ABSTRACT RELATIONSHIP OF INTERACTION OF SELECTED PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF SCHOOL PRINCIPAL AND CUSTODIAN WITH SOCIOLOGICAL VARIABLES To SCHOOL VANDALISM By Charles F. Cardinell The purpose of this study was to determine if the authori- tarian attitudes manifested by principals and custodians in schools of a Midwestern Industrial City might contribute more to the extent of school vandalism than the prevailing socio-economic conditions of the school community. The few studies on school vandalism have not concerned themselves with the behavioral characteristics of per- sonnel, nor the sociological environment as possibly influencing the extent of school vandalism. Recent sociological writings have called for more study into the differing patterns of deviant behavior and differing conditions which may generate the patterns. This study reviewed and examined the historical and dollar trends of school vandalism. It reviewed the extensive literature dealing with the extent of vandalism and the several social sciences Charles F. Cardinell were reviewed dealing with sociological and psychological explana- tions of delinquency. The Population The population for this study was forty—three of the fifty elementary schools in a Midwestern Industrial City of about 170, 000 population in 1960 Census. The seven non-participating schools in the city-were distributed randomly in terms of size, location, and sociological characteristics. Collection of the Data School vandalism was rated by existing indicators in the records of the school district. Questionnaires about personal back- ground, attitudes and evaluations of vandalism to the local school were developed for principals and custodians. They both completed Rokeach Dogmatism Scale and Eidell Pupil Control Ideolggy Scale. ' Custodians alsocompleted an abbreviated Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire by Pritchard. Principals supplied data about their school' 3 education program, staffing, and sociological characteristics. United States Census, School District and Municipal records were studied and analyzed for each school. The emphasis was on selection of data that had strong predictive effect and the type of data readily available for convenient replication. Charles F. Cardinell Anaiysis of Data The degree of association between extent of vandalism and the eighty-four other variables investigated was determined by a stepwise deletion of variables from a least squares (multiple regres- sion) equation. Twenty-three items were studied to yield the best items predictive of vandalism. The guiding questions of this study were proved or disproved by using the interactive analysis deter- mined above and by simple correlations between the items studied. Findings The five highest ranked variables predicting vandalism in this study were: 1. 5 Custodians who under-rate vandalism 1.5 Percentage population Negro 3 Percentage families on A. D. C. 4 Percentage families participating in P. T. A. as estimated by principal 5 Low amount of services by remedial reading specialist This study did not find that a highly authoritarian attitude of principals or custodians greatly influenced the extent of vandal- ism, although these scores had mild interactive effect with other variables of the study. Charles F. Cardinell It was found that school vandalism had strong correlation with auto thefts and burglary while having no significant relation to - bicycle theft or park vandalism. Low amount of remedial reading services had a strong interactive effect with other variables to rank as fifth strongest predictor of vandalism. Other special services had little relationship with vandalism. Schools located in predominantly Negro census tracts and having a larger proportion of Negro pupils had higher rates of vandalism. Pupil transiency correlated weakly with vandalism, but it interacted with other variables to give it mild strength as a pre- dictor. A relationship did exist, and must be accounted for in any causal theory of school vandalism. Increased adult use of building in after-school hours for enrichment, educational and recreational activities correlated strongly with vandalism and interacted strongly with other variables. However, real question existed as to the antecedent order present between increased vandalism and the institution of the community school program, a fairly recent development in the schools of this city. Size, age of building, condition of surrounding housing and other physical characteristics of the school correlated in the right Charles F. Cardinell direction, but their strength did not justify the hypothesis that they influenced vandalism. Current enrollment, however, did have strength as a predictive indicator when interacting with other vari- ables of the study. Impli cations 1. There is some indication that there is a possible rela- tionship between teacher morale and increased vandalism. 2. There is need for study of how teachers' attitudes and behavior influence the extent of vandalism. 3. There is strong indication that lack of remedial reading services is associated with increased vandalism. A well-controlled study to ascertain all ramifications of this is needed. 4. Reliable instruments are needed to discover the school behavior of those manifesting authoritarian attitudes as measured on attitude scales. 5. A study is needed for a more thorough study of the personality characteristics a modern principal in disadvantaged urban centers needs to exert leadership and limit vandalism. 6. A need was indicated for in-service education of custodians to help them with human relations skills and an under- standing of the social forces acting to cause much of the vandalism to their schools. Charles F. Cardinell 7. A carefully designed longitudinal study of a medium sized industrial City that is newly introducing the Community School Program is essential to clarify the relationship found in this study that apparently associates higher vandalism with the twelve schools having such programs. 8. Need is indicated for further study of relationship between socioeconomic status and school vandalism. 9. Similarly, characteristics of the vandal himself and his ecology should be studied. 10. There is further need for careful study of relationships of success in schools and self-concept of those who vandalize as indicated by Clues given by negative relationship of amount of reme- dial reading service and vandalism. RELATIONSHIP OF INTERACTION OF SELECTED PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF SCHOOL PRINCIPAL AND CUSTODIAN WITH SOCIOLOGICAL VARIABLES TO SCHOOL VANDALISM By Charles F. Cardinell A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education 1969 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS In a brief note of acknowledgment it is extremely difficult to express gratitude to all who have given so generously of their time and have provided the writer with encouragement and leader- ship. The writer expresses appreciation to Dr. Floyd G. Parker, Major Advisor, for his continuing interest, enthusiasm, and guid- ance through the preparation of this thesis and the course of the Doctoral Program. Dr. Clyde M. Campbell, Dr. Dale Alam, and Dr. James B. McKee contributed their advice and leadership in the development of this dissertation. Sincere appreciation goes to Dr. Lawrence Lezotte for his help in this work. The contributions and sacrifices by one' s own family under- lie the completion of any project such as this. My wife, Geraldine, and sons, David and Scott, have given up many personal pleasures and companionship to see the completion of this, giving their encour- agement and understanding. To them, a sincere thank—you. Charles F. Cardinell ii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES Chapter I. II. III . INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM . Assumptions . . Statement and Explanation Of the . Guiding Questions Definition of Terms . Organization of the Study Summary . . . A REVIEW OF RELATED RESEARCH AND LITERATURE Historical Trends Descriptive Reports Preventative Measures Architectural Design as a Preventative Measure. Interaction with Pupils as a Preventative Measure. Legal Deterrents Causal Explanations Summary THE. RESEARCH DESIGN METHODOLOGY Introduction . The Research Design . . The Research Population of Schools The Extent of Vandalism Rating iii Page 10 12 14 15 16 16 20 25 27 28 32 34 55 56 56 57 59 59 Chapter Page Collection of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Description of Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 IV. ANALYSIS OF DATA AND FINDINGS . . . . . . . . 68 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Predictive Items Yielded by Regression . . . . . . 68 Description of Predictive Items . . . . . . . . . . 69 Examination of the Guiding Questions . . . . . . . . 85 Appropriateness of Instruments . . . . . . . . . . 94 V.. SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND IMPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Role of the Principal . . . . . . -. . . . . . . . . 97 Role of the Custodian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Role of the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Role of the Educational Program . . . . . . . . . . 108 Summary....................110 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Appendix A. DESCRIPTION OF INFORMATION ENTERED IN MULTIPLE REGRESSION EQUATIONS . . . . . 126 B. DESCRIPTION OF O. C. D.Q. SUBTESTS . . . . . . 132 C. 1960 CENSUS DATA AND INTERPRETATIONS OF THE MIDWESTERN INDUSTRIAL CITY . . . . . 134 D. SCHOOLS RANKED HIGH TO LOW BY VARIOUS‘ITEMS OF STUDY. . . . . . . . . . . . 135 E. PRINCIPAL' S VANDALISM STUDY QUESTION- NAIRE 138 F. CUSTODIAN' S VANDALISM STUDY QUESTION- NAIRE 150 iv Table 10. 11. LIST OF TABLES Delinquents' Judgment of Boys Who Commit Various Deviant Acts Rankings of Acts of Vandalism by Self-Admissions of Boys Ages 15-18 Percentages of Youth Vandalizing Property as Reported in Seven Sociological Studies . Predictive Value of 23 of 85 Variables to Predict Vandalism in Study of 43 Schools . . . . Analysis of Variance for Overall Regression Correlation of Principal' s Responses to Rokeach and Eidell Instruments with Four Behavior Dimensions of O. C. D.Q. . Correlation of School Vandalism with Community Crime Rates Correlation of School Vandalism with Extra Special Education Services Correlation of School Vandalism with Increased Adult Use of Building Correlation of School Vandalism with School Physical Characteristics Highest Predictive Items of Study Related to Behavior of School Personnel Page 44 49 51 7O 71 86 88 89 92 93 98 Table 12. 13. 14. Page Correlations Between Custodians' Rating of Pupil Pride in School with Environmental Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Highest Predictive Items of Study Environmental in Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Simple Correlations Between Six Sociological Variables of the 23 Best Predictors of SchoolVandalism................ 107 vi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM School vandalism has increased markedly in the past years. It has caused great public outcry. It has evoked the sanctions of agents of criminal justice. It has created dispair in school admin- istrators and teachers alike. This study will attend itself to trying to illuminate some of the possible causes of this deviant act in our society. Vandalism is commonly defined as the wanton and willful destruction of property. The criterion for labelling a given act as vandalism is when the act is contrary to the values held as all- i1'npor‘tant to the society in which it is committed. Society defines vandalism as an act as malicious, irrational, or unrestrained in terms of the prevailing societal norms. The act termed "vandalism” is essentially a deviant act in the Society. It is a violation of rules that act to insure the general \ V 1Nathan Goldman, A 'Socio-Psychological Study of School aulcialism (Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Research Institute, 1959). p. 1. 9.. “I I“. V! welfare of society. Vandalism then not only threatens the power group of the society, but it is seen by it as a challenge to the legit1- macy of the basic institutions of the society. Delinquent acts (as vandalism is classed), in contract to other violations of social rules, constitute an actual threat to the legitimacy and security of the basic institutions in the judgment of officials representing the agencies of criminal justice. The delinquent act, then, using vandalism as a specific type of such, is defined by two essential elements: It is behavior that violates basic norms of the society, and, when offi cially known evokes a judgment by agents of criminal justice that such norms have been violated. 