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ANSTAITE UNIVIERS ITY LIB II iiIiII iiiliiiIiIiIiiIiiI 3(XfiXN37887 IIIIIIIIIIZI This is to certify that the dissertation entitled Factors Affecting Participation in Community Action Groups among Rice Growers in Southern Chad presented by —Ross David Beach has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degreein Agricultural and Extension Education Major professor Date _June_2_1.,_1_993_ MSU i: an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0- 12771 “h ..- —".--A-——- ~5-A--A ..p.-.“ LIBRARY Michigan State University v—w PLACE IN RETURN sex to remove this checkout from your reeord. TO AVOID FINES return on or before data due. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE MSU I8 An Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution cMMMS-DJ FACTORS AFFECTING PARTICIPATION IN COMMUNITY ACTION GROUPS AMONG RICE GROWERS IN SOUTHERN CHAD BY Ross David Beach A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Agricultural and Extension Education 1993 ABSTRACT FACTORS AFFECTING PARTICIPATION IN COMMUNITY ACTION GROUPS AMONG RICE GROWERS IN SOUTHERN CHAD BY ROSS DAVID BEACH Community action groups are the result of a sociological process by which individuals are motivated to come together to resolve a common need. The implications of such a process gives importance to understanding its existence and the role it plays in the development process. It is important that factors affecting the participation of individuals in community action groups be defined and applied to facilitate cooperative action as an accelerator for rural development. This study was designed to denote the socio-economic and educational factors which affect participation in community action groups among' rice growers in Southern Chad. .A systematic, random sample was selected from a population of farmers from neighboring villages. An interview schedule was used to solicit responses from the survey sample. Presurvey probes and survey interviews indicated that the concept of nonformal community action groups was relatively new in the survey sample. Ross David Beach Interview responses revealed that the survey sample had a high degree of willingness to work with others. The willingness to work with others was not shown to be significantly related to age, level of education, or participation in community action groups. Factors which were significantly related to participation in community action groups were the ability to read, economic status, and the number of hectares tilled. These factors, found within the village, were significantly related to participation in community action groups while cosmopoliteness was not. Over half of the respondents had received no formal education and the level of formal education revealed no differences among those who did or did not participate in community action groups. Implications emerging from this study were that nonformal learning and economic factors appeared to be influential factors explaining the formation of community action groups. In view of the relatively new presence of nonformal community action groups in the target population, it was recommended that case studies and research be implemented. Further research should examine the reasons for the recent creation and evolution of community action groups. Dedicated to My father who has shown by example that hard work and a genuine interest in what one is doing are values to be esteemed. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A deep debt of gratitude is owed to Dr. Frank Bobbitt who served as dissertation chairperson. Special appreciation is also extended to the other members of the committee: Dr. Carroll H. Wamhoff, Dr. S. Joseph Levine, and Dr. Robert Wilkenson for their constructive suggestions, criticisms, and advice during the preparation of this study. A special appreciation is extended to the other A.E.E. and University Staff who offered suggestions and encouragement during the study. Appreciation is proffered to those in Chad who assisted with the survey and gave many hours of assistance in the field work. Their suggestions and valuable insights given during data collection enhanced the research. The author 'wishes to ‘thank. his friends and fellow students who offered encouragement, assistance, and support during the course of the study; .Appreciation is also extended to those who supported the study and the time necessary for the completion of this dissertation through their continued contributions to The Evangelical Alliance Mission. A very special tribute is given to the author's wife, Inky, without whom this dissertation would not have been completed. Her assistance given in editing, word processing, and patient encouragement made it possible to accomplish this study. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O 0 LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chem: I. II. III. I NTRO DUCT I ON 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Background . . . . . Statement of Problem Purpose . . . . . . . Research Questions . Hypotheses . . . . . Dependent Variables . Independent Variables Importance of Study . Definition of Terms . Limitations of Study Basic Assumptions . . Summary . . . . . . . LITERATURE REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Theoretical and Conceptual Framework . . . Relationships between the Social System and Community Action Groups . . . . . . . . . . Tandjilé Farmers' Perceptions of Community Action Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Socio-Economic Description of the Target Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . METHODS AND PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . Research Design . . . . . . . . . . . Target Population and S rvey Sample Interview Schedule Development . . Validity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nonsampling Error . . . . . . . . . vi viii O H fidfifiUlU‘lubh-IH . 22 28 28 30 32 33 33 Selection and Training of Pilot Study . . . . Reliability Test Data Collection . . Data Analysis . . . Interviewers IV 0 STUDY FINDINGS O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Description of Respondents . . . . . Analysis of Data by Order of Hypothesi Hypothesis 1 . . . . . . . . . . . Hypothes is 2 O O O O O 0 O O O O O Hypothesis 3 . . . . . . . . . . . Hypothesis 4 . . . . . . . . . . . Hypothesis 5 . . . . . . . . . . . Hypothesis 6 . . . . . . . . . . . Hypothesis 7 . . . . . . . . . . . Hypothesis 8 . . . . . . . . . . . V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS summary 0 I O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . Recommendations for Future Research . APPENDICES A. LETTER OF APPROVAL FROM UNIVERSITY COMMITTEE ON RESEARCH INVOLVING HUMAN SUBJECTS . . . B. INTERVIEW SCHEDULE . . . . . . . . . . C O SURVEY VILMGES O O O O O O O O O O O O D. MAP OF AREA SURVEYED . . . . . . . . . E. SUPPLEMENTARY RESPONSES AND STATISTICAL F. CONVERSION FACTORS FOR EDUCATION . . . G. CONVERSION FACTORS FOR COSMOPOLITENESS H. CONVERSION FACTORS FOR ECONOMIC STATUS BIBLIOGMPHY O O O O O O O O 0 vii 35 36 37 37 38 43 43 51 52 58 61 64 68 7O 73 75 77 77 82 88 91 93 94 101 102 103 111 112 113 114 LIST OF TABLES 229$ Frequency statistics related to the number of children per household for 231 households . . . 48 Frequency distribution for the number of years of formal education obtained by the respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Summary of the statistics for the farmers' level Of education 0 O I O O O O O O O O O O O I I O 5 3 T-test results for differences between the mean level of education for participants and nonparticipants in community action groups . . 54 Chi-square test of the relationship between the respondents' participation in community action groups and their ability to read . . . . . . . 57 Summary of statistics for the respondents' cosmopoliteness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Summary of statistics which compare the cosmopoliteness of participants with nonparticipants in community action groups . . 59 Mann-Whitney test results for the relationship between the farmers' participation in community action groups and the measure of the farmers' cosompoliteness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Summary of the statistics for the respondents ’ economic status, shown ‘with dollar equivalents where appropriate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 T-test for the differences between the respondents' participation in community action groups and the respondents' economic status . . 64 Statistical summary for the number of hectares per household . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 viii 4.12. T-test for the differences between the respondents' participation in community action groups and the respondents' total hectares tilled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 4.13. Frequencies and mean scores for questions measuring the farmers' willingness to work with others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 4.14. Mann-Whitney test findings for differences between the farmers’ willingness to work with others and their participation in community action groups . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 4.15. Statistical summary for the farmers' age . . . 71 4.16. Multiple regression statistics for relation- ships between the farmers’ willingness to work with others and the farmers' age . . . . . . . 72 4.17. Response frequencies for the independent variable question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 4.18. Multiple regression of the farmers' openness to new farming ideas and the farmers' willingness to work with others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 4.19. Multiple regression of the farmers’ level of education in years on the dependent variable for willingness to work with others . . . . . . 76 ix LIST OF FIGURES Page Community action groups are activated when individuals unite to find solutions to a common need 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 13 Mobilization of community action groups . . . . 14 Two models of implementing community problem salutions O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O I O O 15 Religious and cultural affiliations of 231 respondents represented in the survey sample . 45 Comparison of participation in community action groups with the respondents' religious affiliation O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 46 The number of children born per respondent househOId O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 47 The number of children who died per househOId O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 4 8 Number and percent of respondents with animals and equipment to do field work . . . . . . . . 49 Comparison of readers and nonreaders according to years of formal schooling . . . . . . . . . 55 Percentage of respondents who have the ability to read and their comparison with the Chadian national averages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 The respondents' economic status with an increment of 500.00 dollars . . . . . . . . . . 62 The relative importance of crops raised by Tandjilé farmers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Number and percent of households with number of hectares tilled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY flackground Kimball (1974) explains that the capability to solve group problems develops only as the group's members forge relationships among themselves that permit them to respond in an organized fashion to the conditions of their environment. This social ability to act cooperatively must be learned by acquisition, modification, and adjustment. This human element in development is being given new significance as a contributor to the development process. Experience is indicating that the participation by members of the community in the development effort can be a decisive factor in the success of many projects. Consequently, the United Nations and Third World countries are promoting participation in decision-making through community action groups (United Nations, 1975; Kotzach, 1984). The importance of these community action groups was further emphasized by Mathur (1986) as being significant in producing intended development results when special characteristics of the traditional village society are assessed as part of the project design and appraisal. Other emerging concepts of development strategy are 1 2 saying that local organizations can facilitate development efforts. As early as 1961 Klein stated that, "Ideas confine man to certain social groups and social groups confine man to certain ideas. Many ideas are more easily changed by aiming at a group than by aiming at an individual" (1961, p. 119). Francis O’Gorman explains this emerging concept of development as, "change being interwoven with the structure of the whole society. It involves a wider social transformation, political action, and recognition of impinging forces . . ." (1978, p. 17). The concept of the sociological process being a tool in the development process gives importance to the assessment of the attributes held by a society. The implications of such a process are important with regard to rural development strategies that facilitate community action groups, formed through local initiative, achieve ‘their goal of meeting commonly felt needs. Hursh and.Roy (1976) emphasize research as "particularly valuable in the definition of the existence and magnitude of problems. It is a desirable first step in advance of research inquiry that seeks to understand the reasons for social behaviour and attempts to provide alternative solutions to problems" (p. 25). This research study would be useful in defining those factors which motivate farmers of the Tandjilé region of Chad to participate in community action groups. Researchers indicate that cases drawn, even from the same part. of the ‘world, include. great cultural and economic variations and, given this heterogeneity of cases, we can not 3 safely say that any one factor found to be of primary importance to the developmental process in one society will have the same connotation in another society (Uphoff, 1983). In view of what sociologists are learning about community relationships, a study of community action groups which exist among the rice farmers of Southern Chad was undertaken. Statement of Problem Community action groups are not a new phenomenon to the rice farmers in the Tandjilé region of Southern Chad. The Tandjilé farmers used to cooperatively set aside sufficient seed grain for planting needs in common, crude storage huts. The system was initiated by the French during the colonial period in an effort to assure sufficient seed stock at planting season. The Chadian National Office of Rural Development (ONDR) , for reasons unknown, dropped the community seed storage program 20-25 years ago, and the practice soon disappeared. The farmers did not replace the program. Recently, severe food and planting seed shortages were provoked by famine and civil war (1983-86). Rice seed in the Tandjilé region was insufficient, and it was necessary to import rice seed for distribution in the region. These years of insufficient. seed. continued into 1987 and appear to have stimulated renewed interest in community granaries for seed storage. The renewed interest has been initiated from within the communities. Several villages in Tandjilé region of Southern Chad have created autonomous community action groups for specific projects such as building dikes, constructing 4 schools, constructing community granaries, caring in common for individually owned work.oxen, and community group loans in the form of grain. These indigenously created autonomous community action groups have evolved as factors have influenced the population of the Tandjilé region to respond to community needs by combining traditional values with innovative ideas. It appears that the earlier experience, offered by the ONDR, provided the villagers an opportunity to participate in an innovative program which, combined with other environmental factors, has affected their opinion about the value of a community action group as a means to find solutions to common needs. The problem is to comprehend how participation in community action groups, created from within the community as a means to resolve community needs, could be enhanced in community initiated projects. The consideration of legacies which influence the beneficiaries of a project within the society is a prerequisite for development workers (Cernea, 1985; Brokenshaw and Hodge, 1969). EBEEQ§§ The purpose of this study was to determine what factors influenced the rice farmers of the'Tandjilé region of Southern Chad to participate, or not participate, in community action groups. The factors were examined for differences between participants and nonparticipants and data were analyzed to provide research question answers. In order to facilitate the research there were specific questions which gave direction to the study: 1. The What demographic and socio-economic factors appear to affect the farmers' participation in community action groups? What is the relationship between the farmers' willingness to work with others and the farmers' participation in community action groups? Which variables appear to affect the farmers' willingness to work with others? Hypotheses basic hypotheses examined by this study were: The farmers who participate in community action groups will have a higher level of education than those farmers who do not participate. The farmers who participate in community , action groups will have a greater degree of cosmopoliteness than those farmers who do not participate. The farmers who participate in community action groups will have a higher level of economic status than those farmers who do not participate. The farmers who participate in community action groups will till more hectares of land than those farmers who do not