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"‘2 ngvbo” C HSE; 9* v/fl $9, n g an Q 10““! 60") S’Az our» J‘L . $ . 0"] 5,5,17va LQ‘: ‘ [VI SL1 (JP/k £12911, bag \QCJJx If ‘ gm} ’6 o L (C *5 57‘“ ‘4 QP‘ffl—AUM «c a; M344“; \ .' f\\\ DROP ( ,fi‘ (3%)" Oz} WLK‘W‘ UVC pydd vflfln g) L}? - . .__ _ .- *x' #7 AK,/}/ .‘//< .’1 F” 9 at a 5 . a [ .0911 (MD (a 1 gm _ l / j 1 7 ‘2'} Ll/ L1] é n , ABSTRACT A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELECTED SCHOOL CLIMATE VARIABLES AND ADOPTION OF CAREER EDUCATION WITHIN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN DISTRICTS RATED AS HIGH AND LOW ADOPTERS BY Gloria Chernay PURPOSES OF THE STUDY Changes in societal conditions and technological ad- vances have created a need for educational reform. Career education can be a response to this need. In implementing a change such as career education, a significant factor to consider is the climate in which the innovation is to occur. Generally, climate can either enhance or hinder the adoption of an innovation. In this study, school climate was studied in its relation to the adoption of career education. The purposes for this study were to measure the adOp— tion of career education and to analyze the correlation be- tween the level of adoption and selected school climate var- iables. Openness scores and demographic data were analyzed to determine whether that information could be used to pre- dict characteristics of school climate. PROCEDURES An instrument was developed to identify high and low adopter districts. Tentative criteria were identified, and, Gloria Chernay based on recommendations of career education experts, the instrument was finalized. The instrument, Criteria for Eval- uating Career Education Programs, measured components of the overall program. Five high and five low adopter districts were identified by excluding the middle range districts. From each of these ten districts two elementary schools were selected randomly, and the staff within each school was surveyed using the Or- ganizational Climate Description Questionnaire. Information derived from this data included eight characteristics of school climate and openness scores as perceived by teachers. The eight dimensions of climate-—disengagement, hind- rance, esprit, intimacy, aloofness, production emphasis, thrust, and consideration-—were analyzed by comparing those characteristics with the variable of high or low adoption. An analysis was done to determine the correlation of Openness and adoption. Finally, a multiple regression was used to de- termine which demographic variables might be predictors of the selected climate variables. FINDINGS 1. Significant differences were found only in the level of adoption and the characteristics of hindrance, thrust, and consideration. 2. Among the demographic variables, education back- ground was predictive of hindrance and considera- tion. 3. Grade level and years of experience were predictive of esprit. Gloria Chernay Degree of adoption and classroom organization were predictive of thrust and consideration. Other demo- graphic data had no predictive value. CONCLUSIONS There was minimal support that there exists a re- lationship between selected school climate vari— ables and the adoption of career education. The Criteria for Evaluating Career Education Pro- grams instrument can provide a local administrator with a checklist to determine progress toward full implementation of career education. The role of the building administrator is signifi— cant in promoting or prohibiting the implementation of an innovation such as career education. RECOMMENDATIONS Career education programs should be evaluated in terms of long-range effects on students in the areas of academic achievement, career awareness, life skills, and attitudinal development. The Criteria for Evaluating Career Education instru- ment could be modified by grouping the criteria in subsets: administration, professional develop- ment, program development, community participation, and evaluation. Items could be weighted to empha- size the more significant factors. The survey could be cross-validated by rating a different sample and comparing results. Gloria Chernay 4. The instrument could be tested for reliability using the method of rational equivalence. U] A larger rating scale could be used. 6. When conducting the climate survey, the researcher could select a random sample of teachers from every school within a district, or all teachers in every school could be surveyed. ““\ x 1. “I... M '2’ 1 106’“) WM? )Dfl+ 0 LA “( u _®’/\ Jflm D4»! lon+M (f X( WHOM?“ MW”. WWMQJL HM Mme-L WW” & (MCQM I); :3 @16ng \ iv» \IU 1/1 , MgtiLQ-x /£»€Ar7 1 1 . 3 ,. {5‘ Mr E M}? a {W \_.__._...— _-..- _ -—-. .——_ — ..~--———- _~_..- (“0 \l “'11,“, 1,391;ka{1 J/ M WW“? ’ “ML/g, Chfuu 16113 / 1b w, I \ V / ) 7 \J 0‘19” wvfim L “0%ng \ pal t LL50)" . , H)? /," W K 1-“ 7‘ T3 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELECTED SCHOOL CLIMATE VARIABLES AND ADOPTION OF CAREER EDUCATION WITHIN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN DISTRICTS RATED AS HIGH AND LOW ADOPTERS BY Gloria Chernay A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1977 / /\--~ 5'” I 11/”) / p (I > L L ‘1‘?) *1“ ,~‘)/ K V A“ \J C" K . 5? “M 2'21" {“L'J ‘\_////l V - /’-._v—-r.__, / g/x-rk . ,‘m; 3 8. Insufficient attention has been given to learn- ing opportunities which exist outside the struc- ture of formal education and are increasingly needed by both youth and adults in our society. 9. The general public, including parents and the business-industry-labor community, has not been given an adequate role in formulation of educa- tional policy. 10. American education, as currently structured, does not adequately meet the needs of minority or economically disadvantaged persons in our society. 11. Post high school education has given insufficient emphasis to educational programs at the sub- baccalaureate degree level. These conditions call for rapid reform-—a change that will make education meaningful and practical and that will prepare people for their oles as adults. The concept of career education can -viewed as one response to this need for reform. The esse ce of career education-—to develop positive attitudes t ward work, to develop human relations skills, to acquire knowledge for making career choices, and to supply job skills-—seems to respond to society's mis- givings and the shortcomings in current education. This concept is an approach to making education meaning- ful by establishing a relationship between education, life- styles, and life roles of individuals. It provides the means to achieve productivity, to find meaning through accomplish- ments, and to humanize the education process. It unites all 1Kenneth B. Hoyt, An Introduction to Career Education, A Policy Paper of the U.S. Office of Education, United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Publication No. (OE) 75-00504 (Washington, D.C., Government Printing Office, 1975): pp. 1-2. 4 segments of the formal education system and adds the collab- orative efforts of the community and family. In its broadest scope, career education encompasses educational experiences from early childhood through adulthood, and by its very nature demands flexibility in responding to the needs of individuals. These characteristics make career education a logical choice for educational reform. While career education can respond to the need for reform, implementing the innovation may be difficult to achieve. Many factors influence the adoption of an innova- tion. Generally, the decision to adopt is an administrative one. However, the process of implementation lies with the school, and more specifically, with the teacher. Ultimately, the teacher determines whether or not he/she adopts the inno— vation and the degree to which the innovation is allowed to develop and flourish. The role of the teacher is most sig- nificant because of his/her direct impact on students. However, much of a teacher's attitude or receptivity to change is directly affected by the school's climate. School climate is often recognized as one significant factor which influences teacher behaviors in the change process. Gener- ally, a receptive, open climate is more conducive to change, and a closed climate can limit the adoption of an innovation. Therefore, it seems logical to study school climate in its relationship to innovation. According to Mary Bentzen, "for schools to change, there must be an internal process and a structure to support and 5 sustain it."2 She uses the phrase responsible receptivity to change, which means that the teachers themselves become actively involved in the entire process of reorganization and implementation of the innovation.3 Because of this concern for the responsibility of teachers in the change process, this study will examine one facet of the adoption of an inno- vation-the relationship between selected school climate variables and the adoption of career education. Problem Statement The purposes of this study are twofold. One is to develop an instrument to evaluate existing career education programs. This instrument is a gross measure used to eval- uate career education programs for public school districts in Michigan Career Education Planning District #32 (CEPD #32). The instrument contains items that evaluate specific charac- teristics of the Michigan model of career education in addi- tion to more general items. The second, and major, portion of the study was an analysis of a survey of teachers in high and low adopter districts to identify characteristics of school climate and to analyze correlations between adoption of career education and selected school climate variables. Significance of Problem A significant aspect of the study is the attempt to determine which school climate variables existed prior to the 2Mary M. Bentzen, Changing Schools: The Magic Feather Principle (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1974), p. xiii. 3Ibid., pp. 18-19. 6 implementation of career education. This may indicate a need to prepare a school before career education-—or any innova- tion-—can be implemented successfully. For 1976-77, each Career Education Planning District in Michigan is expected to establish an experimental or demonstration school for career education. Results of this study may allow CEPD coordinators to predict whether or not the specific innova— tions are likely to succeed. One implication may be for a change agent to work where there is the best chance for suc- cess. Perhaps resources-—money, material, and personnel-— need to be used in establishing a school climate receptive to change; in turn, implementation of an innovation-—in this instance, career education-—could occur more quickly and effectively. Definitions For purposes of this study, the following are terms used within the context of these definitions. Career education is defined as "the delivering of skills to all students which will provide them with the ability to explore, understand, and perform in their life roles while learning, working, and living."“ This definition was estab- lished by the Michigan Career Education Advisory Commission. Life roles include the individual's roles in terms of vocation, avocation, citizen, and family member. This empha- sis on life roles allows the school to stress ". . . acqui- sition of basic skills, preparation for social participation “Michigan Department of Education, Career Development Goals and Performance Indicators, 2d ed. (Lansing: Michigan Department of Education, 1974), p. l. 7 and change, ability to think creatively and critically, de- velopment of a strong self-concept, and the gaining of occu- pational skills."5 Career development is defined as "that part of career education which includes: self-awareness and assessment, career awareness and exploration, career decision making, and career planning and placement."6 Career preparation is that portion of education which is "the acquiring of academic and vocational knowledge and skills necessary to implement career decisions and plans."7 Criteria are the standards on which a judgment may be based. They could be standards of reference or identifiers.8 In this study, criteria refers to those items used in the gross measure evaluation of career education implementation. Criteria selected will describe characteristics of career education. School climate refers to those characteristics of con- ditions which foster responsible receptivity to change. It is also described as the overall patterns of teacher behaviors and the way in which the behaviors tend to fit together in clear, common-sense arrangements.9 51bid., p. 1. 6Ibid., p. 1. 7Ibid., p. 1. 8Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged (Springfield, Mass.: G. & C. Merriam Company, 1964), p. 538. 9Bentzen, op. cit., p. 81. 