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This is to certify that the

dissertation entitled

THE VIDEO CASSETTE RECORDER (VCR) AS AN OPTIONAL
SERVICE DELIVERY TOOL
presented by

Patrick Emeka O. Anyanetu

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph.D. , Agric. Ext. Ed.
degree m

 

 

O 3 Donald éeajés

Major professor

 

DateAugust 10 , 1990

 

MS U i: an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0- 12771

 

THE VIDEO CASSETTE RECORDER (VCR) AS AN OPTIONAL EXTENSION
SERVICE DELIVERY TOOL

BY
Patrick Emeka O. Anyanetu

A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Agricultural and Extension Education

1990

ABSTRACT

THE VIDEO CASSETTE RECORDER (VCR) AS AN OPTIONAL
EXTENSION SERVICE DELIVERY TOOL

BY
Patrick Emeka O. Anyanetu

The purpose of this study was to examine the potential
of the video cassette recorder (VCR) as one alternative for
delivery of extension services to the Cooperative Extension
Service clientele in a changing information environment.
Through the examination of the current media usage, study
sought to determine if the VCR can replace some aspects of
the current instructional and educational information
delivery methods.

Two hundred and thirty clientele drawn from the mailing
list of the Cooperative Extension Office in Washtenaw
County, Michigan, participated in the study. They were asked
to respond to a mailed questionnaire that covered the
following areas of inquiry: 1) how VCRs had affected their
media usage: 2) to what extent were the respondents with
VCRs different from those without: 3) were the respondents
willing to support Cooperative Extension Service video

programs should they be provided? 4) what were the

perceived advantages for adopting extension videotape
programs over the traditional extension delivery methods?

The questionnaire data analyses resulted in the
following major conclusions:

1) the overall media usage patterns have not been
substantially affected by the VCR;

2) over half of those with a VCR use it for gratifying
needs by selective recording of programs to be viewed at a
later time (uses and gratification, Blumler et al., 1979):

3) many are willing to support extension video
programming as well as pay fees for extension video if such
videos are provided, an indication of the goal-directed
purposive behavior, Katz et al. (1974):

4) the majority of VCR users perceive it as a means of
improving skills and acquiring more agricultural competen-
cies in the privacy of their farms (uses and gratification,
Blumler, et al., 1979).

5) with 68.8% of the respondents owning VCRs, it is
evident the Extension Service reaches a greater number of
high-income individuals, and may thereby contribute to the
existing information gap between rich and poor clientele

documented by Tichenor, Olien and Donuhue (1971).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This academic sojourn would not have been embarked upon
had it not been for my teacher, friend and chairperson of my
dissertation committee, Dr. 0. Donald Headers, whose ideas
about solutions for rural development and agricultural
education spurred me on to this endeavor. Equally, my
gratitude goes to the other members of my committee, Drs.
Carroll H. Wamhoff, Joseph Straubhaar and Joseph Levine for
their untiring efforts in guiding, criticizing, suggesting,
and encouraging me on to a successful end of this academic
sojourn.

Dr. Carroll H. Wamhoff will always be remembered for
going beyond the call of duty in directly providing finan-
cial support or soliciting same from colleagues even at the
risk of dents to his personality as chairman of my depart-
ment. Words are simply inadequate in expressing my grati-
tude to Dr. Wamhoff. My gratitude also goes to Sandi Bauer,
Administrative Assistant to Dr. Wamhoff for her untiring
effort at squeezing out funds from her tight budget and her
patience with my endless request for attention. similar
thanks to Mary Pierce and Diane Verlinde for their wonderful

secretarial support and the production of the study report.

iv

I wish also to express my gratitude to the Associate
Dean and Director of the Office of Academic and Student
Affairs, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Dr.
Taylor J. Johnston, for providing the financial assistance
at the last lap of the race when it had seemed impossible to
obtain any form of financial assistance. Similarly, my
thanks to the Sage Foundation for supporting this
dissertation.

My gratitude is also expressed for the six-week quarter
assistantship from the Agriculture Marketing Program,
Cooperative Extension Service, Michigan State University,
without which this dissertation would not have been
possible. I am grateful to the Director, Dr. Frank Brewer
for his magnanimity and tolerance, to Ms. Susan Smalley for
her invaluable criticism and assistance in producing the
draft questionnaire, providing transportation to Washtenaw
County, and stamps for the questionnaire.

Gratitude is also extended to Mr. Morse Brown, the then
County Extension Director, Washtenaw County, now with Wayne
County, who not only readily approved conducting the study
in his County, but also enlisted the full cooperation of his
staff. I shall always remain grateful to him and his
staff, particularly Joseph Bill Ames, who ably filled in
when Mr. Brown moved over to Wayne County. Of course, my
thanks to Mr. Ken Hinds for assistance with word-processing

expertise.

This acknowledgement will be incomplete without the
mention of my mentor and then head of Department at the
University of Lagos, Professor Alfred Opubor, who enkindled
in me the fire of agricultural communication. Despite my
inadequacy, Dr. Opubor made it possible for me to undertake
this sojourn at this great institution. He shall always
remain my beacon.

I gratefully acknowledge those who paved the way for me
to be here, particularly, my then Director of Forestry, Dr.
Anthony M. Oseni, his Assistant Director, Mr. Kola
Aladejana, and the then Southwest Zonal Assistant Director,
Mr. George Igugu and others whom shortage of space does not
allow their individual mention.

Of course the greatest part of my gratitude goes to my
family, especially to my children, Uzoma, Onochie and
Chukwuemeka for enduring so much neglect and hardship as I -
juggled academics, raising a family, and joblessness.

Finally, special thanks to Dr. 0. Donald Meaders for
insisting that this task be completed. Don I shall for ever

be grateful.

vi

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . .

CHAPTER I

Introduction . . .

Chapter II

Chapter III

Media Background . . . . . .
Cooperative Extension Service
Purposes . . . . . . . . . .
Research Questions . . . .
Importance of the Study. .
Methodology. . . . . . .
Assumptions and Limitations
Definition of Terms . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . .

Literature Review .
Introduction . . . . . . . .
Theoretical Framework. . . .
Mass Media and Development .
Historical Development of VCR
Extension Clientele and VCR.
Summary . . . . . . . . . . .

Selection of Method. .
Selection of Site. . .
Population . . . . .
Sample . . . . . . .
Measurement Procedure.

Unidimensionality

Linearity . . .
Instrumentation
Pro-Test . . . .

Validity .

Reliability
Collecting Data
Processing Data.
Analyzing Data .

t

Summary . . . .

vii

Control for Nonresponden 3

Methods and Procedures

0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

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p
O

12
13
16
19
23
28

3O
3O
32
33
35
36
38
38
38
4O
42
42
44
46
47
48

'48

Chapter IV Study Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

General Description of Respondents . . . . . . . . 50

Media Ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Media Usage Pattern. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Television Usage Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Radio Usage Pattern. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Newspaper Usage Pattern. . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Mass Media Usage and Personal Characteristics 60
Comparison of Demographics of Those With/Without

VCR O O I I O O O O O O O O O I O O O C O O O 63
Utilizing VCR for Extension Service . . . . . . . . 66
Perceived Advantages of VCR . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Summary of Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Answers to the Research Questions . . . . . . . . 78
Chapter V Conclusions, Recommendations, and
Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Observations O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O 87
APPENDIX A Questionnaire and Survey Materials . . . 90
APPENDIX B Table of Nonrespondents Information . . 102
APPENDIX C University Committee on Research

Involving Human Subjects Approval Letter . . . . . 107

LIST OF REFERENCES 0 O O O O O O O O O .0 O O O O O O 0 108

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Spearman-Brown Split-Half Correlation

Reliability Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Table 2. A Summary of the Questionnaires Returns, Survey

Population, Sample and Responses. . . . . . . . . . 46
Table 3. Selected Demographic Characteristics (N=140) 51
Table 4a. No. of Hours Spent on Media per Week . . . . 54
Table 4b. Hourly Media Usage Per Week . . . . . . . . . 54
Table 5a. Percentage of TV Viewership . . . . . . . . . . 55
Table 5b. Association of TV Programs Viewership with VCR .56
Table 6a. Percentage of Radio Programs Listenership . . 57
Table 6b. Association of Radio Programs Listenership. . 58
Table 7a. Weekly Percentage of Newspapers Readership. . . 59
Table 7b. Association of Newspaper Readership . . . . . . 59
Table 8. VCR Ownership Grouped by Age Categories . . . 60
Table 9. Ownership of VCR Grouped by Educational Level 61
Table 10. Access to VCR by Occupation . . . . . . . . . 62
Table 11. Access to VCR by Income. . . . . . . . . . . 63
Table 12. Ownership of VCR Grouped By Income . . . . . 65
Table 13. Comparing Some of the Demographic Characteristics

of VCR Owners and Non-owners . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Table 14. Summary Table of Analysis of Interest in Ext.

Services Assistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Table 15. Analysis of Variance for Office Visits. . . 69
Table 16. Analysis of Variance for Ext Assistance

Calls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Table 17. Analysis 0 Variance for Tours, Shows, &

Demos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Cable 18. Summary of Perceived Advantages Video

Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Table 19. ANOVA: Anal sis of Variance: Respondents'

Perception of Videotapes Enabling Learning Skills

on Farm by Ownership of VCR . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Table 20. ANOVA: Analysis of Variance: Respondents'

Perception of Videotapes as a More Convenient

Access to Information than Tours/Demonstrations. . 76
Table 21. ANOVA: Analysis of Variance: Respondents'

Perception of Videotapes as Reducing Time and

Cost Visiting Subject-Matter Specialists by

Ownership of VCR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

ix

Table 22. ANOVA: Analysis of Variance: Respondents'
Perception of Video Programs as saving Time and
Money Visiting Subject-Matter Specialist by ownership
of VCR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

LIST OF FIGURES

Media Ownership. . . . . .
Most Watched Video . . . .
Support for Extension Video
Willingness to Pay Tape Fee

Most Important Quality of VCR

Willingness to Pay Tape Fee

xi

53
67
7O
71
72
72

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Media Background

With television and electronic media becoming part of our
everyday life, people have lost control to the electronic
media over what images flow into their homes and minds through
the television set. With the television industry becoming a
sellers market, programming and time scheduling remained the
prerogative of the giant television networks as they compete
to hold our attention. With the cost of production and
broadcasting as well as profit all coming from advertising
revenue, the networks never relent in their production of more
compelling programs in- their quest to capture and retain
viewers attention (Scherer, 1987).

The arrival of home video recorders within the decade has
changed all that, as it opened a new era in the use of
broadcasting and communication. Levi (1980) in a landmark
study, noted that video cassette recorders (VCRs) , along with
cable TV, pay TV, and other new telecommunication
technologies, were reshaping the home electronic environment.

The diffusion of VCRs has been stunning. Starting from a mere

handful of earliest owners, a distinct upscale group with at
least $30,000 in family income, in late 1970, (Levi, 1980), to
what is now becoming a common home appliance. Thanks to a
rapid fall in price of VCR as the Japanese flooded the market
with less expensive‘VCRs at about.a third of the earlier cost,
making them more affordable (Boyd, Straubhaar and Lent, 1988) .

VCRs are set to restructure how people process and
utilize mediated information. After'a modest 2.3% penetration
of United States homes in 1980, VCR ownership reached 39% in
1986 and by 1988 had passed 52% (TV Digest, 1988), and is
expected to exceed that in the years ahead (Greenberg, 1988).
Rogers and Picot (1985: p. 108), noted that the very nature of
work-life may be changing due to the impact of new
communication technologies such as video recorders, computer
and electronic messaging. Similar observations were made by
Williams (1982: p.158) and Compaine (1983), predicting
profound changes in life styles, jobs, and in the way we seek

and process information (Scherer, 1987).

Cooperative Extension Service
The reality of the impact of video is the extent of
disruption in the established mass media usage pattern. As
Scherer (1987) observed, organizations such as the Cooperative
Extension Service, which are charged with the distribution of
research based knowledge, have traditionally relied on

communication methods such as face-to-face meetings, public

3
service spots on AM radio and television, and printed bul-
letins to communicate *with. audiences. With. the. changing
information environment, needs and patterns of information
utilization are bound to change along with the changing media
technologies.

Compounding the situation is the relaxation of require-
ments by the Federal Communication Commission (FCC) which no
longer requires broadcasting houses to provide free public
service spot announcements as evidence of serving public
"interest, convenience and necessity" to retain their
licenses. According to Scherer (1987), public service spot
announcements used to be a prime method of disseminating
Cooperative Extension Service (Extension Service) messages to
the public. The implication of which is that the Extension
Service will now have to buy its media time. Another reason
for concern is the escalating cost of production of bulletins
and other informational pamphlets. -

Besides the administrative changes in radio and tele-
vision station operation, radio broadcasting is undergoing
rapid technological changes. The result is that the use of
radio messages is on the decline as Frequency Modulation (FM)
radio with its all-music format, continues to undermine
Amplitude Modulation (AM) radio, which is formatted for talks
and broad-based programming (Scherer, 1987).

With the ever shrinking Extension Service budget, the

extension of the expert voice at an acceptable cost is being

4
viewed as a justification for the use of mass media in
education/information projects (Hornik, 1987: p.3).

Budget constraints presently have brought about a
temporary reduction in hiring of new personnel in the Michigan
Cooperative Extension Service despite a growing need for more
people to be engaged, as is the case in most other states.
Expanding demands for Extension Service programs without
reciprocal increases in budgets, will probably result in loss
of quality in the services rendered. The danger is that
unless the Extension Service adapts to the changing media
environment, by identifying other alternative delivery
methods, there is the possibility of getting out of touch.with
its clientele. To do so is to endanger the Extension Service's

very future.

Purposes

The purpose of this study was to determine the potential
of the VCR as one alternative for delivery of extension
services to the Cooperative Extension Service clientele in a
changing information environment. Through the examination of
the Current media usage, the study sought to determine if the
video cassette recorder (VCR) can replace some aspects of the
current instructional and educational information delivery

methods. Thus five objectives were raised:

5
(1) Determine the impact of the changing information
environment on Extension Service clientele with
emphasis on their media usage pattern.
(2) Determine if VCR could replace some aspects of the
current CES information delivery system:
(a) Provide an alternative source of information beyond
articles in farmer's magazines, bulletins, and other
print sources.
(b) Could make for fewer visits with county agents, fewer
meetings and less travel to distant demonstration
plots.
(c) Determine to what extent clientele were ready to
accept VCR technology as an alternative to face-to-face

contact with Extension Service agents.

Research Questions
From the foregoing objectives tentative generalizations
became necessary in establishing relationship among the
variables of the studyu Thus the following research questions
were asked:
1) In what ways does ownership of a video cassette
recorder (VCR) affect the general pattern of media
usage by the Extension Service clientele?
2) To what extent are the clientele willing to accept
Extension Service programs on videotape if provided by

the Cooperative Extension Service?

6
3) Are there perceived advantages for adopting
Extension Service videotape programs over the

traditional delivery methods?