1 Vandalism is but one deviant behavior in our society. Burns and Sternhold that we need to develop the capacity to dis- tinguish among different types of delinquencies and to experiment With specific preventative systems. They hold that there is an unfortunate tendency to think only in terms of "delinquency, " as if it Were all of a kind. Even when evidence points out differing pat- terns of deviant behavior and differing conditions which may gener- ate the patterns does this thinking continue. \ 1Richard A. Cloward and Lloyd E. Ohlin, Delinquency and W1 (Glencoe, Illinois. Free Press, 1963), pp. 150- 152. They state that ". . . we know relatively little about the patterns and types of delinquencies in different types of cities, and even less about the factors leading to the development of the differ— ent patterns and types in diverse communities." Vandalism to schools is generally committed by children and youth of school age. Such acts, while of great concern in them- selves, are symptomatic of larger proglems within the schools themselves. The motivation of children' s behavior must be con- sidered. It is the child' s cognition and feelings about what is going on about him which structures and is structured by his perception of himself and the world in which he lives. This individualized per- ception of himself and reality develops as the individual is forced to erect defenses against feelings of anger, rage, hostility, inferiority, or neglect. In viewing the process of socialization as it affects character and personality of the growing child, it would be well not to be as concerned with the actual skill and competency with which the child learns to control, for example, his hostilities, but in Which context of relationships these were learned. \ 1Virginia M. Burns and Leonard W. Stern, ”Prevention of Juvel'iile Delinquency," in President's Commission on Law Enforce- Inent and Administration of Justice, Taskforce on Juvenile Delin- quency, Juvenile Delinquency and Youth Crime (Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1967), p. 359. 2 A Eli M. Bower, "Vandalism: An Outgrowth of Hostility, ggression and Frustration, " Federal Probation, XVII (March, 954), p. 13. Schafer and Polk continued that . . children, in self-defense, to continued failure, react against the school--perhaps rebelling against its demands. . . . Unwilling to accept the schools' humiliating evaluation of them, they begin to flaunt its standards and to reject its long-range goals in favor of conduct more immediately gratifying. That conduct at first may not be seriously delinquent, but it repre- sents a push toward more destructive and criminal patterns of behavior. Vandalism might be an indicator that the schools may be operating to produce anxieties in students. Obviously, it indicates the school is not preparing its students for responsible citizenship. This suggests that curriculum, interpersonal relations between students and staff, and/ or the relations between the school and com- munity need examination. As well, there is concern that part of the hostility and resentment toward the authority figures in school may be a result 0f the structure of society in the inner-city. The President's Task- force held that the loose organization and female focus that char- acterizes many inner-city families has been related to the develop- ment of what has been called, in their terms, "premature autonomy" \ 1Walter E. Schafer and Kenneth Polk, "Delinquency and the SchOols, " in President' s Commission on Law Enforcement and inistration of Justice, Taskforce on Juvenile Delinquency, wk Delinquency and Youth Crime (Washington: U. S. Govern- Inent Printing Office, 1967), p. 228. 2Goldman, A Study of Vandalism, p. 111. and to consequent resentment of authority figures such as policemen and teachers (and in turn, probably principals and custodians?). This evidence leads one to hypothesize that there are things in their commission or omission by school staff that cause children to vandalize their schools. In this vein, Goldman found ”schools with high damage characterized by inadequate administration and and leadership and with poor communication among the various mem- bers of the school staff. " Also, he found relatively poor interper- sonal relations between custodians and students. Specifically, coming out of interviews with students in the secondary schools investigated were repeated reports by students of high damage schools that they felt the principal was authoritarian in nature. They reported little or no voice in determination of school policy. Further, it was found that in high damage schools unfavorable relations existed between students and the school CuStodian. Specific complaints by students were that the custodian Spied on them and reported them to the principal for acts of damage. \ _ lPresident' s Commission on Law Enforcement and Admin— 18151"ation of Justice, Taskforce on Juvenile Delinquency, Juvenile wuency and Youth Crime, p. 45. 2Goldman, A Study of Vandalism, p. 111. 3Ibid. , pp. 107-108. This study will probe to determine if the underlying causes of school vandalism are indeed more likely to be internal-—for example as the result of manifestation of authoritarian attitudes of school principal and custodian--rather than external--a result of conditions in society itself. This will necessitate a sociological interpretation of the problem as well as the interpretation characteristic of public school administrators. Indeed, the educationists' outlook must be care- fully scrutinized from the sociological viewpoint to ascertain its validity in the societal context. The way in which one chooses to classify the complex social events which are considered to be delin- quent acts depends on what it is that one is interested in doing about these acts. As a school administrator striving to provide stewardship, one wants to find ways to halt the rising toll of school vandalism. On the other hand, a researcher is committed to developing explana- tions of delinquency that will establish causal connections or corre- lations between elements of the whole. 1 In developing a study of deviant behavior, Cloward and Ohlin maintained that a theory is constructed to explain deviant 1Cloward, Delinquency and Opportunity, p. 8. math HIM“ I “-4 ._1 " 1 (h I h"‘ ,'I ~' ‘1 “WC: I car“ hk‘.u V‘ l..‘ behavior. They listed five essential questions that a theory must answer to establish its validity. They are: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) What is the precise nature of the delinquent adaptation which is to be explained? How is this mode of adaptation distributed in the social structure? How is it located? To what problems of adjustment might this pattern be a response? Why is a particular mode of delinquency selected rather than others ? What determines the relative stability or instability of a particular delinquent pattern? Using this as a structure for this study of vandalism to public school buildings and the possibility of vandalism being partly in reaction to certain attitudes and actions by school personnel, the above points are answered preliminarily as follows: First: The delinquent adaptation is the vandalizing of school buildings. Secondly: While the literature suggests that between 30 and 40 per cent of male youth vandalize, and middle status youth perhaps doing a greater share of the vandalism, the study will attempt to show that a higher amount of vandalism may be distributed in loca- tions where significant school authorities manifest authoritarian attitude 8 . 1110101., pp. 32-33. Thirdly: The literature suggests that both socio-economic status and authoritarian school demands for conformity present problems of adjustment for youth. This study will attempt to demon- strate the authoritarian nature of school authority figures may indeed be the independent variable to increased amounts of school vandal- ism. Fourthly: Vandalism to schools is chosen by children because they are symbols of their problems of adjustment. They present institutional characteristics and/or personality character- istics of their adjustment problems. Further, the schools are in immediate proximity to children and they are relatively unguarded and vulnerable to attack at those times when children are not in school. Lastly: The study will attempt to show how stability of this particular delinquency pattern is found in varying socio-economic areas of the city. Hopefully, this study will provide data leading to the under- standing and positive control of vandalism. Besides that of conser- vation and stewardship of public property, this study should yield information helpful in selection of administrators and custodians. A better understanding of why children are alienated from their school may also result. Assumptions For the purpose of this study it is assumed that: 1. The various instruments used are reliable and valid. 2. The use of 1960 Census tract data is still effective in indi- cating demographic distributions of various socio-economic conditions. An interview with the Director of Research for the United Community Agencies of the Midwestern Industrial City being studied revealed that, from his research and that of other social agencies, there had been little spatial mobil- ity within the city since 1960 by various ethnic and socio- economic groups. He stated that use of the 1960 Census tract data as indicators was warranted. 3. At the time the instruments are administered, the attitudes of the participating persons are accurately measured. 4. It is valuable to know if there are significant relationships between school vandalism and the attitudes of principals and custodians. 5. It is valuable to know if there are significant relationships between school vandalism and outside sociological phenomena. If these assumptions are accepted, then it is reasonable to assume that analysis can yield possible combinations of predictive items that can be used in assessing the possibility of higher than v.“ V .'\ ‘a ". S U 4". 10 usual rates of school vandalism. The following guiding questions were framed using these assumptions. Statement and Explanation of the Guiding Questions The guiding questions were framed to serve as a guide to this survey. The seven questions listed below are described more completely in Chapter III. The specific statistical techniques, the instruments and the tests used to analyze the data are also explained in Chapter III. I. In conjunction with other socio-economic forces operating, will vandalism be higher in schools with principals and custodians who hold authoritarian attitudes? This question asks what relationships exist between the commission of vandalism in a school and the attitudes of principals and custodians on one hand and the prevailing social environment? This question is based on the assumption that authoritarian attitudes on the part of principal and custodian may have different effects on the commission of vandalism in schools of varying socio- economic neighborhoods. Research supports this assumption to an BXtent. It is hoped that this survey of one city may yield some dis- tinct patterns of interaction that might be capitalized upon by the administration of those schools. 11 II. Will school vandalism be similar in overall rates to adult crime in the same area? This question asks does perhaps the prevailing rates of adult crime have a greater causal effect on vandalism than anything the schools might do? III. Will enriched educational program and increased special child services in Low SES schools tend to decrease the extent of vandalism? This question seeks to determine if compensatory programs for various learning problems influence the extent of vandalism. IV. Does race enter into the extent of vandalism? V. Will vandalism be greater in schools with higher pupil transiency ? VI. Will increased adult use of building in after-school hours for enrichment, educational, and recreational activities tend to decrease vandalism? This question seeks to determine what influence a Com- munity School Program might exert on vandalism to a school. Does 12 positive adult involvement in school activities tend to diminish vandalism ? VII. Do size, age of building and other physical characteristics have an influence on the extent of vandalism? This question seeks to determine if vandalism might be inspired by an old building situated on a small site in the midst of crowded, substandard housing and similar characteristics of the basic physical character of the building. Definition of Terms 1. Community School Program is used to describe a dynamic extension of school activities from in-school related activities to a broad-ranging community involvement. Organized school activities can assume the form of purely educational, avocationally enriching, or purely recreational, depending on the needs of the patrons of the school. Such a program was conceived, developed, and promulgated by the C. S. Mott Foundation, Flint, Michigan. 1 1Associated Educational Services, ed. , Role of the School in Community Education (Midland, Michigan: The Pendell Co. , in Press, 1969). 13 Community School Director is the educator employed and specially trained to implement the above program phi— losophy. He generally specialized in recreation and com- munity leadership. He generally works from Noon to late evening. He frequently teaches some physical education classes to older school children during part of the after- noon. He works closely with all segments of the community to develop a program appropriate to their interests and needs. SES or socio-economic-status is used in this study to categorize the relative affluence of various neighborhoods studied. Using the median family income on the 1960 Census as the dividing point, references are made to Low SES and High SES. Midwestern Industrial City refers to the city in which the study took place. A coined name was necessary to protect the confidentiality of the replies to the various instruments and of the interviews held with a variety of school and public officials. A description of certain sociological character- istics of this city appears in Appendix C. 14 Organization of the Study This thesis consists of five chapters. Chapter I Introduction Introduction to and statement of the problem, assumptions, statement and explanation of the guiding questions, the purpose of the investigation and definition of terms. Chapter II Review of Related Research and Literature Historical and philosophical background of the problem of school vandalism, sociological explanations of delinquent behavior, psychological foundations for pupil reaction against the schools. Chapter III The Research Procedure The research design, description of the instruments and the description of the analysis procedures. Chapter IV Analysis of Data and Findings Correlation analysis, statistical tests and tests of the guiding questions. 