MSU

 

 

 

RETURNING MATERIALS:
P1ace in book drop to

 

 

LJBRARJES remove this checkout from

.—;—. your record. FINES wiH
be charged if book is
returned after the date
stamped be1ow.

4
...-~~-._ ' [t fifl': "a 5'! 5
H J 5 =3 was); MAR 2 4 2005
'4': C {,i‘

gfifigsam
«$0202

”I" [\1 (,1

g*‘A'U'f; 3 0 2002
.cvffiQWH

 

0 4

 

 

A DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS OF TEN
INDEPENDENT BLACK EDUCATIONAL MODELS

by
Craig C. Brookins

A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan State University

in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Psychology

1984

ABSTRACT

A DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS OF TEN
INDEPENDENT BLACK EDUCATIONAL MODELS

by
Craig C. Brookins

This study attempted to explore the phenomenon of Inde-

pendent Black Schools. Using interviews, questionnaires and

site observation, ten schools were studied according to their

philoso phical, ideological, organizational and curricular

characteristics.

Among the findings were that the schools attempt to
provide three interrelated types of educational experiences:

(a) an academic experience, (b) a cultural egperience, and

(c) a political experience. The schools varied in the inten-

sity in which they pursued their cultural and political

goals. This intensity was either low, moderate or high and

seen to be a factor in the schools ability to secure suffi-

cient funding attract students and achieve their desired

goals.

All of the schools were characterized by a desire to
achieve strong parental involvement, an eclectic pedagogical

approach and a family oriented environment. School charac-

teristics which were seen to be related to the schools'

effectiveness were identified. It appears clear from this

study that independent Black educational models provide a

viable option for African American families.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

One of the most difficult tasks of the African American
scholar is to design and conduct research with an afrocentric
framework while operating under the constraints of a tradi-
tional academic setting. Whether this criteria has been met

in this study is obviously left to the Judgement of its

audience.

This study represents the culmination of the efforts of
many people. Much appreciation is happily extended to Dr.
William Davidson of Michigan State University, the principal
advisor of this study. His timely criticisms and suggestions
have proved to be invaluable. Although painful to acknow-
ledge at times, his constant question ”where's the thesis?“
was a welcome bit of informal pressure. To Dr. Charles
Johnson, the writer owes a debt of gratitude for his encou-
ragement, assistance and suggestions. Also, to Dr. Lawrence
Lezotte, for his support, criticisms, valuable suggestions
and frequent educational "tidbits“ (even if it did take him a
while to find them at times), the writer is deeply grateful.
I hopefully look forward to future collaboration with these
scholars.

The investigation of the schools upon which this study
is based necessitated extensive travel in the midwest and
eastern parts of the country. Many thanks and good wishes
are extended to Kofi Lomotey, the Council of Independent
Black Institutions and all of the schools which participated

in the study. The directors, teachers, aides, volunteers,

ii

parents, students and supporters who demonstrated a sincere
enthusiasm for the positive outlook of the African child was
a source of motivation throughout this study and continues to
be into the future. The writer also extends expressions of
personal gratitude for those persons who extended to him
their homes, hospitality, courtesy and hours of time. I only
hope that this study gives back some of what was so freely
offered.

The impetus for this study came from a variety of people
for whom I have grown to depend on for encouragement,
support, motivation and continuous intellectual stimulation.
To my mother, Naomi Ann Brookins, who I love deeply and whose
never ending thirst for education has fortunately rubbed off
on me. And, to my father, Vernon S. Brookins, the street
scholar, with whom I love to come back down to earth. A
'special tribute must be given to Hannibal Afrik who extended
to this writer his time, his guidance and his knowledge. His
dedication to the struggle has influenced me profoundly.
Special appreciation is given to Emilie Phillips. Her
presence, persistance and commitment has strengthened and
inspired me greatly over the past two-and-a-half years.

My indeptedness extends most completely to my fiance,
Carolyn Williams. All I am, she is, all I accomplish, she
accomplishes, any comfort in living that I am able to achieve
is because of her. She and I are reflected throughout these
pages.

It is impossible to list by name all of those who have

in one way or another contributed to this work, whether by

iii

assisting in the preparation of the manuscript, providing
feedback on ideas or by deepening my knowledge of education
and the African child. To all, I remain enourmously
indebted.

This study is dedicated to the African Child. May it

contribute to the reJuvination of our greatness.

Craig Calvert Brookins
Michigan State University
December, 1984

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. .

LIST OF TABLES . .

Chapter

I.

II.

III.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . .

Literature Review . . . . .
Ideology and Philosophy.
Pedagogical Relevance .
Academic Rigor . . . . .

Justification for Research

METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . .

Subjects . . . .
Procedure . . .
Instruments . .
Questionnaire
Interviews . .
Observation .
Analysis . . . .

RESULTS .

Case Studies . . . . . . .

The
The
The
The
The
The
The
The
The
The

Atlanta School . . .
Baltimore School . .
Chicago Small Scho 1
Chicago South School
Chicago West School

D.C. Center School .
D.C. North School .
New Jersey School .
Philadelphia School

St. Louis School . .

Between School Comparisons
Organizational Structure
Philosophy and Ideology
Curriculum . . . . . . .
Theoretical and Pedagogical Framework.
Achievement . . . . . .
Discipline . . . . . . .
Attitudinal Responses .

ii

vii

$83

8888d§5$§$$SRK # 8883

o~o<ao~o
otnxiu.‘

Chapter

IV.

REFERENCES

Appendixes

DISCUSSION . . .

Philosophy And
Organizational
Curriculum . .
Pedagogy .
Teachers .
Discipline
Summary .

COVER LETTER AND INTRODUCTION

Ideology
Structure

CIBI INTRODUCTION LETTER .

PARTICIPANT AGREEMENT FORM

INSTRUMENTS . . .

School Questionnaire . .
Directors Interview . . .
Teachers Interview . . .
Site Obversation Schedule

NGUZO SABA: THE SEVEN PRINCIPLES OF

vi

BLACKNESS

104

104
112
114
117
119
120
121

123

125
126
127
128
128
129
131
132

134

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Number of School Staff Interviewed Within Each
SCth I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 24

Institutional Characteritics of IO CIBI Schools 25

Previous and Present Teaching Experience of
Teachers Within 10 C18! Schools . . . . . . . 26a

Organizational Structure of 10 C181 Schools . . 83a

Curricular Policies Related to Cultural Develop-
ment Within Each School . . . . . . . . . . . . 87a

Curricular Characteristics Related to Academic

School Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Effectiveness School Scharacteristics of 10 C181
SChOOl ‘ I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 94

vii

Iotcegessiee

In recent years research has indicated that the number of
African American children in different types of private
schools has been steadily increasing (Schneider, Slaughter &
Kramer). In addition, several alternative education models
and programs have arisen throughout the United States in both
majority and minority communities. Many of these models
significantly depart from traditional ways of schooling and
also provide alternatives to the purposes and goals of educa-
tion. This paper will focus on the three main areas crucial

to the develooment of the alternative#models within the
African American community; (a) ideology, (b) pedagogy, and
(c) academic rigor. An attempt will then be made to
integrate these areas into a proposal for research on Black
alternative education models. However, several important
points must first be made concerning the issues which pro-
vided the impetus for the development of alternative models.

The creation of these alternative education models in
the African American community is the result of three main
factors:

1. Several studies point to the academic failure of the
American public school system (Hollins, 1982a; Sanday, 1976;
Williams, 1978). Research points to the fact that Blacks and

other minority children have consistently had higher drop-out

rates, performed lower on achievement measures and demon-

strated lower self-concept and a sense of personal efficacy
than white children. The reasons proposed for this failure
hexe ranged from blaming the victim, his home environment and
family background to institutional racism and the blaming of
the educators. However, it should be noted that the academic

“training“ of African American children within this system is

no longer an educational issue. Sizemore (1983) and Edmonds
(1979) have asserted that the technology and “know how" for
training any child in the basic academic areas has been
available for some time. The issue is therefore a political
one which will be determined by the willingness of school
administrators, educators and politicians to facilitate the
structural changes required.

2. Another factor concerns the cultural and social
conflict between African American children and the
educational institutions they attend (Hale, 1982; Myers,
1979; Shade, 1982). In general these researchers attempted
to establish how culture influences the cognitive style of
African American children. The cognitive style encouraged in
the traditional classroom, and the one which facilitates
effective learning is seen as different from the African
American cognitive style. This difference manifests itself
in the teaching methods and instructional materials within
the classroom.

Additionally, Hale (1982) cited studies which describe
how culture plays an important role in the social-

relationships between children and significant others.

Within the school, culturally specific ways of relating
including verbal and non-verbal communication, and language
patterns have been shown to negatively effect the classroom
experience of children with teachers who are unfamiliar with
the culture of the children. These cognitive and social
concerns point to the need for teaching methods,
instructional materials and a school environment which are
more conducive to the African American culture. At present,
although the African American child is able to adapt to the
teaching styles of American schools and be successful, he/she
loses something in the process by sacrificing the potential
development of their ”natural“ culturally influenced
abilities.

3. This final factor is related to what many percieve as
a political and ideological conflict between the African
American and the Anglo-American community (Siroux, 1981;
Perkins, 1976; and Wilcox, 1972). These authors suggests
that the problems of caste structure and class conflict
contribute to the educational problems of African Americans.
The important point to be made here is that while research on
the academic and affective aspects of education is highly
important, there also exists the need for a proper
understanding of two additional goals of education -
socialization and enlightenment - as they relate to African
American children. This will undoubtedly prove to be a more
formidable task. While academic achievement is a universal
goal of education, socialization and enlightenment are more

determined by a philosophy or ideology. Philosophy and

3

ideology refer to the outcomes that a group, in this case
African Americans, desire for themselves.

The above concerns prompted many African American
educators and parents to develop prescriptions aimed at
first, understanding what the proper educational needs of
Black children should be and then to develop programs to
fulfill these needs. The following review of the literature

will be concerned with these ideological, academic, and

.— __ _ ‘e-MVAW

———— F- www—
. __ 4—-

 

 

u—vv

 

cultural prescriptions for educational models for African

4‘ , L AMT Wmmamw
2.. ... .. m -. g “ "WW-i“

7—..—

W—

American children. It will be organized into three parts,

a“

 

flu”

those prescriptions having to do with (a) ideology, (b)

WVH I‘m“ “.3J‘Whufimhwaw’mhm‘.
4‘ ,. “Wynn-\- um...“ WWW

_ l..-

pedagogical relevance. and (a) acigggifiusigor. This review
is\;::;d on literature on independent Black educational
models, programs and prescriptions from 1970 to 1983. The
contents of two previous reviews of the literature (Hale,
1982; and Shade, 1982) will be used to significantly reduce
the number of sources cited. This information will serve as___

a framework for understanding the important variablesfi

involved in independent Black on.

w

Hale (1982), in her review of the literature on Black
educational models found that an integration of ideology,
pedagogical relevence (method) and academic rigor (content),
is essential in the development of an African American
educati onal model .

Igselesx'aed'Ebileaeebx

I As mentioned above, philosophy and ideology are derived
from the outcomes which a group of people desire for
'themselves. The outcomes dictate the content of the
education in terms of the knowledge which is transmitted
through the educational process. This knowledge base
includes factual information, attitudes, opinions and world
views. Therefore, ideology and philosophy influence those
'processes, socialization and enlightenment, in a culturally.
distinct and purposeful manner.

Hale (1982) discussed the political/cultural ideology of
an alternative curricular model for Black children as being
one which has as its foundation “an accurate historical and
political analysis of the situation of Black people in
America and in the world.“ (p. 152). This includes an
understanding of their colonial relationship with the
dominant society. 'She stated that one of the purposes of
education is to assist in the liberation of Blacks from this
'colonial relationship through two parallel mechanisms -
education for struggle and education for survival.

In this context Woodson (1933) asserted that the

education that Blacks recieve only teaches them to serve in

5

the best interest of the system which oppresses them, and
therefore become participants in their own oppression.‘
Education for struggle serves a consciousness raising
function by countering this 'mis-education” with a proper
understanding of the struggle and resistance against
oppression which Africans and people of African descent have
waged throughout history. Hale stated that Black children
also need to be able to identify oppression in its various
forms and disguises and learn to formulate strategies for
struggling against it. Education for survival refers to the
need for Black children to understand that their survival is
dependent upon the survival of the group and that they must
use their education and skills for this purpose.

Williams and El-Khawas (1978) proposed a philosophy of
Black education which is based upon what they call a "Black
vector referent,“ which they describe as:

a 'weltanchung” view reflecting a specific
collective psychic experience. In its essence, it
refers to a frame of reference which comes from a
community to shared experiences that is often referred
to as a style of life, or way of looking at life. It is
comprised of numerous social and psychological, and
historical values and attitudes and expectations that
form.a synthesis for Black people. The Black vector
referent shows how Black people may be qualitatively
different in their American Black experience, and thus

have a uniqueness that is a psychological consequence of

being Black and a part of the American Black experience.
(pm. 185) e

This Slack vector referent is composed of seven elements:
1-‘Egssatien as a xsbisls £9: sesial change - which

states that education must be relevent to the individual,

specific and collective needs of Black people. Methods must

be developed for understanding the specific needs of each
student and overcoming the present mechanized and
dehumanizing school system. .

depart from the traditional fragmented approach-to the
‘learning process whereby each subject is taught.separatefrom
other subjects. This approach encourages the integration of
subjects by teaching the basic skills of listening, reading,.
writing and arithemetic in all subject areas. ,A unitary
approach also serves to directly link school learning with
the realities of the unique African American experience and
its integral relationship with the American experience as a

whol e.

3- §sisniai£is seccsstixs [Leanne - this apprmch
affirms human difference by encouraging the natural
development of individual life and creativeness.. Williams
and El-Khawas suggest that “Black people undertake this
country's inner moral and spiritual ideals of service towards
one's brother, or that which goes beyond one's immediate
domain.“ (p. 188). I

4. ngmggity ggggggt - suggests that one of the main
requirements of Black education is “to see that the Black
child learns, appreciates, and commits himself to the service
of the community....therefore, the self and individualism
must be deemphasized in favor of a group consciousness,
solidarity, cohesiveness which stress the individual

awareness of the relationship and consequences of the

individual's actions to the group.‘ (p. 189).

5. ID! gglug gt tggligg - translated to the educational
process requires that administrators and teachers involve
themselves in the sharing and caring process of education.
Modes of instruction should appreciate and emphasize the
affective process of learning.

6- 991225;; 919512252291; - paranoia refers to the
perception on the part of many Blacks that White people are
dangerous. This perception arises from the unique historical
experience, particularly that of past and continuing
oppression. This realization of danger is viewed as a
survival strategy and should be incorporated into the;
instructional process.

7- Relaxed cseacg and selizsstsaliaatien - Black
children must be taught that gain and self-fulfillment only
comes through a concerted and cooperative effort among
themselves.

In the context of defining an independent Black
educational institution, Satterwhite (1971) indentified six
ideological action concepts which he views as necessary in
the education of Black people.

1. Ngtiggzbgilgigg - is a process which strives to
develop, service, own and control the lives of the Black
community in an effort to achieve self-determination, self-
sufficiency, self-respect, and self-defense.

2. ngmgggligm - represents the action of concerted and
cooperative effort as it relates to group progress and is

opposed to individualism detached from the group.

3. figmgnigm - is a program which stresses distinctly
human rather than material concerns.

4. ID! efigiggg Egggggglity - Batterwhite discusses the
creation of the new African man and woman who possess the
attitudes, values, knowledge and behaviors necessary for the
development, maintenance and perpetuation of the African
world.

5. Qggglggiggtigg - refers to the control and ultimate
recreation of the political, economic, social and educational
institutions within the Black community.

6- basses! Estessn man and his 2921529922; - focuses
upon “programs which stress functional congruency between man
and his natural surroundings.“ (p. 10).

Doughty (1973) performed a historical analysis on Black
education and the contemporary independent Black school
movement.

This study attempted to describe the conceptual framework of
a Black curriculum. Doughty suggested that a Black
curriculum must encompass a concern for the following!

1. Curriculum that is flexible and geared to the unique
needs and life situations of African people, their culture,
values, community, nation and race._

2. Curriculum that is appropriately pre-packaged,
scheduled and uniform throughout an African School System.

3. Curriculum that is symbol based in order to
perpetuate and distribute through verbal symbols, recordings,

still pictures and motion pictures the uniqueness of the

African experience.

4. Curriculum that is experience based in order to
insure the internalization of curricular experiences.

5. Curriculum that provides a small step, sequenced
skill development program.

6. Curriculum that reveals, analyzes, and prescribes a
course of action based on our past, yet taking into account
the present predicament and motivated by the goals of the
future.

7. Curriculum that examines the who, what, when, where,
how and why of all questions.

8. Curriculum that receives its substance from our
ideolgical stance and yet is academically oriented.

9. Curriculum that identifies, exposes and confronts
reality.

10. Curriculum that requires sufficient concentration in
the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains.

Finally, a fairly large scale study was done on
independent Black pre-schools and reported by Coleman (1977).
In this report the ideological basis of the several schools
studied was described as “grounded in the common belief that
Black people must design, implement, and control those
institutions which control the minds of Black children; that
positive concepts of the child's racial identity and self-
concept must be developed, and that the child must be
politicized to understand the socio-political-historical
struggle of Black people throughout the world. The intent is

to produce a racially proud, self-sufficient, analytically

10

thinking, and academically skilled individual committed to
Black People.“ (p. 117). Ten principles of quality education
for Black children were indentified:

1. The direction and motivation of a Black Child
Development Program (BCDP) must be sharply focused upon and
guided by a recognition of the cultural heritage, history,
and values related to the struggle of Black people, both in
America and abroad.

2. A BCDP must be effective in fostering racial
identity, teaching the child to actualize positive
perceptions of self and race. This must be reflected in the
teacher's expectations of the child's potential to achieve
and must be manifested in the total program.

3. A BCDP must be independent regardless of the funding
source. This suggests that the program must be based in and
controlled by the Black community and that it must take full
responsibility for the design and implementation of the
program's organizational structure, teaching strategy,
theoretical basis and curriculum content.