8 Organizational climate, in this case, also refers to the climate in an elementary school. For example, when a visitor enters a school, he senses an attitude based on the behavior of the staff. The organizational climate of a school is analagous to the personality of an individual, and each school has its own personality or climate.10 An innovation is defined as ". . . any change which represents something new to the people being changed." Havelock further stated that usually the change would be beneficial to the people being changed.11 Assumptions This study is based on the following assumptions: 1. Career education is a meaningful reform which will be in effect for a long enough period of time for this study to be significant. 2. In this early stage of career education adoption, a gross measure of career education implementation, when coupled with a statistical treatment of the excluded middle, can in fact identify the highest and lowest adopters of career education. 3. The respondents' perceptions of school climate variables are accurate descriptions of a school climate as reported by the OCDQ. 10Andrew Halpin, Theory and Research in Administration (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1966), p. 131. 11Ronald C. Havelock, The Change Agent's Guide to Inno- vation in Education (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Educational Technology Publications, 1973). PP. 21-38. Limitations l. The Criteria for Evaluating Career Education Pro- grams instrument is not intended to be a finely discriminating tool for schools to check their prog- ress. The use of the criteria to identify high and low adopter status is simply a gross measure in this stage of the development of career education. 2. Caution should be used in generalizing to a popu- lation beyond the elementary schools in Michigan CEPD #32. However, the process may be generalized. 3. The selection of school climate variables represents just one approach to this whole problem, and although the Halpin-Croft instrument has been well accepted by educators over the last thirteen years, there may exist other school climate instruments equally worthy for such a study. Instrumentation The instrumentation task consists of four steps: (1) developing criteria for evaluating career education programs, (2) evaluating school districts, (3) selecting an instrument to rate school climate variables, and (4) administering the school climate questionnaire to teachers in the selected schools. A tentative set of criteria was developed based on a survey of literature in the field of career education. The literature includes models from local districts, career edu- cation legislation and transcripts of Congressional hearings, 10 federal and state policy papers, evaluation and needs assessment instruments from state departments of career edu- cation and local school districts, and other definitive books and articles. The criteria evolved through several stages of refine- ment before the final set of criteria was established. Opin- ions were solicited from career education experts in higher education, in state and federal offices, and in local school districts. The career education coordinators who used the instru— ment also recommended changes to clarify items in the final format. The second step of the study was to evaluate each school district using the criteria previously developed. Only those districts rated among the five high and five low adopter dis- tricts were used for the remainder of the study. Those districts with middle range scores were excluded. In selecting an instrument to rate school climate, sev- eral were reviewed. The instruments were examined for thor- oughness of content, time for administering, data gathered from previous studies using the instrument, validity, reliability, and anticipated teacher reaction. The Organi— zational Climate Description Questionnaire met these criteria best. Within each district ranked as a high or low adopter, two schools were randomly selected. The Halpin-Croft Organi- zational Climate Description Questionnaire was administered 11 to the teachers in each randomly selected school. Data gen- erated will be the basis for analysis of the research ques- tions. Research Questions 1. Is there a difference between high and low adopters of career education on the four perceived teacher characteristics (disengagement, hindrance, esprit, and intimacy) of selected school climate variables? 2. Is there any difference between high and low adop- ters of career education on the four perceived principal characteristics (aloofness, production emphasis, thrust, and consideration) of selected school climate variables? 3. Is there a difference between high and low adopters of career education regarding the characteristic of openness? 4. Can any of the eight characteristics be predicted from any or all of the individual teacher demo- graphic data? Overview of Study This study has been organized into five chapters. In the first chapter, the problem was defined, and procedures were described briefly. The research questions were stated as well as limitations. Chapter II contains a selected review of literature related to the study. Topics include: concept of and rationale for career education, legislation, the development CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE The development of career education has been a response to the need for reform in education. Basically, the intent of career education is to make education useful and practical and to contribute to the student's development into adult- hood. While career education is considered a viable educa— tional reform, the process of implementing the reform requires care and study. The goal is not only to implement the change but also to maintain it. In assessing the progress of reform, program evaluation should be considered. The program could be evaluated in re- lation to its direct effect on students or, in broader terms, the overall organization of the program. These are the basic ideas which will be reviewed in this chapter. More specifi- cally, the literature relates to the concept of and rationale for career education, legislation related to career education, the development of the Michigan model, other selected models, the process of change and school climate, and the evaluation of career education. There seems to be adequate literature related to career education; however, much of it is in the conceptual stages. Actual research related to this study is 13 14 limited. Therefore, the review is generally related to the field of career education rather than research in career edu- cation. Concept and Rationale The attempts to define career education range from a limited view of career education as preparation for work (e.g., vocational education) to the much broader concept of preparation for life. In a USOE policy paper, Kenneth Hoyt defined career education as ". . . the totality of experi— ences through which one learns about and prepares to engage in work as part of her or his way of living."1 John Ottina, former Commissioner of Education, stated that career educa- tion holds the schools responsible in preparing youth for work through career awareness, exploration, and preparation activities.2 To develop the definition further, Edmund Gordon stated that career education should be an integral part of all basic education programs. He defined career as ". . . the course by which one develops and lives a respon- sible and satisfying life" and included the life roles of learner, producer, citizen, family member, consumer, and a socio-political being.3 The concept of career education is 1Kenneth Hoyt, "An Introduction to Career Education," a policy paper of the USOE (1975). P. 4. 2John Ottina, "An Introductory Overview of Career Edu- cation," Inequality in Education, XVI (March 1974), p. 35. 3Edmund Gordon, "Broadening the Concept of Career Edu- cation," IRCD Bulletin, IX (March 1973), p. 4. 15 built on these basic definitions-—that career education is preparation for life, including work, through all aspects of education. In developing the concept of career education, Hoyt identified ten assumptions that represent a philosophical base for career education: 10. Career education spans the life cycle. Productivity is central to the concept of career education. Work includes not only paid employment but also unpaid activities of studying, volunteering, home- making, and using leisure time. Career education should embrace a multiplicity of work values. Career and education should be viewed in a develop- mental sense. Career education is for all persons. The societal objectives are to help individuals want to work, to acquire skills necessary for work, and to engage in work that is satisfying and bene- ficial to society. The individual goals are that work is made possible, meaningful, and satisfying. A central concern of career education is that the individual has the freedom in choosing and assis- tance in making and implementing career decisions. Expertise for implementing career education is not limited to those in formal education.“ These assumptions might be viewed as a broadening of Sidney Marland's statement that career education depends on the l'Hoyt, 0p. cit., pp. 4-5. 16 assumption that the student will make significant decisions affecting personal educational and occupational goals.5 The concept of career education is broadened to include these educational goals: (1) students should have a mastery of basic communications skills including speech, reading, writing, and computation; (2) students should develop prob- lem solving skills from identification through resolution; (3) the management and retrieval of knowledge is a necessary skill; (4) employment skills, use of leisure time, and con- tinuing education are necessary throughout life; and (5) the schools should provide for the learning of self-management skills for personal, social, and character development.6 The rationale for career education responds to two basic needs of students-—to see the relationship between education and work, and to make work a meaningful part of a total life style. Career education then becomes part of the total edu- cation program through the collaboration of career educators -all those persons in school and outside who contribute to the student's learning. Career education, then, is a con- cept utilizing programs and services to enhance the develop- ment of the individual.7 5Sidney Marland, Career Education: A Proposal for Re- form, (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1974), p. 16. 6Gordon, op. cit., pp. 3-4. 7Kenneth Hoyt, "Career Guidance, Career Education, and Vocational Education" (paper presented at the meeting of the Guidance Division, AVA, New Orleans, December 10, 1974), ppo 3-5. 17 While career education has not been identified as a con- cept until recently, the precepts supporting it can be found in many aspects of education theory. John Dewey's philosophy that education should be meaningful and practical, that it should occur through experiential learning, and that it should develop the whole child concurs with the concepts of career education. He stated that the education process is due to the interaction of social aims, meanings, and values. And he charged educators with the responsibility of develop- ing the curriculum within the framework of the child's expe- rience and need. He used the term psychologize8 in reference to curriculum material implying that students internalize the content of any subject if it is meaningful to them. Meaning- ful learning is a sound rationale for career education. Rationale for career education is supported further by Robert Havighurst.9 According to the origin of the develop- mental tasks theory of learning, three factors must be pre- sent. The student must have the physical maturation and psy— chological resources to respond to the demands of society around him and behave as a socially responsible citizen within his personal framework of values and aspirations. An example of tasks arising from personal motives and values is choosing and preparing for an occupation and achieving a 8John Dewey, The Child and the Curriculum (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1902), p. 30. 9Robert Havighurst, Human Development and Education (New York: David McKay Company, Inc., 1953). 18 scale of personal values and a philosophy of life.10 The de- velopmental task concept incorporates the ideas that the student's education should be structured with experiences that allow him to develop as an individual within a group and toward independent, responsible adulthood.11 These precepts are similar to goals of career education. Earlier it was stated that a crisis exists in education today, that there was a need for reform, and that career edu- cation is one response to the need for reform. The following summaries of articles substantiate that need and support career education as a response to that need: 1. A survey conducted by Adult and Continuing Education Today showed that adults are not being prepared for the simplest life skills. The "Adult Performance Level Study" showed, for example, that only about 56 percent of the sample were able to match personal qualifications and job requirements in help-wanted advertisements. Twenty-two percent were unable to address an envelope and place the return address to ensure that the letter would not encounter difficul— ties in the postal system. Seventy-three percent were unable to calculate gasoline consumption rates for an automobile. More than seventy-five percent were unable to write a catalog order correctly. The report cited many more examples which supported the 10Ibid., p. 4. 