15 Chapter V Summary, Conclusions and Implications Major findings, synopsis of the problem, conclusions, and implications. Summary This study examines the problem of school vandalism and its possible causes in attitudes of key school personnel and general social conditions. This chapter contains a description of the problem, assumptions, seven guiding questions and their explanations followed by the definition of terms and the organization of the thesis. The next chapter presents a review of the literature as it relates to the problem. CHAPTER II A REVIEW OF RELATED RESEARCH AND LITERATURE Historical Trends Historically, vandalism has always been with us. In the United States during the 1930' s the problem was not felt acutely. However, during the Second World War, vandalism began to mount and national attention was directed toward it. Vandalism abated after the Second World War, the incidence dropping. The advent of the Korean War heralded an increase in vandalism, which has increased steadily. Chicago, an example of one large city school system, had its cost for window damage triple from 1955 to 1968. It was reported in 1955 Chicago paid $366, 000 for window repair. 2 In 1Joseph P. Murphy, "The Answer to Vandalism May Be Found in the Home, " Federal Probation, XVII (March, 1954), p. 8. 2B. E. Michelson, "Vandalism in Our Schools, ” Educa- tional Digest, XXII (September, 1956), p. 13. l6 17 1968, it was reported that the cost approached the one million dollar mark. 1 The cost of vandalism extends into other sectors of the community. The National Association of Home Builders stated that in the 1950' s "pranks" raised the cost of a house from $60 to $300, and in some instances as high as $1000. 2 Robert C. Moses told of the appalling forms of vandalism in the public buildings, museums, libraries, and schools of New York City. Schools find that they must devote precious dollars to repair vandalism. In a 1965 publication, schools in Shorewood, Washington, were cited as spending 30 cents per child for vandal- ism; Dallas, 22 cents; Atlanta, 16 cents per child. 4 In 1964, Detroit was forced to spend an even higher amount, 50 cents per child, to repair the results of vandalism. 5 1Susan S. Stevens, ”Window Pane Vandals Cost Chicago a New School a Year, " Flint Journal, November 24, 1968, p. 51. 2National Association of Home Builders as cited by Eliza- beth W. Robinson, "Let' 3 Build Them Better, " National Association of SecondarLSchool Principals Bulletin, XL (September, 1956), p. 119.. 3Robert C. Moses, "Vandals at Work, " National Associa- tion of Secondary School Principals Bulletin, XXXIV (October, 1950). pp. 97-104. 4"Can Your District Use Some of These Ideas for Curbing Vandalism?" Nations Schools, LXXV (July, 1965), p. 30. 5F. J. Moffatt, "Vandals' Rocks Can't Reach Flying School House," Nations Schools, LXXIV (July, 1964), p. 23. 18 The National Education Association was quoted as stating that in 1968 vandalism cost Newark $3. 34 per child, Boston $2. 30 per child, Cleveland $2.95 per child, and Los Angeles 68 cents per child. 1 Destructive rampages of youth reach alarming proportions. Chicago reported $5, 000 damage to one elementary school on the day of November 17, 1968. This school already had 1422 boarded up windows awaiting replacement at the time of the rampage. The yearly cost of window replacement for Chicago is nearly one million dollars--the cost of a new school. 2 Is vandalism still escalating? A survey of about 300 school administrators across the United States revealed that over half of them felt that vandalism is currently the same as recent years. Only about one—fifth felt that vandalism was actually increas- ing. 3 A study of Dade County, Florida, in 1966 revealed that for that limited area, costs of school vandalism did not appear to be increasing proportionately. The study held that the vandalism was 1"Cost of Vandalism in U. S. Schools Jumps to Over $200 Million Annually," Sunday Oregonian, May 4, 1969, p. 14. 2Stevens, "Window Vandals Cost Chicago, " p. 51. 3"Vandalism, A Dirty Word . . . ," Nations Schools, LXXXI (April, 1968), p. 66. 19 increasing at a rate similar to that of population growth of the area. The dramatic and tragic example of Chicago' s tripling of dollar outlay for window damage costs over the last thirteen years brings attention to what is happening elsewhere in the nation. How- ever, the actual dollar cost must be examined in light of general economic trends. When the Chicago figures are examined in light of the United States Department of Commerce Composite of Con- struction Costs Index for those years, a different rate of increase is seen. Using 1957-1959 as 100 on the index, the overall construc- tion costs were found to have risen on the index to 121 for the year 1966, which is the most recent figure available. In light of this, Chicago' 8 actual dollar cost for window repair should be approach- ing one and one-quarter million dollars rather than their reported one million dollars. 2 Vandalism is still a topic of importance, even while there is reason to believe that the rate is possibly not accelerating and that only a relatively small percentage of youth engage in vandalism. 1Rodney E. Nowakowski, "Vandals and Vandalism in the Schools ; An Analysis of Vandalism in Large School Systems and a Description of 93 Vandals in Dade County Schools" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Miami, 1966), p. 7. 2United States Department of Commerce, Statistical Abstract of the United States (Washington: The Department, 1967), p. 716. 20 Descriptive Reports Both the popular press and professional education journals printed many articles over the past twenty years dealing with school vandalism. The subject was a perennial subject in American School Board Journal, School and Society, and School Management maga- zines. Their treatments of the reoccurring subject generally fol- lowed two patterns. First, by using time-honored journalistic techniques, attention was gained by describing a particularly shocking case of vandalism or by citing huge expenditure of funds to repair the damage. Many articles stOpped at this point. Secondly, following up on the initial description of the problem of school vandalism on either the local area of the writer, or perhaps a number of localities where data were obtained (but never with definite information on a national scale), the writers listed the most promising means for controlling vandalism in schools at the time of writing. Very few writers offered constructive suggestions for why vandalism occurred, or the varying patterns of vandalism either within the community or between areas of the nation. Confusing the whole issue of vandalism was the lack of uni- form statistics for descriptive and comparative purposes. 21 Subjectively described examples of vandalism were the norm. Comparisons of "vandalism" for different agencies and localities showed some sort of trends for those limited situations. On the whole, however, writings on the extent of vandalism had few com- mon characteristics for comparative purposes. Even the few scientific studies on the subject lacked commonality. Further, there was no consensus of what vandalism consisted. The various studies lacked definition as to what constituted vandalism. They judged cases in each situation from different criteria, dependent upon the personalities and situations involved. Most of the articles in the popular press consisted of descriptions of vandalism in general appearing in articles devoted to the whole subject of juvenile delinquency. The middle 1950' 3 saw fairly frequent mention of the problem of school vandalism in the popular press. 1 At this time, and never again repeated, one publication for high school youth reflected concern about the problem and carried a 1"Drop That Rock! Breaking of School Windows in the District of Columbia," America, CII (October 17, 1959), p. 61; "Vandal Squad in Los Angeles, " Time, LXIV (November 8, 1954), p. 90; William C. Kvaraceus, "Where Violence Hits the Schools, " U.S. News and World Reports, XXXXIV (May 30, 1958), pp. 62-68. 22 series of articles bringing the problem to the attention of youth. The magazine invited its readers' dialogue which was subsequently reported in the journal. The general tone was for youth to try to curb their vandalism voluntarily, realizing the consequences of such action and how it harmed society in general. 1 Not too much was mentioned again until the middle 1960' s, when civil unrest began to become more and more prevalent in urban centers. More and more emphasis began to be made of widespread vandalism. 2 Articles in the professional educational journals during the past twenty years described school vandalism in manners varying from subjective descriptions to dollar descriptions; to statistical data for individual districts to some obscure statistic nationally. Some of the best samples of articles from professional journals were summarized in the first three pages of this chapter. 1H. G. Spaulding, "Vandalism!" Scholastic, LXI (Jan- uary 7, 1953), p. 17T; "Vandalism, Million-Dollar Problem--Pro and Con Dis- cussion," Scholastic, LXII (February 4, 1953), pp. 7-9. 2William C. Kvaraceus, "What About High School Hood- lumism?” National Parent Teacher, LHI (January, 1959), p. 4; "Schools and Summer," Time, XC (August 25, 1967), p. 17; Stevens, "Window Pane Vandals Cost Chicago. " 23 Generally the tone of the articles was shocked indignation, using some statistic or another ingeniously to paint a lurid, attention- getting picture of the situation. Writers of these descriptive articles, while being some of American Education' 3 more respected writers of the era, contented themselves, however, largely with treating the symptoms of the problem as it appeared in the schools rather than the cause. There appeared little in the literature dealing with the causal factors of school vandalism. 1 lWilliam Bachrach, "Vandalism, A Big Business in the Public Schools, " American School Board Journal, CXX (September, 1949). pp. 33, 96; W. W. Brickman, "Causes and Cures of Juvenile Delin- quency, Educational Literature Review, " School and Society, LXXV (July 28, 1952), PP. 405-411; W. W. Brickman, "Juvenile Delinquency and Crime in 1967," School and Society, IVC (November 9, 1968), p. 390; W. W. Brickman, "Rising Rate of Juvenile Delinquency, " School and Society, 120(X1V (October 27, 1956), p. 148; B. Dauw, "High Cost of Vandalism, " Safety Education, XXIV (March, 1956), PP. 2-7; J. F. Delaney, "Hidden Treasure, " American School Board Journal, CXXII (March, 1951), PP. 25-27+; Fandt, Edward L. , "A Study of the Practices of New Jersey Boards of Education in Protecting School Property Against Losses Due to Vandalism and Malicious Mischief" (unpublished Ed. D. dis- sertation, Rutgers University, 1961), 99 pp.; "Five Answers to Window Breakage, " Educational Execu- tives Overview, IV (May, 1963), pp. 36-39; 24 One of the most frequently cited articles about juvenile vandalism had a bearing on the general problem of school vandalism. Robert C. Moses, a civil administrator for the City of New York, described the wide extent of vandalism in an urban center, with school vandalism being only a part of the whole picture. 1 S. L. Gingery, "School Vandalism Is Not Decreasing, " School Management, XVI (November, 1946). p. 5; William C. Kvaraceus, Juvenile Delinquency, What Research Says to the Teacher, No. 15 (Washington: National Edu- cation Association, 1964), 32 pp.; Kvaraceus, "What About Hoodlumism?" pp. 4-7; Michelson, "Vandalism in Our Schools, " p. 13; Moffatt, "Vandals' Rocks Can't Reach, " p. 22; Murphy, "Answer to Vandalism, " p. 8; Nowakowski, "Vandals and Vandalism"; Sylvester O' Grince, "Public School Vandalism: How Baltimore Fights It, " American School and University, XL (July, 1968). pp. 30-32; T. Probst, "How to Cut Down Vandalism," Nations Schools, LXVIII (September, 1961), pp. 64-68; Donald C. Smith, "Vandalism in Selected Southern Cali- fornia School Districts: Nature, Extent, and Preventative Mea- sures" (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, University of Southern California, 1966), 368 pp.; E. Wade Underwood, (Untitled), Today's Education, N. E. A. Journal, LVII (December, 1968), p. 29. 1Moses, "Vandals at Work, " pp. 97-104. 25 Also in the descriptive literature was mention of vandalism in Great Britain. Their literature had the same limitations as those inherent in the American. Concern for the general problem of delinquency is found, but with too little specificity. The extent is more frequently illustrated by numbers of arrests made. 1 The plea is made in Great Britain for a uniform system of maintain sta- tistics on delinquency. 2 An American book, studying the problem of delinquency world-wide, made a claim in 1964 that vandalism was . . 3 "Increaslng" abroad. Preventative Measures Articles appearing in professional journals for school superintendents and school business officials concentrated on describing “ways to reduce vandalism in schools by various security means. These consisted of patrolling the buildings and electronic alarm systems to detect and frighten away illegal entries. These 1Hermann Mannheim, "The Problem of Vandalism in Great Britain," Federal Probation, XVII (March, 1954), pp. 14-15; "Delinquency and Discipline, " Education (Great Britain), CIXX (June, 1962). PP. 1081-1082. 