4. A BCDP must serve as.a political vehicle which
initiates the acquisition of those values and attitudes which
foster the commitment to devote oneself to the survival and
maximum development of Black people.

5. As primary role models, teachers, parents, and
community residents involved in a Black program must be
prepared to redefine, exhibit, and transmit a value system
and behavioral patterns consistent with the ideology and

objectives of the program.

11

6. The children in a BCDP must be provided with a
learning environment which promotes collective and
individual responsibility and discipline as well as
exploration and experimentation designed to develop an
analytical approach to problemsolving.

7. The interaction pattern between teachers, parents,
and community members must reflect a shared and cooperative
responsibility to insure the immediate positive and
appropriate reinforcement of the child's cognitive, social,
emotional, and physical development.

8. The curriculum content and teaching strategy of a
BCDP must be designed in accordance with and in full
consideration of the child's social and physical environment
in order to maximize his conceptualization and validation of
the knowledge presented.

9. A BCDP must provide mechanisms for maintaining the
Black family as the child's primary socialization agent.

10. The BCDP must provide activities which insure the
child‘s physical development and the acquisition of the value
of proper nutrition and exercise.

In summary, the preceding literature identifies 13 basic
philosophical and ideological characteristics which are
considered to be necessary in the design of African American
educational models. These are:

1. Ngtigg building - related to African Americans

controlling their own institutions.

12

3.

4.

7.

10.

11.

8911:1531 IQQSSSIQD - this involves the reality based
teaching of African and African American existence in
the world. Developing the ability to identify
oppression and formulating strategies to struggle
against it.

letgggllx bgggg on the heritage, history and values
of Africans and African Americans, their unique needs
and life situations.

attend eacaetai inxaixaeant - parents and community

must be intimately involved in the school.

l'fl

gm_lx Qgiggtgg - maintaining the Black family as the
primary socializing agent through an emphasis on
caring and cooperation.

ogiented - strong academic orientation.

X

orient tigg - stressing harmony between
humans and their environment and the natural
development of life translated to the students through
a curriculum in which the subjects are well integrated
and interrelated.

D-volopment of the §.e -iciaan Eacaaeali.x -
emphasizing an Africentric approach to perceiving the
environment. All things are viewed in their
relationship to African people. A committment to the
African group is primary.

Provides for the masimal ebxaiaal 9222122922; of th-
child emphasizing exercise and nutrition.

Exaggigggg Qgggg - student is allowed to participate

in and experience the various aspects of his/her

l3

education.
12. 52999; 92229 curriculum designed to perpetuate and
represent the African experience. 1
13. A ggifggm ggggigglum which is well-structured and
instructionally stable throughout the school's system.
Esaagasisal Balaxansa

This component refers to the teaching methods used and
the structure of the environment within the classroom and
school. As mentioned above, research is presently being done
concerning the culturally influenced cognitive styles of
Black children, however, at present there is a virtual
consensus on certain aspects of the school and classroom
environment and teaching methods which are thought to be
essential.

Jackson (1981) identified two key factors in
understanding the educational needs of Black children (a)
Black children are individuals with wants and needs similar
to other children, and (b) their environments play a vital
role in how these needs are met by helping them to actualize
their potential. Gordon (1982) suggested that Black children
need a socially interactive environment which takes advantage
of their high energy level and vibrancy. Shade (1982)
asserts the need for a child oriented teaching approach which
involves constant encouragement, recognition, warmth, and
reassurance. .

Ths highly publicized Marva Collins school has

reportedly been successful in teaching African American

14

children who were previously thought to be uneducable.
Hollins (i982b) explained the success of the Marva Collins
school to be primarily due to what she terms “cultural
congruence.“ Cultural congruence refers to the relationship
between the curriculum and the students cultural experience
outside the school including the home and church environments
and peer group relationships. Hollins stated that the
classrooms in Marva Collin's school provided a climate
fostering cooperation, flexibility, collective
responsibility, autonomy, and strong adult leadership,
similar to that found in the Black home environment. The use
of peer group interactions was demonstrated in the classroom
use of familiar language patterns along with the teaching of
standard English.

In addition, four features of the church environment

were seen as appropriate for the classroom, these were:

i. A place provided where individuals could participate,
be accepted, and be valued by standards established
within their own environment. These standards and
activities related to the children's personal values,
goals, and experiences,

2. The notion of leadership was fostered.

3. The release of emotional tensions was encouraged.

4. Choral and responsive reading, audience
participation, the use of analogies, and the
identification of a moral or personal message from a
passage was frequently used.

Finally, Hollins discussed two other aspects of the

15

Marva Collins school which she considers superordinates in
the teaching/learning process. The first, method of
presentation, suggested that learning must be presented in a
manner that students can comprehend, interpret, and manage in
some organized and meaningful way. And the other,
motivation, suggested that learning be relevant to the
students aspirations, interesting, and geared toward building
the students self-esteem by encouraging him/her to take
charge of their own futures and think for themselves.

The above aspects refer mainly to classroom teaching
methods. In addition to these, Edmonds (1979), in a review
of the effective schools research performed on large public
schools identified several school-wide characteristics, based
on standardized achievement tests, which are related to
effective schools. Despite the problems with the public
school system previously mentioned, Edmonds pointed out that
schools which effectively teach the “basics“ to poor and
minority children do exist. In developing an effective
educational model for Black children, these characteristics
should not be overlooked. They are as follows:

.1. Strong administrative leadership. The principals as
well as the teachers must be strong instructional
leaders and strongly committed to the achievement of
ALL the children. In addition, the staffs of
effective schools tend to assume responsibility and
accountability for bringing about successful

achievement.

16

2.

A climate of expectation in which no children are
permitted to fall below minimum but efficacious
levels of achievement. This is usually accomplished
through written and specific objectives or competency
levels which are closely monitored.

A school atmosphere which is orderly without being
rigid, quiet without being oppressive, and generally
conducive to the instructional business at hand.

The acquisition of basic school skills takes
precedence over all other school activities.

School energy and resources can be diverted from
other business in furtherance of the fundamental
objectives.

Some means by which student progress can be
frequently measured whether through classroom testing
or criterion referenced standardized tests. This is
done in order to insure that the teachers, principal,
and students are constantly aware of student progress

in relation to the instructional objectives.

899922;; Bias:

Hale (1982) pointed out that the reality of the Black

experience in America demonstrates that Black children must
be excellent in every field of endeavor in order to be given
an equal opportunity. It also is the case that if the
development of the Black community as a whole is to be
achieved then it will require as many highly skilled,
intelligent and committed Black people as possible. Not only

are the teaching methods important in this respect but the

17

subject matter or content of wag; is taught needs special
consideration.

Therefore, academic rigor is aimed at two interrelated
goals. First, to help children to achieve their highest
academic potential by transcending the “basics“ of education
in order that the more advanced levels of the subject areas
may be learned by the students. And secondly, the content of
education for Black children must be based on the unique
Black experience in America and abroad and aimed at
instilling particular values and ideals as identified in the
ideology section of this paper.

To summarize, this review establishes a firm foundation
from which to develop effective educational models for
African American children. Biven the paucity of research on
existing Black educational models, these prescriptions
provide a framework for assessing IBS‘s within real life
settings.
£s§§i£lséSLQQ £9: Bessscsb

The following is an exploratory study of several
independent Black schools at the elementary (K-S) level.
There are three main reasons for a study of this kind.
First, the majority of studies on independent education for
Black children focusses on pre-school and early elementary
educational models. A recent survey on independent schools
for minority children conducted by the National Center for

Neighborhood Enterprise identified over 250 such schools

throughout the nation (Nalton, 1983). These schools were

18

reported to be very diverse in terms of their sizes and
philosophies although all have the identical goals of provi-
ding their students with an educational option that will
improve their achievement and provide them with a solid
understanding of their cultural heritage. There exists a
need to study these schools in order to understand these
particular philosophies and methods and how they manifest
themselves for a particular minority group.

One such attempt to assess the functional and practical
relevance of IBS's was made by Woodard (1977). Woodard
attempted to describe her experiences and the experiences
over a five year period of the Kawaida Educational and
Development Center (KEDC) in Los Angeles, California.
Woodard identified three main factors which contributed to
the eventual closing of KEDC. These were (a) lack of money
which resulted in inadequate and poor facilities and
instructional materials, (b) lack of a formally trained staff
which could draw from fundamental principles of pedagogy in
order to enhance the classroom programs, and (c) the lack of
a unifying ideology which precipitated conflicts between
staff members and parents. These perceptions led her to

conclude that:

Black alternative schools were founded upon the
assumption that the basis of the problem of inequality
of education for black children was cultural difference.
Black alternative schools could not solve the problem of
the inferior education which blacks receive in America‘s
public schools because such educational deprivation is
not a cultural problem. There are identifiable cultural
characteristics unique to black people, but these
characteristics do not meet the criteria of a
culture...Black Americans do not comprise a cultural
minority. They are a racial minority. Blacks have a

19

common history, but not a unified, homogeneous, easily

identifiable common culture. Therefore any attempt to

establish alternative educational programs based on
culture will succeed only for a small group with a homo-

geneous value orientation. (p. 41).

This informal assessment raises questions concerning the
operation and functions of IBS's.

Secondly, within the past 15 years the Black community
has witnessed the birth and death of several alternative
models of IBS's. The experiences of the schools which have
survived should provide an insight into their structure and
characteristics. It is necessary to explore the present
goals and functions of IBS's in order to begin to understand
the characteristics which lead to their survival and success.
This includes the roles, if any, that IBS's play in the
effective education of African Americans.

Thirdly, elementary education differs from pre-school
education in terms of the needs of the children (e.g., more
sophisticated materials and teaching methods), the expanded
learning capacity of the students, and the greater outside
environmental influences which effect them. Consequently,
there is a crucial need for research on elementary models of
education for Black children which attempt to integrate the
ideology, methods and content as cited above.

The data collected for this study will primarily be
descriptive with limited empirical analysis due to the small
sample size and also the exploratory nature of this project.
The key areas to be explored will be based on the three
components (ideology, method and content). The goals of this

study are threefold:

20

i. To generally describe the schools identified.

2. To assess the relationship between the schools and
the prescriptions cited in the literature.

3. To determine the relevance that the effective schools
research has for these independent Black schools.

This process will be explained further in the analysis

section of this paper.

21

22

CHAPTER 2

US$11.99!
§-Qisst2

Ten independent Black elementary schools were included

in this study. These schools are all affiliated with the
Council of Independent Black Institutions (CIBI). CIBI
serves as an umbrella organization for all its member
schools. There are approxamately 30 day schools and weekend
programs within the CIBI network. Financial considerations
only allowed research to be conducted on those schools within
the east and midwest regions of the country. The schools
range from the pre-school to the secondary level. These
schools were selected because the ideological orientation
which the schools and the C181 profess falls in line with the
prescriptions cited above in the literature review. Also
CIBI is the only Black independent school ”system“ which
attempts to follow a concrete and singular Black oriented
ideology. The C131 also conducts an annual Teacher Training
Institute (TTI) which attempts to politically and culturally
orient present and potential teachers to the concepts of
effective education for African Americans. The TTI also
serves as a forum for sharing and developing innovative
teaching methods and curriculums. Fictitious names were used
to represent the schools in this study at the request of the

institutions involved. The following is a list of the schools

studied:
- The Atlanta School

- The Baltimore School

- The Chicago Small School

- The Chicago South School

- The Chicago West School

- The D.C. Center School

- The D.C. North School

- The New Jersey School

- The Philadelphia School

- The St. Louis School

The research focused on the director, teachers, and
teacher aides within each school. Table 1 shows the
breakdown of those persons interviewed. Table 2 shows the
institutional characteristics of each school. As indicated,
the schools average length of operation is eight years. The
teacher/student ratio is relatively low and teacher salaries
are extremely low. Although half of the schools receive
outside funding only one school received funding from
governmental sources. Most funding came from private,
community based organizations. Outside of tuition and
external funding monies were secured through fundraising
activities and business ventures. Many of the schools were
supplemented through other organizational components such as
bookstores, a community resource center or a childrens
performing troupe. Others were attempting to move into other
areas of business and real estate.

In terms of the teachers, 88% had completed a post
secondary degree: 9% associate, 53X bachelors, 24% masters

and 32 or one teacher with a Ph.D (law). 65% of these

23

degrees were concentrated in the educational field in the
areas of early childhood education, special education,
elementary education, curriculum and supervision, general
education and educational administration. The remaining 35%

are scattered in the social science areas and one each in

24

TABLE I

Number of School Staff Interviewed
Within Each School

 

§sn99l leashes; Qicsstecs flies;
The Atlanta School 3 1a 1.
The Baltimore School 2 2 1
The Chicago Small
School 1 1
The Chicago South
School 3 1a
The Chicago West
School 2 1a
The D.C. Center
School 6 1a
The D.C. North
School 7 2b
The New Jersey
School 3 2b
The Philadelphia
School 3 l
The St. Louis
School 2 1a
Total 32 6 2 I 40

designates that the director was also a teacher.
b

designates that one of the directors was a teacher also.

25

TABLE 2

institutional Characteristics
of 10 C181 schools

 

School Length of Enrollaont I of Teacher! Fee Teacher Reciept oi Eleaentary
Operation 1 of Teachers Child Charged Salary Outside Grades
(years) Children Ratio (aonth) Range Funding Served
The Atlanta
School 3 28 7 1:7 $130 5-10.000 NO X - 1

The Saltiaore

School 7 80 8 1:10 8190 5-10.000 YES K - 2
The Chicago
Snail School 7 7 1 1:7 $135 5-10.000 80 3 - 7

The Chicago South
School 12 91 6 1:15 $150 5-10.000 80 K - 3

The Chicago Vest
School 12 18 2 1:9 $154 5-10.000 YES K - 2

The D.C. Center
School 10 70 7 1:10 8165 5-10.000 N0 K - 8

The D.C. North
School 7 130 7 1:13 3190 9-15.000 N0 K - 8

The Nev Jersey
School 8 68 4 1:17 3125 5-10.000 YES K - 5

The Philadelphia
School 11 45 4 1:10 1135 "IA YES K - 3

The St. Louis ‘
School 5 12 2 '1:6 $165 l/A N0 K - 8

 

Total 82 549 48 $1.519 Nlh N/h Nlh
Average 8.2 54.9 4.8 1:10 $152 N/A .N/A Nlh

2N5

TABLE 3

Previous and present teaching experience at
teacher: vithin 10 C181 schools

 

 

Previous Teaching Experience luaber of years at present school
a
School Total Total Average Total Average
Teacher: Year: Year:

The Atlanta

School 3 3 1 4.5 1.5
The Baltiaoro

School 4 13 3.25 12 3
The Chicago

Snail School 1 32 32 2 2
The Chicago South

School 3 7 2.3 16 5.3
The Chicago Host .

School 2 12 6 10 5
The D.C. Center

School 6 51.5 8.58 30 5
The D.C. North

School 8 31 3.8 38 4.75
The Nov Jersey

School 3 6 2 14.5 4.83
The Philadelphia

School 3 18.5 6.5 12 4
The St. Louis

School 2 4.5 2.25 6 3

b
Total 34 188 5.5 135 3.4

Based on only those teachers vho were intervieued.
b

The Chicago Saall School is not figured into this equation because of its saall size.

IBEha

business administration, economics, nursing and law.

Table 3 shows that teachers average 5.5 years oi
previous teaching experience. 51% of this experience is in
public schools, 31% in private schools and 18% in other
independent Black schools. Teachers also average 3.4 years
o4 teaching experience within their present school. Finally,
16% of the teachers were male although there were several
males throughout each of the schools who worked with the
children.

Ecessguce

The proposed study was tirst submitted to the director
of the 0181 for the councils approval and suggestions. Upon
approval by the director the initial contact with the schools
was made through a joint letter from the researcher and the
national director of 0181 (see Appendix A and B). These
letters explained the purposes and procedures of the study
and requested participation from the institution. A
participation agreement form (Appendix C) was enclosed along
with an initial questionnaire soliciting general up—to-date
information about the school, and validating whether the
school met the criteria for the study. A follow-up telephone
call was made to all schools which did not respond to this
initial contact.

Once agreement had been obtained from all the schools
wishing to participate, they were then contacted by phone to
arrange a schedule for site visits. There were two day site
visits at each school which will involved interviews with the

director, teachers and other school workers. Also, site

27

observations of classrooms and classes were administered
along with the collection of instructional, curricular and
other learning materials. The proposed daily schedule for
site visits were as followsa

Day 1) Directors Interview
Teachers Interview

Day 2) Classroom and School Observations

Upon arriving at the schools on day one of the site
visit contact was made with the director. An interview
schedule was arranged and a list of materials was presented
to be collected by the end of the second day. In most cases
the interviews with the directors was next followed by
interviews with the appropriate teachers and other workers.
In some cases however, when access to teachers was not
possible on the first day then teachers were interviewed on
the second day. The formal classroom observation was
scheduled to take place on the second day but in most cases
observations were constantly being made throughout the two
day visit. In addition, the reseracher was afforded the
opportunity to informally discuss aspects of independent
Black education and the experiences of the schools and its
participants after school hours and during the evening.

In some instances, the questionnaires and agreement
forms were not returned prior to the site visit and therefore
were collected upon arrival. In still other instances some
materials were not.available upon departure from the schools
which made it necessary to send to the researcher at a later

date.

28

The instruments used for this study were a
questionnaire, a directors and teachers interview schedule,_
and a site observation form (Appendix D). The questions for
these instruments have been derived from the literature
review and the questions raised in the Justification for
.Research section above and will be described further in the
analysis section. The interview sessions were tape recorded
for purposes of reliability, documentation and review during
the analysis stage.

The instruments were pilot tested on a CIBI member
school. The directors interview took approxamately 60
minutes and the teachers interview, 45 minutes. The
responses were brief and to the point, codifiable, and the
interview instruments as a whole were effective in answering
the specific research questions identified in the analysis
section. The unclear questions were appropriately modified
and is reflected in the interview schedules in the Appendix
section.

