asked to rate their perception on how friends, schools, teachers and television commercials have affected children about what to buy. 43 Means and standard deviation were computed on this Likert-type scale. Table 4.12 shows the means and standard deviation corresponding to the perception Of the extent to which television commercials, friends, schools and teachers have affected children on what to buy. Table 4.12 Effect of teachers, friends, school and television commercials on children’s habits on what to buy. Source of Effect Mean S.d. Friends 3.195 1.229 Teachers 1.7000 1.018 Schools 2.231 1.158 Television Commercials 3.585 0.948 Wm 1.000 - 2.499 - Low effect 2.500 - 3.999 - Moderate effect 4.000 - 5.000 - High effect From Table 4.12, it is clear that teachers and schools have little or no effect on children’s ideas Of what to buy. However, Saudi children’s parents perceive friends and television commercials to have a substantial effect on their children’s ideas of what to buy. Research Question 13 In the family (mother, father, both parents, father and child, mother and child, both parents and child), who decides for the child what items to buy? Respondents were asked to check the individual or a combination of individuals in the family who decides the items that are bought for the child. Table 4.13 shows the frequencies and percentages for each combination Of individuals in the family. Table 4.13 Individual or combination of family members who decides items to be bought for the child. Effect Level Frequency Percentage Spouse 1 2.4 Respondent 2 4.8 Child 5 11.9 Respondent and spouse 7 16.7 Respondent and child 8 19.0 Parents and child 19 45.00 From Table 4.13, it is evident that most Of the items bought for the child are decided upon by both parents together with the child (19 or 45%) or one or both parents (10 or 23.9%). Thus, there is no one individual in the family who decides what or what not to buy for the child, but the family works together. 45 Research Question 14 What types of movies (American, Arabian and Indian) do the Saudi Arabian students watch on their VCR? On a four-point Likert-type scale indicating the frequency of viewing Arabian, American or Indian movies on the VCR, ranging from (4) frequently to (1) never, means and standard deviations were computed for each of these three cultures. Table 4.14 shows the means and standard deviations resulting from this four-point Likert-type scale. Table 4.14 Frequency of watching American, Indian and Arabian movies on VCR. Culture (or Country) Mean S.d. Arabian movies 2.320 0.748 American movies 2.640 1.114 Indian movies 1.320 0.900 KW 1.000 - 1.999 - Seldom or never 2.000 - 2.999 - Sometimes 3.000 - 4.000 - Frequently These means indicate that Saudi Arabian married students at Michigan State University who own VCRs watch American movies more than either Indian or Arabian movies. 46 Research Question 15 DO the children agree with their parents about what they watch on the VCR? Saudi parents were asked to rate their perception on whether their children agree with programs parents watch on their VCR. The frequency and percentage distribution of their responses are shown in Table 4.15. Table 4.15 Children’s agreement with parents about what their parents watch on their VCR. Agreement/Disagreement Frequency Percentage Strongly agree 4 16.0 Agree 1 4.0 Neutral 8 32.0 Disagree 8 32.0 Strongly disagree 4 16.0 On this question of children’s agreeing with what their parents watch on their VCR, respondents were either neutral or disagreed with the statement that children agree with things they (parents) watch on the video cassette recorders. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction The main purpose of this study was to assess the perceptions of Saudi Arabian students at Michigan State University regarding the extent to which American television commercials affect their children’s habits in terms of purchasing behavior. The population of this study comprised of all Saudi Arabian married students with at least one child between the age of 3-15, and who were enrolled at Michigan State University during Winter 1989. A straightforward questionnaire constructed to gather data on various aspects related to the extent to which American television commercials may affect children together with certain selected demographic