2J . McNally, "Delinquency and the Schools, " Educational Research (Great Britain), VII (June, 1965), pp. 212-214. 3Walter A. Lunden, Statistics of Juvenile Delinquency (New York: C. Thomas, 1964), p. 288. 26 articles were written in a subjective manner and had no statistical data for study or comparison. lBachrach, "Vandalism, A Big Business," p. 33; J. W. Colmey and T. Valentine, "Deterrants to Vandalism," American School Board Journal, CXXXXII (May, 1961), p. 11; Richard R. Curren, (Untitled), Today's Education, N. E. A. Journal, LVI (December, 1968), p. 30; Dauw, "High Cost of Vandalism," pp. 6-7; "Detection Alarms That Thwart Theft, " American School Board Journal, CIL (December, 1964), pp. 36-38; "Electronics: New Hope for Vandalism Control, ” Nations Schools, XL (April, 1968), pp. 62, 64-65; Fandt, "New Jersey Practices, " Chapter 3, passim; O. F. Furno and M. Karas, "Can You Reduce Your Dis- trict's Vandalism Costs?" School Management, IX (May, 1965), p. 114+; A. L. Hart, "Safety, Security and Beauty Through Outdoor Lighting, " American School and University, XL (July, 1968), pp. 54-56; Paul H. Hoerlein, (Untitled), Today's Education, N. E. A. Journal, LVII (December, 1960), pp. 31-32; "How to Keep Vandals Off Guard; Portable Audio-Detection Units," School Mangement, IX (August, 1965), pp. 70-71; Robert C. Lloyd, (Untitled), Today's Education, N. E. A. Journal, LVII (December, 1968), p. 31; "Maintaining Plant Security, " Educational Executives' Overview, III (September, 1962), pp. 42-43; Moffatt, "Vandals' Rocks Can't Reach, " p. 22; 27 The few statistical studies available described security measures employed in schools, but made no comparative analysis of relative effectiveness, cost, or extent to which the various means were employed. There was no common statistical treatment of the data. 1 Architectural Design as a Preventative Measure Architects recognized vandalism to school buildings as something they could not control. Accordingly, they modified designs to minimize damage by vandals. Some examples of their Nations Schools, "Can Your District Use Some of These Ideas for Curbing Vandalism?" pp. 31-32; Probst, "How to Cut Vandalism, " pp. 64-68; "Security Systems for Maximum Protection," American School and University," XXXVIII (August, 1966), pp. 23-25; Spalding, "Vandalism, " p. 17T; Stevens, "Window Pane Vandals Cost Chicago," p. 51; K. F. Stoessner, "How One District Licked Vandalism, " Education Digest, XXXI (September, 1965), pp. 10-11; m, "Vandal Squad," p. 90; Underwood, (Untitled), p. 29. 1Fandt, "New Jersey Practices, " Chapter III, passim; Smith, "Vandalism in Southern California," Chapter IV; Nations Schools, "Vandalism, A Dirty Word," p. 67. 28 recommendations were to build schools with fewer exposed windows and glass brick; hollow court floor plans with windows facing only the interior court; glazing windows with plastic materials strong enough to resist even gun shots; decreasing size of window lights to smaller, cheaper-to-replace siZes; use of mark and scratch resis- tant glazed tile for wall surfaces in halls and lavatories. Equipment and furnishings whose design made them stronger and with fewer parts exposed for pilferage were recommended. Interaction with Pupils as a Preventative Measure Comparatively fewer sources were found in the literature recommending positive measures for curbing vandalism which involved children and the educative process. Some school districts 1Lloyd, (Untitled), p. 31 ; D. C. Kelly, "Solving the Window Breakage Problem in Schools," American School Board Journal, CXLVI (January, 1963), pp. 37-38; "Lowering the Toll of Vandalism, " American School and University, XXXVII (August, 1966), pp. 26-27; R. E. Rawlings, "Solutions to Million Dollar Glass Prob- lems, " American School Board Journal, CIL (December, 1964), pp. 40-41; J. S. Sharp, "Proper Design Limits Toll of Vandalism," American School Board Journal, CIL (December, 1964), pp. 22- 23. 29 reported using assembly programs, essay writing, mathematics problems based on vandalism costs and school clubs to make chil- dren more aware of the problem. City-wide programs were reported for both the New York and Chicago schools to educate children. Over the long run, however, these remained relatively ineffective. 1 Many school systems felt a positive influence toward curb- ing vandalism was exerted by the presence in the school of a Police School Counsellor. This was a plain-clothes police officer stationed in a building, working with youth informally on a preventative basis. This is one of the most recent developments, yet one of the most highly controversial. The concern is centered more on preservation 1Bachrach, "Vandalism, A Big Business, " p. 33; W. H. Bristow and A. H. Lazes, "Vandalism Is Minimized by a Continuous Program of Constructive Citizenship, " Nations Schools, LII (April, 1954), PP. 43-46; Delaney, "Hidden Treasure," pp. 26-27; Fox and Lazes, "Spare That Window," p. 289; Jessie R. Harper, (Untitled), Today's Education, N. E...A Journal, LVII (December, 1968). p. 32; "How Schools Combat Vandalism, " Nations Schools, LXXI (April, 1968). pp. 58-61; "Vandalism: How One School District Fights It and Wins," School Management, X (April, 1966), pp. 101-105; "Youth Battles Vandalism," Scholastic, LXIV (February, 1954), p. 12 TAC. 30 of civil rights of pupils than on relative effectiveness as a deterrent to delinquency and vandalism. 1 Because of student unrest and violence, many schools are adding a new position to their staffs--the security guard. These guards are both specially trained laymen and commissioned police officers. They are generally placed in secondary schools during school hours and immediately afterwards. The security guards are armed in some cases where they are commissioned police officers. These guards' activities generally cannot be considered preventative as are the Police School Counsellors described in Flint, Tucson, and Minneapolis. They are in the school for pro- tection of personnel and maintenance of order. The comments of Superintendents of New York and Los Angeles indicate that the officers are in the schools in a suppressive role rather than having a preventative and constructive relationship with pupils. 1Nations Schools, "How Schools Combat Vandalism, " p. 59; Donald W. Robinson, "Police in the Schools," Phi Delta Kappan, XXXVIII (February, 1967), pp. 278-280; George H. Shepherd and Jesse James, "Police: Do They Belong in the Schools?" American Education, III (September, 1967), pp. 2-4; Joseph Stocker, "Cops in the Schoolhouse: How They Help --and Hurt," School Management, XII (May, 1968), pp. 46-50. 31 New York and Chicago are each devoting over a million dollars of their resources annually to keeping security guards in their buildings. The reports available do not mention their effect on school vandalism. 1 In 1969, a small system in rural Idaho claimed to have turned the tide of rising vandalism costs by a different manner of interacting with children in school. The school board publicly announced that it was budgeting $500 for window damage and would let the student body have whatever was left at the end of the year for a gift to the school. In this town of 3000, the resulting cost of window repairs dropped from $2, 000 to $30 in one school year. The high school student body president was quoted as say- ing that "This project has helped bring the faculty and students closer together. " Whether or not this partnership idea could be applied to other situations must be determined. Another school system was reported to have felt that van- dalism was curbed after a community school program of wide par- ticipation in school-sponsored activities after school hours was 1"The Security Guard--Solution to Disorder?" Education U.S.A., March 24, 1969, p. 163. 2"What Do You Do About Vandals?" Flint Journal. FGb‘ ruary 9, 1969, p. 56. 32 initiated for school patrons. These activities were of educational, enrichment, and recreational nature. They were open to patrons of all ages. This source offered no statistics by which to analyze the validity of the claim. 1 In all of these articles relating to curbing vandalism by positive means, the key point was involvement of students in the school in a dialogue and participation in activities designed to make the student aware of the extent of the problem of vandalism. Un- fortunately, both the literature about security measures by outside agencies, be it patrols or electronic apparatus guarding the build- ings, and constructive educational programs within the school set- ting lack statistical data for analysis. The reader cannot weigh the relative merits. Legal Deterrents Another treatment of school vandalism in the literature described a reaction to the problem by lawmakers--the enacting of "parent responsibility" laws. Such laws make parents liable for costs of their children' s vandalism. Apparently such laws were hoped to act as deterrents to juvenile vandalism. While some vague 1"Workshop: Putting an End to Vandalism, Turn Schools into Neighborhood Centers, " School Management, XI (February, 1967), p. 25. 33 statistics supported the arguments, nothing was said about the success of authorities in apprehending the vandals responsible, or collecting the legally supported claims. A more recent study of laws of the fifty states relating to parent responsibilities for chil- dren' s vandalism followed the same general arguments and built-in weaknesses. I The dramatic and tragic example of Chicago's tripling of window damage costs over the past thirteen years illustrates what is happening to American schools. Educators, architects, and law- makers are all concerned about curbing vandalism. The literature cited described how security and patrol measures kept pace with modern technology, particularly electronics, but not with the destructive acts of vandals. The literature cited how architects have risen to the challenge as best they could, but have themselves also been unable to find a manner by which to curb vandalism. Law- makers, in their area of expertise, have appropriated more money for police protection and, in the case of juvenile vandalism, enacted 1J. W. Colmey and T. W. Valentine, "Stop Vandalism With Parent Responsibility Laws, " American School Board Journal, CXLI (July, 1960). pp. 9-11; "Parent Responsibility Laws Aren't Very Helpful, " Nations SChools, XL (April, 1968), p. 61; "To Reduce Vandalism and Juvenile Delinquency in City Parks," American Citj, LXVII (May, 1952), p. 155. 34 legislation calling for parents to make restitution for their children's vandalism. The costs still have risen despite the advances in security, detection, apprehension, architecture and legislation. The leads one to hypothesize that there is something of an internal nature of the schools that stimulates and maintains the motivation of children and youth to vandalize their schools. Accordingly, the literature was further examined to determine a possible explanation of why vandalism takes place. Causal Explanations Much of the thoughtful literature written by practitioners of the several social sciences contend in essence that much of the vandalism to schools is committed by youth as a striking back against some injustice of the school or the society for which it represents. Mentioned are three major sources of so-called injustice to children --Educational, Administrative, and Societal. Educational Injustice This may be considered one source fostered by school per- sonnel. Because delinquent behavior is bred in an atmosphere of rejection and insecurity, one of the most effective ways in which the school can combat delinquency is to make sure that it wholeheartedly 35 accepts all children at their academic functioning level. In this way the children will not experience such stark frustration from the continued academic failure so many face every day in schools. 1 In one documented study of school vandals, Nowakowski2 found, as one of the few distinguishing characteristics of the vandal as contrasted to the non-vandal, that the vandal was not highly esteemed by his teachers. In another study of twenty-one studies on delinquency, one factor became apparent. The generalization was that the better a child's performance in school, the less likely he was to become a delinquent. 3 Administrative Injustice Vandalism could be thought of as a reaction to the admin- istrative climate and practices of the school. Several writers con- tend that an administrative injustice can be enough of an irritant to cause children to vandalize their schools. Similarly, vandalism to 1Leo F. Cain, "Delinquency and the School, " School Life, XXXV (February, 1953), p. 65. 2Nowakowski, "Vandals and Vandalism, " pp. 8—9. 3Barbara Wooten, "Social Science and Social Pathology, " as cited in Travis Hirschi and Hannan C. Selvin, Delinquengy Research (New York: The Free Press, 1967), p. 23. 36 schools bears a relationship to the effectiveness of discipline and authority present in the school. J. G. Fox and A. H. Lazes, who studied vandalism inten- sively in the New York Schools and headed up a city-wide campaign for the control of vandalism, held that in their experience it was a form of striking back for some real or imagined grievance. In the school setting, a school that stressed a positive approach to dis- cipline usually had less vandalism than a school that stressed a punitive approach. 