During the pilot study it was also found to be necessary
to send a list of items to be collected (i.e., student and
parent handbooks, copies of the school pledge and songs,
class schedules, curriculum outline, etc.) prior to the site

visit in order to avoid confusion and delays during the

visit.
922221299215.

The questionnaire was designed to obtain information on

29

the general institutional and organizational characteristics
of each school and provide the researcher with an initial
familiarity with the schools prior to the site visits. The
data collected was recorded for each school and, where
appropriate, aggregated across schools.

Insscxissg ‘

An interview schedule was developed for the director and
teachers. The majority of the interview questions were open
ended and designed to allow for follow-up questions from the
researcher. An effort was made to secure a private room in
which to conduct the interview. Unfortunately, at times
interviews were held at the back of the classroom or other
places where distractions were frequent. However, this is
not believed to have significantly influenced the responses.
The interview sessions were tape recorded for purposes of
reliabiliaty, documentation and review during the analysis
stage. Informal conversations with teachers and parents were
also conducted when possible.

Qbsscxstige

A detailed list of observations to be made was
constructed. In most cases, observations were structured
around the interview schedule and took place on both days of
the site visit.
enalxsis

The analysis was conducted according to a five stage
process.

1. A general description was made on the schools indivi-

dually and as a group. This was primarily derived from the

30

data collected on the following components:

Hierarchical structure

Size - student/teacher ratio

Leadership

Funding (income)

Costs (per student)

Rate of Pay/salary

Geographical location

Access to services by community

Parental involvement

Community involvement

Relationship to other community organizations and
resources

Curricular

what areas are taught
How are they decided upon
Expected competencies
Evaluation procedures
Outcome measures

Teachers

Educational background
Teaching experience
Contribution to curriculum

Parents

Participation in curriculum development.

Percieved reasons for sending kids to an
independent Black school.

Previous educational experiences of children.

In addition, the following questions were designed to

determine the structural aspects of the school which regulate

or contribute to the teaching processa

What type of supplemental or in-service training
do you recieve?

what are the structural procedures for teacher
training and teacher orientation?

what freedom do you have within your classroom'
concerning the use of teaching methods, learning
materials, subject matter, etc.?

what are the requirements for becoming a teacher?

31

2. An attempt was made to determine the relationship
between the ideological goals prescribed in the literature
and the actual goals professed by the schools. The analysis
attempted to answer the following general questions:

(a) What are the ideological goals of the schools?

(b) How does ideology translate to the teaching
process?

(c) How are ideological goals assessed?

(d) Uhat are the desired outcomes from your
schooling?

The following were the corresponding interview
questions:

- What is the philosophical or ideological basis
of your school?

— How does this philosophy translate to or influence
the curriculum?

- How is Black cultural, historical and educational
content integrated into the curriculum?

- How does your school differ from traditional edu-
cational programs?

- what are the expected characteristics of a child
which has completed your school program?

- There is concern within the Black community over
the lack of positive male role models for the
Black child. How does your school handle this
problem?

3. The analysis answered the following questions related
to 2292999! in! SD! ELQEEEQQQ .lifléEE'
(a) What child development theories are used?
(b) How do these relate to the culture of the child?

(c) What is the general classroom climate?

The corresponding interview questions werea

32

- (Director) What theoretical framework or child
development theories does the school try to
follow? Why?

- (Teachers) What theoretical framework or child
development theory(s) do you try to follow? Why?

The major data used to answer these questions came from
the observations of the classroom and student/teacher
interactions. The aim was is only to get a general idea of
the classroom atmosphere and not a detailed description of
the teaching methods.

4. This study answered the following questions related
to the curriculum:

(a) How is the curriculum organized?
(b) What is the content of the curriculum?
(c) How do children progress through the school?

The corresponding interview questions were:

- Is there a standard or set curriculum in your
school?

- How was this curriculum developed?
- How do children progress through your school?
In addition, the researcher collected a copy of the cur-
riculum for the school and each teacher, if it was available?
5. The following questions relating to educational rigor
(academic and affective) were answered:

(a) How far does the curriculum transcend the
“basics?"

(b) How much relevance does the effective schools
research have for these independent Black
schools?

(c) What is the academic achievement level of the
students in the schools?

The corresponding interview questions to this component

33

of the analysis was as follows:
- What subject areas are taught at each grade level?

- How are new methods or content added to the school
curriculum?

- What are the academic objectives of the school?
For each grade level? Are they written?

- What are the affective objectives of the school?
Are they written?

- What other objectives does the school try to accom-
plish? Are they written?

- How are these objectives assessed?

- What is the rationale for choosing these
objectives?

6. Finally, this study attempted to determine the

' attitudes of the school towards the characteristics which a
teacher should possess in order to teach Black children. The
corresponding question:

- What are the essential skills and knowledge a
teacher should possess in order to teach Black
children?

The interview questions were content analyzed resulting
in categories of responses. These responses were first
compiled within each school and then between schools. The
majority of questions are openended which allowed the
interviewer to pursue any unclear answers or additional
concerns which may have been appropriate. This format also
minimized the potential for a respondent to be led in a
particular way and thereby biasing the response. Additional
information was obtained through this process. An effort was

made to determine the most frequently occuring responses and

to compare responses that were typical of particular schools.

34

This information was shaped into the characteristics which
were most associated with the schools.

Data was also collected concerning the social and
ecological climate through observation and informal
interviews with school workers and parents. The
appropriateness of an educational environment for African
Americans was also measured through the process of analyzing
certain ecological variables within the school such as the
cultural content of classroom walls, bulletin boards,
directors office and library area.

A copy of the curriculum and a variety of other
materials related to the school was collected to assist in
this analysis. Achievement data was collected from many but
not all of the schools. In addition, the types of
achievement tests used by each school varied considerably
limiting across school comparisons. This did allow for a
partial analysis of variables associated with the academic
effectiveness of the schools. Although no conclusive results
can be reported the direction of possible relationships was

determined.

35

36

CHAPTER 3

Essults

This chapter is separated into three parts:
1. Descriptive case studies of each school.

2. Between-school comparisons of the school according to
key characteristics.

3. The responses of teachers and administrators to
questions relating to attitudes towards their schools
and teaching Black children in general.

Many of the responses and observations reported were not
characteristic of each and every school. However, an effort

was made to report those findings which were most

representative of the majority of the schools.

Case Studies
199 atlante §sn99l

Started in 1981 the Atlanta School is an independent
Black institution which serves children from the age of 3
through 6 years and the grades pre-primary through 1st grade.
Located in Atlanta Georgia the school is situated in a
residential Black neighborhood and occupies a selfcontained
one story building. There are three self-contained
classrooms, a larger activity area (the kindergarten class is
held in this area also), kitchen and a large fenced play area
in the rear of the building.

The kindergarten and 1st grade classroom atmosphere
tended to be very intimate with a substantial opportunity for

indiVidual attention and instruction. The 1st grade

classroom was arranged in a traditional manner with moveable
desk and chairs facing the front of the room. The children
were generally very active and expressive but respectful and
responded well to the teachers and other adults. The
classroom boards and walls contained various pictures and
learning materials (i.e., concept charts, alphabet lists),
maps, calenders, the school pledge and various sayings and
quotes (i.e., “have pride without arrogance,“ “be kind
without being weak,“ etc.) the childrens' coat racks have
their names positioned on construction paper cutouts in the
shape of the African continent.

95999199t19991 99999399.:

The Atlanta School is operated by a Board of Directors
composed of staff members and parents. The director serves
as administrator and teacher. Parent involvement is
mandatory. The parents are responsible for assisting
children in completing homework neatly and efficiently,
helping with school cleanup and maintenance, attending
monthly parent meetings, assisting in fundraising events, and
joining a standing parent committee.

Ehil9§999x 999 1999199!

The Atlanta School states that it is an independent
institution not owned or operated by any religious,
political, or community organization. Their educational
program is guided by two main beliefs: (a) That African
Americans are an African people, and (b) that as such African
Americans have a common history which leads them to embrace a

common purpose the physical and psychological independence

37

of African people. Education is seen as the primary thrust
for stimulation during the formative years, from birth to age
five, directly affects the intellectual advancement and
academic achievement of later years. Because of this the
school attempts to provide an early academic experience for

pre-primary children and a smooth transition to the primary
level. There are hopes to expand the school program to
higher grade levels in the future. Among the goals of the
educational program is to help children become independent,
selfthinkers and to develop within themselves an African
American orientation and consciousness ultimately manifested
in their future commitment to African American people.
99:9199l9e

The curriculum was created by using several existing
curriculum models and the experience of the teachers
themselves. The Atlanta Public School objectives are used as
the guidelines for instruction. Children are assessed
through testing (formal and informal) and observations.
Standard texts and materials are used along with African
american oriented materials. Subject areas include
mathematics, language arts, social studies, science,
African/world history and geography. In addition, the school
lists activities offered to promote creativity, motor
development, and social interaction through arts and crafts,
organized games and exercises and free play.

Teachers

Essentially there are no educational requirements beyond

38

the high school diploma for becoming a teacher at the Atlanta
School. The school however does desire some experience in
education or in working with children. Prospective teachers
are interviewed by the director and board members and are
evaluated on their performance in on-site situations, a

thirty minute trial teaching session and their writing
ability.

Throughout the year teachers participate in out—of-
school workshops and attend daycare conferences required for
school licensure by Georgia State. Teachers are also allowed
unlimited freedom in utilizing whatever teaching methods and
learning materials they feel are appropriate as long as it
falls within the guidelines of the school's philosophy.
Teachers are evaluated essentially through observation and

feedback from the director.

39

199 99ltim959 §9999l

The Baltimore School was founded in 1978 as a school
designed to expose children to a learning experience which
fosters a positive, healthy self-concept and also stresses
academic deveIOpment for pre-primary children. The primary
division of the school was established in 1982. The program
is divided into two academic divisions. The pre-school and
the early primary divisions (kindergarten, lst and 2nd
grades). Each division is named after a significant African
place or person. The school occupies a former two story
church building. The kindergarten classroom and the 1st and
2nd grade combined classrooms are self enclosed. There is
also a small library and computer area for the children. The
classrooms are spacious allowing each child plenty of room.

The atmosphere was moderately loud and orderly. The
Baltimore School attempts to create a family oriented
environment for the children. The students are respectful
“and look upon their teachers as parent figures. The
classrooms are well structured with movement controlled by
the teacher. The 1st and 2nd grade classroom is arranged
traditionally with students desks facing the teachers desk at
the front of the room.

The school's walls and bulletin boards were colorfully
and lively decorated with cultural and academic materials
which included maps, student work, academic charts and
posters, students pictures and Black oriented pictures and
posters (e.g., a series of alphabet posters with the letters

designating the name and description of an African tribe).

4o

9:9991a9519991 Etcustucs

The Baltimore School's major functioning body is the
Board of Directors composed of parents, staff and community
members. Under the board is the administrative and teaching
staff including an administrative director, educational
director, the head teacher and teachers. The Board of
Directors must approve all budgetary and financial decisions.
The administrative director is responsible for the day to day
operations of the school. The educational director handles
the curricular issues and teacher evaluations. An effort is
made to encourage parent participation through a parent-
teachers association. Workshops and program are also
provided for parents including speakers, yoga and aerobics
classes, and panel discussions.

The Baltimore School adopted a nationalist/pan-
africanist ideology in the summer of 1983. It views pan-
africanism as ”the idea that Black people all over the world
are one people united by our common ancestry, our common
condition and our common destiny. We must unite in mind,
spirit and effort to solve the problems that confront us. No
one of us can be ‘free‘ until the means for full human
development are available to all of us.“

One of the main components of this ideology is that the
school recognizes itself to be an independent Black
institution which provides a valuable community service. The
Baltimore School "sees as the reason for its existence as

being the education of children in the acquisition of an

41

understanding of the world for the purpose of creating a
people who possess the skill to transform." It attempts to
accomplish this by creating an atmosphere where children can
become academically superior, politically and socially
mature, and culturally strong. The goal is to develop within
the child a positive self-concept and identity, direction and
value systems at an early stage of his/her life. The
fundamental basis for developing this value system is the
Nguzo Saba (appendix E) which represents the attitudes and
behaviors which the child is expected to adopt and
internalize.

Another of the prime components of the program is the
promotion of the family concept within the school. This
manifests itself in three central ways: (a) through the
rituals and protocols of the educational program, (b) the
opportunity provided for the utilization of the attitudes,
knowledge and behaviors to be used outside of the classroom
and at home, and (c) the efforts to provide community and
family involvement in the educational activities.

Finally, each child is taught and encouraged to utilize
his/her learned skills, abilities and attitudes for the
improvement and changing of the world.

9999;99199

The present curriculum of the Baltimore School was
developed by the teachers and administrators utilizing models
of other school curriculum and specialist in certain areas.

According to the school handbook the curriculum attempts to

42

incorporate emotional, cultural, social, physical, spiritual
as well as academic experiences. The elementary level
(kindergarten - 2nd grade) has a curriculum guide with
specific objectives which correspond with student report
cards. The guides also contain suggested methods and
material to assist teachers in helping students achieve the
objectives. There is however no systematic procedure for
integrating Black historical and cultural content. The major
academic subject areas include:

- cognitive skills

- psychomotor skills

- physical education

- social development

— communicating skills

- mathematics

- phonetics

- general science

- history and geography

- language arts
- meditation

‘ yoga

- arts

- self-concept activities

- cultural awareness

- music

- food experience

- Black history
A cultural series involving speakers and field trips to
places of historical and current significance is also
included in the curriculum. Students may also become
involved in a cultural performance troupe which performs for
various schools and
community groups.

Standardized learning texts and materials are used for

instruction in addition to a growing collection of Black

oriented reading materials in the library.

43

Students progress through the school according to a
combination of ability and age level. Standardized tests,
teacher-made tests and observations are used. On a daily and
weekly basis teachers are expected to keep a record on how
the student performs in each competency area. Report cards

are sent home at the end of each four quarter period. Pa-
rents conferences and workshops are also provided.

Teachers

The Baltimore School requires that a teacher possess a
bachelors or associates degree in the area of education,

- understands the needs of Black children and has a confortable
awareness of themselves. The school has developed a teachers
handbook which describes in detail those aspects of good
teaching skills including classroom management, role of the
teacher, teacher/student relationships and methods of
effectively motivating students. The handbook is designed to
assist the teacher and school in creating the desired
educational atmosphere.

In addition, monthly staff meetings and workshops are
held although these were reported to predominantly cover the
organizational and daycare aspects of the school. Teachers
possess a great amount of freedom to be creative or introduce
new ideas, teaching methods or learning materials into the
classroom. However, teachers must only bring positive images
into the classroom and limit their innovations to those that
help achieve the curriculum objectives.

Teacher evaluations are performed by the educational

director. Teachers are evaluated according to an extensive

44

list of performance objectives including quality of work,
volume of work, planning, application of knowledge and
skills, problem solving, relationship and interaction with

others, attendance and punctuality and commitment to the job.

45

199 9919299 §e911 999991

The Chicago Small School was started in 1982. It
presently occupies two rooms and shares a building with
another independent Black school and a moderate sized inner—
city university in the Chicago area. The school presently
has one classroom with a total of seven children. The
children range from grade three through seven. This year the
school has witnessed a significant decline in enrollment
attributable to several factors which has caused it to scale
down its operations.

The classroom maintains a general orderly and respectful
atmosphere. The teacher moves in and out of subjects
smoothly with a set time frame for each. The day begins with
a discussion of a Black historical person or event. This
generally takes the form of the teacher writing a paragraph
or more on the blackboard and the children reading and
discussing it.

Free movement about the room is not restricted as long
as it is purposeful. Children work at their own level with
occasional group activities depending on the task. The
teacher is in constant motion moving from one student to the
other. The students are encouraged to express themselves and
ask questions. There is a strong emphasis on symbolism and
ritual including the pledges and songs. Children are .
required to wear uniforms everyday. The walls of the
classroom are decorated with key words, pictures, maps,
students photographs, school work, media articles, pictures

of current events and historical Black figures, slogans and

46

quotes.
99999999999991 999999999

The school is governed by a board of directors which
includes two former parents and a community person. There is
an acting administrator, one full-time teacher and several
part-time staff persons. The Board of Directors makes the
budgetary and financial decisions and has final approval on
any curricular decisions.

_______ -9999992

The Chicago Small School characterizes itself as being
an independent Black institution. They define this by
stating that as Black parents and teachers they take total
responsibility for the education of their children. This
ideology encompasses the teaching of academic skills with an
emphasis on the 3R's (reading, writing and arithmetics), a
knowledge and understanding of the child's heritage, an
appreciation for their “Blackness,“ the need for students to
have social and political awareness, and the use of a
distinct value system based on the “Nguzo Saba."

In addition the school stresses the need to create
within the students a commitment to African people. This was
summarized in the following excerpt from their written
ideological statement:

Accepting the irrefutable principle that ‘Black' and

'African' are synonomous,-we are an African people with

an African heritage and culture. We recognize the Afri-

can community as consisting of the living, dead, and
unborn. Having an Afrocentric world view, we perceive

ourselves as part of an African world community, with a

sense of responsibility to African peoples and communi-
ties around the world. Therefore our children must be

47

instilled with concern for the welfare of African people
internationally, nationally, and locally and this must
take precedence over all else.

Curriculum

Presently the curriculum is mostly developed by the
teacher with input on the part of the active administrator
and the Board of Directors concerning certain specific
testing needs. There are no specific academic objectives
although the school is planning on developing them in the
near future. Standardized testing is done using the Stanford
Diagnostic test. Students progress at their own pace with an
opportunity to advance beyond their present grade levels.

The curriculum includes language arts, mathematics,
social studies, African/American history, art, music and
science. The School uses standard instructional texts and

materials oriented toward Black children.