11Ibid., p. 332. 19 idea that the American education system was produc- ing functional illiterates-—persons who could not apply skills to day-to-day problems.12 2. In the article, "The Children Have Outgrown the Schools," James Coleman cited examples of the chang— ing role of education. At one time schools were the main source of outside information. Today, however, students live in an information-rich culture. Ear- lier, the students learned their life roles in a home setting. Now, because family life has changed due to advances in industry and technology, the home is no longer the setting for learning life roles and life skills. Coleman suggested that schools of the future must focus on those activities that formerly had been accomplished outside the school: produc- tive action with responsibilities toward others, and development of strategies for using and processing information. He recommended using skill-specific vouchers, integrating the young into functional community roles, and changing workplaces to incor- porate the young. This would include ongoing educa- tion for both the young and adults.13 3. Sidney Marland's book, Career Education, cited rea- sons for change to career education. There is a 12Norvell Northcutt, "A Frightening List of What Adults Don't Know," Adult and Continuing Education Today (March 31, 1975), P. 29. 13James Coleman, "The Children Have Outgrown the Schools," Psychology Today (February 1972). 20 need for acceptance of all areas of education-—voca- tional education, college preparatory, and general curriculum. Career development provides the capa- city to sustain or accelerate progress during a lifetime of learning. Career education could be a zero-reject system whereby students may enter the work system or return to school at any point. And it is student oriented using the knowledge, values, and skills of the individual to meet his goals.1“ 4. An article which appeared in the Detroit Free Press explained "Why Fewer Kids Are Going to College." It cited examples of college graduates with advanced degrees performing jobs for which no degree was re- quired. And in some instances, an interest in a career developed after the employee joined the work force. This required retraining. If those people had had the opportunity to explore careers earlier and engage in experience-based programs, they could have made wiser career choices. The Michigan State Chamber of Commerce advocates career education as a means of matching education to job opportunities.15 11'Sidney Marland, Career Education: A Proposal for Re- form (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1974), pp. 20-21. 15Hugh McCann, "Why Fewer Kids Are Going to College," Detroit Free Press, February 10, 1974. 22 For several years, many states have been conducting career education programs. But it was not until 1971 that career education received national recognition. Former Commissioner of Education, U.S. Office of Education, Sidney Marland, delivered a speech, "Career Education Now,"19 at the convention of the National Association of Secondary School Principals in Houston. That speech along with Marland's con- tinuing advocacy led to new legislation. In 1972, President Nixon gave career education special emphasis, and Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare, Caspar Weinberger, directed his office to keep abreast of developments in the U.S. Office of Education and in the agency for educational research and development, the National Institute of Educa- tion.20 ‘ In 1971, Representative Albert H. Quie of Minnesota sponsored legislation which became Part B of the Title X Higher Education Act. This was labelled "Occupational Educa- tion Act of 1972." This was enacted but not funded. How- ever, various amendments of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act were funded. These amendments stressed the importance of occupational education as an equal of academic preparation and provided for occupational orientation and counseling.21 While this was not specific career education I 19Sidney P. Marland, Jr. "Career Education Now," Washington: United States Office of Education, 1971. ‘mJOhn Ottina, "An Introductory Overview of Career Edu- cation," Inequality in Education XVI, March 1974, p. 36. 21Albert H. Quie, Education and Work: A Congressional Perspective, (Columbus, Ohio: The Center for Vocational Education, Ohio State University, May 1976), pp. 4-5. 23 legislation, it was not in conflict with the precept of help- ing students to make knowledgeable choices and to implement them. Section 406 of the Education Amendments of 1974, Public Law 93-380, established the Office of Career Education and authorized funding for pilot and demonstration projects. Specifically, Section 406 provided for: the assessment of the status of career education programs and practices; the demonstration of best practices and the development and test- ing of exemplary programs; the training and retraining of personnel; and the development of state and local implemen— tation plans. Also, this Section established the National Advisory Council for Career Education and charged the Council with the responsibility of recommending new legislation for career education. To carry out these provisions, $15 million per fiscal year ending July 1, 1978, was authorized.22 Actu- ally, $10 million was appropriated in each fiscal year, 1975 and 1976. Eighty-one projects were funded in 1975 and a sim- ilar number in 1976.23 On May 20, 1975, a hearing on career education was held before the Subcommittee on Elementary, Secondary, and Voca— tional Education, of the Committee on Education and Labor, House of Representatives. In that hearing, Dr. Virginia Trotter, Assistant Secretary for Education, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, and Dr. Kenneth Hoyt, ‘flEducation Amendments of 1974, Public Law 93-380, Section 406, August 21, 1974, pp. 69-71. 2'3Quie, op. cit., p. 4. 24 Associate Commissioner for Career Education, supported the position that the federal role of career education should be to support research and demonstration projects and that the responsibility to carry it forward rests with state and local agencies.21+ A prepared statement was submitted by Eugene Sydnor, Chairman, Education and Manpower Commission, U.S. Chamber of Commerce. The statement concluded with these remarks: "We see the federal role primarily as one of developing career education procedures, disseminat- ing information on successful efforts, and pro- viding technical assistance. The results . . . should help provide useful information in adapting curricula to the career education concept and de- veloping industry—education-labor action councils and other working relationships."25 Other statements included in the hearing presented re- search information, model programs, and support for funding of longer duration. Information acquired through this hear- ing along with recommendations by the National Advisory Council on Career Education was to be used to formulate career education legislation. An interim report and recommendations for legislation from the National Advisory Council were completed in Novem- ber, 1975. Essentially, the recommendations focused on elementary and secondary education. Significant recommen- dations were: to advance the program from the demonstration 2”U.S., Congress, House, Committee on Education and Labor, Subcommittee on Elementary, Secondary, and Vocational Educa- tion, Career Education, Hearing, 94th Congress, 1st Sess., May 20, 1975 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1975), pp. 74-76. ZSIbid. , p. 81. 25 to the developmental level; to remove the funding authorities from vocational education; to support staff development at state and local levels, leadership identification, community involvement, statewide evaluation, and a communication net- work of federal, state, and local persons.26 In addition, the council reaffirmed the position of placing primary responsibility for education development with the states, and they endorsed the organizational structure of the Office of Career Education and the research and dissemi— nation work in career education of the National Institute of Education. On December 4, 1975, Carl Perkins, Chairman, Committee on Education and Labor, introduced the career education bill, H.R. 11023, to Congress. The purpose of the bill was to pro- vide federal assistance to state and local education agencies for implementation of career education at the elementary and secondary levels. The bill proposed that $100 million be made available for grants in 1978, $75 million in 1979, $50- million in 1980, and $25 million in 1981, and that state and local agencies increase their matching funds over those four years.27 26National Advisory Council for Career Education, Interim Report with Recommendations for Legislation, (Washington: National Advisory Council for Career Education, November 1975): PP. 5-15. 27U.S., Congress, House, H.R. 11023, A Bill to Authorize a Career Education Program for Elementary and Secondary Schools, and for Other Purposes, 94th Congress, lst Sess., December 4, 1975 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1975), pp. 1-2. 26 The Congressional Record (House of Representatives) of December 18, 1975 recorded Mr. Perkins' remarks regarding the introduction of H.R. 11023. He summarized the reasons for the bill and the major provisions of it. Mr. Perkins stated that the career education concept had passed the research stage and was ready for wide scale dissemination. The bill would provide for wide scale implementation and leadership through state education agencies. It would also separate and clarify the distinction between career education and vocational education. Thirdly, it would be authorized (funded) in decreasing amounts so that over time states would increase support and control and the role of the federal government in career education would decrease.28 According to H.R. 11023, the bill provides for career education programs in elementary and secondary schools but does not terminate research and demonstration programs in postsecondary and adult education as provided under the Career Education Act. The bill provides that 15% of the grant will be used to fund guidance and counseling activi- ties, for a state coordinator directly responsible to the chief state school officer, for infusion models, and for planning in local education agencies. In its entirety, the loill is to fund career education proqrams through fiscal 28U.S., Congressional Record, 94th Cong., lst Sess. (December 18, 1975), pp. 13044-13045. 27 year 1980 and will regulate appropriations for continuing development, implementation, administration, evaluation, and accountability. 29 A summary statement in Education Daily pointed out that the state education department must accept responsibility for planning and administration and that a policy statement rec- ognizing the prime importance of career education must be adopted by the state board of education. Unusual features of authorization of funds were also mentioned. All or none of the authorization for any given year must be appropriated, and funds are to be authorized on a one-year advanced basis to give states more planning time.30 On February 2, 1976, a hearing was held by the Subcom— mittee on Elementary, Secondary, and Vocational Education regarding H.R. 11023, the Elementary and Secondary Career Education Act of 1976. Three panels delivered statements, made suggestions, and provided testimony in support of the bill. Panel I represented the National Advisory Council for Career Education (NACCE), Career Education Conceptualizers, and State Coordinators for Career Education. Panel II in- cluded representatives for the Council of Chief State School Officers, American Personnel and Guidance Association, and 2’-"U.S. Congress, H.R. 11023, A Bill to Authorize a Career Education Program for Elementary and Secondary Schools, and for Other Purposes. 94th Cong., lst Sess., December 4, 1975, pp. 1-14. 30"Perkins Introduces $255 Million Career-Ed Bill," Education Daily, December 15, 1975, p. 5. 28 the American Association of School Administrators. Panel III included practitioners, teachers, counselors, and business and labor representatives. The statement, delivered by Dr. Bruce Shertzer, NACCE, identified four problems which led to recommended changes for H.R. 11023. They were: career education should be recog— nized as a collaborative effort aimed at educational reform; crucial roles of collaborators should be coordinated to emphasize help to students; potential problems of administra- tion should be corrected; and problems regarding implementa- tion should be addressed.31 Changes introduced by the NACCE clarified terms in keeping with generally accepted career education concepts, left the federal commitment open—ended, provided specific guidelines to the state leadership and local education agencies, and requested additional positions and personnel for the Office of Career Education and the NACCE. Changes to be made regarding the local level were supported by several rationale statements. Those signifi- cant to this study were that ". . . the classroom teacher is key to the success of career education. Unless change comes in the classroom, real change will not have occurred. Teachers need time to make infusion a high-quality effort." And in order to keep career education from becoming a 31Bruce Shertzer, "Statement Prepared for Delivery at Hearings on H.R. 11023 Before the Subcommittee on Elementary, Secondary, and Vocational Education, House Committee on Edu- cation and Labor," February 2, 1976, pp. 2-3. 