variables were designed. Some items to get information about the effect and role of the video cassette recorder (VCR) were also included. Questionnaires were sent to all Saudi Arabian students enrolled at Michigan State University for the Winter 1989 through MSU’s Office of the Registrar. Although 72 (or 73 percent) of the total 98 participants responded, 30 participants were removed from the study because they were either single or married with children outside the age range of 3- 15 years. The remaining 42 Observations constituted valid data which was analyzed. Due to the nature of the sample used in this study, simple descriptive statistics which included means, variances, frequencies and percentages were utilized. 48 Whenever possible and appropriate, a chi-square test Of statistical significance was used to determine whether or not there exists significant relationship or association between certain variables. Summary of Findings Analysis Of data in this study was focused on the 15 research questions. Based on these questions, the following were the main findings of this study. 1. American television commercials were perceived to affect Saudi children’s habits in selecting toys much more than food or clothing. American television commercials on foods were perceived to have a significant influence on children’s demand for purchasing. Those children who watch more commercials on food had a higher demand for purchasing than those who watch less commercials on food. Among the television channels considered in this study, Nickelodeon and channel 23 were perceived to have a statistically significant influence on the Saudi children’s purchasing habits, general habits and clothing especially. Access to these two channels showed a significant increase in children’s demand for purchases. Children of Saudi Arabian students at Michigan State University do not watch television at the same time during the week as they do during the week-end. The peak television hours during the week-days are between 4 pm. to 6 p.m., while the peak hours during the week-end are between 12 noon and 4 pm. 10. 11. 12. 49 There was no statistically significant relationship between the length of time children’s parents have been in the United States and their perceptions regarding the effect of television commercials on their children’s habits in selecting food, toys, or clothing. Television commercials during special occasions like Christmas and halloween typically increase children’s demand for purchases and the number of toys but the effect is minimal on children’s diet. There is a general tendency of Saudi children to reject their parents’ selections and a tendency of their parents to disagree with their children’s choices. Viewing television commercials on food and toys had a significant influence on children’s habits in selecting food and toys, respectively. The effect of television commercials is much greater on Saudi children in the United States than in Saudi Arabia. There are more television commercials and more types of television commercials in the United States than in Saudi Arabia as perceived by Saudi children’s parents at Michigan State University. Television commercials typically do not have an impact on Saudi children’s parents’ household purchases. Television commercials and friends, but not teachers or schools, affect children’s ideas on what to buy. 13. 50 Saudi Arabian children’s parents watch more American movies than either Arabian or Indian movies on their VCR. Conclusions The following conclusions were drawn from the findings of this study: The fact that American television commercials affect Saudi children’s habits in demand and selection of toys and clothing but not food or diet may be explained in terms of their parent’s control of the diet. Significant effects of American television commercials on Saudi children’s habits, particularly in selecting toys and clothing, is no surprise. These children interact and play with Americans and children from other parts of the world. Obviously, these children relate the television commercials on toys with what they see at the playground. In this case, parents’ influence or control is minimal. Overall, there was an indication that Saudi children’s habits were affected by American television commercials in terms of selecting toys and clothing. On the other hand, their parents’ demand for purchases remained unaffected. Consequently, there are indications of children rejecting parents’ choices and parents disagreeing with their children’s selections. This may be an indication of cultural conflict. While children are quick to change, according to the environment, adults tend to be resistant. 