Importance of the Study

Given the on-going changes in media technologies, the
Extension Service cannot afford to sit and wait until
overwhelmed by these changes. As primary users of mass media,
they need to know how the present changes affect clientele
information access and processing.

Already budget constraints have made meeting the
increasing needs of Extension Service clientele urgent. The
Extension Services's responsibilities have been growing in
scope without commensurate growth in budget allocations. In
the past three to four decades the Extension Services have
gone beyond the traditional rural clientele to include those
in the urban areas. With that came the complexities of modern
living such as unstable family structures, environment
pollution and other natural disasters, which keep stretching
both human and material resources of the Extension Service.

For the Extension Service to continue playing its
traditional role to all its clientele, much has to be known
about the clientele's need for instructional information and
their information seeking behaviors in view of the multi-
plicity of choices presented by the expanding media environ-

ment. Thus new options for delivery of extension services

7
have become urgent. One such option may be the use of the
video cassette recorder (VCR) . Not much research has been done
on the educational uses of VCR, but the little that exists
suggests it may offer opportunities for the delivery of

instructional and educational information.

Methodology

To answer the questions raised, the study focused on the
development and implementation of a research design, which
controlled for variables that might have subsequently
threatened the study's internal and external validity.
Instrumentation development was subjected to controls for
validity and reliability assessment to insure accurate,
appropriate and comprehensive treatment of subject matter
materials.

Quantitative methodology was used in conducting this
study. A stratified sampling procedure (Babbie, 1983) was
employed in selecting the sample from the survey population.
Being an exploratory study, descriptive design was considered
appropriate since the aim was to document the current media
usage pattern of the Cooperative Extension Service clientele
in relation to how the clientele might accept the use of VCRs
for Extension Service delivery of educational and
informational programs.

The data were collected through the distribution of a

self-administered mail questionnaire as recommended by

8
Dillman, (1978). Data taken from the returned questionnaires
were analyzed, summarized and reported as conclusions with
recommendations. Details of the methodology are presented in

Chapter III.

Assumptions and Limitations
As an exploratory study basic assumptions were made.
First, it was assumed that the respondents would be able to
read and complete the questionnaires. Second, that those with
VCR have been making use of them for both entertainment and
learning activities. Third, that their responses would be as
accurate as possible.

For limitations, the selection of the sample from a list
of only those registered with agricultural and horticultural
programs constituted a limitation since there were three other
main programs. The geographic location of the sample could
also have constituted. a limitation since the study ‘was
conducted in one county. ‘

Another limitation was the inherent contradictory nature
of the theoretical framework of this study. According to
Littlejohn (1983; p. 290), the uses and gratifications
approach is still new and underdeveloped. Part of the
criticisms that have been leveled against the theory is that,
it is unclear whether needs constitute a mediating variable or
a dependent variable. No one has been able to state whether

needs lead to media use, in this case, VCR use, or if media

9
use (VCR use) cause gratification of needs. For the purpose of
this study, the assumption is that felt needs cause people to

seek ways to satisfy or gratify the desire.

Definition of Terms

Media technology being an evolving technology, it was
necessary to define some of the terms and expressions used in
this study so as to facilitate the understanding of the
research problem. Moreover, as research on VCR usage is still
at its infancy it is necessary to state certain definitions
used in this study.

Videocassette. A videotape that has been packaged in a
cassette housing (Compesi and Sherriffs, 1985). Videocassette
and videotape are used interchangeably in this study.

Videotape. An oxide coated plastic used to record the
video and audio television signal.

Videocassette Recorder (VCR). An electronic appliance
that records video and audio signals (electronic energy by
sound and visual) onto a videocassette and can also be used to
playback such video and audio signals.

Media Exposure. Frequency of viewing or listening to
television/radio or reading of publications.

Extension Clientele. Residents of a county who avail
themselves of the services of *the Cooperative Extension

Service.

10

Extension. Extension/Education. Describes a special type
of problem-solving, action oriented education that instructs,
demonstrates, and motivates, but does not regulate or provide
noneducational programs (Interpaks, Series #1).

Traditional Delivery service. Any form of face-to-face
instruction or skill transfer from an agricultural extension
person to clientele, including the distribution of printed
agricultural information.

Cooperative Extension Service. An educational service
agency created by federal legislation through the Smith-Lever
Act of 1914. The Act authorized educational programs in
agriculture, home economics and related subjects to be funded
by federal, state and local governments and administered

through the same three bodies, hence the term "cooperative".

Summary

This introductory chapter started with a background of
the social context.inwwhichithe‘problem.addressed.by'the study
originated. Use of VCRs by Cooperataive Extension Service
clientele was identified.as the main subject of the study, and
a synopsis was given of the development of the VCR technology
and its rapid diffusion in the nation.

The objectives of the study were identified as
determining the impacts of the changing information
environment on Extension Service clientele with emphasis on

clienteles' media usage pattern, with a view to determining

11
some of 'the potentials of VCRs in the delivery of
instructional and educational information programs.
Additional information about related research and

methodology may be found in chapters II and III.

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

A, number’ of conceptual issues *were raised in. this
literature review in order to bring into focus the framework
of this dissertation. The review starts with a brief
examination of the philosophical mandate of the Extension
Service of meeting the people at their various levels. As
mass media have a significant role in extension education, a
review of their development, particularly that of television
is provided in order to provide background to the theoretical
framework on which the dissertation was based. Finally, the
literature on the VCR's development, uses, particularly in
relation to television, and its applications to educational

program delivery, is reviewed.

Philosophical Base of Extension
The philosophy of those pioneers who gave leadership to the
Cooperative Extension Service included an assumption that
people must be reached where they are... that is, at their
present background of education and level of interest and

understanding. It was also assumed that the aims and objec-

12

l3
tives of Cooperative Extension Service must be modified over
time on the basis of individual and social needs (Raudabaugh,
1974, p. 31).

To say that the Cooperative Extension Service has
embraced a philosophy of change is not only in keeping in-line
with its own mission, but also is a basis for ensuring its
very existence. Thus, in this ever-changing information
environment, adapting to the changing communication technology
becomes imperative to maintain the delivery capability of the

Extension Service.

Theoretical Framework

According’toiRubin.and.Bantz, (1987, p. 471), research.on
the avoidance of commercials suggests that VCR users
demonstrate Blumler's (1974),- Katz and Blumler (1979),
activity dimensions which were based on the uses people have
for' communication» They' also reported. Yorke and. Kitchen
(1985), to have found that VCR users typically fast-forward
past commercial messages (i.e. zipping), when watching
programs or paused their recorders when taping (ie, zapping).
Mahoney (1984), also had earlier expressed concern about VCR
owners who shift time by recording programs for viewing at
their convenience, thereby "taking programming into their own
hands." Similarly, Boyd, Straubhaar'and Lent (1988), described
VCR as enabling people to "improve" or personalize their tele-

vision viewing.

14

From the foregoing, there is a need for a better under-
standing of the motives and usage patterns of VCRs, particu-
larly that of extension clientele if the Extension Service is
to avail itself of the potentials of this new technology in
meeting media usage of its clientele. To do this Blumler's
(1974) theory of uses and gratifications provides a suitable
framework for such an exploration.

Katz and Blumler (1979) , postulated three assumptions
that:

( 1) the audience of mass communication is active and goal

directed:

(2) the audience members know their needs and seek out

ways to meet these needs: and

(3) related to the above two, is that media compete with

other sources of need gratification.

In short, that out of the options that media present, the
individual chooses ways to gratify needs.

Known as the uses and gratification theory, the theory
focuses on the consumer rather than the message. The person is
seen as an active selector of media communications, unlike the
earlier theories of mass media, which portray the person as a
passive receiver. The paradigm of this theory is that it
explores the consumer's communication behavior in terms of the
consumer's direct experience with the media.

VCR technology allows audience selectivity, choice
control and participation when the individual employs it in

communication. According to Rubin (1986, p. 293) , audience use

15

of television can be described as primarily ritualized or
instrumental in nature. While instrumental television might
indicate audience utility, intentionality and selectivity,
ritualized television use might indicate utility but an
otherwise less active audience condition. In an earlier study
Levi and Windahl (1985) , stated that the VCR provides a
logical focus for assessing communication utility because
recording provides an effective means of facilitating an
individual's desire to communicate.

The desire to communicate, as in using the VCR, is
central to an.individual's self-concepts .As stated.by Bandura
(1977a) , witnessing other behaviors will influence an observer
to engage in those behaviors. Explaining the social learning
theory, Bandura states that if the observed and modeled
behaviors are central to an individual's self-concept, then
the consequences associated with their display will affect the
person's self-efficiency (Bandura, 1977b). The key concepts
are modeling and social reinforcement which are essential in
the process of observation and imitative learning. When
applied to the VCR's social context use, positive consequences
for family, group cohesion, and individual self enhancement
could be outcomes.

Research on television generally projects the viewers'
immediate friends and family as important influences on how
television is used (Dutton, Rogers and Jun, 1987, p. 233).

Similarly, transmission and sharing of information, along

with values and norms, could be fostered through watching VCR

16
programs central to the individual's group self-concept. This
thinking is supported by Roe's (1983a), finding that
adolescents are known to use VCRs for specific purposes such
as the reinforcement of peer-group autonomy and display of

disapprobation with adult authority.

Mass Media and Development

Consequently, developments in the mass media have always
been of interest to Extension Service practitioners. Mass
media has been an important tool for Cooperative Extension
Service agents. Until recently it was believed to be the
magic transformer of societies, Lerner (1958): Schramm (1964) :
Rogers and Shoemaker (1971) : Rogers (1976) : and Rogers (1983) .

Over the years, researchers have found that other.
variables, especially the socioeconomic structure, have
equally important roles to play in agricultural development,
Frey (1952): Bordenave (1972): Beltran (1974): and Rogers
(1976). Another such researcher and rural worker, Uma Lele
(1975), identified the agricultural Extension Service as one
of the key factors in improving productivity and income of
farmers. Accomplishing these ends necessitates having access
to information through an Extension Service agent and other
available supplementary sources. However, agents are often in
short supply. As Lele indicates, ”Extension Service agents
are in such a short supply that only a fraction of farmers can
be reached. With mass media, some information could get to a

much larger proportion of the target population."

17

Other researchers (Horniks, 1988; Randall, 1981) seem to
endorse the substituting for or enhancement of Extension
Service agents by the use of mass media. The expanded use of
mass media could lead to reducing costs and saving time,
(Randall, 1981) , reaching more distant clientele and impacting
more.heterogenous clientele. Extensive studies have been done
on.mass media as a tool of development, especially in.areas of
social and economic development. Among the existing arms of
mass media, radio and television have proved to have been the
most extensively used media for instructional purposes.

Such studies have shown that radio has been the most
extensive and globally used medium for instructional purposes.
A comprehensive study commissioned by the World Bank shows
radio as a pivot of many national development efforts. Four
major areas of use were identified: ( 1) self enrichment
through learning: (2) direct instruction: (3) extending
in-school education: and (4) assisting distance learning. The
study also showed extensive increase in the use of radio in
national mobilization for development (Jamison and McAnany,
1978, p. 29).

But of all the arms of mass media, television appears to
have drawn highest research attention. Dubin and Headley
(1969), compiled 381 case studies on television as an
instructional medium in a follow-up comparison to an earlier
study by Schramm and Chu (1966).

In their study, Schramm and Chu examined 421 cases of

instructional television projects to determine if there were

18

differences in favor of television to classroom instruction.
Their findings showed no significant differences. Other
studies have followed since then without any significant
difference from Schramm and Chu's (1966) findings, Wells
(1977) and Adams (1982). As Wells (1976) aptly noted: "While
students learn from any medium, they learn more when the
programs are carefully-planned according to principles of good
teaching”.

Today the instructional use of television, particularly
for cognitive and affective learning, has developed into a
permanent feature of most big cities' higher education
establishment (Purdy, 1983). Unlike the earlier days of
television when classroom use of television was the focus,
narrowcasting of educational program is now becoming the norm.
For example a study by Munshi (1980) , showed that most
universities have established instructional television or
telecourses to boost enrollment and reach disadvantaged
students. This is similar to the British's Open Air University
and the United Nations University of the Air. Perhaps, the
most developed is that of China which has been described as
the largest distance education in the world McCormick, (1986) .
At these institutions, students receive lectures and
instructions through.direct broadcast or narrow cablecasting,
but come to the institutions for laboratory sessions and
examinations. Rogers and Picot (1985) reported on two projects
utilizing instructional telecasting principles to boost

agricultural development.

19

The Green Thumb project (Extele) sponsored by the U.S.
government and.conducted.by Stanford University, is providing
Extension Service information at a distance to participating
farmers in two counties of Kentucky (Rogers and Picot, 1985).
The other is the Oklahoma State University instructional
satellite project funded by the Kellogg Foundation to provide
extension service information nationwide (Halm, 1988) . So far
these two projects are in their initial stages and therefore

it is too early to have objective data on their achievements.

Historical Development of VCR

SONY Corporation first started recording moving images on
magnetic tapes back in 1953. Not even when the United States
based company, Ampex Corporation, became the first to begin
developing and marketing 'video recording equipment with
greater fidelity than film, was research interest shown in
video. Nor was there any change in attitude by researchers
fourteen years later, when the first low-cost black and white
compacts, fore-runners of what we have today, became available
in 1967 from SONY of Japan (Beninger, 1982).

SONY, with this compact version, placed the
do-it-yourself TV into the hands of consumers. There was no
halting of the inevitable as the concept.of personal TV struck
immediate responsive note in many people, and the concept of
decentralization of media, finally seemed to have become a

reality (Beninger, 1982).

20

Gradually, video systems began to find more uses in
schools, cable TV stations, hospitals, businesses and homes.
The following years saw considerable improvement in video
systems. The technology gradually moved from a heavy, black
and white recording system to sophisticated color recording
and editing system, giving excellent reproductions of all
sights and sounds of- real life at a relatively low price
(Communication Research Trends, 1985).

Despite its attractiveness, the VCR.did not receive much
research attention. According to Levy (1980) , the VCR has been
credited with opening a new and uncharted era in broadcasting
and communication. Despite arriving on the consumer market
with other novel innovations, such as cable TV, video disk,
direct satellite TV, teletext, and digital information
systems, it has achieved the highest level of penetration of
United States households, Levy (1987), Greenberg and Heeter
(1987, p. 509): Greenberg (1988).

Despite the remarkable break-through into consumer
markets, the VCR has drawn little or no scholarly attention.
Levy (1980) and.Agostino, et al. (1980) undertook.thetearliest
known studies. Agostino, et al. (1980, p.35), concluded that
the VCR’ was only a glorified extension of television
broadcasting and was in no way a threat to television itself.
Levy ( 1980) , after a similar investigation, was more cautious.
He agreed that the number of viewers lost to‘VCR.was small, as
VCR ownership was then minimal. However, he credited VCR with

making it possible for VCR owners to record and watch TV

21

programs at more convenient time, time shifting. He also
reported that the time-shifting capability of the VCR enabled
it to be used as a complement to TV viewing. The time-shifting
capability of the VCR make it possible for many viewers to
stay close to current program offerings and thereby extending
television program viewership. In a subsequent study Roe
(1987, p.522), stated that the combined effects of the
capability of time-shifting and the market for pre-recorded
cassettes led to VCR being heralded as the vanguard of the age
of selective media use and narrowcasting. From these studies
emerged the conclusion that time-shifting was a product of
greater viewer activity, involvement, control, and choice.