29 specialty, it should be implemented by existing personnel at the building level. 32 A Conceptualizers' Mini-Conference was held prior to the hearings. This group prepared a statement which was pre- sented at the hearing by Sidney Marland. Comments were made in two general categories, suggestions pertaining to language and generalizations suggesting further development of the bill. The statement suggested that initiative for technical assistance and leadership should reside with the state so that no student would be excluded because of lack of local initiative or will. This would remove the implication for competitive grants to local districts. In addition to other recommendations, the report called attention to ". . . the wholeness or comprehensiveness of the career education pro- cess" in an attempt to eliminate fragmentary approaches to staff development.33 More recent publications reported on the current state of career education legislation. The October 1976 issue of Legislative Briefs reported Congressional authorization for career education. "The Career Education program was introduced by Senator William Hathaway (D-ME), has an appro- priation level of $10 million and was designed to help state agencies. States are to prepare and submit a report to the Office of Education by 32"Suggestions of the National Advisory Council for Career Education with Respect to Specific Changes for H.R. 11023, The Elementary and Secondary Career Education Act of 1976, February 2, 1976, pp. 5-6. 33Sidney Marland, "Statement: H.R. 11023 Concensus of Career Education Mini Conference," February 1, 1976, pp. 5—6. 31 the elementary and secondary career education bill. The Federal Register statement was that . . . "Funds may also be used for developing State and local plans for implementing programs designed to ensure that every person has the opportunity to gain the knowledge and skills necessary for gain- ful or maximum employment and for full participa- tion in American society according to his or her ability. " 36 According to the Federal Register, public input is currently solicited on the following issues: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) how to avoid overlap or duplication of P.L. 93-380 and P.L. 94-482. regulations regarding recipients of funds. (P.L. 93-380 designated "state educational agency." P.L. 94-482 indicated "to states." regulations on the states' reports of planning activities. scope of "planning" in Section 334. if and how to define "career education" and "career development." recommendations for priorities and evaluation criteria for career information activities.37 Input regarding these issues may be addressed to: Career Education Sections 331-336 of Title III Dr. Sidney High Regional Office Building — 3 Room 3108-A 7th and D Streets, S.W. Washington, D.C. 20202 Telephone: (202) 245-2331 36Ibid., p. 51554. 37Ibid., p. 51555. 32 The Development of Career Education in Michigan While legislation for career education was being devel- oped on the federal level, several states took the initiative to legislate and implement career education through their own efforts and resources. The development of career education legislation in Michigan is pertinent to this study. In many cases, career education originated through efforts of vocational education departments or guidance and counseling programs. In Michigan, the thrust seems to have been initiated on the state level by the Michigan Advisory Council for Vocational Education. The council was estab- lished in 1969 according to the terms of the 1968 Amendments to the Vocational Education Act of 1963.38 The 1971 report, Career Education in Michigan, contained recommendations in planning, operation, and evaluation for a thrust in career education. The recommendations for planning were to assess projected employment needs, to utilize private resources, and to develOp an inventory for resources from private schools. Regarding operation, the council recommended developing pro— grams for the disadvantaged and handicapped and accentuating the potential of occupational education to improve its image. To assist in evaluation, the Council recommended that the Vocational Education and Career Development Service supply data on all vocational education in the state and that the 1£Career Education in Michigan, Michigan Advisory Council for Vocational Education (Battle Creek, Mich.: Calhoun Area Vocational Center, 1971), P. l. 33 State Board of Education examine prerequisites and standards of retention in all vocational education programs.39 A booklet published in 1971 by the Michigan Department of Education listed goals statements in three major areas- citizenship and morality, democracy and equal opportunity, and student learning. The Common Goals of Michigan Education, in the area of student learning, made a statement in support of career education preparation. "Goal 3 - Career Preparation Michigan education must provide to each individual the opportunity to select and prepare for a career of his choice consistent to the optimum degree with his capabilities, aptitudes, and desires, and the needs of society. Toward this end, he should be afforded, on a progressive basis, the necessary evaluation of his prog- ress and aptitudes, together with effective counseling regarding alternatives available, the steps necessary to realize each of these alternatives, and the possible consequences of his choice. In addition, each indi- vidual should be exposed, as early and as fully as possible, to the adult working world and to such adult values as will enable more thoughtful and meaningful decisions as to career choice and preparation."0 For the most part, this early work in career education was directed toward occupational training which would be available for students at the secondary level. However, the latter part of goal statement 3 carried an implication for elementary career education. While there was no state sup- port for elementary career education in the Vocational Edu- cation Act, some local districts implemented elementary 39Ibid., p. 8. ‘mThe Common Goals of Michigan Education (Lansing, Mich.: Michigan Department of Education, September 1971), p. 6. 34 career education programs through federal funding such as the ‘World of Work Projects or through local funding. By 1973 it became apparent that there was a need to coordinate a comprehensive, K-Adult career education program. In response to this need the Michigan Department of Education established a research and development fund to design the Michigan Model for Career Education. It will be described more fully in the following section. Briefly, the goals of this effort were to identify the components of career educa— tion, develop implementation methods, identify personal, financial, and instructional resources, develop materials, design training programs, prepare for a statewide transition to career education, and prepare an implementation guide for local districts. The model was developed by state staff and local educators who had implemented career education programs locally."1 In addition, the Michigan Career Education Teacher Edu- cation Consortium was formed. Teacher educators from the largest teacher education institutions were involved in de- veloping the model and in improving their capabilities to provide inservice and preservice training for leadership and implementation of career education."2 In 1974, the 77th Session of the Michigan Legislature passed Public Act 97 known as the "career education act." This act was a means to implement the purposes of Public Law ‘”"How Has Career Education Developed in Michigan?" [n.d.], p. 1, (Mimeographed). 'QIbid., p. l. 35 93-380 of the federal government. Public Act 97 gave recog- nition to career education as a priority of Michigan educa- tion. It created a series of career education advisory bodies and required the state to develop goals and guidelines. Public Act 97 contained the following provisions: 1. It defined career education in terms of the com- ponents and purposes of the Michigan model. It established Career Education Planning Districts and assigned them the responsibility of developing plans for implementing local career education pro- grams. It created the Career Education Advisory Commission to evaluate the current status of career education in Michigan and to recommend to the State Board of Education guidelines and performance objectives for a comprehensive career education program. The state board, in conjunction with institutions of higher education, was to develop a plan for profes- sional personnel development at both the pre-service and in—service levels. It required each local education agency to develop a comprehensive career education plan with performance objectives. It mandated that the state department of education periodically report information on current and future job opportunities."3 “3Michigan, Public Act 97, (1974). 36 There has been no additional major legislation in Michi- gan related to career education or categorical funding to support career education as of this date. Some local dis- tricts are receiving funds from different sources for exem- plary program models. The CEPD's have limited funding from vocational education and a limited ability to stimulate ac- tion. Some small grants are used to pilot new programs. Although some districts are moving forward through local efforts, overall career education in Michigan is more a plan than a reality. In compliance with P.A. 97, the Career Education Advi- sory Commission developed the model for career education. The term, career education, was changed to career development to encompass all facets of the concept. This included not only preparation for work but for adulthood including atti- tudes, skills and knowledge to prepare for all life roles. Several publications were used in preparation of the follow- ing summary. The descriptions were compared for content and depth or thoroughness of explanations. A summary was made from information cited in these works: Guidelines for Career Education Proqramming,”' Career Development Goals and Perfor- mance Indicators,”5VoCational Technical Education: The ‘TCareer Education Advisory Commission, Guidelines for Career Education Programming, (Lansing: Michigan Department of Education, 1974), pp. 9-23. ‘6Career Education Advisory Commission, Career Develop- ment Goals and Performance Indicators, (Lansing: Michigan Department of Education, 1974), pp. 1-7. 37 Program in Michigan."6 transcripts of the Congressional Hear- ing on Career Education,"7 State Advisory Commission career education concept paper,“8 and a mimeographed paper on the development of career education in Michigan.‘'9 An infusion approach is the basis of the Michigan model. Rather than teaching career education as a separate unit or course, those concepts are integrated into the total curricu- lum. For example, in the primary grades a unit on the neigh- borhood would include a study of the people who provide goods and services to the community. A variety of approaches would allow children to cover all the subject areas through the study of careers available in their own neighborhood. Another aspect of the model is the inclusion of an indi- vidual's life roles as a family member, a citizen, or commu- nity member, a worker, and as a participant in recreational or aesthetic experiences. This is a delivery system by which the goals of Michigan education can be achieved. The goals include acquiring basic skills, preparing for social participation, developing creative and critical ‘5Vocational Education Advisory Council, Vocational Tech— nical Education: The Program in Michigan, (Lansing: Michi- gan Department of Education, July 1974), p. l. l”U.S. Congress, op. cit., pp. 96-97. l'8Career Education Advisory Commission, "Career Education as a Concept for Educational Planning in Michigan's Schools," (Lansing: Michigan Department of Education, January 1975), pp. 2-5. l"9"How Has Career Education Developed in Michigan?", pp. 3-5. (Mimeographed). 