51 4. Although the effect of teachers and schools on Saudi children’s habits was in the lower category, the effect of the school was higher than teachers. This is quite expected because of the children’s friends at school. 5. Among those children’s parents who have video cassette recorders (VCRS), there is a tendency to watch more American movies than either Indian or Arabian movies. Thus, even though the respondents were from Arabian background, they still watched more American movies than their own. This fact may raise the question of whether or not Arabian movies are as exciting as American movies or the people have been Americanized. In whichever case, therefore, this will pose a threat to Saudi Arabian students holding to their cultural beliefs while in the United States. Recommendations This research was undertaken to assess the effect of American television commercials on Saudi Arabian students’ children in terms of purchasing behaviors. The major limitation was the small size of the sample and the fact that the participants were not randomly selected from the population. This shortcoming poses a limitation in the study’s external validity. This study may not be generalizable to any larger population. Though this research gives at least an indication of the general effect of American television commercials on Saudi students’ children, the researcher recommends that further research on this subject need to utilize a bigger and random sample drawn from a population beyond a restricted environment like an institution. 52 The present study attempted to utilize the perceptions of Saudi children’s parents to assess the extent to which American television commercials affect their children’s habits. The study did not use the children themselves as subjects for the study but their parents. It may be recommended that a future study should employ a research design which involves children themselves as participants in the study without depending entirely on their parents’ perceptions. It has been shown through this study that American television has a powerful effect (more than teachers, friends or school) on parents’ perceptions of children’s habits in terms of general children’s habits and in purchasing. Thus, in order for Saudi parents studying abroad to save their children from cultural shock when they return to Saudi Arabia, student parents should consider recording their home television programs for their children to view on the VCR while they are over here. In that case, the effect of American television programs will be minimized and the children will keep in touch with their home culture while in the United States of America. To further control the effect of American television programs and commercials on Saudi Arabian children, it is recommended that, based on the television schedule shown earlier, children’s parents need to monitor and control the types and amount of television programs their children watch. Since it is very difficult to completely prevent children from the influence of American television programs, it is recommended that Saudi Arabian students should be made aware of these influences prior to their coming to the United States of 53 America and probably to other Western countries. Seminars and orientation programs need to be given to these students before departure from Saudi Arabia or on arrival in the United States to make them aware of the consequences of American television programs. 