participate. The farmers who participate in community action groups will be more willing to work.with others than those farmers who do not participate. There is a positive relationship between the farmers' willingness to work with others and the farmers' age. There is a positive relationship between the farmers' willingness to work with others and the farmers' openness to new farming ideas. There is a positive relationship between the farmers' willingness to work with others and the farmers' level of education. There were dependent and independent variables established to describe and measure the target population. One dependent variable and seven independent variables in this study were classified as follows: Museum 1. Participation in community action groups 2. The farmers' willingness to work with others e e V ' es 1. Age 2. Education 3. Economic Status .Animal ownership .Means to do field work .Specific possessions 4. Cosmopoliteness 5. Openness to new farming ideas 6. Total hectares tilled 7. Willingness to work with others The dependent variable of participation in community action groups, was analyzed for differences between participantsi and. ‘nonparticipants for’ ‘the independent variables: education, cosmopoliteness, economic status, total hectares tilled, and the farmers’ willingness to work with others. The farmers' willingness to work with others was also used as a dependent variable and correlated with the farmers' level of education, age, and the farmers' openness to new farming ideas. W This study was important because: 1. To It generated knowledge and provided guidelines for development practitioners in developing countries. Of primary significance was the insight into traditional agriculture community action groups, which the findings of this study have provided. It contributed information applicable to grass roots community organizations and decentralized management as facilitators for rural development. The information generated by this study will be helpful in conducting survey research in other international contexts. This study can be replicated in other similar settings and, provide guidelines for development practitioners. W add to the understanding of the research problem, there were several terms used in the course of this study that required clarification. These operational definitions were especially important because of the cultural and developmental setting of this interdisciplinary study that rendered its terms and concepts open to misunderstanding. For the purpose of this study, the following definitions were employed: - The term community has two connotations (Roberts, 1979) . The connotation used for this study relates to the geographical locality and is applicable to the self-contained, relatively isolated, small rural villages totally engaged in agriculture. Community, as used in this study, refers to agricultural villages. A second distinction of community relates to common interests as being the distinguishing factor rather than geography (Roberts, 1979, pp. 26-27). Common interests give impetus for people to come together and formulate objectives. - is composed of several families within a village (geographical locality for the community) for a specific, common purpose, either social or developmental. There may be more than one community action group in a village. Community action groups could be categorized, according to their structure, as informal, nonformal, or formal. Cosmopoliteness - is the degree of travel by the respondents beyond the boundary of their local system. Rogers (1971) refers to "comopoliteness of stimulators" of collective innovation decisions - as being expressed by wide travel as one of several related sources of influence (p. 277) or, in other words, an indirect measure of having been influenced through travel to be more amenable to accepting new ideas. MW - differ from informal and nonformal groups in that the community has received help from an external source and has accepted the conditions imposed by that source as a prerequisite for implementation of the project. WW - have no written rules or leadership selected by its members according to defined rules and tenure. Informal groups are organized around a common interest for a specific task such as hunting, fishing, or field work; and the duration of the group is limited to the specific task. 0 c ' 'o s - are groups created through a process originating from within the community as a result of their recognized common needs and their interests to combine efforts in response to those needs. The groups are distinguished fromi informal community action groups as having leadership selected from within the group. Members participate in expenses as a requirement for participation in the benefits. The group has an implemented, agreed upon structure and principles for responding to its specific rural or social development needs. Members carry a voluntary commitment to the group's objectives. When the term "community action group" is used in this study, it refers to a nonformal community action group unless otherwise specified. g. m - is defined as a "collective sustained activity for the purpose of achieving some common objectives, especially'a more equitable distribution of the benefits of development" (UNESCO, 1979, p. 15). Mathur further adds that, "participation means 9 a kind of local autonomy in which people discover the possibilities of exercising choice and, thereby becoming capable of managing their own development" (Mathur, 1986, p. 19). Community action groups, as referred to in this study, have at their core this concept of participation as defined by UNESCO and further explained by Mathur. Rural__pggelgpment - is a term that carries two distinct concepts. One is the word rural which, in its simplest meaning, refers to "those who live in or near small villages which tend to be isolated from each other in terms of both communication and transportation . . ." (Axinn, 1978, p. 21). The second concept, development, has been defined by numerous disciplines. For the purpose of this study, the definition of development presented by Dr. Inayatullah of the Asian Centre for Development Administration (ACDA) will be used. Inayatullah (1974) states that, Rural Development is: 1) changes in rural productivity, reflected in per acre/hectare yield; 2) changes in the extent of employment, under- employment, unemployment, etc.; 3) changes in the distribution .of income and wealth; 4) changes in the power structure reflected in change in the extent of influence of rural people on the local and national decision- making process; 5) changes in the degree of mobility in the local class structure reflected in allocation of position of prestige, status and power on the basis of achievement or ascription; 6) changes in the values, beliefs and attitudes favorable to the control of larger environments. Relevant favorable/unfavorable value changes may include fatalism/self- reliance, traditionalism/experimentalism, optimism/pessimism, etc. (pp. 4 and 5). A second definition of development is given by Green, as referred to by Hayden (1979, p. 176). Green ties his definition more closely to community needs and adds an important aspect of development which. supplements Inyatullah's definition, which is more quantitative in nature. According to Green, community development is a continuous, or intermittent, process or social action by i. 10 which the people of a community organize themselves informally or formally for democratic planning and action; define their common and group ”felt needs" and problems; make group and individual plans to meet their felt needs and solve their problems; execute these plans with a maximum of reliance upon resources found within the community; and supplement community resources when necessary with services and material assistance from government or private agencies from outside the community. Traditional_agriculture - can best be described in relation to the population under consideration, rather than being given a universal definition. There are many forms of traditional agriculture but certain features, as summarized by Poostchi (1986) , are characteristic of the rice farmers of the Tandjilé region of Southern Chad: 1) Most of the agricultural products are consumed by the peasants and their families. Normally, there is no or little surplus left for sale. 2) The farm size is small, normally under half a hectare; hardly ever are there more than a few hectares of land under cultivation at one time. 3) The farms are very often fragmented and consist of several plots scattered in different places. 4) Cultivation techniques are simple and primitive. Much of the work is manual, using hand-made tools. Very little use is made of more advanced techniques of crop production, such as the use of farm animal manure, chemical fertilizers, and other inputs (p. 64-65). MW): The study was limited to a survey of the traditional rice crop farmers in the Tandjilé region of Southern Chad, who are predominately single crop dependent. The study was limited to descriptive data collected through personal interviews by trained field workers. 11 3. The man was chosen as the head of the household. Wines 1. It was assumed that respondents would be able to identify community action groups which exist in their village. 2. It was assumed that the interviewers’ first-hand knowledge of the target population (language and culture included) would reduce nonsampling error and therefore assist in the collection of valid and reliable material. 3. It was assumed that interviews, done in the privacy of the respondents' homes, would permit open responses. EQEEEIX Chapter I presented the frame of reference for the study. Emphasis was given to community groups and the role they play in the development process. The chapter put the economic and social variables of the developmental process in perspective as they relate to the target population. The research problem and purpose were given and specific research questions led to the development of hypotheses to be examined. Important terms were defined to clarify their application in the study. Next, the significance, limitations and assumptions of the study were given. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW W An important feature of development is the assumption that the human being is a capable and necessary participant in shaping life, personal as well as societal. The process of development is sparked by the perception, on the part of an individual, of a problem or a need based upon his/her awareness of the causes of the problem and is followed by behavior motivated towards a solution (Maslow, 1968, chap. 3). Essentially, the volition of the individual, as illustrated in Figure 2.1, is the motivating factor in the process of making a set of common objectives which gives direction to the development process of finding solutions to satisfy a perceived need. When the awareness of a problem is acted upon and a set of objectives is formulated, the people have forged a community by common identification with.and.agreement on the those objectives (Roberts, 1978, p. 35). Deutsch proposes four dimensions of growth in a community as increases in: 1. power to change the environment 2. openness, i.e., in the channels by which the group receives input from the outside world 12 13 3. inner complementarity, i.e., in the transfer of information from one part of the group to others 4. learning capacity, including a capacity to change its own objectives (Deutsch, 1952). The four dimensions of growth mobilize a process in which "old. social, economic, and jpsychological commitments. are eroded or broken and people become available for new patterns of socialisation [sic] and behavior" (Deutsch, 1961) perception of a need Mm theory of motivates behthor basic needs as powerful motivators of human ; behavior Individual Rom defines the forging of Individual a community (group) as a collection of individuals having been motivated by a common need and the formulation of a set of ‘ commonly W “P00 Community action group activated objectives. This type of by a common need community 18 distinct from a community defined solely by geograplucal locality. Figure 2.1. Community action groups are activated when individuals unite to find solutions to a common need. Roberts (1979) distinguishes between a traditional view of community as "an implicit, integral, permanent focus of social life, ‘the common living of a social being', generally with some degree of geographical identity" and community as defined for the purposes of community development as "a 14 collection of people who have become aware of some problem or broad goal, who have gone through the process of learning about themselves and about their environment, and have formulated a group objective" (p. 45) (see Figure 2.2). Individual participation Community action 8’0“!) Deutsch (1952) proposes four dimensions of growth in a community mobilization 1. Power over environment * 2. Openness to outside inputs " 3. Complementarity (willingness to work together) Solution of commonly 4. Capacity to act upon its own objectives agreed upon objectives for solving a problem based upon needs * The parameters of this research were limited to these two of the four dimensions. Figure 2.2. Mobilization of community action groups A further distinction was made concerning the fusion of traditional values and innovative values and was referred to by Axinn (1978) as "rural renaissance". The objectives of the group were determined from within and not imposed from without the community. It is this distinction, combined. with other community development concepts (Deutsch, Maslow, Roberts) that.helps researchers understand.the:major shift in 15 the last 25 years, from believing that traditional societies maintain a low priority for development to believing that a traditional society does indeed set priority for development if the development goal meets a need recognized by the community (Korten, 1980; Wong, 1979) (see Figure 2.3). Model 1: Intervention from exterior agency Agency analyzes Agency studies Agency selects _ community needs alternative solutions program of intervention Agency communicates Agency expected program to community solution results Model 2: Renaissance from within (Axinn, 1978;Rogers, 1969) Community member’s Coné‘rguur‘i’igi 3:61:23“ 3 Community openness to innovative willingness to work action solutions to a need with others group Commonly agreed . -* ...... ...... -> warmed for a solution Figure 2.3. Two models of implementing community problem solutions The paradigm shift gave importance to those legacies within a society which utilize cooperative action in order to achieve economic and social ends (Wong, 1979; Bengtsson, 1979) . These legacies include the numerous social, cultural, and institutional strengths which affect rural development 16 activities. Researchers are learning how these factors are important as accelerators for rural development when viewed from within the community. Bunch (1985) lists accelerators for rural development as relating to community action groups: 1. Willingness and ability of local people to cooperate and work together; 2. Willingness of local people to work voluntarily for the common good; 3. The presence of local institutions Rogers (1983), a leading researcher in the innovation process, states that the process of innovation and participation are acted upon by forces related to social, economic, and political factors and vary from region to region. Studies in 33 nations have examined these forces and related low-income populations as being more responsive to nonformal and informal community action groups (United Nations Economic and Social Council, Dec., 1986). The study was further confirmed and expanded by an analysis of 68 ex post evaluation findings in development projects which found that community action groups were more effective when based upon traditional social organizations and the socio-economic similarity of members (Cernea, 1985). Combining studies relating community action groups as accelerators for rural development and other theories about how individuals were motivated to participate in community action groups formed the theoretical base for this study. Drawing from Deutsch's four dimensions of growth in a 17 community, "openness" and "complementarity" have been chosen to give parameters to the scope of this study. The theoretical base and parameters led the researcher to develop the hypotheses which gave direction to this study. Relationships pgtwgeg tag Sggial Systgm and Community Actign Grogps The transformation that accompanies change involves social as well as economic and political implications. Anthropologists are telling us that change agents need to understand their clientele in order to accomplish effectual change (Foster, 1979). Sociologists (Rogers, Uphoff, and Esman) explained that the anticipated outcome of a community action project was an indigenous social and economic arrangement. The labor, governing body, maintenance, and operation of each community action group was dependent upon its members' participation. Outcomes were further dependent upon the members' willingness to work together and draw upon innovative ideas which were an essential element in development planning (Deutsch, 1952). Normally, development strategies have favored forming new action groups for a specific program to be implemented. Identification of existing, local institutions that were tied to community action groups could accelerate rural development (Cernea, 1985). The significance of local institutions has received attention as an important element in the rural development process. Making the rural development process 18 self-sustaining requires not only technical skills but also the presence of local institutions. Lele (1975) points out that rural development required, the presence of institutions at the local, regional, and national levels to ensure the effective use of existing resources and to foster the mobilization of additional financial and human resources for continued development of the subsistence sector. Self-sustenance thus means involving, as distinct from simply reaching, the subsistence population through development programs (p. 20). The relative importance of the community action groups in relation to innovativeness gave importance to its role in the theoretical framework of this study. Ralston, Anderson and Colson (1983) state, for broad based egalitarian and self-sustaining rural development, effective rural organizations appear to be essential. Sufficient evidence exists from the evaluation of earlier projects to conclude that international assistance cannot replace local organizations and systems (p. 10). Others state that the aim of community' action was the transformation of conditions of life, some only related to purely economic aspects, others to social and psychological needs as well, thus favoring the qualitative aspect (Desroche, Konopnichi, & Landau, 1976). The importance of community action groups in the innovative process was given further validity by the Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit study (Toborn, 1971). Their study suggests that there was a marked difference between adopters and nonadopters. Some of the characteristics of adopters, when compared to nonadopters, were that adopters: 1. have larger cultivated areas; 19 2. have a greater number of livestock; 3. are more often members of groups and associations; 4. have a higher literacy ability. The fact that adopters were more often members of groups and associations underlined. the 'validity of a study of the farmers’ participation. in. community action. groups as an influential factor in the development process. The Chilalo study combined with Roger's (1983) theory of innovation led to the selection of the independent variables of economic status, education, and total hectares of tilled land. These variables were combined with willingness to work with others and cosmopoliteness as factors affecting participation in community action groups as a channel for rural development. The 1978 annual report of the World Bank emphasized that, "among the most difficult aspects (of rural development projects) is the establishment of systems within which the small farmers can themselves have a say in how programs are designed and implemented . . .J' World Bank was trying to ensure better community level understanding and support for agreements before funding was cleared. 