38 thinking skills, developing a strong self-concept, and gain- ing occupational skills. The components of career education are integrated in a total educational experience. At the same time, separate segments can be identified. The career development compo— nents are self awareness and self assessment, career aware- ness and exploration, career decision making, and career planning and placement. Career preparation components include academic education, vocational education, and tech— nical education. Generally, the career development compo- nents are emphasized in kindergarten through ninth grade, and career preparation is stressed in tenth through twelfth grade. However, these elements overlap, and ideally are not ignored at any stage of development. There are nine elements which are essential to the de- livery of career education. The elements are: instruction, guidance, placement, evaluation, professional development, occupational information system, media, advisory groups, and the career education team. Utilizing the people and ser- vices of the variety of organizations and agencies will assure a comprehensive proqram that meets the needs of the students, the education agency, and the community. Other Career Education Models Because this study was related only to elementary school settings, models reviewed here will be limited to that level. One such program, Career Education: Career Awareness (K-6), was developed for an intermediate education district in 39 Oregon. The purpose of the program was to help students dis- cover their own interests and abilities, explore careers based on their individual talents, and learn decision-making with responsibility. These goals were achieved through the means of infusing career education in the curriculum, utiliz- ing resources (persons, materials, and audiovisuals) from various careers, and providing meaningful learning situations away from the school site. The program was designed to develop concepts, understandings, skills, and attitudes of the learners.50 The special quality of the Oregon model of career educa- tion is that guidance and counseling encompasses the total program from kindergarten through adult education. Like the Michigan model, it embraces the concept of life roles using career education as the focal point for curriculum and pro— gram development. The awareness component is developed in elementary grades. It is intended to help children recognize the relationship of careers to other life roles to become aware of many careers and the self in relation to careers, to develop wholesome attitudes of respect and appreciation of all fields of work, and to learn to make responsible career- related decisions.51 The model shows the continuation of the development of exploration, preparation, and specialization. The model for 50Keith Goldhammer and Robert E. Taylor, Career Education: Perspective and Promise (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, 1972), pp. 211-226. 51Career Education the Oregon Way, (Salem: Oregon Board of Education, 1973). 40 preparation is not discussed in depth here, but it is men— tioned because it is an exemplary model funded by the National Institute of Education through the Northwest Regional Educa- tional Laboratory. The Experience Based Career Education model provides students with the opportunity to acquire a major portion of their education in the community on employer sites. In addition, students attend a learning center. The total experience provides them with the opportunity to learn basic skills, life skills, and career related skills. At the learning center students are taught by the learning manager, student coordinator, and employer relations specialist. The onsite volunteer employer assumes a major role on the educa- tional support team helping students to synthesize their experiences.52 While the Oregon model provides work experiences for high school students, the Elkhart (Indiana) Career Education Program (ELCEP) provides experiences for elementary students. The difference is that rather than being at the employer site, experiences are provided at the school site and are identified as "hands-on" experiences. The goal is to help students make career decisions based on their understanding of careers and monetary rewards, education and training, and personal satisfactions. The approach is through use of career experience kits to explore career clusters. (Clusters are groups of related occupations which have been organized into fifteen groups by the U.S. Office of Education. 52Program Overview: Experience-Based Career Education, (Portland: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, 1975). 41 Clustering is a.way to simplify the study of a broad range of careers.) The experience kits provide students with oppor- tunities to learn through using the real materials and equip- ment, performing realistic tasks related to a career, and assuming the roles of persons in a particular cluster. Field trips stress the importance of the person and his work rather than the product. Overall, it is a means of emphasizing awareness, exploration, and experience in multiple career roles.53 Other models could be described; however, they would be adaptations of the experience/community-based or school—based models described above. Essentially the models share these commonalities: students prepare for life roles; they learn responsible decision making; they learn through experience; and they learn about themselves, their own interests and capabilities, and their relationship to society. School Climate and Change A basic assumption of this study was that school climate affects change or the adoption of an innovation. This sec- tion is a review of the relationship of climate and change. A five-year Study of Educational Change and School Im- provement was conducted to develop ways to improve education. Rather than create innovations the study examined the total context in which change took place. Eighteen schools were selected from the eighteen Southern California districts. 53Charles Williams and Virginia Manley, "A Model for Career Education," Hoosier Schoolmaster of the Seventies, (April 1973), P. 19. 42 These were identified as the League of Cooperating Schools. As those schools initiated changes they were studied to de- termine which factors were necessary for changes to occur and to be maintained. It was found that teachers needed not only the desire to change but also a variety of personal and or- ganizational factors which would support the change and pro- vide the environment to maintain the change. All schools were studied in terms of their dimensions of receptivity to change. The following table illustrates the dimensions of scope, importance, relevance, and flexibility as they relate to questions of dialogue, decision, and action. TABLE 1. DIMENSIONS OF RECEPTIVITY TO CHANGE WHICH WERE USED FOR MEASUREMENT OF THE DDAE PROCESSS+ DIALOGUE DECISION ACTION Scope How open How concensual How extensive is it? is it? is it? Importance How meaningful How substantive How significant is it? is it? is it? Relevance How sustained How consistent How patterned is it?’ is it? is it? Flexibility How inquiring How flexible How modifiable is it? is it? is it? The dialogue, decision, action, evaluation process (DDAE) was used throughout the study to evaluate the progress of the schools. (Evaluation is not included in the table be- cause it was not used until the last year of the study.) The data gathered from the DDAE process became the framework used . 3+Mary Bentzen, Changing Schools: The Magic Feather BEiflEiElg. (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1974), p. 72. 43 to summarize the major elements identified with the change process. In summary, it was found that those schools with a high DDAE level at both the beginning and end of the study shared some common characteristics. The organization of each staff contained provisions for cooperative teaching; the staff re- cognized their principal's professional competence; the teachers felt that they had a significant influence in de— cision making; the teachers and principal showed high agree- ment in their description of their school; and the climate was described as open, friendly, and stimulating.55 An article in a recent issue of the Kappan reinforced the importance of these provisions in establishing and main- taining a change climate. The procedures used in one school to bring about change are listed below: 1. A workshop was held to permit teachers to identify their concerns. 2. The workshop leader used a group problem solving approach that became the basis for problem resolu- tion throughout the change process. 3. All participants and the principal reCOgnized the need for joint effort. 4. Each work group devised an action plan during the workshop, and it was continued at the school site. 5. The group identified immediate and long range goals. ‘— 55Ibid. , p. 318. 44 6. Action committees (teacher/principal, teacher/ teacher, teacher/student, and teacher/parent) were established to implement goals.56 Up to this point the procedure was mechanical and could have led to success or failure. The last few steps were the ones that made it possible to maintain the humanistic school climate. 7. The teachers maintained a spirit of climate control by using a signal to eliminate gossip and rumors from conversation and by praising efforts of co- teachers. 8. The problem solving technique was used to resolve conflicts and to work toward goals. 9. The principal showed through his actions that he cared about the success of the school. 10. All persons devoted the attention and time needed to maintain a spirit of openness and trust.57 For purposes of this study a variety of change models were examined in depth. Summaries of several models follow. Everett Rogers described the change model as an innova- tion-decision process. By this he meant that change is not instantaneous but occurs over time with a series of events. The innovation implies the change, and the decision is the determination to accept or reject the change. The entire process consists of three major stages. The first is 56Eileen Breckenridge, "Improving School Climate," Phi Delta Kappan, (December 1976), pp. 314-17. 57Ibid. , p. 318. 45 Antecedents: receiver variables, attitude or receptivity to change, social characteristics, and the perceived need for innovation. The second stage is the Process: knowledge, an awareness and understanding of the function of the innova- tion; persuasion, the attitude toward the innovation; deci- sion, choice of adoption or rejection; confirmation, rein- forcement for his decision which may include reversal of the decision or discontinuance.58 The significance of planned change was reinforced throughout the readings. A workbook has been developed to assist school staffs in implementing educational innovations. The process is a series of decision making steps based on the group's situation, goals, and preferences. In this case, change was viewed as a calculated decision to make a delibe- rate, organized effort to improve the system. It was to be viewed as a dynamic, evolving process rather than a static one. Phase I was identifying goals and determining needs. This phase included assessment and prioritization to deter- mine which goals need the greatest concentration of resources.59 Phase II, planning and operationalizing, includes an assess- ment of attitudes and a system for devising strategies, iden— tifying resources, and planning and operationalizing solutions.60 58Everett Rogers and Floyd Shoemaker, Communication of Innovations, (New York: The Free Press, 1971), pp. 100-104. 59Jerrold Novotney, James Freda, and Kenneth Tye, flgnaging Change (Los Angeles: Educational Resource Asso- Clates, 1974), p. 16. 60Ibid. , p. 31. 46 Phase III was a process to evaluate change. The evaluation design gave the participants the means to compile, analyze, and report information. It provided the basis for conclu- sions and recommendations. This feedback system was designed to assist the innovators to control, redirect, and refine im- plementation plans and procedures.61 The Michigan Education Association developed an educa- tional change model which is similar in scope to those men- tioned above. However, one significant difference is that internal support is not required for the change to be initi- ated, but there must be a change unit who share the objective. The three major stages are the planning stage (Phases I and II), the public stage (Phase III), and the institutional stage (Phase IV). The Michigan Education Association has devised this eleven-point system grouped in four phases: PHASE I: Initiation (leadership) 1. Initial change objective—-what the initiators of the change have in mind. Objectives should be clear, specific, significant, and feasible. 2. Staking out the turf-—checking out the general climate to identify support or resistance to the objective. 3. Formation of the change unit-—a tightly knit group who share the change objective. PHASE II: Planning (leadership and change unit) 4. Information gathering-—done to refine the objective and collect data for strategy and tactic information. 61Ibid., p. 35 47 5. Strategy-three stages of strategies for different objectives. Planning stage-to create a situation with the greatest probability of success; public stage-—to effect change through every acceptable means; institutional stage-—to evaluate and insti- tutionalize a change to prevent regression. 6. Tactics-—specific actions by which strategy is implemented. PHASE III: Implementation (leadership, change unit, general support) 7. General support endorsement of strategy and tactics- decisions made by change unit and implementation re- quires general support. 