1 Schools, in the Syracuse study by Goldman, with high vandalism had two administrative characteristics associated. The study reported that the principal was more often than not weak in his administration. Discipline tended to be lax and inconsistent. Where the principal was reported to be authoritarian, with inade- quate communication with his staff and students, both the teachers and students reported that they were insecure in the roles they had to play. In such schools with purely formal and unilateral communi- cation policy that was arbitrarily determined by the principal, feel- ings of dissatisfaction were expressed by teachers and students. These schools were characterized by high vandalism. V 1J. G. Fox and A. H. Lazes, "Children, Spare That Win- dow," Clearing House, XXIX (January, 1955), p. 288. 2Goldman, A Study of Vandalism, p. 107. 37 Echoing the reports of students in the Goldman study in Syracuse were written comments by students in low damage schools of another community. The students reported that the school and the staff made them feel good and treated them well. 1 Also paralleling the Goldman findings was that of Michelson, who held that "Vandalism in the public schools does bear a relation- ship to the effectiveness of discipline and authority found in these . schools. "2 Further bearing this out was a study of pupils of grades 6, 9, and 11 attending schools of democratic and authoritarian admin- istrations. Attitudes and feelings of pupils of democratic schools were proved different from attitudes and feelings of pupils of authoritarian schools, the democratic pupils expressing the more favorable attitude toward their school. Additional data on the development of hostility which has a bearing on the cause of vandalism has been demonstrated experi- mentally by Kurt A. Lewin, Ronald Lippitt, and R. K. White, and 1"Youth Replies to Vandalism--Pro and Con Discussion, " Scholastic, LXII (April 15, 1953), pp. 7-9. 2Michelson, "Vandalism in Our Schools," p. 15. 3Honor E. Maynard, "A Study of Pupil Human Relations Within the School as Influenced by the Principal's Pattern of Behavior" (unpublished Ed. D. dissertation, University of Florida, 1955), p. 156. 38 by T. W. Adorno, E. Frenkel-Brunswik, D. J. Levinson, and R. N. Sanford. In the Lewin, Lippitt, and White study, three groups of children working on the same problem were subjected to experi- mental "social climates." In the first group, all work, policies, and discipline-were determined by the adult leader. In the second group, there was complete freedom for the group and each individual in the group to do as they wished. In the third group, all policies were determined by group discussion in which the leader assumed his place as a probably more experienced but equal member of the group. Data were collected via motion pictures and by sound re- cordings. Upon analysis, it was found that hostility and overt aggression were 30 times more pronounced in the first group operating under the authoritarian control of the adult. None of this aggression was directed against the group leader. On days of transition to a less rigid social climate (i .e. , group 1 children to group 2 or 3 climates), outbursts of aggression increased. 1 Adorno et al. lend further credence to the hypothesis that authoritarian relationships develOp increased hostility; that 1Kurt A. Lewin, R. Lippitt, and R. K. White, "Patterns of Experimentally Created Social Climates, " Journal of Social Psychology, X (March, 1939), pp. 273 ff. 39 individuals with authoritarian personalities need to exploit others to maintain their own personality integration. 1 As attractive as the hypothesis is that authoritarian prin- cipals may have a direct bearing on the amount of vandalism com- mitted to their schools, two studies did not mention this as a causal factor. In a review of 37 sources treating juvenile delinquency, Brickman did not mention either vandalism or the effect of authori- tarian school attitudes on juvenile delinquency. More recently, a study of some 300 school administrators in the continental United States indicated that school administration had little effect on vandalism. When asked, "To what extent is the school itself (because of its program, its administration, or its policies) responsible for the current vandalism?" nearly 75 per cent replied that the school was responsible very little or only to a minor degree. I Defacement of the school was shown both in the Goldman study and that of Clem to be a reaction to actions by the school 1T. W. Adorno, E. Grenkel-Brunswik, D. J. Levinson, and R. N. Sanford, The Authoritarian Personality (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1950). 2Brickman, "Causes and Cures of Delinquency," passim. "Vandalism; School Administrators Opinion Poll Findings, " Nations Schools, LXVI (December, 1960), p. 55. 40 custodian. Students made a game of defacing walls as quickly as the harassed and openly hostile custodian removed the graffiti. 1 From a sociologist' s viewpoint, there is reason to believe that while young people frequently act out, it is because they want in. While some behavior is anti—social or even self-destructive, it is to some extent a way of letting society know the concerns of youth. We need to recognize the right of young people to have a say about, and an impact upon, the institutions of society-~those insti- tutions established to train, educate, serve, and control youth as well as those institutions responsible for the broader affairs of society. Societal Injustice Vandalism is considered by some as an outgrowth of hostility and frustration toward society by youth. The very defini- tion of vandalism is based on societal values of what is good to society and what is not. Youth react against their society for one reason or another when they vandalize school property. Cloward and Ohlin generalized by stating that Deviance ordinarily represents a search for solutions of adjustment. As we noted, deviance may be understood as an 1O. M. Clem, "Public Opinion of Pupils as a Force in Administration, " School Activities, XXII (October, 1950), p. 45. 2 Burns and Stern, "Prevention of Delinquency," p. 357. 41 effort to resolve difficulties that sometimes result from conformity. In this sense, deviance is not purposeless, although it may be random and disorganized. In his descriptive statement, Lippman concurred with Cloward and Ohlin, stating that vandalism often occurs in situations in which the culture imposes too many restrictions or penalities when laws of aggression are violated. He gave examples of dif- ferent cultures where this took place. All too many times it is attempted to view the problems of deviance and vandalism in extreme statements of absolutes. Be- havior of delinquents is not in fact 100 per cent deviant in nature. Cloward and Ohlin hold that most of the behavior of delinquents conforms to conventional expectations; their violations of official norms are selective, confused to certain areas of activity and interest. As serious as vandalism is to society, particularly the schools, vandalism is not a widely engaged-in activity of American youth. It will be shown that only a small percentage of youth do vandalize. Studies to be cited show that some socio-economic 1Cloward and Ohlin, Delinquency and Opportunity, p. 38. 2Hyman S. Lippman, "Vandalism As an Outlet for Aggres- sion," Federal Probation, XVII (March, 1954), pp. 5-6. 3Cloward and Ohlin, Delinquencyand Opportunity, pp. 19- 20. 42 groups vandalize more than others, and that there is a difference across racial lines in the proportions of children who vandalize. Vandalism and destruction of property concerns the adult American public because this is contrary to one of the most dearly held norms of the society. Yet respect for property apparently is valued by youth as well, as was indicated by two studies of self- admitted deviant acts by youth of two diverse subcultures. Short, Tennyson, and Howard gathered from detached social workers work- ing intimately in the field with sixteen "delinquent gangs" in Chicago the following data about the deviant acts they had engaged in. Of the total respondents, only 46. 3 per cent of the youth reported in engag- ing in vandalism as compared to 90. 6 per cent who reported hanging around on the street, 86. 5 per cent drinking, 74. 7 per cent loiter- ing, and 74. l per cent who reported sexual intercourse. David R. Heise reported a study of 753 college under- graduate students. He surveyed both their deviant behavior and their condemnations of types of deviant acts. In ranking a list of 29 types of deviant acts, the group listed "destruction of property" as the second most condemned behavior. School vandalism was ranked fifth in the list. Destruction of school and library books came tenth, 1James F. Short, Jr. , Ray A. Tennyson, and Kenneth I. Howard, "Behavior Dimensions of Gang Delinquency," American Sociological Review, XXVIII (July, 1963). p. 411. 43 and defacement of toilets was ranked fifteenth, or midpoint, in the list. When queried about engaging in the above sanctioned behavior, only 15 per cent reported vandalizing schools, 29 per cent reported destroying property, 30 per cent reported destroy- ing books, and 36 per cent reported defacing toilets. Heise analyzed the personalities of the respondents and found that students characterized as "wild ones" tended to destroy property and vandalize schools among their otherwild behavior. Students who were classified as "indirect aggressors, " who acted more covertly and deviously, also tended to destroy property and vandalize schools frequently. Students who displayed "rebellious" characteristics tended to destroy books, vandalize schools, and deface toilets frequently in their reported deviant behavior. 1 In another study of delinquents, in this case institution- alized delinquents, Matza asked the delinquents their judgments on the desirability of having for friends boys who engaged in van- dalism, auto theft, and stealing bicycles. The delinquents were given four choices of responses: "approve, " "indifferent, " "mild 1David R. Heise, "Norms and Individual Patterns of Stu- dent Deviancy," Social Problems, XVI (Summer, 1968), pp. 79- 82. 44 disapproval, " and "indignation. " The responses are summarized in Table 1. 1 TABLE 1 DE LINQUENTS' JUDGMENT OF BOYS WHO COMMIT VARIOUS DEVIANT ACTS , Mild . . Act Approve Indifferent Disapproval Indlgnatlon Vandalism 1% 5 8% 30% 1 1% Auto Theft 2 46 22 30 Bike Theft 4 60 22 14 These 3 studies of such diverse subcultures in American society lead to speculation if vandalism is indeed such a major deviant behavior in the United States. Perhaps it is not as severe a problem sociologically as others we face. What would happen if a larger percentage of youth engaged in vandalism and destruction of property? These 3 studies prompted speculation also that while they represented youth roughly ages 14-22 years, what is the per- centage of younger age groups who vandalize? 1David Matza, Delinquency and Drift (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1964), p. 49. 45 Investigating a younger age group, Dentler and Monroe compared the vandalism reported by non-urban seventh and eighth grade children with their admitted theft patterns. They reported that of 529 children who admitted no thefts, 87 per cent of them reported that they had never engaged in vandalism. Of 304 children who admitted to some theft, 56 per cent reported that they, too, had never engaged in vandalism. Of the 79 children admitting to a high amount of theft, only 38 per cent could report that they had never engaged in vandalism. 1 Another study cut across status group levels in seeking to find answers to delinquency. In the study matched groups of delinquent and non-delinquent youth were queried as to their deviant behavior. Their answers were factored by their social status assigned by parent' 3 occupations. All status groups reported committing similar deviant acts, but the middle status group, comprising 55 per cent of the total sample, exceeded the other groups in: 1) General traffic offenses (63% of total violations) 2) Theft and forgery (90% of total violations) 3) Defying people other than their own parents (83% of total violations) 1 Robert A. Dentler and Lawrence J. Monroe, "Social Correlates of Early Adolescent Theft," American Sociological Review, XXVI (October, 1961). P. 739. 46 4) Property violations of all types including: breaking and entering (67% of flal violations) destroying property (70% of tital violations) arson (84% of 31:11 violations) 5) Armed robbery (87% official violations)1 Arithmetically, this would yield only about 49% of the total sample that committed acts of destroying property, the closest category to the study of school vandalism. This percentage closely compared to the studies previously cited. A study in which juvenile offenses were studied from the perspective of census tract locations to show both ethnic and socio- economic characteristics of offenses was conducted in Indianapolis, Indiana. In 1958-1960, the juvenile court referrals were studied by Chilton. In sorting the specific offenses for census tracts grouped by median family income, he found that children from higher income tracts found their way to court less often than those from lower income census tracts. However, the children from higher income tracts were found in court more often than their total numbers would warrant for such offenses as traffic violations, liquor violations, 1LaMar T. Empey and Maynard L. Erickson, "Hidden Delinquency and Social Status," Social Forces, XLIV (June, 1966), p. 551. 47 curfew violations, incorrigibility, car theft and vandalism. An interesting pattern emerged here as corroborated by other studies. The offenses involving property damage, but no permanent gain to the offender, such as car theft, trespassing, and vandalism, were committed more frequently than would be expected from children of high income tracts. 