'lt _é :Que :' '-, -9 01: . C-uuuii ‘c 01 G 0 -~ Oppenheim (1966) stated that one of the best ways of developing good objective questions is to interview a small sample of subjects representative of the target population in which the researcher is interested. The use of open-ended 20 questions will furnish more lengthy answers and provide data from which objective-type answers are derived. Prior to the formulation of the interview schedule, unstructured, informal interviews were done to probe government and rural development personnel and moved progressively down to the local villagers. 'The need for these interviews was related to the recent decision of the Chadian Ministry of Agriculture to restructure its approach to rural development (Ministre de l'Agr., 1990). Since 1984, emphasis has shifted to community grouping of farmers. Agricultural inputs and information were channeled through these community groups rather than the inputs.being directed to the individual farmers (Ministre de l'Agr., 1990). Based upon interviews, the following conclusions were made at the governmental level: 1. Formal community action groups were created to minimize the number of development agents (the agent visits groups rather than individual farmers). 2. Formal community action groups for cotton production were not spontaneous but were created by the government to facilitate seed and fertilizer distribution. 3. Government-implanted formal community action groups were not found in the rice growing regions (to which the target population belonged) with the exception of a few larger villages of over 150 households. This was because the government did not consider rice an economically important crop. Government incentives to these community action groups were in the form of canal dike credit for group fields and were minimal. It should be noted that the government was the only source of seed and fertilizer for cotton production. These inputs were given to the formal community action groups and 21 not to individual farmers. The members did the distribution and bookkeeping for their respective group. Nonpayment resulted in pressure being applied by the farmer’s peers and could result in his elimination from the formal community action group and thus his being barred from future distribution of these inputs. Groups created for these purposes by the government were called groupements (French). When surveyed, the farmers made a distinction between these formal community action groups (groupements) and informal or nonformal community action groups. The farmers repeatedly confirmed their belief that groupements were formally created with outside influence and implanted into the target community. Visits with the Tandjilé rice farmers individually and in small groups led the researcher to the following findings: 1. When structured and implanted formal community action groups existed, they were most often located in larger villages. 2. It was not necessarily the village chief that organized, or was the leader of, the groupement. 3. Implanted formal community action groups were often viewed with suspicion by community members. Farmers in one village informed their village chief to beware of groupements, as they would be the first step in removing his power and function as chief. 4. Village-created nonformal community action groups were voluntary and formed for a common interest community project. (One village of 166 households had a group comprised of 48 households for a community granary. Another community of 56 households had a group of 35 households for a community rice field dike project). The findings from these nonstructured probes helped orient the 22 interview schedule and reduce error. When the term "association" was used, the target population related it to smaller, somewhat unstructured, informal, community action groups. When the researcher probed further, he found that informal community action groups existed for hunting, fishing, and doing field work. These informal groups were not included in the scope of this study; rather, the study focused upon nonformal community action groups. .c .- ...”, u-: _. ..j . ,- ; .~ '09- 3 '., Weather conditions can vary within a relatively small region, even within a radius of 40 kilometers. Near the outer perimeter of the target, population one could. move from climatic and topographical zones where rice and flooding were prevalent to an area five kilometers away where cotton and millet were grown. The lack of wide climatic variations made the region of the target population interesting. The peripheral villages were more likely to encounter rice crop failures in years of decreased rainfall (600-800 mm). Normal rains (900-1200 mm) assured good rice crop production (Collelo, 1986, p.42). Statistics revealed that the population density for the target population ‘was 19.2 people per square kilometer (Ministre de l’Agr. , 1990) . The largest of the villages surveyed included 227 families and nonfarm job opportunities were extremely rare in the region surveyed as there was no 23 industry. There had been minimal migration by the target population. During 1980-90, the annual national increase in population was 2.4% (World Bank, 1992, p. 268). National averages showed that 30% of the children ages 6- 15 were schooled (Ministre de l'Agr., 1990). The Tandjilé region was above this average, with 37.6% of the primary school-aged children enrolled in school (Collelo, 1986, p. 211) . The disparity between boys and girls enrolled in school was great. Males comprised 71% of those enrolled in school and this disparity between male and female enrollment increased at the higher elementary levels (Ministre de l'Agr. , 1990) . Those who advanced beyond the primary classes were rare. Teachers for the primary classes qualified with a third grade level education and little or no formal training. Schools had an average student/teacher ratio of 60-80 students/teacher (Ministre de l'Agr., 1990). Chad is a land-locked Sahel country with the nearest port located in Cameroon, a thousand miles from Chad's border. Subsistence-oriented agriculture has been at the heart of its economy and calls for the efforts of 83% of the population (Collelo, 1986, p. 89). A GDP of $160 in the mid-80’s placed Chad among the five poorest nations of the world (Collelo, 1986, p. 89). Its population was rural, isolated by inadequate road systems; and a life expectancy of 46.5 years revealed that Chad had insufficient health and development services (United Nations, 1992). Use of the terms "isolated", ”subsistence agriculture", 24 and "lack of resources" must be put into the context of the target population. The target population could be referred to as having been isolated in that roads, communication networks, travel, and mass media information were predominately insufficient. The target population was not distinct from the general population, nor was it grossly different from the national averages for living standards and resources. The target population could be differentiated primarily on geographical location, climatic conditions, and homogeneity of language and agricultural practices. There were no large economic distinctions among the target population as to economic status nor in reference to education, housing, field size, and means to do their field work. Low per capita income meant little cash reserves for farmers. Ox drawn equipment had received government subsidies to put it within the farmers' purchasing power. In 1974, when ox drawn plows were government subsidized at 30-50%, estimates were that in the Tandjilé region, which included the region studied by this research, 41.9% of the farmers possessed plows (Comité Permanent, 1977, p. 14). In 1978 the Tandjilé region had 35% of its households using animal traction for field work. This was among the highest percentages in Chad. As a result of the famine, most farmers who had cattle were forced to sell them for food. Additional animals were lost because of a lack of feed. Land use diminished to approximately 75% of former capacities, 25 due to a lack of seed and the strength to till the soil. When in 1991 the target population was surveyed for this study, the farmers were still carrying debts incurred as a result of the famine of 1983-1986. There was no organized farm credit available. There were no banks within 130 kilometers of the region. Credit obtained through money lenders was paid with 50-100% interest. Cattle were obtained from nomads at an interest of 20-30%, payable at harvest with grain. For the purpose of this research, all community households were considered to be farm households as villages rarely offered income alternatives other than agriculture. Consequently, the definition of a farmer was not determined by farm income. Measurement of a farmer's worth was based upon ownership of a plow, ox cart, work oxen, domestic animals, and the number of hectares farmed. The farmer did not own land. Farm land per se was not sold, nor were there official land titles. Each farmer had gained land rights by longevity in the community. The village chief's authority was sufficient to mediate property use disputes. A prolonged dry season (October-April), with no irrigation available, prohibited two crops per year. A normal rain pattern saw the rain beginning in late May, with rice planting starting by June 15. The growing period was over when the rains ended around September 15. Except for fields assured of early flooding by river movements, there was very little time margin between a 95-day crop variety and the 26 actual growing season. This was one reason for frequent crop failure: there were no controlled water resources. No commercial fertilizers were available for rice production. Fields were not given manure. Fields were burned prior to plowing and the dry season did not allow the soil cover to decompose. 'The ‘plows were not able to adequately turn large amounts of cover under the soil. Crop production was further limited by insect destruction. Community needs were great, and their priority was difficult to assess. A lack of public services accounted for many existing needs as listed below: Health Care Agricultural Extension Agent Fertilizer Grain Storage Facilities Marketing System Access to Information Road System Livestock Care Services Irrigation Improved Seed Varieties Research Local Capacity for Self-Management The list could be extended. However, a list of needs and needs assessment were two different concerns. Assessing needs by placing priorities upon them required further study, and the priority of this study was not needs assessment. 523E321 The review of precedent literature was meant to introduce the theoretical and conceptual framework for understanding community action groups as potential accelerators for rural development in traditional agricultural societies. Research pointed to 'the importance: of assessing' the relationship between the farmers' participation in community action groups and their willingness to work together as well as their 27 openness to inputs from outside the community. Maslow's theory of basic needs being powerful motivators of human behavior gave the fundamental basis for this research. Community action groups, their activation and mobilization, gave parameters to the scope of this study. The review of literature draws from other studies which guided the researcher in the selection of the independent variables to examine the factors which affect the Tandjilé rice farmers of Southern Chad to participate in community action groups. The researcher's background knowledge of the region surveyed, combined. with. the informal. probes, aided in. the selection of community action groups as a potential channel for rural development among the traditional agriculture farmers in the Tandjilé region of Southern Chad. CHAPTER III METHODS AND PROCEDURES 8W Bulmer and Warwick (1983) emphasized the importance of descriptive surveys for social research in developing countries. The researchers highlighted the major role played by population censuses and outlined cautions needed to avoid methodological difficulties. The research design was based upon their suggestions as enforced by a study of other research designs. The methods and.procedures of this chapter were developed after an examination of the hypotheses upon which they rest and of the nature of the measures used. The research design was a descriptive survey of the target population in order to arrive at a better understanding of the factors that effect the Tandjilé rice farmers' participation in community action groups. The study used the Tandjilé rice farmers' participation in icommunity’ action. groups as an indicator of the target population's predisposition to cooperate and work together. W A complete enumeration of the target population within the zone from which the survey sample was chosen was compiled 28 29 by the researcher and his assistants. The collection of this data required 1% months of field work and was based upon the village chiefs' lists of village households. The name of the head of each household was listed by the respective chief for village administrative purposes (land use, taxes, village work projects, family movements, etc.). The identification of the target population was a pivotal step in the research process. The target population was located in the Tandjilé Prefecture of Southern Chad. The geographical location of the villages surveyed can be put into perspective with the aid of the map found in Appendix D. The area surveyed overlapped the Northern portions of the Kélo and Béré Sous-Préfectures. The target population was homogeneous in nature in that it had one language in common and was comprised predominately of one-crop farmers dependent upon similar climatic conditions, marketing, input resources, and economic status. The purpose of sampling a homogeneous target population from one region was to focus the study, reduce variation, simplify analysis, and facilitate interviewing and data collection (Patton, 1990, p. 182). The region was selected because of the researcher's 16 years of rural development activities within the area, thus giving familiarity with the culture and language. Two aspects must be considered in describing a population: the "target" population and the "survey" sample population. According to Rossi, Wright, and Anderson, "the 30 target population is the collective elements that the researcher would like to study. The survey population is the population that is actually sampled and for which data may be obtained" (Rossi, Wright & Anderson, 1983, p. 24). The target population numbered 1,912 families. A survey sample of 238 respondents was selected by systematic random sampling from the target population census list compiled from the village chiefs’ lists. The men interviewed were chosen as the heads of the households, and the respondents' selection was made, using a systematic random sampling procedure aided by a census listing of the target population, by village, with a skip interval of eight. A systematic random sample is a lottery-like selection of every nth name from the target population listing and is a common, scientifically sound technique recommended by Rubin (1983) as being most useful when the research is concentrating on characteristics of the target population. In case of absences, the first name after the skip interval selection‘was chosen as the replacement. A 100% response was obtained. WM An interview schedule was