8. Mobilization of support-—the process of implementa- tion. 9. Showdown-—resistance to change that must be con- sidered. PHASE IV: Institutionalization of the results 10. Evaluation of results-—a determination of whether or not the change objective was won. 11. Institutionalization of the results-steps to main- tain the objective and to insure against regression.62 The change process in this model appeared to be a com- petitive process. It differed from the others in that the change was initiated by an outside agent (an individual or group outside the organizational structure) and appears to be 62Michigan Education Association, Professional Develop- ment Academy Conference Report, (East Lansing: Michigan Education Association, 1973), pp. 11-15. 48 enforced rather than growing out of recognized or perceived need for change. According to Baldridge and Deal no valid, tested, scien- tific principles have been developed to aid educators in a fool-proof change process. However, they have compiled a series of articles based on social science research and ex- perience that were meant to assist innovators in developing their own change process. The three elements necessary to understand change pro- cesses are: the organizational perspective, the organiza- tional subsystems and processes of change; strategies, per- sons and techniques of change such as leadership dynamics, change agents, organizational politics, and program evalua- tion processes; and practical experience, the dynamics of change in case studies.63 While it is recognized that no single change process is applicable for every educational change, certain factors may be viewed as generally or commonly acceptable. Havelock com— piled a series of case studies that showed the change process as it was approached by a variety of agents. Processes were described for changes which were initiated by a central office administrator, by teachers, by a change agency, and by students.6“ 613. Victor Baldridge and Terrence E. Deal, Managing Change in Educational Organizations (Berkeley: McCutchan Publishing Corporation, 1975), pp. 1-23. 6"Havelock, op. cit., pp. 21-38. 49 From over one thousand studies of educational innovation and utilization of knowledge from other fields, Havelock has developed a six-stage model for the change agent. Stage I: Relationship This initial stage is concerned with building a good relationship with clients. The agent must know the background of the influential persons in the commu- nity. Stage II: Diagnosis This includes the realization of the problem and an attempt to understand the current situation. Stage III: Acquiring Relevant Resources Publications, people, and products can be used to stimulate awareness and providing alternatives, and for demonstrating the innovation. Stage IV: Choosing the Solution The final solution should be derived from this four- step sequential process: derive implications from research; generate a range of solution ideas; feasi- bility testing; and adaptation. Stage V: Gaining Acceptance Through describing, discussing, and demonstrating, the change agent helps the client to gain awareness, develop interest, evaluate, try out, and adopt an innovation. Stage VI: Stabilization and Self-Renewal This is the ability of the system to internally maintain the innovation. The change agent provides 50 opportunities for the client system to work on other problems using the methods that he initiated.65 The review of change and climate also must examine the role of the school administrator in the change process. Hal- pin established the significance of the principal's leader- ship role through research designed to identify school cli- mate. The Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire (OCDQ) was designed to assess teachers' perceptions of their own behavior and of their principal's behavior. It was found that teacher morale (esprit) and principal leadership (thrust) were most significant in determining the profile, or organiza- tional climate, of a school.66 The implication of this in re- gard to the process of change is that some climates are more conducive to initiating and maintaining innovations than other climates. Halpin pointed out that in order for a leader to be successful, the leader's style needed to be matched with the group's readiness to accept his style.67 Also, the most effective setting for success was identified as an open climate. Characteristics of openness were high teacher morale, an involvement with and commitment to task- oriented situations, and a friendly relationship not asso- ciated with tasks; the principal did not hinder teachers with busywork, he integrated his own personality with the role of leader, he was personable and considerate, he was not highly 65Ibid., pp. 43-139. 66Andrew Halpin, Theory and Research in Administration, (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1966), p. 136. 67Ibid., p. 132. 51 directive but moved the organization forward and motivated through example.68 These characteristics contributed to an atmosphere of freedom to initiate new ideas and to support change. Grant Venn, in a monograph presented at the Second Career Education National Forum, expressed the importance of the administrator in innovation. In general, he said admin- istrators will support specific innovations if they help to achieve the overall organizational goals, but they will not support an innovation simply for the sake of change. He also pointed out that the climate of the institution may be a much stronger element in the success of an innovation that the concept itself and that in order for a new concept to be suc- cessful, the line administration (the persons who give rewards and have authority) must be involved.69 According to Venn, three necessary components must be in the overall plan to implement an education innovation. First is an administrative commitment by the superintendent as chief administrator and by principals as unit heads. This is necessary because the innovation is intended to change what is happening. The second necessity is a policy statement for the education unity because the innovation requires a change in the roles and purposes of the school. The third necessity is the administrative plan. This is a design for action including goals and priorities, a time frame, a sequential 58Ibid., pp. 174-175. 69Grant Venn, Seeking an Administrative Commitment to Innovation, (Columbus, Ohio: The Center for Vocational Education, Ohio State University, April 1976), pp. 1-5. 52 approach, and an assignment of roles and responsibilities.70 The demonstrated commitment of the administration provides leadership for teachers that should give them the support needed to implement change. In addition to the factors mentioned by Venn, D. H. Gress assigned further responsibilities to the chief admin- istrator in implementing career education. According to Gress, once the commitment has been made the administrator needs to assume the role of facilitator. He sets the ground- work, provides in-service training, finds space and mate- rials, seeks funding support, encourages creativity of the staff, and becomes part of the spirit of change. The impor- tance of this is to model an innovative attitude, to en- courage others, to attend to staff morale and to provide a humanizing influence. He must also lead the evaluative pro- cess, both in terms of program progress and the effect on student learning, and report to and inform the public.71 These articles not only recoqnize the need for effective leadership but more than that identify the administration as the key element in successful innovation. Because of this, the role of the administrator must be a significant part of future career education research. Evaluating Career Education Locating instruments to evaluate career education pro- grams was a difficult task. University libraries at Michigan 7°Ibid., pp. 3-11. _ 71D. H. Gress, "Career Education: The Role of the Admin- istrator," Phi Kappa Phi Journal, (Fall 1976), pp. 52—53. 53 State University and in the Washington, D.C. area were used, the Michigan Department of Education was consulted, pub- lishers of career education periodicals were contacted, and the National Institute of Education research library was utilized. Two E.R.I.C. searches were conducted. Many arti- cles were written to justify the need for evaluation and to suggest different facets of the evaluation process and to enumerate criteria for evaluation. However, no instruments were located which could be used to evaluate the comprehen- sive career education program. Instead, the only instruments which could be found evaluated career education in terms of learner outcomes. Some of these were results of short-term (six weeks) research, and others resulted from long-term (one year or longer) career courses. None of these evaluated infusion models where career education had been incorporated in a totak K-12 curriculum. Information found was for developing instruments and criteria that should be included. That information will be reviewed in this section. In describing program evaluation, Wesley E. Budke men- tioned these characteristics leading to effective evaluation. The school administration should understand and have a com— mitment to evaluaton. There should be a well-defined purpose for evaluation. There should exist an effective environment for conducting the evaluation. And it should be conducted by an experienced evaluator or evaluation team.72 'nWesley E. Budke, "Evaluating Career Education Programs," Business Education World, (March/April 1975), p. 15. 54 Budke provided the following guidelines in developing an evaluation instrument: 1. Decide what to evaluate and set priorities. 2. Clarify the program's purpose, objectives, or func- tions. 3. Select criteria traits (critical aspects of the program) and achievement standards (what is de- sired, expected, and required). 4. Collect and record data. 5. Analyze data; compare data with criteria traits and achievement standards. 6. Interpret data; draw conclusions about desirability, effectiveness, and adequacy; make recommendations for action. 7. Utilize evaluation results; administrators and staff should determine actions necessary to implement recommendations.73 According to Jeanne Barrett, program evaluation should consist of three major areas: goals, inputs, and outputs. Goals are measured by long-term accomplishments and answer the question-—do activities move the agency toward its goals? Inputs are considered resources-—information, per- sonnel, curricula, space, equipment needed to perform acti- vities, tasks, or strategies. Outputs are the strategies, tasks, and activities necessary to reach goals.7' Barrett 73Ibid. , p. 15. 7l'Jeanne Barrett, "Evaluation: Something You're Supposed to Do," Career Development, (Washington: Human Service Press, June 1971), pp. 11-14. 55 considered these factors the basis for evaluating career education programs. Another article, "Evaluating Career Education," con- tained criteria for evaluation. Guidelines, objectives, and goals were listed separately according to elementary, junior high, and high school levels. It was suggested that these elements should be included in elementary career education programs. Objectives should identify knowledge, skills, and attitudes to be learned. Students should develop an aware- ness of the numerous occupations and knowledge about jobs. They should have the opportunity to learn the value of work, to develop good citizenship, and to make career decisions based on self-assessment, education options, and accessible occupations. Students should have adequata\resource mate- rials to have a multi-sensory approach with hands-on experiences.75 In general, these guidelines are similar to those recommended by Kenneth Hoyt, United States Office of Education Director of Career Education, and others. A study by William C. Young contained a comprehensive career education infusion model. Career education content—- career information,feconomic information, self-awareness information, decision-making informationg and work values information-is infused into the regular curriculum methods and content. This results in regular expected academic outcomes of knowledge, skills, appreciations, and attitudes 75F. M. Miller, G. E. Baker, and F. E. Clark, "Evaluating Career Education," Career Education Digest, (April/May 1974), pp. 2-7. 56 with the bonus of other outcomes of career awareness, econo- mic awareness, decision-making skills, self-awareness, and work values awareness. Young said that what is described as career education is, in fact, simply good education.76 In assessing career education, attention should be given to the program development as it affects students as Young has done. In addition, other areas need to be con- sidered. A self-study developed in Springfield, Oregon, in- cluded the following questions which contribute to the cri- teria for evaluating career education: "1. What grade segments does your career education program span? 2. What percent of the students in the school are di- rectly involved in each segment of the career edu- cation program? 