1 R n i Saudi Arabian students getting admission in universities abroad, like in the United States, should be made aware of the effect of television commercials on their children. Information regarding this phenomena should be passed to the students in an orientation program before departure from Saudi Arabia, on arrival in Illc United States, or on both occasions. APPENDIX A LETTER TO SAUDI STUDENTS AND QUESTIONNAIRE 54 APPENDIX A LETTER TO SAUDI STUDENTS AND QUESTIONNAIRE Dear Fellow Saudi Student: I am conducting an M.A. Thesis Research in Communication. This project is about the assumed effects of TV. commercials on our children’s consuming behaviors in the United States. Enclosed you will find two questionnaires; one for you and the other for your spouse to complete. Each questionnaire takes about ten minutes to answer. I would appreciate so much if you would answer all the questions to the best of your knowledge. You may choose not to participate or not to answer certain questions without penalty. The information provided in the two questionnaires will be solely and exclusively used for scientific research purposes. Please use the two enclosed stamped envelopes to return the answered questionnaires. Please do not write your names and addresses. Thank you very much for your concern and your voluntary cooperation in completing the questionnaires. Please accept my regards. Sincerely yours, Hassan Basfar 1806 Hamilton Rd. Apt. #148 Okemos, MI 48864 55 Questionnaire Instructions: Please answer all questions to the best of your knowledge by placing an "x" on the proper line. If any questions do not apply, please state "Not Applicable (NA).” PART I 1. What is your sex? Male Female 2. What is your marital status? Married Divorced Widowed 3. What is your current age? Less than 20 20 to less than 25 25 to less than 30 30 to less than 35 35 to less than 40 40 and over 4. How long have you been in the United States? Less than one year 1 year but less than 2 years 2 years but less than 3 years 3 years but less than 4 years 4 years or more 5. What educational level are you currently working on? Bachelors degree Masters degree Doctoral degree Other, specify 10. 11. 56 What is your family’s yearly income in Saudi Arabia? Above average Average Below average Do you have children? Yes No How many children do you have? Do your children watch T.V.? Yes No If yes, please select one child who is between the ages of 3-15 and watches T.V. to refer to in answering the remaining questions; and how old is this child? As an average, how many hours does he/ she watch T.V. each day? Less than 3 hours daily 3-5 hours daily More than 5 hours daily What type(s) of commercials does he/she view on T.V.? Foods (cereals, pop, ice cream) Toys Clothing Others (please specify) 12. 13. 57 T.V. commercials affect my child’s habits. Very strongly Strongly Somewhat Slightly Not at all If so, in what regard? (a) Selecting food Very strongly Strongly Somewhat Slightly Not at all (b) Selecting toys Very strongly Strongly Somewhat Slightly Not at all (e) Selecting clothing Very strongly Strongly Somewhat Slightly Not at all ((1) In rejecting parents’ purchasing selections Very strongly Strongly Somewhat Slightly Not at all 14. 15. 58 I disagree with the choice of items that my child selects from T.V. commercials. Frequently Sometimes Seldom Never Who decides what items are bought for your child? Your spouse You Your child Both you and your spouse Both you and your child All of the above PART II 16. 17. 18. Do you think commercials on T.V. displayed during special occasions such as Christmas, Halloween, etc.: Yes No Affects the number of toys being purchased _ Affects the children’s diet _ _ Affects children’s demand for purchases _ _ T.V. commercials have affected my child’s decision about what to buy? Very strongly affected Strongly affected Somewhat affected Slightly affected Not at all affected My child usually views the following channel(s). Channel 47 Channel 23 Disney channel Nickelodeon HBO WTBS WGN Other, please specify 19. 20. PAR 21. 59 19. My child usually watches T.V. (Monday through Friday). 8 am. to 12 noon after 12 noon and before 4 pm. after 4 pm. and before 6 pm. after 6 pm. and before 10 pm. after 10 pm. 20. My child usually watches T.V. (Saturday and Sunday). 8 a.m. to 12 noon after 12 noon and before 4 pm. after 4 pm. and before 6 pm. after 6 pm. and before 10 pm. after 10 pm. PART III 21. T.V. commercials affect my child’s purchase selection. Very strongly affected Strongly affected Somewhat affected Slightly affected Not at all affected 22. My child has been affected by T.V. commercials in the United States. Very strongly affected Strongly affected Somewhat affected Slightly affected Not at all affected Why? (please specify) 24. 