used to collect data from the survey sample. The interview schedule was preferred rather than unstructured questioning. It was felt that unstructured interviews would be susceptible to conceptual and linguistic biases and would be difficult to record and code. Furthermore, the interview schedule was necessitated by the 31 nature of the target population surveyed. The target population was highly illiterate and not accustomed to questionnaires. The interview schedule was recommended by researchers for Third World surveys. Dohrenwend explained, Different techniques of personal interviewing have been used in surveys. The highly structured scheduled [sic] offers standardized questions with yes/no or multiple- choice response alternatives. Possibly, this approach to questions is conceptually best suited for "peasant" populations in developing nations, as well as being most efficient (cited Hursh & Roy, 1976, p.58). The schedule included standardized questions with yes/no or multiple-choice alternatives which were precoded. Open- ended questions were limited to the explanatory responses to two questions. The possibility of coding error was minimized by using closed questions and precoded responses. A Likert-type scale was used to measure positive or negative values. Response categories were given values of 1, 2, 3, and 4 and began with the strongly positive response and terminated with the strongly negative category. The scoring was reversed for negatively worded questions. The Likert-type scale gains its meaning only as its scores are interpreted on the basis of the sample score distribution. This underscores the importance of standardizing the scale of a survey sample taken from the target population. Bradburn and Sudman (1989) point out that, a question of considerable concern to opinion researchers is whether one should include a middle alternative in bipolar questions . . .. . In general, the practice in survey research has been to omit middle categories explicitly and try to "push" respondents toward one end 32 or the other of a bipolar choice (pp. 140-141). The researcher chose not to include the middle category as a measure to avoid noncommittal answers. I 1.3.! Prior research recommendations pointed out that certain aspects of cultures may be unique and that survey instruments must be clearly adapted to the purposes which may be culturally specific. It was evident from a variety of sources (Pausewang, 1973; Almond & verba, 1963; Rogers, 1969) that identical instruments frequently cannot be used in different cultures. Due to the development status of the target population surveyed and the lack of prior studies done in the target population, an interview schedule was constructed. With the goal of reducing nonsampling errors, nonformal education techniques were used for presurvey probes, which aided the preparation of the interview schedule. Sociological readings were applied to refine the interview schedule, and the researcher benefitted from reviewing other descriptive surveys that collected data from farmers in Third World settings. The instruments studied were confined to those that collected.data on variables of interest in this study and that had demonstrated validity. In addition, materials published by researchers having extensive experience were drawn upon (e.g., Rogers, Korten, Sudman & Bradburn, Blaloch, Uphoff, Bulmer & Warwick, Cernea, and Patton). Because much of the measurement in the affective domain 33 dealt with subjective subjects as opposed to objective subjects, a great deal of caution was taken in the preparation of the measuring instrument. Briefly, a simple format with limited variables, a good understanding of the target population, and a precise idea of what the researcher was trying to measure helped the interviewers avoid some of the pitfalls inherent in an instrument measuring multidimensional characteristics or attitudes (Fishbein, 1967; Blalock, 1968). Interview questions were reviewed for criticism and suggestions by a rural sociologist with descriptive survey experience in developing countries. The suggestions received were incorporated into the instrument before it was translated. Consequently, the instrument was reviewed by those having experience with development work in the region to be surveyed. To reduce the possibility of threatening questions, the final instrument was used in trial interviews and discussed with those interviewed. E 1' 1°J't The sections that follow explain the methodological rigor involved to increase reliability of the data collected. W A major effort was directed to reducing nonsampling error. The importance of this concern was emphasized by researchers Bulmer and Warick (1983) as they stated, too often, technical effort in survey research has gone into sample design issues and attempts to reduce (measurable) sampling error, while neglecting non- 34 sampling error . . . In developing countries, nonsampling error is likely to be greater than sampling error, and therefore requires particular attention (p. 213). The questions read from the schedule and answers received from the respondents were done in Nangj éré, the mother language of the respondents. No interpretation was required to administer the interview schedule or to record answers, as all of the interviewers were from the target population language group. The researcher, fluent in French, designed the interview schedule in French. Two of the researcher's assistants each translated the French interview schedule into Nangjéré. The two Nangjéré translations were then given to readers, each of whom did a back translation from Nangjéré to French. From these back translations, the researcher verified the level of content understanding. Back translation is a technical device which has become more and more widely known and accepted as a basic part of cross-cultural survey work (Warwick & Lininger, 1975) . The four back translations were then compared and necessary corrections were made in order to make the questions more easily understood. Researcher Cohen spoke of quality and quantity in African research by stating that ideas can be expressed from one culture to another. Cohen explained "there may be problems . . . but to say these cannot be overcome with ingenuity is to come close to saying that intercultural communication and understanding is impossible" (cited in O'Barr, Spain, and Tessler, 1973, p. 42). 35 E J !i I I 'n’ E I ! . s Each interviewer was known to the researcher for over ten years. This personal relationship had a practical aspect in that differing opinions and suggestions could be offered by the interviewers 'without fear of being' alienated, The interviewers were also indigenous to the area but not to the immediate villages surveyed. All the selected interviewers, having resided in the region.most of their lives, had an excellent knowledge of the area. All interviewers spoke the language of those interviewed and were rice farmers themselves. Every attempt was made to minimize the already narrow status differences between the interviewers and respondents. All interviewers had either an upper primary or a secondary education and were able to respond to training. Back and Stycos state that, We believe that the most desirable interviewing staff is one that is homogeneous from an educational standpoint and that clusters around the high school graduate-level . . We devote.more time in training them than is usual in the United States and emphasize somewhat different aspects (1959). The interviewers met on seven occasions for three hours each and received basic coding and interview training. In addition, each interviewer practice-interviewed a friend and shared suggestions with the researcher for further improvement of the interview schedule and procedures for interviews. The number of interviewers was limited to seven, to reduce nonsampling error. The presurvey probes clearly demonstrated the need for the interviewers to be well trained 36 in application of terms such as, "group", "nonstructured action" and "spontaneous, specific action groups". Each interviewer received 30 hours of training in the use of the interview schedule. The training included topics touching objectivity, the nature of scientific inquiry, and bias. The interviewers also participated in field trial interviews outside the target population to be studied. The interview schedule was tested in a village representative of the target population. Each interviewer interviewed three respondents. The researcher then held discussions with the interviewers following the field test to evaluate the respondents' perception of the questions. The interviewers were also requested to practice interview a close friend and request that his friend share his impressions of the study and whether he was bothered by any questions. Information gleaned from these interviews was also shared with the research. team. 'To insure coding uniformity, group discussions were held throughout the period of interview trials. 0 ud A pilot study of the fifty-question interview schedule was done with a sample of 20 respondents in a village similar to the target population. The pilot study applied several principles recommended by Converse and Presser (1986), which incorporated the points included in the following information. The pilot study was done under conditions comparable to 37 those anticipated in the final study. A previsit to the village surveyed was made to explain the survey purpose and identify the respondents. The pilot study of the interview schedule was done in the afternoon in the privacy of each respondent's home. Following the pilot tests, the seven interviewers met to share their comments about the suitability and clarity of the interview schedule. Questions were reworded as necessary for clarification and any doubtful questions were replaced or dropped. E J' 1.1.! I 1 After 'the interview schedule ‘was jpilot-tested. in a village similar to the target population villages, a reliability test was done. The Cronbach test for reliability was used for the attitudinal questions that included Likert summated scales. A reliability alpha of 0.68 was established. Questions showing evidence of poor reliability were eliminated. Wen The interviews were scheduled during October-November, as the roads were dry then and it was before harvest had begun. The actual data collection was scheduled for afternoons when the men had returned from their field work. A presurvey visit was done in each village the day prior to the survey team's arrival for the interviews. This was done to confirm the respondents' presence and permitted the researcher to explain the purpose of the survey and establish the 38 interviewers' arrival time. Upon arrival in the village on the day of the interviews, the research team met with the respondents and village chief to reiterate the purpose of the survey. Each respondent was then assigned an interviewer who went with him to his house to conduct the confidential interview, done in the privacy of the respondent's home without observers. No immediate or visible benefit was offered to respondents. No village surveyed required a repeat visit to complete the interviews. The researcher preferred to complete all respondents' interviews in a village on the same day. There was concern that the interview schedule questions would be discussed among the villagers if there was a time lapse between two interview visits and this could influence the answers of those respondents who were interviewed during the second visit to the village. a s's The study focused upon a society which did not have survey data available for secondary analysis purposes. This gave importance to sociological readings and a nonformal approach to assessing information in the target population prior to the survey interviews. The interview schedule was an instrument designed to collect demographic, descriptive, and ranked attitudinal responses. A code book was used to guide the data entry into numerical form. Written responses to open-ended questions 39 were entered for future reference during the data analysis and conclusions. Frequency counts were done to detect and correct errors in data entry and coding. A random spot check of data entered was performed to confirm accuracy of data being processed. The analysis consisted of first determining the distribution characteristics of the data gathered. Response frequencies and measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode) and dispersion (variance, standard deviation) were generated for respondents on the appropriate interview schedule item. Composite groupings identified with the perceptions and independent variables as indicated for each hypothesis were also generated. W The farmers who participate in community action groups will have a higher level of education than those farmers who do not participate. The interview schedule question numbers 27 and 28 were used to determine the respondents' level of education. The farmers' ability to read was analyzed by the chi-square test for relationship with the farmers' participation in community action groups. All respondents who indicated a level of formal education were given a representative numerical code. The t-test for independent groups was used to determine the differences of the level of formal education for the farmers who participate in community actions groups as compared to those who do not participate. 40 W The farmers who participate in community action groups will have a greater degree of cosmopliteness than those farmers who do not participate. Responses to interview schedule question number six were given a numerical code representative of the respondents' relative distance traveled from the target population's geographical proximity to outlying major commercial centers. Each respondent's code was then multiplied by the number of visits to each commercial center. The respondents were then given a rating which determined the independent variable, "cosmopoliteness". The Mann-Whitney test was used to determine the. differences between. the mean rank of the farmers' cosmopoliteness for the farmers who participated in community action groups and those farmers who did not. flypgthesis 3: The farmers who participate in community action groups will have a higher level of economic status than those farmers who do not participate. The interview schedule question numbers 7,8, and 26 were coded to obtain a numerical equivalent based on 1991 Chadian market values. The respondents were then given a score corresponding with their economic status. The t-test for independent groups was used to determine the difference between the farmers' economic status for those who participated in community action groups and the farmers who did not. 41 W The farmers who participate in community action groups will till more hectares of land than those farmers who did not participate. The farmers' total hectares tilled was derived from data taken from the interview schedule question number 10. The t- test for independent groups was used to determine difference between the total hectares tilled by the farmers who participated in community action groups and those who did not. Wis—5; The farmers who participate in community action groups will be more willing to work with others than those farmers who did not participate. The farmers’ willingness to work with others was measured using the interview schedule questions 16, 17, 19,and 22. The Mann-Whitney test was used to determine the differences between the farmers' willingness to work with others when the farmers who participated in community action groups were compared with those who did not participate. flypgthgsis 6: There is a positive relationship between the farmers’ willingness to work with others and the farmers' age. The farmers’ age in years was determined from the interview schedule question number 2. Multiple regression was used to determine the relationship with the dependent variable "willingness to work with others". The dependent variable was derived from a composite of the responses to interview question numbers 16, 17, 19, and 22. 