3. Briefly list and describe the main goals and ob- jectives for the overall career education program and each segment in the program. 4. How is the career education concept being assimi- lated into the education program? 5. Briefly list and describe those features particular to your career education program for the various grade segments. 76William C. Young, "A Study of the Factors Which Consti- tute a Comprehensive Elementary Education Program,"(unpub- lished Doctoral dissertation, George Washington University, 1975), p. 55. 57 6. Briefly list and describe the curriculum changes which took place in implementing the career educa- tion program. 7. What supportive services are available to the stu- dents in each segment of the career education pro- gram? 8. What inservice training was provided for adminis- trators, teachers, and staff in implementing the career education program? 9. Identify and explain how community resources were utilized in planning, actuating and evaluating the career education program. 10. What opportunities are available to students in the career education program for job preparation? 11. Briefly list and describe the data that is being gathered as evidence of success or failure in each segment of the career education program. 12. What provisions have been made for placing students in jobs and/or further educational programs upon their leaving school?"77 The Michigan Department of Education prepared an imple- mentation handbook. In the introduction a series of ques- tions is provided as an aid in helping local districts in ongoing assessment. "What progress has been made thus far toward: 1. Designating a Career Education leader? 'n"Self-Study Career Education Program," (Springfield, Oregon: Springfield Public Schools, October 11, 1971), pp. l-7. 58 2. Establishing a Career Education Committee? 3. Orienting the Career Education Committee? 4. Inservicing personnel? 5. Implementing Career Education programs? 6. Conducting a Goals Setting study? 7. Utilizing Career Education materials? 8. Developing Career Education plans? 9. Budgeting funds for Career Education? 10. Developing good community relations?"78 In summary, the review of literature included a study of the concept of career education, legislation supporting the development of career education programs, and an overview of selected models. School climate in relation to the process of innovations and the evaluation of career education pro- grams were areas specifically related to this study. It was found that career education has a historical background of many years. Preparing people for the world of work is not a new idea. However, the pervasiveness of the concept which permeates all areas of the curriculum at all levels is rela- tively new. Career education has gained in stature in recent years because of state mandates and federal funding for research and implementation. A variety of models have been studied, but the infusion model which incorporates career education into all areas of the curriculum seems to have the most impact on students. According to research, school cli- mate has a significant influence on the adoption of innovations. 'mCareer Education Handbook for Implementation, (Lansing: Michigan Department of Education, 1975), p. I-6. 59 In reviewing articles on career education evaluation, pro— cedures were found to aid in developing an instrument and criteria were identified which could be used in assessing career education programs. This information was used in developing the instrument, Criteria for Evaluating Career Education, and in studying school climate as it affects the adoption of the innovation career education. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY As career education gains recognition as a delivery sys- tem for utilitarian education, it becomes obvious that school systems need guidelines for developing and directing local programs. The Michigan State Department of Education has attempted to meet those needs through the publication of materials for career education leadership training and imple— mentation. An important part of program development and implementation is a system of evaluation. However, until now, few, if any, instruments have been developed to provide a comprehensive review of all aspects of the program——admin- istration, professional development, program development, community involvement, and evaluation. In response to this need a set of criteria was developed for this study which could serve two purposes: to evaluate existing career education programs and to provide direction for personnel involved in local program development. In other words, the content of the evaluation instrument might answer the questions: what should be contained in a compre- hensive career education program, and to what extent has the local district met the criteria. A copy of "Criteria for Evaluating Career Education Programs" is in Appendix A. 60 61 This instrument was developed and used for the first portion of this study. The study, basically, consisted of two major portions. The first portion was the development and use of the criteria instrument to identify school districts which could be described as high or low adopters of career education. Secondly, the study surveyed selected teaching staffs within these districts to identify school climate to see if schools with an open climate were more likely to adopt innovations than schools with a closed climate. In this study the inno- vation to be examined was career education. A copy of the Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire is in Appendix B. Instrumentation Criteria for Evaluating Career Education Programs Because of a scarcity of information of established cri— teria to evaluate career education, it was decided that Opin- ions of experts would be used to identify the criteria and to develop the instrumentation for the evaluation. Information was secured to determine the general aims of authorities and to establish objectives to which the experts could agree. A description of the procedure follows. Ordinarily, the critical incident technique, as described in Psychological Bulletin, July 1954, follows a series of five steps. The first, mentioned above, is securing informa- tion. Others are developing plans for collecting incidents, 62 collecting the data, analyzing the data, and interpreting and reporting the statement of requirements. Essentially, the critical incident technique is a method of establishing evaluative criteria based on the opinions of experts and/or practitioners in a chosen field. It is a pro- cedure for gathering facts in a defined situation where no previously validated, objective set of criteria exists. The common opinions of experts making independent judgments. It is believed that this technique is successful in View of the validity of earlier studies cited in the article. There are several advantages in using this technique. It is flexible, and the underlying principles can be applied in various ways. The criteria identified through this tech- nique could be used to establish standards, determine require- ments, and evaluate results. However, Flanagan cautioned that because ratings are usually inductive and relatively subjec- tive, care should be taken in establishing definitive cate- gories. Also, the functional description should specify pre- cisely what is necessary if the activity is to be judged suc- cessful or effective.1 Flanagan also pointed out that while this technique is the most satisfactory in establishing cri- teria, no one person or group of persons constitutes an absolute, authoritative source and that a completely objective general statement cannot be formulated for a specific activ- ity.2 In summary, the critical incident technique is a method 1Flanagan, John C., "The Critical Incident Technique," Psychological Bulletin 51:327-358, (July 1954), p. 336. 2Ibid., p. 337. 63 of developing a set of criteria which will provide a sound basis for making inferences or generalizations or for judg- ing existing programs. Items which could be included in the criteria for evalu- ation were identified from a review of research and related literature which included published books, articles, Congres- sional documents, and dissertations related to career educa- tion. These recommendations were included along with the following action steps for implementing career education. In Career Education: A Handbook for Implementation, the steps listed were: 1. Organize a network of interested individuals and groups. 2. Gain the cooperation of organizations, insti- tutions and individuals. 3. Establish career education as a high priority objective of the superintendent, board, prin- cipals, and faculty. 4. Study the present system to determine needed changes. 5. Assemble resources. 6. Design a career education system appropriate to the community. 7. Implement the system. 8. Build an evaluative process. 9. Create a feedback system to evaluate, experi- ment, and adapt. 10. Provide for program maintenance.3 3Career Education: A Handbook for Implementation, (U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402), 1972, pp. 70-96. 64 In addition to these action steps, other criteria were identified. These included provisions for adequate funding and support from the curriculum and instruction staff and pupil personnel leaders, and inservice programs for the faculty. Public relations personnel must work with the media to inform the public and gain community support for career education. The leadership must work to gain support from the faculty and to assist the faculty to exchange and gene- rate ideas for classroom implementation.l+ These ideas became the basis for criteria for evaluating career education programs. Some of these were expanded, some revised, and more were added, but this is a nucleus. A method of grouping items was found in Inequality in Education. Gordon F. Law, of Rutgers University, grouped the actions for implementation into seven categories. The categories and a brief description of each follows: 1. Top level commitment - endorsements by the local board of education, superintendent, principals, other administrators, community representatives of government, parent groups, labor, business and industry, state department of education, institu- tions of higher education, and teachers' organiza- tions. 2. Legislative actions - mandates and permissive legislation that would require career education and provide financial stimulus, amend teacher cer- tification laws and child labor laws. 3. Financial actions - funds allocated for research and development, for support for key personnel, and for in-service preparation. “Ibid., pp. 67-68. 65 4. Organizational actions - authority and responsibility for administrative personnel to implement, develop guidelines, and allocate resources and space in the schedule. 5. Administrative actions - designated officer who has an interest in career education and who will develop instructional materials, infuse career education content into curriculum, solicit advisement from labor, business and industry and from students, dropouts, and recent graduates. 6. Actions related to education, accreditation, and rewards - analyze present system to determine accountability and reward for implementation. 7. Professional development actions - conduct inservice programs for professional educators, leadership training for administrators, build pre-service preparations and encourage development of surveys and experimental research.5 Selecting and grouping information was an effort to meet the first requirement of the critical incident procedure which is to determine the general aims of authorities in the field. It is a means of establishing objectives to which most experts would agree. For purposes of this study a modification of the criti- cal incident technique was used. As items were identified which might be included, each one was recorded on a separate file card. Then they were reviewed and sorted into these five arbitrarily defined categories: administration, pro- fessional development, program development, community involve- ment, and evaluation. At this point, career education ex- perts were consulted to review the criteria and to make suggestions for additional items or deletions. The researcher SLeah Levy, ed., Inequality in Education (Center for Law and Education, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., March 1974), pp. 40-41. 