48

I99 9999999 §9999 599991

Located in a self-contained store front building on the
south side of Chicago, Illinois the Chicago South School
originated in 1972. Dedicated to the academic and cultural
development of Black children the school provides an
educational day program to the surrounding African American
community. The academic program is divided into four levels.
The pre-primary, the kindergarten, the let grade and the 2nd
and 3rd grade combined classrooms. The 1st grade classroom
is located in a self-enclosed room with the students desks
arranged in rows facing the front of the room. The teacher
maintained an orderly environment and movement and activity
was controlled. Interaction between students and teacher was
intimate and respectful. The teacher moved about the room
freely during group and individual work and was accessible
for individual assistance.

The 2nd and 3rd grade classroom was characterized by
slightly more active students. Students were arranged in
desks facing each other and the blackboard. The teacher’s
desk was located at the rear of the room. Free movement was
allowed about the room although the teacher maintained
control over the activity. The group lessons contained a
high degree of discussion and interaction. During individual
seat work the teacher was in constant motion around the room
assisting students.

The overall atmosphere of the school was generally noisy
but orderly and controlled. The children were observed to be

helpful to each other and responsible for their peers'

49

behavior.

There is a library and computer area housed in the loft
area above one of the classrooms. The pre-school and
assembly is located in a large area at the front of the
building. The walls and bulletin boards of this room are
decorated with cultural symbols and murals, pictures, maps of
Africa, an African American flag, childrens' academic and art
work, posters and inspirational quotes. The classrooms and
hallway walls are decorated much the same with learning
materials corresponding with the levels of the students.
99999999999991 999999999

The Chicago South School is the educational division of
a larger community organization. The other divisions include
community service and business activities. An eight member
Board of Directors is responsible for the overall operation
of the organization. There is a director specifically
responsible for the school's day to day operations, a
coordinating council consisting of members of the parent body
and the school body, and finally the school staff members.
Parents are required to assist in fundraising activities by
obligating themselves to raise at least $100 for the school.

As mentioned above, the Chicago South School is
dedicated to the academic and cultural development of Black
children. In the school's handbook the school defines Black
according to four distinct criteria:

1. Color: of African ancestry;

50

2. Culture: practicing a lifestyle which recognizes the
importance of our African and African American heri-
tage and traditions, and geared to the values which
will facilitate the present and future development of
our people;

3. Consciousness: aware of our strength, beauty and
potential as African people: able to interpret all
situations from the standpoint of the greatest good
for the greatest number of Blacks in the world; and

4. Commitment: willingness to work tirelessly in the
interest of African and African American people.

The handbook continues on to define independence as “not
being dependent on resources outside of our community for the
maintenance of our programs," and institution as ”a body of
people committed to the struggle for a common cause.“ The
Chicago South School sees as one of its main goals ”to
participate in the world Black struggle of recreating an
African mind as the basis for our movement toward self-
determination." . '

By striving for the above goals the school hopes to help
children develop an accurate self-identity, an understanding
and appreciation for that identity, achieve academic
excellence, appreciate the extended family concept and
maintain control of their lives and the lives of their
community. The principles of the Nguzo Saba are used as the
value system for which children are taught to adopt,
internalize and behave accordingly.

9999999999

The curriculum for the Chicago South School was
developed from various sources including the norms of the
Chicago Public School system, the Council of Independent

Black Institutions curriculum and the knowledge and

51

experience of the developers. The curriculum utilizes
advanced academic norms on top of the public school norms.
Each teacher deveIOps their own lesson plan which contains
month by month objectives and concepts. The major objective
of the curriculum is to “prepare today's Black children for
the future by developing positive images, knowledge, skills
and resources for greater achievement." The principles of
the Nguzo Saba are integrated into the curriculum areas. The
subject areas include communications (language arts),
mathematics, culture (identity and values, history from an
African perspective, geography and social studies), science,
Kujichagulia skills (self-determination skills; for the
primary level, includes such skills as sweeping, setting the
table, cutting with a knife, brushing teeth and other
personal hygiene skills), physical development, and cultural
arts (foreign languages, music and crafts).

Children are evaluated according to teacher-made tests,
observations and monthly and quarterly mastery tests.
Observations take into consideration social, emotional and
academic development.

19999999

The basic requirements for becoming a teacher at the
Chicago South School is that the person possess some
educational knowledge and experience and be in agreement with
the ideals of the school. Teachers are interviewed by the

Board of Directors and observed in a trial teaching session.

New teachers are required to participate in staff orientation

52

sessions which basically review the philosophy, organization,
and curriculum of the school and how it originated. These
new teachers are observed at the beginning of their service
and gradually integrated into the classroom.

Teacher evaluations take place at least three times a
year. Twice teachers evaluate each other and once by an
outside evaluator. Evaluations assess the teachers attitude,
work style and performance within the classroom on lesson
planning, relationships with students and the use of learning
materials. In-service workshops are given periodically along
with training through ClBI's Teacher Training institute and
other outside educational workshops. The teachers have the
freedom to bring new methods and materials into the classroom

as long as it complements the philosophy and ideology of the

school.

53

I99 9999999 9999 999999

Located in a four story building on the far westside of
Chicago the Chicago West School was organized in 1972. It
was started by a cadre of college and high school volunteers
along with parents and community residents in an effort to
develop a self-determined, independent African American
educational institution to serve the cultural and academic
needs of westside children. There are presently two
classrooms named after African tribal nations, one for the
pre-primary and kindergarten and the other for the lst and
2nd grades. Eighteen children are presently enrolled in the
day program. The primary classroom was arranged in a
.traditional manner with the children generally seated in rows
with moveable desks facing the blackboard and teachers desk.

The atmosphere was observed to be generally quiet and
orderly. During the group lesson the students seemed eager
to respond to the teachers prompts and ask questions. During
individual work the students were engaged in the completion
of the task and the teacher was readily available for
individual assistance.
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

The Chicago West School is incorporated under a larger
community organization. The board of directors, composed of
seven members including teachers, parents and community
persons is the major functioning body of the organization
which is morally and legally responsible for the school.
Also included within the larger organization is a parents

council which is directly connected with the school and

54

serves to plan events and fundraisers and provide input and
assistance for curriculum issues, nutrition and other aspects
of the schools operation.

Parental involvement in the Chicago West School is
mandatory. Parents must sign a contract obligating

lthemselves to one of three levels of activity. Level

I/department head - involves membership as one of the
directors of the larger community organization. Level
II/committee member - requires participation in one of six
organizational committees. Level III/minimum commitment -
requires parents to fulfill eight obligations having to do
with good parenting skills, and supporting the school and its
functions.

Phil°9oohx 999.1999999!

The Chicago School views itself as a nationalist, pan-
africanist school which serves the children of working class
and professional parents. It attempts to provide a superior
academic experience from a Black cultural base which stresses
the belief that Black people in America are an African people
who belong to a world African community.

The school lists as its objectives “to introduce an
alternative life style as a foundation for producing within
the Black community a feeling of spiritual and functional
unity." In addition, the school teaches children to be
independent thinkers and have a positive self and group
identity. The children are taught to practice and

internalize the Nguzo Saba by using this value system in

SS

everything that is studied or done.
The Chicago West School includes in its parents handbook
the following ideological statement:
Education is an act; it is not a resolution. It is the
struggle, not the preparation for it. It combines
thinking, feeling and acting into a single whole. It is
a human act. It is a people-building act. It places .
the responsibility for learning on the learner himself.
It vests the teacher with the skill to foster liberation
but not the skill to control. It is a human loving act
between two people whose common destinies are bound
together.

9999999999

The Chicago West Schools’ present curriculum was
developed in 1976 by 4 staff members. Each year the
curriculum has been revised to its present form. The school
attempts to use standards higher than the Chicago Public
schools. Standardized testing is done using the same tests
~as the Chicago.Public Schools. Listed as part of the
curriculum are the following areas:

1. Language Arts - developing written and oral communi-
cation skills including foreign languages, drama,
poetry and storytelling.

2. African History - focusing on the truth of African
history including African American and aspects of
european history.

3. Mathematics - developing an understanding of mathema-
tical concepts and the skill and practice of computa-
tions.

4. Science ~ emphasizing the inquiry methods of learning
and including the physical sciences, nature studies,

biological science, health, safety and human physiology.

56

5. General development - including study skills, liste-
ning, sitting quietly, following directions, concen-
tration, reading for a purpose everyday and practice.

6. Fieldtrips

7. Cultural Development - Music and dance. The school
has a cultural performing troupe as part of its
program.

The curriculum for each area is specifically written out
for each grade level. This includes the goals, objectives
and methods for achieving them. Child evaluations are done
each quarter (every 10 weeks). Each age grade has an
evaluation form which is based on the achievement of the
academic objectives and the childs progress towards
understanding and practicing the seven principles of the
Nguzo Saba. The evaluation form also includes an area for
teacher recommendations and parent comments. In addition, a
pre-testing checklist is completed for each child to insure
that they have the appropriate entry skills before beginning
the next age level work.

The Chicago West School uses standard instructional
materials, those developed specifically for African American
children and self-made materials.

The following teacher qualifications are required by the
Chicago West School: Some educational training or experience,
a commitment to the schools program, an awareness of cultural

and political issues, involvement in outside community

57

activities, awareness of self as a Black person, awareness of
Black peoples struggle, and an ability to impart or transmit
this knowledge to children.

Teachers must attend the Council of Independent Black
Institution's Teacher Training Institute and a two-week long
meeting prior to the beginning of the school year. Teachers
also attend several joint in-service workshops which are held
with the other independent Black schools in the area and
city-wide educational workshops.

Classrooms reportedly take on the flavor of the
individual teachers with limits only imposed on those methods
or ideas which do not agree with the objectives and ideology
of the program. Informal teacher evaluations are conducted
based on the academic and behavioral performance of the

students.

58

199 9999 999999 999999

The D.C. Center School was founded in 1974 as a part of
a larger community organization whose primary objective was
to “create a self sufficient and enduring organization based
on Pan African nationalism. The principles of familyhood,

mutual respect, love and devotion are considered paramount to

the .... organization." The school and organization are
presently located in a three story building on the North side
of Washington D.C. The first floor consists of a large
activity and assemble room. It opens onto a large play area
in the back of the building. The six classrooms are self
enclosed and located on the second floor of the building.
There is also a computer room located on this floor. The
third floor houses the school offices, a study area, activity
room and small store.

The atmosphere of the D.C. Center School was warm and
generally informal. The children were respectful during and
inbetween class periods. However, the noise and activity
level increased drastically during these breaks in class.
Expression is encouraged and although the activity at times.
seemed to be in disarray the rules and limits within the
school were clearly stated and understood by the students.
The school places a premium on creating a family oriented
environment. The relationships between the children and
teachers tended to be one of mutual respect and interaction.
Formal and informal interactions were observed between

teachers and students. Both seemed to be very comfortable

59

wi th their rol es.

There is a dress code for the school which mandates that
all children and teachers must maintain an African oriented
«dress. In addition, all students who do not have a tradi-
‘tional African name adopts one which is used in conjunction
Iwith their other names during the course of the school day.

The principle components of the school structure include
the Board of Directors, the school administrators, a parents
group which is composed of parents and other concerned
persons within the community. The Board of Directors is
composed of founding members, administrators, teachers and
community representatives. The overall organization,
however, has several other community and business components.

The parents group‘s main purposes are to (a) provide
structured avenues of meaningful participation in the affairs
of the organization by parents and other concerned persons,
and (b) provide a structured means by which the membership
may give aide and assistance to the organization and its
programs.

Parents and families are required to actively
participate in the support and maintenance activities of the
organization. This includes mandatory attendance at the
parent group meetings, participation on one of 5 parent group
committees and assistance in fundraising activities and good
parenting skills. Failure to abide by these requirements may

result in the families suspension from the organization.

60

enilgseebx and lesslenx

The D.C. Center School operates from a Nationalist/Pan-
Africanist ideological orientation. The general features of
this perspective include an emphasis on selfreliance and
development, consciousness of racial identity and its meaning
to African people, a commitment and understanding of the
struggle of African people in the world, develOpment of
skills and attitudes needed to achieve full liberation, and
an appreciation for the principles of collectivism, demo-
cracy, and humanism.

Much of the basis for the school's program is manifested
in the principles of the Nguzo Saba. The school views these
principles as not only the basis for an African American
educational model but as a way of living. Participants in
all aspects of the organization are expected to practice this
way of living.

The D.C. Center School sees itself as providing a
traditional family based afrocentric education. Afrocentric
refers to the perpetuation and development of a dynamic
African culture. These dynamics are packaged in what is
referred to as an ”intensive“ educational program. The
following passage from the school's parent handbook clasifies
this meaning:

Intensity refers to the possibility and the actual

objective of the curriculum to accelerate the pace of

skill and information acquisition....lntensity as it is
used here does not refer to teaching methodology that
emphasizes rote learning, nonparticipatory exercises,
intellectual force feeding and ceaseless drill. It
instead refers to the comprehensive purpose and goals of

the program. It refers to the totality of the learning
environment which is structured for the child (diet,

61

social practices, images, language, routines,
pledges...) which counteracts the negative ethos projec-
ted in television, general media, popular fads, and the
consumerist, materialistic and selfish values of Ameri-
can society.

In its intensity it should reflect the compas-
sion and sensitivity of familyhood. The object of
the intensity is the early development of a sense of
purpose, of direction, identity and the development of a
hunger for knowledge. The program's intensity should
parallel and maximize the child's innate curiosity and
drive to understand the world. Ultimately the children

must believe it is their destiny to change the world for
the better and act accordingly.

9 if sales

The curriculum of the D.C. Center School evolved through
several different development initiatives prior to arriving
at its present form. The development process incorporated
the curriculum models of the Washington D.C. and other public
schools, other independent schools, the Council of
Independent Black Institutions, teaching texts and the
experience of the developers. There is presently a
curriculum advisory committee which meets regularly and
allows parental input into the curriculum development and
review process.

The students are grouped into three divisions. Division
one is the pre~school (ages 2 through 5 1/2 years), division
two includes the primary levels (ages 4 1/2 through 9 years),
and division three, the middle school (ages 8 1/2 through 14
years). There are eleven overlapping age level classes
included in the three divisions. Each level is named after
an African tribal nation and/or historical figure.

The following subject areas are included in the

curriculum:

62

General subjects-All Divisions: Cognitive skills, psy-
chomotor skills affective development, social develop-
ment, communication skills, mathematics, worldview/cul-
tural studies, general science, history and geography.
Specific Subject of Individual classes Division

One: Kiswahili, music, arts and crafts, health and

nutrition, political analysis, literature of Pan Africa,

physical development, applied science, problem solving,
and leadership skills.

Each level has a specific list of academic, cultural and
physical objectives attached to it. These objectives are
clearly summarized in the parent handbook. Each subject area
has a specified list of objectives. Some of the objectives
are accompanied by a list of suggested methods and exercises
to be used for accomplishing the objectives. Cultural
objectives are also included in the curriculum packages. For
example, the social studies section for the middle school
lists lessons on the concepts of family, community, nation
and Race including exercises designed to help the student
understand their significance. Parts of the science
curriculum uses the principles of the Nguzo Saba to
categorize exercises.. For Umoja (unity), one of the
objectives is to identify Latin root terms used in scientific
terminology. For lmani (faith), the objective is to
hypothesize the answer given a scientific problem and tell
how this hypothesis was devised.

For each of the learning objectives there is a form
filled out for each student listing the objectives, date

initiated and date of completion. In addition, all classwork

is not marked or graded. It is corrected and redone until it

is correct.

63

The school operates on a trimester system. Children
receive major evaluations at the middle and end of each
trimester which determines their completion of the specified
objectives. A decision is made at this time regarding their
moving on to the next level.
leashes:

Several qualities are required of a person to become a
teacher at the D.C. Center School. In addition to the city-
wide educational requirements for licensure the school
desires a teacher with previous teaching experience, is
involved in African related events, has an awareness of
current events and their cultural heritage, possesses the
ability to relate to parents and demonstrates on an everyday
basis the philosophy and ideology of the school.

Teachers receive additional training through in-service
workshops three times a year and teacher study sessions which
involve reading and discussion of different aspects of the
teaching process. Teachers are also required to attend CIBI
workshops and city-wide educational programs.

Teachers are allowed freedom in the classroom to
interject and infuse innovative curriculum ideas as long as
they fall within the guidelines of the school. The parent
handbook contains a list of principles for dealing with the
social behavior and policy guidelines and methods for
reinforcing the positive social behavior of the students.
This list is for the purpose of informing the parents and

teachers of the appropriate teacher/student behaviors allowed

in the school.

64

Ins 9&9; Betta §stQl
The D.C. North School, established in 1977, is located
on the far north side of Washington D.C. Begun as an effort
to “bridge the gap between quality academic success, cultural
appreciation, and relevancy to the Black experience.“ The
school‘s program is separated into four academic divisions:

- The toddler division - providing basic day care
services for children 10 months through 36 months.

- The pre-primary division - providing an early
childhood education for children from 3 through 5
years of age.

— The primary division - for children 6 to 9 years
old.

- The middle school division - for children up to the
age of 13 years.

Using the concepts of an open space structure and multi—
level grouping the D.C. North School attempts to simulate, as
much as possible, the home environment. Open space refers to
an environment which is designed to provide free interaction
between students and activities, greater stimulus
opportunities and self-direction for the learner. The school
brochure states that ”open space education does not mean
chaotic freedom or undisciplined instruction. The well
planned architectural design facilitates organized activity,
using open spaces, strategically divided, low storage and
separate areas for quieter activities.“ Multi-level grouping
places a child in groups which allow him or her to develop
and progress, in each area at their own pace.

The overall atmosphere of the school is loud but orderly

and activity oriented. Teachers were observed interacting

65

freely and encouraging expression and discussion with
students of all ages. Within each classroom student
activities varied from group work on one side of the room to
individual work on the other. Teacher and students freely
moved about the school. The classrooms themselves were
partitioned by bookcases, coat racks and other objects
although at times it was difficult for an observer to
determine where one classroom area began and the other ended.
The students, however, were well aware of their spaces.