42 ° There is a positive relationship between the farmers' willingness to work with others and the farmers' openness to new farming ideas. The farmers’ willingness to work with others was derived using the interview schedule question numbers 16, 17, 19 and 22. A composite of the four dependent variables was used to determine the relationship with the independent variable. The independent variable was a measure of the farmers’ openness to new farming ideas, and was derived from a composite of interview schedule question numbers 40, 41, 43, 48, and 50. Multiple regression analysis was conducted to determine the relationship between the dependent and independent variables. flypothesis 8: There is a positive relationship between the farmers’ willingness to work with others and the farmers' level of education. The dependent variable, farmers' willingness to work with others, was derived using interview schedule questions 16, 17, 19, and 22. A composite of the dependent variable was produced. A multiple regression analysis was conducted on the composite mean score to determine relationships with the independent variable, measure of the farmers' level of education. The farmers’ level of education was determined from the interview schedule question numbers 27 and 28. CHAPTER IV STUDY FINDINGS The purpose of this study was to examine the factors which affect the Tandjilé rice farmers’ decision to participate or not participate in community action groups. The findings set forth in this chapter are presented in three sections: . Description of the respondents . Analysis of data by order of hypothesis . Summary sc ' ' e ond ts There were 238 respondents interviewed by a team of seven research assistants. In all cases, the man was considered as the head of the household. The respondents were selected by a simple random skip interval of 8 from a census listing of 1,912 family households and all respondents were married. There were a number of variables which were important descriptives of the target population. A total of 107 variables were recorded during the interviews. Of these, 16 variables were used in the hypothesis testing and are described under the respective hypothesis findings. Certain 43 44 variables were important.in.giving credibility to the study by indicating the relative composition of the survey sample in respect to national averages. The descriptive variables also enhanced the context of the study and contributed to observations about the findings. Information relating to the target population villages is found in Appendix C. The information revealed that there was an average of 62 families per village for the 30 villages surveyed. The range of families per village was 18 - 227 families with 17% of the villages having more than 100 families. The geographic location of the villages surveyed is put into perspective with the map of the area which is found in Appendix D. Distance between the villages surveyed was generally 5 - 8 kilometers, which gave the impression of relatively easy communication and movement from village to village. However, there was no public transportation available within the target population. All travel was limited to foot travel for 4 months of the year when the roads were flooded. The villages remained relatively isolated. A review of the statistical tables found in Appendix E revealed that the survey sample received limited influence from outside its immediate environment (less than 20 kilometer radius). Lack of mobility was evidenced by the fact that 213 of those interviewed (89.5%) had never lived outside the village where they were born. There was no published mass media available to the target population. Radios were owned 45 by 54 respondents of the survey sample (24.8%). When asked to name three organizations which had visited their village within the past three years, 128 of the respondents (53.8%) either could not, or chose not to, name one organization. In addition, of those who did recall a visit, 77 (32.4%) could not specify the name or the function of more than one visiting organization. The survey sample represented a ndxture of religious affiliations. Data illustrated by the pie chart in Figure 4.1 indicate that those affiliated with the Protestant and Catholic churches comprised the majority of the survey sample while other religious and cultural beliefs accounted for 31% of the 231 respondents who declared their affiliation. Itomsmnt 94 (41%) Catholic “(28%) ’2333:?:I;Z;I;:;:;:;:; V:::j:::' ()ther '-H'- 73(3196) Figure 4.1. Religious and cultural affiliations of 231 respondents represented in the survey sample Participation in community action groups was compared 46 with the religious affiliation of the respondents. Data results are displayed in Figure 4.2. Fifty-nine of the 94 respondents (62%) affiliated with the Protestant Church participated in a community action group. By comparison, those affiliated with the Catholic Church or with other religious beliefs had a higher percentage not participating in community action groups than they had participating. [:2] Participants in C.A.G. 70 - 59 - Nonpanicipmu in C.A.G. n = 231 rapmdmu 60 - 43 50 ‘ 4O ' 30 ' 20 " 10 -‘ Percent Protestant Catholic Participation in C.A.G. Figure 4.2. Comparison of participation in community action groups with the respondents' religious affiliation Polygamy was practiced by part of the target population and contributed to the large number of children born per household. Data used for the comparison of the number of children born, living, and dead, have been summarized and displayed in Figure 4.3. Data revealed 13 households with 18 or more children born. 47 n = 238 households 30' 25 " 55 56 KP 15‘ m 10 . 21 Percent 5‘ 9 4 1 1 1 1 0—2 3.5 6—8 9—11 12.14 1547 18—20 21:23 24:26 27:29 36:32 Number of Children Figure 4.3. The number of children born per respondent household The number of children born per household ranged from no children in 12 households to 31 children in one household. The large number of children born per household was accompanied by a large number of children who had died in some households. The data for the number of children. who died. per household have been illustrated in Figure 4.4. The upper range limit included two households with 15 or more children who had died. There were 36 households that reported having had six or more children die. Data have been summarized to compare the survey sample according to children born, living, and dead. The data are shown in Table 4.1. 48 n = 237 households 0—2 3—5 6—8 911 1—14 15—17 18—20 Number of Children Died per Household Figure 4.4. The number of children who died per household Table 4.1. Frequency statistics related to the number of children per household for 231 households Description Minimum Maximum Mean Std Dev Total Children“ Children born 0 31 7.64 5.02 1818 Children living 0 18 4.85 3.16 1153 Children dead 0 24 2.76 3.10 654 *Calculated child mortality rate: 35 .9796 Comparison of totals placed the survey sample child mortality rate at 35.97% which was above the 1990 Chadian national child mortality rate recorded at 21.6% for those who died before age five (World Bank, 1992) . One reason the 49 survey sample revealed a child mortality rate above the national average was that the survey did not limit the age at death to five years or under but recorded all children’s deaths without regard to age at death. Figure 4.5 reveals the data resulting from inquiry about the respondents’ means to do field work. Responses to interview question number eight revealed that 78 respondents (33%) did not have a pair of oxen to plow their field. Fifty-one respondents (21.4%) possessed an ox cart. Harvested grain had to be moved from the fields to the house and market by human transport or by hiring a cart. The lack of transport and farm equipment accounted for the large amount of hand labor required to produce food and low number of hectares tilled per household. 100 - n = 238 respondents 90 - 80 ' 7O - 60 .. 50 - 40 - 30 ' 20 ‘ 10 - . 193 187 Percent Hand Oen Plow Hoe OxCart Push Sickle Item Cart Figure 4.5. Number and percent of respondents with animals and equipment to do field work 50 According to recorded responses, 236 of the respondents (99.2%) said that their lack of cash was the major reason they sold their grain at harvest, when prices were at their lowest. Markets were limited to one major village (Bere) where 236 of the respondents (99.2%) indicated they preferred to sell their grain. Likewise 212 (89.1%) responded that their source of seed for planting was from personal or a friend's grain stock. In order to improve their field work, 169 of the respondents (71.1%) confined the source of farming techniques to their immediate family or friends. Nonformal community action groups were a relatively new concept in the target population studied. Ten years was the longest that any respondent had participated in a community action group. The majority of community action groups found within the surveyed villages were formed within the past five years. The environment of the target population contained several factors which limited the diversity of influence from beyond the village limits: 1. The average population of the villages surveyed did not exceed 62 families. 2. No public transportation existed between the survey villages and roads were flooded four months of the year. 3. The respondents tended not to move from their village of origin. 4. There was an absence of mass media influence. 51 5 . There were few visits to villages by representatives of organizations. 6. The survey sample exhibited large families and high child mortality. 7. In spite of low prices, the lack of cash pushed all but two of 238 respondents to sell their grain at harvest time. 8. There were 213 of 238 respondents (89.3%) who sought their seed stock and farming techniques through contacts with family and friends. s f a b O r h is The hypothesis formulation has been guided by the theoretical framework as outlined. The direction of the independent variables' relationships with the dependent variable has been guided by prior research findings as they related to the respective hypothesis. The relationships were also based upon research about those who were most likely to participate in the innovative process represented by community action groups. Each of the first five hypotheses was related to the dependent variable "farmers' participation in community action groups". The dependent variable was a nominal measure of a dichotomous nature indicating yes/no as to participation in a nonformal community action group. The dependent variable of participation in a community action group was represented by 115 respondents (49.1%) and thus divided the survey sample into two equal parts between participants and nonparticipants. 52 Hypothesis 1: The farmers who participate in community action groups will have a higher level of education than those farmers who do not participate. The farmers' level of education was first tested using years of formal schooling and is recorded in Table 4.2. The frequency' table showed ‘that 123 respondents (52.1%) had received no formal education. Table 4.2 also revealed a concentration of 176 respondents (75%) with three years or less of formal education, .A summary of the frequency data for the farmers' level of formal education is displayed in Table 4.3. Conversion factors for formal education are found in Appendix F. Table 4.2. Frequency distribution for the number of years of formal education obtained by the respondents Years of Frequency Percentage Cumulative Enuankm. Pemmnt 0 123 52.1 52.1 1 5 2A. 5&2 2 16 657 611) 3 32 13.6 74.6 4 12 51) 7957 5 15 63 860 6 26 10.9 97.0 7 3 L3 983 8 1 .4 987 9 1 .4 995! 10 1 .4 9915 11 1 .4 1000 2 missing 238 1010 53 Table 4.3. Summary of the statistics for the farmers’ level of formal education Adam. SLOOyeus lamge LLOOyems hkflb .OOyeus Smmdmdlhnn .16 Median .00 years Standard Deviation 2.47 Minimum .00 years Variance 6.10 Maximum 11.00 years Skewness .97 The data obtained for the analysis of the respondents’ level of education was of the interval scale of measurement. Participants and nonparticipants in community action composed two samples independent of each other. A t-test was selected as the appropriate statistical test for differences between the means of the two independent groups. Alpha was specified at .05 for a one-tailed test. The null hypothesis was that there would be no difference between the mean level of education for farmers who participated in community action groups and those who did not participate in community action groups. The t-test results are recorded in Table 4.4. 54 Table 4.4. T-test results for differences between the mean level of years of education for participants and nonparticipants in community action groups Description Number Mean“ Standard Standard of Cases Deviation Error of Mean Participants in C.A.G 115 2.29 2.54 .24 Nonparticipants in C.A.G. 117 1.78 2.39 .22 Variance t-value df One-tailed SE of 95 96 CI for Significance Difference Differences Unequal 1.57 229 .06 .32 (-.13, 1.15) *Mean difference = .51 The critical t-value was 1.65. The calculated t-value was less than the critical t-value. Therefore the null hypothesis was not rejected. The mean difference for level of 'education was a half a year more for community action group participants, but the t-test gave a directional probability of .06 and exceeded the one-tailed test predicted at .05. It was not possible to reject the null hypothesis. ' Therefore, it can be concluded that there was no difference between the level of education obtained by those farmers who participated in community action groups and those who did not. When statistics generated for measurement of the farmers’ level of formal education revealed that over half of the survey sample had no formal education, a cautionary move was 55 made by the researcher to measure the respondents' level of education on a second scale, based upon the respondents’ ability to read. The researcher's 16 years of experience in the region surveyed permitted the observation that a significant number from the target population.have learned to read in a nonformal educational setting. A summary of data relating the ability'to read with.years of formal schooling is displayed in Figure 4.6. 1m» 3 . 2555:: $5322; 3.5+: 4+3" - NMMCI'S l4 .‘--.-‘-. 323:; :.'.".:.:. yqifi; 323+: _ 235 IS ....,.,. 55:53:; 3555-: ‘E-:::§:' 53:11 45:51:: _ av...- ..' .._ : .;. _ g”; . 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'9’ 3’5 . k ..... Z .; ‘0 ‘- M is 'u fa A 'o' u A . . ' .- :;.;.;:;; -:-:i‘ ".‘x 'o..' ' .' J: V- a 4. r x ‘H. 5. > v. ‘- <9 6 5‘ v. U "k '34- -:-' “37355255; '2 35:?“ :1- -:- 5:4. ., ..‘ '59 -. X ._ ‘o A a '-': . . -. S ‘5 - 241:}. .-I'-:;. ::._.-§-.. 5 K" as 5. 3 "x‘: V «(i-:3 is ’5‘- '3. ‘ i: '5. - '. 3. §:°:‘°‘:."-.::-'.::::.'5‘:::2:!":::I-. ::’3 =afiwmwwwe-m 9 ~13.“ W 2' 30:43 , ’ '5. < :2 ;: \‘C‘ A. WW 0 c )x O ‘1- . 2‘3:- 0 O o '\ O Figure 4.6. Comparison of readers and nonreaders according to years of formal schooling A second measure of the first hypothesis was established which related the farmers' ability to read to their participation or nonparticipation in community action groups. This test of the hypothesis stated that there is a positive relationship between the farmers' participation in community action groups and the farmers' ability to read. The ability to read was recorded as a nominal answer 56 (yes/no) and each respondent who indicated the ability to read was requested to demonstrate that ability by reading a short proverb either in French or in the local language of Nangjéré, depending upon his preference. The resulting statistics are displayed in Figure 4.7. Frequencies indicated that 44% of the respondents could read. The rate compared favorably with the national average of 30% for adults (United Nations, 1992). It should be noted that in the United Nations Development Report that the literacy averages for men and women were combined. This research did not include women in the respondents' averages. Percent National Adult Literacy Rate Participants Nonparticipants in C.A.G. inC. . . Respondents Respondent Category Figure 4.7. Percentage of respondents who have the ability to read and their comparison with the Chadian national averages The data were of a nominal scale for each of the two variables being compared and led the researcher to choose the chi-square test to analyze the relationship between 57 participation in community action groups and ability to read. The null hypothesis was established that there was no relationship between the farmers' participation in community action groups and the respondents' ability to read. Alpha was designated as .05 for a one-tailed.test~ Data produced by the test are recorded in Table 4.5. Table 4.5. Chi-square test of the relationship between the respondents’ participation in community action groups and their ability to read Description Number of % df x2 Significance“ Respondents Value Participation in C.A.G. Reader 62 53.9 1 8.99 .003 annmdmr 53 46J Immmnnkhnumnhithll Remkr 41 345 hhmnndm: 78 615 I"Pearson chi-square probability n==234 The chi-square test was statistically significant at .003 and indicated that it was unlikely the two variables were independent in the survey sample. The chances were less than 3 in 1,000 that sample results obtained.would.have resulted if there was no relationship between the farmers' participation in community action groups and the respondents' ability to read. Since the observed significance level was smaller than 58 the designated alpha, the null hypothesis was rejected and the hypothesis was accepted. The accepted hypothesis was that there is a positive relationship between those farmers’ who participate in community action groups and the farmers’ ability to read. Hypothesis 2: The farmers who participate in community action groups will have a greater degree of cosmopoliteness than those farmers who do not participate. Measurement of the variable "cosmopoliteness" was done by questioning respondents concerning commercial centers they visited and the frequency of those visits. Each center visited was coded from 1 to 5, according to its relative importance as a commercial center, and multiplied by the respondents' number of visits made to the village over a five- year period (see Appendix G). The statistics for cosmopoliteness are summarized in Table 4.6. The range of values for cosmopoliteness was 0 - 156 with 80 separate values recorded for the 238 respondents. A standard deviation of 27.06 was derived. The group mean for those who were participants in a community action group was 39.51, which gave 3.61 points above the mean of 35.90 for nonparticipants of community action groups (see Table 4.7). Table 4.6. Summary of statistics for the respondents' cosmopoliteness Mean 37.80 Standard Error 1.76 Mode 30.00 Standard Deviation 27.06 Minimum .00 Variance 732.29 Maximum 156.00 Median 31.00 Range 156.00 Skewness 1.58 era?