66 interviewed each of the authorities for a half hour to an hour, and notes were made of their suggestions. In addition to comments on the criteria, suggestions were made for pos- sible format for the instrument and analysis techniques of data which would be secured. In this case, an expert was identified as a person whose professional judgment is accepted by others. He/she is in a decision making position, perhaps a policy maker, who has influence on other professionals in his field. Experts who participated in this portion of the study represented federal and state governmental agencies, higher education, a local school district, and an intermediate school district. Also teachers, counselors, and administrators who were members of a course in career education leadership training reviewed the criteria. Appendix C identifies each authority by name, title, and agency. From the readings and the recommendations of experts and practitioners a final form was developed. Originally, items were grouped into sections. Later it was decided to eliminate the grouping which would give each item equal im— portance. If the items remained in groups, responses would have had to be weighted as some portions of the total program might be more significant than others. Viewed in its broad- est terms, the criteria can identify which aspects of the program have been accomplished and which may need to be developed further. The instrument was used only as a gross measure of career education programs, and any school district 67 using it should recognize the limitations, use it as a guide, but at the same time recognize that all items may not be required to have a successful career education program in any particular local setting. Criteria were rated on a three-point scale where 3 indicated that the practice was well-established and func- tioning, 2 that the practice existed but was inadequate, and 1 that the practice was either non-existent or non-functional. Coordinators rated one practice evaluation with the researcher to be sure that items were interpreted similarly and that ratings were comparable. Also the raters had been familiar- ized with the study and understood their role and responsi- bility. Raters were encouraged to rate each item separately and not to attempt to form an overall impression of a dis- trict. Scores were totaled and only those districts which ranked among the five high and five low adopter districts were used for the remainder of the study. Those districts with middle-range scores were excluded. This technique was used because the instrument was only a gross measure, and excluding the middle reduced the need of the instrument to finely discriminate among levels of adoption of career edu- cation. Within each district ranked as a high or low adopter, two schools were randomly selected. The Halpin-Croft Organ- izational Climate Description Questionnaire (hereafter iden- tified as OCDQ) was administered to the teachers in these schools. Data generated with the OCDQ became the basis for analysis of the research questions. 68 Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire The OCDQ is a result of a study conducted by Andrew Halpin and Don Croft in 1962. The purposes of the study were to map out the domain of school climate, to identify, describe, and measure the dimensions of school climate. Other reasons for conducting the study included a dissatis- faction with the concept of morale, developing a method for matching a leader's style and the readiness of a group to accept his/her style, and an interest in organizational cli- mate as it might apply in other settings.6 The questionnaire focuses on the social interaction be- tween principal and teachers and among the teachers. It measures the degree of openness in a school. The designers of the instrument assumed that schools with a more open cli- mate were more desirable in that leadership acts could emerge more easily from the teachers or the principal.7 Items for the instrument were generated from simple statements. The statements were measures of perception which could provide concensus and discrimination. The bank of about 1,000 items was developed from analysis of critical incidents, the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire, developed by John K. Hemphill and Alvin E. Coons in research conducted at Ohio State University, and the Group Description 6Andrew Halpin, Theory and Research in Administration, (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1966), pp. 131-133. 7Dale G. Lake, Matthew B. Miles, and Ralph B. Earle, Jr., Measuring Human Behavior, (New York: Teachers College Press, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1973), p. 209 69 Questionnaire, developed by Hemphill and Charles M. Westie.8 The Group Description Questionnaire became the prototype for the OCDQ. Items were screened and tested on three preliminary forms of the OCDQ. Form I tested groups with 150 items. With Form II, the items were more definitive, and a cross- validation was done to determine differentiation. Form III was used for the major analysis. The standardization was established using an 80-item form with 1,151 respondents from 71 schools representing six regions in the United States. The final version, Form IV, contains 64 items which identify eight dimensions of organizational climate.9 A Likert-type scale was used in which teachers responded to each question with a response to denote, "How true is this in your school?" Response choices were: 1-rarely occurs; 2-sometimes occurs; 3-often occurs; 4-very frequently occurs. Responses were not determined to be fact but were measured as the teacher's perception of the climate judged through his/her own personal values and needs. Generally, the fac- ulty showed consistency in perception, and a climate was described as open if it was perceived as open by the faculty. Factor analysis identified eight dimensions of organiza- tional climate. These dimensions are also referred to as subscales or subtests. The first four identify teacher be- haviors. They are: 8John K. Hemphill and Charles M. Westie, "The Measure- ment of Group Dimensions," Journal of Psychology, 29:325-342, January 1950. 9Halpin, op. cit., pp. 145-154. In... 72 principal runs the organization in a business-like, impersonal manner with a high degree of aloofness and thrust. The Controlled Climate - there is a press for achievement at the expense of social needs satis- faction. There is a high degree of esprit and hindrance and a low level of disengagement and intimacy. The principal exhibits high production emphasis and aloofness, low consideration, and average thrust. Leadership acts emanate from the principal. (Halpin comments that many faculties respond well to this behavior and obtain consid- erable job satisfaction.) The Familiar Climate - there is a friendly relation- ship between teachers and principal. Characteris- tics include a high social needs satisfaction and minimal control or direction of the group's activi- ties toward goal achievement. There is evidence of high intimacy and disengagement and low hindrance among teachers. The principal's behavior is char- acterized by high consideration and thrust and low levels of aloofness and production emphasis. Eval- uation and direction are minimal. The Paternal Climate - the principal is ineffective in controlling teachers and in satisfying social needs. His behavior is described as nongenuine and nonmotivating. The climate is partially closed and the group is split into factions. Characteristics of teachers are high disengagement and low intimacy, esprit, and hindrance. This results in inadequate satisfaction in task-accomplishment and social needs. The principal exhibits high production emphasis- things should get done but nothing does. He is con- siderate but oversolicitous and does not use him- self as an example. The Closed Climate - the staff is characterized by high teacher turnover. There is little satisfaction relative to task achievement or social needs. The principal is an ineffective director, does not look out for teachers' personal welfare, and the climate is the most closed and least genuine. Teachers dis- play a high degree of disengagement and hindrance, average intimacy, and low esprit. The principal is ranked high on aloofness and production emphasis and low on thrust and consideration. He does not moti- vate or set examples, is not genuine, and his words and behavior differ. He expects others to take the 73 initiative but does not give them freedom to perform leadership acts. Halpin suggests that ". . . the best prescription is radical surgery."13 After defining the organizational climates it was possible to classify schools with respect to climate. Two bases of cate- gorization were used. First, a notation was made on high loading of a single profile factor. Secondly, a profile simi- larity score was used to establish congruence of individual scores with the prototypic profiles of the climates. In this way, the researchers could determine the degree to which each school reached toward the ideal, or open climate. Three parameters were used to conceptualize the social interactions within the school organization. 1. Authenticity - the authenticity, or openness, of the leader's and the group members' behavior. 2. Satisfaction - the group members' attainment of satisfaction in respect to task accomplishment and social needs. 3. Leadership initiation - the latitude within which the group members, as well as the leader, can initiate leadership acts.1” The concept of authenticity was an unexpected outcome of the original study. While the study was too general to iden- tify characteristics of authenticity, it was found that in general the open school climate was characterized by "real" or genuine behavior of the principal and teachers, the pro- fessional roles were secondary to individuals as human beings, and there was latitude to experiment with their own styles in 13Ibid., pp. 174-181. 1L11018., p. 192. 74 relation to work and to peers. In a closed climate, the opposite characteristics were exhibited, and authenticity was lacking.15 The major criticism of the OCDQ, according to Lake, et a1, is that no test-retest reliability data are presented, and no reliability estimates are available for the profile similarity scores.16 Halpin recognizes this limitation and states that the small sample may be a cause for unreliable prototypic profile scores, but it does not alter the basic pattern of the subtest scores. He also explains that when the test was developed the researchers were not concerned about the relationship between profile scores and external criteria of a school's effectiveness. However, he does sug- gest a method of validation for further study.17 A later study (Andrews, 1965) reviewed by Lake, concludes that the subtests of the OCDQ have good construct validity. Another study, reported by Hughes (1968) and reviewed by Lake, found that high-innovative schools were more similar to open cli- mate than to closed, and that low-innovative schools were more like the closed climate.18 This is similar to the premise being studied in this dissertation. 151bid., pp. 204-205. 16Lake, op. cit., p. 211. 17Ha1pin, op. cit., pp. 194-195. 18Lake, op. cit., p. 211. éht (hereafter as the seafdh site because it seemed to repre en c oss-section of districts \ comparable to other regions in i higan.19 Also, career edu— cation has been implemented to th- extent that programs exist with substance worthy of exami ation. The city 0 Grand Rapids was excluded from the/- -. because its c aracteris- /’_’—V"V‘W""-rl , of the design. It is unlike .tion, and en ironvent. _ as suburban or rural while Grand "-pids is urb.n. proportion.tel larger, aid be represen ativr of the the study was con-ucted w ithin each mistri t. fro- similar oopulatimh“ Rapids om th- stu-y I Excluding e in CEPD #32 were According to data /7 ' ‘ “-—.. _.-;7 / . ’r “’ II . 19 the time that leglslatlon a , the Mic iga Ir-.rtment “ The fiscal agent for CEPT Int- mediate School District which‘IfiEIfi}es of Grand Rapids and the surrounding county. W -urvey ) was conducte CEPD #32 included four local of Kent Coun ' hey have since been reassi- 76 and Buyer's Guide, the elementary student populations in these districts ranged from about 3,363 to 615 pupils, and the number of elementary teachers ranged from 130 to 26 per district. The total number of elementary teachers in the ten districts identified as high and low adopters was 564. The total number of teachers in the selected elementary school buildings was 298.20 Of those, 249 participated in the survey. Forty-four percent of the total elementary teachers in the ten districts represented the sample popu- lation. The following table provides a breakdown of numbers and percentages of participants in the OCDQ survey. Three career education coordinators were responsible for assisting in the development of career education programs in the districts used in this study. Each coordinator was res- ponsible for six or seven districts. Appendix D contains an alphabetical list of cooperating districts and schools which were selected to participate in the survey. These people were selected as raters because it seemed that they would be most knowledgeable about the overall program in each district with which they worked. The coordinators chose to rate each district as a whole rather than individual schools within each district. There seemed to be little difference from building to building as efforts were being conducted at a district wide level. Coordinators worked with representa- tives from each building, activities occured on a district wide basis, and schools were believed to be fairly homogeneous. 20Michigan Education Directory and Buyer's Guide, (Lansing: Michigan Education Directory, 1975). 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