The environment was visually stimulating. The walls and
bulletin boards throughout the school were colorfully
decorated with a mixture of learning materials
(multiplication tables, calenders, Dolch word lists, maps,
etc.), students work, cultural pictures and symbols and
inspirational quotes and pictures. The disciplinary rules
list are also posted in each classroom.
braggizstional §§csstscs

The major organizational component of the school is the
Board of Directors composed of three staff members and a law
firm. The administrative staff is next including the
business director, the administrative director who is
basically responsible for the day to day operations, and the
curriculum director, responsible for curriculum issues,
teacher training and evaluation and the securing of
educational resources. Finally, there is the teaching staff,
including head teachers, teachers_and volunteers.

The D.C. North School also has a Parent Advisory Council

(PAC) which is composed of all the parents of the school.

66

The PAC was designed to give parents an opportunity to
contribute positive and constructive support and advice.
Parents are expected to become involved in at least one of
nine committees aimed at maintaining and upgrading the
operation of the school. The council also serves as a forum

for parents to formally bring any problems or concerns.

Eh lsssebx and lgselsgx

The D.C. North School sees itself as a Black designed
and operated community based educational institution which
was created to provide a new type of education for the
children of working class parents, “particularly those of the
Black experience, whom as a group, have been victims of
oppressive conditions... racism, poor housing, improper diet,
inadequate medical care, inflation, unemployment,...'
Preparing students for ggggixal is viewed as the primary
function of a quality education program. The school brochure

states:

This education does not simply mean preparing people for
jobs. Quality education must equip students with the
principles, abilities, knowledge and experience neces—
sary to make socially responsible and socially necessary
decisions, as well as the technical skills necessary to
carry out these decisions. Quality education must
strive to develop creative and intellectual potential to
the greatest degree possible, through exposure to new
ideas, through disciplined learning, through problem—
solving and the opportunity for direct and effective
action....Ouality education should develop a desire for
students to learn by providing a stimulating environment
and challenging activities which foster growth and deve-
lopment at every level. Finally, quality education must
include mechanisms to understand the social, economic
and political environment AS IT AFFECTS PEOPLE [emphasis
in original].

The goals mentioned above are accomplished through seve-

67

ral mechanisms:

- Providing a strong educational background through
early and advanced academic exposure.

- Providing positive motivation to bring out the indivi—
dual child's potential.

- Developing pride, a strong self-concept and identity
by involving Black children with their heritage
through programs emphasizing cultural awareness and

historical understanding and how it relates to the
society as a whole.

In addition, the founder of the school attempted to develop
an educational models that would prepare students to become
leaders of the Black working class community. The principles
of the Nguzo Saba are used as the basis for an appropriate
value system. However, these principles are looked upon as
universal principles as opposed to those unique to the

African experience.
Esccisslse -

The educational program at the D.C. North School was
developed over a seven year period prior to its establishment
in 1977. The original ideology and performance objectives
were developed by the founder and present curriculum director
using the works and experiences of prominent educators,
educational psychologists and innovative school systems.

Each year the staff and a curriculum committee (composed of
parents and teachers) evaluates the curriculum and makes any
needed changes or additions.

The curriculum includes the core subject areas of art,
music, physical education and social studies. Karate, piano,
modern dance and gymnastics are also available.

For each child, at each academic division (toddler -

68

middle school) there is a specific performance objectives
form where the objective and the date the objective was
achieved is listed. These forms are to insure mastery of all
curriculum objectives. In addition, the curriculum director
has created an activity kit to assist unknowledgeable or
inexperienced teachers in a particular area. This kit
contains suggested methodology and exercises for achieving
each performance objective. Black cultural and historical
content for the performance objectives are primarily
incorporated through the social studies and literature areas.
The multi-level grouping allows children to progress
through the school at their own rate and ability level. The
achievement of the explicit curriculum objectives determines
the progression of the child from one level to the next.
teacher/student relations which are allowed in the school.

Teachers

The requirements for teaching at the D.C. North School
are that the teacher have a degree or educational training in
early childhood education or another educational related
field of study (licensure requirement), a strong desire to
teach and a willingness to learn. As mentioned earlier
teacher training and evaluation is done by the founder and
present curriculum director who developed the basic
curriculum and teaching methods used by the school.

A week—long teacher training workshop is held at the
beginning of each school year and four yearly one-day

workshops are held throughout the year. These workshops are

69

designed for the teacher to reinforce the philosophy of the
school, constructively critique each others techniques,
perform group evaluations, present video presentations and
readings on new instructional methods and ideas and discuss
recent issues related to the school. Each new teacher is

additionally trained one on one by the curriculum director.

The goal is to train teachers who will be strong in all
subject areas. An attempt was made to recruit teachers
without much of the “spoiled" teaching experience and
training received in traditional teacher training programs
and schools.

Teachers attend city-wide educational workshops and are
encouraged to take additional schooling. Teachers are also
encouraged to create and introduce new teaching methods and
'ideas into the classroom based on the structure and
philosophy of the curriculum.

The evaluation process involves assessment of teachers
on a number of performance objectives including job
performance, personal qualities, preparation and delivery of
lesson plans and objectives of the school program,

teacher/child relationships and other learning related tasks.

7O

Its use gscssx §stQl

The New Jersey School was founded in 1976 by a local
community organization. It is presently located within the
Black community of a relatively small New Jersey City in a
self-contained building which also has an enclosed recreation
area for the students.

The classrooms are divided into three levels, each named
after a particular Black leader. There is the pre-primary,
the kindergarten through 2nd grade and the 3rd through Sthe
grade classrooms.

A high level of energy and noise was typical of the
school as a whole. This was attributed to the desire on the
part of the staff to encourage expression, which is
considered a healthy part of development.

The kindergarten - 2nd grade class is the largest.
There was generally alot of activity going on at one time.
The teacher had difficulty attending to all the children
during any particular period of time. The children however
were cooperative and attentive. The teacher attempted to
respond to the individual needs of the children as much as
possible. There was constant and free movement on the part
of students and teachers depending on the context of the
situation and the task being performed. The children were
polite and respectful to the teachers and other adults
present. During the dance class the students responded
enthusiastically and were surprisingly coordinated for the
difficulty of the exercises they were attempting to master.

The 3rd to 5the grade classroom was arranged in a

71

traditional manner with seating in rows and facing the front
of the room where the teachers desk and blackboard were
situated. The students were attentive and responsive to the
teacher and eager to participate in the group lesson which
was taking place. Relatively free movement was allowed
around the classroom as long as it was purposeful.

Discipline was immediate and firm and dispite the high noise
level displayed by the students the teachers rarely needed to
raise their voices.

The wall decorations for both classrooms were relatively
modest including student work, pictures, instructional
diagrams and materials and maps.
chsnizstiensl §tcsstscs

The New Jersey School is'operated by a community
organization consisting of a Board of Directors, Parent-
Teachers Council and the school staff. The Board of
Directors is composed of eight persons including several
founding members, community persons and two people elected
from the parent body. The parent-teacher council conducts
workshops and other activities aimed at strengthening the
educational role of parents both at home and school. Parents
are expected to attend monthly Parent-Teacher Council
meetings, assist their children with homework assignments,
attend parent/teacher conferences, visit the school and
volunteer their services.

Philosophy ans 19291992

The New Jersey School states that it was founded to

72

provide

1.

an education based on four basic beliefs:

Education has a culturally defined purpose as

described by Dr. Julius K. Nyerere:~
"That purpose is to transmit from one generation to
the next the accumulated wisdom and knowledge of
the society, and to prepare the young people for
their future membership of the society and their
active participation in its maintenance or develop-
ment.

Education is presented through and perpetuates a

cultural perspective. Education is approached from

an African perspective and worldview.

The belief that every child can learn if motivated.

Approaching education from an African cultural con-

text and worldview is an important means of providing

educational motivation for Black children.

Education should challenge Black students to apply

the skills they acquire in service to their community

and its needs.

In addition, the seven principles of the Nguzo Saba are used

as a value system which guides the teaching/learning process.

Curriculum

The curriculum of the New Jersey School was developed

using different models of both public and private schools.

It attempts to provide many experiences for enhancing the

affective and cognitive development of its students. Each

curriculum area is introduced at the pre-primary level and

built upon as the child progresses through the program. The

school bases a portion of its curriculum on the minimum

promotion standards of the city's public school system. The

73

specific academic objectives to be attained are written and
guide the teaching lessons for the pre-primary levels. The
school is in the process of developing the upper grade school
objectives. A progress report for each student is completed
at the end of each trimester. For each level the report

contains the objectives to have been achieved and a checklist

of where the child stands on that objective.

The New Jersey School requires that a prospective
teacher posses a high school diploma (some post-secondary
training is desirable), familiarity with the school and the
school with them, good instincts when dealing with children,
good reading and writing skills, an awareness of political
issues and a commitment to the school.

New teachers must participate in a teacher-training
program given by the principal and involves an orientation on
the background of the school and its ideology, development of
lesson plans, classroom management, observation of in-class
performance, role playing exercises and extensive feedback.
Teachers are also expected to attend the CIBI Teacher
Training Institute and various educational workshops
throughout the year. The principle supervises evaluation
(including self-evaluation) at the end of each school
trimester. Finally, teachers are allowed to introduce new
methods and materials into the classroom which are not in

opposition to the ideology and objectives of the school.

74

In: Ebilsgslebia §sbsel

The Philadelphia School originated in 1973 as a result
of a public school teachers strike. Formed by a cadre of
concerned parents, educators, students and community members
the school presently occupies a two-story building within the
African American community on the west side of Philadelphia
Pennsylvania. All the classes are named after African
countries. The kindergarten and 1st grade classrooms are
autonomous while the 2nd and 3rd grade classes are combined.

The general atmosphere of the school varies considerably
from relative calm to intense activity and noise. Staff
persons are frequently heard shouting instructions and war-
nings to the students. The students as a whole were polite
and respectful to teachers and other adults. There was an
eargerness to display their talents and knowledge on the part
of the older students. On particular days during the end of
school there is a "special lessons“ session in which, depen-
ding on the day, additional instruction is given in science,
math and Black history. These sessions experienced frequent
interruptions (parents picking up children), and a continuous
effort on the part of the teacher to maintain order. Corpo-
ral punishment (hitting on the hand with a ruler or other
light object) was witnessed frequently.

The walls and boards of the lst grade classroom con-
tained various pictures of Black and white fictional and non-
fictional characters, a spelling test chart, weather posters,
color charts, calender and other childrens academic and art

work. The children's desks were arranged traditionally

75

facing the front of the classroom. The teacher was observed
sitting in middle of the childrens desks interacting inti-
mately with the students during the lesson. All the students
had immediate access to the teacher. The room itself was
fairly small contributing to the necessary intimacy of the
environment.

The 2nd and 3rd grade classroom was arranged similarly.
The teacher's desk was situated at the front side of the
room. The walls and bulletin boards of this classroom
consisted of a large map of Africa, pictures of the
childrens' events and fieldtrips (including a visit from the
king of Ghana, West Africa), pictures of various African
American individuals, childrens art and academic work and
several inspirational sayings and quotes.

Each classroom contained a list of the school‘s
disciplinary policy for the children to view. There are two
categories of punishments that are given depending on the
behavior exhibited. Corporal punishment and parent contact
is the penalty for excessive behaviors such as fighting,
stealing, property destruction, obscene language or behavior,
and cheating. Milder forms of punishment and parental
contact is given for cursing, lying, playing in class,
running up and down the stairs, chewing gum or candy in class
and yelling in the corridors.
chsnizstional §£:ss$scs

The Philadelphia School is one component of a larger

community organization. Along with the educational program

76

the organization offers a secondary evening school, technical
skill courses, counseling (i.e., parent workshops), cultural
events (seminars on history, political education, etc) and a
video service for the Philadelphia area. The main operating
body of the organization is the advisory council consisting
of former workers or those persons previously involved in the
development of the organization, a representative of the
parent group, experts from various community and business
groups and administrative staff persons.

The administrative staff consists of the executive
director and his assistant, the program director
(administrator), the educational director and the parents
council., Parents have certain responsibilities they must
adhere to basically having to do with supporting the school
and regularly attending monthly parent meetings.- Parents are
also encouraged to bring suggestions and new ideas to the
attention of the school.‘

The overall goal of the Philadelphia School is to
elevate the cultural and academic abilities of the
minorities, primarily African Americans, in the Philadelphia
area. In addition, the school attempts to teach children to
meet their own needs and the needs of the community, develop
a positive identity and gain an historical understanding of
their heritage and how it applies to a contemporary way of
life. The parent handbook states that the learning

procedures utilized at the school:

77

Provides OUR children from the pre-school level onward
with a value system or frame of reference for living.
This permits OUR children to define for themselves WHY
they are learning, to be highly receptive to NHAT they
must learn, and to gain the proper techniques for how to
learn well. This value system continuously motivates
OUR children to be productive, sharing and loving human
beings.

This value system is based on the seven principles of

Blackness or the “Nguzo Saba."

Q2ccis2l2e

The basic curriculum for the Philadelphia School was
developed by the administrators and teachers of the school.
Public school objectives and the experience and knowledge of
the participants was used to create the overall general
objectives. The cultural and science content was then added
to the program. From these overall objectives every teacher
is required to create their own yearly curriculum including
the specifics of what they plan to teach which the advisory
council eventually approves.

Assessment of the students is conducted using teacher-
made tests, standardized tests and observation. Report cards
are sent home to parents every 10 weeks. Mostly standard
texts and instructional materials are used along with some
African American oriented materials. Children generally
progress by ability level as opposed to age level. Emotional
maturity and physical development are also taken into
consideration in this process.
leashes:

The Philadelphia School has no formal process for the

training of its teachers. The teachers in the primary (K -

78

3rd) grades entered the school with previous experience which
was considered to be appropriate training. However, the
present pre-primary teacher came to the school without prior
experience or formal training and was basically trained by
the members of the staff. This training included help in
lesson planning, interaction with the children, exercises on
(methods of "reaching“ the children, and observations and
extensive feedback on in-class performance.

Teacher evaluation takes place at the end of the year.
Teachers are assessed by the accomplishments of their
students. If the students do well on the standardized and
teacher-made tests and other characteristics such as self-
esteem then the teacher is considered to be effective.

Supplemental and in-service training for teachers takes
the form of staff meetings, curriculum workshops, out-of-
school seminars and programs, and CIBI sponsored workshops.
Periodically the school holds workshops with other schools in
the area also. Tutorials on particular subject areas are
also given by community volunteers. The teachers also
reported having unlimited freedom within the classroom
concerning the use of teaching methods and learning materials
as long as the methods were within the guidelines of the the

ideology of the school.

79

In: §tl 22212 $5292;

Opened in 1979 as an independent elementary school, the
St. Louis School is located in the inner city of St. Louis
Missouri. It is presently housed in the basement of a church
building. The school was planning to move into its own
facilities in the near future.

There are presently two classrooms. The pre-school
through lst grade and the 2nd through 8th grade classroom.
The upper level classroom maintained an orderly environment.
Students were observed to be respectful and quiet and
movement about the classroom is controlled by the teacher.
Expression by the students was encouraged and various topics
were freely integrated into the discussions by the students
and teachers during the course of the lessons. The older
students tended to work on individual work while the younger
students fluctuated between group and individual work.
chsnizstiensl §tc2st2cs

The organizational structure consisted of a Board of
Directors composed of the co-founders and three other
members. There are two co-principals (one of which is a
full—time teacher), one other full-time teacher, a teachers
aide and volunteers. The parents are required to sign an
enrollment contract which obligates them to a certain level
of involvement within the school including membership in at
least one of five support committees, raising a minimum
amount of funds for the school with the assistance of the
school itself and attendance at family workshops.

The family workshops are an integral part of the school

80

program which provide and opportunity for communication with
parents, sharing of information and serve as a forum for
discussion of issues related to the school, parenting and
other community and worldly events. Parents are also allowed
to bring suggestions on curriculum and organizational issues
to the school however the decisions on implementation of
these suggestions are strictly left to the principal.

The school stresses the development of the students
skills and resources in order to return those skills and
resources for the benefit of African American people and then
mankind. It encourages self-determination and the continued
transmission of knowledge and wisdom, academic and cultural,
from one generation to the next. This is summarized in the
following excerpt from a pamphlet describing the school:

(The St. Louis School) stresses high academic

achievement, cooperation in work and living, conflict

resolution and avoidance skills, self-discipline, and
values and practices that lead to responsibility to God,
self, family, community, race and humankind.

There is also an emphasis on political education,
primarily aimed at developing within the student an
understanding of how events effect their lives and becoming
effective decision makers for themselves and their
communities. A strong emphasis is placed on spiritual
development involving an understanding and appreciation of
different religions and the use of particular rituals and

protocols. These rituals (pledges, songs, discussions,

questions, etc) and protocols (proper ways of addressing

81

teachers and peers and asking questions) are also used
throughout the school day for different purposes.
92ccis2l2e

The curriculum was developed by using various academic
objectives of state and local schools, consulting a
curriculum specialist, and extracting from these the areas
which were appropriate for the school's purposes. Because of
the desire to create academic excellence some areas were
enhanced by the addition of more advanced objectives.

The curriculum consists of the areas of mathematics,
science, reading, language arts, social studies, kiswahili,
music, physical development, and as reported "opportunities
for the practical application of each subject.“

The school specifically lists the school-wide goals for
each academic year along with how they are expected to be
achieved. At the end of the year these goals are then
reviewed and an assessment is made as to what gains or
improvements were made.

Students are evaluated by how well they have achieved
certain minimum academic objectives, their own work habits
and by a work record which is given out every friday. This
work record lists the date, assignment, the grade given and
the cumulative average for the subject area. These forms are
taken home in order to keep students, teachers and parents
constantly up to date on their progress. The school also
uses standard academic texts and instructional materials as

well as self-made and Black oriented materials.

