.. A . . "", 15".". T... .'V f .z -. . . ‘2- PROBLEMS PRACTICES AND mucus OF puauc 1‘ AFFAIRS PROGRAMMING AI max Iv ““““ {SI LOUIS MISSOURI ...... MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY IGERALD KENNETH BATES 1953' IIEIIIIIIEE IIEIEEEIEIEIEIIEIII IL L I B R A R Y Michigan Static University ABSTRACT PROBLEMS, PRACTICES, AND POLICIES OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS PROGRAMMING AT KMOX-TV, ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI by Gerald Kenneth Bates Addressing the National Association of Broadcasters in 1961, former Federal Communications Commission Chairman Newton Minow referred to television offerings as a "vast wasteland." One aspect of this wasteland was, and is, a dearth of high quality public affairs programming on the local level. The reluctance of broadcasters to program such material is based on what they suppose to be economic facts of the medium: these programs are expensive; they cannot compete with entertainment in attracting an audi- ence; consequently they cannot attract sponsors; therefore, they are barren of profit. Yet even before Minow’s speech, some stations had been turning out good public affairs programs regularly and finding them profitable. KMOX-TV, Channel Four in St. Louis, contends this can be done consistently. This study seeks evidence to support KMOX-TV‘s con- tention. An examination of audience surveys and local sponsor reaction to the station‘s public affairs offerings indicates that these have enjoyed substantial audiences in the face of national competition, have helped to create respect for the station as a responsible member of its Gerald Kenneth Bates community, and have consequently attracted strong sponsor support both for themselves and the station as a whole. Financial loss from public affairs programming, then, does not appear to be inevitable. Hypothesizing that KMOX-TV'S success in this area may be due in significant measure to the policies and prac- tices which govern its public affairs programming and pro- duction operations, the study examines these operations by means of direct observation and through interviews with staff members both of the station and of cooperating com- munity organizations. Thereby a number of guidelines have been derived for the suggested use of other local stations and community organizations which may be encouraged to fol- low KMOX-TV’s example. Copyright by GERALD KENNETH BATES 1963 PROBLEMS, PRACTICES, AND POLICIES OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS PROGRAMMING AT KMOX-TV, ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI By Gerald Kenneth Bates A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Television and Radio 1963 WI ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It is difficult to adequately express my gratitude to the number of persons and organizations who aided in the preparation of this study. First, I acknowledge my debt to Parker Wheatley, Director of Public Affairs for KMOX-TV, who graciously afforded his experience and time and by actions and ideas provided continued inspiration to this work. Also at KMOX-TV, I thank the station's Vice Presi- dent and General Manager, Eugene Wilkey, who gave permission for this study and authorized interviews with himself and other staff members. Thanks also go to Leon Drew who was Program Director when the study began, and to Don Markley who succeeded him; to Charles M. McAbee, Jr., General Sales Manager; to Judd Choler, Sales Promotion Manager; to Fred S. Heywood, Information Services Director; and to Helen Hagen, Producer; all of whom offered cordial assistance. Representatives of various organizations also de- serve thanks: John Kirby of the St. Louis Bar Association; Rabbi Abraham Halpern of the St. Louis Rabbinical Associa- tion; Rev. Francis J. Mathews of the Catholic Radio and Television Apostolate of St. Louis; Dr. Eugene R. Berter- mann of the Lutheran Church Foundation, Missouri Synod; ii Paul Andereck and Hugo Beck of the St. Louis County Schools. Greatly appreciated assistance and support were re- ceived from E. Marguerite Fleming, General Manager of KSLH- FM, owned by the St. Louis Public Schools; and my two friends and co-workers: Edward Rothhaar and Roger Hult- quist, also of KSLH—FM. For introductions to Parker Wheatley and KMOX—TV, many valuable suggestions, constructive criticism, and encouragement, I thank the academic supervisor of this study, Dr. Colby Lewis. Thanks also to my typist, Mrs. Ruth Southern. To my wife Sherry, and my two children Shannon and Bryan, I extend my gratitude for their patience and under- standing. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Chapter I. INTRODUCTION Page ii vi vii Purpose of Study Defining Public Affairs Working Definition Public Affairs Programming Concerns Television Producers Broadcasters' Responses to Pressures Why Some Broadcasters Continue to Evade Their Public Service Responsibilities Minimizing Public Service Programming Costs Television Leadership II. PUBLIC AFFAIRS AND PROFITS . . . . . . . . . BO A Traditional Conflict KMOX-TV, Profits, and Public Affairs ”Eye on St. Louis" Proves Competitive Advertisers and Public Affairs Other Studies of Public Affairs and Its Effect on Broadcasters III. KMOX-TV PHILOSOPHY AND STAFF SUPPORT PUBLIC AFFAIRS PROGRAMMING . . . . . . 51 Philosophy: An Able Staff: Foundation of Success The Builders of Success IV. PROBLEM SOLVING IN PUBLIC AFFAIRS PROGRAMMING 59 Policies and Practices: Building Blocks of Success Policies Assure Management Support Policies and Practices in Selecting Programs iv Chapter Page Promoting Interesting Formats Producing the Program In Retrospect V. DEVELOPING COMMUNITY ORGANIZATIONS FOR LOCAL PUBLIC AFFAIRS PROGRAMMING . . . . . . . 109 Broadcasters Welcome Support A Community Organization’s Road to Air Time Developing Professional Attitudes VI. CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 General Conclusions Personal Conclusions BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Average Monday through Friday 10:15- lO:30 P.M. Audience, St. Louis Metro- politan Area in Quarterly Months 2. Educational Analysis of Those Favoring Improvement in Public Affairs and News Programs . 3. Greatest Monthly Share of Audience "Eye on St. Louis" Received against Select Competing "Action” Programs vi Page 36 49 6O LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Page 1. Channel Selection among Homes Using Tele- vision lO:15-lO:BO P.M. Weekdays . . . . . 37 2. Effect of Jack Paar and Tonight Shows on ”Eye on St. Louis" Share of audience . . . 38 3. Non-Prime Time Public Affairs Program Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 vii mum—L.— CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Purpose of Study This study proposes to analyze the problems, prac- tices, and policies related to the public affairs program at KMOX—TV, St. Louis, Missouri, which is Owned by CBS, Inc., and Operated by CBS Television Stations Division. From such an analysis, the author hopes to construct a guide to aid production of meaningful television public affairs programming at the local level. KMOX-TV was chosen as the primary source for this study for three basic reasons: (1) KMOX-TV has won national recognition for its outstanding leadership in public affairs programming, (2) both the station’s general manager and its director of public affairs are driving forces in behalf of public affairs programming, and (3) audience measurement services report that KMOX-TV attracts the largest share of the television audience in the St. Louis area. The term "meaningful," as used in the preceding statement of purpose, denotes a public affairs program which is sufficiently attractive and forceful to motivate interest in the program subject and to provide action by the audience if such action is suggested on the program. Or, to put it another way, without the abilities to attract and motivate a specified audience, to what extent can one say a public affairs program has meaning? Similarly, producers of public affairs programs who do not motivate their intended audi- ences in a useful manner waste the audience's and the tele- vision station's time and efforts. "Meaningful" public affairs programs are worth the time and effort of the sta- tion, and especially of the audience. Defining Public Affairs There is a problem in defining the term "public af- fairs" because it is used in many ways within the broadcast- ing industry. To further complicate the matter, the terms "public affairs" and "public service" are often used inter- changeably by some broadcasters. "Public service," the more generally accepted term, is used to describe a very broad and ill-defined area of programming. Sydney Head notes this confusion when he de- scribes public service programming as sometimes including I all ”non-entertainment programs,’ sometimes all "non-com- ' or some of both groups.1 mercial programs,‘ Judith Waller suggests that the term "public service" was coined to avoid reference to the word "educa- tion" which was thought to be "a little austere and does lSydney Head, Broadcasting in America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1956): p. 337. 3 not connote a type of program which might be amusing, enter- 2 taining, or easy to listen to." Chester and Garrison attempted to classify certain program types under the title, "public service programming." Their list was as follows: (1) special events, (2) news and commentary, (3) talks and interviews, (4) forums and discussions, (5) documentaries, (6) religious programs, (7) women‘s programs, (8) farm programs, (9) children's programs, (10) school broadcasts, and (11) public service 3 announcements. ’0- Such classifications, however, are not confirmed by any official governmental authority. The Federal Communica- tions Commission does not define ”public affairs,‘ or "pub- lic service” programming as a distinct type. Their break- down on application forms for construction permits and license renewals calls for: 1. Entertainment (this includes programs intended primarily as entertainment, such as music, drama, variety, comedy, quiz, breakfast, children’s, etc.) 2. Religious (this includes all sermons, religious news, music, and drama, etc.) 3. Agricultural (this includes programs containing farm or market reports or other information spe- cifigally addressed to the agricultural popula- tion 2Judith C. Waller, The Fifth Estate (Cambridge: The Riverside Press, 1950), p. 133. 3Giraud Chester and Garnet R. Garrison, Radio and Television (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., I950), Po 57- LI 4. Educational (programs pre ared by or in behalf of educational organizations? 5. News (this includes news reports and commentaries) 6. Discussion (this includes forum, panel and round- table programs) 7. Talks (this includes all conversational programs which do not fall under previous titles, and sports) 8. Miscellaneous.I’- // The British Broadcasting Corporation has quite an- other definition. The BBC uses "public service broadcast- ing" to describe its entire system as contrasted to American ”commercial broadcasting." The BBC reasons that the govern- ment is motivated only by service to the public as opposed to the advertiser. This concept, therefore, embraces enter- tainment as a part of public service broadcasting. Prevalent American usage, as we have seen, tends to eliminate pure entertainment programs as a public service type. In fact, a comparison of the FCC list with the one formed by Chester and Garrison would give us the impression that nearly all programs except those falling under the "entertainment" heading would be considered a public service program. Some broadcasters go further and call any program a public service. / A I See Federal Communications Commission, Form 301, Application for Authority to Construct a New Broadcast Sta- tion or Make Changes in an Existing Broadcast Station, sec. IVLIWashington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1957). I, 5 / Service Responsibility of Broadcast Licensees, the FCC was In a somewhat less than formal release called Public more specific in outlining standards for minimum public service activities of broadcasters. Though the following excerpt from that paper does not attempt to define public service programming, it does charge stations with carrying sustaining as well as commercial programs, and expects sta- tions to: . . . perform a five fold function in (a) maintaining an over-all program balance, (b) providing time for programs inappropriate for sponsorship, (c) providing time for programs serving particular minority tastes and interests, (d) providing time for non-profit organ- izations--religious, civic, agricultural, labor, educa- tional, etc., and (e) providing time for experiment and for unfettered artistic self-expression.5‘/ KMOX-TV’s Director of Public Affairs, Parker Wheat- ley, chooses the broad definition: "programming of an edu- cational or informative nature as opposed to ’straight news.‘" "Public affairs" is chosen over ”public service" for several reasons. To begin with, the Columbia Broadcast- ing System and its Network use the former term to describe similar programs. Secondly, "public service” includes serv- ices beyond programs such as spot announcements, general programs without regard to any particular timeliness or purpose. "Public affairs," on the other hand, Wheatley states, is ”programming with purpose and design." 5U.S., Federal Communications Commission, Public Service Responsibilipy of Broadcast Licensees (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, March 7, 1946), p. 55. 6 Working_Definition For the purpose of this paper, public affairs will include informative, educational, religious, or cultural programs not including news reporting or commentary.,/ Public Affairs Programming Concerns TelevISion Broadcasters The varied attempts at defining public service or public affairs programming reflect the broadcasters' concern for understanding this area. Some broadcasters take the re- sponsibility for programming public affairs upon themselves. The degree of responsibility taken is usually revealed in the extent and caliber of each station‘s programming. When that responsibility appears to be lacking, there are a num- ber of pressures in our society which will come to bear on the broadcaster and which are intended to insure that he take a more acute interest in that responsibility. There are (l) the pressures of Congress threatening to introduce new legislation to force the broadcaster to take account of this area; (2) the attitudes and actions of the Federal Com- munications Commission and general support of these actions by the courts; (3) the force of public opinion; and (A) the traditions and attitudes of groups within the broadcasting industry itself. Pressures of Congress on Broadcasters Since the emergence of broadcasting, many government officials and opinion leaders who have studied the problems 7 of broadcasting in America have felt that informative, edu- cational and cultural programs are valuable in maintaining our nation's advance to a better life; that broadcasting should serve as a medium for free speech; and that broad- casting should serve local needs. These advocates have hoped that programs which we now label "public service" or "public affairs" would fulfill that need. The Congress of the United States laid the basis of permanent government interest in broadcasting by passing the Radio Act of 1927. Though primarily concerned with jammed airwaves, the Radio Act suggested certain principles of public service. It established that the radio waves belong to the people. It also held that broadcasting was a unique service because of the necessarily limited access to the airwaves, and it therefore required equally unique regula- tion. Licenses, the Act stated, were to be issued in the public interest, convenience, and necessity. Broadcasting abuses outside the jurisdiction of the 1927 Act prompted Congress to pass The Communications Act of 1934. In essence, the new legislation was based on the principles of the earlier Radio Act. It retained the direc- tion that licenses would be issued to persons as required 6 by ”public convenience, interest, or necessity; and it also authorized control over the use of the broadcast channels 6U.S. Code, Title 47, c. 5, subc. iii, sec. 303. 8 which are licensed "for limited periods of time."7 Further- more, the Federal Communications Commission was created by this act and was given the duty to "generally encourage the larger and more effective use of radio in the public inter- est."8 These two acts established guideposts for the Fed- eral Communications Commission's rulings and the assignment of broadcast frequencies. A number of attempts have been made to pass legislation to remedy alleged deficiencies in the Act, but broadcasters have effectively prevented most such proposals by voicing their fear that new legislation would ultimately lead to government censorship. On the other hand, congressional consideration of new laws to en- force minimum broadcasting standards in the public interest have often stimulated broadcasters to strengthen and improve their programming in the areas of information, education, and enlightenment. The subsequent interpretation and application of the Act of 1934 has become the dominant single pressure for public service programming in this country. Shortly after the establishment of the Federal Communications Commission, that body began a number of attempts to prod broadcasters into giving an adequate public service. 7Ibid., sec. 301. 8Ibid., sec. 303g. 9 Acting in the name of "the public interest," the FCC charged numerous broadcasters with failure to maintain the public trust through their stressing financial gain above service to the public. Revocation or refusal to re- new broadcasters' licenses was threatened. Theoretically at least, unless corrective action was taken by the licen- see, the case could be taken to the courts. The practice of revoking or refusing a license renewal was most unusual, however, and abuses continued. A number of congressmen in early 1939 subsequently expressed a dissatisfaction with the progress of the FCC in bringing about higher standards of programming. These congressmen were of the opinion that the Commission was not forceful enough to insure that broadcasters fulfill their obligation and proposals of public service programming. On the other hand, there were complaints about the vague word- ing of the laws concerning public service programming re- quirements. Pricked by charges of the congressmen and broadcast- ers, the FCC began a serious study in order to establish more Specific criteria governing the programming services 9 of broadcasters. The Commission hoped that its suggestions 9See U.S., Federal Communications Commission, 99m: mittee Report on Proposed Rules Governing Standard Broadcast Stations and Standards of Good Engineering Practice, Docket No. 5072-A‘IWashington: U.S. Government Printing Office, April 1. 1939). p- 30- 10 might be enough to prevent broadcasters from using the pub- lic channels solely for their own financial interest, and to clarify broadcasters' responsibilities in the public service area. Issuance of such a guide was not to be avail- able until after the Second World War, however. The problem facing the Commission was not a new one. Concern in this area was evident in a 1931 decision of the Federal Radio Commission, the administrative body set up under the Radio Act of 1927, which stated that: while it is expected that a licensee of a . . . broad- casting station will receive some remuneration for serving the public with . . . programs, at the same time the interest of the listening public is paramount, and may not be subordinated to the interests of the station licensee. A license to operate a radio broadcasting station is a franchise from the public, and the licensee is a trustee for the public.10 But 1939 passed, as had 1931, without definitive legisla- tion. In the early forties, numerous complaints from the general public were forwarded to the FCC. The complaints charged that broadcasters failed to operate in the public interest; gave little or no broadcast time to local live talent and community organizations; presented too few reli- gious, educational, and cultural programs; and that discus- sion and talk programs dealing with local issues were seldom heard, and if they were, they were often unfair and biased. lOKFKB Broadcasting Association, Inc. v. Federal Radio Commission, A7 FT (2d)_b70. ll Spurred by public complaints, the FCC planned a more detailed review of license renewals in April, 1945.11 The Commission requested that broadcasters list their opera- tions in programming entertainment, religious, agricultural, educational, news, discussion, talks, and miscellaneous programs by percentage of total broadcast time. A report on the percentage of commercially sponsored and sustaining programs was also requested. With this information, the Commission hoped to have a guide to determine each station’s comparative service to the public. But this information did not in itself lead to any revocation of licenses that year, even though there were some obvious cases of failure in public service programming. The following year, 1946, the much publicized report Public Service Responsibility of Broadcast Licensees de- tailed the Commission's philosophy on programming. The "Blue Book,” as it was more popularly called, was greeted by the industry, press, and public with mixed reactions ranging from the familiar cry of "censorship" to the ”most significant milestone in the entire history of radio regu- lation."l2 It has been suggested that this informal publica- tion was issued to "avoid the connotation of inflexibility llU.S., Federal Communications Commission, Public Service Responsibility . . . , p. 3. l2Llewellyn White, The American Radio (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947): p. 184. 12 generally associated with rules.”13 The report emphasized the need for balanced programming consisting of (1) sus- taining programs, (2) local live programs, (3) discussions of public issues, and (4) an end to advertising excesses.lu While the report was to help guide broadcasters in more nearly meeting their obligations to the public, it also served as a warning that changes were in order if broadcast- ers neglecting their obligations wished to retain their 1i- censes. But again no licenses were refused on grounds of programming at the time of renewal hearing. However, some renewals have been delayed, and some requests for a change in operation have been denied in competitive hearings for an allocation sought by a more public service minded broad- caster.15 The biggest shock to broadcasters was the ”vast wasteland” characterization of television in 1961 by the then FCC Chairman Newton Minow. His speech served as a battle cry to seek judgment of a broadcaster’s performance in carrying out his programming promises made when his li- cense was granted. An analysis was also to be made of pro- gram balance. 13Herbert H. Rosenberg, "Program Content--A Crite- rion of Public Interest in FCC Listening," Western Political Quarterly, II (September, 1949), 385. lLIU.S., Federal Communications Commission, Public Service Responsibility . . . , p. 55. 15Chester and Garrison, p. 122. 13 The boldness of the statement took broadcasters aback momentarily. Then the oft-repeated barb of "censor- ship" was hurled at the FCC by some, while others tended to move with the spirit of the request on their own. More ac- tivity was stirred up in the National Association of Broad- casters and a great public relations program under the Television Information Office was undertaken to "show the public" that broadcasters were meeting their obligations. The pressure persists. Courts Support of FCC as Pressure Three typical cases brought before the United States Court of Appeals demonstrate that court's support of the Federal Communications Commission‘s right to demand and ex- pect public service programming from a broadcaster. These cases also illustrate the advantages a public service minded broadcaster holds over competitors in hearings for broad- cast allocations. In the Bay State Beacon case, the court supported the Commission's contention that stations should attempt to achieve an over-all balance of programs, and that sustain- ing programs are a part of this over—all balance. The Com- mission held a hearing on mutually exclusive applications for a radio construction permit in Brockton, Massachusetts. While Bay State Beacon, Incorporated, had proposed limiting its commercial programs to a maximum of 80 per cent of the total broadcast time, and another 15 per cent on l4 "institutional" sponsorship for half-rates, the competing Cur-Nan Company proposed a total commercial limitation of 60 per cent. Largely on the basis of the proposed program service, the Commission held that the Cur-Nan Company would be able to more fully serve the public interest by devoting at least twice as much time to sustaining programs toward the achievement of an over-all balance of programs.16 In the case involving the Kentucky Broadcasting Corporation, Incorporated, the same court supported the Commission's assertion that public service connotes time devoted to local sustaining programs of a cultural and con- troversial type. This corporation had applied for a con- struction permit involved in a request for a change in fre- quency. The application was turned down largely on the grounds that the station had carried only a few local sus- taining programs in the past, even though it had carried a large number of network sustaining programs. The FCC re- ported that in an analysis of a typical week, the Kentucky Broadcasting Corporation had carried only one five-minute daily local sustaining broadcast between the hours of 6:00 A.M. and 6:00 P.M., Monday through Friday. In addi- tion, the record was completely barren of live sustaining programs designed to develop local talent and local programming in the fields of music, drama, and speech. The record is also barren as to l6BaypState Beacon v. Federal Communications Com- mission, App. D.C., 171 F. (2d) 826. 15 roundtable or forum types of local broadcasts concern- ing controversial local issues of public importance.17 Not only may the Commission expect local sustaining programs of controversy, but it may expect an "affirmative effort . . . to encourage broadcasts of forums or discus- sion groups dealing with controversial issues," declared the court in the Johnston Broadcasting Company case. The court mentioned specifically ”controversial issues or topics of current interest to the community, such as education, ”18 labor, and civic enterprises. Public Opinion as Pressure The pressure of public opinion may be either direct or indirect. There have been times when an irate mother's phone call to a broadcaster has influenced a station's pro- gramming. Most generally, however, public opinion is indi- rect and slow working. Public opinion comes from a wide range of civic, social, educational, cultural and economic organizations as well as individuals. The opinions vary in their directness, emphasis, and effectiveness. This wide diversification of often conflicting opinions tends to confuse many broadcast- ers since many groups may claim to have the proper criteria l7KentuckygBroadcastin‘gCo. V. Federal Communica- tions Commission, App. D.C., 174 F. (2d)38: 18Johnston Broadcastin Co. v. Federal Communica- tions Commission, App. D.C., 174 F. (2d) 359. 16 for balanced programming. Suggestions for proper criteria are often set forth in speeches, group publications, general magazines, books, letters to broadcasters, letters to the local newspaper editor, letters to sponsors, petitions, resolutions, special meetings and discussions of citizen groups, public opinion polls, and everyday conversation. Perhaps the most spectacular showing of public opin- ion grew out of the quiz and "payola" scandals of 1959. That pressure, along with threats from Congress, produced a long parade of witnesses in a hearing before the FCC in December, 1959.19 Witnesses represented perhaps the largest group of organizations outside of the broadcast industry to be heard by the Commission in its then twenty-five year history. The criticism which came out of the hearings con- cerning the programming activities by some stations was a jolt to the industry. There was a genuine fear that govern- ment regulation of broadcasting might possibly go beyond that which many broadcasters would feel is reasonable and fair. Many broadcasters responded with greater emphasis on public service programming. A‘ 19See Broadcasting_Magazine beginning with Decem- ber 7, 1959 and following issues. 1? Broadcasters’ Responses to Pressures Broadcasters' responses to government pressures and public opinion have been both reactionary and co-operative. In 1946, many broadcasters rallied around the National Asso- ciation of Broadcasters (NAB) to find the answer to their problems. Some individual broadcasters who were not satis- fied with the NAB's services struck out to find their own answers on what to do about the demands for public service. Following the release of the "Blue Book,” the mem- bers of the NAB gathered their forces to strike at anything they felt would tend to control programming. NAB Resistance to FCC Review of Programming The ”Blue Book's” explicitness concerning program- ming frightened a number of broadcasters into the belief that the FCC would attempt to control programming through its authority to license stations. The NAB, therefore, lobbied for an amendment to the Communications Act of 1934 forbidding any such control by the FCC.20 A spokesman be- fore a hearing of a Senate Subcommittee in 1947 argued that FCC review of a station's past programs was unnecessary, unwise, and legally unjustifiable. Economic incentives, he asserted, as modified by the broadcasters' own evaluation 20U.S., Congress, Senate, Subcommittee on Inter- state and Foreign Commerce, Hearings on S. 1333, To Amend the Communications Act of 1934, 80th Cong., 1st Sess., 1947. See pp. 302-309. 18 of public opinion provides a sufficient control over the 21 program service. The NAB-backed amendment was defeated. Senator Wallace H. White, chairman of the committee studying the plea, summed up the subcommittee’s attitude on the FCC's right to review programming: I just do not see how there can be any judgment as to whether a station is serving a public interest or not unless there is a chance to review and View the programs which a station has been passing out. . . . 22 Subsequent court cases supported the FCC's right to review past programming in determining the qualifications of a licensee. Self-legislation through the NAB Code With the avenues and adherents of resistance to government pressures on programming cut off, broadcasters in the NAB decided to strengthen their own position through a show of self-regulation. They hoped to demonstrate that new legislation was not needed to insure adequate public service programming. In 1948, the NAB adopted a newly revised code to curb those stations whose primary aim was to turn a profit, even at the expense of their broadcast service to the 21See Lyman Bryson, "Other Points of View," Time for Reason about Radio (New York: George W. Stewart, Pub- lISher, Inc., 19487, for a discussion with Charles Seipmann on the stand of the industry toward FCC regulations. 22U.S., Congress, Senate, Subcommittee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, p. 409. 19 public. The NAB majority felt then, and still feels, that these stations could permanently damage the freedom of the industry by provoking government legislation on all broad- casters. NAB President LeRoy Collins stated at a 1963 management conference that the organization planned to pro- ject and enforce the code. It is the hope of the NAB that effective discipline from within the industry would curb restrictive demands originating from outside the industry. The NAB later expanded its 1948 Code to serve as a guide for the television industry. The Television Code of the National Association of Broadcasters contains the ex- pression that television broadcasters (a) Should be thoroughly conversant with the educa- tional and cultural needs and desires of the community served. (b) Should affirmatively seek out responsible and accountable educational and cultural institutions of the community with a View toward providing opportuni- ties for the instruction and enlightenment of the viewers. (0) Should provide for reasonable experimentation in the development of programs specifically directed to the advancement of the community's culture and educa- tion. The Code also expresses the need for community re- sponsibility, controversial public issues, and religious programs as a normal part of service.23 Llewellyn White observed that "except for the ef- forts of NAB . . . self—regulation in the broadcasting 23National Association of Broadcasters, The Tele- vision Code of the National Association of Broadcasters (Washington: The Association, 19597. See subheading 'Advancement of Education and Culture." 20 industry has been a matter for the consciences of individual H24 broadcasters. Unfortunately, some individual broadcast- ers were unwilling to move in the spirit of either the FCC recommendations or the NAB code. Why Some Broadcasters Continue to Evade Their Public Service Responsibilities Some of those broadcasters who did not follow the industry code found a number of ways to hedge on their ob- ligations as outlined in the "Blue Book." These broadcast- ers attempted to rationalize their neglect of public service programming in a number of ways. Argument 1: Large Audiences Mean Public Interest Niles Trammell, former NBC President, stated before an NAB Convention in 1946 that ”the broadcasting of any program which a substantial proportion of the available audience wants to listen to at the time it goes on the air is an example of broadcasting in the public interest."25 Conversely, according to a few who follow this line of ar- gument, a program must demonstrate a large audience tune-in to prove it is in the public interest at all. In essence, each member of the audience is casting his vote for his interest. Programs attracting few voters should give way 2uWhite, p. 88. 25"The Revolt against Radio," Fortune. March 1947, p. 103. 21 to a more popular program. Thus, the broadcaster need only give the public what the majority of the public wants. The thought of programming for community welfare or public in- spiration does not seem to be of concern to such adherents. Argument 2: Public Service Programs Do Not Attract Sponsors Public service programs seldom draw large audiences, the argument goes; and without large audiences, sponsors stay away. Advertisers feel that to get the greatest value from their dollar investments, they must have their adver- tising messages exposed to the greatest number of people at minimum cost. Station management, for that reason, tends to cater to those programs which are the most popular and which most generally are entertainment programs. To carry programs without a chance of sponsorship is poor business. Carried to the extreme, these broadcasters appear to have presupposed that their sole function is to bring in the highest possible revenue without regard to responsi- bility other than the letter of the law. Argument 3: Public Service Programs Diminish Audiences from Other Programs The principle of audience carry-over maintains that the size of the audience of one program is partly determined by the size of the audience of the programs preceding and following that program. Therefore, a public service pro- gram which appeals to a relatively small group or share of 22 audience will affect the size of adjacent offerings. Those sponsoring a program adjacent to a public service program may feel that their message would reach many more viewers if they followed or even preceded a program with more popu- lar appeal. Those sponsors may then exert pressures of their own upon the broadcaster. Faced with the alternative of losing a sponsor, the broadcaster may relegate public service programming to time slots where they will not inter- fere with commercial programs. The broadcaster might even go so far as to cancel certain public affairs programs com- pletely. Argument 4: Broadcasters Cannot Afford Sustaining Programs Public service programs, just like commercial pro- grams, require an expenditure of money and effort from a station. If the program is sustaining, there is no remune- ration and the station must carry the entire cost. A televised public service program normally re- quires the standard facilities and crews used in commercial programs. There is no doubt that the cost of such program- ming is heavy and must be made up by the sale of commercial time. Some small market television stations just do not have the facilities, personnel, nor supporting revenue to provide the same well-produced public service programming as those stations in the larger market areas. But a lack 23 of slickness in a production is one thing, a lack of public service programming altogether is quite another thing. These four arguments are overly used by some broad- casters to escape the heavy cost of public service program- ming. They do not find it difficult to indicate on FCC re- ports a greater program output and significance in this area than actually exists. Thus, they may lower expenses while avoiding their obligation and at the same time seem to provide it by FCC standards. Besides the four arguments just mentioned, some broadcasters may hedge on public affairs programming because- they are quite confident that little, if any, consequence will befall them if they do. FCC Seldom Takes Action on Hedging The immediate monetary profits through excessive commercialism appear to make the gamble of government or public reproach worthwhile. Seldom have licenses been revoked solely on the grounds of the station's programming. The decision by the Chairman of the FCC in 1944 indicates the Commission‘s re- luctance to take such a drastic action as revocation: . . . we go through long hearings, but when you get right down to it the penalty is so severe that the Com- mission is not inclined to do anything about it. The upshot of it is that ultimately they try to get the thing straightened out and let it go right ahead, and 24 I don’t know whether that is a healthy thing.26 A more effective weapon was introduced in 1952. An amendment to the Communications Act gave the Commission power to issue a "cease and desist” order to violating 1i- censees. It was effective simply because it was not so se- vere and could be more easily applied to smaller infractions of the licensee. But at the same time, it had little mean- ing other than official rebuke which could readily be ig- nored by the worst offenders after that single deficiency had been corrected. A promise to do better the next time usually has been sufficient to receive a grant of renewal from the Commission. There is uncertainty as to just what changes will be made since Minow’s ”Vast Wasteland" speech, his retire- ment from office, and the recent installation of E. William Henry as FCC Chairman. The NAB Is Weaker Still The NAB, of course, can do nothing about those sta- tions which do not subscribe to the NAB‘s Television Code. It can do little more against subscribers who violate its principles. Withdrawal of the Association's Seal of Approval from the subscribing station is the only weapon available 26U.S., Congress, Senate, Senate Committee on Inter- state Commerce, Hearings on S. 814, To Amend the Communica- _tions Act of 1934, 78th Cong., 2nd Sess., 1944, p. 933. 25 to the NAB. Such action, however, is little noted outside the industry itself, and therefore does little damage to the station‘s business reputation. Consequently, many broadcasters are not above ignoring the Code, nor are they reluctant to withdraw as a subscriber to the Code if it should interfere with the station's business. In June, 1959, for example, eighty-four Television Code subscribers were in violation of the Code by carrying advertising for a hemorrhoidal remedy which was considered to be in bad taste. Within two weeks of an NAB announce- ment that it would enforce its Code, thirty-eight of those eighty-four subscribers (45 per cent) found continued busi- ness in violation of the Code far more rewarding than their concern for NAB standards.27 The NAB Code was effective only if its subscribers chose it to be so. Very often, the only apparent loss to the punished offender was the removal of the Seal's image from the tele- vision screen at sign-on and sign-off. The FCC has recog- nized one factor of the ineffectiveness of the NAB censure and raised the question: ”How can the Code be effective if violators are not made public?” 27Meyer Weinberg, TV in America (New York: Ballan- "tine Books, 1962), p. 93. 26 Minimizing_Public Service Programming Costs A few broadcasters who consider public service pro- grams a nuisance, concentrate on ways and means to minimize the cost of this nuisance while squeezing all the publicity they can out of offerings they do have. These public serv- ices are usually limited to announcements and flamboyant publicity gimmicks. This is not to suggest that cutting costs or taking advantage of possible publicity is wrong, but it is sug- gested that extreme efforts in this direction tend to lessen the service value to the community of any public affairs program. A second device for minimizing costs in this area is to pawn off as public affairs programs, in reports to the FCC, programs which would fall more properly into an- other category. The avoidance of locally produced public service programming is a third technique used by some stations. Costs are minimized by programming ready-made materials. Free films, for example, are imported whenever possible without regard to their value to the local community. These films cut down the broadcasters' own production costs while satisfying FCC requirements for at least a minimum percent- age of public service programming in the total broadcast time. 27 A fourth device is widely used. Expenses can be minimized and profits maximized by relegating public af- fairs programs to time slots which are not commercially desirable. Sell as much time as you can, the theory goes, and then schedule a few films and some talk in the spots you can’t sell. These program spots tend to be at times when any audience would be small. These are only a few techniques used to reduce pub- lic service costs while maintaining at least minimum per- centages of broadcast time defended as public service pro- gramming to the FCC. Television Leadership While some broadcasters treat public service pro- gramming as a nuisance, a few stations are advocating com- munity leadership by producing commendable programs of pub- lic affairs. A Milwaukee broadcaster declared: In television-~ten times more than in radio, the station itself MUST take an aggressive, active part in all its public service activities. Ten times more than in radio, the station MUST seek out--it must control and it MUST actively direct all its public service programming.2 A Maryland broadcaster put it this way: We believe that the best return on that investment of the station's monetary backers will come when our 28Bruce Wallace, ”Public Service Pro ramming," Twenty-two Television Talks, BMI TV Clinics New York: Broadcast Music, Inc., 1953), p. 107. . |\.I I. lvnlllllllll .I. III IIII 28 station is recognized and accepted by our community as a spokesman for the interests of the community, and as a leader in the continuing effort to better the com- munity. The study of problems and successes at a station holding such views can be valuable in developing guidelines to aid other broadcasters to a better and a more profitable service. The resulting services should mean that the pub- lic would receive more meaningful programs offering a com- prehensive view of community problems. These programs could then forward the struggle to overcome those problems. With such study, community organizations may find more efficient ways of promoting public interest and sup- port for their activities, as well as a guide to bettering their own public affairs efforts. Advertisers studying this area will be better equipped to insist on top quality public affairs programs which will in turn better the clients' public service image, and perhaps their sales. A broadcaster's success in public affairs program- ming should provoke a better response from the public and, consequently, from potential sponsors. Evidence of the benefits arising from meaningful public affairs programming problems is already apparent in some degree at KMOX—TV. The following chapters should 29Joel Chaseman, "Public Service Programming," Ibid., p. 48. 29 reveal the benefits, the problems, the policies and prac- tices of public affairs programs. CHAPTER II PUBLIC AFFAIRS AND PROFITS A Traditional Conflict Former FCC Chairman Newton Minow's ”Vast Wasteland" speech created a near furor among some commercial broadcast— ers. Minow's plea for better programming was nothing rad- ically new to broadcasters, but many thought the pressure was more threatening than anything experienced to that time. For years, a growing vocal but ill—defined "public" had ’ which was usually construed called for ”better programming,‘ to mean more public affairs and cultural programming. While broadcasters tended to agree that public affairs program- ming was intrinsically good, they did not always relish the thought of developing more of it. Stereotyped with small audiences and little, if any, financial return, public af- fairs programming drew little practical support from most broadcasters. Though some critics may be satisfied that profits should not be the final consideration in developing public affairs programming, there can be no doubt that profits are a necessary part of commercial broadcasting. If it could be shown that public affairs program- ming actually promoted business profits, perhaps some BO 31 broadcasters might consider such programming more objective- ly. Therefore, the questions of public affairs and its re- lationship to business is worth study. Although it is not the purpose of this paper to delve deeply into this specific question, the surface im- plications of that relationship will be examined. Perhaps such examination will also provide some indication for fur- ther study required in this area. KMOX-TV, Profits, and Public Affairs A Belief in Public Affairs Programming ”Can public affairs programs increase my station's profits?" is a legitimate question. The apparent answer is that as long as advertisers seek only mass audiences, and as long as the majority of television viewers appear to seek entertainment over public affairs programming, there will be little chance of direct profit. Yet, KMOX-TV's General Manager, Eugene Wilkey, has often repeated: I do not believe that the news and public affairs field is necessarily a costly or non-profit operation even in its early stages. I believe that good manage- ment demands the creation of Public Affairs programs that can be sold--programs with which sponsors are happy to be identified. A generous investment of time, talent and money in this type of programming pays off in the profit column. We have found this to be true.1 lEugene B. Wilkey, paper read at First Annual Broad- cast News Workshop-Seminar Conducted by the University of IMissouri School of Journalism, Columbia, Mo., November 12, 1959, p. 5. (Mimeographed.) 32 Wilkey’s contention is supported by the upper eche- lon of his staff which is in the best position to evaluate available information, and by other factors which will be discussed below. The development of KMOX-TV programming will aid in understanding the relationship of public affairs to profits. Public Affairs to Build Image In the planning of KMOX-TV, Wilkey hoped to find ways to demonstrate management's interest in the general welfare of metropolitan St. Louis. This was to be done by building public confidence in the station as a channel for reliable information and a platform for community leader- ship as well as entertainment. If such a relationship could be built, Wilkey felt the station would prosper.2 To build this image, the station's staff planned a thorough public relations campaign to support strong local public affairs programming. In February, 1958, CBS, Inc. became licensee of Channel Four in St. Louis.3 Prior to that time the license was held by KWK-TV, a CBS-TV affiliate, which had been pro- ‘gramming its own local programs and CBS Television Network 2Interview with Wilkey, February 18, 1960. 3The FCC granted KMOX-TV a license, dated March 29, 1957, for operating Channel 11. Later negotiations with the owners of KWK-TV operating Channel 4 resulted in the sale of that property to KMOX-TV. See New York Times, March 30, 1957, p. 39, and September 27, 1957, p. 43. 33 offerings since 1947. Both the American Research Bureau and A. C. Nielsen rating services reported that KWK-TV at- tracted the second largest audience of the city's three commercial stations. Wilkey hoped to put Channel Four, now KMOX-TV, in the forefront. Policy Attracts New Viewers The building of an image as envisioned by Mr. Wilkey was evidently successful. Within two months of the KMOX-TV take-over, Channel Four‘s over-all audience grew to be the largest of the three existing commercial stations, accord- ing to the same rating services. (A fourth commercial sta- tion, KPLR-TV, began broadcasting a year later.) The growth appears to have been a result of a change in local programming, largely in the area of news and public affairs according to the station's General Manager, Program Direc- tor, General Sales Manager and Public Affairs Director. There is evidence to support that belief. The only significant change in St. Louis programming was effected locally by KMOX-TV. Program listings for the months adja- cent to the time of the CBS-TV take-over show no change in network programming in the St. Louis area. Also, changes at the local level by other stations were few and limited to the substitution of one syndicated action series for ulnterviews with Wilkey, Leon Drew, Charles McAbee respectively, February 18, 1960, and with Parker Wheatley, November 16, 1959. 34 another, or a daily change in ”Hollywood" films. At Chan- nel Four, the change was limited to a different approach to public affairs programming and the addition of a new pro- gram. The new approach will be discussed in the following chapter. At this point, it is only important to consider the effect of these public affairs programs on the station's advertising revenue. New and modified programs at KMOX-TV attracted larger audiences than previously experienced among public affairs programs in St. Louis. "Eye on St. Louis" Proves Competitive One program in particular surprised sales and pro- gramming authorities in St. Louis. That was "Eye on St. Louis," a fifteen minute interview and information program scheduled for 10:15 to 10:30 Monday through Friday evenings. The consensus among competitors and advertisers was that the program could not attract an audience large enough to sustain the program in prime time.5 There were serious doubts at KMOX-TV, too, but the program began as scheduled. By October of that same year, "Eye on St. Louis" was established as the second most popular program broad- cast on a Monday through Friday basis in St. Louis accord- ing to Telepulse ratings. 5Drew, Ibid. 6Telepulse (New York: Pulse, Inc., October, 1958). 35 The successful prime-time "Eye on St. Louis" has more than proven it can consistently attract audiences from syndicated "action" series as "This Man Dawson," "U. S. Marshall,” "Border Patrol," "Highway Patrol," "Bold Ven- ' and a host of others. ture,' Similarly, "Eye on St. Louis" has faced such noted personality programs as Jack Paar, succeeded by Johnny Car- son, and Steve Allen with gratifying results to persons working in public affairs. The table and figures in this chapter demonstrate the competitive ability of this public affairs program. Other Public Affairs Programs Show Results Other KMOX-TV public affairs programs are broadcast outside of prime time hours. The percentage of homes using television at these times is traditionally less; therefore, audience figures for these programs are much less dramatic. They are, however, important. Of these, the nonreligious programs usually compete with film fare, syndicated action series as "Racket Squad," or children's programming, and occasionally another public affairs program. Religious programs generally compete against other religious or public service programs. The bar graph (Figure 3) on page 39 illustrates the competitive drawing power these programs have in their time periods. With the help of all these programs, KMOX-TV was able to quote Nielsen and American Research Bureau Ratings 36 TABLE l.--Average Monday through Friday 10:15-10:30 P.M. audience, St. Louis Metropolitan Area in quarterly monthsa "Eye" e Month KMOX-TV KSD‘TV KTVI KPLR'TV Reported 7b C %HUT %SOA %HUT %SOA %HUT %SOA %HUT %SOA 1958 d April 13.1 31 24.3 56 5.5 13 ... ... June 12.9 32 19.7 48 7.0 17 ... .. Sept. 13.2 33 20.2 56 6.4 16 ... . Dec. 18.8 40‘ 23.1 48 4.5 9 ... . 1959 March 22.0 49 18.4 40 4.9 11 ... ... June 18.4 41 15.1 34 5.3 11 5.8 12 Sept. 15.3 39 12.6 33 5.4 13 5.1 13 Dec. 18.6 41 10.4 23 10.6 23 5.1 11 1960 March 23.2 46 12.4 24 11.5 22 3.3 6 June 17.7 40 13.7 31 8.1 18 4.3 9 Sept. 15.6 34 12.5 28 11.8 22 7.1 16 Dec. 17.6 35 16.1 32 12.2 24 3.7 7 1961 March 16.6 36 15.7 34 10.9 23 2.5 5 June 16.6 36 12.5 27 13.4 29 3.7 8 Sept. 11.0 28 12.6 32 10.8 27 4.7 12 Dec. 15.6 30 15.4 29 15.9 30 5.5 10 1962 March 13.0 28 17.0 37 12.9 28 3.4 7 June 12.2 30 13.0 32 11.8 29 3.4 8 Sept. 16.9 38 11.6 26 13.7 22 6.6 14 Dec. 18.2 39 14.4 35 10.7 22 2.8 6 1963 Feb.f 16.4 31 18.7 36 13.3 25 3.9 7 aComputed from Nielsen Station Index, permission of Nielsen Co., copyright 1958-1963. %HUT indicates percentage of Homes Using Television tuned to Channel indicated out of the total homes having A. CD television receivers. C7580A indicates percentage Share of Audience watching indicated channel out of total sets in use at stated time. dApril, 1958 was first full month reported after KMOX-TV commenced programming. eJune, 1959 was first quarter month reported after KPLR-TV commenced broadcasting. fLast report available at time table was computed. 37 AdZooQ Duct-law BOHOFHOHOQ meson R >9 23b pm: ooQ om “:6 pa: ooQ om gun has Con new new as: com cw ash Add $2 $3 $2 $2 $3 mmS ohdv30o3 .NowaH coaudpm nomaofiz he usages nophdfiu Ga wowmno>d mu .2. m cm. OH I ma. 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For ex- ample, the 1960 Nielsen report listed KMOX-TV as having a total day share of audience of 41 per cent. Its competi- tors were listed as having 31, 22, and 5 per cent audience 7 shares. Public Affairs Programs Bring Profits There was little difficulty in attracting new adver- tisers to Channel Four once the Size of its audience was established. ”Eye on St. Louis” also proved that public affairs could be sold. Within a short time, the station had a sixymonth backlog of advertisers Signed for Sponsorship of the program. Charles McAbee, KMOX—TV‘S General Sales Manager, cautions that one should not yet expect a public affairs program to provide a direct profit. Despite the size of the audience "Eye on St. Louis" receives, there is still some question as to its ability to attract a sponsor to com- pletely underwrite all immediate and operational expenses. Therefore, the program is charged "Class B" advertising rates, which are less than other prime time charges at KMOX-TV o 8 7Nielsen Station Index (New York: A. C. Nielsen, Inc., March, 1960). 8Other "Class B" time periods include 5:00 to 6: O P.M., 10:30 to midnight Monday through Friday; 5:30 to 6: O P.M. Saturday; and 5:00 to 6:30 P.M. Sunday. 41 There is more to the program's contribution than partial payment of its own expenses, however. Though these other contributions are indirect, they are exceedingly im- portant, McAbee maintains. It has already been noted that the public affairs programs have contributed a great deal to the station’s over-all audience. This aided the station in attracting thirty new commercial campaigns within the first few months of the station's operation.9 According to McAbee, "Eye on St. Louis" is effec- tively used as a "plum" in sales presentations to attract advertisers to other time spots in package deals that the advertiser would not likely consider alone. The program has now established a reputation beyond local advertising cir- cles and contributes greatly to the securing of regional and national accounts for adjacent programs and spot an- nouncements. The General Sales Manager feels these bene- fits are not measurable by objective standards, but the pro- gram's cost is much more than repaid. This view has unqual- ified support by the upper echelon of management whose views must be respected simply because they would have most to lose if their judgments were in error. Mounting profits from year to year reinforce their confidence in these bene- fits. The prospects for public affairs aiding station 9McAbee. 42 business are still growing, believes Program Manager Don Markley.lO The large body of audience does not yet readily accept public affairs programming, and until they do the large body of advertisers will continue to shy from such programs. As the success of ”Eye on St. Louis" and other programs like it becomes better known, however, and as more and more offerings are made in prime time when the larger audiences are available, the situation will greatly improve, he feels. In anticipation of greater acceptance, KMOX-TV is beginning to actively offer more programs in the area of public affairs for sponsorship, perhaps in a ”prestige pack- age" of programs.11 Advertisers and Public Affairs Prestige Value Generally, advertisers on "Eye on St. Louis” feel there is an element of prestige in identifying with the "l2 for their program. Some refer to ”favorable backdrop commercials, or a "certain quality"13 indicating that they realize a positive effect but are unable to describe it. 10Interview with Don Markley, March 16, 1963. 11McAbee. 12Letter from Harry D. Honig, Jr., Radio and Tele- vision Director for Batz-Hodhson—Neuwoehner, Inc., St. Louis Advertising and Marketing Service, April 22, 1960. 13Letter from official at Weintraub and Associates, Inc., St. Louis Advertising Service, April 18, 1960. 43 A few believe that the type of program makes little differ- ence in attracting consumer use of their products. Controversy and the Advertiser Local sponsors of ”Eye on St. Louis" vary in their opinions about connecting their name with controversial programs which sometimes develop. A spokesman for a bank suggested ”that the more controversial subjects get more ”14 Another listeners and we, as a result, get more people. feels he must "be ever watchful” to see that the program is not offensive. Five expressed the greatest confidence and ease with the programs and the men who presented them. As one agency representative put it: "The staff of ’Eye on St. Louis‘ is recognized for their ability to produce a program of public interest that will in no way offend the viewer. . . .”15 Within the experience of advertisers on KMOX-TV, controversy is nothing that would frighten them from Spon- sorship, and in some cases it might attract them to it. Audience Make—up The standard conception of audience make—up for pub— lic affairs programs has been that they cater only or 1“Letter from John W. Blood, Executive Vice Presi- dent of Clayton Federal Savings and Loan Association, April 18, 1960. 15Honig, Jr. 44 largely to upper socio-economic households. This is impor- tant to the advertiser who desires a specific audience for a given product and it can greatly influence what kind of advertising support a public affairs program will receive. A Telepulse survey was undertaken at the request of a loan company sponsoring "Eye on St. Louis.” It was concerned about the economic status of the "Eye on St. Louis" audience lest it be composed of people having little need for small loans which the company made. Using the size of rental or house payments as an index of family economic status, the survey concluded that the "Eye on St. Louis" audience included all economic groupings in approximately the same ratio as they existed within the St. Louis metropolitan area. There was only a slight shift toward "Eye on St. Louis" viewing as economic status rose. The results of this survey surprised a number of people who were also convinced that advertising on public affairs programs would be limited to building corporate images. The wide range of happy "Eye on St. Louis" Sponsors also tends to refute this argument. Public Affairs Programs Can Offer A Wide Variety of Sales The sponsorship of "Eye on St. Louis" programs is not limited to building corporate images. While it is true that the Plumbing Industry Foundation sponsored "Eye on St. Louis" one evening a week, the program had also attracted 45 the Ravarino & Freschi Company (an importer and maker of macaroni, spaghetti, and noodles), Adams Dairy, banking com- panies, service organizations such as the Automobile Club of Missouri, a national manufacturer of electrical appli- ances, and others. These advertisers all professed to be happy with the results of the program and that there had seemed to be no problem because of the line of goods or services sold. Other Studies of Public Affairs and Its Effect on Broadcasters WCBS-TV Study Suggests Benefits Some other recent studies tend to confirm KMOX-TV‘S contention that a strong program of public affairs is good business. A WCBS-TV analysis of a study made by the Insti- tute for Motivational Research, Inc.,16 for example, arrived at six major conclusions applying to the New York Television Market. One of the conclusions made was that a balanced variety of programming ”provides more favorable a Climate for more relaxed and responsive viewing of all programs-- entertainment, news, and information—-because they are in company with other programs thought to be worthwhile.” While this is a rather general statement, the implication 16An Analysis of the Motivational Research Study of New York Television Channels conducted by The Institute for Motivational Research, Inc. in association with Market Plan- ning Corporation (New York: WCBS-TV, 1959). 46 seems to be that public affairs programs contribute to the over-all responsiveness of the audience to other station fare, which is similar to the findings of KMOX-TV. Another conclusion supports Wilkey’s theory. The image of "reliability," or "trust and confidence” as the New York study refers to it, "tends to be carried over into a pattern of greater trust and confidence in commercials and products associated with a station." NBC Panel Suggests Value of PA At an NBC Spot Sales Opinion Panel in April, 1960, 65 per cent of 292 panelists representing 225 advertising agencies or offices throughout the country held the opinion that a strong public service identity also provides greater sales effectiveness for advertiserS.l7 While this is opin- ion supporting KMOX—TV‘S contention that public affairs leads to profits, the profession of these panelists lends weight to their collective judgment. The Telepulse study on the audience make-up of "Eye on St. Louis" probably would have surprised these panel- ists, however. Seventy—three per cent of the timebuyers present felt that public service programs have a limited but a high ”quality" audience which could offset the value 18 of mass audience. H l7"There's Money in Public Service, Broadcasting Magazine, April 18, 1960, p. 30. 18Ibid., p. 31. 47 There is another discrepancy between the NBC Panel and the St. Louis experience. Nationally, judging from the Opinion Panel, the feeling of timebuyers tends toward a belief that public affairs programming can sell certain kinds of products best. While 95 per cent of the timebuy- ers felt such programs are effective advertising vehicles for molding a corporate image, only 64 per cent thought such programming could also sell high cost ”hard” goods, while only 25 per cent agreed that low cost, high turnover products could be sold in this manner.19 Panelists tended to agree that more sales could be made in the area of public affairs if stations would pro- vide more qualitative audience information.20 They com- plained that broadcasters simply did not promote such pro- grams with nearly the same enthusiasm as they did more pop- ular types of programs. The call for "a more qualitative rating system”21 was still lacking a year later however, and still lacks fulfillment.22 The recent congressional investigations into audience measurement services, headed by Representative Oren Harris, may move those services toward this end. 19Ibid., pp. 30, 31. 20 21"Public Service for Profit," Broadcasting Maga- zine, April 18, 1960, p. 120. 22Charles E. Claggett of Gardner Advertising Co., St. Louis, in a talk before Broadcast Advertising Club of Chicago, March 14, 1961. (Mimeographed.) Ibid., p. 30. 48 CBS Sponsored Study of Television Viewers The People Look at Television reports on a study of the national television audience profile as surveyed in 1960.23 Documented by the Bureau of Applied Social Research of Columbia University, the recently published book de- scribes the "Average American” viewer as entertainment prone, and the "Average Non-Average American” viewer also entertainment prone but concerned with public affairs pro- gramming as well. Dr. Gary A. Steiner, who headed the research proj- ect, points out that the audience was concerned about pub- lic affairs programming. The "average" viewer felt he "wasted" too much time on entertainment programs. The ”average non-average" viewer felt that more public affairs programs were needed but neither group took much advantage of informative programs that were available during the time of the study. When queried: ”As far as you are concerned, where is the greatest room for improvement in television programs?" 23 per cent of 1,210 persons mentioned that there should be more or better information, news, and education programs. These types of programs were mentioned more than those in any other single area. 23Gary A. Steiner, The People Look at Television (New York: Knopf, 1963). 49 TABLE 2.--Educational analysis of those favoring improvement in public affairs and news programs All Grade High College and School School Beyond Should be more or better information, news, education . . . . . . . 23% 10% 22% 41% Source: Gary A. Steiner, The People Look at Television, p. 141. The breakdown in responses by education was also interesting. At each level of ascending education com- pleted, the percentage of responses in this area doubled. Thus, the higher the education, the greater the interest in public affairs programming. Dr. Steiner, in his conclusions, tended to lump eco- nomic and educational achievement together. This lumping leaves the impression that, by and large, a measurement on an economic basis would equal a measurement on an educa- tional basis and vice versa. The Telepulse studyel1L of the ”Eye on St. Louis" audience gives a somewhat different picture of program in- terests. While it is realized that the Telepulse study was not nearly as comprehensive as Dr. Steiner's report, it did provide evidence that economic status, at least, made little difference regarding audience viewing habits for KMOX-TV's "Eye on St. Louis." 24 See p. 44, above. 50 Such differences and others noted in this chapter give rise to speculation that KMOX-TV has achieved a degree of wide appeal without sacrifice of quality of content in local public affairs programs which are attracting large audiences from all economic segments of the community. In any case,IMMOX—TV public affairs audiences have exceeded the expectations of local broadcasters and adver- tisers. This audience type is also not as limited as the national audience outlined by Dr. Steiner. Let us explore the philosophy of KMOX-TV regarding KMOX-TV'S public affairs programming and how problems in this area are handled. CHAPTER III KMOX-TV PHILOSOPHY AND STAFF SUPPORT PUBLIC AFFAIRS PROGRAMMING The preceding chapter indicated that local public affairs programming was one of the basic reasons for the dominant community acceptance and concurrent financial suc- cess awarded KMOX-TV. The object of Chapter III is to ex- plore the philosophy which is basic to this success. Philosophy: Foundation of Success On the first day of KMOX-TV broadcasting, the gen- eral philosophy of the station was publicly announced in the form of a creed which stated: We believe that is by privilege, not right, that we enter your home. We believe that it is our duty, not privilege, to bring you the best in programs which entertain, inform, challenge, and inspire. We believe that it is our privilege and right and duty to assist in the economic and social progress of the metropolitan St. Louis area. We therefore pledge our every effort to live up to our responsibilities with integrity, fairness, good taste and neighborliness. You, and we, with God's help, can make this a bet- ter community, a better nation, a better world in which to live.1 To this broad philosophy can be added three more parts as expressed, though not so formally, by Eugene lThe Creed was read over crawl March 16, 1958. 51 52 Wilkey and Parker Wheatley. These three expressions more specifically delineate the philosophy held for public af- fairs programming at KMOXLTV. Meeting Community Needs The first of these three parts can best be illus- trated by a recurring theme in Wilkey's addresses to vari— ous meetings. In this sample excerpt of a speech given at the University of Minnesota, Wilkey demonstrates the prac- tical difference between KMOX-TV'S and some other stations’ approach to public affairs. The station that is trying to do a good job will relate its public service programs to some genuine aspect of community welfare. The programs will fre- quently feature original research, and they will be scheduled at times when they conceivably do some good. There will be evidence of publicity before the programs and of follow-up afterward. But contrast this with the station that runs an occasional syndicated film on any subject under the sun . . . from army recruiting to control of the Jap- anese beetle. The subject of the picture doesn't mat- ter; community importance of the subject doesn‘t mat- ter; nothing matters except checking off a half-hour of "public service time" in the report to the FCC.2 Wilkey clearly feels that local public affairs pro- gramming must meet community needs to be of value to both the potential viewer and to the broadcaster. 2Eugene B. Wilkey, "A Manager's View of the Plusses and Minuses in News," talk delivered at University of Min- nesota School of Journalism's Radio-TV Short Course, Febru- ary 5, 1960, pp. 6-7. (Mimeographed.) 53 Open Issues to Public Thought A second addition comes from KMOX-TV‘S Public Af- fairs Director, Parker Wheatley, who feels that commercial broadcasters should present controversial issues of public importance even though they may not currently be popular topics. If the public is not well aware of situations af— fecting vital community and personal interests, the broad- caster can inform it. If the public has become complacent about situations harmful to a part of the community, the broadcaster can again bring the neglect to its conscious- ness. New ideas can be given a platform for expression and can be publicly examined. A broad range of community thought should be directed toward these issues as they re- late to the changing cultural, economic, political, reli- gious, and social ideas of everyday life. Again, these ideas must be genuinely relevant to the specific needs of the community so as to make the issues as vital as possible. Public Affairs Unique This does not mean to imply that the station should be judge and jury of the community, but that it should seek out these expressions from the community. KMOX-TV, as an impartial moderator and public forum seeking to meet the community needs, must reserve its personal comment to an- nounced editorial programs. Furthermore, KMOX—TV'S role in acquainting the pub- 110 with important issues is somewhat different from an 54 educational station's role. With the economic requirements of commercial broadcasting, the successful attraction of a broad audience is important to KMOX-TV. The commercial broadcaster may be limited to stirring interest or curi- osity in a subject, not to delve so deeply that only a small handful of viewers is reached. Educational television's role, Wheatley feels, is somewhat different. Since audi- ence size is not as crucial a factor in ETV, more specific and detailed subject matter is feasible. It can pick up where commercial television must end because the expecta— tions of audiences are different for each. Lest this leave the impression that KMOX-TV does not program "in depth,” the reader should be assured that KMOX-TV has made a number of comprehensive studies, includ- ing more than thirty special programs since 1958, of which eighteen were hour-long presentations. These programs will be further examined in a later chapter. Worthy of Management Support The third addition also comes from Wilkey. He re- iterated the idea that public affairs broadcasting builds a necessary station image, and that if public affairs broad- casting is to be taken seriously by management, efforts in that area must be considered worthy of creative effort and support from the management.3 He put it this way in a 3Interview with Wilkey, February 18, 1960. 55 Speech: News and Public Affairs programs set the tone and character of a station. They, more than any other facet of broadcasting make a station a vital force in its community; therefore, deserve . . . the full sup- port of a healthy budget and a demanding management. There, in the creed and in three separate state- ments, appears to be the basic philosophy of KMOX-TV toward public affairs programming. It is the foundation on which the programs are built. Now it may be important to consider those whose reSponSibility it is to put that philosophy into practical effect. The care with which the KMOX-TV management sought and recruited its basic staff reflects the importance it attaches to this area of programming. An Able Staff: The Builders of Success Parker Wheatley, Director of Public Affairs After an extensive search, culminating with audi- tions in New York City, Eugene Wilkey selected Parker Wheatley to head the KMOX-TV Department of Public Affairs. Wheatley's credentials were impressive. With nearly thirty years of experience in broadcasting and a reputation for originality in programming, he had a background as educator, AWilkey, paper read at First Annual Broadcast News Workshop-Seminar Conducted by the University of Missouri School of Journalism, Columbia, Mo., November 12, 1959, p. 5. (Mimeographed.) 56 as creator, writer and producer of programs. Wheatley has been a commercial radio station program director in Chicago, advertising agency account executive, university radio di- rector and educational radio and television station manager in Boston. Perhaps his first contributions of note in public affairs and educational programming were as Assistant Di- rector of the University Broadcasting Council in Chicago and as lecturer on radio in the Downtown College of the University of Chicago School of Business. Subsequently, he was appointed Radio Director of Northwestern University and lecturer on broadcasting in its School of Commerce. During World War II, Wheatley supervised the selec- tion of network public affairs and educational programs for Armed Forces Radio Service stations overseas and later planned and supervised the production of special troop in- formation broadcasts. He was Chief of Radio Programs Sec- tion in the Information and Education Division until 1946 when he was discharged with the rank of Major. Selected as the first Director of the Lowell Insti- tute Cooperative Broadcasting Council of Boston, he led that organization to national prominence as it received numerous citations and awards, including a George Foster Peabody citation "for outstanding contribution to Educa- tion through broadcasting” and a Variety Showmanagement Plaque. 57 Continuing as Director of the Broadcasting Council, he was largely responsible, as their General Manager, for the building of educational station WGBH-FM which began broadcasting in 1951, and WGBH-TV, Channel Two, which went on the air in 1955. He held these positions in Boston un- til he was engaged by KMOX-TV in 1958. Presently, in addition to his duties as Director of Public Affairs, he appears as host on "Eye on St. Louis," and produces "Close Up," "Challenge" (all award winning programs), and ”P.S. 4." Helen Hagen: Writer-Producer To support the Director of Public Affairs in writing and production assignments, KMOX-TV selected Helen Hagen. She had previously written and produced "The Great Crusade” series for the St. Louis Catholic Archdiocese when she was still a student at Webster College in suburban St. Louis. She also wrote special programs for educational television station KETC, Channel Nine, in St. Louis. In addition, she had had experience and training in education, and later taught drama and speech at St. Louis University. Her contributions to KMOX-TV have been significant I with the writing and production of ”Montage,' and now "The H Story Shop, both regular weekly features. In addition she writes and produces ”specials" such as "The Changing Mind,” a series devoted to the problems of the mentally ill; and two hour-long explorations of the problems of the Negro in 58 the changing metropolitan community. For the special series on mental illness, KMOX-TV received the Albert Lasker Award; and for the first hour-long presentation on community prob- lems of the Negro, KMOX-TV won the 1959-60 TV-Radio Mirror Regional Gold Medal Award for "The Most Original Program on Television." Related Staff Other KMOX-TV staff members contributing to the production and writing of public affairs programs are Mark Russell, Executive Producer of KMOX-TV; Spencer Allen, Director of News; James Dutson, Special Projects Writer; Kathy O’Sullivan, a part-time writer for Public Affairs; and Stephen Fentress in a newly created post--Manager of News and Public Affairs. This latter post was felt neces- sary because of the extensive growth in activities of the two departments. A need was felt to generally combine the departments’ efforts and facilities and to achieve a closer coordination and direction of the two departments. How the staff puts the general philosophy of KMOX-TV into effect will be discussed in the following two chapters. CHAPTER IV PROBLEM SOLVING IN PUBLIC AFFAIRS PROGRAMMING Policies and Practices: Building Blocks of Success In a highly competitive city with four commercial television stations, it is an impressive discovery that KMOX—TV’S public affairs programs should attract a high percentage of the viewing public, even against popular "ac- tion” or other entertainment types of programs. The graphs in Chapter II, for example, gave some indication of the appeal of ”Eye on St. Louis.” Further indication of the appeal and competitive value of ”Eye on St. Louis" is illustrated below in Table 3. The audience ratings reveal the greater share of audience "Eye on St. Louis" received, averaged over a month, against competing "action” programs carried at the same time on the other three St. Louis commercial stations. This table is not meant to suggest that "Eye on St. Louis" continuously dominates all action programs but Simply serves as an indication that it can effectively com- pete with these "entertainment" programs. 59 60 TABLE 3.—-Greatest monthly share of audience ”Eye on St. Louis” received against select competing "action" programs Month, Year Re- "E en Competing Programs Car- ported by % SOAa Day ried at the Same Time A.C. Nielsen Co. on Other Stations Dec. 1959 53 Wed. ”U.S. Marshall," "Not for Hire," Film March 1960 50 Tues. "Whirlybirds,"b "Highway I Patrol," Film March 1960 48 Mon. "This Man Dawson," "Man- hunt," Film Dec. 1962 47 Tues. "Tonight Show," "Steve Allen Show,I Film Nov. 1960 47 Fri. "Sea Hunt," "Jack Paar Show," Film Sept. 1959 46 Fri. "Border Patrol," Film, Film Feb. 1961 44 Mon. "Coronado 9," "Jack Paar Show," Film Oct. 1960 42 Thurs. "Interpol Calling," "Rescue 8," Film aSOA indicates Share of Audience. b"Eye on St. Louis" received a top SOA of 50% against "Whirlybirds" when it was also running with "Bold Venture" and film as reported in December, 1959. "P.S. 4,” broadcast Monday through Saturday, demon- strates a kind of effectiveness with the television viewing audience. This television classroom without credit has ef- fectively dealt with the educational deficiencies of many adults in the St. Louis area. Though broadcast 6:30 to 7:00 A.M., more than five hundred letters and cards with expressions of gratitude and testimony for the program were 61 received in its first three weeks on the air.1 The mail generally came from relatives of viewers commenting on the improvement of their education as a result of watching the program. There is another measure of the series’ success in that over 2,500 requests for a booklet entitled TV Tips: Read-Write-Spell Better2 have been received in the first few weeks of 1963.3 This figure is especially significant since the booklet is designed only to supplement the "P.s. 4" program which carries no credit for mastery of the les— sons offered. The booklet can only be of value, and there- fore desirable, to those people who want to improve them- selves. According to the American Research Bureau, an average of 5,000 to 5,600 homes were tuned to each "P.S. 4" program during a sample month. While it is only a frac- tion of the 850,000 homes in the KMOX-TV coverage area, the American Research Bureau Report is significant, in the opinion of KMOX-TV and area educators, especially when one considers the time of broadcast, subject matter, and audi- ence composition. 6 1Interview with Eugene B. Wilkey, February 18, 19 O. 2TV Tips was written by the teachers on the ”P.S. 4" series, William L. Tybura and Anne E. Price. They are also teachers employed by the Board of Education of the City of St. Louis. 3Interview with Fred S. Heywood, KMOX-TV Informa- tion Services Director, March 18, 1963. 62 II II I "Challenge," ”Montage, Quiz-a-Catholic,’ and some special programs have also received national awards and publicity in recognition of their effectiveness in the com— munity. It is the purpose of this chapter to outline the policies and practices which have brought KMOX—TV this re— sponse, to examine some of the problems in public affairs programming, and what actions KMOX-TV takes to manage these problems. Policies Assure Management Support One of the principal reasons for Channel Four’s success in public affairs programming must be attributed to the strong support given by KMOX-TV management. The phi- losophy of management support explained in Chapter III has been translated into three distinct policies of implementa— tion at KMOX-TV: l) The Public Affairs Director has direct access to the General Manager in addition to his normal administra- tive channels to the Program Director and the Manager of Public Affairs and News}1L 2) The management devotes approximately 25 per cent of its broadcast day to the programming of news and public affairs, of which about 14 per cent is the uInterview with Parker Wheatley, KMOX-TV Public Affairs Director, April 19, 1960. 63 responsibility of the Public Affairs Department.5 3) All production facilities and personnel are available to the Public Affairs Department.6 These are significant policies which will be exam- ined further. 0n the Public Affairs Director’s Access to Management Public affairs programming has been traditionally ' meaning "non-commercial" programs. labeled as "sustaining,' As such, the public affairs departments generally were con- sidered relatively unimportant to decision making policy. A provision for direct access to management gives the KMOX-TV Public Affairs Department an influential voice in the station’s over-all service and a desired prestige conducive to impressing employees with the value which man- agement attaches to this area of programming. This may curtail a possible fall-off in effort of production crews for this type of programming. In turn, the management be- comes informed on current public issues as felt by the com- munity and is more fully aware of reactions to this pro- gramming, thus receiving a more accurate evaluation of its program service and reception. Furthermore, working in concert with management assures the Public Affairs 5Interview with Leon Drew, former KMOX-TV Program Director, February 18, 1960. 6Ibid. 64 Department a voice in its own growth. On Time Given to Public Affairs Stating a minimum percentage of time to be filled with public affairs programming serves to establish certain expectations from management and to prevent any inadvertent loss of time to a more commercially productive program” In 1959, KMOX-TV felt that a balance of 75 per cent entertain- ment to 25 per cent news and public affairs a good rule of thumb. About 14 per cent of total non-entertainment was then devoted to public affairs programming, the rest to hard news reporting, agriculture and sports. The typical week in 1963 has increased news and public affairs program- ming to about 26 per cent, over 15 per cent of which con- sists of public affairs. Fourteen hours or nearly 10 per cent of the total programming for the week is produced by the KMOX-TV staff in public affairs. The remaining 5 to 6 per cent comes from the network and syndicated film sources. Whatever the difference during the years, the gen- eral division of time used at KMOX-TV is considered an ideal balance as experienced by the management. This quantity of time is important in that it allows the public affairs de- partment an ample amount of time to represent the broad community in a number of ways. Just how this time and the programs are arranged to give the community its needed voice will be outlined in a following section. 65 All Facilities and Staff Are Available In a further move to prevent talent or facilities from being diverted from public affairs programming to com- mercial programming, management has made it Clear that the public affairs department will have equal claim to the use of all facilities and production crews. Thus, the needed studio space, cameras, and personnel are assured to maintain excellent production standards. In addition, this policy has enabled the station to extend its production in a num- ber of ways. Spencer Allen, for example, is the KMOX-TV News Director, but he also serves as moderator on such pro- grams as "Close Up.” This same policy allows a number of programs such as "Good Morning St. Louis” to present public affairs material while being produced in collaboration with the Public Affairs Department. It gives the department access to funds for payment of talent with $9,000-$10,000 earmarked for teachers on the "P.S. 4" program alone.7 An unusual application of this policy enabled the department to secure transmission lines to KNXT-TV, Los Angeles, an- other CBS Owned Station, to carry a special Lutheran Tri- ennial Church Ceremony on "The Way of Life.”8 All requests for production needs are routed to the Production Manager who is in charge of the facilities, staff, and funds. 7Wheatley, June 19, 1963. 8Interview with Ernest Byrne, KMOX-TV Director of "Way of Life," January 24, 1960. 66 Without this understanding, the production quality given local programs most probably would be greatly reduced. In regard to personnel, it is normal procedure to assign production personnel to a given public affairs series on a relatively permanent basis. This tends to promote continuity and efficiency.9- It is interesting to note that many members of the production staff have indicated a pref- erence to work on public affairs programs because they be- lieved there was more opportunity to be creative. These staff members also seemed eager to give more to the program than a routine performance of their duties. Policies and Practices in Selectipg Programs Policies The selection of programs is tied to three basic policies of implementation, some of which are an outgrowth of those already discussed. The first is that programs must meet the needs of the community. Leon Drew, former KMOX-TV Program Director, now KNXT, Los Angeles Program Director, added a second in an interview stating that 00- operating production groups outside the station which may either plan or produce a program or series must be repre- sentative of the community thought, and be responsible spokesmen representing such thought. The third policy is 9Drew. 67 to work toward a wide range of program opportunities. Meet community needs, be responsible The first of these policies was made clear in the preceding chapter by General Manager Wilkey, while the idea of securing responsible spokesmen tends to forestall the ' self-seekers and the "lunatic fringe" from usurping time which could be better used by other organizations and indi- viduals offering programs of interest and importance. Parker Wheatley explained his interpretation of this philosophy in an address to the Institute for Educa- tion by Radio-Television at Columbus, Ohio in 1961. Informing citizens on vital issues requires regu- lar, continuous, year—round examination of important topical and controversial issues before the community, by the persons involved in debating and examining them . by [those] who raise and resolve these issues in any given community. This requires fresh, thoughtful, adventurous pro- gramming every week of the year. And it requires a fair and balanced representation of the diverse groups who constitute a community--representatives of the little people as well as the big. Representatives of the community’s people regardless of race or creed or color. Representatives of the unpopular as well as the popular view on controversial issues. . . . Representa- tives pf groups reluctant to be counted, as well as the eager. O Strive for full complement of7programs . The hope of KMOX-TV is that these policies will promote a full complement of locally produced programs, loParker Wheatley quoted in "Controversy on the Air,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, May 20, 1961, p. 4. 68 each to be unique, and the whole to be an outstanding sched- ule of public affairs. While holding a desire to continu- ally improve, the management generally feels that the sta- tion’s objectives have been reached and that their achieve- ments surpass those of their competition. To substantiate this belief, Wheatley pointed out: No other St. Louis television station offers a local public affairs program in prime time as KMOX-TV’S "Eye on St. Louis," 10:15 to 10:30 five nights a week. No other station has a weekl one-half hour public affairs discussion program with 'newsmakers" on matters of local, regional and national, and international sig- nificance as KMOX-TV’S "Close Up." No other station has a weekly one-half hour panel devoted to education as "Challenge." No other station has a full four and one-half hours of religious programming each week, including four dif- ferent faiths participating in live locally produced 1 programs. No other station has a forty minute morning program in which public affairs interviews and information is regularly presented as ”Morning Scene." No other station has six one-half instructional programs at the elementary and high school level or for non-literates as "P.S. 4.’ No other station has a weekly half-hour program devotgd to the arts and culture in St. Louis as "Mon- tage. No other station has a means to publicly exchange views of the television audience with the station man- agement as "Inside KMOX-TV." To this, he could have added a multitude of prime time and other special programs and an extended regular schedule of exchange offerings produced by the other four CBS Owned stations in New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, and Los Angeles. Beyond that, there are other programs many broadcasters would claim as public affairs, ”KMOX-TV Edi- torial" and "KMOX-TV Views the Press.” These programs will 69 not be considered public affairs programs in this study because they are productions of the editorial board and news department personnel. Excluding those specials and exchange programs, KMOX-TV regularly offers a wide range of programs which provide the community a generous portion of time to express their views on its needs and provide a variety of culture and information to the community. Practices Program ideas: From Where do they come? The programs mentioned above evolved from a number of sources through a process of experimentation and study, or have been inherited from the management which previously operated Channel Four. Principal sources of programs have been four in number: (1) those newly proposed by manage- ment in its license application to the FCC, (2) those car- ried over from the previous management of Channel Four, (3) those instituted as a result of developing community needs, and (4) those suggested by the parent organization. Management commitments to the FCC Prior to Wheatley’s appointment at KMOX-TV, the station management had carefully studied ways in which it could best serve the St. Louis area. These ideas were out- lined in the management’s application to the FCC and in 7O effect were pledges that a certain amount of time would be devoted to public affairs programming and that those pro- grams which were outlined would be carried. Included in the proposed outline of service was a description of "Eye on St. Louis" which the management de- clared was to be carried in prime evening time. The program is still being carried. Carry-over from the previous management Some programs which had been carried under KWK-TV were continued, at least for a time, for several reasons. (1) The program might have been considered a good program; (2) the program, though not desirable would provide a means of continuity in a given subject area such as education, until a better program could be devised; and (3) the program would temporarily fulfill FCC commitments as to time de- voted to public affairs until a better program could be devised. The latter two reasons were considered unavoid- able due to a sudden change in target dates as a result of KWK—TV’S decision to sell Channel Four. "Quiz-a-Catholic" and "The Way of Life" fell into the first classification. The first program was truly unique among religious offerings in St. Louis and so, thought KMOX-TV’s management, deserved to stay on the air. The latter program was retained not only because of its quality, but also because of its highly efficient 71 organization and compatibility with the accepted form of religious programs of the day. ”Look, Listen, and Learn" falls into the second category. This program was carried over from KWK-TV with the hope of improving it in time. From this daily ten min- ute offering evolved the present weekly half-hour "Chal- lenge." Whereas the first program was largely a means of exhibiting what the schools were doing to teach its stu- dents, "Challenge" is primarily concerned with probing for answers and alternatives to the problems of the schools. It also provides a unique opportunity for the public ex- pression of opinion by means of a participating small audi- ence of parents and an invitation to viewers to telephone questions during the actual live broadcast without screen- ing or editing. A few other programs continued from KWK-TV have Since been abandoned in favor of a program considered to have greater value. At the time of the change of station management, these early programs helped fulfill obligations to the FCC as far as time alloted to public affairs pro- gramming was concerned. Community study indicates new needs Part of KMOX-TV’S successful public affairs pro- gramming is a result of management’s being alert to com- munity needs coupled with creative efforts interpreting 72 those needs in terms of program ideas. For example, an investigation of educational achievement among the population of Greater St. Louis by the 1950 United States Census revealed that two-thirds of the adult population had never received a high school di- ploma.ll Approximately 73,000 adults in the St. Louis area were termed ”functional illiterates." While somewhat sur- prised at the gravity of the situation, the Program Director and others grew excited over the possibilities of perform- ing a real public service.12 Philip J. Hickey, Superintendent of Instruction for the City’s public schools, was consulted about the pos- sibility of a joint effort to meet this problem. The Super- intendent was already aware of the great in-migration of rural people to St. Louis, bringing with them too few skills and an inadequate educational background to effectively compete in the labor market or to "perform their labors at a skilled level."13 Hickey, therefore, readily agreed to 11A more recent study confirmed the percentage at this level. See Higher Education and the Future of Youth in the Greater St. Louis Educational Area, A Report to the Governor’s Committee on Education Beyond the High School in Missouri and to the Citizens of the Greater St. Louis Edu- cational Area, Prepared by the Committee on Higher Educa- tional Needs of Metropolitan St. Louis (St. Louis: The Board of Education of the City of St. Louis, January 22, 1960), pp. 55, 131. l2Drew. 13"’P.S. 4’: New Television Series to Exploit Community Education," KMOX-TV publicit release, dated January 7, 1960, p. l. (Mimeographed.) 73 help. A joint planning committee was organized to develop a series of programs which would contribute to the education of adults lacking even secondary school skills. They wanted to meet the needs of these adults without attaching a stigma of illiteracy to them which could provoke their pride and drive them away from the programs. Credit which would stipulate a grade-level was not offered for the self- help course. In January of 1960, "P.S. 4" began its six days-a- week schooling. Exceptional teachers were offered the job of television instructor at basic American Federation of Television and Radio Artists rates. ”P.S. 4" was divided into segments teaching "How to Spell" on Monday and Thurs- day, ”How to Write and Speak" on Tuesday, "How to Under- stand Government and Politics" on Wednesday and Saturday, and ”How and What to Read” on Friday. Each of the programs began at 6:30 A.M. Since that time, new series and subject matter for the same audience have been introduced each January, June, and October without so much as a semester break between each series. Introductory studies in mathematics, science, family living, and world affairs have been offered. At the time of this writing, "P.S. 4" is devoting each of the six days to an all-out effort of promoting the communica- tion Skills of reading, spelling, and writing among the 74 illiterates and semi-illiterates. The 6:30 to 7:00 A.M. air time of the program is justified by the success of similar early morning "college level" programs, and by the theory that the viewers’ minds are fresh, alert, and able to take advantage of the les- sons. In addition, the local educational television sta- tion, KETC-TV repeats the ”P.s. 4" programs at 7:30 P.M. the same evening. "Close Up" and "Montage” are other current local programs which evolved from a knowledge of the community and its needs. Discovering that the community had no practical way of meeting important spokesmen of local to international importance who passed through the city, KMOX—TV established the "Close Up" series. The Public Affairs Department solved the problem of locating informed persons to question these spokesmen for the general public by arranging for the Bar Association of St. Louis to select a weekly panel of three. This group enthusiastically responded by securing either its members or other parties having knowledge of the topic and the guest for the program. ”Close Up" guests invited by KMOX-TV have included newspaper publishers and editors, legislators, businessmen, military personnel, clergymen, union representatives, foreign diplomats and many other public figures. Featured guests have ranged from local politicians to the former Prime Minister of 75 Great Britain, Lord Clement Attlee; and from noted Sports figures to the late Dr. Thomas Dooley, medical missionary to the Far East. "Montage” also developed from community needs. There simply was no single outlet which regularly gave ex- pression to the arts and culture of St. Louis or satisfied the community’s curiosity about them.14 "Montage” serves to give balance to programs of community problems and reli- gion with a program giving expression of the arts. Its fare varies from program to program, perhaps displaying and commenting on primitive pottery to photo-journalism, modern jazz or dramatic scenes from a play. Constant surveillance of the community activities is required to stay abreast of all the possibilities for the weekly program and to insure representation from the community. These and other programs came as a result of KMOX- TV’s interpretation of community needs. CBS Television promotes local public affairs KMOX-TV’S parent organization, CBS Television Sta- tions DiviSion representing the licensee, CBS, Inc., is concerned with the operations of its local stations. At one time, this Division felt KMOX-TV lacked an instructional program and suggested this deficiency should be corrected. 1“Interview with Helen Hagen, KMOX-TV Writer-Pro— ducer, June 22, 1961. 76 The result was "P.S. 4." Another suggestion was made resulting in "Inside KMOX-TV.” CBS Television Stations Division, like many other broadcast operations, was concerned after the quiz scandals of the late 1950’s and wanted to establish regular chan- nels of communication with viewers. It was felt that the problems broadcasters face when trying to meet the desires and needs of an entire community were not well-known and a program on television might be one way of informing the public of those problems. Letters from viewers and studio guests posed ques- tions about programming, violence on television, advertis- ing practices, etc. Representative questions were selected to be answered on the air by staff members having reSponSi- bility in the area questioned. The program was considered successful enough that it served as a model for the other CBS Television stations hoping for better understanding with their viewers. It should be pointed out that no important on-the- air changes have come about as a result of questions re- ceived on "Inside KMOX-TV.” This is partly because of the lack of control KMOX-TV has over the areas questioned such as filmed commercials with excessive sound volume or the content of network programs. Industry practices are frank- ly explained on the program and the suggestion is made to write the advertiser or network directly. These questions 77 are passed on to the responsible authority. Questions about local fare have been generally handled with an ex- planation about KMOX-TV policy and philosophy. For example, a Viewer bemoaned commercials during the late movie. It was explained that KMOX-TV used that profit to support its sustaining public affairs programs which the management felt were important to the community. The station manage- ment is satisfied that the program has effectively helped give the community an understanding of the television in- dustry. Thus, while the parent organization suggests a pro- gram type which might be added to the program Schedule, discretion is left local management on how to best construct the programs according to the local situation and needs. Selecting programs Before any public affairs program proposal is sub- jected to public trial by actual broadcast, it must come under close scrutiny by both the public affairs and program directors. These men must determine whether: 1) The over-all program service would suffer with- out the program; 2) there is a similar program already representing similar interests; 3) the program would promote the character of the station; 4) the program would promote balanced programming; 5) the group backing the program is a responsible member of the station’s service area; and "‘ j '__ 6) 78 whether the proposal would make unreasonable demands on the station budget and talent. If the answers to these questions are favorable, then it must be determined if and when the program can be scheduled. 1) 2) 3) II) 5) 6) 9) A determination of the following must be made: What audience is sought? What times would that audience most likely be available? Is this program better than the program pres- ently in the time period desired? If it is, is that program better than others? Can any of them be moved to another time period as well? Would the replacement of a program cause a pub- lic relations problem? Would changes adversely affect adjacent pro- grams? What are the consequences if the program.is delayed to a more convenient time? Would switching the time of an already estab- lished audience adversely affect the building of an audience for that program? These are some of the questions asked in determin- ing acceptability and possible broadcast times. Factors which limit programs Certain factors tend to limit program acceptability or the amount of time and position in the broadcast schedule given it. Value judgments as to subject importance must be made as well as the degree to which it will be utilized by the public the station serves. These were factors in the 79 placement of "P.S. 4" in an early morning time period, six days a week, for example. The subject matter was important enough, KMOX—TV felt, to warrant its being carried so fre- quently. Representation of those who would utilize the program was considered to be somewhat small and therefore helped to influence the position in the broadcast schedule. This is a type of limiting factor affecting programs which are accepted for broadcast, but there are other factors which even go so far as to preclude any broadcasts at all. These factors are discussed below. Program depth Some programs, KMOX-TV feels, would be better suited to another medium if they propose to probe deeply into a subject demanding continued analysis. The station considers itself responsible to a wide number of viewers and requires Sponsors which a particular type of program could not conceivably attract. This is an economic require- ment previously discussed, yet it does not mean that pro- grams which are not popular or require a study in depth could not under any circumstance be carried. To offset the economic requirements in this area, KMOX-TV’S General Manager Wilkey outlined a policy in 1959 to be effective the following year whereby at least four hour-long special programs would be broadcast each year. To the station’s credit it must be noted that those plans have been exceeded each year. In 1960, the station carried 80 five hour-long specials. The following year there were six hour-long specials and one half-hour special in addition. Four hour-long and six half-hour specials were presented in 1962 and in the first five months of the current year, five half-hour and one full-hour special programs were carried. The most interesting in-depth study was produced in 1959 under the title ”The Changing Mind" which dealt with mental illness. This study was unique in that it became the theme in fifteen regularly scheduled programs over a one week period. It began on the sixth of December with the evening "Sunday News Special." Topics and the method of presentation varied with the intended audience and stand- ard format of each of the regularly scheduled programs. For example, ”Montage” devoted its time to the exploration of the values of psychodrama, while a children’s program took a short trip via film to the children’s psychiatric section of a leading general hospital with an explanation geared to the understanding of young minds. Other programs offered documentary reports from various hospitals and other institutions throughout the area and interviews with hos- pital personnel, patients, medical authorities, and govern- ment leaders. Wilkey called it ”the most complete and comprehensive public service series assigned to the sta- tion’s News and Public Affairs Departments.”15 15”The Changing Mind," KMOX-TV publicity release, dated December 4, 1959, p. l. (Mimeographed.) 81 Fund raising Fund raising appeals are absent from regularly scheduled programs to avoid the vast number of campaigns continually presented and the complexity of developing a formula to distribute equal amounts of time to the many organizations staging appeals. Provision is made, however, for appeals to be made. Regularly scheduled programs allow agencies to demonstrate their services and benefits. Then appeals can be made in spot announcements and in larger inclusive efforts such as the 1963 United Fund Drive, featuring a program produced jointly by one community and four commercial television stations. This effort helped to surpass the goal of the United Fund Drive. Rating services Commercial polls, to a certain extent, influenced the status of public affairs programs though they do not dictate their existence. ”P.S. 4” has already been men- tioned as receiving a small rating, but the program’s 5,000 or so viewers were considered a sufficient number to jus- tify the program’s existence because of the values it car- ries in the minds of the station’s management and the en- thusiastic mail response to the program. Lack of an expected audience was a contributing factor in the cancellation of at least one program, however, and promotes efforts to improve programs when ratings are 82 felt to be insufficient. Promoting Interesting Formats The promotion of formats compatible with and stimu- lating to the purpose of a program heightens viewer appre- ciation of both the program and its subject claims Parker Wheatley. Let us consider some examples. ”Montage" uses alternating narration and demonstra- tion to explain and then illustrate art forms in our cul— ture. "Close Up" presents an important local, national, or international figure who is questioned by local attor- neys and knowledgeable authorities. ' a religious program, offered a magazine ”Sunday,’ format bringing religious viewpoints on literature, theater, art, music, etc., interviews with significant religious themes, religious news, and direct messages of churches associated with the Metropolitan Church Federation. "Quiz-a-Catholic" relies on a question and answer format similar to the old network "Twenty Questions" pro- gram. The competition of participants as they race against the clock to provide the correct answers to questions heightens the viewer’s interest. The questions and answers concern Roman Catholic interpretations of the Bible, his- torical and religious events and objects, and Catholic writing and philosophy. 83 "P.S. 4,” an instructional program with the avowed intention of providing instruction, used a straight lecture format with numerous visual aids. ”Eye on St. Louis" has evolved over the years into a near debate on controversial issues in the community. Thus the viewer is better able to understand and resolve the issues in his own mind. Each format, of course, has its own problems, but there are some problems common to nearly any format and are therefore worth discussing. These will be discussed in two sections: one involving problems that generally appear while preparing the program, the second group which arise while the program is on the air. Producing the Program Complex problems Come into play as the programs head into production. Tests of policy and practice arise from head-on meetings with the human element: the staff interpreting and applying these sections for convenience, and because the problems differ somewhat with the type of program. The sections are divided into scripted programs, unscripted interview programs, and controversial programs. Scripted Programs Advantages Greater production quality control is generally a result of the scripted program because each segment of the 84 program is predetermined. The director and performers should know precisely what is to happen. Specific points in logical sequence can be carefully prepared and made with all of them pointing toward a desired end. The result should be good communication between the producer and the audience. If properly prepared, the scripted programs should take on a smooth professional lustre heightening the station’s image. A good writer and producer can bring together the best qualities of stage setting, lighting, music, action, and Space for television to enhance the meaning of the script and the aesthetic qualities of the program. Variety in production styles and modes of expression can be incor- porated to capture the imagination of the community. The end result should be a highly satisfying response from the viewer. This has been done at KMOX-TV on ”specials," ’ and "Repertoire Workshop.” "Montage,' In some cases, it is an advantage to work with cooperating agencies in the development of scripted pro- grams. The common religious service is largely a scripted program since the ritual of the church nearly dictates the sequence of events, and is one example of an outside organ- ization contributing a smooth production. Other groups may be willing to write and rehearse the body of a program and thus relieve the local station from that particular chore, but there are some dangers involved which shall be discussed Shortly. 85 Problems High costs are the most acute drawbacks to the scripted program. Some types require a researcher, writer, film crew, and editor. In addition to personnel there may be costs of film and transportation to special locations in the case of a documentary program. Scripted programs gen- erally require studio rehearsals which take time and money. Even the use of amateurs in "Montage," for example, require station personnel and studio time beyond that of an un- scripted program. To keep these costs within what the station feels are reasonable limits,IMMOX-TV does not resort to the scripted program unless the purpose of the program can be most effectively served in that way. "Montage" is one pro- gram which is generally scripted. Its purpose of illus- trating various artistic expressions in the St. Louis area is best met by actual demonstration as in the drama, music, and dance. ”Repertoire Workshop" is also scripted to dis- play fresh local talent in a dramatic setting. Other pro- grams such as "Inside KMOX-TV" are scripted to insure that Specific points are brought forward in a logical sequence that might otherwise be overlooked or be made less effec- tively. Most special programs are scripted for all the reasons listed above. As previously stated, there are some dangers in- volved in accepting scripted programs from outside 86 co—operating organizations. Many organizations, which might co-operate with a television station, have no professional writers and may be generally unaware of television writing and production principles. Many "Montage" productions which are prescripted in the sense of a drama or dance routine must be scaled down to the acceptable limits of television. Amateur writers tend to overlook the need to consider camera space and other physical limitations. They may not be aware of the economic feasibility of complicated productions. Rewrites to correct those errors may sometimes be difficult in terms of public relations. To avoid these dangers, KMOX-TV avoids scripted programs from outside organizations unless they have and are willing to use professionally trained personnel. Two religious organizations are the only groups meeting these qualifications. One is the Catholic Radio and Television Apostolate of the Archdiocese of St. Louis which is respon- sible for the partially scripted ”Quiz-a-Catholic" and at one time scripted part of its programs on the "Challenge” series on education. The second group is the Television Board of the St. Louis Lutheran Pastoral Conference which is responsible for ”Way of Life." Both of their current programs demonstrate a professional smoothness attesting to the care they receive in planning and preparing for broad- cast. Lecture or teaching series such as "P.S. 4" or "People and Politics” are prepared by outside sources and 87 for all practical purposes are scripted because the teach- ing talent has carefully planned and prepared the lesson, his stage position and visual aids are fairly constant or easily predictable. The programs do not require careful rehearsal to be fully effective and may, in fact, lack spontaneity if overrehearsed. In these programs, the sta- tion does not concern itself with how points are made be- cause it is felt that the teacher-performer is competent and able to carry through the purpose within the limits of the production facilities assigned to him. Another religious program presents a similar prob- lem, but one which is more complex and harder to solve. It is programmed under the auspices of a religious associa- tion in St. Louis. The association has agreed that since the program represents both the Orthodox and Reformed faith, each association member should take turns producing it independently. As a result, the only sense of continu- ity is an approach to their particular ethic. There is no common format, no continuity in design, no particular level of expectation of performance. The program suffers in its inconsistency. Some suggestions have come from KMOX-TV to bolster the program by strengthening the television committee of the association. The station has reservations, however, about its prerogative of forcefully edging the organization in a direction contrary to the association member’s concept .— J: 88 of the program’s independent purpose. Movement in this direction has been slow. One other problem of the scripted program bears mentioning and that is the element of rehearsal time and its scheduling. Many programs require the use of amateur talent and the station’s producer must consider their work- ing hours and their own rehearsal schedules for productions which they must attend. Programs like "Montage" are an extra Show, to their way of thinking, which must be squeezed between prior commitments. Therefore, the television re- hearsals must be scheduled far enough in advance to provide time for developing and adapting their material to tele- vision. Scanning the community for possible subjects in the future is an important aspect for programs like ”Mon- tage” and ”Repertoire Workshop.” There is an awareness that the audience has higher expectations of scripted and rehearsed productions than those that are not scripted, so a substantial effort to avoid these problems is considered most important at KMOX-TV. Unscripted Interview Programs Advantages The disadvantages of the scripted program are largely overcome in the unscripted interview. Low cost, comparative ease, and the moderate time needed to put a 89 program together are certainly advantages in themselves. In addition, a co-operating outside production unit needs but a few skills to participate effectively. All of these advantages, however, lead up to what may be even more important advantages to both broadcaster and community: (1) a greater variety of subject matter may V be efficiently handled, (2) in greater numbers, and (3) with a greater part of the community involved in it. Outside organizations appreciate these advantages too, though some think that their message might be more effective if dramatized or handled in a style with more aesthetic appeal. For the majority of organizations served, though, the interview programs mean less prepara- tion for them and less time taken from their principal work. Problems There are, of course, problems other than the loss of aesthetic appeal in the unscripted interview program. Let us discuss those problems which arise in the prepara- tory stages first. The problems discussed have been wit- I nessed in "Eye on St. Louis," "Close Up,‘ or "Challenge." Preparation One of the most time consuming tasks is probably the administrative work involved in securing topics and V participants of current interest. "Eye on St. Louis" espe- cially requires an alert staff to keep abreast of community 9O interests for it is broadcast five times during the week. The steady cultivation of area-wide contacts and the pro- gram’s reputation produce a great many possible topics and participants. Once a contact is made with a particular Spokesman to take part in a production, there may be a problem of agreeing on the program’s purpose. For example, the pro- ducer contacts a political figure involved in an important policy making decision. KMOX-TV’S purpose in securing this particular guest is to explore the policy, its importance to the community, and the possible action being considered. The guests, however, may be concerned only with defending his personal actions and use the program to expound his own views and nothing else. Thus, the station and guest may have different objectives which the host representing both the station and the community interest, must attempt to resolve in order to achieve fairness and balance. Not all such differences are quite so dramatic. The ”Challenge” program has as its theme: “education is "16 A weekly half-hour our greatest American challenge. program, "Challenge” is coproduced by five different school systems. Spokesmen for these systems are not always as concerned with the broad purpose and methods of education l6"KMOX—TV to Present ’Challenge’--New Educational Series Beginning Sunday, September 28, INMOX—TV publicit release, dated September 19, 1958, p. 1. (Mimeographed. 91 in our country as with illustrating their own particular programs of education. Spokesmen for three of the five groups felt that some challenges put them in a defensive and somewhat awkward position by implying that something was wrong with the present school system and needed chang- ing. These groups consider ”Challenge" primarily a public relations program to show viewers what they are doing. KMOX-TV, however, minimizes this conception through the moderator, the parents panel, and questions from viewers at home which are anonymous and presented without editing un- less there should be a violation of the NAB Code and sta- tion responsibility. This problem of divergent purposes is resolved at KMOX-TV by a tactful outline of the program’s proposed theme at the time of contact. Careful handling has brought some reluctant participants into agreement with the objec- tives of the program and left them with satisfaction at its conclusion. The resultant reputation of the program and its apparent lack of dedication to exposé have instilled a degree of confidence in the participants receiving treat- ment, and therefore greater acceptance among prospective participants.17 In some programs there will be times when a par- ticipant will cancel his appearance. A public official, 17Interview with John Kirby, Chairman of the "Close Up" Committee for the Bar Association of St. Louis, Janu- ary 27, 1960. 92 for example, was under considerable pressure to explain alleged inefficiencies in his office. Scheduled for an appearance on "Eye on St. Louis," he called the station just hours before air time to declare he was sick and un- able to go on. In other circumstances, the station may have to Cancel a proposed program, as happened when it was discovered that a Japanese Trade Fair delegation’s English was’too limited to make the program worthwhile. To avoid being suddenly without a program, the pro- ,, ducers of ”Eye on St. Louis" have a number of reserve pro- grams or personalities. The programs are on videotape or on film and the personalities understand that they may be Called upon short notice. As a matter of fact, however, resourcefulness has made it possible to secure a signifi— cant subject or appropriate guest without resort to reserve programs or personalities except in less than a half-dozen instances during the series’ five years on the air. Organizations that are contacted to supply a spokes- man for appearance on a program sometimes unintentionally hurt themselves and the station as well as bore the public. This may happen when an organization sends an "authority” without consideration of his having or lacking Showmanship qualities. The "authority” was not able to communicate to the public, was vague in his answers, lacked a sense of perspective about the topic at hand, and added little color 18Wheatley, July 19, 1963. 93 to the program. The result is a dull, meaningless pro- gram. Overcoming this problem is not always easy, for a play in "politics" is sometimes in progress. A wide knowl- edge of the community and the people who work directly with the topic to be discussed can sidestep these personal issues by making a request for a particular member of the organi- zation. Otherwise, the program’s moderator must use his greatest skills to overcome the handicap. Unscripted interview programs are especially vul- nerable to unexpected remarks including slander. One par- ticipant appearing on KMOX-TV had the misfortune to refer ' not a slan- to mentally handicapped children as "dummies,' derous remark, but certainly an embarrassing one. There was little chance for the station to foresee such an event and little the moderator could do other than try to correct the possible impression made by challenging the use of the word or by passing off the word as a familiar or mistaken usage. Currently, to avoid association of the participants’ remarks either with the point of View of the sponsor or the station, a slide is shown at the end of the broadcast dis- claiming responsibility for statements of the guests. Preparation and rehearsal Lack of preparation in fundamental television pro— cedures for amateur talent caused a shaky production debut 94 of the "P.S. 4" program. Teachers of the public schools were to take part in the series as qualified authorities and prepare their own lessons for the program. They were given nearly the total burden of on-the-air responsibility, but in the process were not prepared for many of the com- monly expected problems of television production. The vol- ume of production at the station and the consequent limited time for briefing and rehearsal resulted in a certain amount of unavoidable tension and minor errors. The station’s producers and directors chose to give a minimum of technical instruction to avoid loss of spontaneity and to make the teacher as relaxed and comfort- able as possible. The emphasis, so far as KMOX-TV is con- cerned, should be on direct person to person communication even if some technical skills are learned only through con- tinued experience before the cameras. Minor errors, such as those that occurred on this program, can even contribute to the "humanity” of the performer and to a closer rela- tionship to the viewers.19 When briefings or rehearsals are held, a meeting of thirty minutes to an hour is usually considered sufficient. If needed, a short fifteen minute rehearsal of pertinent points is taken inside the studio. If guests are held in longer rehearsals to go over their material, they generally 19Ibid. 95 lose detail in the retelling of their story when on the air. These meetings do have the advantage, however, of channeling the participant’s thought in the direction of the program topic beforehand, and to acquaint him with other participants so that all may feel more at ease. Wheatley uses this meeting to quickly go over the purpose of the program, the main areas to be considered, proper statement of the problem in precise terms intelli- gible to the lay viewer, either in question or declarative form, correct introductions and perhaps, but not always or completely, possible questions he may ask. If there is more than one guest, specific areas of knowledge among the guests are clarified so that questions can be directed to the proper party without confusion or loss of time. If there is to be a panel to ask questions as on "Close Up," each panel member becomes aware of the general areas of discussion planned by the members so they will not unwit- tingly monopolize the discussion. Wheatley also concentrates his attention on the language participants use by engaging them in short topical discussions. Besides warming up the participants, it often reveals any tendency to use technical language unfamiliar to the layman. If the tendency exists, Wheatley can point this out and perhaps help the participant realize how to make it Clear to the audience. The use of visuals is also covered in this meeting. 96 Without an understanding of exactly how participants will make their transition from discussion to demonstration by visuals, the production crew may be caught with cameras out of position. Wheatley runs through the transition go— ing into and coming away from the visuals to ascertain the complexity of the situation, and if necessary has cue sheets drawn up for the production crew. In-studio rehearsals are limited to lining up the cameras, rehearsing the opening and closing sequences, and perhaps running through the sequences in which visuals are planned. Every effort is made to heighten communication and reduce the layman’s concern about technical television details. These latter are primarily the responsibility of the station staff. To follow through on efforts which would ease the burden on the guests, Wheatley actually says: Please don’t look at the cameras excepting when you are first introduced, although it isn’t necessary even then. Try to talk with me or with the panelists and pretend you are at home in your living room. Forget about the lights and television cameras. And for heaven’s sake, don’t read a question or answer unless you must directly quote a document or individual. Let’s all relax, say what we think, and have a good time. We’ll be ready in a minute. Aesthetic appeal Directors, having established nearly stationary positions for interview programs in the interests of effi— ciency, have all but eliminated the television camera as a creative tool able to punctuate points made in the debate. 97 Thus, programs seldom achieve a uniqueness because of tele- vision, but in spite of it. Special Problems in Controversial Programming Two policies have been reserved for discussion at this point because they are most adequately realized in the extreme conditions of controversial programming. One is a policy of CBS, Inc., the other a policy of Parker Wheat- ley’s. Choice of subject is inviolable The first of these is a policy which holds that the choice of programs and subject matter is KMOX-TV’S and that that choice is inviolable. That clear understanding is important as illustrated in a controversial subject which was the center of a disagreement in the preparation of a "Close Up” program. Harold J. Gibbons, a Teamsters Union officer, had been asked to appear for a second time on the program by KMOX-TV. Because of his experience in St. Louis and his close relationship with the controversial Teamsters President, James R. Hoffa, Gibbons was very unpopular among many St. Louisans. The Bar Association which had arranged for the panelists when Gibbons had first appeared, balked at what they considered to be giving undue exposure to the presence of the union leader by a second appearance. The 98 group feared adverse publicity.2O The station, nevertheless, proceeded to invite pan- elists as individuals, and in fact, succeeded in securing attorneys. Subsequently, however, the Bar Association’s "Close Up” Committee asked to meet with Wilkey and Wheatley to request a veto power over guests on the program. They were turned down, both for reasons of principle and the expectations of the FCC, although it was agreed that the Association could bow out and avoid participating as an organization if a particular guest was unacceptable. The Bar Association accepted the broadcaster’s po- sition in good faith, however, because they felt the sta- tion had considered its policy of inviolability in this matter carefully. Those experiences have promoted respect for the station’s position and relations are considered ”excellent."21 Paid Sponsorship is no exception to the rule of inviolability. Occasionally, sponsors have withdrawn their support as did one when it objected to a program on birth 22 control. The advertiser was not long in returning his support to the series, however. 2O 21 Kirby. Ibid. 22Wheatley, April 19, 1960. 99 Respect for participant, content, and audience Interviews can be very misleading. A guest before the questions of a hostile panel is at a distinct disadvan- tage. Another before a friendly panel can do no wrong. A man’s concern over the community may be made to appear silly. Shallow or flip answers may be given as solutions to very complex problems. To protect the parties and mate- rial presented on a program from distortion, Wheatley exercises a philosophy of "respect for participant, content, "23 I and audience,I a "personal policy of attitude. Wheatley feels his role is to move the interview program as close as possible to a state of honest and full communication. This means protection from distortion and oversimplification and he tries to offer that protection in 24 each of the public affairs programs. In preparation Care is taken to provide this protection against distortion in the first stages of preparing the program. For example, if a controversial question is to be discussed, an effort is made to have both sides of the question pre- sented. ”Eye on St. Louis" might therefore have opposing spokesmen in debate form on one program, or arrange to have opposing sides on consecutive evenings. This arrangement 24 23Ibid., May 17, 1961. Ibid. lOO helps to protect the audience, content, and participant for the opponents are quick to point out the other’s distor- tions. The Bar Association applies this philosophy on "Close Up.” As soon as the guest is established, the Bar’s Chairman of the "Close Up" committee writes three people to interview him. In choosing panelists he attempts to bal- ance strength. For example, if the featured guest was a conservative, the panel would consist of one other conserv- ative and two liberals, although a more recent practice is to chose three clear-cut liberals and eliminate a "friend- of-the court” panelist. Each of the panelists prepares his own questions. The only restriction is that they do not ask questions to purposely disparage the guest.25 Thus, guest, content, and audience are protected from one-sided views. Another reason for informing the guest of areas to be discussed is that surprise questions can be misleading. A participant caught unprepared may give a confused, and incomplete answer. Thus, the audience’s understanding of the problem is impaired. Therefore, going over the areas of possible questioning first allows participants time to prepare their thoughts, to give a considered answer. If answered truthfully, it will probably be more informative 25Kirby. 'rl-JJ—V n [III .... 101 of the participant’s position. It is possible, of course, that the participant will have to contrive an answer, but a clever opponent can then follow up with another question exposing the answer for what it is. A participant’s action is sometimes designed to avoid the issue at hand by seeking to limit questions be- fore the program begins. The moderator who asks questions will have to decide whether or not the request is justifi- able. The request does not necessarily imply that this is a device for deception. Consider Lord Attlee’s reasoning for limiting questions on ”Close Up.” As an ex—prime min- ister, he can no longer speak for the British Government on matters of future policy and official views of the gov- ernment.26 Requesting participants to avoid questions in those areas was certainly justified. On the air Despite precautions taken prior to a program’s production, the need to further develop and maintain full and honest communication exists. The interviewer must rely on the skills of his art to approach this state of communi- cation in penetrating the veneer of politically expedient answers, in reaching a balanced exposure of ideas and posi- tions, in staying with important issues in Spite of evasion, 26Statement made by Lord Clement Attlee during preparations for "Close Up," November 28, 1959. 102 and insisting the participant hold to his own responsibil- ity of honesty and clarity in expressing his position. He must maintain the participant’s willingness to be chal- lenged. While these skills are often personal and vary with the circumstances, the general rules may be recorded. A previous discussion covered the necessity of preparation of the participants beforehand. Once on the air, the modera- tor must be able to detect methods which deny the public 9 information or distort the issue. Some of those methods seen on "Eye on St. Louis” or "Close Up" have been: (1) withholding pertinent and related facts through failure to mention them, (2) withholding facts even after a direct question, (3) evading the question through a plea of igno- rance or claiming lack of authority to comment, (4) refus- ing to go beyond general statements, (5) directing the question to a completely different thought, (6) turning the question about to make the questioner appear ridicu- lously cheap and unfair, perhaps even reprimand the ques- tioner for being impertinent. Wheatley overcomes these evasions by insisting on asking questions from the audience’s point of view to avoid a personal clash. Perhaps the question would be phrased: ”Some community groups seem to feel that this plan is un- fair because. . . . How do you react to this charge?" The question having been presented in a fair and impartial 103 manner is hard to avoid and generally brings forth a direct answer. The answer, of course, may not satisfy the viewer; but the viewer is, at least, in a better position to judge a specific argument rather than a vague statement. It is also often satisfying to a guest when he is able to answer public Charges which are put to him squarely and without emotional overtones. Another practice is to introduce the participants by identifying them with organizations which they represent. With direct questions, Wheatley establishes their position on the issue to be discussed. Through this technique, the audience is in a better position to judge statements which reflect vested interests and for judging the participant’s authority for a given statement. Probing questions then help to establish and even change the direction of the con- versation or discussion. This lucidness, perhaps, is the key to the popu- larity of "Eye on St. Louis" and "Close Up." Participants are equally pleased with the handling of the program. They feel at ease and secure in their faith that the questions are not conceived in sensationalism or trickery, but in a sincere effort to get the story told clearly and with fair- ness to all parties. As one person cooperating with KMOX- TV put it, ”I haven’t heard any guest who hasn’t commented that he had a good time.”27 27Kirby. 104 It should be emphasized, however, that KMOX-TV does not abdicate its responsibility to the viewer by any advance preparation. Each participant is told that it is impos- sible to decide upon every question in advance and detail; that his answers may change any planned course of question- ing and that both he and the questioner are free to act spontaneously and candidly in unrehearsed interview, dis- cussion, or debate. In Retrospect Parker Wheatley and Gene Wilkey are generally pleased with the acceptance of KMOX-TV’S public affairs programming by the advertisers and audiences alike. They are justly proud of the important awards they have re- ceived.28 These men also feel that the broad "television audience” is becoming more discriminating in its taste, at least in St. Louis. As evidence, they point to their pro- gram’s sizable audiences today which would have been unimag- 29 inable some years ago. 28Typical of Wheatley’s and KMOX-TV’S honors is a citation recognizing the station as "producing the caliber of programming . . . that has had a wholesome impact on the total community. Through the intelligent and judicious use of this influential medium of television, he [Wheatley] is aiding the development of a better community through fair and objective presentations." This citation was presented by the St. Louis Argus, a Negro community paper, dated April 8, 1963. 29Interview with Don Markley, KMOX-TV Program Di- rector, March 19, 1963. 105 Growing Public Acceptance of Television Educators, often thought of as hard to please re- garding television, have accepted KMOX-TV in a Show of confidence through combining efforts for mutual benefits. This is not only true in their efforts of programming, but in less spectacular ways as well. For example, a Tele— vision Reading Service was established in October, 1961 with the cooperation of public and parochial schools, and city and county libraries in the metropolitan area. Five school consultants and four librarians devel- oped a bibliography of recommended books which supplement KMOX-TV television programs of interest to elementary and high school boys and girls. Oversized sheets list programs and recommended books for appropriate grade levels. These lists are periodically reordered by over eight hundred schools in the cities and near—by counties of both Missouri and Illinois. All cooperating parties see the purpose of this service as one way to promote student selectivity in tele- vision programs and an interest in returning to the read- ing of good literature. A newspaper report on the program indicated that the service is having a strong influence on the student’s viewing reading habits.30 30Olivia Skinner, "Using TV to Encourage Children to Read," The Everyday Magazine, St. Louis Post-Dispatch, December 29, 1961. Reprints available from KMOX-TV. 106 Churches are also becoming concerned with their showing on television. Wheatley has noted that many reli- gious leaders are questioning the churches’ meaning and very survival in today’s mobile and materialistic society. One solution, Wheatley points out, is to go beyond the "church service" to programs which more Specifically draw religion and church to the everyday life of the community. While a few nationally syndicated or network religious pro- grams are attempting such an approach with some success, practical ideas and resources are still largely lacking on the local level. Wheatley also suggests programs having religious comment on news of the week, on issues of the community, and bringing in all races and creeds on individual and social problems common to the community. Broadcasters’ Interest Growing The outcry of a few years ago which renewed inter- est in public affairs programming was centered largely on the quantity of offerings. Wheatley feels that broadcast- ers are now coming to realize that public affairs program- ming needs emphasis on quality and must seek it in new methods of production and more effective means of communi- cating ideas. The present offerings, he feels, have become rou- tine in the eyes of both producer and viewer. There has been little deviation from panel discussions and 107 interviews at the local level because of the economic limi- tations of commercial television. Documentaries, good or bad, are out of reach of many stations because of the large cost and time required in their production and they, too, tend to stereotyped forms. To help solve this problem, Wheatley feels that new research is needed on how to effectively reach and communi- cate with the live commercial television audience as dis— tinguished from the more captive classroom audiences or smaller special publics of educational television. Importance to Democracy With our citizenry faced with growing responsibili- ties and problems in urbanization, automation, education, international relations, the changing economic scene, and Shifting population age groupings, Wheatley is convinced that public affairs programming needs to continue and con- stantly improve its mission of informing the public about the issues and possible solutions. He feels that our demo— cratic form of government continues to rely on an informed citizenry and as the complexity and difficulty of these problems grow, the more difficult it is for the citizen to be aware of issues that affect him. The mass media, includ- ing television, must provide the means to insure that the audience has access to that information. The difficulties of such programming, in conjunc- tion with the system’s need for operating at a profit, 108 demand an extended look on the relationship of television’s parts by those who govern and support television, says Wheatley. Research is needed in this area, too. Sponsors need a more detailed understanding than present ratings have been able to give about an audience. Broadcasters must discover the character of their individual audiences and their status in the community to provide them with a more meaningful service. Public thought must be given on the extent to which responsibility reaches into the community in support of good public affairs program- ming. How much can be expected of the business community? 0f public institutions? Of religious organizations? Of the general public? ”Inside KMOX-TV” has stimulated some citizen groups into studying television operations more closely. Their questions sent to the program demonstrate a growing under- standing of broadcasting’s problems. The public must con- tinue to further its understanding of television’s practi- cal aspect; but it cannot afford to forget the part tele- vision is capable of playing in what the NAB President Leroy Collins calls "building a more literate populace in an expanding and increasingly complex world."31 31Arthur Perles, "Industry Battle Cry: The Public Interest ’Our Responsibility,’" Radio-Television Daily, April 2, 1963, p. . CHAPTER V DEVELOPING COMMUNITY ORGANIZATIONS FOR LOCAL PUBLIC AFFAIRS PROGRAMMING "If only we could get on television to tell our story," is a widespread feeling among many community groups. If that group is truly responsible and is representative of the community, there is little reason why it should not realize its goal. Broadcasters welcome the support of com- munity organizations if they are ready and willing to as- sume the responsibilities inherent in broadcasting. The purpose of this chapter is to outline the steps a community organization may take to earn itself a position on the air and then follow through responsibly. The outline is based on the experiences and practices of those organizations in St. Louis which appear on or aid in the production of pub- lic affairs programming at KMOX-TV. Broadcasters Welcome Support Much has been said in recent years about television "drying up" for lack of material to fill the countless hours of programming. Local broadcasters, as well as the networks find difficulty in filling the public affairs schedule. They are, therefore, most happy to receive 109 110 outside help to alleviate the problem. This does not mean that broadcasters will accept any offering or group. Community organizations Should real- ize that many broadcasters have a sincere desire to be a part of the community and to do what they can to make their service area a better place to live. Therefore, organiza- tions will find greater acceptance, generally, if they are themselves working toward bettering the entire community and are not limited to exclusive interests. These factors, and a growing feeling that public affairs programming can be a good business investment, move the station into the good graces of the Federal Communica- tions Commission and encourage a broadcaster’s desire to enter into long range planning to utilize the talent and ideas responsible and representative community organiza- tions have to offer. From this point, the discussion will assume organ- izations as being representative. A Community Organization’s Road to Air Time ”Responsible" should be the key word describing organizations seeking air time as far as this chapter is concerned. At this stage of development in the television industry a proposed series will generally replace an al- ready existing program and is therefore expected to equal or surpass past standards. A discussion of the basic 111 requirements for coproducing a series and ways in which organizations solve their problems will follow. Requires Idea Beneficial to Community The organization seeking to "get on the air" must first have a concrete idea of how it intends to produce a program with a minimum of self-interest ingrained in the program. No matter how representative an organization may be, it cannot expect to win a place if it only seeks self- glorification or profit. The program idea must be based on the broad needs of the community, both in content and inn terest. An organization of downtown merchants approached KMOX-TV with an idea which clearly reflected little inter- est in the community at large, but a great deal of inter- est in getting customers into their downtown stores. The idea was quickly turned down. They may have done better had they intended to demonstrate problems in the downtown area and efforts of citizens to correct them, or perhaps, (they may have dealt with social and historic aspects of the city’s downtown area. Requires Able Staff Ability to demonstrate that a staff will assume responsibility to prepare and guide the series is a strong point in favor of an organization. That staff should also be willing to co-operate and to compromise with the 112 broadcaster in matters of production and presentation. The organization’s staff should finally be willing to assume full liability of content for which they are responsible. The staffs working with KMOX-TV vary in size, ability, and effectiveness; but all have met the qualifica- tions required by KMOX-TV. Here is a brief survey of those staff structures. Three organizations have staffs serving without special funds for their television work. In consultation with upper echelon officials, the manager of KSLH, an FM radio station owned by the St. Louis Public Schools, co- ordinates all activities from determining subject matter to securing panelists for the public schools’ "Challenge" pro- gram. In another arrangement a twelve man committee under the chairman of the ”Close Up" committee for the Bar Asso- ciation of St. Louis rotates the assumption of responsi- bilities of securing panelists for the "Close Up" program. A similar committee of thirteen members under a chairman rotates the responsibility of preparation and organization for the Rabbinical Association’s ”Faith of Our Fathers" series. A paid, part-time staff member heads a Superintend- ent’s Public Relations TV Committee for the St. Louis County Public Schools. Under this plan, the Acting Director of the Audio-Visual Department of the St. Louis County Public Schools also serves as Director of Television Activities 113 and devotes one-fifth of his time to the county school’s portion of "Challenge.” Broadcasting assignments are handled by paid full- time staff members of the Catholic Radio and Television Apostolate of St. Louis for ”Challenge” and "Quiz-a-Catho- lic,” and of the Television Board of the St. Louis Lutheran Pastoral Conference for their portion of ”Challenge'and ”Way of Life." All these organizational structures have proved effective in meeting a schedule of productions and appar- ently serve the needs of the parent organization. Those positive factors which seem most successful in organization and production will be emphasized. Requires Practical Production The enormous cost of producing even a fifteen min- ute discussion program behooves the co-operating organiza- tion to devise the simplest means of production suitable to its basic needs. If the program will involve definite camera movement, speeches, or sequence of events, the pro- ducers Should see to it that scripts are prepared in an orderly and precise manner so that there is no doubt of what must be done with a minimum of needed rehearsal. Tal- ent acquired by the organization should be well-rehearsed and know exactly what to do at all times so as not to waste limited assigned time. 114 Methods of production at KMOXFTV Most all programs co-produced by outside organiza— tions at KMOX-TV use a presentation, discussion, or debate format. These are easily prepared and involve a minimum amount of the station’s production and engineering crews. In the case of ”Quiz-a-Catholic" and "Way of Life" which are more complex, the sponsoring organizations have a trained staff to prepare and organize the program and re- hearse the talent to such a fine state that it can go into formal production with little demand on the station’s pro- duction staff. This arrangement is better for both par— ties; the station is able to offer time to an organization at a minimum cost and loss of time, and the organization is able to produce a program and meet its needs of maintaining control over its direction up to air time. A decision as to what is practical rightly belongs to the station’s staff for they are trained and experienced in making such judgments. Most broadcasters are willing to take time to explain why they feel the way they do and to offer some suggestions on how the organization’s proposals may be met. Understanding use of’videotape Videotape was thought to be one answer to solving some production problems facing co-producing organizations in St. Louis. The organizations made a mistake, however, 115 in assuming that videotape was similar to audiotape al- though, perhaps, being a little more expensive. Some felt that they might record outstanding personalities when they were available and hold them for later broadcast. In this manner, they would also have been able to build up a back- log of programs for the dull summer months. Two main fac- tors prevented such use--cost and the broadcaster’s purpose in using videotape. In the first place, a standard half-hour of video- tape costs nearly $125.00. Typing up a huge investment in stored programs is an unreasonable burden on the broad- caster. Furthermore, an organization holding one program- on tape over several weeks prevents that tape’s use by several groups which could record, broadcast and dispose of it for reuse. Secondly, broadcasters usually turn to videotape for reasons of economy and convenience. Utilizing slack hours during the day to record programs reduces the need for expensive crews to be held over long hours. It also enables the station to spread out production chores at pre- planned intervals which alleviate last minute rushes into the studio before air time. Those organizations which come to understand the broadcaster’s limitations, and who develop a concrete idea for a program which will benefit the entire community under a practical plan of production will have gone a long way 116 toward gaining air time from one of the local stations. Developing Professional Attitudes While many St. Louis organizations have convinced the broadcaster of their ability to produce a series, each varies in its ability to come up with meaningful programs. Some series move vigorously forward with subjects of real concern to the community; others have little direction and suffer for it. Organizations producing meaningful programs with consistency also have a more highly developed sense of professional attitudes. Consider some problems organiza- tions face and how they are solved through developing such attitudes. Establish Authority The producer of "Challenge” for the St. Louis Pub— lic Schools faces a problem of undefined authority, caused by a "temporary" appointment which has not been changed since 1958; there is no definite understanding of where final approval of the proposed program topic and talent selection lies.l In effect, the producer must seek general approval from several sources for each program as it is scheduled. Concrete plans are forestalled from a lack of concern by the producer’s superiors. This places some lPersonal interview with E. Marguerite Fleming, General Manager of KSLH-FM, St. Louis Public Schools, November 16, 1959. 117 unnecessary anxieties and pressures on the producer and the talent. Other organizations delegate authority to a spe- cific group. The Bar Association of St. Louis, for example, appoints a twelve man "Close Up” committee with a Chairman able to call upon its members to aid in the fulfillment of program responsibilities. Another plan by the St. Louis County Schools is the arrangement whereby the Acting Direc- tor of the Audio-Visual Education Department is authorized to use onenfifth of his time in the production of "Chal- lenge” and "Coffee Break,” the latter program being carried on the educational television station, KETC—TV. The direc- tor handles administrative affairs and produces the program after the Superintendent’s Public Relations TV Committee 2 The has established the topic and suggested the talent. Lutheran and Catholic organizations, as mentioned earlier, have a professional production unit with full authority. Establishing authority in a professional manner can be an important factor in motivating individuals within the organization. It promotes co-operation with program plans and seems to promote professional attitudes. Another measure of the effectiveness of organiza- tional authority is in its ability to plan ahead. Lack of 2Personal interview with Hugo Beck, Chairman of the Superintendents Public Relations Committee, St. Louis County, January 26, 1960. 118 a comprehensive plan often results in a series of disorgan- ized topics conceived as an individual unit. The Shaping of public opinion, for which most organizations claim to strive, is forfeited through a lack of co-ordinated effort. Lack of such foresight permitted a school system to face a tax crisis in 1960 with only one program designed to inform the public of this significant event. By 1962, a new attitude was evident within the same organization. A few months before a new tax election was to be held, the producer and school administrators made detailed plans to give the ”Challenge" program direction toward interpreting the schools’ needs and had arranged for other programs on other city radio and television outlets. In 1963, because of the extreme need for public understanding and support, the school combined a similar line-up of programs concur- rent with paid announcements. Some organizations prefer to spread out production responsibility to ease the burden. The St. Louis Rabbini- cal Association, for example, rotates production responsi— bilities among thirteen members. Each plans his own topic and format independently of the others. Some programs are aimed at a non-Jewish audience; others are sermons for those accepting the faith.3 The producers lose an oppor- tunity to provide over-all direction to their programming 3Personal interview with Rabbi Abraham Halpern, St. Louis Rabbinical Association, February 9, 1960. 119 so the burden is transferred to the viewer who must organ- ize his impressions from a rather random sampling of social and ethical ideals held by members of the Jewish faith. One way to unify rotating responsibilities is demon- strated by the Television Board of the St. Louis Lutheran Pastoral Conference. This unit grew with the realization that pastors, though having considerable public speaking experience, were not prepared for producing their own tele- vision programs. The Board first established a format based on the traditional Lutheran worship service. They then issued oral instructions on preparations for broad- casts which proved inadequate. Now, a letter of instruc- tion directs the activity of planning and preparing a pro- gram. It also serves as an important check list for the pastors. This method, coupled with a visit by a Board mem- ber at rehearsal appears to have greatly reduced confusion and increased efficiency of preparation, confidence in par— ticipants, and smoothness in final production.l1L Provision of Funds The amount and kind of publicity, access to visuals and other aids, ability to cover nominal costs of mailing, and transportation vary with each organization’s budget. uPersonal interview with Dr. Eugene R. Bertermann, Chairman of the Television Board, and Executive Director of the Lutheran Church Foundation, Missouri Synod, St. Louis, Missouri, January 27, 1960. 120 Many must use a general fund, but others do have a definite budget allowing them to plan financial support for their television program to their best advantage. While most of these differences can be overcome by budget organizations, it is interesting to note what those organizations having money are able to do with it. One use of such funds is tied to publicity efforts which go beyond house organs and KMOX-TV spot promotion of their program. Few groups ask two basic questions of their promo- tion: (1) At whom should the publicity be aimed? and (2) How extensive should the promotion be? These groups seem to expect a "general" audience to tune to their pro- gram. The St. Louis County Schools have explored the prob- lems of publicity perhaps further than the others but no concrete results of their publicity efforts are available. Their most notable effort has been in the form of "hot off the press" circulars complete with a reprinted picture of the program as it was being videotaped and a resume of questions actually discussed on the program. Prompt dis- tribution to co-operating county school systems and other interested organizations promoted some excitement among those receiving the circular. Funds also permitted the purchase of videotape by the county schools so programs might be saved for a period 121 of time without tying up KMOX-TV tapes. The professional organizations, of course, had budgets large enough to support a full time staff, part of which devoted its time to KMOXETV productions. The prin- cipal advantage these organizations held over other groups was manpower with time to carefully prepare and rehearse a program before going into final production. The result was that participants were more thoroughly prepared for their role on television. The provision of specific funds in itself does little to increase the significance of programs produced. Keeping television costs separate from general funds gives a more accurate accounting of expense, however, and permits the recovery of personal expense by participants. Importance of Outside Rehearsal A gentleman practiced in making public addresses was observed arriving at the television studio in prepara- tion for a ”Challenge" program. Another participant asked him if he’d studied the problem to be discussed on the pro- gram. The gentleman’s reply was to the effect that he’d been much too busy preparing a speech for a School group. It had probably not occurred to the gentleman that in the single appearance on television he’d reach more people than he would in more than a dozen appearances at school func- tions. 122 The vast audience size available to co-operating organizations behooves them to insure in whatever ways they can that participants are fully prepared to make the most of the opportunity. Organizations vary in their methods of preparing participants and some participants and topics need less preparation than others. Let us see how the vari- ous organizations prepare their representatives prior to reaching KMOX-TV. A few producers or unit heads tend to let partici- pants do their own preparation and offer themselves as con- sultants only. Unless the participant has had experience in organizing and preparing himself for television programs, the chances are that much important information will be left unsaid to the detriment of the organization. Better results may be had if a meeting is arranged to have all participants and other interested parties explore the sig- nificant possibilities together. Shaping thoughts and effective means of expressing them orally or with visual aids will tend to give cohesion to the program and a sense of direction the viewer can appreciate. Where a great many visuals are used, time should be spent in carefully rehearsing the sequence and the salient points of the individual picture, graph, chart, etc. Content is always left to the authorities. The television committee’s function is to aid in organization and expression of ideas to achieve clarity and 123 effectiveness. The committee also strives to focus atten- tion on meeting the purpose of the program, Occasionally outside production units forget that the station’s purpose goes beyond simple promotion of the organization. Therefore, some time and thought should be given to meeting unexpected questions which force the par- ticipant to justify the organization’s position. The Lutheran organization’s Television Board takes steps to overcome these problems. At one meeting, partici- pants discuss opposing sides of the question as they under- stand them. They are then asked to conduct their own re- search on both sides of the issue at hand and they return about a week later for a second meeting. Here they test and challenge each other on their statements and signifi- cance of thought to reveal weaknesses in each’s prepara- tion. Participants are then expected to take remedial steps to correct those weaknesses before appearing on the program. The most elaborate form of rehearsal is used in ' a panel quiz Show using preparation for "Quiz-a-Catholic,' three regular panelists and one guest. Besides receiving basic television instruction, panelists are carefully coached on how to ask questions and are given practice in logically following up answers. A different priest appears each week as the author- ity. He offers a one minute explanation about the object 124 of the quiz in relation to the teachings and beliefs of the Roman Catholic Church. Like the guest panelist, he is also indoctrinated in television procedures and techniques. Three program rehearsals for a total of six to twelve hours are spent on each program. Special emphasis is given to developing a relaxed informal approach in the priest’s explanations. The Director of the Radio and Tele— vision Apostolate claims that even a high ranking bishop would be required to take the course before appearing on the program.5 Similar care was taken in an older format the Catholic organization used in the "Challenge" series. Called "On Trial," the program featured an exchange of views by opposing attorneys in a trial setting with per- haps a teacher as witness. Meticulous control over the program’s direction and the revelation of views was built up through rehearsals of this unscripted production. It is the rehearsal stage in which most organiza- tions can effectively demonstrate the need for professional attitudes. Here the participant can begin to understand the significance of representing the parent organization before the large audience of television. 5Personal interview with Rev. Francis J. Mathews, Director of the Catholic Radio and Television Apostolate of St. Louis, January 27, 1960. 125 Attitudes toward Controversy Co-operating organizational production units vary in their reaction to controversial subject matter. For some, controversy Spells danger and is considered unmanage- able; for others it evokes a challenge and is considered an opportunity to clarify the Controversy and the alterna- tive actions. For the viewer, controversial programs can be most rewarding and can stimulate real thought if handled without a strident emotional overtone. It is not the subject that requires so much concern as the need for preparing the participants to handle it. Of the organizations handling emotional subjects, the Lu- theran’s Television Board appears to most consciously pre- pare its participants to be knowledgeable of and to resolve the implications of the subject outside the emotional sphere. Organizations as well as broadcasters sometimes need reminding that the Federal Communications Commission looks to the broadcasting of controversial issues in the public interest as a part of balanced programming. These production units which do not avoid contro- versy claim there is nothing to fear and a great deal to be gained in careful explanation of the organization’s po- sition on the controversial issue. 126 The Packaged Program Once the organization has established a television production unit capable of meeting the problems discussed in this chapter, the packaging of a meaningful program is a matter of applying imagination to the basic steps of the building process. Selecting the topic Participating organizations at KMOX—TV first select a topic based on current events or other interests the or- ganization feels may have broad and timely viewer appeal. Organizations tending to have production units of make— shift quality and lacking authority are forced into a com- plicated procedure to secure a topic. various officials of the organization must be consulted about possible topics. Then general approval must be won for a single topic. As organizations tend toward support of a more professional structure, the selection is more easily made. A few leave the entire choice with the production unit. Selecting participants The same procedure in the selection of topics is generally followed in determining the partiCipants. There is some difference in the qualities organiza- tions seek from a participant. While all believe that the basic criteria are knowledge and experience applicable to the subject, some also stress a facility to communicate 127 effectively and reflection of assurance and composure on behalf of the organization. If precautions are not made in determining a bal- ance of qualities beforehand, the organization may have found itself committed to using an unacceptable participant with no face saving way to replace him. One technique used to prevent such a problem is to establish a topic far enough in advance to allow the producer time to talk with and observe potential participants, selecting those best fitting the program’s needs. A kind of talent scout is used to do this by the producers of "Quiz-a-Catholic" in securing guest panelists from various parishes of the church. The results of such efforts appear to be rewarding. Heavy demands on producers’ time curtail a more widespread use of such techniques among other organizations. Insuring participant’s preparedness Aside from scheduled meetings and rehearsals which have been previously discussed, production units are con- cerned with making clear the organization’s purpose in pro- ducing the specific program. Without such an understand- ing, unit heads claim that participants are prone to wander from the point of the program. The County School’s unit uses a three point system to insure understanding, beginning their first contact by telephone or letter. The program’s purpose and the 128 participant’s relation to the discussion are discussed orally. Second, a follow-up letter is sent detailing the purpose and the specific contributions the participant can make to the program. Background information on the other participants is included to provide a further picture of what might be expected. Finally, a simple outline script detailing the open, close, and general content of the pro- gram is presented at a "warm-up" meeting prior to produc- tion. The County School’s Director of Television Activi- ties suggests that this procedure "insures a running start into the discussion" and helps the participants to pace themselves. Meetingjtechnical requirements Broadcasters usually prefer that visuals, especially pictures or drawings planned for use in the program, be submitted to the station some days in advance of the pro- duction date. This is a precautionary measure to insure that visuals are properly mounted, identified, and repro- duced with sufficient quality to meet broadcast standards. If the visual is not adequate, there is time to rectify the situation and both parties are saved the embarrassment of last minute adjustment or rejection. 6Personal interview with Paul Andereck, Audio- Visual Department of the St. Louis County Schools, Janu- ary 26, 1960. 