60 My child has been affected by T.V. commercials in Saudi Arabia. Very strongly affected Strongly affected Somewhat affected Slightly affected Not at all affected Why? (please specify) Let me ask you about some reasons why people think their children are affected in the United States: My child has seen more T.V. commercials in the United States than in Saudi Arabia. Strongly agree Agree Neither agree or disagree Disagree Strongly disagree The time when the commercials are displayed on American T.V. differs from the time schedule of Saudi T.V. commercials. Strongly agree Agree Neither agree or disagree Disagree Strongly disagree My child has seen more types of commercials on American T.V. than in Saudi Arabia. For example, there are more toy, ice cream, and cereal commercials on American T.V. Strongly agree Agree Neither agree or disagree Disagree Strongly disagree 26. T.V. commercials have affected my household purchases. Very strongly affected Strongly affected Somewhat affected Slightly affected Not at all affected The following have affected my child’s ideas about what to buy. Very Strongly Strongly Somewhat Slightly affected affected affected affected T.V. commericals Friends School Teachers 27. 28. 29. 30. Who decides if your child will watch T.V.? The Parents The Child (herself/himself) Both the parents and the child Do you have a VCR? Yes No If yes, how many hours do you watch the VCR weekly? Hours Do you watch Arabian movies on the VCR? Frequently Sometimes Seldom Never Not at afiected 62 31. Do you watch American movies on the VCR? Frequently Sometimes Seldom Never 32. Do you watch Indian movies on the VCR? Frequently Sometimes Seldom Never 33. Generally speaking, do you think that your child agrees with things you watch on the VCR? Strongly agree Agree Neither agree or disagree Disagree Strongly disagree Thank you very much for your cooperation. If you have comments, please write them on the back of this page. APPENDIX B FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSES TO DIFFERENT VARIABLES IN THE STUDY FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION 63 APPENDIX B OF RESPONSES TO DIFFERENT VARIABLES IN THE STUDY Variable Category Frequency Percentage Sex Male 22 52.4 Female 20 47.6 Age 30 71.4 12 28.6 Length of stay in U.S.A. 3 years or less 13 30.9 more than 3 years 29 69.1 Education level Undergraduate or less 17 40.0 Graduate school 25 60.0 Income level Below average 9 21.4 Average 29 69.0 Above average 4 9.5 Number of children One or two 23 55.0 Three or four 19 45.0 Age of child 5 years or younger 15 38.0 6-11 years 15 38.0 Number of hours child Less than 3 hours 14 33.3 watches TV daily 3 or more hours 28 66.6 Whether child watches yes 37 88.0 food commercials no 5 12.0 Whether child watches yes 40 95.0 toy commercials no 2 5.0 Whether child watches yes 21 50.0 commercials on clothes no 21 50.0 Variable Category Frequency Percentage Effect of TV commercials Slightly affected 7 17.0 on child’s habits Somewhat affected 13 31.0 Strongly affected 14 33.0 Very strongly affected 8 19.0 Effect of TV commercials on Not at all affected 4 10.0 child’s food selections Slightly affected 3 7.0 Somewhat affected 13 31.0 Strongly affected 14 33.0 Very strongly affected 8 19.0 Effect of TV commercials on Slightly affected 1 2.0 selection of toys Somewhat affected 9 17.0 Strongly affected 20 48.0 Very strongly affected 12 29.0 Effect of TV commercials on Not at all affected 20 48.0 child’s selection of clothing Slightly affected 2 5.0 Somewhat affected 7 17.0 Strongly affected 9 21.0 Very strongly affected 3 7.0 Effect in rejecting parents’ Not at all 12 28.6 purchasing selections Slightly affected 5 11.9 Somewhat affected 12 28.6 Strongly affected 10 23.8 Very strongly affected 3 7.1 Whether parents disagree Yes 33 78.6 with their children’s choices No 9 21.4 Who decides on what items Spouse 1 2.4 are bought for the child Respondent 2 4.8 Child 5 11.9 Child and spouse 7 16.7 Child and respondent 8 19.0 Whole family 19 45.2 Whether TV commercials on Yes 30 71.4 special occasions affect No 11 26.2 number of toys purchased No answer 1 2.4 65 Variable Category Frequency Percentage Whether TV commercials on Yes 19 45.2 special occasions affect No 19 45.2 child’s diet No answer 4 9.5 Whether TV commercials on Yes 30 71.4 special occasions affect No 9 21.4 child’s demands No answer 3 7.2 Does child watch the channels: Channel 47 Yes 20 47.6 No 22 52.4 Channel 23 Yes 15 35.7 No 27 64.3 Disney channel Yes 20 47.6 No 22 52.4 Nickelodeon Yes 33 78.6 NO 9 21.4 HBO Yes 7 16.7 No 35 83.3 WTBS Yes 5 11.9 No 37 88.1 WGN Yes- 3 7.1 No 39 92.9 Time child watches 8 a.m.