82

stages §sbegl Qseesciseus
chsnizatiensl §tc2st2cs

Table 4 lists the organizational and parental
characteristics of each of the IO CIBI schools. All of the
schools have formalized a governing body and parents group
(parents council or parents committee). In each of the other
three categories half of the schools are components of a
larger organization, have a free standing director (i.e., not
involved directly in the teaching process) and require
mandatory parental involvement.
Bhilsseebx 292 Isselsgx

This was essentially an exploratory study and not
designed to measure each school on the specific philosophical
and ideological characteristics identified in the literature
(see page 12). However, although the philosophy and ideology
of the 10 independent Black schools studied are not
absolutely identical there are several commonalities which
they share. The intensity with which they are pursued varies
within each school, however all are present to some degree in
each school. These commonalities were:

I. An emphasis on high or superior academic achievement.

2. An emphasis on the transmission of culture and in

some cases cultural development.
3. Developing a commitment to African people within the
children.
4. Teaching self-determination including the necessity

for the schools themselves to be independent.

83

TABLE 4

lhganizational structure
of 10 Clll school:

School Board of Couponcnt Free Mandatory Parents
Directors of a larger St.nding Parental Group
Organization Director lnvolveaont

 

The Atlanta
School YES N0 NO YES YES
The Baltinore
School YES NO YES NO YES
The Chicago
Saall School YES NO YES l/A l/h
The Chicago
South School YES YES NO YES YES
The Chicago
Uest School YES YES NO YES YES

The D.C. Center
School YES YES NO YES YES

The D.C. North
School YES NO YES NO YES

The New Jersey
School YES YES YES NO YES

The Philadel-
phia School YES YES YES NO YES

The St. Louis
School YES .NO flO YES YES

EBELa

5. Basing the educational process on distinct and
explicit values.

6. Developing a strong Black identity and self-concept
within the children.

7. The belief that all Black people are an African

people with a common ancestry, a common condition and

a common destiny.

8. Providing the children with a political education
through an understanding of current and historical
events and how they relate to African people.

9. Development of a lifestyle based on humanistic
values.

The ten school programs in this study attempted to
translate their ideology to the curriculum and teaching
process through a set of formal and informal methods. The
formal methods are those which are structured into the
program specifically for the purpose of inculcating the
desired ideas, attitudes and knowledge into the students.
Usually these methods are written into the policy or
curriculum guidelines of the school.

The informal methods are those which the teacher uses to
supplement the formal methods, instructional materials and
lesson plans. In many instances these two categories
overlap. Although the informal methods are not written into
the formal school policies they nevertheless occur as
conscious efforts on the part of the teachers and others.
These formal and informal methods can consequently be

categorized into several distinct types. The following is a

84

list of these methods and their types:

Farmsl netted;

l.

4.

5.

Birthday celebrations of significant African-American
and African leaders (i.e., Kwame Nkrumah, Malcolm X,
Martin Luther King, Marcus Garvey, Harriet Tubman,
Fannie Lou Hammer, etc.).

Special days and programs oriented toward these
significant figures such as hero study day,
observance day, and libation day.

Through field trips and participation and sponsorship
of community events such as Kwanzaa programs and the
African liberation day parade. Students also
participate in local science fairs in addition to the
national science fair held each year by CIBI.
Recognition days emphasizing the values represented
by the Nguzo Saba (i.e., togetherness day).

Protocols and rituals were used by most of the
schools as formal procedures designed to reflect and
reinforce their goals and values, particularly the
Nguzo Saba. The protocols ranged from the proper way
of standing, attending to and addressing teachers and
other students to offering greetings, making requests
and conversing in kiswahili. Of particular
significance was the utilization of kiswahili terms
to refer to the students teachers and other adults as
mother (mama), father (baba), sister and brother.

The curriculum of the independent Black schools was

85

10.

11.

12.

designed for early academic exposure with emphasis on
science, math and history. Some schools utilized a
separate Black history class while others integrated
Black content through the other subject areas.
Lessons and classes were provided in arts and crafts,
yoga and meditation. The St. Louis School in
particular included conflict resolution and role
playing into its curriculum.»

Teachers reported that they designed their lesson
plans to directly reflect Black cultural content
using African people, historical events, current
events and political education.

Through a curriculum which contains specific
objectives for learning Black cultural and historical
content.

Through self-made and Black oriented instructional
texts, pamphlets, workbooks, and readers as well as
poetry and proverbs. Films and guest speakers are
also used.

Formalized African and African American games and
songs with specific cultural and value oriented
themes.

Utilizing symbolic representations of concepts,
values and themes such as pictures; maps and shapes
of Africa; pictures of historical Black figures: and
colors (i.e. red, black and green).

Naming classrooms after African tribal groups,

nations or people.

86

13. Discipline policies emphasizing respect and the
proper roles and responsibilities of students and
staff.

14. Dress codes requiring African related attire (The
D.C. Center School, The Chicago West and Chicago
Small School).

The above data consequently categorizes several
purposeful policies used to inculcate cultural knowledge and
values. Table 5 lists these policies used within each of the
schools. As indicated, the schools were fairly similar on
all but two of these programatic methods: the dress code
policy and the integration of cultural content into the
specific curriculum objectives.

Intense; 22:22.22

The staff of these 10 schools listed several different
informal techniques for transmitting the philosophy which in
general provides the students with a constant and consistent.
exposure to cultural, historical and value related content.
This took the form of:

- Using examples of African people places and events.

- Using proverbs and stories.

- Stimulating discussions on current events and concerns

of the students.

- Encouraging questions by teaching students to always

ask "why.“

- Using sentences in lessons and tests related to

African people.

87

TABLE 5

Curricular policies related to
cultural developaent within each school

 

School Pledges Kisuahili Rituals Pro- Black Dress Diet Use of Cultural Black Easily
tocols Holi- Code Nguzo curriculua oriented orien-
days Saba objectives aaterials tation
The Atlanta
School YES YES NO YES YES NO YES YES no YES YES

The Baltiaorc

School YES YES YES YES YES NO YES YES NO YES YES
The Chicago
Saall School YES YES YES YES YES YES l/A YES NO YES YES

The Chicago

South School YES YES YES YES YES NO YES YES NO YES YES
The Chicago

Best School YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES NO YES YES
The D.C.

Center School YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES
The Inc.

Iorth School N0 NO YES no YES NO YES YES YES YES YES
The loo

Janey School YES YES YES YES YES NO m YES NO YES YES
The Philadel-

phia School YES YES YES NO YES NO NO YES NO YES YES

The St. Louis
School YES YES YES YES YES NO I/A YES NO YES YES

£37Ha

from

Hriting African or African American
reports.

Supplementing textbook inaccuracies
Consistent reinforcement.

Acting as a role model. Displaying
school.

Structuring classroom activities to
cooperation, sharing and helping as

independence.

stories and book

with facts.

the values of the

encourage

well as

The schools' staff reported that their schools differed

traditional schools through:

1.

2.

The teaching of Black culture, heritage and history.

Teaching from an Afrocentric perspective -

Afrocentrism, in general refers to the concept that

all thought processes and behaviors should be in the

best interest of Black people.

Strong parental involvement and communication.

Mandatory parental involvement is required in most

schools.

A family environment stressing humanistic

teacher/student relationships characterized by love

and care for the child.

A small teacher/child child ratio allowing

individualized instruction and concern.

Political education attempting to provide children

with an understanding of themselves within the world

context.

High expectations, a positive achievement orientation

88

10.

11.
12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

21.

22.

and challenging academic lessons characterized by
early academic exposure.

Exposure to various ideas and knowledge.

Commited staff persons.

Relaxed, non-competitive and non-pressurized atmosphere.
Positive images.

Opportunities for teachers to be creative and
flexible in teaching methods and subject content.
Academic content based on reality and facts.

An emphasis on nutrition and diet.

Use of a specified value system, the Nguzo Saba.

An emphasis on self-concept and Black identity
development.

The teaching of respect and self-discipline.
Hulti-level classrooms.

The special emphasis on the teaching and practicing
of a positive and productive lifestyle and the
preparing for future life experiences.
African-American control of schools.

Celebration of African and African-American holidays.
The identification of specific purposes and goals

behind the educational experience.

The schools listed several desired outcomes of the

schooling process, characteristics which the children are

expected to possess. Obviously, these characteristics are

strongly dependent on the age level at which the student

leaves the school but in general they are:

89

1.

2.

3.

9.

10.

11.

A strong sense of themselves as a Black child. This
includes a positive self-concept, identity and
attitude, a strong cultural identity and an
appreciation of his/her heritage.

Confidence in their abilities, comfortable in any
environment and not easily influenced by peers or
ideas.

Academic competence - Students are expected to
achieve at grade level or above and possess good
study habits. Reading ability is particularly
emphasized.

The ability to think analytically, critically and
independently. Students should have problem solving
skills. Afrocentric thought processes are
emphasized.

An understanding of the Nguzo Saba and the ability to
make value decisions based on its principles.

A commitment to African and African-American people
throughout the world.

A disciplined and self-determined attitude and
behavior.

An awareness of political issues and current events,
particularly as they relate to African Americans.
Strong historical knowledge.

Social and emotional competence recognizing the
importance of people and the ability to effectively
communicate and relate to all people.

Understand the needs and purposes of education.

90

l2. Recognize the importance of family and familial
relationships.
13. Possess the urge to create and institute change in
society.
Quccisslee

The curriculum of these ten schools can be defined as
the total school program including those policies and
procedures related to these academic, cultural and political
development. All of the schools provided a standard academic
program stressing the basic subject areas. Standardized
materials were used and objectives were generally derived
from existing local standards. The effective schools
literature (Edmonds, 1979) identified six characteristics
which are related to academically effective schools. 'To
review briefly, these were:

- a strong instructional leadership.

- high achievement expectation on the part of the teachers.

- an orderly, quiet and instruction oriented atmosphere.

- acquisition of basic school skills takes precedence

over other activities.

- school resources channeled to the furtherance of the

fundamental objectives.

- a means by which student progress is frequently measured.
Table 6 lists the relative presence or absence of these
characteristics within each of the C181 schools. This study
identified several additional characteristics which were

potentially related to academic effectiveness. These were:

91

TABLE 6

Curricular characteristics
related to acadeaic school effectiveness

 

Skhool Curriculua High Orderly Standar- Specific Precedence on Resources
Leadership Achieve- quiet dized perforaance Acquisition of Channeled to
Ient environsent tests objectives Basic skills fundaaentals
orienta-
tion
The Atlanta
School no YES no YES NO YES N/A

The Saltiaore
School NO YES NO YES YES YES h/A

The Chicago
Saall School h/A YES hlA YES NO YES h/A

The Chicago South
School NO YES NO YES NO YES h/A

The Chicago Hest
School . NO YES NO YES NO YES I/A

The D.C. Center
School YES YES NO NO YES YES "IA

The D.C. North
School YES YES NO YES YES YES N/A

The New Jersey
School YES YES NO YES no YES MIA

The Philadelphia

School NO YES no YES NO YES N/A
The St. Louis
School YES YES YES YES YES YES IIA

a lot able to deteraine with existing data.

‘92?

Hulti-level classrooms.

- Early academic exposure.

- Small teacher/student ratio.

- Formalized teacher training program.

- Formalized teacher evaluation.

Table 7 lists the relative presence of these characteristics
within each school. The two areas in which the schools
showed significant variance were in performance objectives
and instructional leadership.

Ihggcetisel and 8292999192; Ecamsueck

The Schools in this study varied considerably in their
use of theoretical approaches and methods such as Piaget,
Montessori, mastery learning or direct instruction. However,
all of the schools and teachers stated using an eclectic
approach. This involved the use of those learning models or
parts of the models or theories which were considered
appropriate for their purposes. In addition, the
characteristics identified in the above section which were
related to effective schools are also a major component of
the pedagogy. These were:

- beltizlsxsl acgseing is used partly out of necessity
and partly because it was considered to be an effective
method of teaching students and fit into the family structure
of the schools. An important aspect of this approach is the

grouping of students to allow the older students to help and

be role models to the younger students.
- ingixigsslizsg insscsssien - although the doainant

mode of instruction in most of the schools was group

93

TABLE 7

Effective school characteristics
of la ClSl schools

 

School hulti- Early Saall Teacher Teacher
level Acadeaic teacher! training evalua-
Classrooss exposure student prograa tions
ratio
The Atlanta
School YES YES YES no YES

The Baltiaore

School YES YES YES no YES
The Chicago
Saall School YES h/A YES h/A h/A

The Chicago South
School YES YES YES l/A YES

The Chicago Best
School YES YES YES YES YES

The D.C. Center
School YES YES YES YES YES

The D.C. lorth

School YES YES YES YES YES
The New Jersey
School YES YES I0 h/A YES

The Philadelphia '
School YES YES YES no ND

The St. Louis
School YES YES YES NO YES

‘?‘l

instruction, individual attention was readily given when
necessary or when requested by the students.

- Esclx academic 25222252 - theoretically this was
viewed as necessary and effective in developing academic
capabilities in the children early in life allowing them to
go beyond the normal academic expectations of later
schooling. All of the schools except the Chicago Small
School contained a pre-primary component. Early academic
exposure generally took place at this level with children 3
through 5 years of age.
content were explicitly based on values which reinforce the
affective and academic dimensions of education and life in
general.

Two of the schools have very extensively developed
frameworks for the teaching/learning process. In addition to
the open-space environment mentioned in the case study
section the D.C. North School attempts to determine the
learning style of each child and use this knowledge to create
the appropriate learning atmosphere for that child. The
learning style is assessed within 30 - 60 days of enrollment
by administering learning style inventories. These
inventories are completed by the child and through
observation by the teacher. They determine such
characteristics as the atmosphere (noise level, lighting,
temperature, design of the classroom) in which the child
feels most comfortable and the internal characteristics of a

child such as motivation.

95

Additionally, the D.C. North School encourages its
teachers to closely follow the curriculum and stresses
active, experientially based learning. Teachers keep
children for a 3 year period which allows them to become very
familiar with their needs and individual characteristics and
creates a comfortable and trusting atmosphere for the child.

The D.C. Center School attempted to develop its own
theoretical framework from the basis of the unique African
psyche and experience. This approach is based on how
childhood was perceived in a traditional east African
environment. Although not fully developed, the stages in
this approach include:

1. Birth to 7 years - Early childhood

2. 7 years to 12 years - Childhood - New birth

Children recieve more responsibility and develop a
new type of thinking process.

3. 12 years to 14 years - Pubescence

Children begin to think much like adults. They
begin more mature thought about their lives.
Spiritual maturity is also evident.

4. 14 years and older - Adulthood
Ceremonies initiating the child into the next level are given
at each stage. The school had a b-week program and
initiation ceremony for the 14 year olds.

Several other aspects of the teaching process were seen
as necessary in effectively teaching Black children despite

the approaches used. These were:

96

1. Content and information must be interesting and
challenging to the child.

2. Content must be realistic to the child's environment.

3. Affection and love must be generously given. ‘

4. Common sense approaches which comes from a
combination of knowledge and experience.

5. Learning must be viewed as a positive and negative
experience.

6. Expression must be encouraged. This was observed in
varying degrees in each school but generally geared
toward the belief that expression leads to confidence
in ability, eventual self-control, an understanding
of appropriate and inappropriate behavior, and active

and natural learning.

Documentation of achievement scores from standardized
tests were obtainable from only a few schools. An analysis
of the overall effectiveness of the ten schools in terms of
academic achievement could not be made.

'The schools in which the achievement scores were available
demonstrated average or above average scores in terms of
their national percentile rankings in reading, math and
language arts. In the New Jersey School, students whose only
school experience had been with an independent Black school
(188) achieved higher scores that those who entered the
school after experiences in other public and nonpublic

schools. In addition, throughout the schools it was

97

consistently reported by teachers and parents that upon
leaving the 188 children generally entered other public and
nonpublic schools at least one or two grade levels ahead of
their age group.
lesiellns

The type of discipline problems most frequently

mentioned were respect (talking back to teachers, gestures
toward teachers and peers), playing in the classrooms and
running through the school, cursing and fighting
(occasionally: not reported in most schools).

In general, discipline problems were minor. According
to the teachers and administrators, the most effective means
for maintaining an orderly and disciplined atmosphere was by
creating a tight, positive and well structured classroom
environment. These involved classroom management techniques
in which the teacher plans activities and anticipates the
attention span, interests, needs and abilities of the
students. Rules must be explicit and rewards consistent.
Teachers must effectively maintain communication with the
student, constantly discuss and identify problems and
emphasize problem solving techniques. Constant communication
with other teachers and consistency among teachers was also
mentioned as important. Among the other techniques used for
maintaining discipline were:

1. Behavior modification techniques.

- $195 93; - away from other children, isolation

- withdrawal of privileges

98

- reward or point system

- extra school work

- seceecsl esnisbegnt - usually involving. nod-rat-
spanking or a ruler on the hand. The extent to
which this technique was used varied in each
school. In all cases parents permission is
previously obtained.

2. Referral to principals or directors office

3. figggligg - children are indirectly told to behave
like those who are behaving properly. For example,
a teacher may say ”I think I will let Kofi go to
lunch early because he is sitting quietly in his
seat and doing his work.“

4. Lgfiggmigg gggggtg - this is an extremely important
technique because teachers and parents attempt to
stay in constant communication, in many cases,
seeing each other everyday. The child consequently
receives consistency at home and school.

attitudinal 822299232

Question #1 - How do you prepare students for the
transition from your school into traditional schooling? This
question was posed to the school directors and attempted to
address the problems created by the uniqueness of an
independent Black institution characterized by its ability to
give individualized attention, its non-competitive nature,
close teacher/student relationships and lack of gross anti-
social behaviors. Also, other schools, particularly inner-

city public schools have more of a heterogeneous population

99

I

in terms of racial, ethnic, and religious groups and ideas.

The majority of the respondents stated that in general
nothing out of the ordinary was attempted. The schools
emphasis on strong academic and self-confidence and identity
building was thought to be sufficient for the students to
draw on in difficult or unfamiliar situations.

The conscious efforts that were made to approach these
problems usually consisted of honestly discussing and
assisting the possible differences that may be encountered at
the new schools and providing social experiences outside the
school. Some of the schools researched the potential schools
which their children were planning to attend and assessed
their programs in order that the parents and students would
know what to expect and prepare themselves. Parental support
was the primary resource for the student. The Atlanta School
also attempted to prepare its students for test-taking by
reducing the related anxiety and pressure. The teachers used
relaxation and meditation exercises for the children prior to
~taking the tests.