Further examining time-shifting in VCR usage, Levy and
Fink (1984) noted that time-shifting has important theoretical
implications for the transience of TV broadcasts, as it allows
TV to be defined by audiences. This activity, they argued, is
similar to other stored media activities such as books and
magazines. Following this argument was the study by Rubin and
Bantz (1987, p. 483) , which went a step further to equate VCRs
to mass media. They argued that the goal-directed nature of
VCR users, in terms of their behavioral pattern of
time-shifting, is one dimension of audience activity. As an
audience, VCR users make decisions based on the perceived
utility of those choices.

Also, they said that the use of VCR provides further
evidence of individual differences in media consumers who are

more active than it was believed in more direct inquiries. The

22
point here is that VCR users were found to be more motivated
and intentional in their behavior, selecting what content to
tape or rent and when to view it.

Another aspect of the study was the finding on inter-
personal communicators. Rubin and Bantz ( 1987, p. 482)
reported that VCR provides active interpersonal (e.g. , social
entertainment, sharing of taped content, being with children)
and mass communication links (e.g., off-air taping, movie
renting). Going further, they argued that a motive such as
time-shifting illustrates the ability to meet mass and
interpersonal communication wants and desires. With VCR
utility paralleling some of the uses of interpersonal
communication, Rubin and Rubin (1985) concluded that uses and
gratifications theory is a communication perspective not
limited to mass communication.

Recently Rubin and Bantz ( 1987) compared the uses of
television to VCR. They found many similarities in the uses of
the two. Motives for television viewing were stated to
primarily include: surveillance or information seeking:
diversion or seeking exciting entertainment: social utility or
seeking interpersonal connection with others: and a habit of
viewing to relieve boredom or fill time. On the other hand,
even though the motives to use VCR are similar to those
already mentioned for television, motives for using VCR have
been found to be more goal-directed (Rubin, 1986, p. 294) . VCR
use reflects intentional selection of preferred types of

programs and are more instrumental than ritualistic components

23

to VCR use. As Levy (1980a, 1981), observed, VCRs make tele-
vision watching more convenient, that the primary use of VCR
for time-shifting may augment the size of the viewing
audience, and that early adopters used VCRs to complement and
not to replace regular viewing patterns. In a follow-up study
(Levy, 1980b) found. that. VCR. households exhibit "strong
patterns of program preference" and that VCR users specialize
in the type of program they choose to record and most
recently, concluded that VCR users were an active audience.

From the Rubin and Bantz (1987), study and other studies
already cited, there is a local focus for assessing the com-
munication utility provided by VCRs. By providing the
individual with an effective means of facilitating the desire
to communicate in our limited set of alternatives, the VCR
stands out as an important medium of its own genre. As Wang
(1986) puts it, "The VCR is a permissive medium that can be
used and managed in different ways, transmit different needs
and achieve different purposes". With the foregoing features,
the VCR could be a powerful instrument that could be used to
meet many needs of the extension service. The question at this
point is whether the clientele are ready to accept VCR
performing some of the functions hitherto performed by

Extension Service workers on a face-to-face basis.

Extension Clientele and VCR
Onelcardinal rule in clientele service is that the unique

characteristics of the clientele be kept in mind. The primary

24

reason why most people buy VCRs is to tape programs off the
air while they are not at home. As the VCR became multi-
functioned, such as the ability to record one program while
another is being watched because the VCR has a built-in timer,
separate from the tuner of the television set, and also
editing features that locate particular spots on the tape. The
VCR thus became an ideal tool for those interested in self
learning as they could obtain study programs and later watch
them at their convenience. With the introduction of cameras,
lenses and microphones of all configurations, VCR offered more
possibilities to meet a range of demands from entertainment
through instructional to informational programming.

As stated in the theoretical framework, the uses and
gratification approach takes the media consumer rather than
the content (message) as the starting point and explores
communication behavior in terms of the direct experience with
the media. It views the members of the audience as actively
utilizing media content, rather being passively acted upon by
the media (Katz, Blumler, and Gurevitch, 1974). It is this
quality of the individual actively utilizing media content
that makes the VCR the ideal tool for the individual learner.
With the VCR, the individual differences in learning ability
and styles are well accommodated. Besides, the VCR offers the
individual the choice of packaging lessons to fit with
individual taste. For example, an extension clientele with a
mini video camera may decide to shoot his own copy of a field

demonstration, rather than pick up the Extension Service

25

version that might emanate from such a demonstration. With
many Cooperative Extension Service offices already whetting
their clientele appetite with trial runs of extension video as
recently reported.by Bay'Ovid (1986), full scale production.of
video is likely to be well received by clientele. Furthermore,
a multiplier effect is likely to emerge. The fact that
extension videos are available are in themselves incentives
for those with VCR to increase their program utilization as
they could always obtain a video copy of programs they were
not able to attend. There is also the possibility for many
clientele to support on-farm learning by family or farm
helpers learning in a number of significant ways.

Communication research is replete with studies showing
mass media to be very effective in creating awareness. While
face-to-face individual contact methods, such as farm visits
and office calls that. allow for' personal attention. and
interpersonal network relationships to develop, are suitable
for more complex problems (Rogers, 1983: Rogers and Rancid,
1981) , there are possibilities that similar interpersonal
network relationship could.develop from mutual video exchange
among those engaged in similar agricultural production.

The question is, with VCR can such group activity be
easily and effectively handled without the conflict in
scheduling? Even then, the question of effectiveness in
attaining set objectives will have to be addressed as well as
the cost effectiveness of the program. All these questions

will have to be addressed by further investigations. While a

26

centrally produced tape, even at the high professional cost,
could be much less expensive in teaching the same skill than
a group demonstration tour would have done, it may not be
adequate in addressing individual needs within the group, Levy
and Windahl (1984, 1985), Gunter and Levy, (1987). On the
other hand, centrally produced video tapes could be used in
supplementing such group training. Just as corporate video, a
terminology for staff training programs on video tapes, has
become the norm with many organizations (Greenberg, 1988),
videotape could be used in imparting skill and knowledge often
taught at demonstration sites. Similarly, other clientele
needs could be taped and dispatched to subject specialists to
study and respond accordingly (Randall (1981). Other areas of
traditional high interest subjects such as food canning, lawn
care, nutrition and other popular subjects could be taped and
distributed through existing video shops, county offices, and
other available channels (Fedale, 1988).

As pointed out in the literature review, the VCR is its
own television programmer, since it makes it possible for one
to pick and choose from available messages, what to watch and
when to watch it, Levy (1987, p. 468). That is one quality
the Extension Service must not fail to consider and utilize.

With adults as the major target population of the
Extension Service clientele, sensitivity to adult needs in a
learning activity is critical. Adult learners need to feel
they are in charge of their own learning (Knowles, 1975).

Therefore, they focus more on self-directed learning in their

27
own privacy and at their own time. With VCR offering the
learners considerable control over the learning activity,
learners' interests are further aroused with the realization
that they are in control of their own learning activities
(Tough, 1967, 1978).

As Levy (1987, p. 467) puts it, "The VCR user is an
active consumer, who decides what program, when and.with whom
to watch." With the VCR's versatility and ease of operation,
it becomes the deal tool for the self-directed learner, opting
for privacy in the non-intimidating privacy of his or her
home. Take for example VCR's capability to freeze,
fast-forward, and frame-by-frame replay of key areas. The VCR
therefore, stands out as a viable tool to be considered when
assisting adults in meeting special needs and gaining skills
and knowledge, (Zuber-Skerrit and Kogain Pag,e 1984): Gunter
and Levy, 1987: Rubin and Bantz, 1987: Brookfield, 1986).

As Randall (1981) points out, the VCR has already entered
the picture in disseminating information to farmers. The
nation-wide experimentation by a some Cooperative Extension
Service, particularly Idaho, Oregon and Nebraska strongly
supports the suggestion that the VCR stands to provide a
viable {alternative for extension information and education
delivery.

Besides the advantages of supplementing Extension Service
delivery efforts, the potential use of VCR in the delivery of
educational programs to new clientele, makes for urgent

consideration of options such as the VCR. Other advantages

28
such as lower budgets, less travelling time, thereby providing
more time for extension staff to attend to other equally
important matters are more of the reasons VCR should be given

a serious consideration.

Summary

This review of literature started with an overview of
the development of the VCR and how it has been meeting various
needs of its users including: a) shifting programs to a more
convenient time for viewing: b) increasing viewing
opportunities by allowing recording on one channel while
viewing another: c) providing an alternative to theater
attendance as movies can be rented and watched at home, or
directly recorded and watched later: d) controlling viewing
content for children: e) controlling the content of what they
watch by fast-forwarding past commercials when watching
programs (i.e. zipping) or pausing their recorders when taping
(i.e. zapping). '

The purpose of the study was to examine the use of VCR
by Cooperative Extension Service clientele, with a view to
determining if video cassette recorder (VCR) can replace some
aspects [of the current instructional and educational
information delivery methods. Since the Extension Service has
to compete with others for the clientele's time, utilizing the
potentials of VCRs, particularly since they are home appli-

ances, might give the Extension Service the opportunity to

29
provide educational materials directly to its clientele for
use in the privacy of their homes.

Few studies have been done on this evolving technology
as a subject even among communication professionals. The
theoretical framework was based on the uses and gratifications
theory postulated by Blumler (1974) . The theory considered the
use of media as the gratification of human needs and motives.
Other researchers have since then provided support of the
theory with argument that cognitive motivations appear to lead
to active news and information.program viewing (Rubin (1981b,
1983, Rubin and Rubin 1982b).

Recently, Levy and. Windhal (1985) provided similar
support and specifically argued that VCR provides a logical
focus for assessing communication utility buy facilitating
individuals' desire to communicate. VCR users were similarly
described as active information seekers, desiring to select
what program and content to utilize and at what time (Rubin
and Bantz, 1987: Levy, 1987). The above description of the
uses and motives of VCR users holds great promises for the

“Extension Service survival in this era of dwindling budget.

CHAPTER III

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Selection of Method

Since the purpose of this study was to examine the impact
of the VCR in the changing information environment with regard
to the traditional mass media usage pattern, an exploratory
study was selected as the appropriate design to adopt.
Therefore, this descriptive study is aimed at documenting
current conditions and attitudes of clientele of the Extension
Service on the use of VCRs and provide reasons for the
conditions and attitude as they relate to the adoption of VCR
for Extension Service program delivery. Also, the
relationships found among the variables will be used in
drawing explanatory inferences.

According to Isaac and Michael (1975, p.6) descriptive
research aims at describing systematically a situation or area
of interest factually and accurately. Going a step further,
Winner and Dominick (1987, p. 102), note that descriptive
research describes what exists at the moment without any
attempt to explain or make predictions from the result.
Comparing that with analytical research, Isaac and Michael
(1975) posit that analytical research describes and explains

why the situation exists. The significant point from the

30

31
comparison is that analytical results allow researchers to
examine relationships among variables and draw explanatory
inferences.

Based on the foregoing, it was appropriate that this
study be both descriptive and analytical, to provide adequate
information for better understanding of the problems posed by
the study. This was in line with Babbie's (1983)
recommendation, which states that survey research is probably
the best method available to the social scientist interested
in collecting original data for describing a population too
large to be observed directly. Babbie (1983, p.209), further
stated that surveys are excellent vehicles for measuring
attitudes and orientations in a large population. He described
measurements as a "careful, deliberate observation of the real
world, for the purpose of describing objects and events in
terms of the attributes comprising a variable", (p. 101).

But other social scientists, such as Sudman and Bradburn
(1986) caution on how the observations and definitions are
made. They argued that the terms, attitude, opinion, and
belief, all refer to psychological states that are in
principle unverifiable, except for self report. One way to
avoid the problem posed by individual self-report is to ensure
that attitudinal objects are clearly specified, as well as a
clear indication of and the critical aspects of the attitude
to be measured, such as the affective, cognitive, and action.
The advantage of this approach is that it helps to minimize

ambiguity and also ensures respondents answer what they are

32

supposed to answer. Thus in drawing up a questionnaire, an
intensity of attitude scale may be built into the response
categories. But how does one precisely know that attitude is
being measured? A further exploration of available research is
desireable at this point.

According to Babbie ( 1983, p.380) measuring the intensity
and the direction of an attitude provides a reasonably good

measure of the variable under consideration.

Selection of Site

Since this study was exploratory, the following factors
were used in selecting Washtenaw County Cooperative Extension
Service as the site of the study:

1) availability of the four major program areas of
Cooperative Extension Service consisting of
Agriculture and Marketing, Natural Resources and

Public Policy, 4-H Youth programs and Home
Economics:

2) proximity to Michigan State University:

3) location within an agro-industrial area:-

4) proximity to research facilities.

Like most other counties in the state, Washtenaw County
has all the four program areas of Agriculture and Marketing,
Natural Resources and Public Policy, 4-H Youth programs and
Home Economics. It is near to Michigan State University where
the researcher was based. The county to a large extent

reflects the heterogeneity of the state's rich occupational

33
variety with its location in mid Michigan's agro-industrial
zone. The County is located within the vicinity of threemajor
universities with research facilities (Michigan State
University, University of Michigan and Eastern .Michigan
University), thus placing its residents in a position to be
familiar with dealing with survey questionnaires.

Washtenaw County is located in the southeastern portion
of the lower peninsula of Michigan. Approximately 64 miles
from Lansing, the state Capital, and about 43 miles west of
downtown Detroit, and about the same distance north of Toledo,
Ohio, placing the county in the industrial and commercial
center of the state. Part of the rationale for this decision
was to see if such a strategic location had any significant
effect on Extension Service clientele use of services.

According to the U38. Census Bureau (1980), Washtenaw
County had a population of 264,748 of which 70.7% was urban
and 29.3% rural. The population distribution compares well
with that of the state at 9,262,078 with 70.7% urban.and 29.3%
rural (Garwood, 1986). The population was spread within 20
townships, 4 cities, and 4 villages (Washtenaw County
Metropolitan Planning Commission, 1985) . Since no other county
is similarly strategically located, Washtenaw County appeared

most suitable for the study and was therefore selected.

Population
The aim of scientific research is to describe the nature

of a population, that is a group or class, subject variables,

34

concepts, or phenomena (Winner and Dominick, 1987) .
Identification of the population is therefore critical in the
research process. According to Rossi (1983), there are two
aspects to describing a population: the target population and
the survey population. The target population is the collection
of elements that the researcher'would like to study; While the
survey population is the population that is actually sampled
and for which data may be obtained. Babbie, (1983, p.146),
defined the target population as meaning, "all the members of
a real or theoretical and hypothetical set of people to which
we wish to generalize the results of our research". Similarly
he defined survey population as the aggregation of elements
from which the survey sample is actually selected (Babbie,
1983, p. 147).

For this study, the population was the entire agricultural
clientele of the Cooperative Extension Service in the United
States of America at the county level. However, it was beyond
the scope of this study to cover the total target population
in terms of time and resources that would have been involved.
On the other hand, selecting the survey population from the
target population, provided for a manageable scope of the
study. I

To determine the survey population, permission. was
obtained from the Cooperative Extension Office in Washtenaw
County for the study to be conducted in the county with its
clientele. Based on the choice of working with those involved

with the agricultural programs of the county, selection of the

35
survey population was limited to those on the official mailing
lists of agricultural and horticultural programs. Only those
names on the mailing list of the agricultural and
horticultural programs were used in selecting the sampling

frame .

Sample

Babbie (1983, p.142) defined sampling as, "selecting a
given number of subjects from a defined population". But
adequacy of any sample depends on the details of the analysis.
Similar recommendation for survey research by Sudman (1976:
p.2) , stated that there be at least 100 subjects in each sub-
group and 20 to 50 in each minor sub-group whose responses are
to be analyzed. According to Rossi (1983), a general rule is
that the sample should be large enough, so that there are 100
or more units in each category of the major breakdowns and a
minimum of 20-50 in the minor breakdowns. This was more than
met by the sample size of 230 used for the study (Cochran,
1977). ‘

Also recommended was the need for a sample to be repre-
sentative through random selection from the target population.
According to Borg and Gall (1983, p.244), a random sample
provides for each individual in a defined population to have
equal chance of being selected. Beyond this basic principle of
representativeness, Babbie (1983) cautions for the realization
that samples are seldom if ever ”perfectly" representative of

the populations from which they are drawn. However, he

36
acknowledged that probability sampling offers two special
advantages. First, that they are typically more representative
than other types of sampling and therefore biases are avoided.
Secondly, that probability theory permits us to estimate the
accuracy or representativeness of the sample (p. 165).

Again, because of the exploratory nature of this study
and the limited resources, the sample was limited to those
names on the selected mailing list for the Agriculture and
Marketing programs of the Washtenaw County Cooperative
Extension Service. Therefore the official list of all current
clientele in the Agricultural and.Marketing programs was used
in selecting the sample for this study.

Because the sample was from two sub-groups of the survey
population, that is, those whose names were listed with the
agricultural and horticultural programs, with the later
consisting' of 'vegetable farmers and fruit tree farmers,
stratification proportional to size random sampling was used
in selecting the sample to ensure proportional representation
of the three sub-populations. Sample size was determined by
using the formula (n8 Sz/azd2 + Sz/N) Cochran, 1977)1 and using
a Table of Random Numbers (Babbie, 1983: pp. 496-497), 187
names were randomly drawn from a list of 741 names for the
agricultural program. Following similar procedure, 31 names
were drawn from a list of 116 names of the vegetable growers
and 12 names were drawn from.a list of 48 names of fruit trees
1N s population size a a 0.05

n - sample size dz =- bound of error
82 a population variance

37
growers representing the horticultural program. Together,
these three sub-samples gave a total of 230 subjects used for

the study.

Measurement Procedure

Measurement for the study was by a simple method of
assigning numerals to the various objects or properties that
were used in the study for constructing the measuring scales.
Since the study focused on attitudinal changes, established
scales became handy. Thus a number of scales often used in
mass communication and related research were used. According
to Winner and Dominick (1987, p.58), the Likert scale is the
most commonly used in mass media researches, because it allows
for the weighing of each subject's responses. Subsequently,
these can be added to produce a single score on the topic.
Likert scales consist of a number of statements in respect to
a topic, to which respondents could strongly agree, agree, be
neutral, disagree or strongly disagree. I

Likert scales are very popular with social researchers
because of their relative ease of construction, the simplicity
of response and the fact that otherwise unmotivated subjects
can respond in little time.

Attitudinal measurement procedures used are discussed
under instrumentation. To produce a Likert-type attitudinal
scale, a large number of statements reflecting the three
components of attitudes, i.e.: belief, emotional, and action

were prepared and subjected to an editorial review. These were

38
later administered to a number of individuals for reactions.
The reactions were subsequently analyzed to establish sets of
discriminators to establish sub scales. These sub scales were
further checked by individual judges for validity and followed
by a pro-testing procedure.

Oppenheim (1966) describes several principles of
measurement which should be followed in the construction and
evaluation of an attitude instrument. Some of these prin-
ciples include: (1) unidimensionality, (2) linearity, ( 3)
reliability, and (4) validity. Unidimensionality and linearity
are explained below, while reliability and validity will be

discussed after instrumentation.

Win

An attitude scale is uni-dimensional if it measures a
single attitude. If items meeting this criterion are assumed
homogeneous and refer to only one underlying construct, then
a person's attitude score should reflect only the person's
position on a given attitude score continuum. The extensive
tests and reviews of the instrument was in part to meet the

unidimensionality criterion as much as possible.

Linearitx

This assumes the nature of attitude as straight lines,
running from positive, through neutral, to negative feelings

about the object or topic in question. This concept was put

39
into consideration in standardization of the scale to five

categories.

Instrumentation

A self-administered mail questionnaire was used for the
data collection. The questionnaire's format was particularly
written to motivate respondents by using clear instructions
and questions that were likely to interest them. This is
similar to the total design method as recommended by Dillman
(1978).

Accordingly, good quality white paper of 8 1/2" by 11"
was used for the eight page questionnaire. Embossed on the
cover was a sketch of a VCR, which was superimposed on the
Washtenaw County map. This embellishment was to enhance the
professional image as well as encourage completion. Copies of
all materials used for the questionnaire are provided in
appendix A.

Furthermore, the questions were formatted to create a
positive impression and immediate communication of the
survey's subject. Each set of questions was preceded by
instructions and transitional cues between the major parts.

A five-point Likert scale was used with a set of
statements describinig the various aspects of the research
questions. The instrument consisted of four parts as follows:

Part I of the questionnaire was aimed at eliciting a
current media usage pattern in view of recent innovations in

home entertainment and communication appliances.

40

Part II consisted of statements and questions that sought
media attitudinal differences in terms of usage as a result of
access to VCRs.

Part III featured a set of statements with multiple
choice format, aimed at obtaining opinions about the accep-
tance of video-packaged programming as an option to the tradi-
tional face-to-face -extension service delivery methods.

Part IV further sought motivational , and demographic
information, that ‘might have encouraged preferences for
videotaped programming to the traditional extension service
delivery methods. Although the overall questionnaire structure
was close-ended, ample space was provided at the end for addi-

tional comments by respondents.

Pre-Test

Before the final printing of the questionnaire, the
questionnaire items had a three-stage pretest by three
separate populations. First, a number of persons drawn from
the survey population (not part of the sample), were asked to
complete the questionnaire. Second, professional social
scientists and faculty members in social studies were
similarly asked to complete and evaluate the questionnaire.
The result of the evaluation aided the construction of the
validity test of the attitude scale, using factor analysis.
Finally, a group of potential users, from the Cooperative
Extension Service, faculty members and students from the

College of Education and the Department of Agricultural

41
Extension and Education, Michigan State University, reviewed
the instrument to ensure representativeness of the items on
the instrument as they relate to the entire domain being
measured.

The final stage of the pre-test 'was the ‘visit to
Washtenaw County for a final review of the instrument with the
County Extension Service Director and his staff. Prior to this
the County Extension Service Director had reviewed the
questionnaire with the county extension agents after
administering the sample questionnaire to some of the farmers
outside the study's sample. Also, a number of farmers in
Ingham County received sample questionnaires for completion.
Two reasons were behind this decision. One was to serve for
comparison with those administered in Washtenaw County, the
other was to broaden the test. Of the 27 questionnaires
distributed in the pre-test, 25 were returned, (93% response
rate).

Based on the comments and suggestions by respondents and
the county staff, particularly the feedback received from.the
trial run of the instrument by the County Extension Service
Director, a significant reduction was again made in the number
of the questions. This time nine questions were eliminated to
reduce the questionnaire to 43 questions. Further
improvements were made to make the questionnaire more readable
and easier’ to complete. After' a through review’ of the
instrument with the County Director and his staff, further

pre-testing was deemed unnecessary.

42

Finally, copies of the questionnaire and a cover letter
were submitted to the University Committee on Research
Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS). The questionnaire and its
accompanying letters were all approved in a letter addressed
to the chairperson of the dissertation committee. Copies of
the questionnaire and the cover letters are shown as appendix
B. Also a copy of the letter of approval from the University
Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRICHS) is

provided in Appendix C.

291191;!

Essentially, this means ensuring that the relationship
between concept and indicator is as close as intended. For an
attitude instrument to be valid, the instrument must measure
what it is supposed to measure rather than reflecting some
other phenomenon.

Validity is extremely difficult to access. Quite often
the different operational definitions have produced rather
different estimates of the variable (Chadwick, Bahr, and
Albrecht, 1984) . In tackling the validity aspects of the
instrument, a combination of the use of a panel of judges and

a pro-testing procedure was adopted as presented above.

43
E 1' I'll!

This refers to the extent to which an attitude scale
yields the same results in repeated tests. The more
consistent the results of a given measurement, the higher the
reliability of the measuring procedure. A combination of the
use of panel of judges, the pre-test, and the use of
Spearman-Brown split-half reliability measurements for parts
II and III of the questionnaires ensured the reliability of
the instrument. The split-half method is recommended whenever
a multi-item.test is administered. According to Murphy, K. R.
and Davidshofer (1988) , this has a number of advantages. First
it avoids many of the theoretical and practical problems
inherent in test-retest and alternate forms or methods. Thus
allowing reliability to be estimated without administering two
different tests and alternate forms methods. This also elimin-
ates carry-over and reactivity effects.

Therefore to determine the internal consistency, split-
half correlation with application of the Spearman-Brown
correlation was used. With random numbers, the questions were
divided into two groups and the formula applied to obtain
correlations of .67 for questions in part II and .63 for
questions in part III. 4

Finally, a post-hoe split-half correlation showed
improved correlation of .74 for questions in part I and .69
for questions in part III, as shown in Table 1. These results

were more than adequate. Further tests for reliability, such

44
as the traditional Chronbach's Alpha reliability test, were

deemed redundant. Thus no further tests were made.

 

Table 1
9:.4n=;-: own . ,t-H. j o e at?-. Re 5-b' it S-Afl"l
Part Type of Questions Pre-Test Post-Hoc
I Media Attitude * *
II Ext. Prog. Attitude .67 .74
III Perceived Advantages .63 .69
IV Demographic Attributes * *

 

* - Not measured on Pre-test

Collecting Data

Dillman's (1978) recommendation for the total design
method in survey design, distribution and collection of the
questionnaires was followed and personalized as much as
possible. The name, address and selected demographic
information for every member of the sample was entered into a
microcomputer data base file. Thus each time the person was
addressed, such as in cover and follow-up letters, the name
and proper salutation were individualized. This information
was printed directly onto the letters and envelopes.

On each of the questionnaires was an identification
number for each mailed package, without the respondent's name
so as to keep track on its return. To further enhance the
personalization strategy, the cover letter was signed by the
Chairperson of Agricultural and Extension Education

Department, the County Extension Service Director of the

45

Washtenaw Cooperative Extension Service and the researcher.
Subsequent follow-up mailings were stamped with the County
Director's name and signed.by the researcher. Thus, as much.as
possible, the materials were packaged to facilitate each
respondent's task of completing and returning the ques-
tionnaire. A cover letter introducing the questionnaire and
explaining the purposes of the study, assured respondents of
the confidentiality of their opinions, and their option not to
participate if they should so desire. The respondents were
directed to return the questionnaires to the County Extension
Service Director whose address was on the stamped return
envelope. The questionnaire and the cover letter along with a
stamped and addressed envelope for the return of the ques-
tionnaire, were then sent to each of the respondents on the
24th of September, 1988. By the third week 89, about 35%,
completed questionnaires had been returned to the County
Extension Director's office and sent to the researcher in a
batch by mail.

Each of the completed questionnaires was checked for
proper completion and logged into the computer data file. This
procedure was followed each time the returns were received
from the Washtenaw'office which served.as the field office for
the study.

Based on the report from the Washtenaw County Office and
observation of the comments that accompanied the returned
questionnaire, further cleaning of the sampling frame was made

as a number of those included in the sample had either moved,

46
passed away, or were no longer in business with the
Cooperative:Extension.Office. Fifteen questionnaires returned
as undeliverable were replaced by further sampling from the
established sampling frame. A summary of the questionnaire

returns is provided by Table 2.
Based on the numbering on the questionnaires, the first
follow-up package was sent to those whose questionnaires were
not received. The package included a reminder with another

questionnaire and stamped return envelope addressed to the

 

 

 

Table 2
'. uuuee 0' 2‘ 011‘, 0 1 — x- 1‘ DEV 00 0
W
8W
.83.. 8211.. Total J
Survey population 741 1649 905 100
Sample population 186 44 230 100
Responses*:
First mailing 60 29 89 39
Second mailing 36 5. 41 18
Third mailing 8 2 10 4
Total, 104 36 140 61

 

*Replacements included.
9Combined questionnaires for vegetables and
fruits tree growers.

Note; Nonrespondents check for representativeness by
questionnaires telephone interview: response: Ag.7, Hort.3.

County Extension Service Director. Two subsequent mailings
were made before the cut-off time in mid-December, 1988. A
total of 140 usable questionnaires were received to give a 61%

response by the sample surveyed.

47

Processing Data
The 140 usable questionnaires were prepared for analysis
on a microcomputer using the Statistical Package for Social
Science, SPSS. The decision was made to use this package
because of the ability of the program to operate on a portable
microcomputer. This was used in constructing the code book as
guide in transforming the questionnaire responses into

numerical form for entry into the computer.

Analyzing Data

A trial run of the frequency count was made to check for
coding and entry errors. Corrections were made where
necessary. As a cross-check for accuracy, random checks were
made on the data entry. To analyze the data the basic
distributional characteristics were determined. Respondent
frequencies and measures of central tendencies (mean, median
and mode) and dispersion (variance, and standard deviation)
were computed for each respondent. Further descriptive
statistics were generated with the breakdown procedure which
provided a crosscheck of the frequency runs already generated.

A cross-tabulation of all the questions relating to media
usage paired with access to VCR was made in order to see the
relationship of the questions to access to VCR. For the
questions with Likert-type attitudinal scales, One-way
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) tests were used in deriving the

F-ratios so as to determine differences in media usage

48
pattern. A level of significance with an accompanying 95%
confidence level was utilized in assessing results of the

survey which is reported in the next chapter.

Control for Non-respondents

To determine whether there were differences between
respondents and non-respondents, a random sample of 15% of the
non-respondents was drawn and a telephone interview used to
Obtain evaluation data using the questionnaire as interview
schedule (Miller and Smith 1983: p. 45). Of the 20 names
drawn, five no longer had telephones, of the remaining 15,
only 10 provided usable information.

Demographic and attitudinal data obtained. were
statistically compared with data from the respondents. No
major differences between the non-respondents and the
respondents group were found. It was therefore concluded that
the data were similar and could be pooled and generalized to

the sample.

Summary
This chapter presented the methods and procedure used for
the study. Beginning with the explanation and the rationale
of the methodology used, it proceeded with the selection of
the study site and explained reasons for choosing Washtenaw
County, the sample selection process and the criteria for the

procedure. Following that was the explanation of how the

49
questionnaire was developed, its pre-testing, validation and
reliability procedures and the collection of data.

The data analysis was discussed, including steps taken to
ensure that non-respondents were no different from the
respondents.

Finally, the data analysis method used in obtaining the
results was discussed and followed by a comparison of data
from non-respondents with those of the respondents to ensure
there were no difference between the two groups. Materials
used for the instrument were provided as appendix A and those

used for non-respondents were provided as appendix B.

CHAPTER IV

STUDY FINDINGS

The purpose of this study was to determine the potential
of the VCR as one alternative for delivery of extension
services to the Cooperative Extension Service clientele in a
changing information environment. Through the examination of
the current media usage, the study sought to determine if the
video cassette recorder (VCR) can replace some aspects of the
current instructional and educational information delivery
methods. The findings are presented according to the following
research categories:

(1) General description of the respondents

(2) Availability and usage of mass media and VCR

(3) Clienteles' perception of VCR for Extension Service

(4) Summary of findings.

General Description of Respondents .
Demographic information obtained from the respondents
included the following: gender, marital status, age range,
schooling level completed, occupation and family income range.
Eighty-seven percent of the respondents were male (Table 3),

ninety percent of were married (Table 3). Respondent's ages

50

51
ranged from 20 to 60, with a median range of 40 ~ 49 years.
Thirty five percent were "age 60 and above" (Table 3).

A majority of the respondents completed high school
(Table 3). About seventy percent had a high school diploma
and/or some college education. This indicates thatumost.of‘the
respondents were educated.

Sixty-four percent of the respondents were farmers, while
20% consisted of miscellaneous occupations and 17% were
unknown (Table 3).

The gross income distribution pattern showed a uniform
spread with the exception of the lowest-income category (6.4%
of the respondents). The modal income was $25,000: the median
$40,000: and the mean income of $40,464. About 10.5% of the
respondents made $51,000 or more annually (Table 3). Twenty-
four percent of the respondents were in the $31,000 - $50,000

range of income.

Table 3

 

 

 

Wt Perseus
Gender .111). 3
Male 122 87.1
Female 17 12.1
Unknown __1 .92Il
Totals 140 99.9
W .01). 1
Married 125 89.3
Single 9 6.4
Others 4 2.9
Unknown mug __1Ii

Total 140 100.0

52

Table 3 (Continued)

 

 

 

AQ§_BQDQ£ lnl. 1
20-29 4 2.9
30-39 21 15.0
40-49 41 29.3
50-59 24 17.1
60 and Above 49 35.0
Unknown __1 9,1
123:1 1&9 19919
Sehoeling_Lexel inl 1
8th grade or less 7 5.0
Some High School 8 5.8
High School Graduate 59 42.1
Some years in College 38 27.1
Bachelor 11 7.9
Graduate work 5 3.6
Master's and above 9 6.4
Others 2 1.4
Unknown .__1 9.2
Totali 140 100.0
stunstion lnl 1
Farmer 86 61.4
Manager 5 3.6
Proprietor 6 4.3
Office Worker 2 1.4
Police/Postal 1 0.7
Teacher/Educator 3 2.1
Professional/Tech. 9 6.4
Other 3 2.1
Unknown _25 11,2
IQLQI 140 99.9
Eamilx_lneeme_nange lnl 1
$10,000 or less 9 6.4
$11,000 - $20,000 24 17.1
$21,000 - $30,000 25 17.9
$31,000 - $40,000 17 12.1
$41,000 - $50,000 16 11.4
$51,000 - $60,000 15 10.7
$61,000 - $70,000 10 7.1
$71,000 and above _21 .1111
Tgsgl ' 140 99.8

 

a Rounded to the nearest tenth.

53
VCR Ownership and Mass Media Usage
e ' sh'

More than two-thirds of the respondents (68.8%) reported
owning a VCR. This was 16.8% higher than the reported national
penetration of 52% (TV Digest, 1988; Greenberg 1988). One or
more color television sets were available in 99.5% of the
households surveyed. Radio and newspapers were available to
everyone. Figure 1 summarizes media ownership of the respon-

dents.

Z of respondents

 

100

an . ........ ' ........

 

 

COMITV Baw 1v Rid” anneufum Pun VCR

Figure 1. Media Ownership

54
Media Usage Pattern

The total number of hours per week spent on television,
radio and newspaper/magazines by respondents are summarized in
Table 4a. Radio was the most used medium, averaging 16.27
listening hours per week. Television.was next with 13.7 hours
per week, and newspapers/magazines placed third (7.07 hours
per week).

Using ANOVA, further analysis of the means of the hours
spent on each of the media (television, radio and newspapers)
showed statistical relationship at p < 0.01 (Table 4b) ,
indicating substantial use of television, radio and newspapers

by respondents.

 

 

Table 4a
W
Media Category n Mean

TV 138 13.7045*
Radio 137 l6.2727*
Newspapers/

Magazines 136 7.0714*

 

*Means differ significantly at p=0.01

 

 

Table 4b

:s01: 19. 9‘2,-. 71'; 9' W‘~:t .- 17.90103!
Source of Sum of Mean F F
Variation Squares D.f. Squares Ratio Prob
Between Groups 6150.63 2 3075.32 1924.4 0.01**
Within Groups 648.80 406 1.60

Total 13099.45 408

 

** Highly significant: p a 0.01

55

Television Usage Pattern
Television usage among respondents was examined in terms
of frequency of television program types viewed per week
(Table 5a) . News programs were the most watched (96.2%) ,
followed by Films and Movies (76.2%). Childrens' were the

least watched programs (13.1%).

 

 

Table 5a
. -’ . . V ! e p ee n '0 '3 ”L
es e

Program Category (n = 130) % Respondents
News 125 96.2
Films/Movies 99 76.2
Sports 88 67.7
Documentaries 76 58.5
Talks 70 50.4
Drama 40 28.8
Musicals 35 26.9
Childrens' 17 13.1

 

A breakdown of the programs usage was computed for both
those owning VCR and those who do not own‘VCR to determine if
there were differences in.program usage patterns. The results
show that those with and without VCRs watched each category of
program in about the same proportion. For example, 70.8% of
those with VCR watched drama programs, while 63.6% of those
without VCR also watched drama programs. Chi-square analysis
showed no significant statistical relationship at p= 0.05

(Table 5b).

56

 

 

 

Table 5b
:“9 a or 0‘ &_ ' -- ti! ’W“7‘9 . 2 9: Eau'x ft 9
% Viewing Programs
Program Category VCR No VCR
n=96 n=44 x2 P
Dramas 70.8 63.6 0.43 .50-.75
Films/Mo 70.8. 52.3 3.79 .05-.10
News 89.6 86.4 0.07 .75-.90
Sports 62.5 65.9 0.04 .75-.90
Musicals 25.0 15.9 0.97 .75-.90
L/Talks 50.0 40.9 0.67 .25-.50
Children 12.5 2.3 2.63 .10-.25
Documentaries 54.2 36.4 3.15 .05-.10

 

d.f. - 1: *category significant at p < 0.05

Radio Usage Pattern
Weekly radio programs listenership (Table 6a) was
computed for the entire respondents. News programs were most
frequently listened to (92.1%), Sports ranked second (61.4%),
followed by Musical (50.7%).

57

 

 

Table 6a

'; -! ._e' e x e e eLe' u _ Q- _, e e 1 e
Respondents

Program Category (n s 140) % Respondents
News 129 92.1
Sports 86 61.4
Musicals 71 50.7
Talks . 63 45.0
Features 23 16.4
Document 19 13.6
Children 3 2.1

 

Analyzing of radio programs listening frequency data
showed similarity in pattern with television viewership (Table
6b). News programs again, were the most listened to by both
VCR owners and non VCR owners. While 92.7% of those with VCR
listened to News program, about 96% of those without VCR also
listened to News. Similarly, Sports program showed about the
same proportion of listeners for both VCR owners and non-
owners. The same trend was reported for all the programs,
including children's program which was the least listened to
of all the programs, with (VCR owners 12.5%: and 2.3% non-VCR

owners:).

58

 

 

Table 6b
§::. '- o, e ; e e - .. .. - , s, e , e g , e .
YER
% Viewing Programs

Program VCR No VCR x2 P

Il== 96 11 = 44
News 92.7 95.5 0.06 0.75-.90
Drama 5.2 2.3 012 0.50-.75
Features 16.7 18.2 0.00 1.00
Musicals 51.0 45.5 0.17 0.50—.75
Sports 61.5 59.1 0.01 0.90-.95
Talk 44.8 22.7 5.34* 0.01-.025
Childrens' 12.5 2.3 0.04 0.75-.90
Document 13 .5 15. 9 0.01 0.90_ .95

 

d.f. = 1: *category significant at p = 0.1 <p <.025

Further analysis was made to determine if ownership of
VCR was significantly associated with program types. Chi-
Square analysis of association of VCR ownership with the kinds
of programs listened to showed a significant statistical
relationship with Talk programs at 0.05 (Table 6). No other
program showed significant relationship. While this indicates
the tendency of those with VCR to listen to Talk programs, it
suggests that extension video in talk format is likely to

appeal to clientele.

Newspaper Usage
Newspapers usage was determined in terms of respondents'
newspapers readership per week, which showed a pattern similar
to that of television.and radio. With.the exception of the Ann

Arbor News (77.1%) and Saline Reporter (20.7%), other

59

newspapers were read by very few of the respondents (Table

 

 

7a).
Table 7a
Eeekl2_2ersenta9e_2f_Beadershin_ner;Nes§naner
2ublisation_hx_3esnendents
Paper (n - 140) % Respondents
Ann Arbor News 108 77.1
Saline Reporter 29 20.7
Chelsea Std. 18 12.9
Manchester Ent. 13 09.3
Free Press 12 08.6
Detroit News 12 08.6
Ypsilanti News 4 02.9

 

Further analysis of respondent's newspapers readership
was done to determine if there were significant relations
between VCR ownership and the news publications read (Table
7a). Chi-square analysis showed no significant statistical
relationship at p< 0.05 (Table 7b).

 

 

 

Table 7b

0 a 01 0‘ ew--.9- {‘a!‘ ‘9 9 .' 9 .JJ‘ 1'! 0‘ K

% Viewing programs

Kind of VCR No VCR x2 9
Paper n = 96 n a 44
Arbor News 77.1 68.2 0.83 .75-.90
Chelsea 12.5 25.0 0.10 .10-.25
Saline 20.8 9.1 0.14 .10-.25
Ypsilanti 3.1 4.5 0.00 1.00
Free Pres 8.3 6.8 0.00 1.00
Detroit New 8.3 4.5 0.21 .75-.90
Other 29.2 25.0 - - ----

 

d.f. - 1: *Program category significant at p= 0.05

60

Mass Media Usage and Personal Characteristics

Since the media frequency data showed no significant
differences in usage by those with VCRs and without, the data
were analyzed in order to determine if respondent"s personal
characteristics were significantly associated with media usage
habits.
A93

VCR.ownership appeared.to appeal most.to those in the 40-
49 age category (Table 8). Ownership of VCR was highest with
the 40 - 49 age category (87.80%), followed by the 20 - 29 age
category and lowest for 60 years and above age category
(53.06%). Overall, ownership was more among the 20 - 29 years
and 50 - 59 years age categories. Age appears to be weakly

related to VCR adoption (r a 0.32, p< .05: Table 8).

Table 8
. .

 

 

 

Age Range (n) % Respondents
with VCRs

Under 20 Years 0 0.00

20 - 29 Years 4 100.00

30 - 39 Years 21 66.67

40 - 49 Years 41 87.80

50 - 59 Years 24 66.67

60 and Above Years 49 53.06
Total Cases - 140 Missing Cases 8 1

Regression analysis: a - 39.53: b a 0.53: b = 0.58:
r a 0.32: t a 0.6812: Significance level a p< 0.05

61

W

Education appears to be strongly associated with VCR
ownership (Table 9). VCR ownership rose sharply from 37.50%
for respondents with less than 8th grade level of education to
71.19% for those with some years of high school. The increase
continued to 80% for those with bachelor' degree and
thereafter declined sharply to 33.33% for those with masters'
degree. This decline is inconsistent with the findings of
Rogers (1984), who stated that innovativeness is related to
the level of education and those with more years of education

being earlier in adopting innovations.

 

 

 

Table 9
W
Educational Levels (n), % of Respondents
with VCRs
8th Grade or Less 8 37.50
High School but not Graduate 59 71.19
High School Graduate 38 78.95
Some Years of College or 11 81.82
Tech. School
Bachelors' Degree 5 80.00
Masters' Degree 9 33.33
Others 2 50 .0 0‘
Total Cases - 140 Missing Cases a 1

Regression analysis: a - 62.0: b a 0.43: r - 0.04: t = 0.074.
Significant level p< 2 0.05

mm

A majority of the respondents were farmers (86%, Table
10). Sixty-six percent of them owned VCR. The professional

/technical group consisted of only 19 respondents and 31.53%

62

owned VCR. The rest were miscellaneous occupational

 

 

 

categories.

Table 10

W
Occupation Categories (n) % of Respondents

with VCRs

Farmer 86 66.28
Manager 5 100.00
Proprietor 6 83.33
Office Worker 2 100.00
Police, Postal, & Fire 1 0.00
Teacher/Educator 3 0.00
Professional/Technical 19 31.53
Other 13 50.64
Total Cases 8 140 Missing Cases 8 5

IDEQEQ

Income has the most striking relationship with ownership
of VCR. With a regression analysis, percentage gross-income
category was almost homogeneously distributed among income
categories r a 0.75, p <0.05: Table 11). There was an
incremental positive disposition tO‘VCR ownership with.higher
income, from income group level of $10,000 to $30,000. The
$50,001 - $60,000 income group was the most positively
disposed to ownership of VCR with 93.33% of them owning VCR..
The $10,000 - $20,000 category was least positively disposed
to VCR ownership with 45.83% (Table 11).

The significant relationship between income and VCR
ownership was expected because VCRs are relatively expensive
and require substantial amount of investment to obtain one.

The result is also consistent with Rogers reports ( 1983, 1984)

63

stating' that innovativenesss in. new ‘technology' is often
related to level of income. This is true for VCR as the more
affluent have shown to be more innovative. Although about half
of those with income $10,000 or less have VCRs, Rogers (1983)

described those in such category as innovators.

 

 

 

Table 11

W
Income Categories (n) % of Respondents

with VCRs

$10,000 or Less 9 55.56
$10,001 - $20,000 24 45.83
$20,001 - $30,000 25 72.00
$30,001 - $40,000 17 $8.82
$40,001 - $50,000 16 87.50
$50,001 - $60,000 15 93.33
$60,001 - $70,000 10 90.00
$70,001 and Above 14 78.57
Total Cases 8 140 Missing Cases = 10

Regression analysis: a - 50.98: b a 0.54: r = 0.75
t -2.8160. Significant at p< 0.05
.u., '_., .‘ u—n.. .91, ~ . Q- t W 9 W 19u 6;

To further determine if there were any differences
between those who did and did not own VCRs, comparison of age,
occupation, education.and income demographics were made among
respondent groups.

‘VCR ownership was lowest 63% for respondents 50 years or
more in age and higher for other age categories (Table 12).

Proportions of those with and without VCRs were about the same

64
for the remaining age categories, although more of those in
the 30 to 49 age category owned VCRs (Table 12). Age appears
to be a factor in owning a VCR.

Education was about equal in the two groups (Table 12).
About 69% of those with VCR had high school diploma or some
college education, while 63% of those without VCR had the same
level of education. About 18% of those with bachelor degrees
or more owned VCR, while 22.7% did not. Frequency of VCR
ownership was similar for those with some years of high school
or below: 10% had VCR and 11.4% did not (Table 12).

The same association is evident for occupation categories
(Table 12). The majority of'both.groups were farmers, and over
70% of them owned VCR. The rest consisted of miscellaneous
occupations.

Some differences were noted in the income earnings levels
of the those owning VCR and those who did not (Table 12). In
the four major‘income categories, about 60% of the respondents
owned VCRs. About 60% of the respondents in the first two
income categories owned VCRs, while over 80% of those in the
higher income categories owned VCRs. Regression analysis
(Table 11) shows that income appears to be a strong factor in

determining ownership of VCR.

65

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 12.
euei ,e ; 2 :e I‘nee 2e, ‘ e V ; O

an_NQn:Q!D§I§
Age Respondents Own VCR

(a) (b) *

n % n %
29 Years or 4 2.9 3 75.0
less.
30-49 Years 62 44.6 46 74.2
50 and Above 73 52.3 46 63.0
Total 132 22,8 25 68.4
Unknown 1 - - 0.7
*Percentage a b/a x 100
Education Respondents Own VCR

(a) (b)

n n %
Some Years of
H/Sch. or less 15 10.8 14 93.3
High Sch. and
some Col. Yrs. 97 69.5 69 71.1
Bachelor and 25 18.0 10 40.0
Above
Other 2 1.4 2 100.0
Total 139 22,1 95,9 68.4
Unknown 1 0.7 - --'
Occupation Respondents Own VCR

(a) (b)

n % n %
Farmer 86 74.8' 62 72.1
Other 29 25.2 12 41.4
Total 115 19919 14 64-4
Unknown 25 2.5 -- --

 

66

Table 12 (cont'd.)

 

Income Respondents Own VCR

(a) (b)

n % n %
$10,000 -
$20,000 33 23.6 19 57.6
$21,000-
$40,000 42 30.0 24 57.1
$41,000-
$60,000 31 22.1 25 80.6
$61,000
and Above 34 24.3 28 82.4
Total 110 IQQLQ 96 68.5

 

Respondents' Perception of VCR in Extension Service

One of the mission statements of the Extension.Service is
to help people help themselves. To ' do that, the Extension
Service has always used various delivery methods to get its

services to people.

Wm

To measure respondents' level of satisfaction by the
current Extension Service deliVery methods, respondents were
asked to rate their most important sources of agricultural
information. On a Likert five-point scale ranging from very
superior to not useful, 53.4% of the respondents indicated
farm publications as superior or very superior, 27.2%
indicated radio to be superior or very superior, 9.6%
indicated same qualities for newspapers, 2.9% indicated TV,
and 5% indicated other sources. Figure 2 summarizes sources

rating.

67

Z of respondents

 

50

 

 

40

 

 

30

 

 

20

 

 

1o ...............

 

 

 

 

 

   

Radio TV NI PIPOIS Farm Pub: Other

Eignrg_2. Very Superior/Superior Sources of
Agricultural Information

To determine how often the respondents availed themselves
of the services of the Extension Service office, they were
asked.to indicate the number of times they visited.the office,
called the office, and attended demonstrations and workshops.
Their answers showed that majority (53%) visited only about 1
- 5 times a year (Table 13). While 73% called for assistance,

70% attended shows and workshops from 1-5 times per year.

68

 

 

Table 13
’9L1! 0‘ :- 0‘ 009' < . ' '. =1 0! ‘ ‘f
t n =
Frequency Visit Ext. Call Ext. Attend W/shops
of Visits for Asst. for Asst. and Seminars
Never 38.6 21.4 22.3
1 - 5 Times 53.0 73.4 70.0
5 and Above 9.1 5.0 8.2
Total 100.7 99.8 100.5*

 

*Percentages do or do not total 100 due to rounding.

However on further analyses of the frequency data
with .ANOVA, those who said they called or ‘visited the
Extension Service office appeared to use VCRs more frequently.
As indicated. by' Tables 13 and 14, .ANOVA showed strong
relationships between frequent Extension Services office
visits and ownership of VCR. Extension Service office calls
frquency was found to be highly related to ownership of VCR
and differences were found between those with owning VCRs and
those who did not (p < 0.00).

In contrast the frequency of visits to Extension Service
tours/shows and demonstrations was not significantly
associated with ownership of VCR, even though direct group”
educational delivery services were possible. Table 16.

summarizes the ANOVA analyses.

69

 

 

Table 14
:x' .' 4.12, :‘ 0 e <9 ; ‘0 ‘QL’! 0‘ 0“ ‘ V.
W

Sum of Mean F F
Source Squares D.F. Squares Ratio Prob.
Bet Grps 3.1414 1 3.1414 14.3204 .0002*
Within Grps 0.05293 137 .2194

 

*Significant at P < 0.05.

Table 15

 

 

Sum of Mean F F
Source Squares D.F. Squares Ratio Prob.
Bet Grps 1.8153 1 1.8153 4.7935 .0303*
Within Grps 51.8825 137 .3787

 

*Significant at P< 0.05.

 

 

Table 16
:x' 4' :1: ‘ ‘ 0‘ V: 11! ‘ ’0 01 1 o 0 9-
Wow

Sum of Mean F F
Source Squares D.F. Squares Ratio Prob.
Bet Grps .0296 1 .0296 .0869 . .7686
Within Grps 46.3544 136 .3408

 

*Significant at P < 0.05.

Thirty-six percent of respondents indicated that they
use VCRs very often or often: 31.1% stated they use VCRs
occasionally: 12.9%, said they have never used VCRs, and

19.7%, said VCR was " VCR was not applicable". The general

70
appearance is that of a progressive, evolving adoption as
people come to understand the qualities and the advantages of

the technology. Figure 3 summarizes VCR usage frequency.

Z of Respondents

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Vu) Ollel Ollel Sometimes New lollpplicable

MVideo Usage Ftequenc)

Asked about the kinds of programs watched on VCR, 32% of

the respondents indicated Comedy was the most watched, 21%

71
indicated Adventure, (Figure 4). Less watched were

Instructional programs (8.6%), and Documentaries (6.4%).

Z of respondents

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Comedy llsulclmnal Dram: Ditlflifllll] Alvelucc Mosllypts

zigggg_1. Most Watched Video

To determine the strength of support for introduction of
extension video programming, respondents were asked to
indicate their level of support in terms of cooperation and
assistance in insuring a smoothly run program. Thirty-three
percent of the respondents indicated strong support, 27%
indicated slight support, 31% were uncertain, 1.5% were
slightly opposed and 4.8% were strongly opposed.

When asked if they would be willing to provide financial
support, such as paying a modest fee for the tapes, about 53%
indicated definite willingness and willingness to pay. Thirty

percent were unsure of their willingness to pay, and 16.9%

72
were unwilling to pay. Figures 5 and 6 summarizes these resp-

onses .

Z of respondents

 

Sllugl) Sunni Sllgltly Sunni llunull Slightly an”. Sluuly Onno

zigg£g_§. Support for Extension Video

2 of respondents

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

fl
DeHIHeH yes Yes NolSIle No DeHIHeH I0

:iggre 6. Willingness to Pay Tape Fee

73

Further analysis, using One-way Analysis of Variance was
made to determine the significance of the support and
willingness to use Extension video programming should it be
introduced. Frequent use of VCR, preference for Extension
Service tapes with live events, support of Extension Service
video program and willingness to pay fees were generally
indicative of acceptance of video programming, and showed
statistically significant association with access to VCRs
(Table 17).
Table 17

_.'.'.'.'.-.Q a.- ‘ 0 119-. ‘ ‘ 0’ V _4_! ‘_ ,1, 109-1_ ‘0.

 

 

Variables N Mean Std. F Prob. Lev. of
Dev. Level Signif.
Pref. for Ext. 134 2.985 1.541 32.574 0.000*,

V/Tapes and live
events when Poss.

Would pay modest 136 2.515 1.011 30.032 0.000*
fee for Ext. V/tape

Would support Ext. 135 2.148 1.026 15.025 0.000*
Program V/tapes.

Frequent VCR Use 132 2.912 1.211 124.727 0.000*

 

*Significant level at P < .05.

Scale 1=Strongly Disagree: 2=Disagree: 3=Undecided:
4-Agree: 5=Strongly Agree.

Higher Numerical scores indicates more positive attitudes.

MW
Considering the various indications for the use of Exten-

sion Service programs and the need to have tapes supplement

74
the already available services, respondents were asked to rate
some of the major reasons for desiring Extension Service
video programming.
Based on five-point Likert scale from 1 s strongly
disagree to 5 strongly agree, with 3 indicating neutral, the
following points were obtained and ranked according to the

mean index presented in Table 18.

Table 18
WW
BEBE AQXQD£§9§§ Mean 512;
1 With videotape programming, one can 4.031 0.871
learn new skills without leaving the
farm.
2 Availability of programs on V/tapes 3.985 0.835

is an access to expert information
without the inconvenience of traveling
to the ext. office.

3 Availability of V/tapes for learning 3.969 0.940
certain skills in the privacy of
one's home would be more convenient
than going to area tours and demon-
strations.

4 Viewing V/tapes in groups provides 3.954 0.796
chances for farmers to meet and
discuss hard-to-solve problems
and share experiences with one
another.

5 Use of VCR's should enable the 3.772 0.901
CES to provide more skills and infor-
mation via V/Tapes and rely less on
other methods.

6 Extension v/tapes would reduce 3.519 1.016
time and inconvenience spent in
meeting subject matter special-
ists or visits to area farms for
demonstrations.

75
Table 18 (cont'd.)
7 V/tapes would reduce time and money 3.225 1.033

spent going to or contacting the
Extension Service Office.

Item 1 scored highest (x = 4.031) indicating
strong/strongly agree, while item 7 with the lowest mean score
(x a 3.225) indicated neutral/agree. The rest of the items
indicated agree or strongly agree. Since the rating was a
measure of individual perceptions of videotapes, it provided
a measure of the utility of video programming to the
respondents. The overall indication is that the scores
symbolized individual and group expression of the goal-
directed nature of communication behavior. It further
indicated that the respondents were active communication
participants who select certain media or media content, Katz
(1974). These types of expressive behaviors were reported as
reasons why people use or what gratifications they sought from
certain media contents in explaining the "uses and gratific-
ations theory" of media uses and effects (Levy and Windahl,
1984: 1985). Since media use expectations are produced from
individual predispositions, such indications might provide
opportunities for segmented marketing to the Extension Service
clientele.

Further analyses were made to determine if the perceived
advantages of video programming were significantly related to

VCR ownership. As summarized in Tables 19 - 22, four of the

76
seven perceived advantages (#‘s 1,2,3 and 4) were

statistically significant at p = 0.05.

Table 19

 

 

Sum of Sqrs.r DF Mean Sq. F Ratio F Prob.
Bet Grps 4.797 1 4.797 6.597 0.011*
Within Grps 93.377 129 0.727

 

*Significant level P < 0.05

 

Table 20
.x'V.’ £11, _ 0‘ V:_ :1 e: :- 90 gen ' '7 ‘0t 91 0‘
9‘0 7 0' am -‘ a 29 ‘ elven ‘1 ‘ ‘, 0 I °1flt 0!
than_TQur§ADem9n§tra§ignsl
Sum of Sqrs DF Mean Sq. F Ratio F Prob.
Bet Grps 8.707 1 8.797 10.597 0.001*

Between Grps 105.170 128 0.822

 

*Significant level P < 0.05

 

Table 21
L 0V;' ; a ‘ ‘ -’ a °e9 ‘ ‘ {“9-19‘1 " " ‘9 '01 -'
'98- f,°- -u of {‘2 f 0 1|? and 0_ " 1° “9 ‘ ‘
's w e ' VC
Sum of qu. DF Mean Sqr. F Ratio F Prob.
Bet Grps 12.454 1 12.454 13.208 0.000*
Within Grps 119.747 127 0.943

 

*Significant level P < 0.05

77

 

Table 22
Lx‘ ' .LI: f f 0' V- e'_!,: (3.9.!!8! ' a" 2.- 701-7
geo ’72: am -. S=Vf10 u‘ :12 10 - V17 t3 0 _A_‘17'91
WM
Sum of qu. DF Mean Sq. F Ratio F Prob.
Bet Grps. 9.873 1 9.873 9.404 0.002*
Within Grps. 126.608 127 0.997

 

*Significant level P < 0.05

W
With 68.8% of the respondents owning VCR, a much higher

percentage than the national penetration figure of 52%
(Greenberg, 1988; and TV Digest 1988) , the respondents of this
study could be categorized as early adopters of VCR. Most
respondents had access to television, radio and newspapers.
Radio was the most utilized medium (16 hours per week),
followed by radio and newspapers with 14 and 7 hours per week,
respectively. The general outlook of respondents media usage
is a substantial use of the mass media as indicated by the
number of hours spent per week by on television, radio and
newspaper with a statistical significance of p = 0.01 (Table
4a).

Respondents owning VCR indicated that they made frequent
use of them, particularly for entertainment. They also
indicated intention to use it more for instructional and other
instrumental purposes with time. Considerable support for
extension video program was expressed in terms of payments and
willingness to cooperate with the Cooperative Extension

Service should video programmming be established.

78

Buttressing the above are the various indications from
the ANOVA (Tables 14 - 17) which show ranges of significant
relationships between ownership of VCR and the following
variables: 1) the frequency of visits to the Extension Service
office (ANOVA, F- 14.3204, d.f.-I 1, p < 0.00): 2) frequency of
calls to the Extension Service office for assistance (ANOVA,
F84.7935, d.f.= 1, p <-0.03): 3) preference for combination of
Extension Service videotapes with live events whenever
possible (ANOVA, F=32.574, d.f.= 1, p < 0.00); 4) willingness
to pay a modest fee for tapes (ANOVA, F=30.032, d.f.= 1, p <
0.00) : and 5) readiness to support Extension Service videotape
(ANOVA, F=15.025, d.f.= 1, p < 0.00) programs.

Respondents also rated their perception of advantages of
an envisaged Extension Service video program. Four of six
possible advantages were found to be statistically significant
with ownership of VCR. Privacy, convenience and the
opportunity for self enhancement were among the key advantages

reported (Table 18) .