-12 noon 15 35.7 television (weekdays) 12 noon-4 pm. 8 19.0 4 p.m.o6 pm. 23 54.8 6 p.m.-10 p.111. 22 52.4 After 10 pm. 2 4.8 Time child watches 8 a.m.-12 noon 22 52.4 television (weekends) 12 noon-4 pm. 24 57.1 4 p.m.-6 pm. 8 19.0 6 p.m.-10 pm. 15 35.7 After 10 pm. 1 2.4 66 Variable Category Frequency Percentage TV commercials effect on Very strongly affected 3 7.1 child’s purchase selection Strongly affected 13 31.0 Somewhat strongly affected 19 45.2 Slightly affected 6 14.3 Not at all affected 1 2.4 TV commercials effect on Very strongly affected 4 9.5 child in the U.S.A. Strongly affected 22 52.4 Somewhat strongly affected 8 19.0 Slightly affected 7 16.7 Not at all affected 1 2.4 TV commercials effect on Very strongly affected 1 2.4 child in Saudi Arabia Strongly affected 1 2.4 Somewhat strongly affected 5 11.9 Slightly affected 16 38.1 Not at all affected 18 42.9 Children see more TV Strongly agree 22 52.4 commercials in U.S.A. than Agree 19 45.2 in Saudi Arabia Neutral 1 2.4 Disagree 0 0.0 Strongly disagree 0 0.0 Time commercials are Strongly agree 20 47.6 displayed on U.S.A. TV Agree 17 40.5 differs from that on Neutral 4 9.5 Saudi TV Disagree 1 2.4 Strongly disagree 0 0.0 Child sees more types of Strongly agree 26 61.9 TV commercials in the Agree 15 35.1 U.S.A. than in Saudi Neutral 1 2.4 Arabia Disagree 0 0.0 Strongly disagree 0 0.0 67 Variable Category Frequency Percentage TV commercials have Very strongly affected 3 7.1 affected respondents’ Strongly affected 9 21.4 household purchases Somewhat strongly affected 20 47.6 Slightly affected 7 16.7 Not at all affected 3 7.1 Effects of the following on child’s ideas about what to buy: TV commercials Very strongly affected 8 19.0 Strongly affected 13 31.0 Somewhat strongly affected 15 35 .7 Slightly affected 5 11.9 Not at all affected 0 0.0 Friends Very strongly affected 8 19.0 Strongly affected 8 19.0 Somewhat strongly affected 12 28.6 Slightly affected 10 23.8 Not at all affected 3 7.1 School Very strongly affected 2 4.8 Strongly affected 3 7.1 Somewhat strongly affected 10 23.8 Slightly affected 11 26.2 Not at all affected 13 31.0 Teachers Very strongly affected 1 2.4 Strongly affected 2 4.8 Somewhat strongly affected 4 9.5 Slightly affected 10 23.8 Not at all affected 23 54.8 Who decides whether The parents 9 21.4 child can watch TV The child 12 28.6 Both child and parents 21 50.0 68 Variable Category Frequency Percentage Do you have a VCR? Yes 25 59.5 No 17 40.5 Hours spent watching 1-3 hours 16 70.0 4-9 hours 6 26.0 10 or more hours 1 4.0 DO you watch Arabian Frequently 0 0.0 movies on VCR? Sometimes 12 28.6 VCR per week Seldom 9 21.4 Never 4 9.5 Do you watch American Frequently 5 11.9 movies on VCR? Sometimes 7 16.7 Seldom 10 23.8 Never 3 7 .1 Do you watch Indian movies Frequently 1 2.4 on VCR? Sometimes 1 2.4 Seldom 2 4.8 Never 21 50.0 Child agrees with things Strongly agree 4 9.5 respondents watch on VCR Agree 1 2.4 Neutral 8 19.0 Disagree 8 19.0 Strongly disagree 4 9.5 ENDNOTES 69 ENDNOTES ‘Robin Moss, [Review of 111W 351W i ' hi1 r n]. MW (October-May, 1980-81). p. 206. 2Ibid. "Ihomas S. Robertson, "Parental mediation of television advertising effects, Winn. (Winter 1979), p. 14. ‘Ibid., p. 16. Wang. 1986. p. 33. ’Ibid., p. 33. WW 1987, P- 141- ’M. Carole Macklin, "Preschoolers’ understanding of the informational function of television advertising,” WWW Vol. 14, N2, (1987), pp. 232-238. ’Thomas S. Robertson and John Rossiter, 'The short-run advertising effects on children: A field study," WW 9, (August 1972), pp. 316-317. loScott Ward and Daniel Wackman, ”Children’ 5 purchase influence attempts and Parental yielding." W11. 9 (August 1972) PP 316- 319. "Shel Feldman, Abraham Wolf, and Doris Warmounth, "Parental concern about children-directed commercials," W 27, (Winter 1977), pp. 125- 137. 12Charles Atkin and Gary Heald, "The content of children’s toy and food commercials," Wan, (Winter 1977), pp. 107-114. 1’I’homas S. Robertson and John R. Rossiter, "Children’s responsiveness to commercials," WM (Winter 1977), pp. 101-106. 70 1‘Charles K. Atkin, "Observation of parent-child interaction in supermarket decision-making," W (October 1978), pp. 41-45. 