Question #2 - "There is concern within the Black
community over the lack of positive Black male role models
for the Black male child. How does your school handle this
problem?“ The most frequent response to this question was
that a conscious effort on the part of all the schools was
made to recruit male teachers and other school workers.‘ This
included getting parents involved and providing opportunities

for the children to visualize active and positive male

100

figures in all aspects of the school program. In addition,
children are exposed to historical and current male figures.
Both positive and negative images are discussed. Children
also observe the role in which the male is expected to play
within the framework of the family.

Question 03 - what are the essential skills and
knowledge a teacher should possess in order to teach Black
children?“ Teachers responded to this question in a variety
of ways. A couple of the responses were specific to
particular schools and will be indicated in this analysis.
These responses were:

1. 56% of the teachers felt that an effective teacher
for Black children must possess a strong commitment
to the children. This involves a caring and love of
the children similar to that of a parents love, a
caring for their parents and the belief that the
child is capable of learning anything. In addition,
the teacher must understand the importance of the
Black child to the Black community and the role that
education will play in terms of developing future
leaders and change agents.

2. 41% stated that teachers should possess good
educational training, This referred to educational
knowledge and skills and an understanding of the
learning process and not necessarily formalized
educational training.

3. 41% stated that an effective teacher needs a good

self-knowledge, self awareness, self-confidence and a

101

4.

strong Black self-identity.

31% of the respondents believed that a teacher must
possess a good historical, cultural and truthful
understanding of Black people. This includes
knowledge of current political events and of European

history and culture as they relate to Black people

around the world.

28% responded that the teacher must possess ”know
how.” This was described as the ability to initiate
the child's thinking process, motivate the child,
bring excitement to the classroom, relate to children
and challenge the students.

25% stated that the teacher must have a strong desire
to be a teacher, is satisfied with their role as a
teacher, takes pride in their job, is enthusiastic,
and has a positive outlook.

22% stated that a teacher must possess the desire to
learn more, have good study and self-training skills

and continually assess their own performance within

the classroom.

The following remaining responses were made by less than 20%

of the teachers:

9.

10.

11.

12.

Be open-minded, flexible and use common sense in
relating to children.
Understand the child's worldview and needs.

Possess patience.

Go beyond what is expected of a teacher. Self

102

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

motivation and hard work.

Have a love of Black people.

Think Afrocentrically - all thoughts, actions and
teachings are related to the best interests of
African! African American people.

Actively involved in the Black liberation struggle
(the response of three teachers from the D.C. Center

School).
Experience with Black Children.
Possess a commitment to the school and community.

Have a strong creative capacity.

3% or one respondent each stated that a teacher should:

- have been exposed to various ideas and situations.

- believe in the family and community concepts.

- understand and practice the Nguzo Saba.

103

104

CHAPTER 4

Discussion

EELLQEQEDX SEQ 1939199!

As expected, the philosophical and ideological
approaches of the schools corresponded closely with those
prescribed and identified in the literature (see page 12).
The different aspects of these philosophical prescriptions
are manifested in various ways and in varying degrees
throughout each of the schools. However, the schools as a
group attempt to provide three interrelated types of
educational experiences: (a) An academic educational expe-
rience, (b) a cultural experience, and (c) a political
experience.

'An aggggmig gxgggigggg - this is discussed in more
detail later in this paper, however, its important to note
here that this experience is similar to the one a child would
receive in other academically effective educational
environments. The emphasis is on providing the child with a
superior education. Superior in terms of preparing the child
for academic content beyond the standardized objectives of
the public school systems.

Although the documented standardized test scores were
not collected the track record reported by the individual
schools indicates that the students as a whole manage to

achieve at least an average level of success and in many

cases are above average. Since this effectiveness may only

manifests itself most noticeably with students who have been
with the schools throughout their school career it would be
interesting to determine what effect the schools have on
students over several years and on those entering from other
school systems.

CIBI schools are designed to be the "correct“ models of
education as opposed to “alternative“ models. Each of the
schools preferred to enroll children at the beginning of
their educational careers. Students who have been incapable
of achieving in other school systems in many cases enter with
additional baggage (i.e., emotional problems, conflicting
value systems, antisocial behaviors) which in many instances
the schools are either not equipped to handle or prefer to
avoid because of the drain in human resources which these
children require. Therefore, the schools are most effective
in developing as opposed to rehabilitating the character of
the child.

It is also important to develop with the child the
confidence needed to achieve any academic task. This is
particularly relevant in the fact that the children will
eventually enter a different school system which does not
necessarily hold the same standards or provides the same
support as does the CIBI schools. This represents a fear on
the part of many parents that the child will be incapable of
coping with such obstacles. It is possibly the case,
however, that the children may enter more traditional
schooling better prepared than the average child in terms of

their academic competence and wider exposure to different

105

educational content. Future research in this area will be
needed to determine if this is actually the case. In viewing
these perspectives it appears that the major goals of the
academic experience is to provide children with a competent
academic ability and develop their confidence in that
ability.

The ggltggg; gagggigggg attempts to expose the child to
the values, history and cultural aspects of their heritage
through purposeful and explicit methods. The goal is to help
the child understand his heritage in an intrinsic and non-
superficial manner. Many of the schools attempt to reflect
the society and the individuals within that society which
they are trying to create; the development of the 935 African
man and woman.

This “newness“ or "uniqueness“ is of crucial importance
in understanding the independent Black school. The schools
are attempting to present a solution for the dissolutionment'
presently found in many African American communities. In his
discussion of the schizoid nature of Black existence, Wilson

(1978) asserts:

106

Black people in America do not belong to any one
functional, coherent, cohesive culture. They
belong to neither the white culture nor to one they can
call their own. Culturally speaking, blacks exist
between ”the devil“ of the dominant white world to which
he is not permitted to fully belong, and 'the deep blue
sea' of the currently dysfunctional black world to which
he is also not permitted to belong. He is victimized by
both worlds and has thus far found no positive way out
of this crushing dilemma. The black man today is only
part black. The other part of him is white. These two
parts which more often than not pull against each other,
which contradict each other and which are 'out of synch'
with each other, make up virtually two sets of mutually
incompatible needs, drives, impulses, values, cultural
traditions, ways of thinking, etc, simultaneously. (p.
51).
Therefore, these CIBI schools are characterized by their
desire to create a functional and positive ethos and culture
within the Black community. This constitutes an attempt to
create what Anyon (1981) termed “cultural capital."
Cultural capital refers to providing the children with
I'knowledge and skill at manipulating ideas and symbols in
their own interest, e.g., historical knowledge and analysis
that legitimates their dissent and furthers their own class
in society and in social transformation.“ (p. 32). In the
case of the CIBI schools, the attempt is made to provide the
cultural capital which will further the transformation of
society for the African race. Students are consciously being
prepared to take leadership roles and be agents of social

change.

One of the most important aspects of this component of
the program is its xglgg ggigggggigg which focuses on the
cultivation of positive and humanistic values and those

directed in the best interests of African people. This value

system serves as the foundation on which the cultural system

107

is to be developed.

The pglitiggl gxpg;i_ggg attempts to provide the child
with a realistic, historical and analytical understanding of
world events. Again, the emphasis is on the African
experience and how world events effect African people. It is
the belief that no events occur outside of a political
context and that this realization will assist the child in
making appropriate life decisions in the future.

Although interrelated these three experiences did not
appear to be dependent upon one another. For example, it is
probably possible to achieve an academically effective school
without achieving the cultural or political effectiveness. A
cultural and political education is more difficult to
achieve. This points to another set of categories on which
the schools differ. This can be defined through levels of
intensity in relation to cultural and political goals.

The ten CIBI schools which were studied can be
categorized as being of low intensity, moderate intensity or
high intensity in pursuing their cultural and political
goals. The schools which were of low intensity were those
which were characterized by two or more of the following
characteristics:

- Here in a transition stage from one type of

educational program to a nationalist/pan-africanist
orientation.

- Began as an alternative to the public schools as

opposed to a consciously distinct educational model

108

oriented specifically towards Black people.
- Provided a cultural education primarily through a
historical teachings perspective.
Received outside governmental funding.
The schools which were of low intensity were The

Baltimore School and The Philadelphia School.

The schools which were of moderate intensity were those which:

- Exposed children to a political and cultural education
which is characteristic of a gggyiggl orientation
which emphasizes development of the skills and
knowledge needed for Blacks to survive in the present
society.

Enrolled a substantial number of children with
professional and high income parents.

- The schools which were considered moderately intense
were the D.C. North School and the Atlanta School.

The schools which were highly intense were those which:

- Adhered strongly to a nationalist/pan-africanist
orientation.

- Strongly pursued a cultural educational experience in
an explicit effort to create the “new African
society.“ This is essentially accomplished through a
curriculum which strongly emphasized the behaviors,
attitudes, knowledge and values characteristic of an
African personality.

- The schools characterized as highly intense were the
D.C. Center School, the Chicago South School, the

Chicago Small School, the New Jersey School and the

109

St. Louis School.

Although these categories cannot be empirically
validated given the data collected these intensity levels are
based on the overall focus or direction of the school
although most schools contained elements of all three.

The low intensity schools tended to have the most
trouble in translating their philosophies to the educational
program. This seemed to be partly a consequence of the lack
of ideological consistency among staff members and parents.
The fact that these schools were not originally designed to
be distinct African American educational models caused
conflicts when attempts were made to make that transition.
Also, receipt of governmental funding may have required the
schools to adhere to certain standards which would not cause
them to jeopardize this support.

The intensity level also related to the schools' ability
to secure operational resources. Outside of tuition, the
data indicate that the low intensity schools secure a
considerable portion of their funding through direct or
indirect governmental sources. Moderate intensity schools
secure a significant amount of their funding through parental
contributions and support. And, the high intensity schools
must secure their resources through fundraising activities
and other business ventures.

Obviously, those schools capable of securing sufficient
resources were the ones more able to diversify roles within

their schools. In all but one of the low and moderate

110

intensity schools the structure was able to support a
separate director to administrate its organizational and
business functions. In the high intensity schools the
teachers also functioned as administrators performing the
business, administrative and curricular duties. This
diversity may have led to a more efficient but not
necessarily a more academic or culturally effective school.

In this study, academic and cultural effectiveness was
considered to be representative of three particular
characteristics: (a) the consistency of responses among staff
members within a particular school, (b) percieved
satisfaction with the school program on the part of the staff
members (established through the formal and informal
interviews with staff and parents), and (c) the observed
consistency between the school's professed philosoohy and its
actual practice. In general, the low intensity schools were
ineffective in achieving these three characteristics whereas
the moderate and high intensity schools were more effective
in this respect.

Many questions related to philosophy and ideology remain
unanswered. Most questions have to do with determining the
effectiveness of a school in achieving its cultural and
political goals. The task, it seems, is to assess the degree
to which the children are influenced and motivated by the
educational programs. A systematic process is needed by
which to judge the effectiveness of a school, and more
importantly, what particular variables lead to this

effectiveness. Presently, most assessment is conducted

111

through informal observation and follow-up of the behaviors
and attitudes of children who have matriculated through these
programs. Future research will need to be conducted in the
development of instruments to assess the effectiveness of the
schools. The desired characteristics identified by the
school teachers and administrators can possibly be
transformed into outcome measures and used to determine when,
a school can be considered effective. From there it may be
possible to determine the answer to such questions as: What
are the necessary components of an educational model which
cause or create the desired cultural characteristics in the
child? Is it the family oreinted environment? The factual
historical information? The political perspective? Does it
necessitate a combination of these and more?
chaniastiensl §tcestscs

As noted in the results section, the overall structure
of the CIBI schools is comparable to other types of nonpublic
schools. Probably the most important component of
organizational structure is the fact that the CIBI schools
are characterized by strong parent/teacher communication and
parental involvement. This is partly the result of efforts
on the part of the schools to encourage participation such as
mandatory parental involvement and parent/community
information and education programs. In addition, research
suggests that parents who choose to send their children to
private schools and pay private school tuition signal a

concern for their child's education and a belief that the

112

program offered will help their child to learn. This is
particularly true for families for which the financial
sacrifice is great (Murnane, 1982). This may consequently
translate to a greater involvement and emotional investment
in the school. It was also reported that those parents who
are most active within the school are those who are more
aware of educational issues and needs, tended to be more
conscious of political, cultural and educational realities
and whose personal philosphies closely corresponded with that
of the school.

However, several questions arise concerning the
parent/school relationships which need further exploration
and research. First, what is the exact degree of involvement
by parents within the schools. More specifically, what
percentage of the parents are involved and what is the depth
of this involvement. Secondly, what effect does social
status and level of educational attainment have on the
ability of the schools to achieve their desired goals. In
one school which claimed to serve at least a 50% population
of low-income families it was reported to be more difficult
to obtain parental support. Thirdly, what effect does the
cultural and political education of the children have on
their parents? A fourth concern has to do with the affect
that the schools have on the surrounding community? If the
schools are designed to reflect the society they want to
create then the process for transforming a school program and
its values to the larger Black community must be

systematized.

113

Finally, what are the reasons parents decide to send
their children to Black independent schools. As indicated
earlier, the teachers reported several reasons, among which
the most important two were academic effectiveness and
ideological exposure. A study conducted by the director of
the New Jersey School indicated that academic performance
expectations for the school was high throughout the parent
body and that ideological (expressed as cultural)
expectations were high for a large segment. It needs to be
determined if these findings are consistent throughout the
CIBI network, and if not, what variables determine the
relationship. For example, in one case the school happened
to be the only one of its kind within the city which had any

type of Black cultural orientation.

Quccisslse

As identified in the results section, the two areas in
which the schools showed significant variance were in
performance objectives and instructional leadership. A more
detailed assessment of the effect that these characteristics
have on achievement needs to be conducted. This study, did
not determine whether the acquisition of basic school skills
took precedence over other school activities. It appears,
however, that most of the schools gave equal attention to the
development of cultural skills and knowledge. Also because
resources were limited within most of the schools, those

available were necessarily channeled to fundamental

objectives. Future research will be needed to determine the

114

order of priorities within the schools. Are they academic or
cultural? Can these tasks be separated?

Those schools which had strong instructional leadership
and a strong teacher training program generally tended to
have a more cohesive consistent and satisfied staff.

Cohesiveness and consistency is represented by teachers who

generally responded similarly to interview questions, were
clear on the goals of the school and attempted to closely
follow the curriculum. The teachers in these schools also
tended to very clearly understand their role as a teacher and
the limits of their freedom within the classroom. In some
cases, the schools conducted teacher training and evaluation
but they were not done regularly and did not have a
particular focus. A good teacher training program was one
which was formalized and attempted to orient the teachers to
the philosophical and cultural milieu of the school as well
as its particular instructionalmethods and styles. This is
done in order to create a school environment where the
teachers are cohesive, consistent and clearly have the same
goals in mind. Effective teacher evaluations were systematic
and tended to look for specific teacher qualities and
behaviors based on the philosophy of the school.

As identified in the results section, the two
programatic methods on which the schools most differentiated
were; the dress code policy and the integration of cultural
content into the specific curriculum objectives. At this

point no clear relationship can be deduced from the presence

115

of a dress code policy and school effectiveness. It may only
be relevant when considering the cultural “intensity“ level
which a school desires to achieve. For example, the D.C.
Center School stated that it has a very intense program which
attempts to provide for the immediate cultural needs of Black
people. The dress code is one of the methods through which
this immediacy can be obtained by providing the child with an
image or symbol of their African culture on a daily basis.

On the other hand, cultural content which is integrated
into the specific cultural objectives of the school may pose
a different problem. Integration of cultural objectives is
one formalized method of assuring that specific content is
received by the students. It also requires that this content
be well-defined. Otherwise the schools run the risk of
integrating content in a haphazard and unsystematic way.
Consequently, content can be easily lost through staff
turnover or. unknowledgeable teachers.

The schools departed significantly from the prescription
for an orderly, quiet and instructionally oriented
atmosphere. The environment was instructionally oriented
although “time on task“ was observed to be low in many cases.
More extensive observational studies may be needed to
determine the particular levels of time on task and its
relation, if any to achievement. The schools, in general,
made a conscious effort to encourage pupil expression. This
was consistent with the research that suggests that African
American children need an environment which takes advantage

of their natural high energy level and vibrancy (Bordon,

116

1982). Also, the necessity for quiet and order may not be
applicable to such a small school environment. The fact that
a small student/teacher ratio generally leads to a more
manageable classroom situation and consequently less
confusion and more order.

Academic and cultural content was the most significant
aspect of the curriculum throughout all of the schools.
Content is the ingredient that most distinguishes the
independent Black school from other public and non-public
schooling. The schools make a conscious effort to honestly
deal with values and the crucial issues affecting Black
people. Further research needs to be conducted to more
specifically develop and operationalize “cultural content."
What specifically are the necessary attitudes, concepts and
knowledge for Black child development. The CIBI network is
presently attempting to more specifically develop these
concepts. A clearly operationalized cultural model would
assist the implementation and dessemination of Black
educational needs.

22299292

Interestingly, a combination of several approaches,
including common sense, was the most prevalent theoretical
and instructional approach. This again points to the
significance of a positive achievement orientation.
Developing childrens' confidence in their abilities is of
primary importance.

The traditional approach to the educational process

117

utilized by the D.C. Center School holds interesting
possibilities. Presently many young people lack a clear
understanding of their roles and responsibilities within the
society. Boateng (1983) notes that:

In western cultures, social scientists agree that

the transition from youth to adulthood, with its sexual
ripening, is accompanied with prolonged conflicts marked

by varying degrees of frustration, guilt, and at times a
total break in intergenerational communications. In
traditional African societies, secret societies or
initiation ceremonies helped the African youth to avoid
this break in communication and all the attending
negative reactions. Traditional African education was
an informal vehicle that prepared Africans for their
responsibilities as adults in their communities.

The development and application of this approach could lead

to a more consistent and concrete view of childhood and early

adolescence.