WW

One hundred and forty (61%) of the questionnaires were
returned, and analyzed.using: (1) frequencies and.measures of
central tendency and dispersion: (2) cross-tabulations, and,
(3) one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).

Question 1 sought to determine if ownership of VCR had
affected the general media usage by Extension Service

clientele. The findings indicated that despite the acquisition

79
of VCR by 68.8% of the respondents, media usage was quite
similar to those without VCRs (Tables 5b, 6b and 7b). Most
respondent's.media interests appeared similar for television,
radio and newspapers usage. For example, interest in.News and
Sports programs on television and radio were about the same
for both VCR owners and non-owners. However, there were
indications that certain media programs such as radio Talk
programs, which showed a significant relationship with access
to'VCRLhave stronger appeal than the others (XA 5.34, d.f.- 2,
p < 0.1 <p <.025: Table 6b). Respondents' ownership of VCRs
differed among age-groups (Table 9). The majority of those
owning VCR belonged to the middle-age categories in 30-39 to
50-59 years of age. Income was significantly related to
ownership of VCR. Ownership of VCR increased proportionately
from.the low to the high income categories and.was higher'with
increasing income range from $40,001 and above (r = 0.75, p <
0.05, Table 11). However, despite the acquisition of VCR,
media usage patterns remained generally the same for both
those with, and those without VCR (Tables #s. 5b, 6b, and 7b).
The second research question sought to determine the
willingness of clientele to support Extension Service
videotapes programming, if provided. Respondents appeared to
be very willing to support the program by fees and supportive
activities to ensure the success of the program. ANOVA
analyses of the support and willingness to pay fees for
Extension Service videotapes program were significantly

related to access to VCR at (p= 0.05, Table 17).

80
The third research question asked if there were
perceived advantages for adopting videotapes program over the
traditional delivery methods. Data from the study did indicate
support for a number of perceived advantages (Table 18) .
Highest rated was the advantage that videotape programming
enables learning of new skills without leaving the farm (mean
- 4.031) on a five-point Likert scale (Table 18) . This is
conceptually the same as stating that VCR provides opportunity
for self-directed learning in the privacy of one's farm.
Also reported were the perceived advantages of convenient
access to skills and utilization of Extension
Service information; the use of videotapes programs to save
time and money by reducing travel to Extension Service office
and tours. Analysis of variance showed four of the perceived
advantages significantly related to VCR ownership: 1)
perception of video programs as enbling learning skills on
farm (p < 0.01, Table 19); 2) perception of video programs as
convenient access to information than tours/demonstrations (p
< 0.00) , Table 20); 3) perception of video programs as
reducing cost and time with subject-matter specialists (p <
0.00, Table 21): 4) perception of video programs as reducing

time and cost visiting Extension Office (p < 0.00, Tables 22) .

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Introduction

The primary concern of this study was the changing
information environment and its potential impact on the
delivery of Extension Services in Michigan, in order to
determining if video cassette recorders (VCR) could replace
some aspects of current ‘instructional and educational
information, delivery methods. This chapter’ presents the
conclusions, recommendations and implications concerning the
adoption of the VCR medium by organizations which provide

agricultural extension services.

Conclusions
The following conclusions were drawn from the analyses of
the data presented above and a literature review:
1) Despite the high level of VCR adoption by the clientele,
there has been no substantial significant relationship in
ownership of VCR and media usage patterns as yet. However,

data showed that VCR owners spend significant number of hours

81

82

watching television, listening to radio and reading
newspapers.

The acquisition of a VCR appears to reflect the
importance attached to- the various uses, particularly by those
with higher income, and perhaps who desire more control of the
information they use (Table 11: uses and gratification,
Blumler et al. (1978)).

2) Respondent's ownership of VCRs differed among age-groups.
While more of those without VCRs belonged to the older age-
group (60 years and above), the majority of those owning VCRs
ranged in age from 30 to 50 years. Age was a decisive factor
in VCR purchases and the probability of consideration and
acquisition of VCRs were greater among the younger age-groups
provided available funds.

3) Income was shown to be significant in VCR ownership. While
a majority of those without VCRs had annual incomes of less
than $40,000 per year, the majority of those with VCRs had
substantially greater incomes. The likelihood that an
individual would acquire a VCR was somewhat related to income.
4) Since 68.8% of the respondents owned VCRs, it is evident
the. Extension Service now reaches many high-income
individuals. Since the Extension Service reaches many in the

higher income group, it may contribute to the existing

83
information gap between rich and.poor clientele documented by
Tichenor, Olien and Donohue, 1971: (the knowledge Gap
Hypothesis).
5) ‘VCR ownership data support the Uses and Gratification
theory: that an individual's communicative behavior is
determined or shaped by his or her information needs. In this
case, the ability to record or obtain taped extension programs
for use at convenient times, may satisfy the needs of those
desirous of controlling information access and scheduling.
6) Adoption of video programming may be an important
advantage to the Extension Service if and when costs
eventually are reduced. When videos become an integral part of
extension programming and delivery system, funds could be
conserved as specialists and agents travel less but reach more
people. In this way the Extension Service might mitigate the
impact of the lag between budget and increasing
responsibilities. ‘
7) Although cost was not examined by this study,
respondents' willingness to pay for video programming,
(depending on cost) could enable the Extension Service to meet
part of the cost of video production by charging nominal fees

for individual users and proprietary fees for organizations.

84

Winn:

The conclusions of this study provide a basis for the
following recommendations concerning VCR use in the Extension
Service program delivery:

1) Video programming should be made a basic component of
the Cooperative Extension's delivery service to provide a
wider range of educational and information services to larger
categories of clientele taking into considerations their needs
and location from Extension Service offices. Since meeting the
various kinds and scopes of programming that will be demanded
by a heterogenous clientele could be very challenging, coor-
dination of video production program with other Extension
Service organizations through the recently established
National Extension Video Network (EVN) could significantly
reduce production costs. Also, large scale production of video
programs (conclusion 4, above,) would enable Subject-matter
Specialists to devote more time to specific clientele
problems. Similarly, funds saved by reducing Subject-matter
Specialist and Extension Agent travel could be used in further
improving the quality of service being provided.

2) Since the Cooperative Extension Service already
reaches higher income clientele, adoption of video programming
service may provide the opportunity to reach the low income

groups by providing viewing centers for such groups. Such

85

centers could enable the information disadvantaged to frog-
.leap the existing information inequities if they perceive the
need to avail themselves of the video programming services.

3) Adopting video programming may also require that new
marketing approaches such as in-service training programs be
developed to enhance the adoption of the additional delivery
method by the Extension Agents and Subj ect-matter Specialists.
Similar promotional approaches will be needed in some pilot
counties to sensitize and inform clientele of the Extension
Service's intent to increase modes of programming delivery.

4) Since other organizations are involved in extension
services, consolidated efforts at video productionwwould keep
cost down without compromising quality. Extension Service
should therefore provide leadership in the establishment of
inter-agency video production by exploring the cooperative
efforts which might be developed with other government

agencies and organizations as well as with the private sector.

11112119311911:

Traditional business practices will be challenged as
better educated, more prosperous individuals come to comprise
more of the Extension Service clientele. With this
development, comes the need to accelerate, enhance and
diversify services. Already, 80% of Extension Services have

begun production of their own instructional/information

86

videotapes. According to a recent study by Fedale (1988), 85%
of states have a videotape library. Sixty-five percent operate
videotape loan services at county offices. Such services are
already provided by Michigan State University at the Resource
Center of the.Agricultural and Extension Education Department
in support of the Cooperative Extension Service.

From the foregoing recommendations follow a number of
major implications:
1) With a more active audience willing to pay for superior
quality educational programs, the Extension Service will have
the additional task of raising production and distribution
funds despite Clienteles' willingness to absorb some of the
costs.
2) This study and that of Levy (1980) indicate that VCR use
provides evidence of significant preference differences among
media consumers who are more active and value direct enquiry.
As Rubin and Bantz (1987) noted, VCR users are more motivated
and intentional in their selection of tapes, renting and
viewing. Their study provided evidence that clientele with
VCRs are more active in their media use: they took time to
record information for later viewing and were willing to
support extension video programming.
3) Similarly, the strong significant relationships between
access to VCR and the willingness to pay for extension video
(p < 0.05), support its video programs (p < 0.05), frequent

use of VCRs (p < 0.05) and the preference of extension video

87
to some live events reflect changing patterns of media usage
(Table 19) . Thus, adopting new appropriate technology such as
the VCR is very important if the Cooperative Extension Service
is to keep pace with ever changing life styles. To keep
abreast with its clientele, the Extension Service will need to
reassess its program delivery methods and adjust VCR
technology potentials to its advantage. Adaptation will
require new skills and aptitudes, and an appreciable
adjustment in operational strategies. Thus, the Cooperative
Extension Service will need to develope programs to train
staff in effective utilization of the technological benefits.
4) The significant correlation of age and income with
ownership of VCRs (pa 0.05: Tables 8 and 11 respectively),
indicate that different clientele groups use VCRs for
different contents and purposes, and will require Extension
Service provision of packaged programs meeting specific group
needs. This suggests that for the Cooperative Extension
Service to remain effective in providing research-based
educational information to various audiences in a changing
information environment, it may need to develop new approaches
based on the new program delivery technology. Respondents very
clearly indicated that they considered the greatest advantage
of acquiring VCRs to be, "learning of new skills within the
privacy of one's farm,." the Extension Service is obliged to
assist them reach their potentials, in this case, satisfying

self enhancement needs - the opportunity to set their own

88
learning preferences, priorities and topical scopes. Within
the context of the Uses and Gratification theory, the
respondents indicated that they have certain needs, and by the
acquisition of VCRs, have demonstrated the technology's

ability to satisfy those needs.

Winn:

One impact of traditional information technologies has
been the creation of an information gap between information-
rich and the information poor populations (Tichenor, et al
1971). As new information technologies focus on the tradi-
tional communication channels, they widen the gap between the
rich and the poor because most new information is acquired by
those who can afford access to technology.

This gap might not develop among the Extension Service's
clientele population because of their current rate of VCR
adoption. However, expecting adoption of the VCR by all may be
unrealistic. Thus, those able to acquire VCRs will have some
advantages in procuring, processing, and utilizing information
and educational programs.

As the study has shown, while the Extension Service
delivery of information to its audience has concentrated
mainly on the two traditional systems of written
communication, the audience has sought, and continues to

obtain its information needs through all available media. In

89
other words, information users. will always seek out alt-
ernatives to satisfy their needs. This suggests that consumers
of agricultural information may be willing to pay additional
costs to obtain instructional, educational, or recreational
information.

Clientele satisfy their information needs mostly through
the mass media, while most information delivered to them by
the Extension Service is through publications. With the VCR
complementing other media services, it becomes expedient for
the Extension to develop an integrated delivery system.
Conversely, the Cooperative Extension Service might consider
reviewing personnel policies in order to create opportunities
for new skills and competencies necessary to apply the new
technology and the production of educational and information

materials.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

APPENDIX A

Questionnaire and Survey Materials

9o '
Agricultural 8. Extension Education 5

Michigan State Univeulty

410 Aoflcuiture Hall

East Lansing. Michigan 48824 - 1038
«H7)355-6880

September 12 . 1988

Name of Respondent
Address

Dear (Name of Respondent).

We in the Cooperative Extension Service at Michigan State
University seek to ,improve our services to you and others
throughout Michigan. One of our ways to make that improvement
depends on periodically receiving intonation from clientele like
you. Presently, we are examining the potentials of the video
cassette recorder (VCR) in Extension. The enclosed questionnaire
has been carefully designed to provide valuable information about
potential changes in media usage and your perceptions of the VCR
as an extension delivery tool.

Your name was selected at random from the Washtenaw County
Cooperative Extension Service agricultural mailing list on the
assumption that you are the head of your household. Because you
are one of a selected sample. your response is very important to
us. Please try to answer all the questions. Additional cements
can be made on the margins or on the back of the questionnaire.

You may be assured of complete confidentiality. The
questionnaire has an identification number for statistical
purposes only. Your name will not be placed on the
questionnaire. Completion of the questionnaire is voluntary with
no penalty for refusing to participate.

We estimate it will take 20 minutes to complete the
questionnaire. Feel free to phone us (at 313-971-0079). if you
have questions.

Thank you for your valued opinion. Please return on or
before September 24. 1988. in the stamped. self-addressed

envelope .

Sincerely.

Morse L. Brown Dr. Carroll R. Wamhoff
County Extension Director Chairperson. Dept of A33
Washtenaw County Michigan State University

Pat Anyanetu. Research Assistant
Dept. of Agr'l 8: Ext Educ.
Michigan State University

P.S.: If you will be interested in reviewing the result of this
study, please contact the County Cooperative Extension Office

‘1?er November 3°Mflammem-u

91

Modern Communication Technology in Extension
Video Cassette Recorder (VCR). As An Option For Extension
Delivery Service: ‘

I
l
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|
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.J

 

 

 

 

 

A County-wide Survey Of

_-.-———_ —-———_—-*—_-

l
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! Washetenaw Cooperative Extension Service
I
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Department of Agricultural Extension Education
Michigan State University
410 Agriculture Hall
East Lansing. MI 48823

. . 92
Part I Directions:

Please answer the following questions by putting a check 1 in the
appropriate space, additional responses can be written in the margin.

1. Do you have a working TV set in your home?
It lYes. lfyes,goto la. 2[ 1N0. It'no,go toZ.
la Black & White TV, how. many? _
lb Color TV, how many? _ .

lc As the head of household, what do you watch on TV?
(check as many as appIy).

l[]DramaSerials 5[]Musicals

2[ ] Films/Movies 6[ 1 Life Shows/Talk Shows
3 [.v) News 7[ ) Children’s show

4[ ] Sports 8[ ] Documentaries

2. Do you have a working radio set?
I[ ] ’Yes. It‘yes.got02a. 2[ 1N0. It‘no,goto 3.
2a If yes, how many? _
2b What do you listen to? (Check as many as apply)

I[ ] News 5[ ] Sports

2[ ] Dramaseries 6t ] Talk Shows(e.g.how tos)
3[ ] Features series 7[ ] Children's show

4[] Musicals 8(1Documentaries

l[ 1 Yes. It'yee,goto4. 2(1No. Ifno,goto$.
4a. How do you use your VCR? .

1 l I Watch pre-recorded tapes

2 [ ] Record TV shows/movies to view later

3 [ ] Record local events

4 [ ] Record most shows for viewing with friends
5 I 1 Others (List them, please).

4b.

4c.

93

If you use VCR to watch prerecorded tapes, where do you get your
videotapes from? (check as many apply)

 

l [ ] Tape off the air

2 [ ] Buy from video store

3 [ ] Rent

4[ 1 Borrow from friend

5 [ ] Borrow from the library

6 [ ] Other. (List them please)

What kinds of videotapes do you watch most? (check only one)
”1505909611 4[]lnstructional
2 [ ] Classics 5 [ ] Drama
3[]Comedy 6(1Documentary
7[ ] Adventure Bl ] Most kinds

1

Which newspapers are home delivered? (weekly and daily) (Write
names).