1 Conversely, children from low income tracts were less frequently charged for these same offenses than would be expected by their-total numbers referred to court. Vandalism for the whole study amounted for only 0. 8 per cent of the total offenses referred to the juvenile court during the period studied. Extremes for commission of vandalism by census tract studywere 0.70 per cent for children in lowest median family income census tracts and 1.07 per cent for the children in the highest median income census tracts. When the data were analyzed from the perspective of race, census tracts with less than 0. 5 per cent Negro had children over- representedin juvenile court for offenses against property, such as auto theft, traffic offenses, burglary, trespass, and vandalism. 1Roland J. Chilton, "Middle-Class Delinquency and Specific Offense Analysis," in Middle-Class Juvenile Delinquency, ed. by Edmund W. Vaz (New York: Harper and Row, 1967), pp. 91-101. 48 They outranked Negroes by both total numbers and in proportions brought to court. Children of predominantly Negro census tracts were under- represented in court for these same offenses. They were over- represented in court for such offenses as loitering, robbery, larceny, and carrying concealed weapons. Conversely, the children living in predominantly white census tracts were under-represented in court for these same offenses. Only 0.57 per cent of total Negroes in the study were charged for vandalism, as compared to 0. 92 per cent of total white offenders. This percentage of actual arrests for vandalism is sur- prisingly small (0. 8 per cent) when compared to the admissions of vandalism by both delinquent and non-delinquent children in other studies. This study probably is of greater value in pointing up that specific offense patterns vary from race to race and income group to income group. Another study conducted in one high school of a middle class suburban community related that vandalism was admitted by 71.1 per cent of boys and 28. 9 per cent of girls ages 15 to 18. When the components of "vandalism" were analyzed, in the rankings of 35 specific offenses, the following were found: 49 TABLE 2 RANKINGS OF ACTS OF VANDALISM BY SELF-ADMISSIONS OF BOYS AGES 15-18 % Boys Rank Offense Admitting Purposely damaged or destroyed " 9 . . 47. 4% pubhc or prlvate property Painted and chalked trimming on 14 . . 39. 2 statues or buildings 16 Broken street lights or windows in a 36 0 public building ' 29 Set fires in buildings or on grounds 11 2 where they were not intended ' 31 Entered a commercial or public 6 0 building and wrecked-up things ' Source: Nancy Barton Wise, "Juvenile Delinquency Among Middle-class Girls, " in Middle-Class Juvenile Delinquency, ed. by Edmund W. Vaz (New York: Harper and Row, 1967), pp. 183-185. Vaz reported a study of 1639 white high school boys grades 9 through 13 in four middle-class Canadian communities. The boys reported that by age 19, 52. 0 per cent had destroyed or damaged public property of any kind, and that 7. 5 per cent had broken into or tried breaking into a building with the intention of stealing. 1 1Edmund W. Vaz, "Juvenile Delinquency in Middle-Class Youth Culture, " in Middle-Class Juvenile Delinquency, ed. by Edmund W. Vaz (New York: Harper and Row, 1967), p. 137. 50 From these studies summarized in Table 3, which can hardly be considered conclusive but can indicate a possible gener- ality, it appeared that only a relatively small number of children, even those labelled "delinquent, " actually engage in vandalism. If the reports of the older respondents to these studies can be con- sidered accurate 33d accumulative, it would tend to show that van- dalism is not apparently an activity of only pre-adolescent children, but a behavior engaged in sporadically or episodically through life. Cloward and Ohlin believe that each individual fills a posi- tion in both legitimate and illegitimate opportunity structures. 1 This is in contrast to the Anomie theories such as those of Merton, 2 that view the individual in terms of only the legitimate opportunity structure. The cultural—transmission and differential association tradition, 3 art the other hand, assumes that access to illegitimate means is variable, but it does not recognize the significance of comparable differentials in access to legitimate means. 1Cloward and Ohlin, Delinquency and Opmrtunity, pp. 150- 152. 2R. K. Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure (Glen— coe,.Illinois: Free Press, 1957), pp. 145-146. 3E. H. Sutherland, Principles of Criminolgy (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1947). PP. 7-8. 51 goonom swan mmEOIOHnEE m mo munch uoficom new .333. 5 whoa mo mcowmmwfivmufiom mfioonom 5mg ~83“..de .38 mo whoa mo meowmmwfipmufiom. mucozvdnonncoc new macosvcflmn mo mofiagm nofiumfi mo mcowmmwavmuflmm mwcmm 9:26:22. :23me mo mama—Ema mo mcowmmfignmnflom 335a onmum flags new 5co>om .Ho meowmmeUMIMHom 3:“..me Oumanmumuonnz omofloo mo mcoflmmflapmufiom «50.35 .mnoawcmwncm 5 memo.» OE no“ mfimunoMou «.250 3:5 Nm> somxo Em new 439nm puwkom new nonrandom. 3.3% @0282 cam uoficom omfiom do”: 30 o.mm ode méw How o.m~ Sam .o :oflmfiuofin .«o monaom oversea s35 3326:; 58% mo owmuno0hom mHHQPHm Aflm Zn QflEmOnmmm m< Emmmomnm UZHNHA EDOM» .mO mHUdnHZHUmmm m H1— mda. 52 Palmore and Hammond build on Cloward and Ohlin' s generalizations and assert that lower socio-economic strata gen- erally, and Negroes and boys especially, face more barriers to legitimate goals. 1 Their situation is more anomic. Similarly, school failure can be conceived of as another barrier to legitimate opportunity. Whether school failure stems from low intelligence or lack of motivation or deprived cultural background, it appeared clear to Palmore and Hammond that a youth failing or dropping out of school found more obstacles to the legitimate goals of our society than other youths. They summarize by stating that (1) a deviant family back- ground increases Negro, but not white, delinquency. (2) A deviant neighborhoodincreases male, but not female, delinquency. (3) Either kind of deviant influence increases delinquency more among those failing in school than among those succeeding. Taken together, these findings illustrate an implication of Cloward and Ohlin' s theoretical work in which illegitimate as well as legitimate opportunity structures are related to delinquency. 2 1Erdmon B. Palmore and Phillip E. Hammond, "Factors in Juvenile Delinquency," American Sociological Review, XXIX (December, 1964), p. 852. 2Ibid., p. 851. 53 Several writers have attempted to clarify the causes for crime and delinquency. While their writings express some. but not all, aspects of opportunities in legitimate and illegitimate struc- tures, they do show strong relationships. One of the major studies in the literature by the demogra- pher Schmid stated that urban crime areas, including areas where criminals reside and where crimes are committed, are generally characterized byall or most of the following factors: ‘ low social cohesion, weak family life, low socio-economic status, physical deterioration, high rate of population mobility, and personal de- moralization as reflected by attempted and completed suicide, drunkenness, and narcotics violation. 1 Chilton from his findings suggested that delinquency appeared to be related to transiency, poor housing, and economic indices, this supporting the assumption of almost all sociological theories of delinquency, that delinquency in urban areas is pre- dominantly a lower—class male phenomenon. Polk, in the context of his study of San Diego, found that a measure of ethnic status correlated more strongly with delinquency 1Calvin F. Schmid, "Urban Crime Areas: Part II, " Ameri- can Sociolgical Review, XXV (October, 1960), p. 676. 2Roland J. Chilton, "Continuity in Delinquency Area Re- search, " American Sociological Review, XXIX (February, 1964), pp. 82-83. 54 areas than did indices of occupation of parents and general educa- tional attainment of the area. 1 Willie g:_a_l. , in studying 6629 juveniles referred to juvenile court in Washington, D. C. , for the period July, 1959, through March, 1962, made the following findings as they related to all 115 census tracts of the city. (1) Socio-economic status is related to juvenile delinquency; the lower the SES, the higher delinquency. (2) The higher proportion of broken homes, the greater the delin- quency. (3) Any association between race and delinquency may be explained by differences in the socio-economic status and family composition of white and non-white populations. 2 Society contributes another injustice to youth by having a lack of socially acceptable constructive activity to make young people feel worthwhile today, according to Goodman. 3 He held that this underlies much of the problem of juvenile delinquency. As youth are powerless, vandalism is spite, and as youth are humili- ated, it becomes a vengeance. 1Kenneth Polk, "Juvenile Delinquency and Social Areas, " Social Problems, V (October, 1957), pp. 214-217. 2Charles V. Willie et al. , "Race and Delinquency," Phylon, XXVI (March, 1965). pp. 240-246. 3Paul Goodman, as cited in Senior Scholastic, XC (May 12, 1967), p. 22. 55 Summary This chapter reviewed and examined the historical and dollar trends of school vandalism. It reviewed the extensive litera- ture dealing with the extent of vandalism in schools and measures taken to reduce its severity or curb its commission. The several social sciences were reviewed dealing with sociological and psycho- logical explanations of delinquency in general and vandalism in particular. Studies into the self-admissions of delinquents and non-delinquents dealing with the specific types of delinquency and vandalism were reviewed. Research designs of several studies into juvenile delinquency were studied with the object of construct- ing an effective research design for this study. The next chapter will deal with the specific research design of the study. CHAPTER III THE RESEARCH DESIGN METHODOLOGY Introduction The purpose of this study was to determine if the authori- tarian attitudes manifested by principals and custodians in schools of a Midwestern Industrial City might contribute more to the extent of school vandalism than the prevailing socio-economic conditions of the school community. The basic concern was that authoritarian attitudes of the school principal and custodian might unwittingly provoke damage to the school. In addition, correlates of educational program and staffing, personal characteristics of the principal and custodian, and socio- economic characteristics of the school neighborhood were sought as possible predictive indicators of higher rates of vandalism. A research plan or design was evolved, aiming at bringing into relief significant distinctions between schools ranking differently on a damage scale. 56 57 The Research Desigg The research program or design was as follows: The population studied would be the public elementary schools in a Midwestern Industrial City. School vandalism would be rated by existing indicators in the records of the school district. Questionnaires about personal background, attitudes, and evaluations of vandalism to the local school would be developed for principals and custodians in this study. United States Census Records and other records of city agencies would be studied and analyzed for each school of the city. The emphasis would be on selection of such data that had strong predictive effect in other studies and the type of data readily available to those in the field for con- venient replication. The data would be analyzed, considering each school as a unit. The degree of association between extent of vandal- ism and other characteristic or item investigated was determined by use of a stepwise deletion of variables from a least squares (multiple regression) equation developed by the Michigan State University Agricultural Experiment 58 Station. 1 Use of the Michigan State University Computing Facilities was made possible through support, in part, from the National Science Foundation and the Research Budget of the College of Education. Use of multiple regression analysis was suggested by sociologists as the most practical manner in which to analyze the large number of variables introduced into this study. 2 Items investigated were recorded in such a way as to be continuous data lending themselves to this manner of analysis. 1Michigan State University Agricultural Experiment Station, STAT Series Description No. 8: Stepwise Deletion of Variables from a Least Squares Equation (LSDEL Routine) (East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State Computer Laboratory, 1968), 19 + ii pp. , mimeo- graphed. 2Donald J. Bogue and Dorothy L. Harris, Comparative Population and Urban Research via Multiple Regression and Covariance AnalLsis (Oxford, Ohio: Scripps Foundation, 1954), pp. 1-17; Belton M. Fleisher, "The Effect of Income on Delinquency, " American Economic Review, LVI (January, 1966), pp. 118-137; Travis Hirschi and Hannan C. Selvin, Delinquency Research (New York: The Free Press, 1967). pp. 156-159; United States Civil Rights Commission, Racial Isolation in the Public Schools, Volume II, Appendices (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1967), pp. 204-206. 