Perhaps the most significant and most frequently
mentioned aspect of the teaching process concerns the need
for the expression of 193g and Eggigg. This was seen as an
essential part of any effort to relate to African American
children. This involved frequent touching and holding as
well as concern for the child as a whole, their family and
home life, their experiences and their community.

Another concept identified in the data is that of
afrocentrism. Asante (1981) has very clearly detailed the
characteristics of an afrocentrically minded person. However
this concept also needs to be operationalized in order that

specific content and methods can be identified and taught

within the schooling process.

118

leashes!

Teachers were considered the most important components
within each of the school‘s educational philosophies. All of
the culture and information is filtered through the teachers.
The results section listed the various qualities which the
CIBI teachers perceived as necessary for an effective school
program. Several teachers believed that any person is
capable of teaching Black children if they are enthusiastic,
willing to learn and share the school's philosophy. However,
the philosophies of the schools dictated that a 81995 teacher
is most capable of transmitting the culture and properly
socializing the child.

A difference was observed in the motivation of the
teachers within the different schools. In the schools
characterized by high intensity programs, most of the
teachers tended to be naturally motivated in the sense that
their lifestyles very closely corresponded with the ideals of
the program. Although the academic training of the child was
important their motivation was more culturally oriented.

The teachers of the moderate intensity schools were more
academically oriented and the cultural motivation came as a
result of the training and education received through the
school. Again, these distinctions are not absolute.

Elements of each are present in each school. However, this
points to the significance of an effective training and
evaluation program. As the schools continue to operate and
expand, the need to train more non-culturally motivated

teachers will be greater.

119

Qissielius

The data indicate that a tightly structured and positive
environment was the most important component in minimizing
disciplinary problems. However, other factors specific to
the CIBI schools and private, independent schools in general
are also responsible. Small class sizes, concerned and
active parents, and the fact that most of the schools are
able to limit their enrollment may contribute to this lack of
disciplinary problems.

In most respects the schools adhere to discipline
techniques which are recognized in most of the mainstream
literature. In addition, the family orientation and the open
expression of love and caring contributes to the school's
ability to maintain their effectiveness. The family oriented
environment allows children to feel comfortable, secure and,
most importantly, creates a sense of continuity between the

child's home and school.

120

assess!

This study attempted to explore the phenomenon of

Independent Black Schools. Using interviews, questionnaires

and site observation, ten schools were studied according to

their philosophical, ideological, organizational and

curricular characteristics. Among the findings were:

1.

The schools attempt to provide three interrelated
types of educational experiences: (a) An academic
experience, (b) A cultural experience, and (c) A
political experience.

Schools varied in the intensity in which they pursue
their cultural and political goals. This intensity
was either low, moderate or high. This intensity was
a factor in determining the degree to which the
schools were able to secure sufficient funds, attract
students and accomplish their desired goals.

All of the schools were characterized by strong
parental involvement although the exact level of this
involvement could not be determined. It was however
considered to be contributive to the schools
effectiveness.

The relationship between school characteristics and
the effective schools literature on public schools
was analyzed. Additional characteristics were
identified which may also have an affect on school
effectiveness. Additional research needs to be

conducted to determine the relationship between these

121

characteristics and student achievement.

5. In general, the schools used an eclectic pedagogical
approach with a strong emphasis on providing a
loving, caring and family oriented educational
environment.

Implications of each of these characteristics were
discussed along with suggestions for future research. It
appears that the most important task next is to operationa-
lize the crucial variables whithin a school program determine
cultural and academic effectiveness. Such a causal model
would provide the basis for the dissimination and development
of more innovative and dynamic Black educational programs.

It is nevertheless clear from this study that independent

Black educational models provide a viable option for African

American families.

122

REFERENCES

Anyon, J. (1981). Social class and school knowledge. 9955i:
eetee leeetcx. 11(1). 3-41-

Asante. N- F- (1980l- eiceeeetcteitx; Ins theecx ei eeetel
ghgggg. Buffalo, N.Y.: Amulefi.

Boateng, A. (1983). African traditional education: A method
of disseminating cultural values. gggggg; gt glggk
§§ggig§, 13(3), 321-336.

Coleman. N- (Ed-l- (1977l- Eteet settecee Jest teee ee
gfiiiaigfi.‘fi3;fii‘;§€33 B‘I’ETTEKcE'EIYd’BEVmopmnt
Institute, Inc.

Collins, M., & Tamarkin, C. (1982). Macy; gglligg; Egg.
Boston: Tarcher.

Doughty. J- J- (1973)- e hietecteet eeetxeie et tleet
eeeeetiee : Eeeeeteg en the eeeteeeececx teeeeeeeeet
Eteet eeheet eexeeeet- Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, University of Michigan.

Edmonds, R. (1979). Effective schools for the urban poor.
Eeeeetteeel teeeeceete. 13(1). 15-24-

Giroux. H- 9- (1981)- 199910914 eeltece t the eceeeee e:

gghggligg. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

Gordon, B. M. (1982). Towards a theory of knowledge

acquisition for Black children. £99553; Qfi Eggggtigg.
164, 90-108.

Halo. J- E- (1982)- Blast setteceet theic ceetss cultucet eee

lggggigg gtylgg. Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University
Press.

Hollins, E. R. (1982a). Beyond multicultural education. 153
fleece Eeeeetteeet Bextee. 33(3-4). 140-145-

Hollins, E. R. (1982b) The Marva Collins story revisited:
Implications for regular classroom instruction. Journal

Jackson, J.E. (1981). Some psychosocial factors affecting
learning to read and reading for disadvantaged Black
childran- fleece Eeeeetteeel Bexiee. 32(2). 18-26-

Hurnana. R-J- (1981. October)- ueeeceteeetee Bottle and
Ecixete §eheetet Ihe teeecteeee et eteeeet tee!
eeeeeeitiees eecttees eee ceeeletteee. Paper
prepared for the Tuition Tax Seminar, Washington, D.C.

123

Myers, H. F. (1979). Mental health and the Black child: The

manufacture of incompetence. Ygggg Quilgggg, 34(4), 25-
31.

Perkins. E- (1975l- flees la a elctx atceetl Ifle eeelal
eeeceeelee at Blast cellecee- Chicago: Third World
Press.

Sanday, P.R. (1976). Cultural and structural pluralism in the
United States. In P.R. Sanday (Ed.), figthgggglggy gag
Beellc leteceeta Eleleaect ace Iheecx. New York:
Academic Press.

Sattorwhita. F- J- ll97ll- Elaeelee an leeeeeeeeet Elect
eeeeatleeal leetltetlee- AFRA" Associataa. loc-

Shade, B. J. (1982). Afro-American cognitive style: A
variable in school success? Review of Education

Sizomora. 8- (1983. October)- Qectlilcate ei atteeeaecea
flleleee eeeeeteeex teetlee ace aceeeetaellltx- Paper
presented at the annual meeting of the National Black
Child Development Institute, Atlanta, GA.

Schneider, B.L., Slaughter, D.T., & Kramer, R. (1983, April).
Blasts le eclxate eeeeele- Paper presented at the
meeting of the American Educational Research
Association. Montreal, Canada.

Walton, S. (1983, November). Local independent schools offer
minorities "Educational Option”. Egggggigg ngk. pp. 1;
16.

Wilcox, P. (1972). Principal concerns: Education and Black
students. In I. A. Baraka (Ed.), fifigiggg Qggggggg; e

Qeceeeetacx at the Elcet fleeece Baezetcleae Qeeeceee-
New York: William Morrow.

Williams, J. E. (1978). On the relevance of education for
Black liberation- Ina leeceal ei fleece Eeecatlee. 47(3).
266-282.

Williams, L.N., & El-Khawas, M. (1978). A philosophy of Black
education- Ifle leeceal at fleece Eeeeatlee. 47(2). 177-
191.

giggk guilg. New York: Africana Research Publications.

Woodard, K.N. (1977). An examination of a Black liberation
school: The kawaida educational and development center.
letegcatee Eeeeatlee. 15(2). 37-41-

APPENDIX A

Qex_c lettac ace letceeeetlee

To whom it may concern:

My name is Craig C. Brookins and I am a graduate student
at Michigan State University. I have initiated a study for
my masters thesis_entitled 'A Descriptive Analysis of
Independent Black Educational Models.“ I have selected the
CIBI network of schools for this study primarily because of
the ideological orientation which is consistent and shared
between the various schools.

The purpose of this letter is to solicit your support
and participation in the study. Enclosed is an introductory
letter from the director of CIBI, Kofi Lomotey. I have
discussed the proposed study at length with him and have
adhered to the guidelines for study on CIBI member schools.
The proposal has been approved and this is the first step in
the process.

The study involves a two (2) day site visit. The first
day will include interviews with the director, teachers, and
other workers within the school. The second day will include
observations of classroom activities. The goal of the study
is to describe how ideology is translated to the curriculum
and the teaching process and to begin to develop a framework
from which to measure outcomes and goals of a proper African
American educational model.

Enclosed is a form on which to indicate whether your
school will participate in this study. Also enclosed is a
questionnaire which will provide me with some general
information about the school. Please fill out the
participant agreement form and the questionnaire and return
by April 20, 1984 in the pro-addressed stamped envelope.
Please return the questionnaire even if you do not agree to
participate in the study.

Upon receipt of the participant agreement form I will
call your school by telephone to arrange a time for the site
visit. There are eleven (11) schools which have been
identified for the study. I would like to arrange site
visits between April 26 and June 1.

Due to the limited amount of time remaining in the
school year your immediate reply to this letter will be
appreciated. I hope this does not cause any inconvenience.
If there are any questions about the proposed study or any
other concerns which you may have feel free to call me
collect at 517-372-9567. Thank you very much for your
cooperation.

g-
N
UT

APPEND I X B

9121 lescessstien Letter

The Enuntil of Independent Black Institutions

NATIONAL EXECUTIVE OFFICE
. . BOX 50396

EAST PALO ALTO, CA 94303
(415) 327—5848

27 March 1984

 

To When It May Concern:

This is to introduce Brother Craig C. Brookins, who is a grad-
uate student at Michigan State University. Mr. Drookins is aware of
the CIBI guidelines regarding research on CIBI and its member insti-
tutions, and has agreed, in writing, to comply. Please offer him any
assistance you can, as he persues his research related to independent
Black institutions.

I am sure that Brother Brookins would be willing to let you
peruse a copy of his thesis proposal as he discusses his intentions
with you. In addition” he is aware that research on your particular
institution also requires your approval. '

Thank you, in advance, for your time and consideration.

 

 

126

APPENDIX C

Baciisieens agreement Esra

SCHOOL NAHE

 

________ OUR SCHOOL HILL PARTICIPATE IN THE STUDY A8
DESCRIBED. PLEASE CONTACT US.

__ OUR SCHOOL 515; up: PARTICIPATE IN THE STUDY.

 

 

SIBNATURE OF SCHOOL OFFICIAL DATE

Please fill out and return in the enclosed envelope.

THANK YOU VERY MUCH!!

127

APPENDIX D

Instruments

§sneel Questienesizs

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1. Name of School
2. Address A
_ Tel 0
3. Di rector
4. Length of Operation (Yrs)
5. Enrollment: # of Total Children
# of Children (K-8)
6. Types of Programs offered (please check):
Pre-school Weekend Program
Full time After School care
7. Teacher/Child ratio
8. School Staff (specify):
HALE FEMALE
Teachers _____- ______
Directors __________ __
Paraprofessionals ______ ______
Parents ______ ______
Volunteers ______ _______
Others ______ ______
9. Racial Composition of School (specify) ‘
Children: Black _____ White _____ 0ther_____
Staff: Black_____ Nhite_____ Other _____
10. Source of Funds:
Fee charged Sliding scale
Percentage Name of Agency

11.

12.

Private Foundations
Governmental Funding
Community Organizations

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Other

 

 

Average Annual Budget (please check)
30 - $5,000 $15,000 - 20,000 _____
$5,000 - 10,000 $20,000 - 25,000 ______

 

 

 

 

$10,000 - 15,000 _____ Above $25,000 _____
Please list other services offered through your institution
tO- Children: __
Parents:
Community:

 

 

128

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

IS.

19.

20.

What is the income range of the majority of your students
families? (please check one):
$0. - 5,000.
$5,000. - 10,000.
$10,000. - 15,000.

315,000. - 20.000.--___
320,000. -' 25,000e_
AbOVG $25,000 .

Please check the following activities in which parents are
involved in your school:
Policy making decisions _____
Supplying equipment
Curriculum development
Educational programs
Physical maintenance
Other (indicate)

 

 

What is the salary range of the teachers in your school?
(check one only)

$0 - 5,000 _____ $15,000 - 20,000 _____

$5,000 - 10,000 _____ $20,000 - 25,000 _____

$10,000 - 15,000 _____ Above $25,000 _____
Is your school accredited? Yes_ No

Does your school use standardized achievement tests?
Yes No

If Yes, Which ones?

 

 

Briefly state the philosophical or ideological basis of your
program:

 

 

 

 

 

Person completing Questionnaire

 

Position Date_

THANK YOU VERY MUCH !!!

Directors Interview

 

 

SCHOOL TIME:.BESIN__.___
END ______
1. Name
2. Educational background (circle):

High school Diploma Bachelors MA PhD Other
diploma

129

IO.
11.

12.
13.
14.

15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.

22.

Major

 

Teaching experience:

 

 

 

 

Where: how long
Where: how long
Where: . how long

 

 

# of years Director

 

What are your functions within the school?

What is the organizational structure of your school? How
does the authority structure flow?

Who makes budgetary and financial decisions?
Who makes curricular decisions?

What is the philosophical or ideological basis of your
school? Is it written?

How does this philosophy translate to or influence the
curriculum?

How is Black cultural, historical and educational content
integrated into the curriculum?

What subject areas are taught at each grade level?
How was the curriculum developed?
How do children progress through your school?

What are the academic objectives of the school? For each
grade level? Are they written?

What are the affective objectives of the school? For each
grade level? Are they written?

What other objectives does the school try to accomplish?
Are they written?

How are these objectives assessed? How are the students
evaluated?

What is the rationale for choosing these objectives?

What theoretical framework or child development theory(s)
does the school try to follow? Why?

How are new methods or content added to the school cur-
riculum?

What are the requirements for becoming a teacher in your
school?

130

23. Do teachers or other school workers receive supplemental or
inservice training? Is it required? If so, how often?

24. What freedom do teachers have within their classrooms con-
cerning the use of teaching methods, learning materials,
subject matter, etc.?

25. Does your school have discipline problems? If so, what
type? If not, why not?

26. What is the approximate income level of the students in
your school?

27. How does your school differ from traditional educational
programs?

28. How do you prepare students for the transition from your
school into traditional schooling?

2?. What are the expected characteristics of a child which
has completed your school program?

30. There is concern within the Black community over the lack
of positive male role models for the Black male child.
How does your school handle this problem?

31. What types of schools do the children typically attend
before coming to your school.

31. What are some of the reasons you think parents decide to
send their children to your school?

32. What efforts are being made to improve your school?

Teachers Interview

SCHOOL Time: Begin

 

End

 

1. Name

 

2. Educational Backgroung (circle):
High school Associates MA PhD Other
diploma
Major

 

3. Previous teaching experience:
Place # years

 

Srades taught

 

4. # of years teaching at present school

 

131

IO.

ll.

l2.

13.

I4.

15.

16.

17.

IS.

19.

Present grades and areas teaching?

 

What is the philosophical or ideological basis of your
school?

How do you include this in your teaching methods?

Is there a particular theoretical framework(s) or learning
theory(s) which you follow?

Is there a standard or set curriculum in your school?

How was this curriculum developed?

What type of supplemental or in-service training do you
receive? How has it benefited you?

What freedom do you have within your classroom concerning
the use of teaching methods, learning materials, subject
matter, etc.?

What are the expected characteristics of a child who has
completed your school program?

What role do teachers and parents have on curriculum
decision-making?

What are the essential skills and knowledge a teacher should
possess in order to teach Black children?

What do you see as the difference between your school and
traditional schooling?

There is concern within the Black community over the lack of
positive male role models for Black children. How do you
try to counter this problem?

How do you handle discipline in your classroom?

What steps are being taken to improve your school? What
steps could be taken if adequate resources were available?

What are some of the main reasons you think parents send

their children to your school?

Observation Schedule

Become generally aquainted with the school, staff and
children.

132

10.

ll.

Obtain written of ideological goals.

Obtain daily schedule.

Obtain copy of curriculum for grade levels.
Obtain lists of instructional materials.
Obtain standardized tests scores.

Obtain evaluation information and/or competency
requirements.

Establish a specific period to verify observations with
appropriate staff.

Observe structural arrangement of schools.
- Hake a scale drawing of school
- Are classrooms arranged traditionally or in other
ways (i.e., open classrooms, enclosed areas, etc.)?
- Do bulletin boards and classroom and office walls
reflect the ideals of the school?

Observe general student/teacher interaction.
- Describe relative amount of individual or group work.
- Describe discipline techniques used.
- Describe amount of warmth and contact observed.
- Described social interaction between students and
teachers/adults and students and other students
(i.e., respect, play behavior, manners, etc.).

Be extremely descriptive in recording observations.

133

APPENDIX E

users see;
In: §exse Eriesielss 9i Elastesss

Created in the 1960's by Dr. Maulana Ron Karenga, the

“Nguzo Saba" or Seven Principles of Blackness was an effort

to codify the basic social and moral values which form the

basis of African American culture. These principles were

viewed as a liberating tool for Africans in America. The

seven principles are as follows:

1.

2.

Umoja (unity): to strive for and maintain unity in
the family, community nation and race.

Kujichagulia (self determination): to define oneself,
and speak for oneself instead of being defined, named
and spoken for by others.

Ujima (collective work and responsibility): to build
and maintain our communities together, to make our
businesses and to profit from them.

Nia (purpose): to make our collective vocation the
building and development of our community in order to
restore our people to their traditional greatness.

Kuumba (creativity): to do always as much as we can,
in the way that we can, in order to leave our
community more beautiful and beneficial than when we
inherited it.

Imani (faith): to believe with all our hearts in our

parents, our teachers, our leaders, our people and
the righteousness of our struggle.

134