- 59 Table 4.7. Summary of statistics which compare the cosmopoliteness of participants with nonparticipants in community action groups Description Number of Mean Standard Standard Respondents Score Deviation Error Participants in C.A.G. 115 39.51 28.79 2.68 Nonparticipants in C.A.G. 118 35.90 25.04 2.31 n==233 The difference between mean score of cosmopoliteness for participants over nonparticipants in community action groups was analyzed using the Mann-Whitney test. The alpha was set at .05 for a one-tailed test, and the null hypothesis stated that there was no difference between those who participate in community action groups and those who do not participate when measured with the variable "cosmopoliteness". The Mann-Whitney test was selected for the analysis of the data for the variable cosmopoliteness because of the construct of the variable. The variable data produced were continuous in nature, but what was measured was a construct of the degree of travel away from the respondents’ home village. A person could have traveled five times to a nearby major village whereas another traveled once to a more distant village and each would have received an equal score. The Mann-Whitney test was preferred to that of the two independent sample t-test because normality and equality-of- 60 variance assumptions were not needed. The Mann-Whitney test required only that the observations be a random sample and the values can be ordered from smallest to largest (NoruSis, 1991). Mann-Whitney test results reveal whether scores in one population tend to be higher than scores in another by assigning rank orders to respondents' scores. These rank scores are then totaled and divided by the number of respondents to obtain the mean rank score for each independent group in the analysis. The results of the analysis are shown in Table 4.8. The mean rank for participants and nonparticipants in community action groups when measured with the variable cosmopoliteness produced a one-tailed probability of .26 when corrected for rank ties. The null hypothesis was not rejected and it was concluded that there was not a difference between those who participate in community action groups and those who do not participate when compared by their cosmopoliteness. 61 Table 4.8. Mann-Whitney test results for the relationship between the farmers' participation in.a community action group and the measure of the farmers' cosmopoliteness Description Respondents Mean Rank Participants in C.A.G 115 119.81 Nonparticipants in C.A.G. 118 114.26 u ‘w 2 Omeeubdpfi 6461.5 13778.5 -.63 .26 *Corrected for ties Hypothesis 3: The farmers who participate in community action groups will have a higher level of economic status than those farmers who do not participate. The Tandjilé rice farmers' economic status could not be derived from valid gross income figures. Nevertheless, differences of wealth existed between the respondents. A system.was devised to measure the farmers' wealth by means of their possession of materials to do farm ‘work (interview schedule question number 7), possession of animals (interview schedule question number 8), and possession of major personal items (interview schedule question number 26). Conversion of these three variables to a standard score expanded their usefulness as interval measures and facilitated data analysis. A conversion factor based upon 1991 Tandjilé regional market. prices was established. for the combined variable economic status (see Appendix H for conversion factors). The factor derived for each respondent was divided 62 by a dollar value determined at the 1991 Central African Franc (cfa) currency exchange rate which gave 300 cfa to one dollar. The distribution of condensed data has been illustrated in Figure 4.8. The distribution was positively skewed with a large number of respondents represented in the lower economic levels. The respondents' economic status is displayed in Table 4.9. 5° ‘ n = 238 respondents 45‘ 85 35' 30‘ Percent 01 201 10" ‘ w - ' ‘ “ * 1 $283 $783 $1.283 $1.783 $2.283 $2,783 $3,283 $3,783 Economic Status in Dollars Figure 4.8. The respondents' economic status with an increment of 500.00 dollars Table 4.9. Summary of statistics for the respondents' economic status, shown with dollar equivalents where appropriate Mean 25.85 (3 862) Standard Error 1.41 Mode 1.30 (S 43) ‘ Standard Deviation 21.80 Minimum 1.10 ($ 37) Variance 475.26 Maximum 115.70 ($3,857) Median 20.25 ($675) Range 114.60 ($3,820) Skewness 1.35 63 A t-test was chosen to test differences between the means of the participants and nonparticipants of community action groups when compared with their respective economic status. The null hypothesis was stated that there would be no difference between the farmers who participate in community action groups and the farmers' economic status when compared with those who do not participate in community action groups. Alpha was set at .05 for a one-tailed test. Critical t was found to be 1.65. Results of the t-test are given in Table 4.10. The resulting t value of 3.46 was greater than critical t of 1.65. This was supported by the significance of .001, which led to the rejection of the null hypothesis and acceptance of the alternative hypothesis that there is an economic status difference between. the farmers who participated in community action groups and the farmers who did not participate. The farmers who participated in community action groups had a higher level of economic status. 64 Table 4.10. T-test results for the differences between the respondents' participation in community action groups and the respondents' economic status IDewnmdmi IMHMxn hknn* Smmdmd SmnwudEnpr ofCEHms Ikndafion ofldean Participants in C.A.G. 115 30.78 25.16 2.35 Nonparticipants in C.A.G. 119 21.05 16.90 1.55 Variance t-value df One-tailed SE of 95 % CI Significance Difference for Differences Unequal 3.46 198.61 .001 2.81 (4.18, 15.27) *hkmnlfifiemmxz=!l73 Hypothesis 4: The farmers who participate in community action groups will till more hectares of land than those farmers who do not participate. The respondents were asked how many hectares of various crops they tilled in 1991. The crop with the largest area under tillage was rice. .As one moved towards the outer limits of the flood plains, other crops were also recorded. The pie chart in Figure 4.9 represents the percent of tilled area for the various crops raised by the Tandjilé rice farmers. Data for the number of hectares tilled by each respondent's household have been summarized and illustrated in Figure 4.10. The pertinent statistics relating to the hectares tilled are recorded in Table 4.11. 65 Figure 4.9. The relative area devoted to crops raised by Tandjilé farmers 30 ‘ 68 70 n = 238 households 25- 20- 15‘ Percent 10‘ 20 5‘ 8 US no .— Hectares per Household Figure 4.10. Number and percent of households with the number of hectares tilled 66 Table 4.11. Statistical summary for the number of hectares per household Mean 3.16 Ha Standard Error 1.11 hflxh: iZOOIhL SmmdudIMWmnkm L72 Minimum 1.81 Ha Variance 2.94 Maximum 11.00 Ha Median 3.00 Ha Range 10.19 Ha Skewness 1.81 The farmers’ total hectares tilled was represented by a mean of 3.16 hectares. There were five out of 238 respondents who indicated they tilled more than seven hectares. The standard deviation of 1.72 was indicative of the number of hectares tilled (1.4 - 4.9 hectares) by 68% of the survey sample. The fact that 50% of the respondents had three hectares or less indicated each respondent's dependence upon limited hectares to produce for his family's needs. The null hypothesis was stated that there is no difference between farmers who participate in community action groups and the total hectares tilled by the farmers when compared with those farmers who do not participate. Alpha was set at .05 for a two-tailed test. A t-test was used to measure the differences between the means of hectares tilled by those who participated and those who did not participate in community action groups. Critical t was established as 1.97. The t-test analysis gave a t value of 4.18 and an alpha of less than .001, which led to the rejection of the null hypothesis and acceptance of the alternative hypothesis that a difference in total hectares tilled does exist between the 67 farmers who participated in community action groups and those who did not. A probability of less than .001 revealed the high level of confidence by which the null hypothesis was rejected. An examination of means, shown in Table 4.12, indicated that those farmers who participated in community action groups had a mean of 3.63 hectares, which was greater than the mean of 2.72 hectares for“ those who» did. not participate in community action groups. Table 4.12. T-test results for the differences between the respondents' participation in community action groups and the respondents' total hectares tilled Eksnhnkm. FNmflmr hflmn* Smmdmfl Sunmudfknn of Cases Hectares Deviation of Mean Participants in C.A.G. 115 3.63 1.91 1.79 Nonparticipants in C.A.G. 119 2.72 1.37 1.26 t-value df Two-tailed SQmfikamx 4518 232 .000 *Mean Difference = 0.91 The total hectares per respondent was relatively low, and therefore a difference of nearly one hectare between the two groups' means demonstrated a positive relationship between those who participated in community action groups and the 68 total hectares tilled by those farmers as compared with those who did not participate in community action groups. Hypothesis 5: The farmers who participate in community action groups will be more willing to work with others than those farmers who do not participate. Participation in community action groups or nonparticipation was used as the dependent variable. It was analyzed with the four questions which composed the construct of the farmers' willingness to work with others. The four questions were taken from the interview schedule questions 16, 17, 19, and 22. The interview schedule question responses were recorded on a 4-point Likert scale. The value 1 was used to designate the category' strongly agree, 2 agree, 3 disagree, and 4 strongly disagree. The nominal and ordinal scale measurements of the independent and dependent variables led the researcher to choose the Mann-Whitney test to analyze the difference between the mean rank of the farmers' willingness to work with others when the farmers who participated in community action groups were compared with those farmers who did not participate. Alpha was set at the .05 level for a one-tailed test. The results of the analysis, with the frequencies and.mean scores for each question, are displayed in Table 4.13. The Mann-Whitney test determined the differences between the mean rank scores of the farmers' willingness to work with others. The mean rank scores were compared with the farmers' participation in community action groups and indicated a 69 probability which exceeded .05. The null hypothesis was not rejected. No differences of statistical significance were established between the farmers' participation in community action groups and the farmers’ willingness to work with others. Test results are summarized in Table 4.14. Table 4.13. Frequencies and mean scores for questions measuring the farmers' willingness to work with others Question Content n Code Frequency % Menu No. 16 Working together 237 1 160 68 1.34 with my neighbor 2 77 32 is a principle which 3 0 will help improve our 4 0 community more than if we work individually. No. 17 I prefer to work with 236 l 88 37 1.85 someone from my village 2 106 45 than from outside my 3 31 13 village. 4 11 5 No. 19 A group created by the 233 l 95 41 1.74 villagers will function 2 111 47 better than a group 3 20 9 created by those from 4 7 3 outside the village. No. 22 The creation of an 237 1 99 42 1.78 association that would 2 103 43 link groups from villages 3 23 10 would be better than if 4 l2 5 the groups remained inde- pendent. 1 = Strongly Agree 2 = Agree 3 = Disagree 4 = Strongly Disagree 70 Table 4.14. Mann-Whitney test findings for differences between the farmers' willingness to work with others and their participation in community action groups Question M-W Mean Rank Z One-tailed Participants Nonpart. Probability NO. 16 110.22 114.53 -1.99 .02* NO. 17 115.40 118.53 -.38 .35 NO. 19 116.28 114.72 --.20 .42 NO. 22 113.62 121.25 -.94 .18 Combined Questions 112 117 -.53 .29 1= Strongly Agree 2 = Agree 3 = Disagree 4 = Strongly Disagree fip‘<.05 The four independent variable questions related to the farmers' willingness to work with others were analyzed separatelyu Test results revealed that those farmers who felt that working together with their neighbors was good for community development were also significantly more likely to be participants in community action groups Hypothesis 6: There is a positive relationship between the farmers' willingness to work with others and the farmers’ age. Correlations were performed to determine if the dependent variable, measure of the farmers’ willingness to work with others, could be correlated with the farmers' age. The Likert scale measures for the dependent variable were relabeled with numbers to determine mean values. A multiple regression analysis was used to determine if 71 relationships existed between the measure of the farmers' willingness to work with others when compared with the farmers' age. A summary of data for the farmers' age is given in Table 4.15. Significant measures in the dependent variable regression included the farmers' working with neighbors for community development and the creation of an association to link groups from various villages. The results from the regression analysis are included in Table 4.16. No significant differences were found between the two variables. Therefore the null hypothesis was tenable. There was no relationship established between the farmers' willingness to work with others and the farmers' age. Table 4.15. Statistical summary for the farmers' age Mean 39.22 years Standard Error .72 Mode 50.00 years Standard Deviation 11.04 Minimum 19.00 years Variance 121.95 Maximum 71.00 years Median 38.00 years Range 52.00 years Skewness .74 72 Table 4 . 16 . Multiple regression statistics for relationships between the farmers' willingness to work with others and the farmers' age Question Content Mean SD. Beta t tSig- Value nificance No. 16 Working together with 1.34 .50 .11 1.73 .04“ my neighbors is a principle which will help us improve our community more than if we work individually. No. 17 I prefer to work with 1.85 .82 -.01 -.10 .46 someone from my vil- lage than with some- one from outside my village. No. 19 A group created by 1.74 .74 -.17 -2.64 .01“ the villagers will func- tion better than a group created from outside the village. No. 22 The creation of an 1.78 .82 -.02 -.34 .37 association that would link groups from vil- lages together would be better than if groups remained independent. Combined Variable Willingness 6.70 1.65 .06 -.87 .39 Farmers’ Age 39.26 11.10 1= Strongly Agree 2 = Agree 3 = Disagree 4 = Strongly Disagree n = 232 I"p < .05 73 Hypothesis 7: There is a positive relationship between the farmers' willingness to work with others and the farmers' openness to new farming ideas. The independent variables were taken from five interview schedule binomial yes/no questions, numbered 40, 41, 43, 48, and 50. The questions are listed in Table 4.17 and response frequencies are recorded for each question. A composite of the independent variable data was determined in order to produce a numerical value for the farmers' openness to new farming ideas. A composite was also determined for the dependent variables which had previously been measured on a 4 point Likert scale. The responses represented attitudinal measures of the farmers' willingness to work with others. A multiple regression analysis was conducted to determine the relationships between the farmers' openness to new farming ideas and the dependent variable of the farmers' willingness to work with others. The analysis results are give in Table 4.18. The independent variable demonstrated a beta value of -.05 and indicated the amount of change associated with the intercept for each unit of the dependent variable measured. Because the null hypothesis was a non-directional hypothesis, a two-tailed t-test was used. The two-tailed probability of .50 indicated that no relationships were found between the independent and dependent variables. 74 Table 4. 17. Response frequencies the independent variable question Question Content n frequency yes % no % No. 40 Would you like to store some of you 237 231 97 6 3 grain in a community granary? No. 41 Would you prefer to wait until you 208 154 74 54 26 had an opportunity to observe whether the community granary functions well before you store your grain there? No. 43 Do you use chemicals to treat your 237 123 52 114 48 seed grain before planting? No. 48 Would you like a system whereby 238 235 99 3 1 seed grain is stored in common in your village? No. 50 Would you like to apply cotton seed 236 226 96 10 4 waste to your rice field this planting season? 75 Table 4.18. Multiple regression of the farmers' openness to new farming ideas and the farmers' willingness to work with others Vmfiflfle n khan r2 Baa t t Value Value Significance Openness 223 6.28 .00 -.05 -.67 .50 Willingness 232 6.71 Hypothesis 8: There is a positive relationship between the farmers’ willingness to work with others and the farmers’ level of education. Four likert scale questions measured the respondents’ willingness to work with others and were coded 1 - strongly agree, 2 - agree, 3 - disagree, and 4 - strongly disagree. A composite of the dependent variable was produced and a multiple regression analysis was conducted on the composite mean score using the independent variable measure of the respondents’ years of formal education. The regression analysis found no statistically significant relationship between the farmers' years of formal education and the farmers' willingness to work with others. Statistics revealed by the analysis are given in Table 4.19. 