1’Charles K. Atkin, "Television advertising and socialization to consumer roles." .921‘0h-'l‘ti'f‘l'!._!,00'4‘ It giro-.1 W p. 196 (U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute of Mental Health, Rockville, Maryland), 1982. l"Norma D. Feshbach, Arline S. Dillman and Tricia S. Jordan, "Children and television advertising: Some research and some perspectives,",[onmal_Qf_Chnrga1 Wham (Spring 1979). PP 26-34 ”John P. Murray and Barbara Lonnborg, W pp. 4-14 (Boys Town, Nebraska, EDRS), 1984. 1"Deborah L. Roedder, Brian Sternthal, and Bobby J. Calder, "Attitude- behavior consistency in children’s responses to television advertising," JQnrnal Qf W Vol. XX (November 1983), pp. 337-349. ”Anees A. Sheikh, V. Kanti Prasad, and Tanniru R. Rao, "Children’s TV commercials: A review of research," Wm (Autumn 1974), pp. 9-18. ”Anees A. Sheikh and L. Martin Moleski, "Conflict in the family over commercials, Wan, (Winter 1977), pp. 152-157. 21Ibid., p. 157. 2’Ibid., p. 152. BIBLIOGRAPHY 71 BIBLIOGRAPHY Atkin, Charles K. "Observation of parent-child interaction in supermarket decision- making." Ioumalanarketina (October 1978). PP- 41-45- Atkin, Charles K. "Television advertising and socialization to consumer roles. ” In IVIOIQHI; 0' ‘t 9.0 ”QQIOO'J' “.00... o fighting, pp. 191-200 (US. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute of Mental Health, Rockville, Maryland), 1982. Atkin, Charles K. and Gary Heald. "The content of children’s toy and food commerciaIS" Immalafficmmnmcaucn. (Winter 1977) PP 107-114 Amos, J. R. et al. W. New York: Harper and Row, 1965. Babbie. Earl. W (3rd Edition) Belmont. CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1983. Borg, Walter R. and Meredith Damien Gall. W lntmdnctinn (4th ed.). New York: Longman, Inc., 1983. ' ' f ° ' . (Random House Dictionary of the English Language). Chicago, Il: NTC Business Books, 1986. Feldman, Shel, Abraham Wolf, and Doris Warmounth. "Parental concern about children-directed commercials," WM 27, (Winter 1977), pp. 125-137. Feshbach, Norma D., Arline S. Dillman and Tricia 8. Jordan. ”Children and television advertising: Some research and some perspectives, W Watchmen. (Spring 1979). PP 2194 Fletcher, Alan D., and Thomas A. Bowers. v ' ' (Third Edition). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1988. Kerlinger, F. N. W. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1965. Libert, Robert M, Joyce N. Sprafltin, and Emily S. Davidson. flfhe Enxly Windnw; W New York: Pergamon Press 1982. 72 Macklin, M. Carole. "Preschoolers’ understanding of the informational function of television advertising." Innmalgffinnsnmerfieseareh, Vol. 14, N2, 1987, pp. 232-238. Moss. Robin- [Review of Thuffeetsnftelerimnadxertisingnnnhfldrenl. Ioumal QLMQLalEdnratinn. (October-Maia 1980-81) P 206 Murray, John P. and Barbara Lonnborg. ‘1 ° i . P 'm r r m PP- 4‘14 (Boys Town, Nebraska, EDRS), 1984. Nie, N. H, C. H. Hull, J. G. Jenkins, K. Steinbrenner, and D. H. Bent. Stratified - (3rd ed..) New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, 1988. Robertson, Thomas 8. "Parental mediation of television advertising effects, learn rnla Winn. (Winter 1979) P 1445 Robertson, Thomas S. and John R. Rossiter. "Children’s responsiveness to commercials," WW (Winter 1977), pp. 101-106. Robertson, Thomas S. and John Rossiter. "The short-run advertising effects on children: A field study.” IcumalnLMarketinLResearch. 9. (August 1972). pp. 316-317. Roedder, Deborah L., Brian Sternthal, and Bobby J. Calder. "Attitude-behavior consistency in children’s responses to television advertising," .19an Marketmgfleseareh, Vol. XX (November 1983), pp. 337-349. Sheikh, Anees A., V. Kanti Prasad, and Tanniru R. Rao. "Children’s TV commercials: A review of research," lenmalflemmnm’eatjrm, (Autumn 1977), pp. 9-18. Sheikh, Anees A., and L Martin Moleski. "Conflict in the family over commercials," WM (Winter 1977), pp. 152-157. Ward, Scott and Daniel Wackman. "Children’s purchase influence attempts and Parental Yielding.” IcumalnLMarketingResemh. 9. (August 1972). PP- 316- 319. WWW Springfield. MA: Merriam-Webster. Inc., 1987. Winick, Charles, Lorne G. Williamson, Stuart F. Chuzrnir, and Mariann Pezzella Winiclc WWW New York: Praeger Publishers, 1973. "IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII