RECOMMENDATEGNS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT 0F TELEVISKDN IN TURKEY Thesis fee the Dog?“ 09' M. A. MECHIGAN STATE UNNER$ITY Sumer Mal-me? Biiaydfi Wfifl- Jmmumm W W ”I. 3 12 3 OO_8_75 6896 V L 3‘“ LIBRARY g I‘viichiganSHm !' University I . CE W RETURN BOX m on or bdom LA TO AVO|D FINES rem \FDATE DUE DATE DUE D o IN to remove this chockom from your record. date 6W ATE DUE _________——-—-— g”; ”"JQ 2,... _........J I: x. . MSU ts An Afiirmdivo ActiorVE _ .- _/’H qual Opportunity Institution or)“: '/ _.,_..—- ABSTRACT RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF TELEVISION IN TURKEY by Sumer Mehmet Bileydi Mankind is continously striving to improve the sc0pe, range, speed, and efficiency of communication devices. Great progress has been made in this effort through the use of inventions based upon discoveries of scientific principles. One of his most recent achievements is television. TeleviSion, combining the immediacy of radio and the dynamics of the mo- tion picture, has already proved itself to be a medium of communication with considerable influence on human behavior. The addition of color has enhanced this even more. As such, it has merited the concern of Turkish broadcasters as a potential tool of communication for their country. Last year the Turkish government, after considering evidence pre- sented by West German and Turkish communication research groups in support of the potential value of television, allo- cated the necessary funds for a Turkish television network. The purpose of this study is to prOpose a set of policy recommendations for the orderly deve10pment of television in Turkey. Specifically, the problem involves decisions regard- ing policies and ways of (1) administering stations, (2) financing stations, (3) considering such questions as the relationship of stations to each other and the relation- ship of the stations to the Turkish Broadcasting Ministry, and (H) solving programming problems. The author has studied the background of broadcasting in both Turkey and the United States; following are the conclusions based on that study: a) Television is an effective and acceptable mass communication device and is a significant educational force. b) As such, it can and must be used and directed by responsible communication experts and government agencies. c) The existing structure and purposes of American commercial television systems cannot lend themselves to the long range needs and purposes for the educational use of television in Turkey. d) In Turkey, multiple facilities in the form of govern- ment owned television stations are necessary for nation- wide coverage. e) Nationwide coverage should be planned. f) Government control of programming can and should be kept to a minimum. 3) Ways and means have been develOped to prevent politi- cal control of the Turkish press, film and radio systems. Similar protection for the television stations must be develOped through the democratic process. h) Local responsibility for program planning, presenta- tion and utilization must be accepted and protected. i) Autonomy in the administration of local television stations in general should be comparable to the autonomy of the Turkish local radio stations. 3) Local television stations should be administered and Operated by local television districts or by a government chartered corporate body. k) Formation of legally defined television districts, coterminus with the reception area of the station having taxing authority should be effected. l) The Turkish Broadcasting Ministry should provide all its services to the television stations. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF TELEVISION IN TURKEY By Sumer Mehmet Bileydi A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Radio and Television Approved: _//fl7 é "’ ' , This thesis is dedicated to my wife, Lois, whose assistance, c00peration, and patience made its completion possible. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer wishes to eXpress his appreciation to his major professor and adviser, Dr. Gordon Gray. Dr. Gray has given many suggestions for carrying out this research and has been very helpful in his review and criticism. The writer is also indebted to Mr. Altemur Kilic, chairman of the Turkish National Television Committee, and Dr. Adnan Ataman, television director of Istanbul Technical University, for their helpful suggestions and to the Turkish Broadcasting and Press Ministry Research Bureau for making available the Television Survey Data. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS A013; OWL ED G143 i“; T S O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O 0 LIST OF TABLES O O 0 O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O C 0 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter I. II. 111. IIqTL-I‘ODUCTIOIU’ O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O The Problem Procedures for Studying the Problem Limitation of the Study Procedures in Gathering Data HISTORY AND PRESENT STATUS OF U.S. TELEVISION Introduction The Experimental Stage Beginnings of Commercial Television in the U.S.A, Beginnings of Educational Television in the U.S.A. Status in the U.S.A., 1962 Programming and Policy DevelOpment of U.S. Television Conclusion HISTORY AND PRESENT STBTUS OF TURKISH BRUMCAST-LIIG C O ,0 O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Introduction to the Turkish Broadcasting System ‘ Programming Policy in Turkish Radio Early Turkish Television EXperiments Recent Efforts to Establish Television Stations Importance of the Five-Year Plan Increased Activities for Turkish Television Role of the Ministry of Broadcasting Television Committee Meeting Called by the Ministry of Broadcasting Broadcasting Ministry's Action Resulting from the National Television Committee'S Meeting i v Page iii vi vii 5 21 Chapter Page lV. CONFLICTS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF TURKISH TELEVISIOIJ o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o O 0 1+2 Introduction Failure of the Legislature to Approve Bills Affecting Television The Conflict of MetrOpolitan vs. Rural Areas The Conflict of Network vs. Local Control Conflictngesulting from Fear of Competition Conclusion V. DEVELOPMENT OF TELEVISION PLANS IN TURKEY-- ‘ PRELII‘IIINARY STAGES o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 0 50 Introduction Television Is Broadcasting Engineering Aspects: The Sterchen Preliminary Engineering Report on a Television System for Turkey , Capital Outlay Required for Television acilities for Turkey Operational Casts Programming Method of Financing Actions and Policies of the Ministry of Broadcasting and the National Television Planning Committee Regarding Television Analysis of the 1962-63 Turkish Legislative Situation VI. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR TURKISH TELEVISION DBVELOP~ I'LEN’T O o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 o o o o o O O 66 A Point of View Definition of the Policy Recommendations The Rationale for the Policy Recommendations Basic Assumptions of the Policy Recommendations The Units of the Turkish Television Organization ._.V'\ BI BM OGRAP 1-HT 0 O 0' 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 78 Table 1. LIST OF TABLES The Growth of United States Television vi Page 12 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Page 1. Some Comparisons of the Size of Turkey to EurOpean Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 2. Location of PrOposed Television Stations in Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 3. Pepulation Density Map of Turkey . . . . . . . 55 vii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Man's search to increase the sc0pe and range of his abili- .ty to communicate parallels the develOpment of civilization. The evolution from primitive gutteral sounds to complex lan- guages and from crude symbols to written works is indicative of the never-ending search for ways to communicate more accurately, faster, and further. As the scientific method reveals the truths of the uni- verse, man moves forward to greater achievements in his quest for better communication. As researchers have discovered physical, chemical and electronic principles, others like Morse, Edison, Marconi and DeForest, building invention upon invention, have produced the telegraph, telephone, motion picture, radio, and now television. These inventions have set into motion economic and cul- tural changes, created new problems, made life more complex, and at the same time they have made possible a more pleasant, safer, and better life. ‘ Though television is the latest deveIOpment of mass com- munication, no other invention has had greater influence on speech and thought in our daily lives since Gutenberg's printing by movable type.1 lLee DeForest, Television Today and Tomorrow (New York: The Idea Press, 19%2), p. 3%2. -1- -2- In effect, television combines radio and the motion pic- ture to create a new medium of communication having great appeal to the listener—viewer and an unusual effect on behavior. This is exemplified in its involvement of the American public. While accurate prewar figures on the production of televiSion sets is unavailable, it is estimated that not more than 8,000 sets were made before World War II. In 1946, 6,476 sets were produced,2 and in August, 1762 there were 52,580,000 sets in American homes.3 Television broadcasting has now come into its own as a dynamic force in the entertainment, education and advertising world. Using the talents and techniques of its contemporar- ies in these fields, it offers an endless variety of program material ranging all the way from the facts of everyday news to the fancies of a classical ballet. In the world television survey of 1962 by Television.Agg magazine, #5 out of 60 countries already had television, and. the rest were in stages of eXperimentation, construction, or consideration.# This report shows how rapid has been the development of television in its short history. The growth of television since World War II is the result of the quick awareness of its importance by the West I '2Television Digest, No. 15, July 15, 1952- Television Digest w t .ElectronicReports, Watt Bldg., Wash., D.C. 3"Market Reports," Tglevision, August, 1962, p. 39. aaaaaaaaa 1+Television Age, July 23, 1962. (international Issue). -3- and the East. It is a tool for educational, commercial, industrial, scientific and prOpaganda purposes. During the years from the end of werld War Il until 1960, Turkey was unable to establish television because of economic instability and tremendous defense eXpenses. The Problem The purpose of this study is to prOpose a set of policy recommendations for the orderly develOpment of television in Turkey. Specifically the problem involves decisions regarding policies and ways of (l) administering stations, (2) financing stations, (3) considering such questions as the relationship of stations to each other within their broadcast area and relationship of the stations to the Ministry of Broadcasting and other agencies of government which may be concerned, and (4) handling problems of programming.5 Procedures for Studying the Problem Progress has already been made in Turkey on both the national and local levels leading to the use of the channels allocated by the central government. These develOpments are herein critically examined for their implications to a nation- wide plan. Numerous factors involving engineering and technical problems, location of stations, organization and administra- tion, personnel requirements, costs, methods of financing, 5 To be considered only in terms of policy. -4- and programming policies to meet telecasting objectives are also considered in this study. Limitation of the Study Because the study has been limited to a television plan for Turkey, the treatment of technical, engineering, financing, and political aspects is limited to the situation in this country. Since production and utilization problems become matters of greater concern after a plan has been devised, they are discussed briefly and only in terms of broad policies. Procedures in Gathering_Data Procedures in gathering data for the study have included: 1. A study of documents concerning what has been done in other countries. (Special attention is given to the UOSOA.) a. Consultation with American educational televi- sion specialists. b. Consultation with American commercial television Specialists. 2. A study of what has been done in Turkey including: . Committee and confe: ence reports. b. Publisiied and unpublished reports covering devel0pments in this country. 0. Study of plans of the Turkish State Planning Committee on Television. CHAPTER II HISTORY AND PRESENT STATUS OF U.S. TELEVISION Introduction When change is introduced into a culture, the results are not entirely predictable; it would not be realistic to assume that the introduction of television into the Turkish culture is any exception. We cannot study television as an isolated phenomenon; the medium does not exist in an isolated form. Rather, television takes on the social and economic colora- tions of its host country. Any study of the medium must consider these colorations. With this caveat in mind, the following pages examine the development of television, focusing primarily on the United States where the medium has deveIOped rapidly and extensively. The Experimental Stage The history of television begins with the dawn of man's understanding of electrical phenomena. More than two mil- leniums elapsed from Tnales' observation in 6h0 B.C. that rubbed amber attracted straw to William Gilbert‘s treatise, "De Magnete,“ in 1640 A.D. During these two thousand years man learned little about electricity. Another fifty odd years transpired between Gilbert's "De Magnete," which recognized electricity as a force, to Robert Boyle's experiments showing -5- -6- that electric attraction takes place through a vacuum. Then, with ever-increasing Speed new discoveries took place. Suc- cessively Newton, 1666; Stephen Gray, 1676; Benjamin Franklin, 17H9; and Alessandro Volta,l800, established the existence of the spectrum, that electricity could be conducted from one point to another, that lightning was an electrical phenomenon, and electricity could be generated by a battery.1 By 1873 it was discovered that selenium possesses the prOperty of transforming charges of electricity. Eleven years later a German patent was issued for a system of conveying motion over wires with electricity. The invention utilized a rotating disc or scanning device, which examined the scene and directed it into points of light which were conveyed suc- cessfully over a single electric circuit. Although selenium and rotating discs played their part in stimulating the growth of television, neither is used in modern electronic television.2 The foundations of electrical knowledge have been fur- ther laid down and extended by sucn men as Sir Humphrey Davy, Andre M. Amphere, George Simon Ohm, Sir Charles Wheatstone, Michael Faraday, William Crookes, Samuel Morse, Edward Davy, Thomas Edison, Guglielmo Marconi, Lee DeForest, V. K. Zwory- kin, Philo Farnsworth, and others. In 1923 Vladimir K. Zwory- kin patented the iconosc0pe tube. The iconosc0pe was the 1Orin E. Dunlap, Jr., Radio and Television Almanac (New York: Harper, Brothers, 1951), pp. 1-26. 26. F. Seehafer & a. w. Laemmar, Successful Television and Radio Advertising (new YUIK: McGraw~Hlll, 1959), pp. 9— 13. -------------- -7- "eyen of the first electronic television camera which observed the scene and made it possible to televise it elec- tronically. This is historically the transition from the mechanical to the electronic era of television technology. In 1925 a British experimenter transmitted what is con- sidered to be the first television in motion, and three years later one of his programs was received in the United States 2,500 miles from the London transmitter.3 In 1928, the first television stations were licensed ex- perimentally in the United States. In ensuing years most television stations discarded the mechanical scanning system for transmitting television signals and adOpted the electronic system. Numerous experimenters, including Philo Farnsworth and Allen B. Dumont, contributed to the deveIOpment of electronic television. As early as the 1930's, apprehension was expressed that television's introduction to the public would cause a panic because motion picture exhibitors had invested large sums in talking pictures, which investment might be lost if tele- vision became a reality.‘+ But in spite of such concerns, experimental stations continued their pioneering efforts with field tests, through outdoor pickups and indoor scenes from Broadway plays. After years of experimentation, television 3R. F. Yates, New Television: The Magic Screen (New York: Didier, T945), p. 970 “Education on the Air, Second Yearbook of the Institute for Education by Radio (Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State Univer- sity, 1930), p. 59. -8- was "officially“ introduced to the public as a service on April 30, 1939, when RCA and NBC featured President F. D. Roosevelt at the Opening ceremonies of the New York World's Fair.5 nginnings of Commercial Television in the U.S.A. The first commercial television station license was issued to WNBT (now WRCA-TV) in New Yerk in 1941. The second world war put an end to most television activity, and only six pioneer commercial television stations Operated during the war years. These included two network-owned stations, WNBT (NBC), WCBS-TV (CBS) in New York, and two manufacturer- owned stations, WPTZ (Philco) in Philadelphia, and WRGB (Gen- eral Electric) in Scnenectady.6 After the war, the number began to increase rapidly until, in September l9#8, the Fed- eral Communications Commission invoked its famous "freeze on the issuance of additional licenses for station construction. This freeze was imposed to enable the commission to study technological improvements, especially the practicability of using UHF channels for commercial television, to make engi- neering studies, and to prepare a master plan for the orderly development of the industry. Despite the freeze on new television station construction, the industry moved forward rapidly in the manufacture and sseehafer a Laemmar, pp. 9-13. 6Sydney W. head, Broadcastingrin America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1956), p. 157. -9- sale of receiving sets, the construction of microwave relay units for network facilities, and other activities calculated to expand and unify the industry. Public acceptance of television in the late 19#O's and early 1950's surpassed even the most Optimistic expectations. The public wanted television, and practically overnight television sets became commonplace in American homes. Cur- rently, over ninety per cent of all American homes have one or more television sets.7 These developments are summarized by Leo Bogart in his book, The Age of Television, as follows: By January 19%8, there were 102,000 sets in the nation, two thirds of them in New York. By April the number of sets had more than doubled. During that year nearly a million sets were manufactured, compared with 179,000 in 1947, and 6,500 in 1946. During 19%8, the number of stations on the air increased from 17 to #1, the number Of cities served from 8 to 23. Set production increased more than 500 per cent over 19k7, the audience more than A,OOO per cent. During the period of the "freeze", which lasted until July 1952, television was confined within the reception range Of nearly three-fifths of the United States pOpulation. The lifting of the "freeze" brought about a new boom in television as seventy new channels in he UHF band were added to the original twelve in VHF. Beginnings of Educational Television in the U.S.A. Parallel to the develOpment Of television for commercial purposes were pioneer efforts in applying television to 7Television Magazine, Aug. 1962, p. 138. 8Leo Bogart, The Agg Television (New York: Frederick Ungar, 1958), pp. 8e13.. -10- education. During the 1930fs three institutions of higher learning held experimental licenses. They were Purdue University, Kansas State COllege, and the State University Of Iowa. Most notable among these early eXperiments was the station Operated at the State University of Iowa from 1923 to 1939.9 More systematic and frequent attempts to apply television to education began in l951. The 1951 Federal Communications Commission allocation hearings resulted in a nation-wide reservation of television channels for education. In April, 1952 as a result of those hearings, the Federal Communications Commission established a new kind of entity, the non-commercial educational television station, and reserved 2H2 channels for their broadcast use. During this year and the eleven to follow, educational television developed along the following lines: (1) educational telecasts especially designed for schools, (2) public service broadcasts used educationally, (3) adult education by television, and (A) college workshops in television. A "fourth network,u NET, a service of the National Educational Television and Radio Center (NETRC) has been develOped to meet the needs of this new dimension in education. The purpose of NETRC is to aid in the exchange, circulation, and develOpment of quality films and kineSCOpes to be used by educational television stations. 9Leo Martin, "The Educational Television Station,“ Television's Impact on American Culture, ed. Nilliam Y. EllIott (E..Lansing, Mich.:. MIch. State Univ. Press, 1956), pp. 198-199. ‘ -11- These educational television stations are linked together by the NETRC which each week furnishes seven-and—a-half hours of programs on film or kinesc0pe to each of the stations. The NETRC has no production resources of its own, but it does commission or purchase programs produced by non-affiliated television and film producers in the United States and in other cOuntries.1O .‘Status in the U.S.A.:lflég At the end or 1961, it was estimated that ninety-eight per cent of the population was within the service range area of at least one television station and that over seventy-five per cent were within range of two or more stations.11 Nearly 53 million television sets were in use with more than ninety per cent of the homes having one or more such sets.12 As the April 30, 1962, issue of BroadcastingMagagigg reported, Of 560 commercial television stations in Operation, #69 were VHF and 91 UHF. In addition to the commercial television stations, there are now 62 educationally-owned television stations, 56 of them holding non-commercial 101. Keith Tyler, "The Educational Television and Radio Center," Television's Impact on American Culture, ed. William Y. Elliott (E, Lansing, Mich.: Mich. State Univ. Press, 1956), pp. 225-266. * 11International Television Almanac (New York: Quigley, 1961), p..18#. , 121pm. -12- licenses. Twenty-eight more such stations are under construc- tion or in advanced stages of planning. Here is a dramatic illustration of what this growth has meant: TABLE 1 THE GROWTH OF U.S. TELEVISION* Stations Sets Year in Operation in Use 1948 17 189, 000 1952 108 10, 549, 000 1956 #96 36, 296,000 1960 576 50,300,000 1962 616 52, 580,000 Sources: A. William Bluem, John F. Cox and Gene McPherson, Television in the Public Interest (New York: Hastings House, 1961), p. 181 "II arket Reports," 2212- vision, August, 1962. _ In 1961 the Federal Communications Commission and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration granted the American Telephone and Telegraph Company permission to orbit a series Of satellites (Telstars) on which a new world-wide communications system would be based. Telstar was launched on July 10, 1962. Hours later it was used for history's first relay Of television pictures and sound track from 3,500 miles in the sky. The program, aimed at television sets in the United States, was received in France and England as well. Next day, further history was recorded when France sent taped television scenes of Parisian night life into American homes and the British followed the next day with the first '1ive' East-to-West transatlantic television. -13- With the launching Of Telstar, the United States raised the curtain on intercontinental television and Opened a whole new epoch in the art of communications. Success with Tel- star's early experiments points the way to international television in three to five years because a dependable 2%- hour communications system covering the inhabited parts Of the earth would require many more satellites; some signals would pass through two or more relays before reaching their destinations. Also, Telstar is one of several types of eXperimental communications satellites planned by the United States to determine which is best for global communications systems.13 But the final decision on the kind of satellite to be used depends on United States government policy and also on foreign governments, which will surely demand voices in any world-wide system of communication. According to Television Age magazine, there are 117,H75,85o television sets in.use throughout the world today. North America accounts for more than half of this total, with 61,665,000 sets.1# Programming and Policy DevelOpment of U.S. Television Llewellyn White, in his history of American broadcasting, identifies the following periods in the history Of government regulation of broadcasting: ‘13"re1star's Triumph," Time, July 20, 1962, p. 3o. 14 ' ' Television Age. -1h- The laissez-faire period, 1922-1927 The traffic-control period 1927-1932 The cleanup period, 1932-1937 The trust-busting period, 1937-194# 1 5) The public—service era, from 194% on15 -F'UJ N A vw-Vv Radio during the early years was controlled under the Old Radio Act of 1912, which empowered the Secretary of Commerce to issue licenses Specifying frequency of Operation. Prior to 1922, licensees were primarily maritime stations and a few amateurs; but when broadcasting "arrived," the number of applicants increased greatly. The courts held that the Secretary of Commerce was required to issue licenses and to assign frequencies to all applicants. But as the transmitters increased in number, they began to interfere with one another. HOpes for self-regulation Within the industry were not realized and members of the industry began to look to the federal government for relief from the traffic congestion on the airways. In 1927, a new Radio Act was legislated, asserting the federal government's right to regulate all forms of radio communication within the United States through a system of licensing to be administered by a Federal Radio Commission. (This authOrity became the Federal Communications Commission under the new Communications Act of 1934.) In licensing stations, the Federal Communications Commission has sought to select those with a grass—roots interest in their communities. Economics, however, has A15Llewe11yn White, The American Radio (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1947), Chapter 7. -15- eroded this "local institution" concept. Multiple-station ownership is increasing, so is network programming. Any local station faces an enormous task-~filling over 100 hours a week with programs. Local live programs are expensive and hard to develOp. Buying film is expensive. SO the local sta- tion affiliates with a network. It pays nothing for the net- work's programs, which cost $100,000 or mere an hour to produce. The network already has sold the time to national advertisers, and each local station gets about half the net revenue from the sale Of its time.16 And it can easily sell spot announce- ments adjacent to them. Its temptation is simply to plug in the network and relax. At television's beginning, comedians and variety shows dominated. Then came the period Of serious live drama, then the quiz shows, when 51 million peOple watched "The p64,000 Question." The Western arose--Maverick, Gunsmoke, and the rest. Peter Gunn started a cycle of private—eye shows, "77 Sunset Strip," and "The Untouchables." Finally came the cartoon show. Situation comedies and soap Operas have remained pupular. Over the years television has achieved its greatest triumphs in the field of serious live public affairs and sufferedits greatest disaster--the quiz scandals--in the field of foolish escapist entertainment. One of its great63t '1165eehafer a Laemmar, pp. 7-19. -15- hours came when, during the Kefauver crime hearings, it televised Frank Costello's hands. "You felt an excitement about it in those days," Jack Gould, New York Times critic, said a while bacx.17 "The best television is actuality. The time they showed Toscanini's face while he was conducting-~te1evision alone could do that, the Army-McCarthy hearing, the l960 pOlitical convention, and the United Nations Debates. And live network drama-- Playhouse 90, Studio I, Kraft Theater, Pnilco Theater." Today live television is virtually dead, killed by tape and film. Film can be resold and rerun, as a live show cannot, thereby enormously increasing profits. Film programs are cheaper than live. Following the quiz scandals, Frank Stanton, president of CBS, told the Federal Communications Commission: American television is (1) a mass medium of communications, (2) Operating as but one part of the whole of society of this nation, (3) under a system of free competitive enterprise, and (9) supported exclusively by advertising revenues.16 Elaborating, he emphasized, "Television is a mass medium. It is not an elite medium." Moreover, "We cannot force peOple to like what they don't like." And, "We must face the fact that it is a major part of our function to try to appeal to most of the peOple most of the time." Broadcasters are required by law to serve the public interest. 17GOuld, Jack, "TV Spectacular-~The Minow Debate." New York Times Magazine, May 28, 1961. pp. 12-15; H6-48. 18W. October 20, 1959. 13.1.2. -17- "I suggest that a program in which a large part of the audience is interested is by that very fact a program in the public interest. On the other hand, this is not the whole definition of the"public interest'. Not for a moment do I suggest that a program in which only a minority is interested is by that fact contrary to the public interest." The broadcaster should decide what programs to broadcast. In the early years, when an advertiser told his adver- tising agency that he wanted to advertise on television, the agency itself would produce a program or employ an independ— ent producer or buy an existing program. Then it would take the program to the network, buy network time, and put the program on the air. Today, the idea for a new show may originate with a television film maker in Hollywood. He gets a script written, films a pilot episode, then tries to sell it to a netWork or an advertiser. The idea may originate with a network which either produces a pilot itself or gets a film maker to produce one, then tries to sell it to advertisers. What goes on the air is the result of a tremendous pulling and hauling among networks, advertisers, their agencies, film makers, local stations and talent agencies. The balance of power shifts. At present the networks dominate. In the final analysis, however, it makes little differ- ence, for so long as television remains a commercial medium, everyone involved is interested primarily in one thing: capturing the mass audience. The larger the audience, the -18- cheaper the cost. This is the basic fact of life of American commercial television. Conclusion Starting only fifteen years ago, television has taken its place as one of our most important means for communicating news and entertainment. No single medium, not even radio or the motion picture, has enjoyed both the phenomenal growth and the extensive impact on our existing social patterns that television has had in so short a time.19 Since the per- fection of the coaxial cable and the microwave relay made coast-tO-coast television possible, it has forced radio to reconsider its position and method of Operation in the field of mass communication; it has seriously affected attendance at motion-picture theatres and compelled the motion picture industry to adOpt new techniques Of production. Leisure is increaSing, and most surveys show that peOple increasingly watch television. But one study suggests that evening viewing is declining.20 A few years ago, most intellectuals actively despised television. Today many of them simply ignore it. PeOple used to hurry home to watch certain programs. Not many do that today. It has lost momentum. Many peOple in the industry seem to wish that programs were better but feel that there is little they can 19Joseph T. Klapper, The Effects of Mass Communicatiog (Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1960}, Chapters VI, VII, and VIII. ' 20Leo Bogart, pp. 65-88. -19- dO to improve them. Television has major limitations. It is, first, a mass medium. Television's audience numbers 130 million. Is this really an audience at all? The members of an audience at a serious Broadway play have several things in common--they care enough about serious drama to spend several dollars for tickets and to make the trip to the theater. But what can 130 million peOple have in common? "Mass audience" in this sense is something new in history. Since all the peOple can be reached, television tries to reach them all. This is expensive. Advertisers pay for it. This is American television's second limitation: it is commercial. Much has been said about who decides what pro- grams shall be presented. This decision is the result Of a tug of war among networks, local stations, advertisers, their agencies, film makers, and talent agencies. All these forces wish to reach the largest possible audience at the cheapest possible cost.. What really controls is money.' Businessmen, not creative peOple, run television. For the sake of getting a big audience inexpensively, they present violence. For the sake of profits, they tOO Often have all but thrown away television's finest asset--its ability to transmit into homes pictures of things while they are happening . American broadcasters say the peOple decide what will be on television and they call this finfltural democracy--'give what the public wants'“--. -20- But in a political democracy, the rights of minorities are respected. In American television's "cultural democracy," the rights of minorities are all but ignored. If a majority favors Westerns, then all must watch Westerns or turn off the set. This is the reverse Of democracy. In view of the present status Of American programming, professor Walter Emery says: There can be no doubt . . . that much of the programming on radio and television is stereo- typed, that we need more variety, and that there should be more broadcast time given over during the best listening hours to programs dealing with critical social, economic, and political problems of the day.21 Nobody knows in what ways peOple want television improved. The peOple themselves cannot really know. Only the broad- casting leaders, not the peOple, can improve television. Given American television's mass audience and commer- cialism, it is extremely doubtful that American network leaders can improve television. How, then, can American television be improved? Some people consider pay television, still unproved, the solution. Some look hOpefully to educational television, which has so far been disappointing. Some think increasing competition by utilizing UHF channels would diversify programs. And there are some peOple, including the author, who think that only direct government intervention can improve the programming. A government network could be established which would serve as a programming yardstick. 21Walter B. Emery, "Government and Broadcasting in a Free Society" Working paper on "Freedom and Responsibility in Broadcasting " presented at the 30th institute for Educa- tion by Radio-TV, Ohio State Univ., May u-7, 1960. p. 19. CHAPTER III HISTORY AND PRESENT STATUS OF TURKISH BROADCASTING Introduction to the Turkish Broadcasting System Middle Eastern broadcasting is Often mistakenly described as completely government-controlled, censored, and directed by the party in power in a country. In reality, three different forms of broadcasting Opera- tion and organization exist in the Middle East: 1) A broadcasting system completely controlled and run by the government. 2) A broadcasting system which is under the control of the government. 3) A broadcasting system in which the technical Opera- tion is run by a government organization but in which the programs are planned and run by a private or semi-private company which has Obtained the concession for Operation.1 1Three experts on international mass communications have recently found it convenient to view the communications systems of the world under four major theories: (1) Soviet- Communist; (2) Libertarian; (3) Social Responsibility; and (h) Authoritarian. Under the first theOry may be grouped most of the communications systems of Communist countries. Here the mass media are committed to carrying out Communist theory and policy to the masses, rallying support for the Party and government. The Libertarian theory dominates the Anglo-American and many other Western countries. Emphasis is upon the freedom of the media, especially from government control. Also in the Anglo-American tradition is the third -21- -22- Turkish broadcasting fits most completely into the second category. The wave-length question was obvious in Turkey from the beginning of broadcasting and this put responsibility into parliamentary hands early in broadcast- ing history. The Turkish Radio Organization became a public utility and its management was given into the care of a board of governors appointed by the prime minister and answerable to him through the Ministry of Press and BroadcaSting. Radio is the chief communication medium in Turkey. While there are 303 daily newspapers, the greatest barrier to the press is the high rate of illiteracy. Nearly 60 per Cent of the peOple cannot read a newspaper.2 Radio is bridging Turkey's great distances, and it can be understood by all the many millions who cannot read news- papers. Radio is, therefore, the one medium which can make news flow across the nation, break down provincialism, and preserve national unity. When radio first came to Turkey in 1925, the Department Of Communications made the Turkish Post, Telegraph and theory which places more emphasis upon the moral and social responsibilities Of persons who Operate the mass media. The last philOSOphy, the Authoritarian, was characteristic of the earlier EurOpean situation and is still current in some countries, Often in the less industrialized areas, such as the Middle East. Under this theory the media are clearly subordinate to the state and are restrained from major criticisms of the government. (F. Siebert, T. Peterson, and W. Schram , Four Theories of the Press -- Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, I 956 d C. R. Wright, Mass *COmmunication -- New YOrk: Random House, 1959.) . 2Turkish National Bureau 01 the Census, Nineteen Hundred Sixty Census of Turkey. Ankara, Turkey. p. lo. -23-. . Telephone Board (P.T.T.) responsible for the technical end of the system. (It should be mentioned that quite a number of pioneer clubs had been formed befOre 1925 throughout the country and had purchased small transmitters.) Radio Ankara was the pioneer station, and.found its voice during the first. years of the new Turkish Republic. From the feeble murmur Of the 250-watt station in 1925, Radio Ankara has in 37 years grown into a voice of 20,000 watts. Turkey has 8 radio stations at the present time Spread out over the entire country. The largest one is at Ankara, and others are at Izmir, Ezurum, Adana, Antalya, and Malatya. There are two in lstanbul. In spite or the fact that Turkey because of her geo— graphic length and tOpography is not a country favorable to good radio reception, especially for her eastern and southeast regions, Turkey has about 1.5 million licensed radios for a pOpulation Of 28 million.3 Radio's influence cannot be measured in terms of the number of radio receivers because radio listening is a community habit in Turkey. PeOple sit in cafe houses to lis- -ten to mu31c and news; they congregate in public parks to lis- ten tO the nightly roundup of news; they eXpect their neighbors who have radio sets to let them listen if some big event is taking place. In villages throughout the country, the government-installed community sets broadcast music and news. 3WOrld Communications: Preps, Radio, Film, Television (Paris, UNESCO,-l956) p. 58. A . . -2H- Many schools have their own sets. Those who have listened pass the news on to their friends and neighbors. Turkish radio is government controlled. In truth, there was no alternative--private enterprise had neither capital nor the technical knowledge to undertake setting up a radio industry. Industry, furthermore, was in no position to support radio through advertising. Neither could radio be supported by a radio receiver tax, as is the British Broad- casting Corporation. - The revenue of the Turkish Radio Organization is COllected by the Postmaster General from all owners of receiving sets. Every owner of a radio set pays a license fee of $3 per year. Even tOday 1.5 million sets in Turkey would produce a revenue of about $415 million, far short Of the Turkish Radio Organization‘s annual budget of $9,3%0,000, most of which, therefore, has to be provided by parliamentary apprOpriations.1+ At the present time, the Turkish Radio Organization is under the care of a board of governors appointed by the prime minister and answerable to him through the Ministry Ongroadcasting. Having satisfied itself that this was the prOper authority to have charge of broadcasting, Parliament gave the Board complete permission to carry on radio broad- casting as a public service. I The Board of Governors of the Turkish radio consists Of seven members selected from various interest groups. ‘hResmi'Gazete, March, 1962, p. 2. -25- There is also a government committee composed of nineteen persons, which acts as a critic of the program system.5 Public Opinion and the press are always on guard to see that such domination and interference do not occur. They want the system to be directed with effectiveness and at the same time with impartiality. In a report to Parliament concerning the radio question, the Minister of Press and Broadcasting recently said that the programs should be managed completely by those responsible for them. Programming POlicy in Turkish Radio In Turkish radio there are no programs Sponsored by advertisers. The program directors have tried to strike a happy medium between light and heavy programs. Generally speaking, more than half the time is devOted to music. The Turkish radio does not want to be considered as only a cultural institution, Neither does it want to become merely an entertainment source. instead, it aims at being a forum for all the varying interests which today are present in a modern democratic society. Consequently, STurkish BroadcastinggLaw: As constituted under the Turkish fBroadcastingfifaw trusteeship for "the national interest in broadcastinga is vested in a Board of Governors which lays down the general direction of policy, while day- tO-day management is entrusted to the General Director. Although the Turkish Radio Organization is autonomous in the sense that it is free from Parliamentary direction, its Operation is supervised by government through its Broadcasting Ministry. Certain sections of the law mighm make it appear that the Turkish Radio Organization is entirely subservient to the government. Thus, the government may appoint and dismiss the directors, assign or withold radio frequencies and television channels. -26- the Turkish radio devotes a great deal of energy to building up interesting and entertaining educational programs, as well as to bringing wholesome light entertainment to the public. As far as the spoken word is concerned, the radio has eXperimented in two fields. One is concerned with reports from the Turkish country sections and the life of the every- day Turk. The other is concerned with political and social education in the form Of free discussions and other programs. For the country reports, recording vans are used that are specially equipped with recording apparatus. With these vans, roving reporters travel across the country interview- ing persons from various professional and social groups. They have tried to Obtain interviews that would be Sponta- neous and realistic as well as interesting and have attempted to project the real voice Of the peOple without the use of manuscripts or rehearsals. As a result, a number of unusu- ally interesting interviews with typical representatives from various groups have been presented. Quick comebacks, outspoken Opinions, and humor have not been lacking in the replies to the reporters' questions. Because they are genuine, these everyday pictures of the peOple have become both valuable and pOpular programs, made by the listeners themselves in the different sections Of the country. Most of these programs have been recorded and there- fore constitute a unique reference library of the Turkish peOples' manners and speeches as well as their way of life. -27- So far as political and social programs are concerned, the Turkish radio has been successful in trying the free— discussion method. Preparation has consisted only of a time schedule and rehearsals of the different speakers' tOpics in general. The form for the discussions and the polemic replies have come forth naturally in the course of the program. In this manner some very exciting spontaneous debates have been put on the air. ln the political programs, each party representative and his adjutant have participated. They were questioned by journalists. The journalists and the party leaders did not meet before these broadcasts. There were no rehearsals, and the party leaders had no prior knowledge of the questions to be fired at them. Parliamentary debate programs are being recorded to air the most important arguments of the speeches of the members of parliament with their analyses. Turkish radio also regularly Offers a series of very fine lectures. Well-known scientists in different fields have presented the results of their research in layman's language, understandable to the broad masses. The radio theatre has been particularly pOpular with Turkish listeners, and Turkish Radio has sponsored extensive contests to stimulate native authors to write good radio dramas. But the quality and range of dramatic programs is still limited. Most stations broadcast one or two major plays a week, usually on Saturday and Sunday nights. It is Often -28- an adaptation Of a national play written for the stage or the translation of a foreign play. Turkish Radio's microphones reach out to the most remote sections of the country to bring the people eye-witness accounts of events of national significance such as cele- brations, inauguration ceremonies, military pageants, and Speeches of national leaders. It has done a great deal with Sports which are very pOpular. All stations broadcast play- by-play accounts of major sports events--soccer games, bas- ketball tournaments, wrestling, and boxing matches. Documentaries which present the story of the country's economic, industrial, and educational progresS receive spe- cial attention from the peOple. Radio commentators in their 15-minute talks eXplain some national problem to the peOple. Such Speeches play an important part in spoken word programs and serve to educate listeners. In addition to these general programs for all listeners, Special programs are broadcast for particular groups. All stations broadcast a three-hour program every week for women listeners. This originates from Radio Ankara and is relayed to all regional stations. A woman master of ceremonies conducts the program, which will often include a short play, a chat on women's problems, a short talk on fashion or recipes, and music requested by women listeners. Every station broadcasts a "Children's HOur" twice a week with stories, music, quizzes, and educational speeches -29- University students have their own program on which panels of students discuss questions Of special interest to them. Every Friday morning, transmission begins with a reading from the Koran for the benefit of Moslems. There are some religious services broadcast from mosques and equal facilities for all minority religions to broadcast readings from their scriptures are permitted. News broadcasts and commentaries are some of the most important items of radio programs in Turkey. Turkey's news broadcasts are a network Operation. Apart from some regional and Special newscasts, all news programs originate in the capital, Ankara, and are relayed by six regional stations-- Istanbul, Erzurum, Izmir, Adana, Antalya, and Malatya. The newscasts are prepared by Radio Ankara's news organi- zation, consisting Of a director of news, a chief news editor, seven news editors, five assistant news editors, and five sub-editors. Another ten editors are placed at the regional stations. They not only prepare local newscasts, but also collect news and transmit it to the Ankara center for network news broadcasts. ' News flows into the general news room at Ankara in a steady stream around the clock. The Ankara network station for news service receives the Associated Press (AP), the United Press (UP), Reuters, Agence France Presse, Tass, Turkish News Agency (THA), and Agence Anatolie (AA). In addition, it monitors the news broadcasts from foreign -30- stations, notably BBC, Voice of America, Radio hoscow, Radio Cairo, Radio Peking, and others. Special short-wave programs are directed to countries abroad brom the Radio Ankara Network. Turkey has felt the need of the friendship Of her Moslem and non-communist neigh- bors in her "cold war" with the USSR. Hence, broadcasts to Greece, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Egypt, and Israel have an important part in Radio Ankara's foreign broad- casting program. Similarly, for prOpaganda purposes, foreign language programs are beamed to the communist satellite coun- tries Of Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Romania, Poland, East Germany, and Hungary. There are also programs for England, France, the United States, West Germany, Italy, Latin America, South- east Asia, South Asia, and South Korea. These foreign broad- casts are given in the following languages: Arabic, Bulgarian, English, French, German, SerbO-Croation, Spanish, Urdu, Push- tu, and Turkish for Turkish people living in foreign countries.6 All these broadcasts are Specially designed for foreign listeners, except the Turkish programs. Fifteen minutes out of each hour are devoted to the news of the world, of Turkey, and the country to which the program is beamed. The rest Of the pro- gram consists of music, features, Speeches, and commentaries designed to project Turkey and explain the principles for which it stands and the ideology of social Justice it represents. 6w0rid Communications, p. 560 -31- Early Turkish Televipion Exnerimenpg largely unrecorded. Some of the early history is available and is presented in this and later Chapters. Because the Broadcasting Ministry is the agency of the Turkish Government which has the responsibility for communi- cation in Turkey, it follows that the Broadcasting ministry has an important leadership role and responsibility in the develOpment Of television. It is for this reason that this study and in particular this chapter are concerned primarily with develOpments centered around the agencies Of the Broadcasting Ministry. Certain institutions such as the Istanbul Technical University in Istanbul, and Middle East Technical University in Ankara provided technical training in television through closed circuit systems, thus making it possible for students to have program planning and presentation experience. As a result of such eXperience, the institutions and the personnel involved in these closed-circuit projects have moved that much further in preparation for the final Objective of “going- on-the-air." In the Istanbul area the closed circuit television pro- ject at the Istanbul Technical UniverSity has been the first step in prOViding community leadership in efforts directed toward the community having a television station. The Istanbul Technical University Television station, lTUeTV,began Operation in Istanbul as TCUX, the first .32P eXperimental station in Turkey. A program was telecast over this Station on September 17, l996, at 4 p.m., entitled "Tele- vision on the Air." This program, written by the station staff of the Istanbul Technical University, is significant not only as one of the first television programs written and produced by Turkish broadcasters, but also because its title and content gave direction to the idea that one day television will become significant as a communication tool. At the end of 1976 there were fewer than 200 sets; six years later in June 1962 the number of television sets reached 5,000.7 Contimiing interest in the value of television at least as a means of informing the public about its environ- ment led the Istanbul Technical University TeleVision Board in 1975 to initiate a series of programs called "The World Around Us." Dr. Adnan Ataman, Director of ITU-TV, refers to this series as “our debut in television." An excerpt from his letter of April 2, 1962 to the author is revealing and pertinent for those concerned with the beginnings of the use of television by the largest university system in Turkey: We made our debut in television in 1998 with a series on lTU—TV called "The World Around Us" . All of these programs are for public information.5 Recent Efforts to Establish Television Stations Prominent Turkish peOple worked with the National Tele- vision Planning Committee. Especially the Chairman Of the 4'7Television A83, July 23, 1962. (International Issue) 8Letter'from Dr. Adnan Ataman, Director of ITU-TV, April 3, l962. -33- National Television Planning Committee, Mr. Altemur Kilic, and General Director of the Broadcasting Department, hr. Nejat Sonmez, gave leadership, either personally or through their associates, to the effort to establish television stations in Turkey. Sonmez and kilic were primarily interested in station assignments for lstanbul, Ankara and Izmir, while the Techni- cal Director Of Turkey's Broadcasting Department, hr. muzaffer Eke was concerned with the allocation of a sufficient number of channels to give the entire country reasonable coverage. As a member of the National Television Planning Committee, he was also vitally concerned with the national aspects of the problem and made frequent trips to Ankara, to testify before the State Planning Committee hearings.9 In each instance, these individuals had influential support from profeSSiOnal and lay organizations, other broadcasters and interested individuals. 'lncluded in the list of those who gave support were Abdi IpeKCl, General Secretary Of the Turkish Press Association; Dr. Adnan Ataman, Director of ITU—TV; Mr. Kamuran Evliyaoglu, Minister of Broadcasting and many others. Each of these individuals or their associates made repeated trips to Ankara to appear before the Turkish State Planning Committee and testify in support of television station allocations.1O 9Yeni‘Sabah (Istanbul), May 1, 1999, p. 2; October 7, L799, 130 l;ApI’.Ll 2, 1761, p. 3; and Jnly l7, 196l, p. 20 1OYeni Sabah. -34- The Turkish State Planning Committee released its first Five-fear plan,11 in which it proposed to allocate eight chhnnels for Turkish television network assignment. Immediately after the State Planning Committee's release of its Five-Year Plan, Mr. Nejati Sonmez wrote the author on August l7, 1962 regarding the Situation.12 At this time, the position of the Turkish Government and the views of Mr. Nejati Sonmez and his Broadcasting department in regard to television for Turkey could be summed up as follows: 1) The Turkish State Planning Committee is deeply and enthusiastically concerned with the educational potentiali- ties of television. Mr. Sonmez has personally and officially given every possible means of support to it by public state- ment, by testimony before the Turkish State Planning Committee, and by encouragement of the Broadcasting Ministry in its work regarding television. 2) As Director General of the Broadcasting Department, he has to be guided in what he or the Broadcasting Department 11Five-Year Plan. The main tasks in Turkey for the period from 1953 to 1968 will be the fulfillment Of the Five- Year Plan for the develOpment of the Turkish National Economy. The Five-Year Plan, laying the main emphasis on the peace- fuldevelOpment Of the economy and a rise in the living standards of the Turkish peOple, will at the same time facili— tate a further strengthening of the country's defense potential. This is stated in the speech of Ismet Inonu, the Prime Minister of Turkey, before the Turkish Parliament on May 20, l962. (Milli et Gazetesi, May 21, 1962, p. 1.) 12Letter from Mr. Nejati Sonmez, General Diredtor of the Broadcasting Hepartment, Ankara, Turkey. (August 17, 1962.) -35- could do by law. In this matter his position by policy and by tradition has to be consistently more conservative in the interpretation of law than a Broadcasting Director's might be. This is especially important in approving of public monies for use in potential station construction or Operation. To resolve this aspect of the problem he informed the author that an official request to the Prime Ministry would be made to clarify the matter. 3) It is considered of utmost importance that educational institutions in areas Where prOposed channels are indicated file the necessary application and plans of serious intent to use the television stations. 4) Consideration of the concept of local autonomy in public education, coupled with the fact that the Turkish Parliament had twice in the past refused support for a nation- wide educational radio system, led Mr. Sonmez to conclude that every effort should be made to avoid any action which might be considered justifiable evidence that the Broadcasting Department is interested in promoting a nation-wide system of educational television stations. importance Of the Five—Year Plan Since it would intimately affect every person throughout the nation, the Five-Year Plan of the Turkish State Planning Committee”was Of great moment. Release of the plan was important to economic as well as broadcasting interests. -35- To the broadcasters, the Five-Year Plan of the Turkish State Planning Committee, released on July 1%, 1962,13 rewarded the efforts of those who had worked for televiSion.11+ For the National Television Committee, which had spearheaded the action on behalf Of the broadcasters' interests, this was a signal of victory. The Five-Year Plan gave Official sanction to the belief that it was in the public interest for broadcasting agencies to have television stations reserved exclusively for their use. What had been a dream before the plan, became a legal reality with it. Increased Activities for Turkish Television Broadcasting leaders broadened the base of professional committees by including leading citizens; together they began to study in earnest ways and means of utilizing the new resource of communication available to them. Foremost in the develOpments were the activities in the Istanbul and Ankara areas. As reported earlier in this chap- ter, with the enthusiastic leadership of Mr. Altemur Kilic, Chairman Of the National Television Planning Committee, and 13Hurri et, July is, 1962, p. l. 1nThe coming five-year period will see the radical tech- nical changes, especially in the communications field. This is stated in the "DevelOpment of Transport and Communications" section of the Five-Year Plan. It follows: " . . . communi- cation will continue tO develOp . . . and while the length of radio relay communication lines will increase approximately six fold. During the five-year period, it is also planned to step up work in the develOpment Of Turkish television facili- ties for nationwide coverage . . . " (Yeni Sabah, July 16, 1962, pp. 1&4.) A -37- Others in Istanbul, the Istanbul Television Council was formed in 1961. With the allocation of a television channel to this area, the council was reorganized as a non-profit corporation, known as the Istanbul Television Association. While peOple in the Istanbul area engaged in the develOp- ment of station facilities, significant steps were being taken in the Ankara area. Mr. Vehbi Koc, millionaire philan- thrOpist, became interested in the potentialities of television. Mr. Nejati Sonmez, Director General Of the Broadcasting Depart- ment, made many trips to EurOpe, contributing his time, energy, and knowledge in support of television. He became a member Of the Board of EurOpean Union and served on many_other international committees and organizations actively advocating television. DevelOpments in the other areas assigned television channels have not been as spectacular. All, with the excep- tion of Istanbul and Ankara, are located in predominantly rural areas. They do not have the advantages Of the resources of a metrOpolitan pOpulation. AS community committees (usually formed as the result of the leadership of, or stimulation by, local broadcasterS)Z studied the problems Of using the channel in their area, they soon discovered that, while each community had peculiar problems, each also had common problems requiring consideration and solution at the level of local government. A plaguing question has been: Can tax monies be legally used for sta- tion construction? Others are: Can television districts be -38- established which will be coterminus with the reception area of'a station? What about the obvious waste arising from the duplication of effort in the production Of program materials if done by each station? Each local community in turn wanted to know what the other areas were doing. All were concerned with the attitude and actions of the Broadcasting Ministry. All looked to the Ministry for counsel. Thus, the Broadcasting Ministry and the members of its Broadcasting Department found themselves more and more involved with the problems posed by television. Role of the Minigtry of Broadcasting It must not be supposed that the staff of the Broadcasting Ministry was initially convinced that television might be as applicable to mass communication as is now accepted. However, as television develOpments began to unfold, the department staff sought to keep themselves informed. AS members of the department became more and more con- vinced that television was destined to play an increasingly important role in communication, certain guidelines evolved to give direction to the Broadcasting Department's Operations. These guidelines emerged gradually, changed from time to time, but in general they were as follows: 1) The Ministry of Broadcasting would assume responsibility ‘for exercising leadership with regard tO television within the Department Of Broadcasting. 2) The Ministry would provide pertinent information regard- ing television develOpments to the rest of the staff of Broadcasting agencies and stations. 'W -39- 3) In accordance with the Ministerial policy, the Broad- casting Department staff would strive to stimulate local interest and action and consult with local peOple. #) In providing whatever leadership it could, the Broad- casting Department staff would be mindful that untimely pro- motion and overt action could destroy its position Of leader- ship for the whole program in the nation. Television Committee Meeting Called by the Ministry of Broadcastipg Accordingly, the Ministry of Broadcasting appointed a National Television Planning Committee and called a meeting for April 28 and 29, 1961. The committee was composed of approximately seventy representatives from governmental agencies, nationwide organizations, television and radip Specialists, the press, industry, agriculture, finance, labor, and education, from those areas having television channels. The follbwing agenda was outlined by the Ministry Of Broadcasting prior to the meeting in a letter to all those who had responded to the Minister's invitation to be a committee member: 1) Why and what is television? 2) The role of the Ministry of Broadcasting and other governmental agencies in developing and using television. 3) Reports and discussions relative to Turkish regional television develOpments. -40- 4) Next steps . . . what should be done?15 Problems discussed by the delegates included the prOper role and conception of television, government rules and regulations pertaining thereto, organization, financing, programming, relationship between central network and local television stations, and specific plans for the use of the channels. Committee members continually raised questions about national develOpments since the allocation Of the stations, and more particularly, questions Of law pertaining tO the action of the Ministry of Broadcasting. At the end of the meeting, the Committee made two recom- mendations to the Ministry Of Broadcasting, as follows: 1) Steps should be taken to initiate an engineering survey of Turkey's television require- ments in terms of the number Of channels required for nation—wide coverage, locations of stations, and costs. 2) Members Of the Television Committee expressed the Opinion that the development of tele- vision was so important it needed further consideration by a much larger and more representative group.16 The Broadcasting Ministry's Action Resulting from the National Television Committee' 3 Meeti_g AS a result of the National Television Committee's discussions and further considerations of the problem, the Broadcasting Ministry promulgated four points emphasizing its position on the development of a television network in Turkey. They follows 15rur1em -36- The second phase covers the develOpment of station facilities in the approximate areas of Adana, Erzurum, Edirne and Izmir. The third phase covers the construction of a satellite or repeater stations serving in general, the most remote areas of the country. The locations of these stations, the maxi- mum potential broadcast area, and phases for developing the prOposed stations is shown in Figure 2.on page 53. A comparison of Figure 2, p. 53, with Figure 3, p. 55, will give a rough idea of the pOpulation density in the reception area of the prOposed stations. It Should.be noted that phases two and three of the Sterchen Report require the allocation of additional channels.by the Turkish government. Dr. Sterchen gives further information regarding the problem Of Obtaining additional channels as follows: It will be necessary, if these areas are to be served, to find channels for them and obtain their allocations from the Turkish Broadcasting Ministry and the EurOpean Broadcasting Union. Without making a complete study in each case, it is not possible to determine whether sufficient additional channels can be obtained or not. A rough check indicates that in the majority of cases at least, channels may be found. The problem then is to go through procedural steps to obtain their allocation.3 In concluding this brief presentation of pertinent engineering factors affecting the plan, it is important to note two things: (1) it Should be anticipated that central government financial assistance will be needed to provide television services in the remote, sparsely settled areas Of the country, and (2) stations using the channels already 3Turkish National Television Planning Committee, p. 29. -97- allocated can be engineered to prOVlde television services to 22,000,000 out of 30,000,000 people in Turkey at the time Of the 1960 Turkish census. This leaves only eight million persons to be provided services by the develOpment of the second and third phases of the plan. Capital Outlay Requiredr for Television Facilities for Turkey. No direct compariSOn Of the capital cost of a television station can be made with the capital cost of an American commercial television station. Obviously, the capital cost of any particular station can only be determined by exhaustive consideration of all the factors affecting its construction. It can be reasonably anticipated that all of the stations constructed in Turkey will be able to make a considerable saVing in capital outlay by using existing facilities such as sites owned by the government, radio and film studios already constructed, equipment donated by the United States and others. Regardless of the variable factors affecting the capital investment required to construct a television station, it is necessary to have some estimate to use as a baseline for considering over-all construction costs of the plan. While published estimates vary widely, it is the authOrS judgment that the carefully documented figures used by the Turkish National Television Planning Committee are reasonable to use for this study. Its statement regarding construction and anual Operating costs was as follows: -58- The Siemens Laboratories have estimated the capital cost of a basic professional television station at El, 267, 000 to $1,292, 000, and the annual Operating cost at $300, 000. Amortizing the investment over a five-year period, the real cost per year for one station would be $1,250 000 or a little more than ten million dollars a year to own and Operate our eight television stations. Using these figures as a basis for estimating the capital cost of the plan, we find it to be as follows: For the first phase of the plan: Eight stations at $1, 292, COO-$10, 336, 000 or apprOXimatelYO o o o o o 0 35,10 500, 000 For the second phase of the plan: Five stations at $1, 292 000-E6, e60, 000 or approximateiy. .t 6, 900, 000 For the third phase of the plan: Eight repeater stations at $100,000. . $ 800,000 TOTAL e17,800,000 It is thus apparent that the capital outlay for the plan would anticipate the eXpenditure of approximately $18,000,000. Operationalggoétp As with station construction, innumerable unknown and variable factors affect the cost Of Operating a television station. however, in order to provide a baseline from which to work, estimates for both technical and program costs used in the Turkish National Television Planning Committee's Turkish National Television Planning Committee, "Report on Television Planning, " Ankara, May 28, 1962. (Mimeographed) -59- report on television are accepted. These are summarized as follows: 1) For the Operation of a transmitter with- out facilities for live programs . .$>0,000 per year 2) For the Operation of a station with only one studio for live programming . .oh00,000 per year 3) For the Operation Of a station with two studios and a mobile unit . . . .$1,000,000 per year5 Assuming that the television stations in the two metrOpolitan areas, Istanbul and Ankara, fall into the third (above) class for Operational costs, that the eleven other stations, including those in the second phase of the plan, fall into the second (above) class and that the remaining eight stations listed in the third phase of the plan fall into the first (above) class for Operational costs, the following is obtained: Two stations at $1,000,000. Eleven stations at $400 000 Eight stations at $50,000 . . . . .a2,000,000 . . . .$4,#00,000 . . . .$ 400,000 TOTAL $6,800,000 Since personnel costs constitute an important item in the Operational costs of any station, it can be reasonably assumed that the figures used as a baseline for figuring Operational costs can be drastically reduced if the new revolutionary "one-man" automatic television stations are used. As the number of television stations increase in Turkey, it will be possible to reduce programming costs by the exchange SResmi Gazette. Part 1X, Ankara: Sept. 9, 1962. p. 3. -60- Of Significant programs which have been taped. The possibili- ties of re-using good programs, as well as films, have been given serious consideration. Programming The National Television Planning Committee studied problems related to programming, resources, and coordination. The recommendations of that group are pertinent to a plan for television and follow in part: The participants agreed that if these tele- vision stations were to achieve their maximum effectiveness, arrangements should be made for interconnectign without interfering with local contrOl o o o It 1) 2) 3) 4) was further agreed: That they (the participants) desire the central government tO adVlSe broadcasters of the avail- ability of workshops, either existing or to be established by the Broadcasting Ministry, where broadcasters can be given eXperience in the prac- tical handling of television programs, even before any stations can go on the air. That the Broadcasting Ministry take steps to ascertain the availability of present films for television, particularly those being produced now, and to obtain necessary c0pyright clear- ances so these films may be used on television stations when they go on the air. That Television District Committees be established, exactly paralleling the Television Central Com- mittee, in each area which will have a television station. That the clearinghouse be more of a steering committe and planning group, which would pass concrete program ideas on to the various area committees. 6TurkishNationai Television Planning Committee. 7ibid. -61- Method of Financing Numerous methods and plans for financing television stations have been prOposed. The Turkish government regulations Specify that statiOns will be 'non-commercial'; this eliminates the possibility Of a station becoming self- , supporting through the sale of program time as is done by American commercial television stations. Without the possibility of selling time, the financing of television in Turkey must be done by one Of the following methods: 1) Central government support from broadcasting tax funds. 2) Local government support from local tax funds. 3) Combinations of the above. British Broadcasting Corporation television stations (BBC-TV) in England have so far been financed through funds provided by the central government.8 The Turkish National Television Planning Committee dealt with the problem of financing television stations. An analysis of its proceedings indicates clearly that the group comprising the committee considered that some kind of central government assistance in the construction and Opera- tion of television stations in Turkey would be necessary. If television is a tool to be used by agencies of the public, and if mass culturation and education is a responsi- bility Of the government, then government financial assistance ‘8Burton Paulu, British Broadcasting in Transition (Minneapolis: Univ. of.Minnesota Press, 1961), pp. 17-18. -62.. in the construction and operation of such stations is as logical as government support for education. This position is taken in reference to financing tele- vision in the nation-wide develOpment plan presented in the following chapter. Actions and Policies of the Ministry of Broadcasting . And the National Television Planning Committee . Regarding Television Almost from the beginning of develOpments in television, the members Of the Ministry Of Broadcasting and the National Television Planning Committee showed a deep and positive interest in it. The support and actions of the Broadcasting Minister, Mr. Kamuran Evliyaoglu, as well as the policies of the National Television Planning Committee, were definite and unanimous. The members of the National Tele- vision Planning Committee were vitally concerned about the orderly develOpment of the television stations and supported the Broadcasting Minister on his stand for a Turkish tele- vision network. They were also in agreement with the four points Of his policy statement.9 Consequently, in order for the people of Turkey to know their position with regard to a television network and to provide additional evidence which could eventually be used before the Turkish Parliament in support of favorable legislation, the Broadcasting Iiinister and the National Television Planning Committee at their September 2, 1962, joint meeting passed the following resolutions: 9See p. 41. -63- RESOLUTIONS REGARDII JG TELEVISION WHEREAS modern technology has created a new medium of communication, television, which is having a great impact on our culture and has great potential appli- cations to educative processes: and WHEHEAS the State Planning Committee in recognition Of these facts has allocated eight channels for telecasting purposes: and WHEREAS the broadcasters and citizens of Turkey have indicated a keen and sincere interest in develOping facilities for the use of television in the educative processes as manifested by an advisory committee meeting on the subject called by Altemur Kilic, Chairman of the National Television Planning Committee, and by a conference recommended by this adVisory committee and called by the Broadcasting Ministry on tele- vision which was attended by more than 200 broad- casters and community leaders from all parts of Turkey, and in numerous ways: and WHEREAS television is a resource belonging to all of the people to be utilized for the benefit of all tha peOple; and WHEREAS affirmative action has been and is being taken by numerous agencies in Turkey interested in television to utilize the television channels presently allocated; and WHEREAS a preliminary engineering report indicates that the eight channels presently allocated to Turkey will not give nation-wide coverage in order to permit the develOpment of television facilities to be enjoyed by all of the peOple and at least four additional channels will be needed in order to provide adequate nation-wide television coverage, NOW, THEREFORE, BE IT RESOLVED by the Ministry of Broadcasting and the National Television Planning Committee that: . 1. The State Planning Committee is hereby commended for its action in allocating eight television channels to Turkey. 2. The Honorable Ismet Inonu, Prime Minister, is hereby commended for his enthusiastic support in recognition of the potential value Of tele- vision in the cultural processes. -6#- 3. The full and complete utilization of the pre- sent television channels allocated to Turkey for cultural purposes is recommended and approved. M. Altemur Kilic, the Chairman Of the National Television Planning Committee, is hereby authorized and directed in behalf of and in the name of the National Television Planning committee to take whatever action may be necessary in an effort to secure the alloca- tion by the State Planning Committee of four additional television channels, or more if required, in order to provide nationwide cover- age of television facilities for the benefit of all the peOple of Turkey. 5. The Turkish Parliament is urged to take action and adopt such legislation, including appropria- tion of money, as may be necessary to make avail- able the full benefits of television for all the peOple of Turkey. 6. The Broadcasting Ministry is respectfully requested, in view Of the action which has been taken and is to be taken by various agencies in Turkey as rapidly as possible, to extend the limit within which to make qu.utilization of such television channels as are now, or may hereafter be, allocated for the reason that the present time grapBed for such utilization is not adequate. The National Television Planning Committee and the Broadcasting ministry are the organs Of the Turkish govern- ment; therefore, their unanimity in support of a television network presents the Inonu Government's television policy before the Turkish public. They also publicly urged the Turkish Legislature to take action and adopt such legisla- tion, including the apprOpriation of money, as may be necessary to make available the full benefits of television to all the Turkish pOpulation. 10Hurriyet September 8, 1962, p. l, 4. -65- Analysis of the 1962-63Turkish Legislative Situation DeSpite the lackof any favorableaction on the part of the 1961 Turkish Parliament, prOponents of television should not think that it was essentially anti—television. On the whole, the Turkish Parliament was conservative, especially toward anything that seemingly would entail increased expenses. It was uninformed regarding television and the real issues involved. Introduction of the television bills and the discussions which they prompted must be assessed as a part of the processes necessary for eventual passage of favorable legislation. it must not be assumed that all opposition to television bills was Opposition to the idea of using television. Traditionally, unless some great crisis is at hand, the Turkish Parliament is a deliberative body and wants to take much time to consider issues before it passes legislation regarding them. Consequently, the feeling of urgency engendered by the Inonu Government was resented by many and capitalized upon to its fullest extent by the Opposition. CHAPTER VI RECOMMENDATIONS FOR TURKISH TELEVISION DEVELOPMENT A Point of View The concept that television may become a powerful com- munication force is comparatively new in Turkish Broadcasting. That this concept has attracted the attention and serious con- sideration of large numbers of persons, both internationally and within Turkey, has been pointed out in the previous chap- ters of this study. It is accepted as being logical and in- evitable that any new develOpment which seems as far-reaching in its influence on the Turkish cultural and educational sys- tem as television may be, will disturb many peOple and make them apprehensive as to the future. It is likewise accepted as inevitable that the same factors regarding television which enlist enthusiastic support for it will also enlist equally enthusiastic Opposition, which in some cases will result in individuals becoming crusaders for or against it. Being a crusader tends to dull one's ability to engage in rational thinking, but great movements seem to require crusaders as well as rationalists. However, in the long run, the crudader must rest his case with the rationalists. It is the hope of the author that the plan for the develOpment of television for Turkey will appeal to the rationalist and will, at the same time enlist the sun ort of the crusader. ’ “ oo -67— The policies presented here are in accord with the data assembled throughout this study. It is recognized that these data might be interpreted differently, depending on one's educational and social philosophy, eXperience and profese sional responsibilities. Definition of the Policy Recommendations The complexity of the prOblem, compounded by imponder- able factors of time, changing conditions, lack Of extensive Turkish experience with the medium as a communication device, Obsolescence of equipment and methods of using it makes it possible to detain a set of policies for a television develOp- ment plan for Turkey only to a limited extent. Since the essence of this study is to provide a workable instrument, the following set of policy recommendations, based upon a critical analysis of existing data, is a description of an organization which the author believes could effectively provide television services to the Turkish people. Statements of its rationale, the basic assumptions, the description of the units comprising the organization, the relationship of the units to each other and their functions, the engineering report, and the methods of financing the sta- tions are all directly related to recommendations for television in Turkey. The Rationale for the Policy Recommendations The following rationale for the policy recommendations stems from material presented and discussed in previous chapters: -68- 1) Television is an effective acceptable mass communi; cation device and a significant educational force.1 2) As such, it can and must be used and directed by a responsible professional staff.2 3) The existing structure and purposes of American commercial television systems cannot lend themselves to the long-range needs and purposes for the cultural use of television in Turkey.3 #) In Turkey, multiple facilities in the form of government-owned television stations are necessary for nation-wide coverage.H 5) Nation-wide coverage should be planned for.5 6) As for public education, some government financial assistance will be needed to construct and Operate television facilities on an equalization-of-cultural—educational Opportunity basis.6 7) Some government regulation and coordination of television stations must be eXpected and accepted. Such regulation, insofar as relationships with government radio stations are concerned, should be exercised through the 1§BE£§: pp. 1-3; 18; 34; e1; 46 and 63-64. géaaaa, rr- 22; 24; >1; 63. 3%, pp. 13-20. I§EE£as pp- 22; 24; 25; 31; 36; L*1; 56; 64- 55-96. 6§EE£§9 99- 245 313 375 43- Do; 61. .7Supra, pp. 36; 40 v0 -69.. Broadcasting Ministry and the Board of Governors of the Turkish Broadcasting Organization.7 8) Government control can and should be kept to a minimum.8 9) Ways and means have been develOped to prevent political control of the Turkish press, film and radio systems. Similar protection for television stations can and must be develOped through the democratic processes.9 10) Local responsibility for program planning, presenta- tion and utilization must be accepted and protected.10 11) Autonomy in the administration of local television stations in general can and should be comparable to the present autonomy of local radio stations.11 12) Local television stations should be administered and Operated by local television districts or by a government- chartered corporate body having a quasi-legal status to Operate a television station.12 13) Formation of legally defined television districts, coterminus with the reception area of the station, having taxing authority should be legalized.13 7Su ra, pp. 20, 22, 24-25, 31- BSupra, pp. 17-20, 25, 46. 9Supra, pp. 22, 2h-25, 46. 19§aasa, pp. 25, A1, A6-A7 and 60. 12Supra, p. 39. 13Supra, pp. 24, 4A, 60. #70- 14) The Turkish Broadcasting Ministry should provide all its services to the television stations}Lt Basic Assumptions of the Policy Recommendations The Policy recommendations have been built upon the following assumptions: 1) The majority of the=gnrkishpeople either do now or will in the future want and insist that television facili- ties be made available to them and their children. Itissignificant that people have in this century learned to expect, accept, and demand the benefits of technology in the improvement of physical things. In this matter, the Turkish public is not an exception. They want to benefit from television's cultural and educational potentiali- ties and at the same time they wish to relax by watching its entertaining features. 2) A develOpmentfplannis necessary_for the orderly and effective development of television facilities for Turkey. I Dr. Sterchen in his report OnTurkish television eXplains the necessity for such a plan. He points out the difficulties of Turkey's physical terrain and prOposes three phases in the develOpment of the system which would eventually give reaonably complete coverage for the country.15 3) Since television concerns all the peOple, national level planning and assistance will be needed. Orderly ‘1V8upra, pp. 38-39, and 60.~ ”minim, pp. 52-57. -71- step-by-step develOpments must be directed toward eventually making Turkish television facilities available to all the people of Turkey.16 Therefore, anyplpn for the develop- mentg§_television facilities fOr Turkeygmust be conceived as a long:range continuous modification on the basis of Turkish needs,_experience and changing conditions. H) The existence of a reasonanlggdeVelopmentgplan should ease the econOmicdifficulties for the development of Turkish television stations. Experience and research continually eXpand and improve the potential applications and use Of television. Likewise, experience and research continually improve equipment for telecasting and receiving and reduce the costs of such equip- ment and its Operation.17 1 5) Any televigion develgpmentplan for_Turkey, togain perious consideratiOn amonggtheggurkish elite, must recog- nize and take into consideration thegpolicy statement issued by the Ministry of Broadcasting. 1 A It is Statedthat Turkish broadcasting is government controlled. These policy points18 not only signify the policy of the Turkish government, but also set forth a "Bill of Rights" of people regarding the future and development of 163upre, p. Al. 17Recent inventions, such as video-tape and "one-man" automatic television production systems are gogd examples. 183upra, p. 41. C -72- the Turkish television stations. They are basic guidelines which must be part of any develOpment plan for television in Turkey. ’ 6) Turkey has the technical and personnel resources necessary to provide teleVlSlOD to igpgpeople. The present Turkishhadio organization and Turkey's technical universities have all the technical elements and personnel necessary for a televiSing network system.19 Also the Turkish-West German Cultural Aid agreement makes avail- able all the West German technical and personnel resources for the develOpment of Turkish television facilities. The Units Of the Turkish Television Organization Under the present Turkish Broadcasting Law, the Turkish Radio Organization is under the care of a Board of Directors appointed by the Prime Minister and answerable to him through the Broadcasting Ministry.20 The following units Of the Turkish television organi- zation, their functions and relationship to each other are outlined and eXplained following the present Turkish Broad- casting Law and the organizational structure of the Turkish Radio Organization. 1) Turkish General Grand Assembly (Parliament). Parliament and the Prime Minister will exercise their responsibility for and authority over teleVision as provided 19Supra, Chapter lII. 20Supra p. #6. -73- in the Turkish Broadcasting Law and the will of the peOple as eXpressed by them through their votes. 2) The Ministny of Broadcasting. The Ministry of Broadcasting should be responsible for preparing a budget to be presented to the Turkish Parlia- ment for the construction and Operation of the television stations in accordance with the need for government funds as expressed by local television authorities and approved by the Central Television Authority. Efforts should be made to prevail upon the parliament to accept the principle of approving the television budget as a total amount. The funds allocated for television should be administered by the Ministry of Broadcasting in accord- ance with the rules and regulations established for administering public funds. The Ministry of Broadcasting should provide such services as may be needed by local tele- vision districts tO assist them in the Operation of their stations, including technical counsel, programming materials, films, kinescOpes, video tapes, and so forth. The services Which the Ministry Of Broadcasting renders should be requested by the Central TeleVision Authority and approved by the Minister of Broadcasting. 3) Egg Central:gelevision Authority. This should be a policy-and rule—making body composed of the chairman of each local television district and a number of professional persons appointed by the Prime Minister and the Minister of Broadcasting. Rules and regulations promulgated -7u- by it, to be legally binding on the part of the Turkish Broad- casting Stations, must be approved by the Turkish Parliament. The Minister of Broadcasting should be the president of the Central Television Authority. M) The Television District. This is a geographic area coterminus with the telecast- ing area of the station. Its formation should be permissive but necessary if station Operation is financed directly from government funds.21 If created, it should have the authority to fix tax rates and provide for the election Of its members. 5) The Local Television Authority. This body, composed of lay citizens broadly representa- tive of public agencies in the community telev1sion district, should be the governing beard of the television station.22 6) Th§_T§leVision Station. I The Turkish television station's function should be to inform, to enrich, to persuade, to influence viewers with a variety of entertainment and cultural and educational programs through the means of electronic engineering. To accomplish this recognized purpose, the television station could be organized under the baSic non-commercial stgucture of the Turkish nadio station. The Turkish radio stations' personnel administration is formed under the system of "functional organization." Jucius 21This is clearly stated in the section of Turkish Broadcasting Law on financing stations. (Supra, p. 39, 44, 60.) 22Sunra, pp. 22-29, 41. -75- defines functional organization as that form in which each person reports to each supervisor for only a specific phase of his work. The advantagaSOf this kind Of organization, according to Jucius, are: Each person has the opportunity to become an eXpert in his field of specialization. . . . Sub— ordinate personnel and executives are assured Of better technical supervision. . . . It is easier to find peOple who are trainable in a few lines than it is to find and grain supervisors in a wide variety Of tasks.2 These features were very successful for Turkish radio stations. Then they should also be apprOpriate for success- ful television station Operation in Turkey. Duschinsky says that in planning a television station in accordance with programming and technical eXperiences, personnel sources, administrative and financial support, it is clear that the planner, if already in possession Of a ' radio station, should consider the possibility Of combining television Operations with the radio station Operations.2” The organization of a television station follows the general organizational structure of an Am—FM station. Following this theory then, all the Turkish television stations can be patterned after the basic 'non-commercial' organizational structure Of the Turkish Radio Organization into three basic departments: (1) Administration(Management); (2) Programs; and (3) angineering. 23Michael‘J. Jucius, Personnel Management (Homewood, 111.: Richard D. lrwin, Inc., 1995), p..bb. . 24 Walter J. Duschinsky, Television Stations (New Y8rk: Reinhold Publishing Corporation, 19547, p.16. -76.. in this sense, a television station Operated in con- junction with the Turkish Radio Organization would involve the least difficulty in the process Of establishment. in the organizational structure, the basic technical differences between radio and television production systems require the following additional personnel: 1) In the field Of administration, the organization needs Special televiSiOn accOuntants, traffic and promotion personnel. 2) in the engineering_department, more technicians and engineers are needed as television cameramen,_video engineers, boom micrOphone Operators and lighting technicians. 3) ln thegprogram department, additional personnel from those assigned to radio are needed as directors, film editors, motion-picture cameramen, projectionists, art directors, floor managers, and prOperty men. There are still psychological and physical handicaps in the develOpment Of a Turkish television system. It is recognized that during technical change, difficulties are inevitable. This thesis gives a general survey Of the pro- blems, values, and possibilities of television and does not Offer "solutions" to these problems, but rather indicates how these problems can be approached so as to minimize the diffi- culties in the develOpment Of Turkish television. The temper Of the time is favorable; the need is great; and the tools seem promising. The next few years will be -77- decisive in establishing whether Turkish television can fulfill its exciting potential. It is the writer's hOpe that a television network system soon will be developed in Turkey and the Turkish peOple able to enjoy this unique communication medium of our modern civilization. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Public Documents Turkish Broadcasting Ministry. Report on the National Tele- vision Planning Committee.. NO. l. 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