 

 

 

 

Which special agricultural publications do you receive or buy in a
month? _None. If some, please list:

 

 

 

 

What other magazines are home delivered each month?

 

 

 

 

Do you have a telephone?
l[ ] Yes. 2[]No.lt‘no.goto'l0.

How important is the telephone to you in obtaining agricultural
information?

I[ ] very important 4[ ] slightly important
2[ ] fairly important 5[ ] no importance
3[ ] important

94

10. In any given week. how much time, on the average, do you spend using
different kinds of media?

How much time do you watch TV each week? _hours

How much time do you listen to the radio? _hours

How much time do you spend reading newspapers (including farm
journals & bulletins)? _hours

How many hours of extension business cells do you make in a
week? _hours

How many personal business letters do you write in a month?

A UNI-

M

 

Part II Directions:

Using the following categories, check one response to each statement that
best-matches your opinion.

ll. How often during the year, do you visit the Cooperative Extension /.
Service for assistance?

I[ ] none
2[ ] l-S times
3[ ] 6-10 times

“‘45

[ ] “-15 times .
[ ] over 16 times

12. How many times during the year do you call the Copperative Extension
‘ Service for assistance?

It] none 3[]ll-20times

2[] l-IO times 4[]over20times
13. How would you rate the services received from the Cooperative
Extension compared to that of commercial agricultural services?

I [ ] very superior 4[ ] usually inferior
2 [ ] usually superior 5 [ 1 definitely inferior
3 [ ] about the same

14. From which mass media do you obtain most information to meet your
agricultural extension needs? (please check only one)

I [ ] radio 4 [ ] farm publication
2 [ ] television 5 [ ] others, please specify
3 [ ] newspaper

l5. ow would you rate the agricultural information you receive from

radio compared with those from other media sources?

I [ ] very superior 4[ I "91188
2[ ] superior 5[ ] below average
‘3 [ ] above average

l6.

17.

Is.

19.

20.

21.

 

95

How would you rate the agricultural information obtained from
television compared with those from other media?

I [ ] very superior 4[ ] average
2[ ] superior 5t ) below average
3 [ ] above average

How would you rate the agricultural information obtained from
newspapers compared with those from other media?

I[ )very useful 4(1.average
2t loot too useful 5[ 1 not useful
3[ luseful

How would you rate the agricultural information obtained from farm
publications compared with those from other publications?

3

l.[ 1 very useful 4[ ] average
2[ ] not too useful 5 [ ] not useful
3 [ ] useful

How would you rate the agricultural information obtained from sources
other than those named above?

I [ ] very useful 4[ ] average
2[] nottoouseful 5[]notuseful
3!] useful - '

How often do you attend extension programs such as agricultural
workshops. seminars, small group serious, farm tours, field-days and
other farm/office demonstrations in a year?

It 1 never _ 4f 1 “-15 times
2[ ] l-S times 5[ ] over IS times
3[ ] 6-lI times

How valuable are the skills and information obtained from such
activities?

I[ ] very important . 4[ ] unimportant
2[ ] important 5[ ] very unimportant
3[ ] notsure

In what form(s) is/are most of the information received from
extension? (check more than one).

i I l verbal 4[ ] audiotape:
2t ] publications 5[ ] posters
3[ ] videotapes

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

96

If it were possible to have the same skills and information on
videotape, would you opt for live events or prefer to view them on
videotape? ‘ '

l [ 1 have the v/tapes most of the time

2 [ 1 have the v/tapes sometimes a live events other times
3 [ 1 have bath live events and v/tapes at same time

4 [ 1 attend live events most of the time

5 [ ] Don't know

Sometimes skills are either too technical and lengthy, to be well
understood at just a one-time delivery. Would you pay a modest-fee
for such extension information/skills on video tapes? (e.g. 'How to
prune your cherry trees’)

I [ 1 definitely yes 4[ ] no

2 [ 1 yes 5 1 1 definitely no

3 LI] not sure

Of late, a number of how-to-do-it videotapes have flooded the market.

Would you support the Coonerative Extension Office providing certain
programming on video? .

II I stronsly support 4! I slishtly Oppose
2[ l slishtly support SI 1 mush! oppose
3[ 1 uncertain

1 I I very often 4[ 1 never I
21 1 often SI 1 not applicable
3[ 1 sometimes

What do you see as the most important quality of VCR? Its ability to
allow you to: (check only one)

record a program while away

freeze action ability 1

watch video when you like

easily replay difficult parts of video
none of the above

M ‘ U N 3"
"Hf-OH"
HHHHH

How best do you think videotapes should be distributed so that
everyone can easily obtain them? Place them at: (check as many

apply)

I 1 1 extension offices

2 [ 1 local video stores

3 [ 1 direct mail service by extension office
4 [ 1 appointing special local agents

5 [ 1 don’t know

6[ 1 local libraries

7 I 1

other (please specify)

97

29. At which of these locations would you prefer to view videotapes?
(check as many as apply)

I [ 1 extension county office?
2[ 1 local libraries?

3 [ ] local churches?

41 1 court house?

5 [ 1 at home?

6[ 1 don't know?

Partm Directions:

Please circle anumberfrom I through Southescaleto therightofeach
item. thus indicating the extent to which you agree or disagree with the
following statements;

SD

Strongly Disagree -
Disagree - D
Undecided -_- U
Agree - A
Strongly Agree - SA

30. Videotapes provided by extension will

. significantly reduce my time and money
spent going to. or contacting the
extension office

8.—
U

 

3 l. Having extension videotapes will reduce
my time and inconvenience spent in
meeting the subject matter specialists or
visits to area farms for demonstration...

8e—
UN

32. Availability of programs on videotapes
would mean a ready access to expert
knowledge without the hassle of
traveling to the extension off'Ice..........

80-
UN

33. Availability of videotapes for learning
certain skills in the privacy of one's
home would be more convenient than I
going to area tours and demonstrations... SD

UN

34. With videotape programming. one can
learn new skills without leaving the l
farm SD

UN

 

35. Viewing videotapes in groups would provide
chances for some farmers to meet and discuss
some hard- to-solve problems and share I
experiences with one another............. SD

ON

C” C“ Ct» at» cu

cu

>A

36.

98

The use of video cassette ncorders
should enable the Cooperative Extension
Service to provide more skills and infor-
mation via videotapes and rely Im on
other methods

ge-
UN
cos
)5
5’3

 

Part IV Directions:

0
The following questions are to tell us ‘about yourself. Please check one
answer for each of the questions.

37.

38.

39.

41.

Are you male or female?
l11male .211female
Are you married or single?

'

II I married
21 1 single
31 1 other

Including yourself. how many men, women and children are there in
your family living in this household/farm? (Please indicate the
number of each).

I male adults _
2 female adults _
3 children l3-l7 years _
4 children 6-l2 years .—
3 children under 6 years _

Please check your age bracket

l11under20 41140-49
21120-29 31130-60
31130-39 61160andabove

8th grade or Ian

high school but did not graduate

high school graduate

some years in college or technical school
bachelor's degree

graduate work

master’s degree and above

others (pleue specify)

u ‘8 O M ‘ U N F.
HHHHHHHH
e—ea—aa—ee—sh—eue—e—e

99

42. Which of the following classifications comes close to describing your
occupation? (Please check only one).

l11farmer 511police,postal.fire
21 1 manager 61 1 teacher/educator
31 1 proprietor 71 1 professional/technical
41 1 office worker 81 1 others
43. Please check your approximate total family income (before taxes).
l 1 1 $10,000 or less 51 1 $40,001 - 50,000
21 1 810,001 - 20.000 61 1 $50,00l - 60,000
31 ] $20,001 - 30,000 71 1 $60,001 - 70,000
41 1 $30,001 - 40,000 81 1 $70,001 and above

Please do not include your name on this questionnaire. Thank you.

Return to: The County Extension Director
Washtenaw Cooperative Extension Office
P. O. Box 8645
Ann Arbor, MI 48107

Agricultural 8. Extension Edugiion 5

Woman State University
410 Agriculture Hall

Ell! Lansing Michigan 48824 - 1039
(517) 355 - 8580
October 17. 1988

Hans of Respondent
Address

Dear ( Name of Respondent) .

its recently sent you a questionnaire seeking your opinion
about the use of video cassette recorder (VCR) as an extension

delivery tool.
Only a small number of Rashtenarr Cooperative Extension

clientele were selected to participate in the study. In or, de r
for the results of the study to be truly representative of the
opinions of all the county agricultural faraers. it is essential
that each person return the questionnaire.

Conplete confidentiality is assured. Your name will not be
placed on the questionnaire. Completion is voluntary with no

penalty for non-participation.
In the event that your questionnaire has been nisplaced. a

replacement is enclosed. we estinate that it trill take 20 minutes
to complete the questionnaire. Your cooperation is highly
appreciated. Feel free to phone us at (313-971-0079). if you

have questions .

Sincerely.

Horse L. Brown Patrick Anyanetu

County Extension Director Research Asst. Dept of ~AEE
Rashtenarr County Hichigan State University

usuemmwtuwm

Agricultural 8. Extension Edtigétion E

Michigan State Unlverslty

410 Aquculture Hall

East Lansing. Mlchlqan 45824 - 1039
(517) 355 - 5580

- Novenber 28, 1988

Narae of Respondent
Adrress

Dear (Nana of Respondent) .

Last month a reninder was sent requesting that you return
the questionnaire sent to you last September from this office. As
one of the registered clientele of Hashtenaw county. you were
selected to participate in the study because of your direct
knowledge and experiences in your profession.

As this study is being undertaken because of the need for us
to continue improving our services to the county, it is necessary
that all questionnaires be returned. Moreover, because of the
significance each questionnaire has to the usefulness of this
study. it is essential each person return the questionnaire.

You are assured of complete confidentiality as your name
will never be placed on the questionnaire. lie need the opinion of
all the few selected participants for the study to be truly
representative of the opinions of all respondents.

This is a Ph. D. research project and it needs your
conpleted questionnaire to be successful.

In the event that your questionnaire has been nisplaced. a
replacenent is enclosed. Please give this your pronpt attention.
Your cooperation is greatly appreciated.

Sincerely.

Patrick Anyanetu

Research Assistant.

Dept. of Mil. & Extension Education
Michigan State University

muemmwredwmm

APPENDIX B

APPENDIX B

Table of NonRespondents Information

Question No. Responses
1. Have Working TV?

yes 10

no 0

2.. Have Working Radio?
yes - 4
no 6

3. VCR Access?
yes 6
no 4

4a. How VCR Used.

Watch prerecorded tapes 5
Record TV/Movies 2
Record Local Events 2
Record for Viewing with

Friends 2
Other Use 2
No Response 1

4b. Source of V/tapes.

Tape off air 1
Buy 1
Rent 4
Borrow from friend 0
Borrow from library 0
Other 0
No Response 1

102

4C.

11.

14.

15.

16.

103

Kinds of Video Watched Most
Soap Opera

Classics

Comedy

Instructional

Drama

Documentary

Adventure

Most Kinds

No Response

Visit per year to Ext. Office
None

1-5

6-10

11-15

more than 16

Mass Media providing most Ag Info.

Radio

TV

Newspaper

Farm Publications

Others (Mail and Ext. Service)
No Response

Radio Ag Info vs other Media.
Very Superior

Superior

Above Average

Average

Below Average

No Response

TV Ag Info vs other Media.
Very Superior

Superior

Above Average

Average

Below Average

No Response

ml-‘I-‘ONO

Ulrhl-‘OOO

U'IOOOOO-hl-‘O

OOH->01

laurerac>~

20.

21.

23.

25.

27.

104

Frequency per year attend Ext. Programs.
Never

1-5

6-11

11-15

over 15

No Response

HOOHNQ

Value of Skills obtained from programs

Very Unimportant
No Response

Very Important 2
Important 2
Not Sure 0
Unimportant 0
0
6

Preferance of Live vs Video events.
Video most of the time
Mixed Video and Live events
Live and Video at same time
Live events most of the time
Don't Know

No Response

hONNON

Would support Ext. Office Videos.
Strongly Support

Slightly Support

Uncertain

Slightly Oppose

Strongly Oppose

No Response

hOOl-‘NU

Most important Quality of VCR.
Record while away

Freeze Action

Watch Video at prefered time
Easily replay difficult parts
None of the above

No Response

bOOUOU

105

29. Prefered Video viewing location.

Ext. Office

Local Library

Local Church

Court House

At Home

Don't Know

No Response

hOOtOOOO

30. Videos would reduce time spent going to Ext. Office.

Strongly Agree
No Response

Strongly Disagree 0
Disagree 1
Uncertain 2
Agree 3
O
4

32. V/tapes would mean ready access to expert Knowledge.

Strongly Agree
No Response

Strongly Disagree 0
Disagree 0
Uncertain 1
Agree 4
l
4

33. Videos for home use more convenient.

Strongly Agree
No Response

Strongly Disagree 0
Disagree 0
Uncertain 1
Agree 6
O
4

37. Male Female
5 5

38. Married
10

40. Age
Under 20
20-29
30-39
40-49
50-60
60 and above

bl-‘NUOO

41.

42.

43.

106

Education

8th Grade or less

High School but did not grad.
High School Graduate

Some years in college or Tech.
Bachelor's Degree

Graduate Work

Master's Degree and above
Other

Occupation

Farmer

Manager

Proprietor

Office Worker

Police, Postal, Fire
Teacher/Educator
Professional/Technical
Others

Income

$10,000 or less
$10,001 - 20,000
$20,001 - 30,000
$30,001 - 40,000
$40,001 - 50,000
$50,001 - 60,000
$60,001 - 70,000
$70,001 and above
No Response

OOPI—‘NMNH

OONOOOOG

UNOHHOOHN

.44

 

APPENDIX C

 

APPENDIX C
University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects

Approval Letter

‘l

MlCHlGAN STATE umvr—znsrrr 107

 

mmmmmm ”WOWOWIIII
mammalian

aaeuanrm

senses-ma

June 23, 1988

Patrick tu
410 Ag

Dear Mr. Anyanetu:

Subject: 'MODERN COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY IN
EXTENSION: VIDEO CASSETTE RECORDER
(1}! CR), AS AN EXTENSION DELIVERY
001-W'

The above project is exem t from full UCRll-IS review. The proposed research protocol
has been reviewed by no committee member. The rights and welfare of human
subjects appear to be protected and you have approval to conduct the research.

You are reminded that UCRII-IS approval is valid for one calendar . Ifyou plan to
continue this project beyond one year, Slease make Erovlsrons for taining approprrate
UCRIHS approval

Any changes in rocedures involvin human sub'ects must be reviewed by UCRIHS prior

to initiation of e change. UCRIHS must also . notified promptly of anygroblems

WE“ side effecu, complaints. etc.) involving human subjects during e course 0
wor . . -

Think for brin ' this ro'ect to attention. if! can be of any future help, please
a. not its... to 13".3. mi.) “"

Sincere
f—‘F

 

15m K. Hudzik, Ph.D.
Chair, ucrur-rs

JKi-I/sar
cc: 0. D. Meaders

uwa-Mwwwhm

 

 

 

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