76 Table 4.19. Multiple regression of the farmers’ level of education in years on the dependent variable for willingness to work with others Variable Mean r2 Beta t One-tailed Value Value Significance Level of Education 1.99 .00 .02 .28 .39 Willingness to Work 6.70 with others CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS An overview of the research questions which gave direction to the study, procedures, and results is presented in the first section of this chapter. A discussion of the major conclusions that were reached regarding the factors that affect. the ‘Tandjilé :rice farmers' participation in community action groups is included in the second section. The third section includes a number of implications drawn from the study findings and conclusions. EBEEQIX Local organizations serve as a channel for a community to mobilize their efforts to find solutions to a common needs IRural development strategies are :recognizing' the importance of assessing the attributes held by a society which facilitate community action groups to achieve their goals of meeting common needs. An examination of the factors which influenced farmers to participate in such indigenous community action groups placed emphasis upon the importance of understanding which farmers do and which farmers do not participate in community 77 78 action groups. The demographic and .socio-economic factors which appeared to be important facilitators for functioning community action groups were chosen from other studies and from the researcher’s years of experience working with a rural development project in the region researched. The. dependent ‘variable for this research study’ was based upon the farmers’ participation in nonformal community action groups. Differences between those who participated and those who did not participate were studied to find what relationships existed with various independent variables. The following is a summary of the questions that guided this research study and the major findings for each as described in Chapter IV. Research Questign 1; What demographic and socio-economic factors appear to influence the farmers' participation in community action groups? 1. Participation in community action groups was evenly distributed among the survey sample with 49.1% of the farmers reporting they participated and 50.9% reported nonparticipation. 2. The youngest farmer surveyed was 19 years old and the oldest was 71. The mean age of the survey sample was 39 years. 3. The level of formal education obtained by 176 of the respondents (75%) was three years or less. 4. The majority of community action groups were formed within the past five years with 10 years being the 79 longest that any respondent had participated in a community action group. Religious affiliations of the survey sample revealed 94 (41%) were Protestant, 64 (28%) were Catholic, and 73 (31%) were other. Fifty-nine out of 94 respondents (62%) who were affiliated with the Protestant Church also participated in a community action group. By comparison, those affiliated with the Catholic Church or other religious beliefs, had a higher percentage who did not participate in community action groups. There was no statistically significant difference between the mean level of education for those who participated in community action groups and those who did not participate. There was a statistically significant difference between those farmers who participated in community groups and those who did not participate when their ability to read was compared. Lack of mobility was evidenced by the fact that 213 of those interviewed (89.5%) had never lived outside of the village where they were born. The amount and extent of travel to major commercial centers by the farmers revealed no statistically significant difference between those who participated and those who did not participate in community action groups. 10. 11. 12. 80 There was no statistically significance difference between the mean level of economic status of those farmers who participated in community action groups and the farmers who did not participate. Fifty percent of those surveyed tilled three hectares or less. No respondent reported more than 11 hectares tilled. The mean number of hectares tilled was 3.16 hectares. The farmers who participated in community action groups had a statistically significant greater number of hectares tilled. The difference between the farmers was demonstrated when the mean hectares tilled by nonparticipants (2.72) was compared with the mean hectares tilled by participants (3.63). Beeeegch Questiog 2: What is the relationship between the farmers' willingness to work with others and the farmers' participation in community action groups? 1. There was a positive relationship shown to exist between those who participated in community action groups and their agreement with the statement that working with their neighbors would improve their community more than if they worked individually. Participants and nonparticipants in community action groups exhibited no differences in agreement 81 that community action groups created by the villages would function better than a group created by those from outside the village. Two hundred and six respondents (88.4%) out of 233 believed that a group created by villagers would function better than a group created by those from outside the village. There was no relationship shown between participants in community action groups and their preference to work with someone from their village than with those from outside their village, when compared with nonparticipants in community action groups. There were 194 respondents (82.2%) out of 236 who preferred working with someone from within their village than with someone from outside their village. There was no relationship shown between participants and nonparticipants in community action groups when compared with their attitude about whether it would be better to create an association of groups from various villages or that the groups remain independent. There were 202 respondents (85.2%) out of 237 who indicated that the creation of an association that would link groups from different villages would be better than if the groups remained independent. 82 Researeh Qgesfiion 3: Which variables appear to influence the farmers' willingness to work with others? 1. There were no relationships noted between the farmers' age and the combined questions related to the farmers’ willingness to work with others. 2. Younger farmers were more likely to indicate that working with neighbors was better than working individually for community development. 3. There was a relationship which indicated that older farmers were more likely to believe that a group created by the villagers would function better than a group created from outside the village. 4. The willingness of the farmers’ to work with others was not related to their openness to new farming ideas. 5. The farmers' level of education had no relationship with the farmers' willingness to work with others. Missions Statements of the conclusions are presented in the following sections. A brief discussion of each conclusion is presented with references to related study findings and relevant literature. Qenelneien_1; The ability to read was a better indicator of the farmers' participation in community action groups than was the measure of the farmers' level of formal education. It should be noted that 176 of the respondents (75%) had a maximum of three years of formal education. The level 83 of formal education did not indicate any relationship with participation in community action groups. Other studies in developing nations have found a positive correlation between education. ‘with. participation. in. both. political and nonpolitical activities (Almond & Verba, 1963) When the level of education was based upon the respondents' ability to read, however, there was a positive relationship with participation in community action groups. It was also noted that 25 respondents (20%) who had never received formal schooling had the ability to read. This demonstrated the influence of learning that occurred outside of the formal school setting as a possible factor in participation in community action groups, when that learning was taking place in a society with a low level of formal education. This finding was supportive of conclusions published by Uphoff and Cohen (1977) who stated that functional literacy and numeracy, in less developed countries, were generally better indicators in the analysis of participation than the number of years of formal education. This was particularly true in rural areas lacking sufficient income. The ability to read, rather than level of formal education, was a better predictor of the farmers’ participation in the relatively new concept of community action groups and was similar to findings of studies done by Rogers (1968). Rogers stated that literacy in less developed countries has proven to be an important predictor 84 of a person’s degree of innovativeness. W The decision to participate in community action groups did not appear to have been stimulated by observing community action groups and introducing them from the exterior of the villages as an innovative concept. This conclusion was supportive of Maslow’s theory of basic human needs being an important motivator of behavior. The individuals within the village faced with particular needs then joined efforts within the village to respond to those needs. These efforts did not appear to have been motivated by concepts introduced from the exterior. Presurvey probes and open-ended question responses underscored the importance that informal community action groups have had as precursors of the nonformal action groups examined by this research. The researcher would conclude that the presence of existing informal community action groups appeared to have been an influential factor in shaping why and how the target population had participated in the newer nonformal community action groups. W Those having greater financial capacity, as measured by their means to work their fields and the size of those fields, were shown to have been positively related with those who participated in community action groups. There were not large differences related to economic status among the survey sample. However, the differences which existed were shown to be effective measures and were positively related to those who participated in community action groups. A number of research studies have shown 85 participation in groups and associations as being more numerous among those having greater economic status and larger cultivated areas (Toburn, 1971) . The conclusions reached as a result of this study, regarding economic status, were similar to those included in the studies of Toburn. Qegelueion 4; The presence of willingness to work with others appears to have been an important facilitator for community action groups. There were four questions related to the farmers' willingness to work with others. One of the four questions dealt with the principle that a willingness to work with others would help improve the community. One hundred percent of the respondents indicated that they either agreed or strongly agreed with this principle. The other three questions dealing with the farmers’ willingness to work with others received over 80% agree and strongly agree responses. The survey sample exhibited a strong inclination to cooperate but it was not related to their participation in community action groups. However, as other studies have confirmed, this predisposition of a cooperative spirit was a prerequisite to community members forming community action groups. Previous research has shown that attitude similarity was an effective factor in facilitating the formation of groups. Bunch (1985) stated that studies have confirmed that the presence of attitudes pertaining to the willingness 86 to work with others was an important accelerator for rural development as related to community action. The presence of a spirit of willingness to work with others was important and has been recognized to be so by the farmers. This conclusion was generally confirmed by open- ended question number 15.C. (see Appendix E). The respondents frequently referred to the differences between the earlier attempts to establish nonformal community action groups and more successful recent attempts as due to a more cooperative spirit which now exists. 5' : The farmers maintained a priority for development when the process included actively working with others in their community to achieve solutions to their needs. This conclusion disputes earlier sociologists who stated that traditional societies maintained a low priority for development. Consequently, approaches to rural development were centralized and top-down in the organizational structure. This conclusion is supportive of more recent studies that have found that the traditional farmers are interested in development (Korton, 1985; Uphoff & Esman, 1974). Traditional farmers have exhibited interest in informal, collective farm work. Labor sharing to accomplish planting, weeding, and harvest tasks have been a known trait among labor intensive farming communities. Farmers in this study expressed a favorable opinion to expand this willingness to work with others when it included the process 87 of development. As the process was extended to linking with groups from the exterior of their community, the farmers were less favorable. This would lead one to conclude that the priority for development exists but the organizational structure must be formulated at the level of priority held by the community members. W; In order to facilitate the development of community action groups in the target population literacy programs should be undertaken. In the development of managerial skills, upon which community action groups increase their capacity to care for community needs, the ability to read is an essential building block. The ability to read demonstrated a significant positive relationship with participation in community action groups. Literacy appears to serve as a factor linked with empowering the population to association with others in community action groups. Those who can read are less likely to be exploited by those in charge of group finances. The administration of community action group finances are enhanced when the population's literacy level is higher. This, in turn, betters confidence in the administration of the group's assets. Programs directed towards literacy have been shown to augment participation in rural development programs and reduce the risk of exploitation of the illiterate (Lele, 1975). 88 W A number of implications were drawn from this study of factors affecting participation in community action groups by the Tandjilé rice farmers in Southern Chad. JMajor implications are stated and discussed below. : Nonformal learning within the confines of the villages played an important role in determining the farmers' participation in community action groups as well as the type of organization the farmers preferred. It was found that less than 25% of the survey sample had completed over three years of school. Presurvey probes depicted a preference by the survey sample for less structured organizations and a general preference for groups formed from within the villages. Study findings indicated that formal education had no relationship with the farmers' participation in community action groups. The farmers have not been trained for complicated organizational structures. The experiences received by the farmers within their villages started with small, unstructured groups for fishing, field work, or even village building projects. The concept of more structured community action groups, formed according to guidelines outlined by the villagers, have come into being within the past eight years. The villagers are learning from experience and have formed limited and rare linkages between neighboring villages. As yet, just under half of the villagers participate in community action groups. ‘Village capacities for community action groups are developed through less 89 formal and less complex management systems. Nonformal learning can serve as a conduit to develop this capacity. ° Past and existing social structures should be accommodated as steps towards developing the farmers' capacities for rural development. The survey sample’s responses to an open-ended question (15.c) have shown that family units have played an important role in how the villagers cooperated in the past. The respondents indicated that they wanted to be a part of meeting their own needs. They believed that groups created for this purpose are better when created from within the villages than when created from outside. There was a strong preference for development that involved working with neighbors. Other responses revealed a preference for working with others from within the village as opposed to working with those from outside the village. It appeared that willingness to work with others outside of family units has been becoming more popular and has been evidenced by the creation of village level community action groups during the past 10 years. Responses indicated that there was a relationship between those who believed that working with their neighbors was good for community development and their participation in community action groups. These attitudes indicated that planning would be less appropriate if, at the village level, it did not permit the farmers to shape responses to their basic needs. The 90 farmers indicated that, in their opinion, a group created by the villagers would function better than a group created from outside the village. This opinion was related to those who participated in a community action group and would imply a desire to form their own groups according to their structural preferences. This was in accordance with the theoretical framework of this study which stated that basic needs are powerful motivators, causing individuals to work with each other to forge a response to that need. Implieee193_;e Development activities should be formulated with consideration given to the respective age level of the various community members. The target population regions, older people were respected. The survey sample often referred to "our parents" or "our ancestors" when they explained why certain practices exist or persist. Community action groups should include a good representation of village elders if decisions made by the group are to be respected. Nonformal adult education programs directed at community needs should include representation from among the older farmers. Development activities related to village social structures should tap the older farmers as a source of information. By contrast, development activities linked with influences from the exterior of the local village community will find more consensus among the younger farmers. The implications are that development workers need 91 . to adjust their approach with respect to the participation of those community members who can enhance or hinder the accomplishment of the community action group's goals. W Participation in community action groups could be facilitated by introducing modest, low-risk projects that do not require large capital investments from those who participate in the projects. Those farmers who till fewer hectares have lagged in their participation in community action groups. This is evidenced by the significant positive relationship shown by those farmers who till a greater number of hectares who also participate in community action groups. While high socio- economic status alone may not lead to greater participation, it may bring better access to development benefits to the individual. It appears that small-scale farmers within the sample were not likely to join community action groups when they perceived risks. Efforts should be made to introduce modest projects which do not require large capital investments from those who participate. This would encourage the small-scale farmers to participate and serve as a channel for benefits to the smaller farmers. WW Some recommendations for future research arose directly or indirectly out of this study. Others arose as a result of gaps in research literature and knowledge. Yet others are suggested for follow-up and continued 92 investigations. 1. Conduct an in-depth case study' with farmers in three of the target population villages to describe how and why community action groups for rural development have been formed by the farmers within those villages. Conduct a study of the role of nonformal education as a tool for empowering those who participate in community action groups. Replicate this study in a similar target population and emphasize more specifically leadership, local power politics, and behavioral factors affecting participation in community action groups. Conduct a study assessing differences in motives for participating in community action groups at informal, nonformal, and formal levels of organization and compare the farmers' preferences for various development purposes. Conduct a survey among nonparticipants in community action groups to determine their attitudes and opinions about such groups and about those who do participate. APPENDICES APPENDIX A LETTER OF APPROVAL FROM UNIVERSITY COMMITTEE ON RESEARCH INVOLVING HUMAN SUBJECTS MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY 93 OFFICE OF VICE PRESIDENT FOR RESEARCH EAST LANSING 0 MICHIGAN 0 «824-1046 AND DEAN OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL March 3, 1992 Ross Beach 1783 Grovenburg Holt, MI 48842 RE: THE FACTORS HHICH HINDER/FACILITATE THE TRADITIONAL FARMERS TO FORM COMMUNITY ACTION PROJECTS FOR AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHAD, IRB #92- 047 Dear Hr. Beach: The above project is exempt from full UCRIHS review. The proposed research protocol has been reviewed by another committee member. The rights and welfare of human subjects appear to be protected and you have approval to conduct the research. You are reminded that UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year. If you plan to continue this project beyond one year, please make provisions for obtaining appropriate UCRIHS approval one month prior to February 18, 1993. Any changes in procedures involving human subjects must be reviewed by UCRIHS prior to initiation of the change. UCRIHS must also be notifed promptly of any problems (unexpected side effects, complaints, etc.) involving human subjects during the course of the work. Thank you for bringing this project to my attention. If I can be of any future help. please do not hesitate to let me know. Sincerely, University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS) DEN/deo cc: Dr. Frank Bobbitt MSU it an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution APPENDIX B INTERVIEW SCHEDULE 94 INTERVIEW SCHEDULE Village Name Village Code Respondent’s Code 1. Are you married? yes no 2. Date of birth: 3. Number of children: born living dead 4. How long have you lived in this village? lessthanSyears morethan 10 years between 5 to 10 years since birth 5. a. Do you attend church? yes no b. Which church do you attend Protestant Catholic Other c. Are you a member of the church? yes no 6. Identify the villages that you have visited in the past five years and indicate the frequency of your visits: . . l '1] H L . . Lai Bere Kelo Moundou Bongor Pala Doba Sarh N’Djamena Other: 95 7. What means do you have to do your field work? 8. How many animals do you have? Oxen Goats Sheep Pigs Horses 9. The fields that you farmed this year, are they larger than last year? smaller than last year? the same as last year? 10. How many hectares (cordes) have you planted this year? Rice Peanuts Millet Ground nuts] Cotton Other Corn 11. If you wanted helpful information concerning your field work, whom would you ask? .... O E" W The following questions relate to the subject of working in groups. Take the time to explain the concept (community action, formal associations, collective work. No matter if they were created spontaneously or whether created by outside influence.) Once that you think the respondent has understood the term well, proceed with the questions. 96 12. Do you participate in a village group? yes no Which group? How many belong to this group? How many years have you belonged to this group? 13. What different groups exist in your village? Credit Collective activity: Marketing Field work Purchasing Hunting Grain storage Fishing Building (school, public building, well, etc) Note; one group can have more than one function. 14. What other groups have existed in the past but no longer exist in your village? MW 15 . A. Did the idea of group action exist in the time of your grandparents? yes No B. If group activities existed in the time of your grandparents, did they differ from those of today? __ yes __ No If yes, how did they differ? 97 W Before continuing, it is necessary to explain that you are going to express some opinions. You would like the respondent to say whether he ”agrees” with the statement of ”disagrees”. There are not to be any explanations given nor conditions for the statements. After the response is given, then ask if he "strongly agrees” or ”strongly disagrees”. 16. Working together with my neighbors is a principle 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. which will help us immprove our community more than if we work individually. I prefer to work with someone from my village than with someone outside of my village. The progress of any individual in my village will cause him to be criticized by others in the village. A group created by the villagers will function better than a group created by those from outside the village. A community granary will be more useful to me than a granary in my own yard. A community granary will help me sell my grain for a better price than when I store it in my own granary. The creation of an association that would link groups from several villages together would be better than if the groups remained independent. The validity of a community granary depends solely upon who the leaders are. A community granary that is well constructed and well administrated is better than stocking my grain in my own granary. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 98 Is your village composed of: One clan that is in the majority? One tribe is in the majority but there are several clans? Different tribes? (Which tribe is in the majority?) Do you own a: Radio? Motorbike? Bicycle? Granary? Push cart? What level of education have you completed? Do you know how to read? Yes No If yes, read the text for me: Which market will give you the best price for your grain? Local village market Market of a more major village What is the major reason for which farmers sell their grain at the moment of harvest when they know that the price is at it’s lowest level at that time? Need for cash Granary is not large enough If he keeps the grain, his friends will want him to help them when they are in need Other reason: Which group of villagers is the most active in your village? Name three organizations which have visited your village within the past three years? PP!” 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 99 Where do you obtain your seed for planting? From my own stock National Office for Rural Development My friends Other: Where do you get information that would help you improve your field work? My own experiences National Office for Rural Development My parents My friends The idea of working in groups existed in our village since the time of our ancestors. Have you ever talked with your friends about a community granary? Is there a community granary in your village? If there is no community granary, would it be good to have one? Have you ever stored a part of your grain in a community granary? Would you like to store some of your grain in a community granary? Would you prefer to wait until you had an opportunity to observe whether the community granary functions well before you store your grain there? Would you prefer to store your grain until the price improves than to sell it in December? Do you use chemicals to treat your seed grain before planting? l? 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 100 If your granary was well filled, would you fear that others would always be asking you to help them with some of your grain? Would you prefer to keep the money for your grain rather than store the grain? When you have grain in your granary and someone asks you for help, dare you refuse him because if you do, others in the village would criticize you? Do you believe that it is better that your village group does not link with other groups from outside of your village? Would you like a system whereby seed grain is stored in common in your village? Have you ever applied cotton seed waste to your rice field as a fertilizer? Would you like to apply cotton seed waste to your rice field this planting season? APPENDDI C SURVEY VILLAGES 101 APPENDIX C. Survey villages Name of Village Population Base Number Interviewed Agamda 81 9 Bani 75 9 Biang Anda 81 9 Dadji Kedere 56 6 Dadji Mere 111 14 Dadji Toubei 19 2 Dadji Voulmay 50 6 Dare Kemde 18 2 Ddaré 17 2 Kalme 227 29 Kouleng Goundou l8 2 Kouma 89 12 Koumbou 112 14 Maguigne Mbassa 75 10 Maguigne Ngolo 45 6 Melengue 36 3 Nanchere Nongom 166 20 Nergue Gam 56 6 Pah Koulieng 54 7 Pitie 129 17 Tcheble Ngolo 36 4 Tchire 44 6 Touguesse 44 6 Toguiar Mbassa 30 4 Toguiar Ngolo 45 6 Touba I 30 4 Touba II 57 7 Touba Toutasse 58 7 Toutel 35 6 Yile 18 3 1,912 238 APPENDIX D MAP OF THE AREA SURVEYED 102 APPENDIX 0. Map of the area surveyed CZIIZKE) APPENDIX E SUPPLEMENTARY STATISTICAL TABLES 103 APPENDIX E. Supplementary Responses and Statistical Tables 4. How long have you lived in the village? Response Frequency Percent < 5 years 2 .9 5-10 years 6 2.5 > 10 years 17 7.2 Since birth 213 89.5 Total 238 100.0 5.b. Which church do you attend? Protestant Catholic Other Respondent Frequency Percentage Percentage by Description by Affiliation CAG Participation C.A.G. participant Protestant Catholic Other C.A.G. nonparticipant Protestant Catholic Other 62.8 39.1 41.1 37.2 60.9 58.9 51.8 21.9 26.3 100.0 29.9 33.3 36.8 100.0 7. What means do you have to do your field work? 104 Item n Frequency yes % no % Hoe 238 144 60.5 94 39.5 Plow 238 168 70.5 70 29.5 Ox Cart 238 51 21.4 187 78.6 Sickle 238 193 81.1 45 18.9 12. How many years have you belonged to this (community action) group? Years Frequency Percent 1 14 12.1 2 17 14.8 3 30 26.1 4 17 14.8 5 19 16.5 6 8 7.0 7 6 5.2 8 3 2.6 10 1 0.9 Total 115 100.0 15 C. How did groups differ in the past from today? Selected Responses: .People worked as individuals in the past. .When one of our members is in difficulty another will help him with money and he will repay later. 105 .Before, the people worked individually. .In the past people worked individually. .Organizations are different now. .They never cooperated or united to work together in the past. .In the past it was individualistic. .We function with money and before they had no funds in common. .Today we have a group organized with cash and a committee. .The older people do not unite with us. .People today have no idea to keep things in common. .In the past we kept our seed in common but now each keeps his own at home. .They lacked organization (in the past). .There is no longer a system to stock seed together. .Now the men have no idea to keep seed in common. .In the past, people worked by family and did not share funds. ' .There was no difference. .They worked individually in the past. .It was different from today as many now want to put things in common. .There is better organization today. .In our present day there is more unity. .We cooperate better today than our parents who did not get along together. .We have more knowledge today. .There is no agreement now and we must try hard to get a group work project going. .They worked but individually in the past. 106 .It was individually. .It was the whole village that worked together but now we work as individuals. .Our parents did not know how to organize their work together as we do now. .The difference is that now there is more cooperation than there was with our parents because now there is a spirit of unity to work collectively. .In the past it was done as for one person. .The groups today have rules but those in the time of our parents had no rules. .Our parents never tried to progress like others but now we want to be better like other villages that are better. .Our organization is different than that of our ancestors, by the means that we construct our community granary for the whole village whereas our ancestors only organized by clan to work. .Our seed is shared with one another. .Today we have a better organization of work. .Better organization (today). .We have more intelligence, wisdom, and collaboration. .We are progressing through our activities by groups. .Now people want to be alone to get ahead in life. In the past our parents got together more to work in common. We had a type of natural socialism before but now it is everyone for himself. .It is better now because our groups function better. .Our parents used to unite and work in common. .People today do not get along like our parents did. .People got along better in the past. .We are different now as in the past they were individualistic. 107 .In the past the people got along better with each other. .Our parents did not share with each other with grain or money as we do today when someone is in need. 26. Do you own a '0 Item n Frequency yes % no % Radio 238 59 24.8 178 75.2 Bicycle 238 55 23.1 183 76.9 Push Cart 238 8 3.4 230 96.6 Note 238 0 0 238 100.0 Granary 238 237 99.6 1 0.4 28. Do you know how to read? Response Frequency Percent yes 105 44.3 no 132 55.7 Total 237 100.0 108 Which market will give you the best price for your grain? Choice ‘ Frequency Percent Local Village Market 2 0.8 Major Village Market 235 99.2 Total 237 100.0 What is the major reason for which farmers sell their grain at the moment of harvest when they know that the price is at its lowest level at that time? Reason Frequency Percent a. Need for cash 230 99.2 b. Granary not large enough 1 .4 c. If he keeps the grain, his friends will want him to help them when they are in need 1 .4 d. Other reason 0 Total 232 100.0 109 32. Name three organizations which have visited your village within the past three years. Number of Visits Recalled Frequency Percent None/No Name Recalled 128 53.8 1 77 32.4 2 26 10.9 3 7 2.9 Total 238 100.0 33. Where do you obtain seed for planting? Response Frequency Percent a. From my own stock 179 76.5 b. National Office Rural Development (ONDR) 19 8.1 c. My friends 30 12.8 d. Other 6 2.6 Total 234 100.0 110 Where do you get information that will help you improve your field work? Response Frequency Percent a. My own experience 129 54.6 b. ONDR 54 22.9 c. My parents 37 25.7 d. My friends 16 6.8 Total 236 100.0 APPENDIX F CONVERSION FACTORS FOR EDUCATION 111 APPENDIX F. Conversion factors for education All respondents who had achieved a certain level of formal education were given a code representative of the number of years in school. *Level ef Educatien Qede or, CE, C32 CM, 6” some 4cm: 3am 2m: 1m r—st—tv—Ah— unwommqmmbwwtd Terminal *Based upon the French Educational System APPENDIX G CONVERSION FACTORS FOR COSMOPOLITENESS 112 APPENDIX 6. Conversion factors for Cosmopoliteness A list of major villages most frequently visited by the target population was compiled. The villages were grouped and coded according to their respective distance for the target population. Each village was coded and multiplied by the respondent’s number of visits made over a five year period. Village Distance (in kms) from Code x No. of Total target population visits = Score La 1045 1 Bere 10-15 1 Kelo 35-45 2 Moundou 100 3 Bongor 100 3 Pfla 100420 3 Ikxm. 150 4 Sad! 250 4 N’Djamena 400 5 (Ihmr >>400 5 respondent’s total APPENDIX H CONVERSION FACTORS FOR ECONOMIC STATUS 113 APPENDIX H. Conversion factors for economic status Differences of wealth could not be derived by a valid gross income figure. A system was devised to determine the farmers' wealth by means of interview schedule numbers 7, 8, and 26 which dealt with means of doing farm work, possession of animals and possession of major personal items. Efforts to determine standardized 2 scores for these possessions were not productive since economic factors are regionally influenced by the local market values. A conversion factor based upon 1991 Tandjilé regional market prices was established for the respondents' economic status. A factor of 1.0 was equivalent to 33 U.S. dollars. 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