59 The Research Population of Schools On the basis of discussions with research consultants, experts on school buildings and school administration, it was decided to survey the elementary schools of a particular Midwestern Industrial City whose school boundaries largely coincided with city boundaries. After discussions with school personnel of the district involved, it was decided to survey all elementary schools of the district. Forty-three of the fifty elementary schools cooperated. The remaining seven were distributed randomly among the popula- tion of schools in terms of vandalism, location, socio-economic status of community, age and size of building. The forty-three elementary schools used in the study represented all strata of the city enumerated above. See Appendix D for a list of rankings of the schools showing how the missing schools ranked on certain char- acteristics. The Extent of Vandalism Rating One characteristic of the vandalism studies in the literature was the lack of a common denominator for assessing extent of vandal- ism. Goldman' 81 study of Syracuse Secondary Schools represented 1Goldman, A Study of Vandalism, pp. 15-18. 60 the most comprehensive survey described. It was time-consuming and prohibitive to replicate. Also, it was a method unwieldy for use in the schools on a routine basis. It, too, did not assign a replicable dollar value to vandalism costs. Making an objective assessment of vandalism difficult almost to the point, of impossibility is the varying internal account- ing methods of school districts. This condition is caused partially by necessity for parcelling out costs of restoration of vandalism. For example, the case of a vandal forcing a door lock involves the restorative services of a locksmith to repair the lock; a carpenter to repair gouged door and its casing; a painter to touch up paint or varnish; and, of course, the custodian who initially cleans up and makes the room habitable. Generally school district maintenance accounting doesn't, to begin with, make note of actual vandalism, and the involvement of several semi-autonomous crafts makes a unified accounting of the total cost exceedinglyidifficult. Hidden costs of school district security investigators, inspection by maintenance supervisors and principal, and most importantly, inconvenience to teaching person- nel further add to the true cost of vandalism. Because of this, the chosen indicator for this study of van- dalism of a Midwestern Industrial City was made the dollar cost of 61 glazing repairs. This is one item that is easily found in school district maintenance records because it involves only one craft and because windows are seldom broken except maliciously. Using this figure also has statistical justification. The Syracuse study found a . 53 correlation between window breakage and overall damage ranking of school which took all forms of vandalism into account. 1 As this study of a Midwestern Industrial City developed, this decision was justified, as window glazing costs here were found to correlate . 6495 with total number of vandalism reports by the school security investigator. Collection of Data 5 The following investigative procedures were used. Inven- tories measuring authoritarian attitudes and inventories measuring ideology regarding pupil control were transmitted to both principals and custodians fOr self-administration. In addition, custodians were asked to fill out an abbreviated Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire to ascertain the organizational climate dimensions of the school. All of these instruments will be described in detail later and can be found in the Appendices. The instruments were: 1Ibid., p. 23. 62 1. Rokeach Dogmatism Scale measuring authoritarian attitude of the subject. 1 2. Pupil Control Ideology Scale measuring the pupil control ideology of public school professional staff members. 2 3. Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire measur- ingteachers' and principals' behavior.3 Principals and custodians completed a personal data ques- tionnaire and some questions relating to their evaluation of vandalism to their schools; information asked for-were: rive-PPM 8.0.6.” school name sex marital status age present position how many years this position how many years this position in this school extent of education rate vandalism to school rate feelings of pupils toward their building 1Milton W. Rokeach, The Olen and Closed Mind (New York: Basic Books, 1960), 447 + xv pp. 2Terry L. Eidell, "The Development and Test of a Mea- sure of the Pupil Control Ideology of Public School Professional Staff Members" (unpublished Ed.D. thesis, Pennsylvania State University, 1965), 95 + v pp. 3James L. Pritchard, "Validation of the Organizational Climate Des‘cription Questionnaire Against Perceptions of Non- Faculty School Personnel" (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Stan- ford University, 1966), 149 + x pp. 63 m. indicate who causes the most vandalism rank in 1, 2, 3 order most important reasons peOple vandalize 0. estimate percentage of pupils in school who vandalize their own building p. estimate total numbers of people using building after hours. 53 Principals were asked to complete an educational character- istics questionnaire of their school asking for the following informa- tion: a. total enrollment b. numbers pupils left or transferred c. numbers Negro pupils d. classroom ratio e. how many days per week special personnel in building f. percentage of total classroom teachers new to the school g. what percentage of these inexperienced h. rate vitality of P. T. A. j. estimate percentage of families actually participating in P. T. A. k. estimate community spirit of school area 1 . is there a community school program m. how many community school program activities n. how many different school sponsored activities 0. how many non-school sponsored activities p. estimate percentage broken homes q. estimate percentage families on A. D. C. r. estimate percentage families on other relief 8. is school undergoing social change These instruments can be found in the Appendices. They were transmitted to principals at a regularly stated administrative meeting. Copies for custodians were attached. Individually pre- addressed and postage laden envelopes were prepared for custodian 64 and principal to return materials. After follow—up letters, a return of 86 per cent usable pairs of instruments was accomplished. Description of Instruments Rokeach Dogmati sm Scale The Rokeach Dogmatism Scale is an instrument to measure authoritarian attitudes. This instrument has been standardized for over 15 years and has been used with a variety of social and educa- tional groups both in the United States and abroad. It consists of questionssuch as, "I often have felt that strangers were looking at me critically. " The respondent was asked to mark one of the following to indicate how he felt about the statement. +3 I agree very much +2 I agree on the whole +1 I agree a little -1 I disagree a little -2 I disagree on the whole -3 I disagree very much The higher total score, the greater the respondent's degree of authoritarianism. Eidell Pupil Control Inventory Scale This instrument was used to see how a person' s authori— tarian attitude manifested itself in the way he felt toward pupil 65 discipline. Also its relationship with total school vandalism was to be studied. While designed for use with teachers and principals it was decided to employ this with custodians, as they are involved, too, in the day-to-day operation of the school. This twenty item instrument consisted of statements such as, "It is desirable to require pupils to sit in assigned seats during assemblies. " The respondent was asked to mark one of the following to indicate how he felt about the statement. SA Strongly Agree A Agree U Undecided D Disagree SD Strongly Disagree A score was computed by using various weights for the responses. Higher scores would indicate a more custodial or authoritarian ideology toward pupil control. Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire This instrument was originally developed by Croft and Halpin1 to measure the social interaction between the principal and the teachers. They essentially were thinking about the "social 1Andrew W. Halpin and Don B. Croft, The Organizational Climate of Schools (Washington: United Stated Government Printing Office, 1962), pp. 4-7. 66 component" of the organizational climate. Such a climate has been described as the interaction between the task achievement and need- satisfaction dimension within an organization. If this new concept does embody important dimensions of interpersonal relationships in terms of individual needs and organizational goals, its use in educa- tional research is justified. Pritchard was convinced that if teachers can effectively perceive essential qualities of teacher-principal social interaction using the O. C.D.Q. , then the school secretaries, custodians, cooks, bus drivers and other non-faculty personnel are also in a position to "feel" the atmosphere of the school. 1 His study elicited the per- ceptions of these personnel, and compared them to non-participant observer perceptions of the same school by a project team from Stanford University. From this study he developed an instrument of sixteen items that measured the eight dimensions of Croft and Halpin' s organizational climate. Items in the test were like, "Teachers exert group pressure on non-conforming faculty members. " The respondent was asked to mark one of the following to indicate how he felt about the statement. lPritchard, Validation of the O. C. D.Q. , pp. 7-8. 67 Rarely occurs Sometimes occurs Often occurs Very frequently occurs tthi-n A score was computed by using various weights for the responses. Particular items combined would give scores for each of the eight dimensions of the organizational climate. Rather than analyzing the organizational climate of the particular schools, the data from the instruments in this study were to be analyzed to glean behavior characteristics in the eight dimen- sions of organizational climate that might have a significant rela- tionship with school vandalism. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF DATA AND FINDINGS Introduction The statistical findings regarding the determination of the best set of items to predict school vandalism are reported in this chapter. .The first section of findings concerns itself with the results of the multiple regression equation that studied 23 variables in order to find the highest items predictive of school vandalism. Following this, data are presented to prove or disprove the guiding questions for this study. Then a brief statement will be made about the appropriateness of the various standardized instruments used in the collection of data for this study. Predictive Items Yielded by Regression The forty-three schools were compared on a number of characteristics. Some eighty-five separate items were studied by a multiple regression technique1 to isolate those items which 1Michigan State University Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion, STAT Series Description No. 8. 68 69 interacted similtaneously in such a manner to provide the best predictive items for high rates of school vandalism. The first computer run was an eighty-five by eighty-five multiple regression matrix using minimum significance, .05. Nine separate equations yielded a total of twenty-three items with high partial coefficients. A twenty-three by twenty-three matrix was next run, using the highest rated items by the previous nine equations. The purpose for this second computer run was to "wring out" from the data a set of items predictive of school vandalism. Significance was set .01. Results are summarized in Table 4 and Table 5. Table 5 summarized the statistical analysis for the four best predictive items determined. The multiple correlation coefficient for this final equation was 0. 9136. In the following reporting, correlation coefficient value of . 6000 and above will be considered as "strong, " .5000 to . 6000 as "moderate, " .4000 to .5000 as "limited, " and .3000 to .4000 as "suggestive. " Description of Predictive Items 1. Custodians Who Under-rate VandaliSm to School The first highly ranked predictive item was the way in which the custodian rated the vandalism to his school. Since 74.5 70 TAB LE 4 PREDICTIV E VALUE OF 23 OF 85 VARIABLES TO PREDICT VANDALISM. IN STUDY OF 43 SCHOOLS Rank Item Description Source 1. 5 Custodians Who Under-rate Vandalism Instrument 1. 5 Per Cent of Population Negro Census 3 Per Cent of Families on A.D. C. Instrument 4 Per Cent of Families Participating in P. T.A. as Estimated by Principal Instrument 5 Low Amount of Services by Remedial Reading Specialist Instrument 6 Total Building Enrollment , Instrument 7 Presence of Community School Program Instrument 8 Computed Per Cent of Negro Pupils Instrument 9 Per Cent of Local School Children Who Vandalize as Estimated by Principal Instrument 10 Presence of Community School Director Instrument 11 Per Cent of Boy Children, Ages 10-15 Census 12 Reasons People Vandalize, as Rated by Principal Instrument 13 Teachers' "Disengagement" on O. C.D.Q. as Rated by Custodian Instrument 14 Computed Per Cent of Pupil Transiency Instrument 15 Principal' 8 High Score on Rokeach Instrument Instrument 16 Custodian' 8 High Score on Rokeach Instrument Instrument 17 Principals Who Rate Pride of Students Excessively High Toward Their School Instrument 18 Vitality of P. T. A. as Rated by Principal Instrument 19 Per Cent of Children Living in Broken Homes Census 20 Number of Years Principal Has Been in Building Instrument 21 Classroom Ratio Instrument 22 Number Vandalism Reports by Investigator Interview 23 Principal's "Aloofness" on O. C.D.Q. 