129‘ This requirement tends to be waived when it is ap- parent that the production unit is aware of technical standards and demonstrates full responsibility in meeting them. A script of clear explanation of just when and how the visuals are to be used should accompany the aids. Any special arrangements for projection units, picture holders, cue sheets, special sets, etc. can then be made before the participants arrive. Submitting a script If scripts are used, about ten clearly reproduced copies should be sent to the station several days before use. These scripts should meet accepted television stand- ards of form and should include information about the set, audio, visual, and lighting equipment needed, as well as a list of participants, time of rehearsals, and production. If a station moderator is expected to pull the story out of participants in a discussion type program, questions which the organization wishes to have raised should be written simply and directly. The moderator will phrase those questions in his own style with regard to the Situation as it will be at the moment. KMOX-TV, however, makes clear to co-operating organizations that its repre- sentative, the moderator, will and must necessarily func- tion in the station’s and viewer’s interest. 130 Promoting efforts Solutions to the aforementioned problems vary with the organization’s needs and abilities. Careful prepara- tion to overcome these problems, production unit heads agree, tends to promote cordial relations with the broad- caster, more meaningful programs for the viewer, and a more successful fulfillment of purpose for the organization. While significant production steps have been dis- cussed in this chapter, they have been largely mechanical steps--the machinery of production. Equally important is the spirit of professionalism which instills a spirit of vitality and liveness in the program. This is sometimes called showmanship which seems, to some persons, to be apart from lofty purposes. Yet, most organizations participating in public affairs programming withiMMOX-TV would agree with the pro- fessional broadcaster who said: No one has the right to expect anyone to watch or listen to tedious programming of any kind, no matter how enlightening or inspirational the theme. Radio and television are not substitutes for a teach- er. They can encourage, titillate, stir, motivate, and provide a launching platform for the rockets that are ideas.7 This same speaker outlined what he considered nec- essary steps of handling public affairs programming. First among these steps was "inventive originality and 7"Put Show Biz into Pubserv Programming-~Santange- 10," Radio- Television Daily, April 28, 1961, p. 3. 131 entertainment" within the program product. He then empha- sized the importance of following up with ”old fashioned tub-thumping," . . . "materials for the press," . . . and "seizing as many public platforms as possible." These promotional steps would be more feasible with the broadcasters to whom the talk was addressed than general community organizations; but St. Louis organiza- tions tend to agree that more promotion would be advan- tageous. CHAPTER VI CONCLUSIONS The following conclusions about KMOX-TV’S public affairs programming are largely derived from interviews with the station’s management staff, including General Man- ager Eugene Wilkey, past and present Program Directors Leon Drew and Don Markley, General Sales Manager Charles McAbee, Jr., and Public Affairs Director Parker Wheatley. Al— though their Opinions are naturally subjective, they are overwhelmingly compatible with one another and carry the conviction of successful practice, attested by advertiser support of the station and by audience interest as measured by A. C. Nielsen, Pulse, the American Research Bureau, and mail response to specific programs. Other evaluations have been drawn from interviews and correspondence with school officials, religious lead- ers, businessmen, and other local leaders who head the television production units of organizations which have supplied program material to the station. 132 133 General Conclusions KMOX-TV Serves Community Needs Both in its creed and in its management’s public statements, KMOX-TV has proclaimed an aim to supplement its network schedule of news and public affairs with local pro- grams designed to serve the specific needs of its community. Accordingly, it provides: 1) A regular schedule of offerings devoted to religion, education, public issues and problems. 2) A platform accessible to both organizations and individuals, and to both majority and minority interests. 3) A forum for highly controversial issues. 4) Broadcast hours, both daytime and prime time, which are favorable for public viewing and compatible with the program content. 5) Special programs which pre-empt regular sched- ules, both in local and network time. Its public affairs programs are provided in addi- tion to and are complementary to its news, editorials, and related types of material. Audience Response to Public Affairs Programs Shortly after its inception in March, 1958, KMOX-TV captured the largest over-all audience and has maintained it against the competition of three other St. Louis sta- tions. According to the General Manager, a good part of 134 the increased audience can be attributed to public affairs programming. One program in particular has been outstand- ' carried in prime time, 10:15 to ing: ”Eye on St. Louis,‘ 10:30 P.M., each weekday. As previously mentioned, this program has been able to attract up to half the available audience against syndicated action dramas, the Jack Paar, Johnny Carson, and Steve Allen shows. Although lower in ratings, other public affairs programs have captured a majority of the audience available in their time periods and, more important, have been appre- ciated for the service they render. Chief among these is "P.S. 4," dedicated to reducing illiteracy in the metro- politan area. Letters and cards from relatives of those following this program carry high praise for its results. As far as local polls and mail response can indi- cate, the audience for KMOX-TV public affairs offerings comes from all socio-economic groups. Public Affairs Programs and Profits No accurate statement can be made about the amount of profit to the station from its public affairs program- ming. The management is convinced, however, that the pres- tige accrued from this programming has been valuable and that its high ratings have boosted the station’s over-all audience and thus attracted new sponsors. The only sponsored local public affairs program at 135 KMOX-TV is ”Eye on St. Louis." Because local public af- fairs programming in prime time was without precedent in St. Louis, most broadcasting and advertising professionals' foresaw little success for the program at 10:15 P.M. To help attract sponsors, it was offered at Class "B" rates, which are lower than those for other prime time offerings. Sold either as a package or by participating spot adver- tisements, it is now fully sponsored and booked several months in advance. Sponsors are attracted by its large audience, its sales results, and its ability to make sub- jects meaningful without extreme emotionalism, even when they are controversial. KMOX-TV Policies and Practices: A Guide for Others The ability to consistently produce what is termed meaningful public affairs programming may stem in part from KMOX-TV’S position in a large market, but much of it re- sults from policies and practices which might serve any station as a general guide. The guide can be summarized as follows: 1) Concentrate efforts at building a station image in the area of news and public affairs programming. 2) Couple the station’s over-all programming with good business practices. 3) Give those reSponSible for news and public affairs a voice in the general management of the station. 136 Giving them second rate positions weakens the effort to build a station image of public service and leadership in the community. 4) If possible, provide an administrator to bring the news and public affairs departments close together. Coordination of efforts to supply depth to news and time- liness to public affairs programs will do much to make both types of offerings more meaningful. Furthermore, the pres- ence of a person to handle administrative procedure can free the directors of the departments to concentrate their efforts on the programs. 5) Provide these departments with adequate staff and facilities to produce good programs. 6) Give them ample time in the program schedule. Half-hearted attempts at public service (limited, for ex- ample, to spot announcements) do little to build a reputa- tion for community leadership. KMOX-TV has effectively devoted 25 per cent (thirty-three to thirty-five hours) or more of its weekly broadcast hours to news and public af- fairs. Of this, approximately 14 or 15 per cent (about twenty hours) consists of public affairs programs, about 9 per cent (thirteen hours) of which are produced locally. 7) Schedule these programs regularly, at times when they can be attended by most families. (KMOX-TV uses its regularly scheduled programs to open up issues to pub- lic thought. It schedules Special programs or series for 137 depth studies.) 8) Cover as broad a range of subject matter as possible, so that no issue of public concern may be neg— lected. 9) By continuously analyzing the community and consulting with its organizations, encourage creativity and an active search for new ideas, new formats, and new program material. 10). Maintain inviolable against possible pressures by special interests, commercial or political, the sta- tion’s control over choice of subject matter and program participants. 11) Seek full and honest communication between par- ticipants and audience. Show respect for the participants, not editing or staging their performance in a manner which will misrepresent or hamper their expression. Show respect for the content, not destroying its essential nature by ill-advised editing, or violating it by sensationalism or oversimplification. Show respect for the audience, not talking down to it or attempting to influence it with ”hard sell" or propagandizing. l2) Insist on high production standards from all personnel. Do not allow crews to let down on their own standards just because the program does not sell a commer- cial product. All programs on the station influence the public’s attitude towards it. 138 Production Guide for Community Organizations A variety of community groups have participated in the production of KMOX-TV programs. School systems of the city and county, both public and parochial, have regularly produced programs on educational problems. Six mornings a week for more than two years, the city public schools have produced an instructional series for illiterates. Colleges in the area have provided series in higher education. Rep- resentatives of the Protestant, Catholic, and Jewish faiths have contributed religious programming. These and various other civic organizations have come to realize that good programs do not just happen, but, rather, require competent and conscientious preparation. From interviews with those responsible for building the programs has come the following list of principles, which may profitably be followed by any organization that wishes to prepare effective broadcast material: 1) The organization should designate one or more ./ qualified persons as a production unit, with authority to direct the over-all planning of its programs, including selection of topics and participants, structuring of the content material, procurement of material ingredients, and rehearsal of the presentation. 2) Subjects should be of interest to the entire community (although religious programs may be more limited in this respect). 139 3) Controversial subjects are commendable. So say most organizations, although many shy from controversy in practice. 4) Care must be taken to select participants who can communicate effectively. 5) Professional attitudes should be instilled in all participants—-and in members of the production unit. 6) A knowledge of broadcasting’s technical re- quirements is needed for preparing visuals and scripts. 7) Program formats Should be chosen to enhance the subject and communicate it effectively. For example, cul- tural subjects may be expressed best by dramatic or musical sequences, while public issues may be explored in debate. Although the format should be capable of execution, prac- ticality should not be equated with the timidity or lack of imagination which force programs into the strictly radio format of a man, a desk, and a microphone. 8) The production unit must have adequate funds to pay for whatever the program requires to make it effec- tive. 9) Having invested funds and effort in preparing a program, the organization should not neglect to promote an audience for it. These are the principles to which most organiza- tions subscribe. In practice, of course, each organization has had to adapt them to its ability, greater or smaller, 140 to supply the resources of money, manpower, and specialized knowledge required to accomplish its program goals. Personal Conclusions While gathering the data presented in this study, the author could not escape reaching some personal conclu- sions regarding the significance of KMOX-TV’S public af- fairs programming to broadcasters and organizations in other communities. What he observed was commendable and worthy of emulation. KMOX-TV’S Contributions Most impressive were: 1) The breadth of subjects covered, giving expres- sion to the many parts of its community, and the depth which gave ample treatment to these subjects. 2) The demonstration that public affairs programs need not be dull, as shown by the remarkable audience rec- ord of "Eye on St. Louis." 3) The indication that public affairs programming can play a substantial role in bringing financial success to the broadcaster. The station’s management, led by Eugene Wilkey and Leon Drew, deserves commendation for its dedicated support of public affairs programming in general, its courageous innovations such as the introduction of a local public af- fairs program into five week nights of prime time, its 141 meaningful contributions beyond programming such as a metro- politan reading service, and for its continuing attention to the changing needs of the community. For its implementation of program policy, commenda- tion is also due the public affairs department, headed by Parker Wheatley. His department has performed with enthu- siasm and inventiveness, developed a climate of open and meaningful expression, widened its scope of service with fresh program ideas and topics, striven to keep aware of viewpoints within the community, and continued to develop policies and practices which increase the value of its program. This is not to contend that the KMOX-TV staff is the epitome of the industry, but that the positive steps it has taken to overcome problems in the area of public affairs are most deserving of attention. Application to Other Stations While most stations can adapt KMOX-TV policies and practices to their use, it is obvious that they cannot all achieve the same results. Small-market stations and weak large-market stations would have difficulty in meeting the expense of so extensive a schedule of public affairs pro- gramming as that offered by KMOX-TV. In these stations, time and talent are often a premium commodity invested only in commercially productive programs. Yet perhaps the risk of building programs which truly meet the needs of their 142 communities will deliver more income over a period of time than a schedule of entertainment varied only by public service material so scanty or so poorly produced that it does nothing to establish the stations as leaders in local affairs. Trade observers foresee continued pressure for pub- lic affairs programming by the Federal Communications Com- mission.1 Profits of broadcasters are expected to continue upwards, providing larger capabilities than they have had in the past,2 and many stations indicate that they will be concentrating more heavily in public affairs. Competition in this area will apparently be heavier. The best prepared and most meaningful efforts may win increased prestige and thereby greater income. Application to Community Organizations St. Louis organizations have demonstrated their ability to make meaningful contributions to KMOX-TV pro- gramming. Without their special Skills, knowledge, and involvement in community activities, the station would re— quire a larger staff to provide its public service--if, indeed, it could continue to provide the service at all. II l"FCC Weather: No Change in Temperature, casting, February 18, 1963, pp. 80, 82, 85. 2"Perspective 1963: Radio-TV Outlook Good, No Mat- ter What," Broadcasting, February 18, 1963, pp. 67-71. Broad- 143 Station and organizations are both needed. Effective pub- 1ic affairs programming depends upon the willingness of both. If broadcasters have a legal obligation to seek out the needs and spokesmen of the community, does it not seem that the organizations which can speak to these needs should be morally obligated to aid the broadcasters? Furthermore, when organizations agree to cooperate with the broadcaster in producing a program, they should realize that, by virtue of that agreement, they have taken on serious professional responsibilities. Organization and broadcaster are equally responsible for the success or failure of the program. Since the prestige of the organi- zation will tend to rise or fall with the program’s qual- ity, it behooves that organization to devote sufficient time and effort to ensure the program’s success. Areas for Further Study Because of the increasing interest in public af- fairs programming which is forecast in the industry, many further studies are needed in this area of activity. Re- search might be devoted to: 1) Techniques which can increase the ability of this programming to attract viewers and sponsors. 2) The relationship between public affairs pro- gramming and profits. 3) The issue of whether each broadcaster must have balanced programming, or whether that balance should be 144 effected by the complementary efforts of all stations within the community. 4) The question of whether a marginally operating station which is incapable of meeting its public service responsibilities should be granted a license at all. Per- haps the FCC Should consider withholding a license until the station has demonstrated its ability to meet such re- sponsibilities. When stations do attempt to meet these responsi- bilities, they might profit from the precedent of KMOX-TV. By reporting the experience of that station, the author hopes that he has helped in some small way to clarify the role of public affairs programming in television and in our society. BIBLIOGRAPHY Articles and Books Bryson, Lyman. Time for Reason about Radio. New York: George W. Stewart, Publisher, Inc., 1948. Chester, Giraud, and Garrison, Garnet R. Radio and Tele- vision. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., “I950?— ”Controversy on the Air," St. Louis Post-Dispatch, May 20, 1961, p. 4a. "FCC Weather: No Change in Temperature," Broadcastin Magazine, February 18, 1963, pp. 80, 82, 85. Head, Sydney W. Broadcasting in America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1956. New York Times, 1957-1958. Perles, Arthur. "Industry Battle Cry: The Public Interest ’Our Responsibility,’" Radio-Television Daily, April 2, 1963, pp. 1-4. "Perspective 1963: Radio-TV Outlook Good, No Matter What," Broadcasting Magazine, February 18, 1963, pp. 67- 71. ”Public Service for Profit," Broadcasting Magazine, April 18, 1960, p. 120. "Put Show Biz into Pubserv Programming-~Santangelo," Radio- Television Daily, April 28, 1961, pp. 1, 3.’ ”The Revolt against Radio," Fortune, March, 1947, pp. 102, 103, 105. "““" Rosenberg, Herbert H. "Program Content--A Criterion of Public Interest in FCC Listening," Western Politi- cal QuarterIy, II (September, 1949), 375-401. Skinner, Olivia. "Using TV to Encourage Children to Read," St. Louis Post-Dispatch, December 29, 1961. 145 146 Steiner, Gary A. The People Look at Television. New York: Knopf, 1963. Twenty-two Television Talks, BMI TV Clinics. New York: BroadcaStiMusic, Inc., 1953. Waller, Judith C. The Fifth Estate. Cambridge: The Riverside Press, 1950. Weinberg, Meyer. TV in America: The Morality of Hard Cash. New York: Ballantine Books, 1962. White, Llewellyn. The American Radio. Chicago: Uni- versity of Chicago Press, 1947. Public Documents U.S. Code, Title 47. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Interstate Commerce. Hearings on S. 814, To Amend the Communications Act of 1934. 78th Cong., 2d Sess., 1944. U.S. Congress, Senate, Subcommittee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce. Hearings on S. 1333, To Amend the Communications Act of 1934. 80th Cong., Ist Sess., 1947. U.S. Federal Communications Commission. Public Service Responsibility of Broadcast Licensees, March 7, I946. U.S. Federal Reporter (2d), 47, 171, 174. Interviews Bar Association of St. Louis, Missouri. Personal inter- view with John Kirby, Chairman of the ”Close Up" Committee. January 27, 1960. B’nai Amoona Congregation, St. Louis. Personal interview with Rabbi Abraham Halpern, St. Louis Rabbinical Association. February 9, 1960. Catholic Radio and Television Apostolate of St. Louis, Missouri. Personal interview with Rev. Francis J. Mathews, Director. January 27, 1960. 147 KMOX-TV, St. Louis. Personal interview with Hugo Beck, Chairman of the Superintendents Public Relations Committee, St. Louis County. January 26, 1960. . Personal interview with Ernest Byrne, KMOXéTV Director of "Way of Life." January 24, 1960. . Personal interview with Leon Drew, former KMOX- TV Program Director. February 18, 1960. . Personal interview with Helen Hagen, KMOX-TV Writer-Producer. June 22, 1961. . Personal interview with Don Markley, KMOX-TV Program Director. April 17, 1963. . Personal interview with Charles McAbee, KMOX-TV General Sales Manager. February 18, 1960, April 17, 1963. . Personal interviews with Parker Wheatley, KMOX- TV Public Affairs Director. 1959-1963. Personal interview with Eugene B. Wilkey, KMOX- TV6Vice President and General Manager. February 18, 19 O. KSLH—FM. Personal interview with E. Marguerite Fleming, Gegeral Manager. November 16, 1959, February l9, 19 O. Lutheran Church Foundation, Missouri Synod, St. Louis, Missouri. Personal interview with Dr. Eugene R. Bertermann, Executive Director, and Chairman of the Television Board. January 27, 1960. St. Louis County Audio-Visual Center, Clayton, Missouri. Personal interview with Paul Andereck, Acting Director of the Audio-Visual Department and Director of Television Activities. January 22, 1960. Other Sources ”An Analysis of the Motivational Research Study of New York Television Channels." Original research done by the Institute of Motivational Research, Inc.; the analysis was prepared by WCBS-TV. New York: WCBS- TV, 1959- 148 Bertermann, Eugene R. Paper titled "Information Concerning ’The Way of Life.’” St. Louis: Television Board of the Lutheran Church Foundation, n.d. (Mimeo- graphed.) Blood, John W. Letter from Executive Vice President of the Clayton Federal Savings and Loan Association, April 18, 1960. Claggett, Charles E. Talk before the Broadcast Advertising Club of Chicago, March 14, 1961. (Mimeographed.) Goodman, Jane. Letter from Producer for Metropolitan Church Federation of St. Louis, March 31, 1960. Honig, Harry D., Jr. Letter from Radio and Television Director of Batz-Hodgson-Neuwoehner, Inc., St. Louis, April 22, 1960. KMOX-TV. ”The Changing Mind." Publicity release of December 4, 1959. (Mimeographed.) . ”KMOX-TV to Present ’Challenge’--New Educational Series Beginning Sunday, September 28." Publicity release of September 19, 1958. (Mimeographed.) "’P.S. 4': New Television Series to Exploit Community Education." Publicity release of Janu- ary 7, 1960. (Mimeographed.) Nielsen Station Index. New York: A. C. Nielsen, Inc., 1958-1963. Wilkey, Eugene B. "First Annual Broadcast News Workshop-- Seminar Conducted by the University of Missouri School of Journalism.” Paper read at Columbia, Missouri, November 12, 1959.. (Mimeographed.) "A Manager’s View of the Plusses and Minuses in News.” Paper read before the School of Journalism’s Radio—TV Short Course, University of Minnesota, February 6, 1960. (Mimeographed.) r1, , I: . ASCII"! {Iifj ! f a J" . ’ #1. in .# i t I. ...-Hm, w T . .. . ,. Ff? “Pm.“ s. . .- 9 ' ‘V', 0‘ ‘ “. 2 r‘ .AM’." M ...... .._ '- n. .. 5 w RGQNI U312 C ,LY /\ 1 ‘ ... ' . _ t 011".” “AL“ , .