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The best principals give unquestioning support to teachers in disciplining pupils. Pupils should not be permitted to contra- dict the statements of a teacher in class. It is justifiable to have pupils learn many facts about a subject even if they have no immediate application. Too much pupil time is spent on guidance and activities and too little time on academic preparation. Being friendly with pupils often leads them to become too familiar. It is more important for pupils to learn to obey rules than that they make their own decisions. Student governments are a good "safety valve" but should not have much influence on school policy. Pupils can be trusted to work together without supervision. If a pupil uses obscene or profane language in school, it must be considered a moral offense. C! SD SD SD SD SD SD SD SD 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 149 If pupils are allowed to use the lavatory without getting permission, this privilege will be abused. A few pupils are just young hoodlums and should be treated accordingly. It is often necessary to remind pupils that their status in school differs from that of teachers. A pupil who destroys school material or property should be severely punished. Pupils cannot perceive the difference between democracy and anarchy in the classroom. Pupils often misbehave in order to make the teacher look bad. CFCzcb Strongly Agree SA Agree Undecided C.‘ Disagree U Strongly Disagree 8 SD SD SD SD APPENDIX F CUSTODIAN' S VANDALISM STUDY QUESTIONNAIRE 150 VANDALISM STUDY QUE STIONNAIRE SECTION I. For both Principals and Custodians .to fill out. 10. 1.1. School Your name Sex: _Male _Female { Marital Status: _Single _Married i _Widow(er) _Separated 1 What is your age? ‘ . What is your present position? Principal Custodian . How many years have you been a principal or custodian? How many years have you been at this school as a principal or custodian? Amount of Education: (Please circle the last year completed) Elementary High School 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 Technical School or College 13 14 15 16 17 18 Rate vandalism to your school: High Moderate Low Rate the feelings of most of your pupils toward their school building: Proud Unconcerned Embarrassed Hate Indicate who in your opinion causes the MOST vandalism to your school building: Children attending .this school High school pupils Parochial grade school pupils Out of school youth--age 16 to 21 Adults 12. 13. 14. 151 Rank in 1, 2, 3 order the 3 most important reasons people vandalize your school: (Please mark only 3 items) for kicks, pleasure to show bravery to friends to gain profit, sell stolen items nothing else to do to show hatred of school, teachers, staff carelessness _revenge for "something done to them by school" Estimate what percentage of PUPILS IN YOUR SCHOOL cause the vandalism to your school. % Estimate the total numbers of people using your building after school hours September, 1968, through February, 1969: 152 The following is a study of what the general public thinks and feels about a number of important social and personal questions. The best answer to each statement below is your personal opinion. We have tried to cover many different and opposing points of view-~you may find yourself agreeing strongly with some of the statements, disagree- ing just as strongly with others, and perhaps uncertain about others --whether you agree or disagree with any statement, you can be sure that many people feel the same as you do. Mark each statement in the right margin according to how much you agree or disagree with it. Please mark every one. Write +3 +2 +1 -1 -2 -3 , depending on how you feel in each case. +3 I agree very much +2 I agree on the whole +1 I agree a little -1 I disagree a little -2 I disagree on the whole -3 I disagree very much SAMPLE: I have often felt that strangers were looking at me critically +3 +2 @ -1 -2 -3 In this example the respondent marked +1 to show that he feels that he "agree a little" with the statement. Of course, any of the other alternatives could be selected, depending on how he feels about the statement. PLEASE MARK YOUR RESPONSE CLEARLY, AS IN THE EXAMPLE. PLEASE BE SURE THAT YOU MARK EVERY ITEM. SCHOOL POSITION 1. The United States and Russia have just about nothing in common. +3 +2 +1 -1 -2 -3 10. 11. 153 +3 +2 +1 -1 -2 -3 The highest form of government is a democracy and the highest form of democracy is a government run by those who are most intelligent. Even though freedom of speech for all groups is a worthwhile goal, it is. unfortunately necessary to restrict the freedom of certain political groups. It is only natural that a person would have a much better acquaintance with ideas he believes in than ideas he opposes. Man on his own is a helpless and miserable creature. Fundamentally, the world we live in is a pretty lonesome place. Most people just don't give a "damn" for others. I'd like it if I could find someone who would tell me how to solve my personal problems. It is only natural for a person to be rather fearful of the future. There is much to be done and so little time to do it in. Once I get wound up in a heated dis- cussion, I just can't stop. I agree very much I agree on the whole I agree a little I disagree a little I disagree on the whole I disagree very much +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 154 +3 +2 +1 -1 -2 -3 In a discussion I often find it necessary to repeat myself several times to make sure I am being understood. In a heated discussion I generally become so absorbed in what I am going to say that I forget to listen to what the others are saying. It is better to be a dead hero than to be a live coward. While I don' t like to admit this even to myself, my secret ambition is to become a great man like Einstein, or Beethoven, or Shakespeare. The main thing in life is for a person to want to do something important. If given the chance I would do some- thing of great benefit to the world. In the history of mankind there have probably been just a handful of really great thinkers. There are a number of people I have come to hate because of the things they stand for. A man who does not believe in some great cause has not really lived. It is only when a person devotes him- self to an ideal or cause that life becomes meaningful. I agree very much I agree on the whole I agree a little I disagree a little I disagree on the whole I disagree very much +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 155 +3 I agree very much +2 I agree on the whole +1 I agree a little -1 I disagree a little -2 I disagree on the whole -3 I disagree very much Of all the different philosophies which exist in this world there is probably only one which is correct. +3 A person who gets enthusiastic about too many causes is likely to be a pretty "wishy-washy" sort of person. +3 To compromise with our political opponents is dangerous because it usually leads to the betrayal of our own side. +3 When it comes to differences of Opinion in religion we must be careful not to compromise with those who believe differently from the way we do. +3 In times like these, a person must be pretty selfish if he considers primarily his own happiness. +3 The worst crime a person could commit is to attack publicly the people who believe in the same thing he does. +3 In times like these it is often neces- sary to be more on guard against ideas put out by people or groups in one' s own camp than by those in the opposing camp. +3 A group which tolerates too much differences of opinion among its own members cannot exist for long. +3 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 156 There are two kinds of people in this world: Those who are for the truth and those who are against the truth. My blood boils whenever a person stubbornly refuses to admit he is wrong. A person who thinks primarily of his own happiness is beneath contempt. Most of the ideas which get printed nowadays aren't worth the paper they are printed on. In this complicated world of ours the only way we can know what' 8 going on is to rely on leaders or experts who can be trusted. It is often desirable to reserve judg- ment about what' 3 going on until one has had a chance to hear the opinions of those one respects. In the long run the best way to live is to pick friends and associates whose tastes and beliefs are the same as one' s own. The present is all too often full of unhappiness. It is only the future that counts. If a man is to accomplish his mission in life it is sometimes necessary to gamble "all or nothing at all." I agree very much I agree on the whole I agree a little I disagree a little I disagree on the whole I disagree very much +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 157 +3 I agree very much +2 I agree on the whole +1 I agree a little -1 I disagree a little -2 I disagree on the whole -3 I disagree very much 39. Unfortunately, a good many people with whom I have discussed im- portant social and moral problems don't really understand what' 3 going on. +3 +2 +1 -1 -2 -3 40. Most people just don' t know what' 3 good for them. +3 +2 +1 -1 -2 -3 CAUTION: DIRECTIONS CHANGE ON NEXT SECTION! INSTRUCTIONS: Following are twenty statements about schools, teachers, and pupils. Please indicate your per- sonal opinion about each statement by circling the appropriate response at the right of the statement. “a . .. a :2- 2 .2.» a: 3.9 8 8 8 g! 3" go 0 h ‘4 “U m C m i“, no Q0 C: -2 I: a m D m 1. It is desirable to require pupils to sit in <: <1 G assigned seats during assemblies. SA A U D SD 2. Pupils are usually not capable of solving their problems through logical reasoning. SA A U D SD 3. Directing sarcastic remarks toward a defiant pupil is a good disciplinary technique. SA A U D SD 4. Beginning teachers are not likely to maintain strict enough control over their pupils SA A U D SD 158 Teachers should consider revision of their teaching methods if these are criticized by St rongly Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree Agree Agree 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. their pupils. The best principals give unquestioning support to teachers in disciplining pupils. Pupils should not be permitted to contra- dict the statements of a teacher in class. It is justifiable to have pupils learn many facts about a subject even if they have no immediate application. Too much pupil time is spent on guidance and activities and too little time on academic preparation. Being friendly with pupils often leads them to become too familiar. It is more important for pupils to learn to obey rules than that they make their own decisions. Student governments are a good "safety valve" but should not have much influence on school policy. Pupils can be trusted to work together without supervision. If a pupil uses obscene or profane language in school, it must be considered a moral offense. SD SD SD SD SD SD SD SD 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 159 If pupils are allowed to use the lavatory without getting permission, this privilege will be abused. A few pupils are just young hoodlums and should be treated accordingly. It is often necessary to remind pupils that their status in school differs from that of teachers. A pupil who destroys school material or property should be severely punished. Pupils cannot perceive the difference between democracy and anarchy in the classroom. Pupils often misbehave in order to make the teacher look bad. CFCzcb Strongly Agree SA Agree 11> C‘. Undecided Disagree U Strongly Disagree ‘6 SD SD SD SD SD 160 MARKING INSTRUCTIONS Printed below is an example of a typical item found in the question- naire which you are asked to complete: 1. Rarely occurs 2. Sometimes occurs 3. Often occurs 4. Very frequently occurs The principal calls the teachers by their first names. 1 2 ® 4 In this example the respondent marked alternative 3 to show that the interpersonal relationship described by this item "often occurs' at this school. Of course, any of the other alternatives could be selected, depending upon how often the behavior described by the item does, indeed, occur in the school. Please mark your response clearly, as in the example. PLEASE BE SURE THAT YOU MARK EVERY ITEM. School Position (Write in your position) Rarely occurs Sometimes occurs Often occurs Very frequently occurs .5me 1. The principal treats teachers "humanly" and goes out of his way to do a little something extra for them. 1 2 3 4 2. Teachers assume responsibility for solving problems in c00peration with the principal. 1 2 3 4 10. ll. 12. 13. 161 Rarely occurs Sometimes occurs Often occurs Very frequently occurs 45me The principal stresses "getting the job done" but does not consult teachers in arriving at objectives of the school. 1 2 3 4 The principal does not deal with teachers in a face-to-face situation, but prefers to "go by the book. " 1 2 3 4 Teachers work poorly as a team and pull in different directions when faced with a problem. 1 2 3 4 In dealing with teachers, the principal is inconsiderate of their feelings and uncon- cerned with their personal problems. 1 2 3 4 The principal is not willing to give of him- self as much as he expects of his teachers. 1 2 3 4 The hard work and dedication of the principal serves as an example to teachers on his staff. 1 2 3 4 Teachers perform their responsibilities with enthusiasm. 1 2 3 4 Teachers do not feel that they are burdened with committee assignments or other "busy work" responsibilities. 1 2 3 4 Teachers feel the principal burdens them with routine duties. 1 2 3 4 Teachers do not gripe or bicker among themselves. 1 2 3 4 The principal deals with teachers on an informal and personal basis. 1 2 3 4 14. 15. 16. 162 Rarely occurs Sometimes occurs Often occurs Very frequently occurs rhOJNH Teachers do not visit one another outside the school setting. 1 2 3 4 Teachers enjoy friendly social relations with each other. 1 2 3 4 Teachers do not evidence pride in being a part of the school and its staff. 1 2 3 4 ‘PE‘VIIZ‘- .III MICHIGAN STRTE UNIV. L IBRRRIES 9 31293008756 46